A Brief Comparison Between Jaquarad Machine and Flat Bed Machine

0
Letter of Transmittal
29 September 2016
Mr. Engr. Md. Abu Bashar

Senior Lecturer
Department of Knitwear Manufacture & Technology
BGMEA University of Fashion & Technology
S.R. Tower, 105, Sector-7
Uttara Model Town, Dhaka-1230
Subject: Submission of the Internship Report
Dear Sir:
With due regards and respect I state that I am very thankful to you as you assigned me the report
on “Internship Report on A Brief Comparison between Jacquard Machines & Flat Bed
Knitting Machines”. It was a great opportunity for me to acquire theoretical and practical
knowledge about machineries and its work process in Dragon Sweater & Spinning Limited. I
have tried my best to gather what I believe to be the most complete information available.
Your kind acceptance and any type of appreciation would surely inspire me.
Sincerely yours
Md. Habibur Rahman

ID: 122-236-0-35, Batch-122, KMT-3
Department of Knitwear Manufacture & Technology
BGMEA University of Fashion & Technology
S.R. Tower, 105, Sector-7
Uttara Model Town, Dhaka-1230
1
Acknowledgement
I would like to thank almighty Allah for giving me the opportunity to complete my Internship. I
also want to thank all the people, who have given their support and assistance and extremely
grateful to all of them for the completion of the report successfully. BGMEA University of
Fashion & Technology and Dragon Sweater & Spinning Limited both provided me with
enormous support and guidance for my internship program to be completed successfully.
I would like to take the opportunity to thank Mr. Engr. Md. Abu Bashar, Senior Lecturer,
Department of Textile Engineering & Textile Management, BGMEA University of Fashion &
Technology & my internship supervisor for providing me guidelines, help in assisting my report.
He constantly supports me with his inspiring personality. I will always be always thankful for his
extraordinary reinforcement.
I am greatly thankful to the persons whose enrich books, journals and working papers on
international financial management have provided a guideline to me in preparing this report.
Moreover, I am very much grateful to all officials of DSSL. This report would not be possible
without the cooperation of all officials of the department. So my heartiest appreciation goes to
those officials.
I would like to thanks all the officers of Dragon Sweater & Spinning Limited for providing me
their valuable time, cooperation, inspiration, suggestion and supportive information.
2
Table of Contents
Executive Summery……………………………………………………………………………… vi
1.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Objective of the Study........................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Purpose of the study .............................................................................................................. 2
1.3 Scope of the study ................................................................................................................. 2
1.4 Sources of Data ..................................................................................................................... 2
1.5 Limitations of the Study ........................................................................................................ 2
2.0 Company Profile ....................................................................................................................... 3
2.1 Dragon Group ....................................................................................................................... 3
2.2 Mission & Vision .................................................................................................................. 3
2.3 Dragon Sweater and Spinning Limited (DSSL) in Stock Market......................................... 4
2.3.1 DSSL in IPO .................................................................................................................. 4
2.3.2 Trading in DSE & CSE .................................................................................................. 4
2.4 Corporate Profile of DSSL.................................................................................................... 6
2.5 Strategy of Dragon Sweater and Spinning Limited .............................................................. 7
2.6 Capacity of Dragon Sweater and Spinning Limited ............................................................. 8
2.7 Manpower of Dragon Sweater .............................................................................................. 8
2.8 Machine List of DSSL .......................................................................................................... 9
2.9 Floor Work Process with Machine of DSSL ...................................................................... 10
2.10 Quality Assessment Process of DSSL .............................................................................. 12
2.11 Human Resources-Welfare of DSSL ................................................................................ 12
2.12 ISO Compliances of DSSL ............................................................................................... 13
2.13 Some Customers of DSSL ................................................................................................ 15
3.0 Literature Review.................................................................................................................... 16
3.1 Knit Loop ............................................................................................................................ 16
3.2 Characteristics of Single Jersey Knitted Fabrics ................................................................ 18
3.3 Geometry of Plain Knitted Fabrics ..................................................................................... 21
3.4 Relaxation of Single Jersey Knitted Fabrics ....................................................................... 24
3.4.1 Dry Relaxation ............................................................................................................. 24
3.4.2 Wet Relaxation............................................................................................................. 24
3.4.3 Finished Relaxation ..................................................................................................... 25
3.5 Dimensional Properties of Knitted Fabrics ......................................................................... 25
3.6 Spirality of Weft Knitted Fabrics ........................................................................................ 27
3.7 Shrinkage of Knitted Fabrics .............................................................................................. 28
3.8 Effect of Yarn Properties On The Knitted Fabrics Properties ............................................ 29
3.8.1 Effect of Yarn Twist on Shrinkage .............................................................................. 30
3.9 Effect of Washing on the Dimensional Properties Of Knitted Fabrics ............................... 31
3.10 Properties of Regenerated Cellulosic Fibers ..................................................................... 31
3.11 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 33
4.0 Knitting Machines ................................................................................................................... 34
4.1 Different Types of Knitting Machines ................................................................................ 35
4.1.1 Fully Fashioned Machines ........................................................................................... 36
4.1.2 Flat Knitting Machines .................................................................................................... 37
4.1.3 Circular Knitting Machines.......................................................................................... 37
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5.0 Jacquard Knitting Machine ..................................................................................................... 39
5.1 History of Jacquard Machine .............................................................................................. 40
5.2 The Invention of Electronic Jacquard Machine .................................................................. 41
5.3 Computerized Jacquard Weaving ....................................................................................... 41
5.4 Importance in Computing ................................................................................................... 41
5.5 How Jacquard Machine Works ........................................................................................... 42
5.5.1 Overview – How Does a Jacquard Machine Differ from other Machines? ................. 42
5.5.2 Shed Format Mechanisms ............................................................................................ 43
5.5.3 A Side Trip to History.................................................................................................. 46
5.5.4 The Harness and Repeats ............................................................................................. 49
5.5.5 Special Considerations When Using Harness Repeats ................................................ 51
5.5.6 Using Hooks for Other Functions: ............................................................................... 52
5.5.7 Trends in Jacquard Technology ................................................................................... 53
5.6 General Characteristics of Jacquard Mechanisms: ............................................................. 54
5.7 Jacquard Mechanism Fabric ............................................................................................... 55
5.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of Jacquard Mechanisms: ................................................. 55
5.8.1 Advantages:.................................................................................................................. 55
5.8.2 Disadvantages: ............................................................................................................. 55
6.0 Flat Bed Knitting Machine...................................................................................................... 56
6.1 Flat Bed Knitting Machine in Details ................................................................................. 57
6.1.1 Machine Parts of Flat Bed Knitting Machine: ............................................................. 57
6.2 V Bed Manual Knitting Machine ........................................................................................ 58
6.2.1 Functions of Different Parts of V Bed ......................................................................... 59
6.2.2 Machine Description .................................................................................................... 59
6.2.3 Description of the Cam Changing Mechanism: ........................................................... 62
6.2.4 The Knitting Action of the V-Bed Hand Flat Machine: .............................................. 63
6.3 General Structure of a Flat Knitting Machine: ................................................................... 64
6.4 Advantages of Flat Knitting Machine: ................................................................................ 65
6.5 Uses of Flat Knitting Machines: ......................................................................................... 65
7.0 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 66
iv
Table of Tables
Chapter No. Table Title Page No.
2.0
2.6
2.6.1 Capacity of DSSL 08
2.7
2.7.1 Manpower of Dragon Sweater and Spinning Limited 09
2.8
2.8.1 Machine List of Dragon Sweater Bangladesh Ltd 10
2.9
2.9.1 Floor Work Process with Machine of DSSL 11
3.0
3.3
3.3.1 K Values Of Worsted Plain Knitted Fabric 23
3.8
3.8.1
3.8.1.1 Effect Of Twist Multiplier On Yarn Shrinkage 31
3.10.1 Physical Properties Of Regenerated Cellulosic And Cotton 32
Fibers
3.10.2 Swelling Properties Of Viscose Rayon 33
5.0
5.2
5.2.1
5.5.2.1 Very Common Arrangement of Weft Color 45
Table of Figures
Chapter No. Table Title Page No.
3.0
3.1
3.1.1 Ideal Knit Loop 16
3.1.2 Way In Which Yarns Interlock In A Plain Knitted Structure 17
3.1.3 Uniform And Deformed Loop 18
3.2
3.2.1 Technical Face Side A Single Jersey Knitted Fabric 19
3.2.2 Technical Back Side Of A Single Jersey Knitted Fabric 19
3.2.3 Symbolic Representation Of Technical Face And Back Sides 20
Of A Single Jersey Knitted Fabric
3.2.4 Graphical Representation Of Technical Face (A) And Back 20
(B) Sides Of A Single Jersey Knitted Fabric
3.3
3.3.1 Single Jersey Knitted Structure 21
5.0
5.5
5.5.1
v
5.1.1.1 Essential Mechanism of Jacquard Machine 42
5.5.2
5.5.2.1 A Single Heddle, Consisting Of A Central Eye 43
5.5.3
5.5.3.1 Basic Design of Jacquard Machine 46
5.5.3.2 Design Used Punched Paper 48
5.5.3.3 Stitching in Jacquard Mechanism 48
5.5.4
5.5.4.1 Harness and Repeats 50
6.0
6.1
6.1.1
6.1.1.1 Schematic Diagram of Different Parts of Flat Bed Knitting 57
Machine
6.2
6.2.2
6.2.2.1 V Shape Flatbed Knitting Machine 59
6.2.2.2 Knitting Action of V Bed Knitting 61
6.2.4
6.2.4.1 Knitting Action 63
6.3
6.3.1 A. Diagram Of A V Bed, And B. Diagram Showing Relative 64
Positions Of Needles From Front And Back Beds
vi
Executive Summery
Textile fabrics can be produced directly from webs of fibers by interlocking, bonding or fusing to
make non-woven fabrics and felts, but their physical properties tend to restrict their potential end
usage. The mechanical manipulation of yarn into fabric is the most versatile method of
manufacturing textile fabric for a wide range of end uses. There are three principal methods of
mechanically manipulating yarn into textile fabrics such as interweaving, intertwining and inter
looping. Knitting is the most common method of inter looping and is second only to weaving as
a method of manufacturing textile structures. There are various reasons behind the use of the
knitted fabrics than woven fabrics.
Weft knitted fabrics are comfortable, easy-care properties, crease-resistant, higher air
permeability and highly extensible. Some of the special problems related to weft knitted fabrics
are shrinkage, snagging and handling difficulties. Shrinkage is one of the major causes of
distortion and dimensional stability of the weft knitted fabric. Distortion of weft knitted fabrics is
inherent in their manufacture. Dimensional stability means that the fabric maintains the
dimensions with which it was manufactured, without changing with use. Dimensional stability of
weft knitted fabrics is a serious problem in view of fabric quality control.
This report is concerned with the literature review on the dimensional properties of knitted
fabrics. And a brief comparison between Jacquard Machine & Flat Bed Knitting Machine. The
extensive research work has been carried out on cotton and wool weft knitted fabrics. Much
interest has been shown on contribution factors for the dimensional stability of knitted fabrics
like stitch length, yarn variables, fabric construction, relaxation, finishing treatments and
washing cycles. This chapter also reviews the viscose fiber properties and dimensional properties
of viscose knitted fabrics.
vii
1.0 Introduction
The tremendous success of readymade garment exports from Bangladesh over the last two
decades has surpassed the most optimistic expectations. Today the apparel export sector is a
multi-billion-dollar manufacturing and export industry in the country. The overall impact of the
readymade garment exports is certainly one of the most significant social and economic
developments in contemporary Bangladesh. With over one and a half million women workers
employed in semi-skilled and skilled jobs producing clothing for exports, the development of the
apparel export industry has had far-reaching implications for the society and economy of
Bangladesh.
The textile and clothing (T&C) industries provide the single source of economic growth in
Bangladesh's rapidly developing economy. Exports of textiles and garments are the principal
source of foreign exchange earnings. Agriculture for domestic consumption is Bangladesh’s
largest employment sector. By 2002 exports of textiles, clothing, and ready-made garments
(RMG) accounted for 77% of Bangladesh’s total merchandise exports. By 2013, about 4 million
people, mostly women, worked in Bangladesh's $19 billion-a-year industry, export-oriented
ready-made garment (RMG) industry. Bangladesh is second only to China, the world's second-
largest apparel exporter of western brands. Sixty percent of the export contracts of western
brands are with European buyers and about forty percent with American buyers. Only 5% of
textile factories are owned by foreign investors, with most of the production being controlled by
local investors.
Bangladesh's textile industry has been part of the trade versus aid debate. The encouragement of
the garment industry of Bangladesh as an open trade regime is argued to be a much more
effective form of assistance than foreign aid. Tools such as quotas through the WTO Agreement
on Textiles and Clothing (ATC) and Everything but Arms (EBA) and the US 2009 Tariff Relief
Assistance in the global clothing market have benefited entrepreneurs in Bangladesh's ready-
made garments (RMG) industry. Bangladesh, with a population of about 156 million, is among
the most densely populated countries in the world. In 2012 the textile industry accounted for
45% of all industrial employment in the country yet only contributed 5% of the Bangladesh's
total national income.
1.1 Objective of the Study
The broad objective of this study is to know about the details of Flat Bed Machine and Jacquard
Machine. Some specific objectives of this study are
 To study the overview of the machines

 To study the problems of the machines
 To study the prospects of the machines
 To study the global effect on Bangladesh
1
1.2 Purpose of the study
The academic program B.Sc. knitwear manufacture and technology knitting production,
Vocational education establishments, academic and scientific work. Importance of knit industry
in country’s economy and graduates activities in different other sectors dictate necessity to
improve this program in accordance with globalization processes, increasing development of
technologies, competition in free market.
1.3 Scope of the study
There are so many garments industries in Bangladesh. Dragon Sweater and Spinning limited is
one of them. It is one of the torch bearer in the garments industry of Bangladesh. There are above
600 labors and 55 officials work here. Though the organization is big and all related department
situated in one building so that I can easily identify the person who had hold the relevant
information needed to my study and collect data by inspecting each floors and other staff.
1.4 Sources of Data
Only primary source of data was used. Data was collected from the personal inspection in the
working unit.
1.5 Limitations of the Study
This research and report have some limitations. The key limitations of the study are given here:
 Time was a real constraint for this kind of research
 Data insufficiency
2
2.0 Company Profile
Dragon Sweater Bangladesh Limited is a concern of Dragon Group. The company is among the
top exporter of sweaters from South Asia. The company employs about 12000 skilled workers
and has its own product design and development team. The company has installed capacity of
nearly 5 million pieces of finished sweaters per year. The company produces for many world
class retailers and enjoys huge customer base. The factory is located in its own 15 storied
complex having a floor area of 280000 square feet.
Dragon Sweater & Spinning is a proposed Green Factory with state of the art automatic
Machineries. The project will launch from October 2016 with 500 automatic knitting machine in
fully air conditioned working facility and building has been planned and constructed with the
aim of getting Certificated from US Green Building Council certification agency . At the same
time keeping all social, health and safety standards as per international standards
2.1 Dragon Group
Dragon Sweater and Spinning Limited (DSSL) is a subsidiary company under Dragon Group.
Dragon Group has 11 subsidiary companies and DSSL is one of them. The companies are
 Dragon Sweater and Spinning Mills Limited

 Mount Sky Limited, London
 Dragon Shanghai Limited, China
 Dragon Sweater Bangladesh Limited
 CD Spinning Limited
 CD Acrylic Dying Division
 CD Acrylic Sweater Division
 CD Acrylic Bangladesh Limited
 Imperial Sweater BD Limited
 Perag Socks Limited
 Rupali Insurance Company Limited
2.2 Mission & Vision
The company's vision and mission is to become one of the leading sweater manufacturing and
spinning industry in the entire South East Asian region. Due to rising demand of goods produced
from its composite project the company plans to expand the spinning and sweater manufacturing
capacity to meet the rising demand of acrylic and other yarns from the group itself and also to
meet the demand of rising sweater industry of Bangladesh.
3
Visions of DSSL
2.3 Dragon Sweater and Spinning Limited (DSSL) in Stock Market
Dragon Sweater and Spinning Limited is one of the market leaders in the stock market though it
faced some ups and downs for the recent scenario of RMG market in Bangladesh.
2.3.1 DSSL in IPO
Bangladesh Securities and Exchange Commission yesterday gave a green light to Dragon
Sweater and Spinning to raise Taka 40 crore from the public. The export-oriented spinning and
sweater manufacturing company plans to float four crore ordinary shares of Taka 10 each.
Swadesh Investment Management will manage the initial public offering, the proceeds of which
would be used to purchase machinery and spare parts, and meet working capital. The last five
years' weighted average earnings per share of the company stood at Taka 1.33 and net asset value
per share at Taka 18.79.
2.3.2 Trading in DSE & CSE
The Stock Brokers, Merchant Bankers and Portfolio Manager are requested not to provide loan
facilities to purchase securities of Dragon Sweater and Spinning Limited in between 1st to 30th
trading day starting from today; March 23, 2016 as per BSEC Directive No.
SEC/CMRRCD/2009-193/177 and BSEC Order No. SEC/CMRRCD/2009-193/178 dated
October 27, 2015.
4
The Company has reported its profit after tax Tk. 32.57 million and basic EPS Tk. 0.54 for the 3
months period ended on 30 September 2015 (July to September 2015) as against profit after tax
of Tk. 29.50 million and basic EPS of Tk. 0.49 for the same period of the previous year. It is to
be noted that basic EPS has been calculated based on weighted average Pre-IPO paid-up number
of shares i.e. 60,000,000 shares for both the periods. However, considering Post-IPO
100,000,000 number of shares the Company's basic EPS for the 3 months period ended on 30
September, 2015 would be Tk. 0.33 for the period of 9 months (January to September, 2015)
ended on 30 September, 2015 profit after tax was Tk. 80.16 million and basic EPS was Tk. 1.34
as against profit after tax of Tk. 66.51 million and basic EPS of Tk. 1.11 for the same period of
the previous year.
It is to be noted that the said EPS has been calculated based on weighted average Pre-IPO paid-
up number of shares i.e. 60,000,000 shares for both the periods. However, considering Post-IPO
100,000,000 number of shares, Company's basic EPS would be Tk. 0.80 for 9 months period
ended on 30 September 2015 (January 2015 to September 2015) and NAV per share would be
Tk. 16.08 as on 30 September 2015.
DSSL in DSE Website
5
2.4 Corporate Profile of DSSL
Corporate Profile of Dragon Sweater and Spinning Limited
6
2.5 Strategy of Dragon Sweater and Spinning Limited
Factories are being expanded and renovated using of GO Green initiatives to ensure sustainable
compliance for the environment and future generation. Modern State of the art Automatic
Knitting & linking and finishing equipment’s being installed to ensure 100% automatic in all the
processes and to increase efficiency and productivity. Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) &
MIS software has been installed in the factory to ensure optimum efficiency and to make
effective management decisions.
DSSL has Strong In house Design & development team to Present buyers with latest collections.
At the same time our designers make frequent trips to Europe & USA to collect latest design
ideas to integrate them with our own designs. Vertically integrated plants to ensure on time yarn
supply using environment friendly dye & chemical and facilities with ETP plants for both dyeing
and sweater production. They also have dedicated sourcing office in Shanghai to collect.
7
2.6 Capacity of Dragon Sweater and Spinning Limited
Machine capacity of DSSL is shown here with some table
Machine Capacity (Per-Day) Per Month

GG Per Machine Capacity Quantity Pieces
3 20 369 7400 192400
5/7 18 193 3500 91000
12 8 627 5016 130416
Table 2.6.1 Capacity of DSSL
2.7 Manpower of Dragon Sweater
8
Dragon Sweater and Spinning Limited
Production 2024 Housekeeping 44
Management 4 It 3
Accounts 4 Maint 7
Admin 19 Medical 6
Boiler 2 Merchandising 25
Commercial 8 MMC 7
Construction 1 QA 34
Electrical 7 Sample 57
Finishing 148 Security 17
Yarn 3 Transport 10
Floor management 13 Workshop 4
Table 2.7.1 Manpower of Dragon Sweater and Spinning Limited
2.8 Machine List of DSSL
Machine list of Dragon Sweater and Spinning Limited is as bellows
Dragon Sweater Bangladesh Ltd

Sl.-No Machine List Total -Machine
1 Knitting Machine 1189
2 Linking Machine 388
3 Auto Knitting Machine 39
4 Auto Iron 19
9
5 Sewing Machine 49
6 Over Lock Machine 14
7 Washing Machine 4
8 Hydro Machine 3
9 Dry Machine 3
10 Hole Button Machine 14
11 Bar tack Machine 7
12 Winding Machine 67
13 Auto Collar 30
14 Generator 1
15 Brush 1
16 Boiler 1
17 Hand Iron 98
18 Zipper 20
19 Mini Washing Machine 2
Total Machine 1949
Table 2.8.1 Machine List of Dragon Sweater Bangladesh Ltd
2.9 Floor Work Process with Machine of DSSL
No. of building: 01.

Purpose for usage: Sweater Manufacturing.
Total Area of Floor: 2, 08,315 Square Fit
10
Floor Type of Process No. of Type & No. of Machine
People
17th floor knitting linking, continue, mending, light 90 Knitting = 80; Linking =
check 24; Over Lock = 1
16th floor Prayer room, knitting, linking 38 Knitting = 45; Linking = 1;
Over Lock = 3
15th floor Office 67
14th floor Knitting, linking, continue, mending, light 70 Knitting = 75; Linking =
check, 32; Over Lock = 1
12th floor Accessories store, knitting, linking, 86 Knitting = 64; Linking =
continue, mending, light check 20; Over Lock = 1
check, 26; Over Lock = 1;
Auto Color = 10
10th floor Sample, knitting, linking, continue, 105 Knitting = 84; Linking =
mending, light check, iron, finishing 24; Over Lock = 1
check, Yarn inspection 21; Over Lock = 1
check, 24; Over Lock = 1;
Winding = 17
3rd floor Packing, metal, finishing, iron, Sewing, 46 Button Hole =9; Sewing =
button-hole, light check 6; Metal detector = 1;
2nd floor Wash, sewing, light check, iron, finishing, 98 Sewing = 16; Washing = 3;
lab, auto iron Dryer = 3; Hydro = 2;
Auto Iron = 3
1st floor Jacquard section, linking, continue, 72 Jacquard = 39; Linking =
mending 24; Over lock = 1;
Ground Time section, Child Care, Canteen, 24
floor Generator, Boiler
Basement Ware House
Table 2.9.1 Floor Work Process with Machine of DSSL
11
2.10 Quality Assessment Process of DSSL
DSSL Controls their assessment process as following
 Through research prior to acceptance of the style

 Innovative and responsive to customer needs
 Well-laid quality systems & procedures
 All garments are audited as per AQL 1.0 inspection plan.
 Well trained quality team
 Emphasis on Training School
 Provide continuous training to all employees to attain required productivity and Quality
Standards
 Quality happens within every process.

 Defect-free performance.
 Established clear, customer-focused requirements.
 Ensuring the process is capable of meeting the requirements
 Reduced variations continually.
 Prioritize by isolating the “Vital few from the Trivial Many”
 To deliver value through best work practices
2.11 Human Resources-Welfare of DSSL
Dragon Sweater and Spinning will ensure working conditions of employee and ensure absolutely
no employment of Child Labor/ forced Labor. Exclusive child care center and primary health
center for the company employees. As part of human resource development, the Company
strives to secure job satisfaction for all employees, provide remuneration commensurate with
performance and facilitate career advancement opportunity.
12
Grievance Handling & redress mechanism. Internal compliance audit conducted once in a month
and corrective actions are taken. Compliance of statutory applicable under ILO & Bangladesh
legal system. CSR initiatives include Orphanage & Old Homes for homeless Old Women.
2.12 ISO Compliances of DSSL
Dragon Sweater and Spinning Limited is a ISO certified for its production level and quality. ISO
9001:2000 specifies requirements for a quality management system where an organization.
13
 Needs to demonstrate its ability to consistently provide product that meets customer and
applicable regulatory requirements, and
 Aims to enhance customer satisfaction through the effective application of the system,
including processes for continual improvement of the system and the assurance of
conformity to customer and applicable regulatory requirements.
All requirements of this International Standard are generic and are intended to be applicable to
all organizations, regardless of type, size and product provided. Where any requirement(s) of this
International Standard cannot be applied due to the nature of an organization and its product, this
can be considered for exclusion. Where exclusions are made, claims of conformity to this
International Standard are not acceptable unless these exclusions are limited to requirements
within clause 7, and such exclusions do not affect the organization's ability, or responsibility, to
provide product that meets customer and applicable regulatory requirements.
ISO 9001:2000 replaced all three former standards of 1994 issue, ISO 9001, ISO 9002 and ISO
9003. Design and development procedures were required only if a company does in fact engage
in the creation of new products. The 2000 version sought to make a radical change in thinking by
actually placing front and center the concept of process management (the monitoring and
optimization of a company's tasks and activities, instead of just inspection of the final product).
The 2000 version also demanded involvement by upper executives in order to integrate quality
into the business system and avoid delegation of quality functions to junior administrators.
Another goal was to improve effectiveness via process performance metrics: numerical
measurement of the effectiveness of tasks and activities. Expectations of continual process
improvement and tracking customer satisfaction were made explicit.
ISO 9000 Requirements include:

 Approve documents before distribution;
 Provide correct version of documents at points of use;
 Use your records to prove that requirements have been met; and
 Develop a procedure to control your records.
14
2.13 Some Customers of DSSL
Some customers of DSSL are
15
3.0 Literature Review
Textile fabrics can be produced directly from webs of fibers by interlocking, bonding or fusing to
make non-woven fabrics and felts, but their physical properties tend to restrict their potential end
usage. The mechanical manipulation of yarn into fabric is the most versatile method of
manufacturing textile fabric for a wide range of end uses. There are three principal methods of
mechanically manipulating yarn into textile fabrics such as interweaving, intertwining and inter
looping. Knitting is the most common method of inter looping and is second only to weaving as
a method of manufacturing textile structures. There are various reasons behind the use of the
knitted fabrics than woven fabrics.
Weft knitted fabrics are comfortable, easy-care properties, crease-resistant, higher air
permeability and highly extensible. Some of the special problems related to weft knitted fabrics
are shrinkage, snagging and handling difficulties. Shrinkage is one of the major causes of
distortion and dimensional stability of the weft knitted fabric. Distortion of weft knitted fabrics is
inherent in their manufacture. Dimensional stability means that the fabric maintains the
dimensions with which it was manufactured, without changing with use. Dimensional stability of
weft knitted fabrics is a serious problem in view of fabric quality control.
This chapter is concerned with the literature review on the dimensional properties of knitted
fabrics. The extensive research work has been carried out on cotton and wool weft knitted
fabrics. Much interest has been shown on contribution factors for the dimensional stability of
knitted fabrics like stitch length, yarn variables, fabric construction, relaxation, finishing
treatments and washing cycles. This chapter also reviews the viscose fiber properties and
dimensional properties of viscose knitted fabrics.
3.1 Knit Loop
Figure 3.1.1 Ideal Knit Loop
16
The structure of knitted fabric is a system of yarns, bent into stitches. Stitch length is the
fundamental unit in any weft knitted structure. The loop length, width and height are considered
to be the most significant dimensions of a loop. The loop length is mainly decided during
knitting process of knitted fabrics and the other two during the relaxation process of knitted
fabrics (Banerjee and Bhat 2006). Figure 3.1.1 shows the shape of an ideal knit loop for single
jersey structure and Figure 3.1.2 shows the way in
Figure 3.1.2 Way in which yarns interlock in a plain knitted structure
Which yarns interlock in a plain knitted structure? Where two loops interlock, there is a region of
contact between the yarns. Reaction forces between the yarns are distributed over this contact
region. Integrity and friction of a yarn bent into the stitch determine the form of a knitted fabric
loop (Shanahan and Postle 1970).
Bhat (2006) stated that the uniformity in geometrical shape of the loop is another parameter,
which affects the elegancy of the fabric and its fluidity. In most of the structures, the loop is
distorted during relaxation, chemical processing or during usage resulting in dullness, rough or
17
ridged effect in the knitted fabric. The geometrical shape of a standard knitted loop should have
same curvature for crown and sinker loop. Both the arms of the knitted loop should be in the
same plane. The bending of crown and sinker loop should be to an equal depth and without
twisting or turning. The contact places of yarn in loop interlacement should be at the junction of
loop arm and the crown/sinker loop, i.e., at points A, B, C and D in Figure 3.1.1
The variation in this loop shape and the dimension should be minimum. Such structures can be
more resilient because the mobility of loops or redistribution of yarn in loops during any
deformation would be easier. This would improve the dimensional stability to the fabric. Figure
2.3 shows the shape of uniform and deformed loop for single jersey knitted structure. Because of
the dimensional instability of knitted loop construction, single jersey weft knitted fabrics suffers
from various forms of dimensional distortion (Tao et al 1997).
From a visual examination of the single jersey knitted structure, clearly it consists essentially of a
repeating pattern or matrix in both length and width of interlocking loops, in which the repeating
unit or cell is the single loop. The geometry of the weft knitted fabric, therefore, is basically a
study of the geometry of the single knitted loop.
Figure 3.1.3 Uniform and deformed loop
3.2 Characteristics of Single Jersey Knitted Fabrics
The simplest and the most widely used weft knit fabric is jersey or plain knit fabric. It consists of
face loop stitches only. The technical face and back sides of a jersey fabric are shown in Figures
3.2.1 and 3.2.2 respectively.
18
Figure 3.2.1 of Technical face side a single jersey knitted fabric
Figure 3.2.2 Technical back side of a single jersey knitted fabric
19
Figure 3.2.3 Symbolic representation of technical face and back sides of a single jersey knitted fabric
Figure 3.2.4 Graphical representation of technical face (a) and back (b) sides of a single jersey knitted
fabric
The main characteristic features and properties of this fabric are the loops have a V-shaped loop
appearance on technical face side and show semi-circular loops on the technical back side.
Because of the side limps of the loop to the face side, it feels smoother on the face side than on
the back side. It is thus, not reversible from the feel and appearance point of view. The
interlocking semi-circles at the technical back can be used to produce interesting effects if
alternate courses are knitted in different colored yarns.
Knitted loops in plain knit fabrics tend to distort easily under tension, which helps to give a form
fitting and comfort due to property of elastic recovery. It has potential recovery of about 40
percent in width after stretching. Its width shortens if the length is extended by tensions while the
length shortens if width is stretched. Normally, width way extensibility is approximately twice
the length way extensibility. The structures can be unrobed from the course knitted last by
pulling the needle loops through from technical back or from the course knitted first by pulling
20
the sinker loops through from the technical face side. If the unraveled plain knit fabric is kept flat
on the surface, it curls upwards at the top and bottom and backwards at the sides. The fabric may
appear thick or flimsy if the stitch length is reduced or increased (Ajgaonkar 1998).
3.3 Geometry of Plain Knitted Fabrics
Doyle (1953) stated that the length of yarn per stitch is regarded as a factor of fundamental
importance since it is independent of the fibers from which the yarn is spun. Song and Turner
(1968) also mentioned that the loop length was the fundamental unit in any weft knitted
structure. Stable loop shape depends on the type of yarn used and the relaxation treatment to
which the fabric has been subjected. The relaxed dimensions of a fabric are determined by the
relationship between loop length and loop shape. Two fundamental factors must be appreciated:
(i) The loop length, i.e., the length of yarn in the knitted loop, is the dominant factor for all
structures.
(ii) There are several dimensionally stable states possible for a knitted structure.
Some of the terms used for the study of the knitted structure are given in Figure 2.8. The lines of
loops across the fabric are known as courses and the lines down the fabric as wales (Booth
1977). One loop is referred to as a stitch.
Figure 3.3.1 Single jersey knitted structure
21
AB =Loop length
W =Wale spacing
C =Course Spacing
S = the number of stitches per square unit
c = the number of courses per unit length
w = the number of wales per unit width
l = the stitch or loop length
1/W = w = Wales/cm
1/C = c = Courses/cm
S = Stitches/cm2
The result of research into knitted geometry has enabled some
Important Relations:
(i) The number of stitches or loops per unit area is inversely proportional to the square of
stitch length
1
S
l2
(or)
Ks
S
l2
(ii) The number of courses per unit length is inversely proportional to the stitch length
1
c
l
(or)
c Kc
l
(iii) The number of wales per unit length is inversely proportional to the stitch length
1
w
l
(or)
22
w Kw
l
(iv) Form the relations in (ii) and (iii)
Courses per unit length c Kc

Wales per unit lenght w Kw
The relationships established experimentally in the work reported by Munden (1959).

Relationship between loop length and wale and course spacing
Ks = S X l2 (2.8)
Kc = c X l (2.9)
Kw = w X l (2.10)
Ks = Kc X Kw (2.11)
Kl = Kc / Kw (2.12)
Where Ks, Kc and Kw are dimensional constants, the numerical values of which depend on the
actual configuration of the knitted loop.
Kl may be described as the loop shape factor as it is a measure of the ratio of width of the loop to
the length of the loop. The loop model indicates that this ratio should be a constant for fabrics in
the completely stable configuration. The ratio is, however, critically affected by any fabric
distortion, since such distortion causes an increase in the one parameter together with a decrease
in the other. Ks, Kc, Kw and Kl values of worsted plain knitted fabric obtained empirically by
Munden (1959) are shown.
Constants Dry relaxed Wet relaxed

Ks 19 21.6
Kc 5 5.3
Kw 3.8 4.1
Kl 1.3 1.3
Table 3.3.1 K values of worsted plain knitted fabric
Knapton et al (1968) suggested new parameter K5 as dimensional parameter specifying fabric

thickness.
t
K5 (2.13) d
23
Where,
t = Fabric thickness in mm
d = Yarn diameter in mm
Shanahan and Postle (1970) predicted that both Kc and Kw will be functions of l/d, where d is
the yarn diameter and their analysis shows the existence of a minimum energy state for a plain
fabric.
3.4 Relaxation of Single Jersey Knitted Fabrics
Changes in dimensions after knitting can create major problems in garments and fabrics,
especially those produced from hydrophilic fibers such as wool and cotton. As synthetic
thermoplastic fibers can be heat set, their shape or dimensions are least affected. The changes of
dimensions with wool fibers are magnified by felting shrinkage, however, with shrink resist
finish in wool yarns, the problem can be much reduced. During knitting, the loop structure is
subjected to tension from sources such as yarn feeding and fabrics take down mechanism. In
order to avoid further dimensional changes as the fabric is taken out of the machine, the knitted
fabric should attain a stable state of equilibrium. A number of stable states are suggested by
various research workers by which relaxation conditions are possible so that the yarn and
structure can create high internal restrictive forces and thus inhibit recovery (Anbumani 2007).
The three important dimensionally stable states are:
(i) Dry relaxed state
(ii) Wet relaxed state
(iii) Finished relaxed state
3.4.1 Dry Relaxation
The fabric has been taken off the knitting machine and allowed to lie freely for a sufficient
length of time. Eventually the fabric attains dimensionally stable condition, called the dry
relaxed state. In this state, the natural configuration of yarn is almost straight so that when it is
unproved, the yarn takes up an approximately straight form. A plain fabric knitted from worsted
yarn will recover from a 60-80% extension in length to its natural length after 48 hours if
allowed to relax freely in the dry state, whereas a cotton fabric will retain permanently 10-20%
of the extension in length. In the dry state, therefore plain knit wool fabrics may be expected to
return their strain free conditions more freely than the cotton fabrics.
3.4.2 Wet Relaxation
If the fabric is soaked in water and allowed to dry flat, the wet relaxed state is attained, again a
dimensionally stable condition. The equilibrium is reached after static relaxation in water and
subsequent drying. In this state, the natural configuration of yarn is not straight but is set into a
form approximately the loop shape in the fabric. Wet relaxation is carried out in water at 30ºC
24
containing 0.1% wetting agent, allowed to lay for 24 hours, hydro extracted and dried naturally
for at least three days.
3.4.3 Finished Relaxation
In order to reach this stable condition, the fabric is subjected to agitation in water or stream, and
a denser fabric results. The fully relaxed condition is obtained by subjecting the samples into
gentle agitation at 80ºC for 2 hours, tumbles dried at 80ºC for 2 hours in a domestic top loading
washing machine, and finally conditioned in the standard atmosphere for at least 24 hours. A
satisfactory relaxation technique applied during the finishing of cotton fabric in the continuous
length form is the compacting or compressive shrinkage technique.
Hearle et al (1969) mentioned that difference between the dry relaxed and the wet relaxed
condition is most probably due to a certain amount of frictional resistance to the structure of the
relaxation forces. This exists both at the crossover points between the yarns and in the yarns
themselves, which will exhibit a resistance to being bent which is of a frictional nature.
However, it is obvious from the small difference between the dry relaxed and wet relaxed
condition that friction plays only a small part in the properties of the plain knitted loop.
3.5 Dimensional Properties of Knitted Fabrics
The textile material properties may be classified into three main groups, as suggested by Hearle
et al (1969). These are bulk properties, surface properties and transfer properties. Dimensional
stability or shrinkage resistance is one of bulk properties of the textile structures. Knitted fabrics
are similar to woven fabrics in that they are subject to relaxation shrinkage and also to felting
shrinkage if they are made of wool. However, it has been found difficult experimentally to
determine when a fabric has reached a total relaxed state in which it is in a stable state with the
minimum energy. This is because the stable state of a knitted fabric is controlled by the interplay
of forces required to shape the interlocking loops of yarn, whereas the stable state of a woven
fabric is controlled by the balance of forces required to crimp the yarns. The resistance provided
by inter-yarn friction prevents the yarn taking up its lowest energy state and the magnitude of the
restoring forces in a knitted fabric is not great enough to overcome this. Because of this difficulty
a number of relaxed states like dry relaxed state, wet relaxed state, finished relaxed state and
fully relaxed state have been suggested. Gowers and Hurt (1978) mentioned that the most
commonly used relaxation processes involves a combination of wet treatment, hydro extraction
and tumble drying.
Bogaty et al (1951) concluded that knitting stiffness, and, to a much smaller extent, yarn twist,
contribute to the felting behavior of knitted fabrics. Increase in the number of wales and courses
per inch and in the twist can be used to effect appreciable improvement in the laundering
stability of the knitted fabrics. Knapton et al (1968) observed that wool fabric dimensional
properties are slightly influenced by wool fiber quality, twist level and yarn friction, also
mentioned that majority of complex knit structures, particularly double knits, comprise plain knit
and rib loops in various combinations (often with tuck stitches and floats), their dimensional
behavior in relaxation is not so easily predictable. Each individual structure must be analyzed
25
separately. Knapton et al (1975) mentioned that dimensional stability in cotton plain jersey
fabrics can be attained by either mechanical relaxation techniques (consecutive laundering and
tumble drying cycles) or chemical treatments (fabric mercerization without tension). Both
treatments cause large linear dimensional changes leading to the same final stable condition.
Allan Heap et al (1983) mentioned that the dimensions of knitted fabrics are strongly affected by
the finishing process as well as by the yarn count and the stitch length.
Fletcher and Roberts (1952) found that the yarn in the finished cotton fabrics shrinks a negligible
amount in laundering. Therefore, the shrinkage of the yarn contributed little to the dimensional
change of the fabric. The fabrics having the greatest knitting stiffness shrink the most in the area.
Banerjee and Alaiban (1988) concluded that for rotor spun cotton yarns, the dimensional
parameters Kc, Kw and Ks of fully relaxed single jersey fabrics depend on the tightness of
construction. Ryuzo Oinuma (1989) reported that for coarse nylon plain jersey fabrics, the
dimensional parameters are independent of the fabric tightness and the method of relaxation
treatments used. Gulrajani et al (1998) stated that treatment of cotton knitted fabric with enzyme
cellulose leads to various surface modifications and the surface smoothness is increased and
consequently the bending rigidity and shear rigidity decreased. Jovancic et al (1998) stated that
enzymatic treatment of wool by Bactosol SI has a positive influence on the degree of shrink
resistance and whiteness.
Quaynor et al (1999) concluded that the dimensions of cotton knitted fabrics and their potential
dimensional changes and shape retention properties are influenced by the knitting conditions and
the state of fabric relaxation. Nuray Ucar and Seniz Ertugrul (2002) predicted the relationship
between machine gauge and wale density, loop length, yarn twist and yarn count and mentioned
that, from the partial correlation analysis, there is no direct relationship between machine gauge
and loop length and yarn twist, but there is a direct relationship between machine gauge and wale
density and yarn count. Mohamadi and Jeddi (2006) suggested that by using the ultrasonic
method of relaxation, the fabric stabilization reaches to a higher degree than that by using the
common mechanical relaxation treatment. It is observed that this method of relaxation has more
effect on the fabric’s dimensional parameter than the conventional relaxation method.
Hearth et al (2007) concluded that dimensional behavior of 100 % cotton and core spun
cotton/spandex interlock fabrics are significantly different. Saravanan et al (2008) stated that the
compacting process invariably changes the construction of the knitted fabrics by altering the
courses and wales in unit area of the knitted fabrics. Mikucioniene and Laureckiene (2009)
mentioned that the shrinking potential of cotton weft knitted fabrics depends on the conditions of
drying during the finishing process. Onal and Candan (2003) concluded that knit type and fabric
tightness greatly influence cotton fabric shrinkage. Yarn type and fiber percentage contribute
significantly to knit fabric shrinkage. Hurley (1966) pointed out that, width relaxation shrinkage
of the acrylic plain knitted fabrics is occurring readily than length relaxation shrinkage. Hurley
(1967) stated that the area shrinkage of acrylic knitted fabric increases with increase in tumble
dryer temperature. Sharma et al (1984) found that acrylic fabrics made from different yarns and
count the courses per inch and wales per inch vary inversely with the length of yarn knitted into
the stitch. Stitch density or number of loops per unit area of fabric is inversely proportional to the
square of stitch length. In dry relaxed state the values of Kc, Kw, Ks and Kl show dependence on
cover factor, the values increase proportionally with the increase in the value of cover factor.
26
Weight per unit area of acrylic fabrics varies inversely with the length of yarn knitted into the
stitch.
Fletcher and Roberts (1952a) studied that shrinkage in area of all of the grey fabrics and of the
finished viscose fabrics increased with knitting stiffness. Fletcher and Roberts (1953) concluded
that changes in dimensions of viscose knit goods in laundering are due largely to a
rearrangement of the fabric structure. The fabrics could be given a relaxing treatment to remove
distortion so that the structure would exhibit little rearrangement after laundering and the area
would remain nearly constant.
3.6 Spirality of Weft Knitted Fabrics
Single jersey knitted fabrics suffers from various forms of dimensional distortion due to the
dimensional instability of knitted loop construction. One such distortion arises from the use of
yarn that is twist liveliness resulting in wales that are not perpendicular to courses. Badr (2008)
mentioned that one of the key measures determining the dimensional stability of a knit fabric is
course and wale alignment. Basically, it is necessary that the wale on the knitted fabric be
perpendicular to the course. When this geometric feature is violated, the fabric will suffer a skew
to the left or right. This phenomenon is called fabric spirality and it is often observed in cotton
single jersey knits, where the fabric exhibits a tendency for the course and wale loops to skew
when allowed to relax. Terms such as fabric skew or fabric torque are also used to describe
fabric spirality.
The residual torque in the component yarn caused due to bending and twisting is the most
important phenomenon contributing to spirality. The residual torque is shown by its twist
liveliness. Hence the greater the twist liveliness, the greater is the spirality. Twist liveliness of
yarn is affected by the twist factor or twist multiple. Besides the torque, spirality is also governed
by fiber parameters, yarn formation system, yarn geometry, knit structure and fabric finishing.
Machine parameters do contribute to spirality. For instance, with multi-feeder circular knitting
machines, course inclination will be more, thus exhibit spirality.
Some of the practical problems arising from loop spirality encountered garments produced by
knitted materials are displacement or shifting of seams, mismatched patterns and sewing
difficulties. Badr (2008) reported that the various factors cause the spirality of weft knitted
fabrics. Fiber causes are fiber type, torsion rigidity, flexural rigidity, fiber blend, fiber fineness
and fiber length. Yarn causes are bulkiness, spinning system, fiber arrangement, twist level,
mechanical properties, twist direction, yarn count and doubling. Knit causes are gauge, needles
type, yarn input tension, fabric take down tension, tightness factor and fabric structure. Finishing
causes are stentering, calendaring, softner, mercersing, resins and enzymes. Arujo and Smith
(1989) concluded that, the major causes of spirality are yarn twist instability and the number of
feeds on the weft knitting machine. Primentas (2003, 2003a) reported that, the more slack the
knitted fabric structure, the greater is the spirality. This slackness can be achieved by changing
either the tightness factor or the linear density of the yarn. The direction of spirality in the fabrics
knitted from single short stable ring spun yarns is determined by the yarn twist direction. Thus,
the technical face of single jersey fabric exhibits spirality in the Z direction if a Z twisted yarn
has been knitted (Primentas and Iype 2003, 2003a). As the measurement of the angle of spirality
27
is concerned, either a protractor or a specially designed transparent plastic board can be used. As
the level of acceptable spirality angle is concerned, the opinions are divided, indicating as
maximum values five degrees or seven degrees and the percentage spirality of 8.
3.7 Shrinkage of Knitted Fabrics
Fabric shrinkage is a reduction in the physical dimensions of fabric because of relaxation or the
application of water, heat, steam, laundry, or dry cleaning. It is caused by numerous factors,
some of which are inherent in the structure, finishing, or handling of fabric. Fabric shrinkage
problems may not be apparent until the fabric is cut or garments are finished. Differential
shrinkage occurs when garment parts or different materials shrink unequal amounts (Glock and
Kunz 2000).
Suh (1967) mentioned that shrinkage of a knitted fabric is determined by a number of factors,
such as fiber characteristics, stitch length, machine gauge, yarn twist, knitting tension, and
washing and drying methods. However, the factors most responsible for shrinkage are known to
be the swelling of yarn and the relaxation of internal stress since these have been imposed on the
yarn during the knitting process. The configuration change of loops due to yarn swelling is
extremely complicated in a knitted structure, compared to woven structure, because of the
distinct three dimensional features of the knitted loop. Length shrinkage of a plain knitted cotton
fabric depends upon two phenomena. Part of it’s due to loop migration and the rest is due to the
change in course curvature. Width shrinkage of a plain knitted cotton fabric is affected by the
void space in a wale after accommodating four yarn diameter. Herath and Kang (2008) indicated
that the resiliency force and the yarn frictional force acting on interlacing points are major forces
which affect the relaxation behavior of knitted fabrics.
Fabric shrinkage can cause problems in two main areas either during garment manufacture or
during subsequent laundering by the ultimate customer. Laundering is a more vigorous process
than pressing and it usually involves mechanical agitation, hot water and detergent. Tumble
drying can also affect the shrinkage as the material is wet at the beginning of the drying process,
the material being agitated while heating until it is dry. Dry cleaning involves appropriate
solvents and agitation, the solvents are not absorbed by the fibers so they do not swell or affect
the properties of the fibers. This reduces some of the problems that occur during wet cleaning
processes. There are a number of different causes of dimensional change, some of which are
connected to one another. Most mechanisms only operate with fiber types that absorb moisture,
but relaxation shrinkage affects any fiber type.
Relaxation Shrinkage is the shrinkage measured when the fabric is wetted out. The changes in
the dimensions of the fabric are measured after the wet relaxation. Relaxation shrinkage is the
irreversible dimensional change accompanying the release of fiber strains imparted during
manufacture which have been set by the combined effects of time, finishing treatments, and
physical restraints within the structure (Abbott et al 1964). Hygral expansion is a property of
fabrics made from fibers that absorb moisture, in particular fabrics made from wool. It is a
reversible change in dimensions which takes place when the moisture regain of a fabric is
altered. Swelling shrinkage results from the swelling and de-swelling of the constituent fibers of
a fabric due to the absorption and desorption of water. In a loosely knitted fabric, the effect of
28
this swelling of the yarns is greater than in a tightly knitted fabric, since there is greater freedom
of movement (Saville 2002).
3.8 Effect of Yarn Properties On The Knitted Fabrics Properties
In a knitted fabric the yarn is in a sense, both raw material and the finished product. A knitted
fabric may be regarded as a particular configuration of a yarn or yarns. The original raw material
is not greatly altered in form. The more one knows about the properties of yarn the better will
one be equipped for the efficient production of fabric having predetermined and desirable
characters. Yarn properties such as count, twist, moisture conditions, and quality and package
hardness were found to affect the characteristics of knitted fabrics. Yarn shrinkage can be a
significant factor in the relaxation shrinkage exhibited by knitted fabrics. Relaxation of the yarns
is one factor which contributes to the dimensional stability. Yarn of low shrinkage knitted into a
tight structure the contribution to overall dimensional change is negligible. At the other extreme,
for yarns of high shrinkage used in an open structure, the contribution can be a major component
of the overall changes (Baird 1975). The effects of yarn shrinkage were reflected directly in the
dimensions of the relaxed fabrics. The amount of relaxation shrinkage occurring with open end
spun yarn is greater than that occurring with ring spun yarn (Candan et al 2000).
Pillay and Ramani (1976) suggested that fabric defects can be considerably reduced and knitting
efficiency improved by giving suitable chemical finishes to cotton yarns. The most useful type of
finishing agents appears to be those that increase the fiber to fiber friction in yarns without
appreciably increasing the yarn to metal friction. Kaushik et al (1989) concluded that courses per
cm, wales per cm and stitch density do not change with fiber composition or yarn twist but
increase appreciably with the increasing tightness factor irrespective of the relaxing treatments
for plain knitted fabrics made from acrylic / viscose rotor spun yarns. In fully relaxed state slack
knits exhibit lower area shrinkage. However, an increase in yarn twist results in a decrease in
shrinkage followed by an increase with further increase in twist. Fiber composition has no effect
on fabric weight in the dry relaxed state. The fabric weight decreases initially and then increases
with an increase either in yarn twist or tightness factor for dry and fully relaxed knitted fabrics.
Tao et al (1997) said that yarn twist and fabric tightness are the most predominant factors
contributing to fabric spirality. It was clearly demonstrated that the problem of fabric spirality is
much more serious for loosely knitted fabrics from highly twisted yarns. Tao et al (1997a)
mentioned that, by modifying the rotor spun yarn structure by means of the untwisting process
exerted significant influences on yarn and fabric performance. On the positive side, knitted fabric
spirality was greatly reduced or completely eliminated after yarn modification. Residual torque
or twist liveliness of a twisted yarn, among other factors, is the most prominent and fundamental
factor contributing to the spirality of single jersey knitted fabrics. The yarn twist liveliness has a
large influence on spirality. Bueno et al (2004) stated the influence of fiber fineness and the yarn
spinning process (yarn structure) on 3D loop shape. Any modification of fiber fineness or yarn
structure affects the yarn bending rigidity and therefore yarn behavior during fabric relaxation.
Banerjee and Bhat (2005) mentioned that during the process of loop formation on a knitting
machine, the yarn undergoes tensile, bending and torsional deformations. The dynamic balance
between the resulting yarn tension in the knitting zone and other mechanical forces acting on the
needles affect the loop forming point and hence the loop length. During the course of its
29
relaxation in wet processing stage, the loop changes its shape and tends to assume the one
corresponding to the minimum strain energy level. The torsional as well as tensile and bending
stresses stored in the loop during its formation in the knitting machine play important roles in
this relaxation process. As the yarn rigidities in tension, bending and torsion affects the loop
length as also its relaxed shape, it becomes necessary to relate them to manufacturing knitted
fabrics of stable and desirable dimensions.
Hepworth and Leaf (1976) stated that the length of yarn in loop contributes to the length, width
and thickness of the knitted fabrics. Stankovic et al (2009) reported that the yarn twist level
affects to a great extent the spacing of yarns in knitted fabrics. Chellamani and Vittopa (2009a)
stated that the ability of the yarn to be guided easily through various elements of the knitting
machine is important for a hosiery yarn and it is mostly depends on the friction of yarn to metal.
Kariyappa et al (2012) concluded that the yarn shrinkage and fabric shrinkage of silk plain
fabrics have highly correlated each other.
Banerjee and Bhat (2006) observed that the mean torsional rigidity of yarn plays a very
important role in determining loop dimensions of rib fabrics, necessitating the testing and
standardization of this property for improvement in quality of knit goods. Jaouadi et al (2009)
mentioned that the dimensional and mechanical characteristics of fabrics are dependent on yarn
diameter, courses per unit length, wales per unit length and stitch length in knitted fabrics and the
yarn twist will have a significant effect on yarn diameter.
Banerjee and Alaiban (1988) mentioned that the changes in yarn count may be accompanied by
changes in yarn diameter and yarn shrinkage during full relaxation and it was necessary to
determine each parameter separately. Asayesh and Mohammad (2007) studied the effect of yarn
twist on wicking of cotton interlock weft knitted fabrics and concluded that the wicking rate
decreases with an increase in the amount of yarn twist.
3.8.1 Effect of Yarn Twist on Shrinkage
When we consider normal shrinkage as opposed to felting shrinkage, we do not find that a high
twist reduces the amount of the shrinkage. In fact a high twist will increase the shrinkage. This is
the result of the swelling of the fiber when it is exposed to water or some other swelling agent. In
the following discussion any shrinkage in length of the fiber has been ignored since for fibers
like cotton and linen, it is so small as to be negligible and for other fibers like rayon it can be
studied independently. However, the increase in diameter of a cotton fiber can be quite large
when it is wet and from the bone dry to the completely wet state an increase in diameter of 20
percent is frequently encountered.
A very compact yarn made of such fibers would increase in diameter a similar amount when it
was wet out. However, the outer fibers are wrapped around the yarn so that the swelling tends to
lengthen their helical path. If the yarn is unrestrained, the fibers will not be stretched to
accomplish this, but rather the yarn will shrink so that the lengths of the fibers are unchanged
(Truslow 1957).
30
Sl. No. Twist multiplier % Yarn shrinkage
1 2 0.8
2 4 1.7
3 6 8.9
Table 3.8.1.1 Effect of twist multiplier on yarn shrinkage
In addition to this effect is the effect on the yarn density. The tightly twisted yarns usually are
more compact than the loosely compacted yarns. With repeated swelling and drying, it is
possible for them to acquire a more open structure which can have the resulting effect of
accenting the above shrinkage. It is therefore seen that twist can affect the shrinkage of yarns by
a twofold mechanism due to the helical path of the fibers and due to the compactness of the yarn.
3.9 Effect of Washing on the Dimensional Properties Of Knitted Fabrics
Excessive change, particularly shrinkage, in fabric dimensions can represent a serious problem in
virtually all textile applications, more particularly in clothing. Dimensional stability to
laundering (washing), including drying, therefore forms an important quality and test
requirements. Dimensional change has been defined as a generic term for percentage changes in
the length or width of a fabric specimen subjected to specific condition. Various test methods are
used for testing the dimensional stability of fabrics, the choice of test method often depending
upon the particular application of the fabric. Standardized washing machines and tests, to assess
fabric or garment performance under repeated home laundering cycles, have been developed
(e.g. AATCC 135). One example of a popular test method, which includes both washing and
tumble drying (e.g. five cycles) are AATCC 135. An industry norm for such a test on cotton
single jersey is, for example, no more than 8% shrinkage in either length (wale) or width (course)
direction. The actual changes in fabric dimensions during a test depends upon a number of
factors such as the test medium (liquor), liquor to goods ratio, type and severity of mechanical
agitation, liquor temperature, number of cycles and method of drying.
Quaynor et al (1999) concluded that multiple washing and tumble dry cycles result in almost a
complete relaxation state, especially for cotton. Onal and Candan (2003) stated that loops
gradually relax from dry relaxation to further washing cycles, but the relaxation amount in each
shrinkage direction change according to knit type.
Mikucioniene and Laureckiene (2009) mentioned that the shrinkage potential of knitted fabrics
depends on the conditions of drying during the finishing process and the shrinkage values of
plain jersey knitted fabrics after three washings and drying cycles were considerably reduced.
3.10 Properties of Regenerated Cellulosic Fibers
The fast growing capacities in fiber raw material worldwide, where viscose fiber is a part of it,
are reflected by the international market in textile application and end users to an immense
extend. Viscose rayon fibers are moisture absorbent and very amorphous, its filaments or stable
31
fibers are weaker than cotton and have only a fair tenacity. The shorter polymer and very
amorphous nature of the regenerated cellulose fibers are responsible for the much greater
sensitivity of these fibers to acids, alkalis, bleaches, sunlight and weather when compared with
cotton. The problems with viscose are sensitive against chemicals and shrinks easily when
washed in the wrong way.
Lyocell is a new generic name given to cellulosic fibers produced using an environmental
friendly process. Chavan and Patra (2004) concluded that lyocell has come up as a fiber for the
future and has many advantages over other cellulosic fibers in respect of fiber properties as well
as from fashion and aesthetic points of view. Table 2.3 shows the physical properties of
regenerated cellulosic and cotton fibers.
Sl. No. Property Viscose Modal Lyocell Cotton

1 Count dtex 1.7 1.7 1.4-1.7 1.5-1.8
Dry tensile strength ,
2 22-26 34-36 38-42 20-34
cN/tex
Wet tensile strength ,
3 10-15 19-24 34-38 25-30
cN/tex
4 Dry elongation % 17-25 13-15 14-16 7-11
5 Wet elongation % 21-30 13-15 16-18 11-14
6 Moisture uptake % 13 12.5 11.5 8
Water retention
7 90-100 75-80 60-70 45-55
capacity %
8 Initial wet modulus,5% 40-60 100-120 250-270 100-200
Degree of
9 250-350 300-600 500-600 2300-3000
Polymerization Value
Table 3.10.1 Physical properties of regenerated cellulosic and cotton fibers
When fibers absorb water, they change in dimensions, swelling transversely and axially. This has
technical consequences on the dimensional stability of the fabrics, the predominant transverse
swelling usually resulting in shrinkage of twisted or interlaced structures. Table 2.4 lists the
swelling properties of fibers when immersed in water. Upon wetting most hygroscopic textile
fibers exhibit a slight increase in length and a considerable increase in diameter and cross
sectional area (Sabit Adanur 1995).
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Length increase Diameter increase Cross-sectional
Fiber
(%) (%) Area increase (%)
Viscose rayon 3-5 25-52 50-113
Cotton 1.2 14-30 40-42
Table 3.10.2 Swelling properties of viscose rayon
3.11 Summary
Based on the literature cited it is evident that the length of yarn in the knitted loop is the
dominant factor for all structures and the knitted fabric characteristics are influenced by the
constituent fibers, yarn properties, knitting machine variable, processing and finishing
treatments. The thrust of this thesis is to study the effect of contributing factors like fiber type,
stitch length, yarn twist, wet yarn shrinkage, fabric construction, relaxation and finishing
treatments on the dimensional properties of knitted fabrics made from 100% viscose ring spun
yarn.
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4.0 Knitting Machines
A knitting machine is a device used to create knitted fabrics in a semi- or fully automated
fashion. There are numerous types of knitting machines, ranging from the simple, and non-
mechanical, to the highly complex and electronic. All, however, produce various types of knitted
fabrics, usually either flat or tubular, and of varying degrees of complexity. Pattern stitches can
be selected by hand manipulation of the needles, or with push-buttons and dials, mechanical
punch cards, or electronic pattern reading devices and computer.
Advertisement for a late 19th century hosiery firm that depicts its factory floor with workers
using knitting machines. Published 1886.A few simple devices permit knitting without needles
for toy or hobby purposes. The simplest of these is spool knitting, followed by knitting boards or
knitting looms, which consist of two rows of pins mounted in two parallel rows approximately
0.5 inches (1.3 cm) apart. Yarn is wound around the pins; various patterns of winding produce
different textured knitting. A needle or special tool is then used to transfer the loops of yarn from
around the pins, either off the pins or to other pins, to produce the knitting. Knitting boards can
produce complex designs. Other semi-mechanical knitting devices are available. To produce
larger and more complex knitted items such as garments, domestic and industrial machines, with
either flat or circular beds that produce rectangular or tubular fabrics are needed. Double bed
machines have two flat beds facing each other, in order to produce purl and plain rib fabrics plus
a variety of multi patterns. Ribbing attachments can be added to single bed machines to achieve a
similar result. Late 20th century domestic/studio models typically use up to 200 latch-hook
needles to hold the stitches in fine (the rarest and most expensive), standard or bulky gauge
needle. A carriage or cam box is passed across the bed of needles causing the needle movements
required to produce each next stitch. By means of various selection methods, e.g. punch cards,
particular needles can be caused to travel by alternate pathways through the cam box. Thus
needles will knit or not, and the non-knitted yarn portions will lie under (slip stitch) or over the
needle or be held in the needle hook (tuck stitch). Needles can be placed in holding position to
allow short row shaping. In the most modern machines, punch cards have been replaced by
computer control. Most of these machines can knit two-color Fair Isle patterns automatically,
and have machine stitch patterning features such as plating and knit weaving. Plating refers to
knitting with two strands of yarn that are held in such a way that one is in front of the
2other. Plated effects can be particularly striking in a ribbed fabric. Knit weaving refers to
technique in which a separate piece of yarn, often heavier than the knitted fabric, is carried along
and caught between stitches to produce an effect like weaving. With knit, woven fabric, the purl
side (usually the wrong side) is the right side of the fabric. With the addition of a lace carriage,
stitches can be transferred from one needle to the next. The yarn passes through a tensioning
mechanism and down through the knit carriage, which feeds the yarn to the needles as they knit.
Domestic knitting machines use the weft knitting method which produces a fabric similar to hand
knitting. Knitting proceeds more quickly than in hand knitting, where (usually two) straight
needles are held in the hand and each stitch is manipulated individually across the row. Knitting
machines work an entire row of loops in a single movement. A hobbyist spool knitting machine
operates on a crank.
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Knitting machine mainly two types. They are:
 Weft Knitting Machine.
 Warp Knitting Machine.
Weft knitting machine can be also divided into three types. They are:
 Flat bar.
 Straight bar.
 Circular.
Flat bar can be also divided into four types. They are:
 Flat bed.
 V-bed.
 Single bed.
 Unidirectional
Straight bar can be also divided into two types. They are:
 Single needle.
 Double needle
Circular can be divided into two types. They are:

 Revolving cylinder.
 Circular bearded single jersey
Revolving cylinder can be also divided into two types. They are:
 Sinker top open top single jersey.
 Cylinder and dil.
Circular bearded single jersey can be also divided into two types. They are:
 Sinker wheel.
 Loop wheel.
Warp knitting machine can be also divided into two types. They are:
 Raschel.
 Tricot.
4.1 Different Types of Knitting Machines
Knitting machine types the knitting industry as a whole can be divided into four manufacturing
sectors, these are: Fully Fashioned, flat knitting, circular knitting and warp knitting. Within the
wool industry both fully-fashioned and flat knitting is widely used. Circular knitting is limited to
certain markets and warp knitting is seldom used.
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4.1.1 Fully Fashioned Machines
Traditionally these machines produce plain ³classical´ styled wool knitwear by producing panels
that are shaped to style ³Fashioned´ during knitting. After knitting the front, back andsleeve
panels are linked to form the garment. Fully Fashioned machines are sometimes referred to as
straight-bar, flat bar, ³Cottons Patent ´or ³Cotton machines´ due to patents that were given to
William Cotton way back in the mid1800¶s.Bearded needles are used which are set into a
straight-bar in a long row and the entire bar is reciprocated by rotary cams which causes the
knitting action. The knitting yarn is laid across the width of the needles which is simultaneously
followed by the sinkers/dividers, which push the yarn firmly against the stem of the needles
ready for loop formation.
Generally Fully Fashioned machines only have one set of needles and therefore can only produce
plain knit fabric, making it necessary to produce the welts/cuffs on special ribbing knitting
machines. The ribs are held on³running-on´ bars and are either transferred onto the Fully
Fashioned machine by hand or automatically depending on the age of the machine. The
patterning capability of Fully Fashioned machines is limited to plain knit fully fashioned panels.
Machines with stitch transfer and intarsia capabilities can create the well known³argyle´ styles.
The gentle knitting action of these machines allows the use of delicate fine count woolen spun
yarns and also enables the machines to run faster where possible giving good knitting efficiency.
The gauges of Fully Fashioned machines range from a relatively course 9gg (needles per
1.5inch) through to a super-fine 33gg.
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4.1.2 Flat Knitting Machines
Sometimes referred to as Flatbeds´ or V-beds´ due to the nature and arrangements of the knitting
beds where two opposing needle beds are positioned so that the upper ends form an inverted V´.
Needles slide up and down the beds in slots known as tricks´ and in this case the gauge refers to
the number of needles per 1 inch. The carriage or cam box´ traverses across the needle beds and
selects needles to be knitted as it reciprocates side to side. The carriage effectively raises and
lowers the needles on both beds simultaneously as it passes over them, depending on the desired
pattern. Needle bed lengths can vary from 1.0m to 2.2m width and each is designed for a specific
task or purpose. What makes these machines so versatile, apart from the virtually unlimited
patterning capacity, is that the stitches can be passed from one bed to the other and the beds can
be moved linearly in relation to each other. This not only allows panels to be shaped, but it also
opens up extensive patterning possibilities using stitch transfer, like those used in ³Aran´style
sweaters. Furthermore parts of the garment that are normally added during make-up such as
pockets, collars, trims, V-necks, etc., can now all be knit as an integral part of the panel.
Advanced technology has now made it possible for complete garments to be knitted on the
machine, without the need for any making-up. The technique of complete garment knitting is
done in one of two ways; either using an adapted version of a V-bed, or by using a special
machine that has four needle beds.
4.1.3 Circular Knitting Machines
There are many types of circular knitting machines which produce long lengths of tubular fabric
and quite often they are manufactured with very specific end uses in mind.
4.1.3.1 Single Jersey Machine
Single Jersey machines are equipped with single ³cylinder´, about 30 inch diameter, of needles
that produce plain fabrics (single thickness).
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Wool production on single jersey machine sends to be limited to 20 gauge or coarser, as these
gauges can use two-fold wool yarns which will give spiralis-free fabrics. An additional inherent
feature of wool single jersey fabrics is that the fabric edges tend to curl inwards. This is not a
problem whilst the fabric is in tubular form but once cut open can become so if the fabric is not
finished correctly. Other single jersey based machines include: Terry loop machines; the basis
for fleece fabrics which are produced by knitting two yarns into the same stitch, one ground yarn
and one loop yarn. These protruding loops are then brushed or raised during finishing creating a
fleece fabric. Sliver knitting machines are single jersey machines that have been adapted to trap a
sliver of staple wool fiber in to the knit structure.
4.1.3.2 Double Jersey Machine

Double jersey machines are single jersey machines with a ³dial´ which houses an extra set of
needles positioned horizontally adjacent to the vertical cylinder needles. This extra set of needles
allows the production of fabrics that are twice as thick as single jersey fabrics.
Typical examples include interlock based structures for underwear/base layer garments and 1x 1
rib fabrics for leggings and outerwear products. Much finer yarns can be used as singles yarns do
not present a problem for double jersey knitted fabrics as the ³double layer ‘construction works
to cancel out the residual torque between the face and reverse sides, the net effect being no
spiralis
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5.0 Jacquard Knitting Machine
The Jacquard process and the necessary loom attachment are named after their inventor, Joseph
Marie Jacquard (1752–1834). This mechanism is probably one of the most important weaving
inventions as Jacquard shedding made possible the automatic production of unlimited varieties of
pattern weaving. The term "Jacquard" is not specific or limited to any particular loom, but rather
refers to the added control mechanism that automates the patterning. The process can also be
used for patterned knitwear and machine-knitted textiles, such as jerseys.
Jacquard Machine in DSSL
Jacquard weaving uses all types of fibers and blends of fibers and is capable of creating complex
patterns on fabrics. For making these complex patterns, the jacquard loom can be programmed to
raise each warp thread independently of the others. In this way, jacquard weaving gives highest
warp yarn control. In fact, the invention of Jacquard loom and jacquard weaving made possible
the automatic production of innumerable varieties of pattern weaving.
With mechanical jacquard loom, the weaving process is much labor intensive. The heddles with
warp ends to be pulled up have to be manually selected by an operator, who assists the main
weaver. In earlier times, it was known as a draw loom which is a very slow process and placed
limitations on the complexity of patterns.
As mentioned earlier, the mechanical jacquard loom works on the basis of punched cards strung
together. Every hole in the card corresponds to a "Bolus" hook. This hook can either be up or
down raising or lowering the harness. In this way, it carries and guides the warp thread in a
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manner that the weft yarn either lies above or below it. The sequence of raised and lowered
threads only creates the pattern. Each hook can be joined through the harness to a number of
threads. This allows more than one repeat of a pattern. A loom having a 400 hook head might
have four threads joined to each hook. Thus, it will result in a fabric which is 1600 warp ends
wide with four repeats of the weave going across.
5.1 History of Jacquard Machine
In former times, if figured designs were required, this was done on a draw loom. The heddles
with warp ends to be pulled up were manually selected by a second operator (draw boy), apart
from the weaver. It was slow and labor-intensive, with practical limitations on the complexity of
the pattern.
The first important improvement of the draw loom took place in 1725, when Basile Bouchon
introduced the principle of applying a perforated band of paper. A continuous roll of paper was
punched by hand, in sections, each of which represented one lash or tread, and the length of the
roll was determined by the number of shots in each repeat of pattern. The Jacquard machine
subsequently evolved from this.
Sample of Jacquard Weaving Machine the Textile Department of the Strzemiński Academy of Fine Arts
in Łódź, Poland
Joseph Marie Jacquard recognized that although weaving was intricate, it was repetitive, and saw
that a mechanism could be developed for the production of sophisticated patterns just as it had
been done for the production of simple patterns.
It is difficult to determine what part of the 'Jacquard' machine was designed by Jacquard himself.
He may have combined the best mechanical elements of other inventors, but - at any rate - the
machine he made must have differed from its predecessors in arrangement and minor working
details. It was similar in most general principles to Vaucanson's arrangement, except that he
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made use of Jean-Baptiste Falcon's individual paste board cards and his square prism (or card
'cylinder'), which he is credited with having fully perforated on each of its four sides in lieu of
Vaucanson's perforated 'barrel'. Jacquard's machine also contained eight rows of needles and
uprights as compared with Vaucanson's double row, of which modifications enabled him to
increase the figuring capacity of the machine. In his first machine, he supported the harness by
knotted cords, which he elevated by a single trap board.
One of the chief advantages claimed for the Jacquard machine was that unlike previous damask-
weaving machines, in which the figuring shed was usually drawn once for every four shots, with
the new apparatus, it could be drawn on every shot, thus producing a fabric with greater
definition of outline.
Jacquard's invention had a deep influence on Charles Babbage. In that respect, he is viewed by
some authors as a precursor of modern computing science.
5.2 The Invention of Electronic Jacquard Machine
It took about two centuries to introduce the electronic jacquard looms. The first electronic
Jacquard was launched at ITMA, Milan in 1983 by Bonas Machine Company Ltd. This was
initially a small machine but had greater capacity where single end warp control extended to
more than 10,000 warp ends. It eliminated the need for repeats and symmetrical designs. Now
almost infinite versatility could be produced in the patterns of the jacquard fabrics. It was a
computer-controlled machine and thus it significantly reduced the time wasted in changing
punched paper designs. Now smaller batch sizes of jacquard fabrics were possible to be made.
However, electronic Jacquards are costly. They are not viable for a factory weaving large batch
sizes, and smaller designs. These larger machines are apt for a factory that produces jacquard
fabric with great versatility having specialized designs. They are, in fact, great for manufacturing
jacquard clothing and jacquard linen such as jacquard duvet covers or damask sofa throws.
5.3 Computerized Jacquard Weaving
The modern computer controlled jacquard looms don't have punched cards, and can have
thousands of hooks. The threading of a Jacquard loom is very labor intensive process. As such,
many looms are threaded for only once. Subsequent warps are tied in to the existing warp using a
knotting robot that ties every new thread on individually. It can take several days for the process
of re-threading even for a small loom having only a few thousand warp ends. In this context, it
can be said that the term "Jacquard" is not confined to any particular loom but refers to the added
control mechanism that automates the patterning of a fabric.
5.4 Importance in Computing
The Jacquard head used replaceable punched cards to control a sequence of operations. It is
considered an important step in the history of computing hardware. The ability to change the
pattern of the loom's weave by simply changing cards was an important conceptual precursor to
the development of computer programming and data entry. Charles Babbage knew of Jacquard
looms and planned to use cards to store programs in his Analytical engine. In the late 19th
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century, Herman Hollerith took the idea of using punched cards to store information a step
further when he created a punched card tabulating machine which he used to input data for the
1890 U.S. Census. A large, punched-card-based data processing industry developed in the first
half of the twentieth century, dominated by the International Business Machine Corporation
(IBM), with its line of unit record equipment. The cards were used for data, however, with
programming done by plug boards.
Some early computers, such as the 1944 IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator
(Harvard Mark I) received program instructions from a paper tape punched with holes, similar to
Jacquard's string of cards. Later computers executed programs from higher-speed memory,
though cards were commonly used to load the programs into memory. Punched cards remained
in use in computing up until the mid-1980s.
5.5 How Jacquard Machine Works
Nonetheless, during my twenty years of work with textile software I have been privileged to
work with a number of professional Jacquard designers and to encounter a goodly range of
industrial Jacquard looms. If you take my comments with suitable “grains of salt”, and perhaps
some amused tolerance, I hope you might also find therein some nuggets of truth. As in any field
of specialized knowledge, an extensive jargon has been evolved. Textile jargon, developed in
many places over many centuries, is especially rich and variable. The same or similar words
often have different meanings in different branches (hand weavers versus mills), in different
countries (US versus England), and sometimes even between mills in the same State. Where
possible I have tried to describe the mechanism rather than to simply name it.
5.5.1 Overview – How Does a Jacquard Machine Differ from other Machines?
The term “Jacquard Machine” is a bit of a misnomer. The Jacquard mechanism is just one of the
components of a loom, not the entire loom itself; let me clarify. Any textile loom includes the
following essential mechanisms.
Figure 5.5.1.1 Essential Mechanism of Jacquard Machine
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1. Warp Supply (Y at right)
2. Weaving Stage, Containing Mechanisms for:
 Shed formation (H&M)
 Weft insertion
 Beating up (reed)
3. Fabric take-up (PR&CR)
The shed formation mechanism simply divides the warp ends into two groups - one group being
lifted while the other is held down - to form an open channel, called the shed, between the two
warp groups. Once the shed is formed, the weft is inserted through it and then the reed is brought
forward to beat up (pack) the newly inserted weft to its desired position. The cycle continued
with formation of the next shed.
The principal differences between so called plain, harnesses, draw boy, dobby, and Jacquard
“looms” lie in the shed formation mechanism (2a above). A more accurate description would be
a “loom with Jacquard shedding” rather than a “Jacquard loom”. Perhaps this seems an overly
picky point, but what would you call a loom that combines a dobby mechanism for a border
pattern with a Jacquard mechanism for the central figuring? Such mixed shedding mechanisms
are not unusual. Similarly, while there are enormous differences between a hand loom and a
power loom, either can be fitted with a Jacquard shedding mechanism. Indeed the original
Jacquard mechanisms were designed for hand looms.
5.5.2 Shed Format Mechanisms
Shed formation is the central technology of weaving. No other aspect of the loom has received as
much attention, nor been elaborated into as many complex variations. Each warp end passes
through a single heddle, consisting of a central eye for the warp and upper and lower eyes.
5.5.2.1 A single heddle, consisting of a central eye
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For attachment to the mechanism. The shedding mechanism does its work by raising or lowering
the heddles, hence the warps. In broad terms there are two techniques for acting on the heddles:
a) Via thin harness cords which individually connect each heddle farther into the shedding
mechanism, as in draw or Jacquard looms, or
b) Via heddle frames which hold a large number of heddles to allow them to be moved as a
group.
These are similar to a picture frame with the upper and lower eyes of the heddles sliding along
the upper and lower bars – see Figure 3. Although the word “harness” would seem to best refer
to the collection of harness cords, it is often also used to describe a heddle frame (as is the word
shaft, probably from the shaft used to drive the frame up and down).
The simplest possible shedding mechanism uses 2 heddle frames to divide the warp into 2 groups
– for example the odd numbered warps (1,3,5,...), which pass through heddle eyes in Frame #1
but between the heddles in Frame #2, hence are not affected by its motion, and the even
numbered warps (2,4,6,...) which pass through the heddle eyes of Frame #2. The loom lifts only
Frame #1, inserts weft, then lifts only frame #2, inserts weft, and so on, to weave plain cloth, -
the only kind that can be woven on this basic loom. More flexible mechanisms divide the warp
into more groups - occasionally using as many as 40 heddle frames (I even saw a reference to the
use of 90 frames in an 1800’s loom), but usually no more than 24. Any combination of harnesses
can be lifted simultaneously. This provides a very large number of different sheds - with 8
harnesses there are 256 possible combinations (2 x 2 x Figure 3 -3- 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2), while
24 harnesses provide 16,777,216 combinations.
If the harness combinations are lifted by hand (or foot), this sort of loom is often called a
“harness loom”. Manually setting up combinations of two dozen frames would be impractically
laborious so a simple form of “programming by tie-up” is used. The user connects cords between
the frames and foot pedals (treadles) so that, for instance, pressing down treadle #1 would lift
frames 1, 5, 7, and 22 while pressing down on treadle #2 might lift frames 3, 5, and 14, and so
on. The shedding sequence is thereby changed into a series of presses on individual (or pairs of)
treadles which, via the tie-up of the cords, create the desired frame combinations. This approach
greatly simplifies the operation, but also reduces the total number of frame combinations which
can be used in a design. This compromise is not necessary with mechanically operated frames,
see below. Simple mechanically operated looms use cams to directly operate the frames in a
simple fixed sequence of combinations - for example to weave large amounts of plain satin
fabrics. This sort of arrangement is often described as a “cam driven multi-shaft” loom. When a
longer or more complicated sequence is desired, a programmable mechanism is used to allow the
sequence of frame lifts to be controlled by paper tapes, chains, peg boards (from which “peg
plan”), or directly by computer. The result is a “dobby “mechanism. All frame combinations are
usable without limitation - you simply insert or don’t insert a peg for each harness (or punch or
not punch a hole). One common implementation uses punched tape (usually Mylar tape for
strength) which has places (channels) for up to 40 punched holes per row, each hole
corresponding to a lifted frame. Most industrial looms use 24 or fewer frames, and the unused
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channels in the tape are often used instead for other functions such as selecting the weft color. A
very common arrangement is
Channels 1.24 Control frames 1.24

Channels 25.30 Unused
Channel 31 Controls the Regulator (inhibits fabric
advance)
Channels 32..40 Select wefts 1.8
Table 5.5.2.1 Very Common Arrangement of Weft Color
The sequence is punched, one row for each weft insertion, and then the two ends of the tape are
glued to form a continuous loop – simply insert into the dobby mechanism, start up the loom,
and watch your fabric weave... Newer dobby looms are completely electronic – just download
the design via memory card, floppy disc, or network and go. As discussed, the number of frames
is usually limited to 24 or less. Each frame takes up some space and a stack of 24 frames gets to
be cumbersomely deep (to keep the shed angle constant the frames towards the rear must be
lifted higher than those at the front). While there are a huge number of possible combinations,
the design is still greatly limited by the fact that the warp can be divided into no more than 24
independent groups. Figures can be detailed, but only if they are very small (24 ends wide), or
can be wider, but only if -4- less detailed... This can be alleviated only slightly via fancy or
mirroring threading’s. Consider weaving a pattern which would simply divide the design along a
diagonal line from the lower left corner to the upper right corner. With only 24 groups this
diagonal must be a staircase taking 24 coarse steps. If we instead go for fine detail, then our
diagonal can only cross 24 ends before it must repeat. The draw loom or draw boy loom used a
harness rather than heddle frame to provide the next level of control. Warp groups were created
by tying together selected harness cords which could then be lifted manually as a group. This
permitted many more groups, thus provided much more resolution in figuring, but became very
difficult to operate as the number of groups soared. Attempts to solve this problem led naturally
to the next step. That next step in shedding evolution was to provide for a much larger number of
independently controlled warp groups - many hundreds to over ten thousand - this is the
Jacquard shedding mechanism - an evolutionary step with revolutionary consequences. From an
evolutionary perspective we are simply increasing the number of frames from a couple dozen to
thousands while at the same time reducing the number of warps assigned to each frame from
many down to only one. Like a Dobby mechanism we may use paper tape or cards to control the
warp lifts; however instead of having 40 possible holes (channels) for each weft insertion we will
have hundreds or thousands. Because there is only a single warp end assigned to each “frame”
we don’t actually need a physical frame to contain and lift the heddles. Instead we can simply
run a thin cord from each hook in the Jacquard mechanism down to the corresponding heddle.
This greatly reduces the amount of hardware around the warp - indeed each warp end simply
goes through its own heddle and lies adjacent to only a few neighboring heddles, allowing
greater heddle densities. The revolutionary aspect is that all design limitations have been
removed. We can easily weave a completely smooth diagonal across the entire design - unlike
the Dobby where we could either make only small smooth diagonals or very coarse stair step
large ones. We no longer have to make choices about the assignment of warp ends to heddle
frame (the “draw-in”) nor do we have to rethread the warp - every warp end is its own group of
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one. In short we can have great detail across the entire design without any trade-offs between
detail and size, and we can weave radically differing designs without rethreading the warp
between. Liberation!
5.5.3 A Side Trip to History
T.W. Fox writing in 1894 deprecates Jacquard’s 1804 design as little more than a simple
adaptation of the earlier mechanisms of Falcon (1728) and Vaucanson (1746). Others tend to
give Jacquard much more credit, though generally also mentioning Falcon, Vaucanson, and
others as significant contributors. Leaving aside the attribution wars, it is historical fact that
Jacquard’s mechanism became the standard which is still in use today, albeit with many small
improvements along the way. The problem faced by the designers was how to amplify a small
delicate motion – the sensing of the presence or absence of a small hole in a punched card – into
a large and powerful motion – the lifting of a tensioned warp end to create a shed. The
mechanism had to be compact, so that thousands could fit in a reasonable space, extremely
reliable, fast, and economical.
5.5.3.1 Basic Design of Jacquard Machine
The solution of Jacquard et al, brilliant in its simplicity, is still in use today. The power is
provided by a strong geared mechanism which raises and lowers steel bars (griffe) to open and
close the shed – the angled bars at the top of Figure 4. Long flexible double ended hooks are
arranged to hang by their top hook from the narrow top edge (“knife edge” ) of the griffe, hence
are lifted by it when it is raised. The lower end of these hooks connect to the heddles via harness
cords, thus lifting the warp end when the heddle is raised. When the griffe is in its lowest
position, as shown in Figure 4, the bottoms of the hooks rest on a support so that their top hooks
are raised slightly off of the griffe. At this point a slight sideways force is sufficient to deflect
this upper hook away from the knife edge – just far enough that it is missed by the griffe on its
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next ascent, thereby leaving the hook unraised. This provides the required amplifier – if the hook
is pressed gently towards the griffe it will be lifted when the griffe goes up, if the hook is pressed
gently away from the griffe it will be left behind when the griffe goes up. Every hook is
connected to a corresponding horizontal sensing pin. These pins are spring loaded (along right
side in Fig. 4) to gently hold the hooks near the griffe and they protrude out into the card sensing
area along the Figure’s left edge. When a card is pressed into position the pins which pass
through holes in the card will be left unchanged. However, those which meet un punched areas in
the card will be pushed back (towards the right), thus moving their hook away from the griffe.
The result is that a hole in the card results in the associated warp end being lifted while no hole
corresponds to the warp end being left down. Figure 4 shows, reading top to bottom, an
alternating cut / miss sequence corresponding to a tabby weave (Pins 2, 4, 6, and 8 being pressed
towards the right by an unpunched card). Figure 4 -6- The amplification achieved is remarkable.
The pressure applied by the sensing pins must be very low – the cards are made out of paper and
must be read millions of times without wear. The hooks, however, must be able to provide a very
considerable amount of force to quickly deflect the tensioned warp end. If we assume that, say,
1/2 lbs. of force might be needed at the hook, a “quad width” head (5376 hooks) could be called
upon to provide 2,688 lbs. of force – which is why you see Jacquard heads mounted on sturdy
steel gantries! The reliability is also extraordinary. Modern looms run as fast as 800
picks/minute, and they do so 24 hours a day. In a year’s time this amounts to 800 x 60 x 24 x 365
= 420 MILLION cycles. Our hearts wear out in about 1/10 that number of cycles.
Though Vaucanson’s 1746 design used punched paper, much like a player piano, this was found
to be unreliable. Jacquard’s design used individual pasteboard cards (Figure 6), one per pick,
laced together to form an endless chain (Figure 5). This was the standard technique used through
most of the 19th century until Verdol reintroduced endless paper towards the end of that century.
Verdol’s endless paper, which avoided the need for lacing and was much lighter and capable of
higher densities and speeds, became the dominant media during the 20th century, though to my
knowledge looms using laced “hard cards” were still in industrial use in the 1980s (and may still
be weaving away today). Although punched paper is still in wide use, the trend since the 1980s
has been toward electronic control (first attempted by Bonelli around 1860, yes, eighteen sixty).
This is achieved in effect by replacing the sensing pins with small electromagnets; the underlying
principle of gently deflecting the hook to either catch or miss the rising griffe is still used to
provide the necessary power. The only exception of which I am aware is the recently introduced
TC-1 by Digital Weaving Norway which uses small pneumatic cylinders to directly lift the
hooks. This specialized shedding mechanism is designed to provide a very compact loom (the
Jacquard head rises only inches above the warp), but at the cost of being quite limited as to speed
and shed lifting force. Its primary application has been to small hand-looms used in studio
weaving or for making test samples. During the 19th century typical Jacquard sizes (the number
of hooks) ranged into100 to 1000 hooks. Verdol’s endless paper model was originally produced
as an 896 hook machine, later expanded to 1344 which largely became the standard “single
width” head for the 20th century.
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5.5.3.2 Design Used Punched Paper
It was common practice to mount several heads on a single loom to provide greater resolution.
Bradbury’s 1912 “Jacquard Mechanism and Harness Mounting” begins with a picture of a street
scene woven using 3600 hooks. Its detail is extraordinary, the wet street glistens! (See Figure 7
on following page) Figure 5 -7- The most common counts were 1344(1X), 2688(2X), 4032(3X),
5376(4X) and 6720(5X). When mechanical heads were in use, they were literally mounted in
parallel above the loom with each head reading its own loop of cards (which could give rather
“interesting” results when one of the loops got out of synch). The 1344 hook Verdol card
actually consisted of 3 groups of 448 hooks, separated by sprocket holes. Physically they are
about 18.5" wide with 168 holes across the width (3 groups of 56) with 8 rows being punched
per card, followed by a 9th unpunched row to separate the cards.
5.5.3.3 Stitching in Jacquard Mechanism
Shows the left 1/3 of 2 such cards, reproduced at half scale; actual size of each card is 18.5” wide
by 1.1” tall. The continuous paper is folded every 20 cards in a zigzag pattern, with “Pendaflex”
style hangers glued on at every other fold so that the entire loop can hang on rails. The physical
mechanisms of the head were generally designed in “chunks” of 448, with the hooks often
arranged at the comber board as a group of hooks arrayed 32 wide X 14 deep (front to back).
Modern electronic heads don’t use physical “cards” of course, instead they are controlled by data
on a disk drive. Early models adhered to the same standard widths - multiples of 448 such as 3X
(1344), 6X (2688), etc. Later models used multiples of 512 (a “nicer” number for electronics and
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computers) which provide widths such as 1536 (3X), 3072 (6X), etc. In these later models the
hooks are usually arranged 16 or 32 deep (front to back). The largest head of which I am aware,
Staubli’s “Jumbo”, is 12,288 hooks wide (24 X 512).
5.5.4 The Harness and Repeats
Up to now we have discussed the Jacquard as if each of its hooks lifts one and only one warp
end. As discussed below the situation is somewhat more complicated. For example, warp
densities for upholstery fabric are commonly a bit under 200 threads/ inch. A single head of 1344
hooks can thus only create a pattern that is 1344/200 = 6.7 inches wide. A quad head (5376
hooks) can create a pattern almost 27" wide. Indeed, the industry standards for upholstery are
based on 6.75, 13.5, 27, and 54" repeat widths. At these warp densities even the 12,288 Jumbo
head can only weave about a 60" wide repeat. At the same time, industrial looms weave at least
54" wide, and many are meant for 108" or wider. Figure 8 Figure 7 -8- In order to fill out the
width of the loom, the pattern can be simply repeated across the width of the loom. Physically
this is done via the “harness”. Consider the case of a 2688 hook “double” head controlling a 54"
wide loom. The total warp count will be around 10,752 and will require 4 repeats of the 2688
wide pattern. The Jacquard head is mounted high above the loom. Four cords are then run from
each hook to the 4 heddles which control the 4 individual warp threads. For example, Hook #1
will be tied to cords which connect it to heddles #1, #2689, #5377, and #8065. Hook #2 will be
tied to heddles #2, #2690, #5378, and #8066. And so on to Hook #2688 which will tie to heddles
#2688, #5376, #8064, and #10752. Of course this means that each hook will now be lifting 4
warp ends, hence must be capable of considerable lifting force (does the 1/2 lbs. force per hook I
used in my previous example begin to seem more reasonable?). Special harnessing’s are often
used – for example instead of simply repeating the pattern side by side, one could mirror
(left/right reversal) the second (and fourth) repeats to create a symmetrical design which appears
twice as wide. Even more elaborate arrangements are used – for example, Figure 9 shows a
harness for a dual-width Jacquard (two mechanisms in parallel) which does both mirroring, for
the border design, plus a 3 fold regular repeat of the central figure. Entire books have been
written on this topic. It is important to keep these harness cords fairly straight - i.e., without
sharp bends which would create a lot of friction and wear. This means in turn that the head itself
must be 12 feet or more up in the air which results in an awkward and top heavy machine. The
harness is an expensive item. In our earlier example, a 4X repeat, it contained 10,752 cords
connecting from 2688 hooks at the top end to 10,752 heddles at its bottom end. The cord lengths
must be exactly calibrated so that the heddles all line up... Harnesses are generally custom made
for a particular loom/head and sley, also called sett or EPI (ends per inch). Changing the harness’
sley is not simple - if you move the heddles farther apart the path of the cords changes and their
lengths must be readjusted. TIS (now SAMT Development) made a loom with an ingenious
arrangement of cord paths which could be adjusted for different sleys - each cord takes 2
adjustable bends which can be used to largely cancel out the changes in cord length when the
sley is changed. TIS looms are used at various schools, including SCAD in Savannah GA,
CEFTEQ in Quebec City, and CTCM in Montreal, but I have not yet heard of any being used in
this country in an industrial setting. Digital Weaving Norway’s TC1 loom does not use a harness
- instead there is a direct and straight connection from each hook to its corresponding heddle.
This has both advantages and limitations. The huge advantage is that the head can be mounted
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just a few inches above the fabric. This results in a very compact loom which can fit just about
anywhere and can easily be moved around without a rigging crew.
5.5.4.1 Harness and Repeats
A corresponding limitation is that, since there is no harness in the traditional sense, there is no
way to create repeats with harness cords. In other words, if your TC1 is set up for 2688 ends
across a 13.5" width, there isn’t any way to repeat the pattern to get 27 or 54" wide cloth...
Considered from the opposite direction, if you want to weave 54" wide cloth at 200 sley (ends
50
per inch) on a TC1, you must order a TC1 set up for 10,752 hooks. Another limitation is that the
sley is determined by the TC1’s mechanical design - the heddles must be directly below the
hooks. Each module is built for 15 EPI, so placing 4 modules back to front will give you 4 x 15 =
60 EPI. If you wanted, say, 50 EPI, you could only achieve this by “casting out” (ignoring, not
using) 10 out of every 60 hooks which reduces the hook count available for the design. In
comparison, a traditional Jacquard head with its long harness can handle any sley without giving
up any hooks - although as discussed above changing the sley requires a major overhaul of the
harness (except in the case of the TIS loom). TC1 looms are being used at various schools,
including CCAC in Berkeley, CA, EMU in Ypsilanti, MI, Kent State in OH, and NSCAD in
Nova Scotia; in the USA another half dozen are owned by individuals.
5.5.5 Special Considerations When Using Harness Repeats
The use of repeats via the harness introduces some further considerations. The following notes
are copied from an earlier discussion relating to a specific loom in which its 384 hooks were
being repeated out 6X to fill 2304 warp ends, but the underlying principles are equally applicable
anytime that the design is being repeated by the harness. When designing you will be working on
a 384 end design – the maximum number of hooks built into your Jacquard - only the harness
“knows” that 2304 threads are actually being controlled by those 384 hooks. However, you do
have to be aware while you are designing that the harness will be creating repeats, hence seams
between those repeats. Keep in mind that the right edge of each repeat of the design butts right
up to the left edge of its next repeat so the design need to be compatible across that seam. It is a
good idea to “wrap” your almost finished design so that the left and right edges come together to
check what will be happening along the repeat seams.
You must also make sure that your weaves “roll out” a whole number of times across that width -
again so that the repeat seams don’t create strange effects. For example, suppose that a
background area is weaving with an 8-shaft weft satin. This creates weft floats of 7 as in X - - - -
- - - X - - - - - - -…. If the width of your design is an exact multiple of 8 then at the right edge of
your figure you will have just completed a full repeat of the satin weave and will align properly
to the beginning of the next weave repeat at the left edge of the pattern repeat. However, if the
design width is not an exact multiple of the weave width then you will get misalignments as
shown below: Design repeat 1 —>|
The need for weaves to fit into the design width in turn has bearing on your choice of the number
of hooks to use for your designs – you want a “good” number, meaning one which is compatible
with a wide range of weaves. Most standard loom widths are “good”, but when you reduce the
number of hooks, perhaps because some are needed for other purposes or to weave a narrower
product, you should give careful thought to the choice of that lower number. Consider the
following example, 384 is the product of 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 so any weave whose width
is the product of those factors will be compatible, including widths of 2, 3, 4 (2x2), 6 (2x3), 8
(2x2x2), 12 (2x2x3), 16 (2x2x2x2), 24 (2x2x2x3), etc. However weaves whose width were 5, 7,
9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, or 23 would not be compatible and would create
discontinuities at the repeat edges (seams).
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If you reduce the number of hooks you are using for your pattern, say to 372 (2x2x3x31) for
pattern, this would only allow weave widths of 2, 3, 4, 6, or 12 (plus 31, 62, 93.) while 368
(2x2x2x2x23) would only allow 2, 4, 8, 16, 23, 46.... If your design needs a wider range of
weave widths then it might be better instead to drop all the way down to 360 (2x2x2x3x3x5)
which would support weave widths of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 20, 24, 30, 36...
5.5.6 Using Hooks for Other Functions:
Sometimes it is necessary to use some of the hooks in the jacquard head for other purposes than
lifting heddles, for example:
1) Weft Selection: a loom that automatically inserts the weft and can choose from several
different wefts (shuttles) needs to be “told” which weft (shuttle) to select. This is most
flexibly done by using some of the jacquard hooks as “weft selectors”. Some mechanisms
use 3 or 4 hooks to select from 8 shuttles, most use 8 hooks (one per shuttle).
2) Regulation: looms advance (take-up) the fabric after each weft insertion. Sometimes is it
desired to inhibit this automatic advance on certain picks and a hook is set aside for this
purpose (called the Regulator).
3) Other Purposes - to control special loom mechanisms used to, e.g., form pile loops,
weave fringe, adjust the fabric advance, etc. 4) selvedge: you often want to weave a
selvedge along each side of the fabric - a special weave designed to hold the edge
together. Some looms include cam operated heddles to weave the selvedge. When you
need a selvedge and you don’t have a special mechanism to weave it, then you will need
to set aside a few hooks for that purpose.
With the mechanical Jacquards these functions could only be controlled by using actual hooks.
Electronic Jacquards have added a new wrinkle as most support “Electronic Functions” which
are “hooks” that don’t actually show up in the head as physical hooks. Bonas controllers always
include 32 of these in positions 1.32 (the first real hook is #33) while Grosse controllers
optionally include 64 to the right of the last real hook. Staubli controllers optionally include 32,
positioned either to the right or the left depending on your preferences. These “Electronic
Functions” are electronic signals which can be hooked up to the loom, but only if the loom is
capable of handling them. It can be a bit confusing – for example a standard 2688 hook Bonas
head actually provides 2688 real hooks plus 32 electronic ones for a total of 2720. In other words
you will see 2688 hooks to which you can tie cords, but your electronic “cards” will each contain
2720 “hole locations” (bits). If you mount that Bonas head on an older mechanical loom (which
does not accept electronic signals) you will have to use some of the 2688 real hooks to control
weft selection, etc., and you will have fewer than 2688 left for controlling the warp. On the other
hand, if you mount the same Bonas head on a modern loom that can use electronic signals, and
you install the appropriate cable between the Jacquard controller and the loom, then all 2688
actual hooks will be available for warp ends.
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5.5.7 Trends in Jacquard Technology
The development of Jacquards which rely on electronic (computer) information rather than
actual punched cards or paper has greatly reduced the costs of the equipment, materials and labor
required to convert a design into “ready to weave” condition. It has obviated the need for
expensive punch mechanisms and the time and materials costs of creating punched paper. Recent
Jacquards can connect to digital networks, such as Ethernet, thus permitting direct transfer of
patterns from the design computer and eliminating even the need for floppy disks. Designs which
would have taken a month to prepare in the 1970s using a manual punch could, by the 1980s, be
done in a day using a high speed computer controlled punch and can now be done in minutes
with direct electronic transfers. Manual punching required many minutes per card, computer
controlled punches required only 1 second per card (say an hour for a 3000 pick design) but still
needed time consuming post-processing for splicing into a loop and adding hangers. Transfer via
floppy is a matter of a few minutes and direct transfer by networks takes only seconds for an
entire job. -12- This has made dramatic changes in the economics of production. When a man-
month of effort was required to prepare a design one had to plan on weaving many thousands of
yards of that design to recoup design costs; consequently designs were few in number and
conservative in nature. Now there are mills which specialize in producing small yardages, in
some cases just a few yards. The number of Jacquard hooks per mechanism has been steadily
increasing from around 1000 in the 19th century to over 12,000 at the end of the 20th. In large
part this too has been made practical by the above mentioned conversion to electronics. Punched
paper suffers from a number of difficulties which, though just manageable at 1344 width, would
be unmanageable at 12,000 width. Also, wider Jacquards require a correspondingly increased
number of “holes” to be punched (perhaps 30 million for a 12,288 x 5000 pick pattern) – slow
and expensive when actual punched paper was required. The “electrification” of the Jacquards
has also helped to simplify their mechanical design – the delicate, and slow, spring-loaded
mechanical sensing pins have been replaced by reliable and fast electromagnets – and thereby
improved the shed formation speed.
Changes in weft insertion technology have also had a major impact on speed. The early shuttles
were heavy, hence slow, and needed frequent exchanging as they ran out of yarn. Shuttle-less
techniques, including rapiers, projectiles, water-jet and air-jet, have vastly increased the speed
53
and reliability of weft insertion. Speeds have changed from a few dozen picks per minute for a
hand loom, to a hundred or more with a power loom, to as high as 800 picks per minute for
recent Jacquard equipped looms (and thousands per minute for plain looms). The simplification
of Jacquard mechanisms has reduced the cost per hook of manufacturing a Jacquard which has
meant lower purchase costs, especially since the electronic versions no longer require support
equipment such as punches. This in turn has made possible the reemergence of the hand-loom
Jacquards, such as the TC-1 and TIS/SAMT systems. Though by no means inexpensive, these
new mechanisms have brought Jacquard technology well into the reach of schools and even of
some individuals. All these developments have greatly increased the accessibility of Jacquard
designing. Jacquard design was largely the sole province of large mills when it required massive
and expensive equipment and the skilled manpower to maintain it. With design preparation
generally a critical bottleneck – large amounts of time required on expensive, hence rare,
equipment – there was little room for “outsider” access nor short-run jobs. It is now possible to
perform the entire design and preparation for weaving on a personal computer, even a lap-top,
and to then transfer the ready-to-weave file via email to a mill. In turn, the mills have become
capable of profitably weaving small yardages at reasonable costs. Finally, a growing number of
schools are able to offer Jacquard training, either on their own looms or by contracting out the
actual weaving through a commercial mill. All the above has set the stage for an explosion in
designers and designs – we should be entering the Golden Age of Jacquard design.
5.6 General Characteristics of Jacquard Mechanisms:
General characteristics of jacquard mechanisms are stated here
1. For designs that require the reproduction of freely drawn shapes, it is usually necessary for
each end in the repeat to be separately controlled.
2. Jacquard machines are used for a wide variety of purposes from ties to carpets.
3. Their patterning possibilities virtually unlimited.
Jacquard mechanism fabric
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5.7 Jacquard Mechanism Fabric
1. The most elaborate designs (reproduction of freely drawn shapes, i.e. floral designs) are
woven on an intricately constructed loom called the Jacquard loom, and the weave of
these fabrics is called the jacquard weave.
2. Elaborate designs could not be made on the regular harness loom. Because intricate
designs require many variations in shedding.
3. Virtually no limit to the number of picks /repeat (i.e. 5000 picks or more)
4. The length of the repeat is limited only by the cost and inconvenience of a very long
pattern chain.
5. Jacquard machines are made in a wide variety of sizes to control from 100 to 2000 or
more ends per repeat.
6. In conventional jacquard machine field, the spectrum now ranges from 192 through 3200
to 6144 hooks.
7. When a higher no. of independent lift is required two or three jacquard machine is placed
side to side.
5.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of Jacquard Mechanisms:
5.8.1 Advantages:
 Tremendous design possibilities,

 Simpler in principle than Dobbie’s
5.8.2 Disadvantages:
 Large scale moving parts makes the machine and its harness relatively costly to install
and maintain.
 Jacquard fabrics are much more costly to produce.
 Jacquard machines are even more liable to produce faults in the fabric than Dobbie’s.
 Pattern change is a time consuming process.
 Until recently, the jacquard machine had tended to impose limitations (300 picks/min )
 Jacquard shedding is normally used only when the cloths to be woven are outside the
scope of dobby shedding.
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6.0 Flat Bed Knitting Machine
The fabric produced using a knitting machine is of a more even texture than hand-knitted fabric,
which is particularly noticeable on large areas of plain stockinet stitch, and can be an advantage.
Some stitch patterns (e.g., tuck stitches) are much easier to produce with a knitting machine.
Others (e.g. garter stitch) can also be produced with machine knitting but can take a little longer
but still much faster than hand knitting. The standard gauge 200-needle machine can knit the
finest yarns up to a good sport-weight, while the heavier yarns knit better on a mid-gauge or
bulky knitting machine. Machine knitting saves a considerable amount of time but does require
learning to operate the machines correctly. Most if not all hand knitting patterns can be worked
up on a machine, either identically or in a similar design.
Flat knitting is a method for producing knitted fabrics in which the work is turned periodically,
i.e., the fabric is worked with alternating sides facing the knitter. Another method of reaching the
same result is to knit alternately from right to left and left to right without turning; this back-and-
forth technique requires either innate or learned ambidextrous motor skills. The two sides (or
"faces") of the fabric are usually designated as the right side (the side that faces outwards,
towards the viewer and away from the wearer's body) and the wrong side (the side that faces
inwards, away from the viewer and towards the wearer's body).
Flat knitting is usually contrasted with circular knitting, in which the fabric is always knitted
from the same side. Flat knitting can complicate knitting somewhat compared to circular
knitting, since the same stitch (as seen from the right side) is produced by two different
movements when knitted from the right and wrong sides. Thus, a knit stitch (as seen from the
right side) may be produced by a knit stitch on the right side, or by a purl stitch on the wrong
side. This may cause the gauge of the knitting to vary in alternating rows of stockinet fabrics;
however, this effect is usually not noticeable, and may be eliminated with practice (the usual
way) or by using needles of two different sizes (an unusual and less effective way).
In flat knitting, the fabric is usually turned after every row. However, in some versions of double
knitting with two yarns and double-pointed knitting needles, the fabric may turned after every
second row.
In Industrial Knitting applications, the terms "Flat" and "Circular" have very different meanings
to those given above. A "Flat" or Vee Bed knitting machine consists of 2 flat needle beds
arranged in an upside-down "V" formation. These needle beds can be up to 2.5 metres wide. A
carriage, also known as a Cambox or Head, moves backwards and forwards across these needle
beds, working the needles to selectively, knit, tuck or transfer stitches. A flat knitting machine is
very flexible, allowing complex stitch designs, shaped knitting and precise width adjustment. It
is, however relatively slow when compared to a circular machine. Knitting speed up to .5 m/s or
low is considered the low speed in flat knitting which is generally in hand flat machines. The two
largest manufacturers of industrial flat knitting machines are Stoll of Germany, and Shima Seiki
of Japan. The industrial hand flat knitting machine is considered to be launched by the Isaac
Lamb patents.
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6.1 Flat Bed Knitting Machine in Details
Flat Bed Knitting Machine produces flat pieces. Most common knitting machine for hobbyists
and boutique producers. Garments produced from a flatbed knitting machine normally have side
seams. ; It is not possible to knit in the round on a flatbed knitting machine. Flatbed knitting
machines cannot work purl stitches or garter stitch automatically. A flat bed knitting machine
comprising a flat elongate bed on which is retained a plurality of parallel, latch able, needles
equally spaced along the length of the bed and each movable relative to the bed in a direction
lengthwise of the needles and transverse of the bed length.
6.1.1 Machine Parts of Flat Bed Knitting Machine:
The different parts of flatbed knitting machine are given as below:
Figure 6.1.1.1 Schematic Diagram of Different Parts of Flat Bed Knitting Machine
1. Tension Equipment: Provides tension force for yarn to be fed to the yarn feeder.
2. Cone Stand Plate: Table on which cone is arranged.
3. Fluorescent Lamp: It is necessary to see the condition of the needle bed gap and so on
during knitting. Turn on and off on the controller screen.
4. Cone Stand: Holds the cone.
i. Signal Lamp: There are three indication lamps are as follows:
ii. Green lamp------------------------Machine is in operation.
iii. Blinking Green lamp-------------Machine is stopped by operation.
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iv. Blinking yellow lamp----------Machine is stopped because of error, or
completion of piece.
5. Carriage: Control the motion of the needle.
6. Operation Bar: Actuates and stops the carriage. Also used for clearing operation errors.
7. Stop Switch: The purpose is to machine in an emergency only.
8. Side Cover: Installed at the both sides of safety cover.
9. Safety Cover: Suppresses the noise and dust.
10. Side Tension Equipment: Pulls the yarn fed to the feeder to create tension as tension
equipment does.
11. Carrier Rail: Used for the carrier to move on.
12. Controller: Loads knitting data for floppy disk and command the machine to execute the
data. Modifying and inputting data are available in controller.
13. Lock Lever: By execute this lever, the sub roller is pressed and comes into contact with
the main roller. Pull the lever toward you to release the sub roller from the main roller.
Press the lever downward to engage the sub roller.
14. Main Power Switch: Cuts off power supply. This switch has emergency stop function.
In case of an emergency, turn this switch off.
15. Oil Pump: Supplies oil to the brush holder and the racking side plate.
16. Breaker Switch: This protects the machine from odd power source to the turned off
automatically. The breaker switch is back side of controller.
6.2 V Bed Manual Knitting Machine
Main parts of v Bed Manual Knitting Machines are:
1. Yarn package
2. Yarn guide
3. Tension spring
4. Cymbal tension
5. Yarn take-up
6. Fabric comb
7. Yarn carrier
8. Back needle bed
9. Front needle bed
10. Needle spring
11. Fabric
12. Dead weighting system
13. Latch needle
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6.2.1 Functions of Different Parts of V Bed
The functions of different parts are illustrated below in sequence wise.
 Yarn guide: it is used to maintain the path of the yarn.

 Cymbal tension: it is a spring loaded tensioning device. It is used to maintain the
uniform tension of yarn.
 Yarn take-up: it is used to take-up the yarn from package at a constant rate.
 Yarn carrier: Yarn carrier is used to supply yarn to the needle hook. Fabric comb and
weight system: The whole system is used to take-up the fabric from the knitting zone.
Fabric is take-up between the gaps of the two needle beds.
6.2.2 Machine Description
In the following figure shows a cross section of a simple hand powered and manipulated V-bed
rib flat machine. The trick walls are replaced at the needle bed verges by fixed, thinner, polished
and specially shaped knock-over bit edges. In rib gating, a knock-over bit in one bed will be
aligned opposite to a needle trick in the other bed. During knitting, the edges of the knock-over
bits restrain the sinker loops as they pass between the needles and thus assist in the knocking
over of the old loops and in the formation of the new loops. The takedown tension and the
needles in the other bed help to hold the old loops down on the needle stems as the needles rise
to clear.
Figure 6.2.2.1 V Shape Flatbed Knitting Machine
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On hand flat machines, after the first or set up courses of rib is taken by the needles a fabric
comb is hand inserted into it, upwards from under the needle beds, so that the eyelet holes of the
comb protrude above the course. The comb wire is then inserted through the eyelets over the set
up course so that the comb is suspended from the course and a takedown weight is attached to it.
The cover plate is a thin metal blade, located in a slot across the top of the needle bed tricks. It
prevents the stems of the needles from pivoting upwards out of the tricks as a result of the fabric
take down tension drawing the needle hooks downwards whilst allowing the needles to slide
freely in their tricks. The plate can be withdrawn sideways out of the needle bed to allow
damaged needles to be replaced.
Supporting the tail of each needle is a security spring that fits over the lower edge of the needle
bed. When the spring is pushed fully into position, it locates into a groove on the under surface
of the needle bed. The butt of the needle that it supports is then aligned with the knitting cam
track on the under surface of the traversing cam carriage. When a needle is not required to be in
action, its security spring is not located in the groove so that the needle is nearer to the lower
edge of the needle bed and its butt misses the traversing cam-carriage.
On machines employing jacquard selection, the function of the security spring is replaced either
by the thrust of a jacquard steel onto the tails of the elements or by the raising or depressing of
the knitting butts into the trick in order to position the needle butts for each carriage traverse.
Latch opening brushes are attached to the cam plates of both needle beds to ensure that the
needle latches are fully opened. The supports of the brushes are adjustable to ensure precise
setting of the bristles relative to the needles.
The cam-carriage either slides or runs on ball bearings or wheels, along guide rails, one of which
is fixed over the lower end of each needle bed. It is propelled either by hand or from a motor
driven continuous roller chain or rubber belt.
Each yarn carrier is attached to a block which slides along a bar, which, like the carriage guide
rails, passes across the full width of the machine. The carrier bar may be of the prism type so that
yarn carriers may be attached to slide along both the front and the back surfaces. The yarn
carriers are picked up or left behind by the carriage, as required, by means of driving bolts or
pistons that are attached to and controlled either manually or automatically from the carriage
bow. There is a bolt for each carrier bar track that, when lowered, entrains with a groove in the
shoulder of a yarn carrier block. Stop plates having inclined edges are positioned on the carrier
bars at the knitting selvedges. On contact with a stop plate, the base base of the bolt rises and is
lifted out and disconnected from the groove of the carrier block so that the carriage continues its
traverse without the carrier.
Two levers are usually provided, one at each end of the needle bed. One is for racking the back
needle bed, to change the gating of the needle beds for changes of rib set out or rib loop transfer.
60
The other is to open the gap between the needle beds for easier access to the knitted fabric
hanging from the needles.
The following figure illustrates the knitting action of a V-bed hand flat machine and the figure
shows the underside of the cam carriage and the cams forming the tracks that guide the needle
butts through the knitting system. The single knitting system cam box is symmetrically designed
for knitting a course of loops on both the front bed and back bed needles during a right to left
traverse and a second course during the return left to right cam box traverse.
Figure 6.2.2.2 Knitting Action of V Bed Knitting
The needle butts will enter the traversing cam system from the right during a left to right carriage
traverse and from the left during a right to left traverse. For each needle bed there are two raising
cams (R), two cardigan cams (C) and two stitch cams (S).
In the direction of traverse, the leading raising cam is responsible for knitting and the trailing
raising cam acts as guard cam. The leading stitch cam is raised out of action and the trailing
stitch cam is in operation. In the reverse direction of traverse, the roles of the two raising cams
and of the two stitch cams are reversed.
A raising cam lifts the needle to tuck height but if the cardigan cam above it is in action the
needle is lifted to full clearing height. Thus, the cardigan cam is taken out of action if a tuck
stitch is required. To produce a miss stitch, both the raising cam and the cardigan cam are out of
action. To produce a course of tubular plain knitting, a pair of raising cams that are diagonally
opposite each other in each bed (RL and RR) are out of action.
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The arrangement as shown in the following figure is referred to as a knitting system. A single
system machine will knit one course of rib in one traverse whereas a double system machine will
knit two courses of rib per traverse. Sometimes a set of cams in one bed is referred to as a lock.
A (L) – Raising cam (left)

B (R) – Raising cam (right)
C – Tuck cam (left & right)
D (L) – stitch cam (left)
D (R) – stitch cam (right)
E – Guard cam
6.2.3 Description of the Cam Changing Mechanism:
The cam system of this machine is traversing cam system. It has two cam boxes. Each contains
two sets of cam. In the direction of the movement one cam system of cam box is acted on the
needle butt and the other cam system is acted as guard cam. In the direction of traverse the
leading raising cam is responsible for knitting and the trailing raising cam acts as a guard cam.
The leading stitch cam is raised out of action and the trailing stitch cam is in operation. In the
reverse direction of traverse the rotes of two raising cams and of the two stitch cams are
reversed. Each cam of the cam box is operated by nobs. The nobs have three different positions.
They are –
 Fully inactive
 Active
 Half active
The operation or formation of different loops by changing the position of cams is illustrated
below:-
Knit loop: when all cams are fully active then long & short butt needle products knit loop.
Miss & knit loop: when raising cams are half active then all short butt needle products miss loop
& all long butt needle produces knit loop.
Tuck & Knit loop: when tuck cams are fully active. Then all needle produces knit loop. When
tuck cams are half active the long butt needle produces tuck loop and the short butt needle
produces knit loop.
All Tuck loop: when raising cams are half active and tuck cams are also half-active the short
butt needle produces tuck loop. In case of inactiveness of the raising cams the needle produces
no loop.
62
6.2.4 The Knitting Action of the V-Bed Hand Flat Machine:
Numbers 1 to 4 below correspond to the numbers in the knitting action illustrations, assuming a
carriage traverse from left to right. Similar positions may be plotted for the return traverse, using
the cams given an (L) designation to provide the positive movements.
1. The rest position: The tops of the heads of the needles are level with the edge of the
knock over bits. The butts of the needles assume a straight line until contacting the
raising cams R (R) because the leading stitch cams S and AS (L) are lifted to an inactive
position. The lifting action is an alternating action that always lowers the trailing stitch
cams and raises the leading stitch cams in each system as the traverse commences. This
action prevents needles from being unnecessarily lowered and strain being placed on the
old loops prior to the startup of the knitting action.
2. Clearing: The needle butts are lifted as they contact the leading edge of cams R (R),
which raises the needles to ‘tucking in the hook’ height with the undersurface of cams S
(L) acting as guard cams. The needles are lifted to full clearing height as their butts pass
over the top of cardigan cams C (R) and C (L).
Figure 6.2.4.1 Knitting Action
3. Yarn Feeding: The yarn is fed as the needles descend under the control of guard cam
(G). The required loop length is drawn by latch needle as it descends the stitch cam S (R).
63
4. Knocking Over: To produce synchronized knocking over of both needle beds
simultaneously, the stitch cam S (R) in the front system is set lower than the auxiliary
stitch cam AS (R), so that the latter is rendered ineffective. If, however, delayed timing of
the knock over is employed, knock over in the front bed will occur after knock over in the
back bed. In this case, stitch cam S (R) is not set as low as AS (R) so that the depth
setting of the latter can produces the knock over action. Delayed timing is only normally
used on gauges finer than 8npi and cannot be used for broad ribs.
6.3 General Structure of a Flat Knitting Machine:
The Frame:
 The needle beds

 Concept of machine gauge
 The carriage and yarn guides
 Feeding the yarn
 The take-down device
 Selecting the needles
 Selection of high and low butts
Main Features:
1. Flat knitting machine has two stationary needle beds

2. Latch needles are used
3. Angular cams of a bi-directional cam system is used
4. The cam system is attached to the underside of a carriage, which with its selected yarn
carriers.
5. The carriage traverses in a reciprocating manner across the machine width
6. There is a separate cam system for each needle bed
7. The two cam systems are linked together by a bridge, which passes across from one
needle bed to the other.
8. Normally machine gauge is 3 to 18 needles per inch and machine width up to 79 inches.
64
Figure 6.3.1 a. Diagram of a V bed, and b. Diagram showing relative positions of needles from front and
back beds
6.4 Advantages of Flat Knitting Machine:
1. The flat machine is the most versatile of weft knitting machines, its stitch potential
includes needles election on one or both beds, racked stitches, needle-out designs,
striping, tubular knitting, changes of knitting width and loop transfer.
2. A wide range of yarn counts may be knitted per machine gauge including a number of
ends of yarn in one knitting system, the stitch length range is wide and there is the
possibility of changing the machine gauge.
3. The operation and supervision of the machines of the simpler type is relatively less
arduous than for other weft knitting machines.
4. The number of garments or panels simultaneously knitted across the machine is
dependent upon its knitting width, yarn carrier arrangement, yarn path and package
accommodation.
6.5 Uses of Flat Knitting Machines:
Articles knitted on flat machines range from trimmings, edgings and collars to garment panels
and integrally knitted garments. The common products: jumpers, pullovers, cardigans, dresses,
suits, trouser suits, hats, scarves, accessories, ribs for straight-bar machines (fully fashioned
machines). Cleaning clothes, three-dimensional and fashioned products for technical
applications, multiaxial machines are under development.
65
7.0 Conclusion
Bangladesh's textile industry has been part of the trade versus aid debate. The encouragement of
the garment industry of Bangladesh as an open trade regime is argued to be a much more
effective form of assistance than foreign aid. Tools such as quotas through the WTO Agreement
on Textiles and Clothing (ATC) and Everything but Arms (EBA) and the US 2009 Tariff Relief
Assistance in the global clothing market have benefited entrepreneurs in Bangladesh's ready-
made garments (RMG) industry. Bangladesh, with a population of about 156 million, is among
the most densely populated countries in the world. In 2012 the textile industry accounted for
45% of all industrial employment in the country yet only contributed 5% of the Bangladesh's
total national income.
The fabric produced using a knitting machine is of a more even texture than hand-knitted fabric,
which is particularly noticeable on large areas of plain stockinet stitch, and can be an advantage.
Some stitch patterns (e.g., tuck stitches) are much easier to produce with a knitting machine.
Others (e.g. garter stitch) can also be produced with machine knitting but can take a little longer
but still much faster than hand knitting. The standard gauge 200-needle machine can knit the
finest yarns up to a good sport-weight, while the heavier yarns knit better on a mid-gauge or
bulky knitting machine. Machine knitting saves a considerable amount of time but does require
learning to operate the machines correctly. Most if not all hand knitting patterns can be worked
up on a machine, either identically or in a similar design.
It is one of the growing sweater factory in Bangladesh. Here, this is a great chance for me to do
my internship in this organization. In the whole procedure of exporting garments to the retailer of
abroad and to communicate with them, merchandisers have a great influence and responsibilities.
When, the order is taken from buyer the duty comes to the floor of merchandisers and before
going production they do almost everything to make the business smooth. So, the work starts
with the order taking and making business relationship. Then sample making, planning, booking
of every single material for samples and getting approval are all the key responsibilities of
merchandisers. In case of production, sample goes in bulk so, the responsibilities become huge
and it comes to the relation with operation also. This great experience working with them.
66

A Brief Comparison Between Jaquarad Machine and Flat Bed Machine

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Mr. Engr. Md. Abu Bashar

Subject: Submission of the Internship Report

Md. Habibur Rahman

1.1 Objective of the Study

 To study the overview of the machines

1.3 Scope of the study

1.4 Sources of Data

1.5 Limitations of the Study

2.1 Dragon Group

 Dragon Sweater and Spinning Mills Limited

2.2 Mission & Vision

2.3 Dragon Sweater and Spinning Limited (DSSL) in Stock Market

2.3.1 DSSL in IPO

2.3.2 Trading in DSE & CSE

DSSL in DSE Website

Corporate Profile of Dragon Sweater and Spinning Limited

Machine capacity of DSSL is shown here with some table

Machine Capacity (Per-Day) Per Month

Table 2.6.1 Capacity of DSSL

2.7 Manpower of Dragon Sweater

Table 2.7.1 Manpower of Dragon Sweater and Spinning Limited

2.8 Machine List of DSSL

Machine list of Dragon Sweater and Spinning Limited is as bellows

Dragon Sweater Bangladesh Ltd

Table 2.8.1 Machine List of Dragon Sweater Bangladesh Ltd

2.9 Floor Work Process with Machine of DSSL

No. of building: 01.

Table 2.9.1 Floor Work Process with Machine of DSSL

DSSL Controls their assessment process as following

 Through research prior to acceptance of the style

 Quality happens within every process.

2.11 Human Resources-Welfare of DSSL

2.12 ISO Compliances of DSSL

ISO 9000 Requirements include:

Some customers of DSSL are

3.1 Knit Loop

Figure 3.1.1 Ideal Knit Loop

Figure 3.1.2 Way in which yarns interlock in a plain knitted structure

Figure 3.1.3 Uniform and deformed loop

3.2 Characteristics of Single Jersey Knitted Fabrics

Figure 3.2.2 Technical back side of a single jersey knitted fabric

3.3 Geometry of Plain Knitted Fabrics

Figure 3.3.1 Single jersey knitted structure

The result of research into knitted geometry has enabled some

(iv) Form the relations in (ii) and (iii)

Courses per unit length c Kc

The relationships established experimentally in the work reported by Munden (1959).

Constants Dry relaxed Wet relaxed

Table 3.3.1 K values of worsted plain knitted fabric

Knapton et al (1968) suggested new parameter K5 as dimensional parameter specifying fabric

3.4 Relaxation of Single Jersey Knitted Fabrics

(i) Dry relaxed state

(ii) Wet relaxed state

(iii) Finished relaxed state

3.4.1 Dry Relaxation

3.4.2 Wet Relaxation

3.4.3 Finished Relaxation

3.5 Dimensional Properties of Knitted Fabrics

3.6 Spirality of Weft Knitted Fabrics

3.7 Shrinkage of Knitted Fabrics

3.8 Effect of Yarn Properties On The Knitted Fabrics Properties

3.8.1 Effect of Yarn Twist on Shrinkage