Maximum wind energy capture control strategy

CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 THE NEED OF RENEWABLE ENERGY:-

Renewable energy is the energy which comes from natural resources such as sunlight, wind, rain,
tides and geothermal heat. These resources are renewable and can be naturally replenished.
Therefore, for all practical purposes, these resources can be considered to be inexhaustible,
unlike dwindling conventional fossil fuels [1]. The global energy crunch has provided a renewed
impetus to the growth and development of Clean and Renewable Energy sources. Clean
Development Mechanisms (CDMs) [2] are being adopted by organizations all across the globe.

Apart from the rapidly decreasing reserves of fossil fuels in the world, another major factor
working against fossil fuels is the pollution associated with their combustion. Contrastingly,
renewable energy sources are known to be much cleaner and produce energy without the harmful
effects of pollution unlike their conventional counterparts.

1.2 DIFFERENT SOURCES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY:

1.2.1 WIND POWER:-

Wind turbines can be used to harness the energy [3] available in airflows. Current day turbines
range from around 600 kW to 5 MW [4] of rated power. Since the power output is a function of
the cube of the wind speed, it increases rapidly with an increase in available wind velocity.
Recent advancements have led to aerofoil wind turbines, which are more efficient due to a better
aerodynamic structure.

1.2.2 SOLAR POWER:-

The tapping of solar energy owes its origins to the British astronomer John Herschel [5] who
famously used a solar thermal collector box to cook food during an expedition to Africa. Solar
energy can be utilized in two major ways.

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Firstly, the captured heat can be used as solar thermal energy, with application in space
heating. Another alternative is the conversion of incident solar radiation to electrical energy,
which is the most usable form of energy. This can be achieved with the help of solar photovoltaic
cells [6] or with concentrating solar power plants.

1.2.3 SMALL HYDROPOWER:-

Hydropower installations up to 10MW are considered as small hydropower and counted

as renewable energy sources [7]. These involve converting the potential energy of water stored in
dams into usable electrical energy through the use of water turbines. Run-of-the-
river hydroelectricity aims to utilize the kinetic energy of water without the need of
building reservoirs or dams.

1.2.4 BIOMASS:-

Plants capture the energy of the sun through the process of photosynthesis. On combustion, these
plants release the trapped energy. This way, biomass works as a natural battery to store the sun’s
energy [8] and yield it on requirement.

1.2.5 GEOTHERMAL:-

Geothermal energy is the thermal energy which is generated and stored [9] within the layers of
the Earth. The gradient thus developed gives rise to a continuous conduction of heat from the
core to the surface of the earth. This gradient can be utilized to heat water to
produce superheated steam and use it to run steam turbines to generate electricity. The
main disadvantage of geothermal energy is that it is usually limited to regions near tectonic
plate boundaries, though recent advancements have led to the propagation of this technology
[10].

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1.3 RENEWABLE ENERGY TRENDS ACROSS THE GLOBE:-

The current trend across developed economies tips the scale in favour of Renewable Energy. For
the last three years, the continents of North America and Europe have embraced more renewable
power capacity as compared to conventional power capacity.

Renewable accounted for 60% of the newly installed power capacity in Europe in 2009 and
nearly 20% of the annual power production [7].

As can be seen from the figure 1.1, wind and biomass occupy a major share of
the current renewable energy consumption. Recent advancements in solar photovoltaic
technology and constant incubation of projects in countries like Germany and Spain have
brought around tremendous growth in the solar PV market as well, which is projected
tosurpass other renewable energy sources in the coming years.

By 2009, more than 85 countries had some policy target to achieve a

predetermined share of their power capacity through renewables. This was an increase
from around 45 countries in 2005.

Most of the targets are also very ambitious, landing in the range of 30-90% share
of national production through renewables [7]. Noteworthy policies are the European

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Union’s target of achieving 20% of total energy through renewables by 2020 and India’s
Jawaharlal Nehru solar Mission, through which India plans to produce 20GW solar
energy by the year 2022.

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 Maximum wind energy capture control strategy

CHAPTER-2

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF WIND TURBINE GENERATOR

2.1 TURBINE CHARACTERISTICS:-

Wind turbines can be classified by their mechanical power control, and further divided by their
speed control. All turbine blades convert the motion of air across the airfoils to torque, and then
regulate that torque in an attempt to capture as much energy as possible, yet prevent damage. At
the top level turbines can be classified as either stall regulated (with active stall as an
improvement) or pitch regulated.

Stall regulation is achieved by shaping the turbine blades such that the airfoil
generates less aerodynamic force at high wind speed, eventually stalling, thus reducing the
turbine’s torque—this is a simple, inexpensive and robust mechanical system. Pitch regulation,
on the other hand, is achieved through the use of pitching devices in the turbine hub, which twist
the blades around their own axes. As the wind speed changes, the blade quickly pitches to the
optimum angle to control torque in order to capture the maximum energy or self-protect, as
needed. Some turbines now are able to pitch each blade independently to achieve more balanced
torques on the rotor shaft given wind speed differences at the top and bottom of the blade arcs.

Beyond mechanical power regulation, turbines are further divided into fixed speed (Type
1), limited variable speed (Type 2), or variable speed with either partial (Type 3) or full (Type 4)
power electronic conversion. The different speed control types are implemented via different
rotating AC machines and the use of power electronics. There is one other machine type that will
be referred to as Type 5 in which a mechanical torque converter between the rotor’s low-speed
shaft and the generator’s high-speed shaft controls the generator speed to the electrical
synchronous speed. This type of machine then uses a synchronous machine directly connected to
the medium voltage grid.
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Figure 2.1: Typical configuration of a Type 1 WTG

Figure 2.2: Typical configuration of a Type 2 WTG

2.2 CONTROL CAPABILITIES:-

2.2.1 VOLTAGE CONTROL CAPABILITY:-

The voltage control capabilities of a WTG depend on the wind turbine type. Type 1 and Type 2
WTGs can typically not control voltage. Instead, these WTGs typically use power factor
correction capacitors (PFCCs) to maintain the power factor or reactive power output on the low-
voltage terminals of the machine to a setpoint. Types 3 through 5 WTGs can control voltage.
These WTGs are capable of varying the reactive power at a given active power and terminal
voltage, which enables the voltage control [2].

In a Type 3 WTG voltage is controlled by changing direct component of the rotor current
(this is the component of the current that is in-line with the stator flux). In a Type 4 WTG voltage
control is achieved by varying the quadrature (reactive) component of current at the grid-side
converter. To allow voltage control capability, the grid-side converter must be rated above the
rated MW of the machine.

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2.2.2 REACTIVE POWER CONTROL CAPABILITY:-

A synchronous generator is used in a Type 5 WTG, an automatic voltage regulator (AVR) is

typically needed. Modern AVRs can be programmed to control reactive power, power factor and
voltage. The voltage control capabilities of individual WTGs are typically used to control the
voltage at the collector bus or on the high side of the main power transformer. Usually a
centralized wind farm controller will manage the control of the voltage through communication
with the individual WTGs. A future companion Working Group paper is planned to discuss the
WPP SCADA and control capabilities.

Figure 2.3: Reactive power capabilities of a 2 MW Type 5 WTG

The reactive power capabilities of modern WTGs are significant as most grid codes
require the WPP to have reactive power capability at the point of interconnect over a specified
power factor range, for example 0.95 leading (inductive) to 0.95 lagging (capacitive). Typical
interconnect requirements related to total WPP reactive power capabilities are discussed in [3].

2.2.3. POWER FACTOR CONTROL CAPABILITY:-

As stated earlier, Type 1 and Type 2 WTGs typically use PFCCs to maintain the power factor or
reactive power of the machine to a specified setpoint. The PFCCs may be sized to maintain a

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slightly leading (inductive) power factor of around 0.98 at rated power output. This is often
referred to as no-load compensation. With full-load compensation, the PFCCs are sized to
maintain unity power factor or, in some cases, a slightly lagging (capacitive) power factor at the
machine’s rated power output. The PFCCs typically consists of multiple stages of capacitors
switched with a low-voltage AC contactor.

Type 3 (DFIG) WTGs typically have a reactive power capability corresponding to a

power factor of 0.95 lagging (capacitive) to 0.90 leading (inductive) at the terminals of the
machines. Options for these machines include an expanded reactive power capability of 0.90
lagging to 0.90 leading. Some Type 3 WTGs can deliver reactive power even when the turbine is
not operating mechanically, while no real power is generated.

As previously stated, Type 4 WTGs can vary the gridside converter current, allowing
control of the effective power factor of the machines over a wide range. Reactive power limit
curves for different terminal voltage levels are typically provided. Some Type 4 WTGs can
deliver reactive power even when the turbine is not operating mechanically, while no real power
is generated.

The synchronous generator in a Type 5 WTG has inherent dynamic reactive power
capabilities similar to that of Type 3 and 4 machines. See Figure 8. Depending on the design of
the generator, operating power factor ranges at rated output can vary from 0.8 leading to 0.8
lagging. A range of 0.9 leading and lagging is more typical. At power outputs below rated power,
the reactive power output is only limited by rotor or stator heating, stability concerns, and local
voltage conditions and it is unlikely that PFCCs would be required.

2.3 VOLTAGE RIDE-THROUGH:-

The voltage ride-through (VRT) capabilities of WTGs vary widely and have evolved based on
requirements in various grid codes. In the United States, low voltage ridethrough (LVRT)
requirements specified in FERC Order 661-A [5] calls for wind power plants to ride-through a

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three-phase fault on the high side of the substation transformer for up to 9 cycles, depending on
the primary fault clearing time of the fault interrupting circuit breakers at the location. There is
no high voltage ride-through (HVRT) requirement in FERC order 661-A, but NERC and some
ISO/RTOs are in the process of imposing such requirement. In many European countries WPP
are required not to trip for a high voltage level up to 110% of the nominal voltage at the POI [4].

Some of the Type 1 WTGs have limited VRT capability and may require a central
reactive power compensation system [4] to meet wind power plant VRT capability. Many of the
Types 2, 3, and 4 WTGs have VRT capabilities that may meet the requirements of FERC Order
661, which was issued before FERC Order 661-A (i.e., withstand a three-phase fault for 9 cycles
at a voltage as low as 0.15 p.u measured on the high side of the substation transformer). Most
WTGs are expected to ultimately meet the FERC 661-A requirements.

The VRT of a Type 5 WTG is very similar to that of standard grid-connected

synchronous generators, which are well understood. The capabilities of the excitation system
(AVR) and physical design of the generator (machine constants, time constants) will determine
the basic performance of a synchronous generator during transient conditions. In order to meet
utility VRT requirements, the settings and operation of the turbine control system. Excitation
system and protection systems must be generally, coordinated and then fine-tuned for a specific
site.

2.4 WTG BEHAVIOR DURING GRID SHORT CIRCUITS:-

The response of WTGs to short circuits on the grid depends largely on the type of WTG. While
the response of Type 1 and Type 2 WTGs are essentially similar to that of large induction
machines used in industrial applications, the response of Type 3, 4, and 5 WTGs is dictated by
the WTG controls.

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2.4.1 TYPE-1:-

Type 1 WTG can be represented as a voltage source in series with the direct axis sub-transient
inductance Xd ′′ . This practice is used to consider the maximum short-circuit contribution from
the induction generator as it determines the symmetrical current magnitude during the first few
cycles after the fault. A Type 1 WTG can contribute short circuit current up to the value of its
locked rotor current which is usually on the order of 5 to 6 p.u [6].

2.4.2 TYPE-2:-

Type 2 WTGs employing limited speed control via controlled external rotor resistance are
fundamentally induction generators. If, during the fault, the external resistance control were to
result in short-circuiting of the generator rotor, the short-circuit behavior would be similar to
Type 1. On the other hand, if the control action at or shortly after fault inception were to result in
insertion of the full external resistance, the equivalent voltage source-behindThevenin impedance
representation for the WTG should be modified to include this significant resistance value in
series with the equivalent turbine inductance.

2.4.3 TYPE-3:-

For Type 3 WTGs (DFIG), if during the fault, the rotor power controller remains active, the
machine stator currents would be limited between 1.1 to 2.5 p.u. of the machine rated current.
Under conditions where protective functions act to “crowbar” the rotor circuit, the shortcircuit
behavior defaults to 5 to 6 p.u. in the case of a fault applied directly to the WTG terminals. [7]

2.4.4 TYPE-4:-

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In turbines employing full-rated power converters as the interface to the grid (Type 4), currents
during network faults will be limited to slightly above rated current. This limitation is affected by
the power converter control, and is generally necessary to protect the power semiconductor
switches.

2.4.5 TYPE-5:-

Type 5 WTGs exhibit typical synchronous generator behavior during grid short circuits.
Generator contribution to grid faults can be calculated from the machine constants, obtainable
from the generator manufacturer. Fault current contribution for line to ground faults will depend
on the type of generator grounding used.

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CHAPTER-3

THE CONTROL OF LARGEST WIND ENERGY CAPTURE

3.1 THE OPERATION OF WIND POWER SYSTEM:-

In the United States, the majority of the wind integration studies have been prospective—looking
at a potential future power system with wind—rather than retrospective—modeling what has
actually happened. Generally, wind integration studies consist of multiple scenarios of steadily
increasing wind penetration, starting with a base year and going into defined periods into the
future while considering different levels of wind penetration. For electricity demand, either load
forecasts are used, or past demand is scaled by a constant level (e.g., 1.5% per year). The studies
assume transmission is built to meet future reliability needs and to accommodate higher wind
penetration. Given the well-documented need for new transmission to interconnect remote
renewable energy resources such as wind, the purpose of wind integration studies is to determine
the operating impacts of adding large amounts of wind, not to serve as a transmission planning
exercise.

For any wind integration study, it is imperative that the studies capture the
coincidence of load and wind generation by ensuring wind and load generation data are from the
same time period, as weather is a significant driver of both load and wind generation. Because
wind integration studies are performed mostly on a prospective basis, wind data is typically not
available at the beginning of the study. Wind generation data can be derived through large-scale,
time-calibrated meteorological modeling that can recreate the weather coinciding to the time
period(s) of historical load data that is used, and then converting the wind data to output using
the power curve of wind turbines for the desired time period.3 Wind forecasts are simulated by
statistical simulation or perturbations of model inputs or parameterization. Further research is
needed to refine these approaches.
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Two general approaches have been used to examine wind integration impacts in the
United States. The first approach estimates the cost of increased reserves in the regulation, load-
following, and unit commitment timeframes that are needed to balance the increased net load
variability introduced by wind generation. These studies typically focus on wind’s impact on
ancillary services and compare wind with an energy-equivalent flat block of energy.

Date Study Wind Regulation Load Unit Gas TOTAL

Capacity Following Commit Supply
Penetration
2003 Xcel- 3.5% 0 0.41 1.44 Na 1.85
UWIG
2003 We 29% 1.02 0.15 1.75 Na 2.92
Energies
2004 Xcel- 15% 0.23 Na 4.37 Na 4.60
MNDOC
2005 PacifiCorp- 11% 0 1.48 3.16 Na 4.64
2004
2006 Calif. 4% 0.45 Trace Trace Na 0.45
(multi-
year)*
2006 Xcel-PSCo 15% 0.20 Na 3.32 1.45 4.97
2006 MN- 36% na Na na na 4.41
MISO**
2007 Pugged 12% na Na na na 6.94
Sound
energy
2007 Arizona 15% 0.37 2.65 1.06 na 4.08
Pub.

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Service
2007 Avista 30% 1.43 4.40 3.00 na 8.84
Utilities***
2007 Idaho 20% na Na na na 7.92
Power
2007 PacifiCorp- 18% na 1.10 4.00 na 5.10
2007
2008 Xcel- 20% na Na na na 8.56
PSCo****

TABLE-3.1: Key Results from Major Wind Integration Studies completed 2003-2008

The largest wind energy capture area of wind generator and generator. Region 2 is the
constant speed area, and region 3 is the constant power area, and uses the line segment OA to
stand for the wind generator is in the state of fixed blade pitch. When the angle of blade pitch is
0, in accordance with the characteristics of wind generators that the power output is only related
with the generator speed.

Figure 3.1: The operation area of wind generator

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Figure 3.2: The operation area of double-fed generator

3.2 THE THEORY OF LARGEST WIND ENERGY CAPTURE:-

3.3 shows the relationship between axis output power Pm and ωr of the wind generator under
different wind speeds(ѵ1› ѵ2› ѵ3) in the condition of fixed blade pitch. It can be seen that when
wind speed is certain, the output power of the different speeds.

There is always a fixed optimum speed ωr-opt to make the wind generator run in this
speed, and the optimum tip speed ratio will reach to capture the maximum wind energy and
maximum power output.

Figure 3.3: The curve of Pm –ωr

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The speed of double-fed generator ωg is N times the speed of wind generator. As long as
we control the speed double-fed generator ωg-opt, fixed blade pitch wind generator run in a certain
wind speed corresponding to the best point to achieve the maximum output power. According to
ωg = N ωr, it can be inferred

N is the speed up ratio of the gear box, np is the number of pole pairs of the generators.

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CHAPTER-4

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