Modul BDKN3103

OUM Business School
BDKN3103
Introductory Business Communication
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

BDKN3103
INTRODUCTORY
BUSINESS
COMMUNICATION
Massila Hamzah

Project Directors: Prof Dato’ Dr Mansor Fadzil
Prof Dr Wardah Mohamad
Open University Malaysia
Module Writer: Massila Hamzah

Universiti Teknologi MARA
Moderator: Lilian Kek Siew Yick

Editor: Gina Marini Victor Sathiaratnam
Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, January 2004

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), October 2010, BDKN3103
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).
Copyright © Open
Copyright Open University
University Malaysia
Malaysia (OUM)
(OUM)
Table of Contents
Course Guide ix - xiii
Topic 1: Understanding Business Communication 1

1.1 Communication in Business 2
1.2 The Importance of Communication in Business 4
1.3 The Nature of Communication in Business 8
1.4 Understanding the Communication Process 9
1.5 Common Business Communication Barriers 12
1.6 How to Improve Business Communication 15
Summary 19
Key Terms 19
Topic 2: Managing Business Communication 20

2.1 Forms of Communication in Business 21
2.2 Information Channels in Business Communication 24
2.2.1 Using the Formal Communication Network 25
2.3 Media Selection in Business Communication 30
Summary 32
Key Terms 32
Topic 3: Tools in Business Communication 33

3.1 Communication and Technology in Business 34
3.1.1 Tools that Facilitate Oral Communication 34
3.1.2 Tools that Facilitate Written Communication 36
3.1.3 Electronic Communication 37
3.2 Tools that Facilitate Data Gathering and Management
in Business Communication 39
3.2.1 Tools for Constructing Messages 39
3.2.2 Tools for Presenting Messages 45
3.2.3 Tools for Transmitting Messages 47
3.2.4 Tools for Collaborative Communication 48
Summary 49
Key Terms 49
Topic 4: Introduction to Oral Communication 50

4.1 Oral Communication in Business 51
4.2 Role of Oral Communication in the Workplace 52
4.3 Oral Communication Channels 53
4.4 Types of Oral Communication 54

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.4.1 Elements of Effective Oral Communication 55

4.5 Conversation as Oral Communication 56
4.5.1 Ambiguity Avoidance 56
4.6 Strategies for Improving Oral Business Communication 57
4.7 The Advantages of Oral Communication 61
4.8 Barriers to Oral Communication 62
Summary 65
Key Terms 65
Topic 5: Delivering Oral Business Communication 66

5.1 The Importance of Speech and Presentations in Business 67
5.1.1 Team (Collaborative) Presentations 67
5.1.2 Strategies for Effective Oral Business Presentation 69
5.1.3 Nonverbal Behaviours in Speech Delivery 71
5.1.4 Improving Oral Presentation Skills 74
5.1.5 Speech Anxiety 75
5.1.6 Causes of Speech Anxiety 76
5.2 Conducting and Participating in Meetings 77
5.2.1 Meeting Management ăPreparation 79
5.2.2 Meeting Management ăConducting 79
5.2.3 Responding to Issues 81
5.3 Collective Identity 82
5.4 Brainstorming 83
5.5 Opinion Giving 84
5.6 Grapevine Communication 85
5.7 Telephone Skills 87
5.7.1 Wireless Telephones and Their Courteous Use 88
5.7.2 Effective Voice Mail Techniques 88
5.7.3 Teleconferencing 89
5.8 Dictating Messages in Oral Communication 89
5.8.1 Techniques of Dictating 89
5.9 Reporting Orally 90
5.9.1 Differences between Oral and Written Reports 90
5.9.2 Planning the Oral Report 91
Summary 93
Key Terms 93
Topic 6: Understanding Listening Behaviours 94

6.1 Listening and Hearing 95
6.2 The Importance of Listening in Business Settings 96
6.3 The Listening Process 97
6.4 Guidelines for Effective Listening 100
6.5 Barriers to Effective Listening 102

TABLE OF CONTENTS  v
6.5.1 Situational Obstacles 103

6.5.2 Environmental Factors and Distractions 104
6.5.3 Internal Obstacles to Listening 104
6.6 Styles of Effective Listening 107
Summary 111
Key Terms 111
Topic 7: Fundamentals of Written Communication 112

7.1 The Importance of Written Communication in Business 113
7.1.1 Types of Written Communication 114
7.2 The Writing Process 116
7.2.1 Determining the Writing Purposes 116
7.2.2 Determining the Reader (Receiver or Audience) 117
7.2.3 Planning and Organising Business Messages 117
7.2.4 Writing Business Messages 118
7.2.5 Completing and Presenting Business Messages 119
Summary 122
Key Terms 122
Topic 8: Types of Business Correspondence 123

8.1 Composing Effective Written Documents 124
8.2 Business Letters, Memorandums and E-mail Messages 124
8.2.1 Business Letters 125
8.2.2 Memorandums 127
8.2.3 E-mail Messages 129
8.3 Understanding the Categories of Messages Sent:
Letter, Memo and E-mail 130
8.3.1 Organising Informative and Positive Messages 131
8.3.2 Subject Lines for Informative and Positive Messages 132
8.3.3 Using Reader Benefits in Informative and Positive
Messages 134
8.3.4 Writing the One-page Memo 134
8.3.5 Ending Informative and Positive Letters and Memos 134
8.3.6 Writing E-mail Messages 136
8.3.7 Varieties of Informative and Positive Messages 138
8.3.8 Writing Thank You and Congratulatory Notes 140
8.4 Organising Negative Messages in Written Communication 140
8.4.1 Subject Lines for Negative Messages 141
8.4.2 How do you Organise Negative Letters 142
8.4.3 Organising Negative Memos 143
8.4.4 The Parts of Negative Messages 145
8.4.5 Varieties of Negative Messages 149
8.5 Organising Persuasive Messages 150

vi TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.6 Three Categories of Brief Messages Correspondence 153

8.6.1 Writing Direct Requests 153
8.6.2 Writing Problem-solving Messages 154
8.6.3 Varieties of Persuasive Messages 155
Summary 159
Key Terms 159
Topic 9: Business Reports and Proposals 160

9.1 Report Types and Characteristics 161
9.1.1 Informal Reports 161
9.1.2 Formal Report 163
9.2 Formal Written Reports 163
9.2.1 Preliminary Section 164
9.2.2 Body 167
9.2.3 Supplementary Section 169
9.2.4 Mechanics of Formal Reports 170
9.3 Business Proposals 175
9.3.1 Types of Business Proposal 176
9.3.2 Qualities of a Successful Business Proposal 177
9.4 Business Plans 178
9.5 The Elements of a Formal Proposal 178
9.5.1 Writing a Business Proposal 184
Summary 185
Key Terms 186
Answers 187

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE  ix
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to Course
Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
BDKN3103 Introductory Business Communication is one of the courses offered
by the Faculty of Business and Management, Open University Malaysia (OUM).
This course is worth 3 credit hours and should be covered over 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is compulsory for students undergoing Diploma in Management. It is
also a basic major course for students undergoing Diploma in Human Resourse.
As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently and
optimise the learning modes and environment available to you. Before you begin
this course, please confirm the course material, the course requirements and how
the course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend 120
study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.

x  COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
STUDY
STUDY ACTIVITIES
HOURS
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial
3
discussions
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10
Online participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED 120
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Explain the key concept of business communication;
2. Integrate the importance of technology in business communication;
3. Assess the implications of both oral and written communication process in
businesses;
4. Apply the advantages of business communication in the daily business
interaction; and
5. Propose suitable communication tools for organisation.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 9 topics. The synopsis for each topic can be listed as
follows:
Topic 1 provides an understanding of „business communication‰ and its

importance. The pattern and flow of business communication will be identified.
Students will be exposed to possible communication barriers in business and
learn ways to overcome them.

COURSE GUIDE  xi
Topic 2 will introduce students to the main forms of communication in

business: internal-operational, external-operational and personal. Students will
learn the structure of formal and informal flow of information involved in
most business settings.
Topic 3 will explain the tools for constructing, presenting, transmitting and
collaborating technology-based messages. The topic will also discuss the
implications of technology in todayÊs business environment.
Topic 4 will present the relationship of the current business environment

with communication. The channels and types of oral communication will be
discussed to help students apply effective oral communication in business
settings.
Topic 5 will discuss the approaches to effective ways of achieving different types
of oral business presentations. Students will be exposed to various types of
oral communication in business such as speeches, business presentations or
business proposals, meeting management, oral reporting, interpersonal
relationships and telephone conversations.
Topic 6 explains the art of listening, the first step in mastering oral
communication. Students will learn the importance of listening in oral
communication. Topics such as the listening process, the benefits of effective
listening and listening obstacles will be discussed.
Topic 7 introduces learners to the importance of business communication in

various forms and uses of business letters, memos, and e-mail messages. Various
types and strategies of writing these messages are also discussed. Learners will be
exposed to the processes involved in written business communication and how
writing processes are organised.
Topic 8 explains the different categories of written business correspondences,

formal or informal such as business letters, memos, e-mail messages in an
acceptable format and writing styles.
Topic 9 explains the various types and strategies for writing effective business
reports and proposals. Various forms and styles, ranging from one page to a
formal page report, formal or informal, internally or externally.

xii  COURSE GUIDE
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement should help you to organise
your study of this course to be more objective and more effective. Generally, the
text arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely gone through a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your progress of digesting the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It is inserted after you have gone through one sub-
section or sometimes a few sub-sections. It usually comes in the form of a
question that may require you to stop your reading and start thinking. When you
come across this component, try to reflect on what you have already gone
through. When you attempt to answer the question prompted, you should be
able to gauge whether you have understood what you have read (clearly, vaguely
or worse you might find out that you had not comprehended or retained the sub-
section(s) that you had just gone through). Most of the time, the answers to the
questions can be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, activities are also placed at various locations or junctures
throughout the module. Compared to Self-Check, Activity can appear in various
forms such as questions, short case studies or it may even ask you to conduct an
observation or research. Activity may also ask your opinion and evaluation on a
given scenario. When you come across an Activity, you should try to widen what
you have gathered from the module and introduce it to real situations. You should
engage yourself in higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse,
synthesise and evaluate instead of just having to recall and define.
Summary: You can find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points inside
the summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details from the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargons used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms from the module.

COURSE GUIDE  xiii
References: References is where a list of relevant and useful textbooks, journals,

articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. This list can appear in a few
locations such as in the Course Guide (at References section), at the end of every
topic or at the back of the module. You are encouraged to read and refer to the
suggested sources to elicit the additional information needed as well as to
enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge is required.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.
REFERENCES
Bovee, C. L., Thill, J. V., & Schatzman, B. E. (2004). Business communication
essentials. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Lehman, C. M., Himsstreet, W. C., & Baty, W. M. (2007). Business communication

(15th ed.). US: South-Western College Publishing.
Lesikar, R. V., & Flatley, M. E. (2009). Basic business communication: Skills for
empowering the internet generation. New York: McGraw Hill.
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for the
use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases
available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books24x7, InfoSci Books,
Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner,
you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this
library.
Copyright ©
Copyright ©Open
OpenUniversity
UniversityMalaysia
Malaysia (OUM)
(OUM)
TOPIK 2 KAEDAH DAN TEKNIK W 17

TOPIC 1 UNDERSTANDING BUSINESS COMMUNICATION W 1
T op i c 1 X Understanding
Business
Communication
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define business communication;
2. Appraise the importance of communication in business;
3. Develop skills for a successful business relationship;
4. Assess the barriers in business communication; and
5. Explore issues and ways to improve business communication.
X INTRODUCTION
The ability to communicate competently is one of the requirements for
professional achievement. In any business entity, big or small, effective
communication skills are necessary.
Research has been carried out to analyse the importance of communication in

businesses. Businesses which involve interaction with clients require people with
good interpersonal, writing and speaking (oral communication) skills. Those
who master these three skills will have the advantage over those with poor
communication skills.
Why are organisations so concerned with communication skills? Is it true that

employees with excellent communication skills are able to perform their duties
well? This topic lays the foundation for understanding the nature of
communication and introduces you to the essentials of communication in
business.

2 X TOPIC 1 UNDERSTANDING BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
1.1 COMMUNICATION IN BUSINESS
SELF-CHECK 1.1
Based on your understanding, what does the term ÂcommunicationÊ

mean? Can communication be referred to as a form of interaction
among people? Is communication most successful when two people
are „of the same mind‰? Is it true that communication is a sense-
making process? Does the meaning of communication differ in a
business relationship?
The ability to communicate effectively in business is essential to both the

individual and the organisation. In all types of businesses, management performs
its basic functions through communication.
Through communication we learn about ourselves, others, small groups, teams,

organisations and the public. We learn to observe and understand how
individuals influence each other, how information is shared and how people are
informed.
In the process of communicating, we learn to minimise listening disability and

perceptual barriers, how to assess and adapt to relationships that exist between
individuals, small groups or even larger groups in different cultures. Therefore,
it is important to realise that how we communicate with each other will
undoubtedly shape our relationship with others in almost every aspect of our
lives.
Communication involves the process of sending and receiving messages.

However, communication is only effective when the message is understood
and when it stimulates action or encourages the receiver to think in new ways.
Because it is used so extensively in relationship or even in a business setting,
communication is one of the most important skills one has to develop.
Generally, communication is defined as the interaction and the sharing of

a common meaning, the exchange of idea and opinion, or the sharing and
understanding of information sent and received. This is done either in
writing, through symbols, verbal or non-verbal relayed via face to face or
through a medium.

Some refer to communication as the art of transmitting knowledge, the

exchange of ideas or the representation of characteristics from one person to
another. Most importantly, communication is termed differently depending upon
its usage and functions in different contexts. Each definition entails a specific
objective, applicable to a specific time and in a specific context.
Communication occurs in various forms and context. It is social in nature. Most

people are engaged in relationships with others in various circumstances.
Though communication is said to be a complex process, each communication
context has its own unique characteristics.
EXERCISE 1.1
List down as many key words in defining communication.
The rapid development of businesses works simultaneously with good

communication skills. Communication skills represent the ability to communicate
information and ideas. The best way to develop communication skills in business
is through a fundamental approach that becomes more complex as you master
the basic skills. Communication has been the requirement that has to be fulfilled
by any business operation. Many organisations spend a lot of money on training
to enhance skills not only in the employeesÊ expertise but also communication
skills. The communication skills developed will be applicable to all business
communication contexts.
There are four basic requirements in business communication, which involves:

• Writing;
• Speaking;
• Listening; and
• Interpersonal communicating.
Nonetheless, this fact is often overlooked by employers and also employees. In

many situations, employers realise that communication problems exist but do not
know how to resolve such situations.
As time progresses, the communication process has become much more complex
and the implications of ineffective communication, particularly in businesses may
be costly. It is a fact that new communication technologies come hand in hand
with knowledge workers. The advent of new communication technologies for
example has changed the way businesses communicate and the process of
interaction internally and externally.

ACTIVITY 1.1
Within your study group, discuss and list down as many

activities that involve communication in business.
1.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION

IN BUSINESS
SELF-CHECK 1.2
LetÊs suppose that you are assigned by your manager to present

the companyÊs product to a new client. What is the most important
skill that you require? Give reasons for your answer.
Communication is a major and essential part of a business relationship. For this

reason, most organisations prefer to hire professionals who can communicate and
express their ideas very well, rather than having the expertise and capabilities to
solve problem.
Effective communication is critical for the success of any organisation especially

in the business world. Communication in business usually involves interpersonal
communication, communication between management and staff, as well as other
business contact. Through the use of proper communication skills, individuals
will be able to function as a group, thus allowing organisations to share
information, analyse situations and set goals. The more successfully a business
functions, the better it enables employees to perform jobs better. With effective
communication, managers are able to deliver information and train subordinates
efficiently, thus, giving the business a better chance of making profits.
In todayÊs turbulent economic environment and rapid technological change,

communication is critical in allowing a business to deal with the restructuring of
national and international economies, preventing market saturation, and
competing with their competitors more effectively. Globalisation has changed the
business environment and made the world a smaller place. As shown in Figure
1.1, with new technologies such as videophone, Internet chat, e-mail, and cellular
communication the thought of globalisation becomes a reality for even the
smallest of companies.

Figure 1.1: Communication through new technologies
Communication skills play a major role in selecting the right applicant to work in
a business organisation. A study has shown that communication skills were
weighed more heavily by potential employers than grade point averages,
degrees, or even technical skills in determining whether or not to hire entry-level
applicants. Correlations have been made between the level of communication
skills and those who are highly rated in job performance. Oral communication
skills, in fact, have been found out to be the second most important job skill by
the American Society of Personnel Administrators. Even business colleges have
now recognised the importance of communication skills in business and many
have started conducting their own communication classes.
There are many reasons why effective communication is important in business:
(a) Create Opportunities in Career Development

How well you speak, listen, write and adapt yourself in your workplace
will affect your career advancement. It is crucial for employees to master
the basic skills, understand language, style and the perspective of any
form of nonverbal communication in dealing with other business
counterparts. Moving ahead in your career depends on communicating
your technical competence to others and maintaining effective relationships
with them.
(b) Improve Self-presentation Skills

Being competent and able to communicate effectively enhances your ability to
make a positive impression of yourself. With the ability to communicate your
ideas, goals and plans you will appear to be more valuable to an organisation
as well as the organisation you are present.

(c) Relating Positively to Others

Successful business and adapting self in personal relationships depends on
mutual trust and respect. In many organisational settings, being able to
adapt to work relationships and communicating ethically in any business
dealings is very important.
(d) Opportunities for Promotion

Most supervisory or managerial positions require organisation and
leadership skills. These skills are demonstrated through the ability to
communicate orally, nonverbally or in any form of written communication.
Anyone who is not able to express himself effectively through written or
oral skills will ultimately lose the opportunity for a better or higher
position.
(e) Gain Satisfaction in Career

Job satisfaction is important to every worker in any business. Effective
communication improves self-esteem and self confidence. Articulating your
ideas in meetings for example, will enhance your sense of self-worth in
performing your duties. Through a successful presentation of reports or
any problem solving exercise you will convey how valuable your
department is to your business. Effective communication is often the only
way to make this positive impression known to others. At the same time
you will be promoting your own achievements without even realising it.
(f) Assuring the Success of Your Organisation

Your organisation will succeed only if it has the support of its employees.
How you communicate with clients reflects the organisation you are
representing. It is through effective communication that a competitive
business environment can be created. In other words, the support that
comes from effective communication with customers or clients will benefit
an organisation in introducing its products or services. Working involves
sharing of interdependent relationships with co-workers. When we are
equipped with the knowledge of person-to-person on-the-job relationships,
we will not only gain respect and personal growth but also improve
company performance.
Based on the above reasons, effective communication skills will not only help
individuals enhance their self-esteem, but become effective employees and
advance in their careers. It is also important to know that the quality of an
organisationÊs internal and external communications will also affect business
success and corporate identity.

Whatever position a person may have in a business, his/her performance will be

judged mostly by the ability to communicate. For example, if you perform well in
your job and communicate competently, you are likely to be rewarded with
advancement. The higher you advance, the higher your communication ability
will be tested. The evidence is clear: Improving your communication skills
improves your chances for success in business.
Table 1.1 illustrates some examples of communication skills required in different

forms of job responsibilities.
Table 1.1: Communication Skills and Nature of Responsibilities
Nature of Responsibilities Required Communication Skills

Training and consultancies • Oral communication (presentation and public
speaking)
• Writing reports
• Interpersonal communication
Promoting goods and services • Persuasive communication
• Designing advertising campaigns
• Listening skills
• Making presentation
Business development • Conducting research and presenting reports
• Report writing and business proposals
• Interpersonal skills
• Making business presentations
Decision making • Writing memos
• Report writing
• Presentation skills
• Critical thinking
• Interpersonal skills
ACTIVITY 1.2
Suppose Adam is a teacher and Lina is a marketing executive. Based

on their nature of responsibilities, identify the communication skills
that differ between them.

1.3 THE NATURE OF COMMUNICATION IN

BUSINESS
SELF-CHECK 1.3
You may have come across a job advertisement that states „Must
possess good oral and written communication skills‰ as one of their
requirements. Why do you think the company requires the candidate
to have these skills? Give reasons for your answer.
Communication skills enliven our personal and professional lives. As much as

business organisation changes, business communication practices must also
change to accommodate business needs. Let us analyse how communication
functions in a business.
An international firm in Port Klang for example, receives a purchase order

entailing a particular series of imported goods. Based on the companyÊs normal
operation, an executive will process the information via face-to-face meetings,
using computers, written messages, filling out forms, giving and receiving
orders, negotiating pricing, discussing over the phone or sending messages
via e-mail. More specifically, the salespeople will receive instructions from the
main office and send back orders as well as regular reports of their activities.
These activities clearly explain the nature of communication within business
activities which involve various levels of job functions.
In the example above, the executive uses written and oral messages to initiate
businesses with customers or clients from other companies. The same form of
communication is used to respond to incoming messages through telephone calls
or e-mail. A production supervisor receives work orders, issues instructions and
submits production summaries. Marketing researchers on the other hand, receive
a project to be investigated and later communicate their findings to the
management team. Thus, we can see that in every job function, communication
exists either in oral or written form.
Oral and written communication is an important part of the information flow in a

business operation. Examples of written communication are memos, emails,
reports and letters. Many job functions include preparing records and filling in
forms, storage of information and data retrieval. These forms of communication
tools represent an organised effort in facilitating, organising and managing
business. Since the communication process exist internally (from higher level

management staff to lower level workers) and externally (with other business
associates), the human factor is an important factor that makes all the business
operations objectives achievable. Therefore, it is wise to become a team player
and work with colleagues that will help in developing meaningful partnership
with others. Figure 1.2 highlights some information about communication
effectiveness.
Figure 1.2: Communication effectiveness
1.4 UNDERSTANDING THE COMMUNICATION

PROCESS
Effective communication does not occur in a vacuum or haphazardly in any
business setting. Nor does it happen all at once. Communication is ongoing,
always in a motion and changing continuously. In many instances, it is hard to
tell when communication starts and when it ends.
The communication process is dynamic which involves a sender, receiver,

message, interference and feedback.
Communication is described as a systemic process flow of messages or

information from a sender to a receiver via a communication channel. The
receiver may or may not receive and respond to the message (feedback).
Generally, the communication process can be divided into six phases which
linked the sender and the receiver:

(a) Stimulus
When you have an idea, a stimulus exists that causes you to consider
the communication process. This happens when you read an article in the
magazine or newspaper, memo from your supervisor or boss, speech by he
COO or the Director of your organisation. Stimuli lead to ideas before they
are communicated. A communication process begins when you conceive an
idea and want to share it. If you do share your message, you become the
sender of that message.
(b) The Sender Encodes the Idea

You decide on the messageÊs form and style (through word, facial
expression, gesture) tone and style which depend on your idea, your
audience, and your personal style.
(c) The Sender Transmits the Message

The message derived from the idea is physically transmitted to the receiver.
Here, a communication medium is used (telephone, letter, memo, e-mail,
report, note or face-to-face meeting).
(d) The Receiver Receives the Message

For communication to occur, your receiver must first receive the message. If
you send a letter, your receiver has to read it before understanding it. When
you are delivering a speech to a group of people, your audience must be
able to hear what you say and understand the message.
(e) The Receiver Decodes the Message

Apart from receiving the message, a receiver must absorb, understand,
and mentally store the message. If the process goes well, the receiver will
interpret the message correctly. The receiver will then assign the same
meaning to the words used and respond in the desired way.
(f) The Receiver Sends Feedback

Feedback is the receiverÊs response and it can take many forms. After
decoding your message, the receiver responds in some way and signals that
response to you. A smile, a pat, applause, keeping silent or no questions
asked after a presentation reflect the response of the audience.
Feedback tells the speaker what effect a message has on listeners or

audience. These feedbacks enable you to evaluate the effectiveness of your
message. If your audience does not understand what you mean, you can
tell by the response and refine your message.

Figure 1.3 illustrates the communication process in a business setting. The

communication starts with an idea (stimulus) that activates a need to
communicate.
The sender goes through the process of analysing, developing and encoding
messages. The message received by a receiver will be decoded, analysed and
responded (feedback). The communication process achieves its purpose when
there is mutual understanding between communicators that reach the maximum
amount of meaning that can be shared.
Figure 1.3: The communication process
The analysis of the communication process brings out the truth about the
importance of communication in business:
(a) The messages transmitted and sent are not always received.
This means that due to the differences in communication style and patterns,
errors are bound to occur and distort intended meanings.
(b) The meaning of messages sent is interpreted in different ways.

Here, how accurately a person conveys meaning depends on how skillful
he or she is.

(c) The symbols of communication portray different meanings.

This refers to the words, cultural differences and variations in
communication, which lead to different meanings, interpretations and
acceptance to many communication purposes.
ACTIVITY 1.3
What the sender intends to communicate is not always what the receiver
decodes. Do you agree with this statement? Give reasons for your
answer.
EXERCISE 1.2
List down the different types of noise (interference) in a business

communication process.
1.5 COMMON BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

BARRIERS
SELF-CHECK 1.4
Think of the last class or meeting you attended and state

whether the following communication barriers affect the
communication process:
• Seating arrangements
• Use of audio visual aids
• Room temperature
• Room lighting
• Language
• Group size
The communication process is effective only when each process is successful

in achieving its objective. Ideas cannot be communicated if any step in this
process is interrupted or distorted.

A communication barrier or noise is any factor that obscures or distorts the

senderÊs meaning. Noise interferes with the communication process.
Communication barriers may occur between any two of the communication
process steps or it may affect all the steps in the process. Many of the
communication barriers that hamper effective communication are caused by
many factors that need to be considered in any business activity:
Barriers to effective business communication include:

• Inappropriate medium;
• Perceptual differences;
• Restrictive environment;
• Distractions; and
• Deceptive communication tactics.
(a) Inappropriate Medium

In business, every professional is expected to use the most appropriate
medium of communication to ensure effective communication results. The
communication medium is the system that brings the message to various
people within and outside an organisation. A communication medium could
take the form of a memo, letter, speech, e-mail, telephone, fax machine and
report. At times, some professionals who are experienced in sending written
reports to management are unable to present ideas in an oral presentation.
Discussions which are highly confidential, controversial or personal are more
suitably communicated in face-to-face meetings than by using the telephone or
e-mail. E-mail has less chance of bringing a group together at one time and
does not offer the opportunity to observe nonverbal cues. E-mail however is
more effective for direct messages. Group discussions for example, allow
several professionals to discuss business issues simultaneously as compared to
a separate discussion with different individuals.
(b) Perceptual Differences

Perceptual differences affect the way we see the world. There are no two
people who perceive things exactly the same way. Perception also
influences the way we develop language or shared meaning and is shaped
by our culture. Even when both speak the same language, a word may
have a different meaning and implication in another culture. The word
„fine‰ for example, in the United States means acceptable. The expression
„quite good‰ has a different meaning for the English and the Americans.
Words used to communicate between cultures have different interpretation.
Differences as such increase the complexity of encoding and decoding a
message. The more experience you share with another person, the more
likely you are to share perception and meaning.

(c) Restrictive Environment

Restrictive structures and management block effective communication.
Formal channels tend to cause distortion, as each link in the communication
channel holds the potential for misinterpretation. Similarly, if managers
are not diligent in their efforts to communicate down the formal network,
their messages can be fragmented so that employees never get the real „big
picture‰. Managers using a directive and authoritarian leadership style
create a formidable barrier to effective communication. Some are even too
insecure to allow employees to ask questions or offer suggestions
(feedback). They lose time and money from errors made not only because
unclear messages are not clarified but also generate negative feelings as
employees perceive their opinions to be unwelcome.
(d) Distractions
Communication barriers are often physical distractions. It can be in the
form of bad connections, poor acoustics, verbal messages or nonverbal
behaviours. Distance can affect communication effectiveness. The distance
between a supervisorÊs desk that separates him or her from a worker
during a meeting can be an obstacle in a communication process. The desk
can intimidate the worker and limit his or her ability to respond to the
message. Apart from distance, other examples include room temperature,
odour, light and colour. Failure to listen is a common barrier to successful
oral communication. Listening effectively is not easy. Your emotional state
can block the communication process. You have a hard time shaping a
message objectively when you are upset, hostile, or fearful. If your receiver
is emotional, he or she may just ignore your message.
(e) Deceptive Communications Tactics

Some business communicators try to manipulate their receivers by using
deceptive tactics. They may exaggerate benefits, quote inaccurate statistics,
or hide negative information behind an optimistic attitude. Some may state
opinions as facts, leave out important information, or portray graphic data
unfairly. Some may even allow personal preferences to influence their own
perception and the perception of others.
ACTIVITY 1.4
What is your favourite communication medium? What are the
medium that you use most often when communicating with your
business dealings?

1.6 HOW TO IMPROVE BUSINESS

COMMUNICATION
SELF-CHECK 1.5
Do you think that business communication can be greatly improved

by becoming sensitive to the similarities that exist between people
from different cultures? Discuss your answer.
It is practically impossible to overcome all communication barriers in business

relationships. However, there are ways to improve your business communication
such as:
• Adopting an audience-centered approach;
• Fostering an open communication climate;
• Creating lean, efficient messages;
• Committing to ethical communication;
• Adapting to cultural differences at the workplace; and
• Promoting professionalism in workplace relationship.
(a) Adopting an Audience-centered Approach

Adopting an audience-centered approach means focusing on and caring
about the members of your audience, making every effort to get your
message across in a way that is meaningful to them. In order to create an
effective message, you need to learn as much as possible about the biases,
education, age, status, and background of your audience. In short, keep
your audience in mind at all times when communicating. Thoroughly
analysing your audience before designing a message will help you to plan,
organise, and deliver an appropriate message.
(b) Fostering an Open Communication Climate

The organisationÊs communication climate is a reflection of its corporate
culture: the established values, beliefs and principles that give a company
its atmosphere or personality. It affects the quantity and quality of
information exchanged. Fostering an open communication climate means
encouraging employee contributions, candour, and honesty. Successful
companies such as Hallmark make sure their internal communication flows
freely down, up, and across the organisation chart. Adjusting the number

of organisational levels helps in the creation of an open communication

climate. The fewer the links in the communication chain, the less likely it is
that misunderstandings will occur. Giving your audience a chance to
provide feedback can also improve the communication climate. According
to a recent American Express survey, what employees want the most from
employers is personal feedback (money was rated second). Management
should be receptive to its employeesÊ responses.
(c) Creating Lean, Efficient Messages

Too much information is as harmful as too little. You must distinguish
between necessary and unnecessary information. Try not to communicate
unnecessary information but make necessary information easy to get.
Holding down the number of messages reduces the chance of an information
overload. Although you may not have the power over every eventuality, the
key to overcoming distracting barriers is control. Control physical
distractions such as a messy appearance of written messages and poor
acoustics in oral presentation. Overcome emotional barriers by recognising
the feelings that arise in yourself and others as you communicate and by
attempting to control these emotions. Overcome listening barriers by doing
everything you can to understand and provide feedback.
(d) Committing to Ethical Communication in Business

Ethical decision making and moral reasoning in work relationships involve
appropriate communication choices. Every communication context raises
ethical dilemmas. Business ethics is the application of ethics to the practice
of business. It involves the practical application of principles, moral
standards and practices in business communication.
Being ethical in business practices is important. Business morality is what

business ethics is all about. We often hear phrases „corporate social
responsibility‰, which is sometimes, used to reflect business ethics. Ethics have
been defined as the study of the general nature of morals and of the specific moral
choices to be made by a person in matters of right and wrong or good or bad.
Making moral judgments in business involves ethical sensibility, ethical

reasoning, ethical conduct and ethical leadership. Questions of ethics
involve lying, secrecy, disclosures and the right to privacy both in work and
relationships. Lying, disclosing information or revealing secrets about
someone or an issue at the workplace arises in virtually every
communication process.
Taking part in any business activity requires knowing what you can and
cannot say in certain situations and choosing the correct way to convey your

message. Whistle-blowing however is extremely common in many types of

organisations. In whistle-blowing, a member of a group makes a charge about
the violation of ethical standards or norms within that group itself. Revealing
controversial cases involving an individual or group in an organisation,
manipulation of information regarding a product by a company and
accusations of a business threat are some examples of whistle- blowing.
(e) Adapting Culture in the Workplace

Each organisation has one or more cultures that contain expected
behaviours (rules and norms): written or unwritten.
The best way to understand organisational culture is by examining the

values that organisational members share, the ideas and concepts that are
practiced. It serves as a guiding principle by which individual actions
can be judged. What do you understand by the term „culture‰?
Culture is a set of understanding values, perceptions and meanings

shared by a group of people.
Culture in an organisation consists of ways of thinking, interactions over

time, behavioural expectation and work culture that are shared by
members in the organisation.
Different business organisations create and practice different work cultures.

How we make sense of what goes on in an organisation is useful in
our business dealings. A particular business environment for example may
appear to be disorganised and irrational but the organisation may have
created its own culture and adopted those cultures. Therefore, those who
are engaged in a different business environment must inevitably identify
and deal with the culture in different businesses.
It is important to understand how messages are interpreted and predict the

reactions to those messages (written or verbal). It is also important to know
and to be able to adapt to different cultures, observe the way people
work or communicate and use language. By observing the forms of
communication practices in different business environments, we can better
understand an organisationÊs underlying values, believes and attitudes.
(f) Promoting Professionalism in Workplace Relationship

Getting along in various types of organisations means more than just
communicating effectively, passing on information efficiently, presenting
ideas clearly or getting oneÊs report on time.

Workplace relationships should be grounded in a professional manner. In

most business environments, workplace relationships involve creating
healthy relationships with others in the organisation and also between
members in other organisations.
In many instances, acknowledging status differences, understanding roles

and putting aside personal feelings, like or dislikes are necessary in the
professional context. When discussing issues or attending in meetings, the
superior should initiate and set the communication tone and respond in a
cooperative climate. It will be much easier to conduct business relationships
when we are able to work out the mechanics of working and adapting
to different people and different business settings. Figure 1.4 provides
more guidelines for communication on-the-job.
Figure 1.4: More guidelines for communication on-the-job
ACTIVITY 1.5
Why is building good relationships in the workplace important? How
can we practice professionalism in our relationship with others at
work? Discuss your answers.

ACTIVITY 1.6
To know more about business communication, go to:
http://www.businesscommunication.org/
http://www.iabc.com/
• This topic discussed the importance of effective communication in business

relationships.
• The complexity of communication and its processes which affect the
communication climate in the workplace were examined.
• International communication for example, requires many of the skills
involved with cross-cultural communication.
• This creates challenges for those whose business communications involve
other cultures.
• Thus, it is important to be aware of the norms and values in other
organisations as it is essential in all business transactions.
• When communication succeeds, a business is likely to be efficient and effective.
• Learning simple rules in communication and other techniques that were
discussed in this topic will make you more effective and valuable as a
business communicator in the organisation you are presenting.
• Effective communication improves the ability to present ideas and
convey messages to other people dealt with in the workplace.
• Therefore, it is through communication that people in a business environment
coordinate their efforts to achieve their goals.
Audience-centered approach Ethical communication

Communication onăthe-job Open communication
Deceptive tactics Professionalism
Decoding Stimulus
Encoding

20 X TOPIC 2 MANAGING BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Topic 2 X Managing
Business
Communication
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify the forms of communication in business settings;
2. Differentiate between formal and informal communication
networks;
3. Categorise different mediums or channels used in business
communication; and
4. Appraise the importance of choosing an appropriate media in
business communication.
X INTRODUCTION
Communication in a business context differs from everyday communication.
How a message is communicated involves selecting the appropriate medium. As
information circulates, it can follow a formal chain of command or unconstructed
pathway based on human communication. There are unique types of
communication that occur in organisations where we work. To understand
how communication is managed, this topic will introduce the main forms of
communication in business: internal-operational, external-operational and
personal communication. In applying these forms, it is crucial for us to
understand the structure of formal and informal flows of information involved as
it will assist us in simplifying and determining the best mode of effective
interaction in business.

TOPIC 2 MANAGING BUSINESS COMMUNICATION W 21
2.1 FORMS OF COMMUNICATION IN

BUSINESS
SELF-CHECK 2.1
Do you think the way we communicate with others represents our

attitude? Give reasons for your answer.
It is believed that effective use of communication technologies was directly linked

to organisational effectiveness and employee satisfaction. Information flow
determines the path that the information takes as it passes through in an
organisation when doing business. The importance of communication in
business becomes much more important when we consider the communication
activities of an organisation from a larger perspective.
Lesikar and Flatley (2002) divided these activities into four main categories:
Ć Internal-operational communication;
Ć External-operational communication;
Ć Informal outside communication; and
Ć Personal communication.
(a) Internal-operational Communication
All the communication that occurs within a business operation is

classified as internal-operational communication.
This form of communication is particularly important in executing internal

operations in a company and involves business workers in developing an
operating plan. An operating plan is procedures involved in designated
tasks of the company such as publishing, manufacturing products,
providing a service, or selling goods.
Internal-operational communication takes many forms. It includes the

orders and instructions from supervisors, as well as oral communication
between workers. It also includes reports concerning sales, production,
inventories, finance, maintenance, and others. Most of these operations
are done using computer networks.

(b) External-operational communication
Business operations which deal with people outside the business are
known as external-operational communication.
It flows between a business organisation and the entities with which it

interacts, for example public counterparts (suppliers, service companies,
customers and the general public).
External-operational communication includes all of the business efforts of

selling: descriptive brochures, telephone calls and follow-up service calls.
Advertisements are also part of this process whereby products and services
are presented through mass communication channels such as television,
radio, newspapers, magazines, and the Internet. Another form of this
communication is company publicity, community services for employees
and environmental friendly products and facilities.
Business messages by workers that are sent through various

communication modes are also part of this category. Business messages do
more than just send information. They take the place of human contact and
derive an effect out of it. The positiveness of the message is what we
refer to as business etiquette and this contributes greatly to a companyÊs
good image.
It is clear that every business also relies on the support of people

outside its structure. Their pillar operation must comply with the
customersÊ needs and it must be communicated effectively.
In todayÊs complex business society, businesses depend on each other

for the production and distribution of goods and services. This
interdependence requires communication. As with internal communication,
external communication is vital to business success.
(c) Informal Outside Communication
Whenever you comment about work-related matters to someone

that is not affiliated with the organisation, informal outside
communication has occurred.

Although companies often communicate with outsiders in a formal

manner, they may communicate informally as well.
The external audience could be a neighbour, a friend, or someone who

accidentally overhears a conversation. You represent your company both
on and off the job; you should therefore demonstrate good communication
skills in your professional and your social interactions. Many outsiders may
form an impression of your company on the basis of the subtle,
unconscious clues you transmit through your tone of voice, facial
expression, and general appearance.
(d) Personal Communication

Not all of the communication that occurs in business is operational. Such
communication is called personal.
Personal communication is the exchange of information and feelings in

which human beings share when they meet.
Humans are also social animals and have the need to communicate.
Generally, we communicate with friends we know but it can also exist
between strangers such as in a waiting room, or at a football match. Such
personal communication also occurs in the workplace, and it is part of the
communication activity of any business. Personal communication may not
be laid down specifically in the operational guide of a business but it can
have a significant effect on the success of a business plan. This effect is
the result of the influence that personal communication can, have on the
attitudes of employees.
EmployeesÊ emotional and professional outlook within themselves,

with co-workers, the management and clients can affect their productivity
scale. Their performance in communicating on the other hand represents
their attitude. In a workplace where arguments and flaming tempers are
present, the productivity rate will also be presumably low. Likewise, a light
and jovial working environment will produce effective returns.
The employeeÊs attitude is also influenced by the extent of personal

communication permitted. Absolute denial of personal communication
could lead to emotional stress especially to those who are eager to
communicate. Likewise, excessive personal communication could interfere
with professionalism at work.

In order to communicate effectively in the work environment, employees

must communicate with formality and must be able to master the unique
forms of communication that are common to any business environment.
Responsible organisation should encourage open communication.

Nonetheless, some organisations prefer a controlled form of information
flow. Effective communication in business must establish an open
communication climate in which employees have access to information on
issues that affect their work lives and participate in decision making.
ACTIVITY 2.1
Based on your understanding, what are the differences between Internal-

Operational Communication, External-Operational Communication,
Informal Outside Communication and Personal Communication?
2.2 INFORMATION CHANNELS IN BUSINESS

COMMUNICATION
Information can flow in several directions through various channels.
Formal communication is often made to indicate the company hierarchy

of responsibility. It also illustrates the preferred communication pathways.
Some messages are work related, others are personal.
An informal communication occurs when employees communicate with one

Another without considering their positions in the organisation. In such
cases the flow of information is more personal and less stable. The
information flows can be either upward, downward, horizontal or cross-
channel with little regard to positional relationships.
As people perform their duties they involve themselves in casual conversations

with their friends in the office. This form of network (cluster chain) is referred
to as the grapevine. It is more a product of a situation than of the people
in the organisation and consists of both business-related and personal
information. This form of communication channel exists and happens in almost
all business situations. Figure 2.1 illustrates the differences between formal and
informal communication.

Figure 2.1: Formal and informal communication
2.2.1 Using the Formal Communication Network

It is typically shown as an organisation chart (see the organisational chart
in Figure 2.2) where the formal flow of information follows the official chain of
command.
Figure 2.2: Formal communication

Formal communication requires good preparation, which is often supported

by facts and figures. However, information may travel down, up, and across an
organisationÊs hierarchy. Pace and Faules (1989) discusses the following channels
of communication in an organisation:
Ć Downward communication;
Ć Upward communication;
Ć Horizontal communication; and
Ć Informal communication.
(a) Downward Communication Flow
Downward Communication Flow is initiated by the organisationÊs

upper management and flows downward through „the chain of
command‰. In other words, it refers to communication from the higher
authority (management) to the lower authority (employees).
An associate director of a company who sends a memo requesting for

a report from the marketing manager is an example of a downward
communication. A sales manager requesting for sales report from his sales
team is another example.
Instructions, announcements and memos are some examples of

communication that typically flow downward. Some typical channels of
downward communication are as follows:
Ć Inter-organisational memos;
Ć Department meetings;
Ć Posters;
Ć Telephone calls;
Ć E-mails;
Ć Speech to employees;
Ć Faxes;
Ć Bulletin boards; or
Ć Face-to-face conversations.
Table 2.1 outlines the objectives for the information communicated in a

downward communication flow.

Table 2.1: Objectives of a Downward Communication Flow
Objectives Descriptions
Providing information to assist This includes job instructions, explanations,
employees in performing their jobs operating procedures or job descriptions.
Coaching This refers to a managerÊs help in developing his
employeesÊ ability and bringing their potential into
full play.
Rationalising of tasks to perform This refers to the information designed to Inform
employees to understand how their jobs are
related to other tasks and the importance of
performing their role.
Announcing organisational practices This refers to information about working hours,
and policies salary scale, retirement benefits, sick leave, health
benefit, incentives and rewards.
Informing employee performance This refers to information about how well
employees are performing their duties. The types of
such information include performance appraisals,
salary increments and interviews.
Informing mission of organisation Employees at all levels must be informed of the
mission and vision of the organisation.
EXERCISE 2.1
Based on the following channels of communication, identify the

rating of effectiveness (from most effective to least effective).
Mode of Communication Channels Rating

Written only
Oral only
Written and oral
Bulletin board
Grapevine
(b) Upward Communication Flow
Upward communication flow refers to the communication in the

opposite direction which enables management to hear the opinions
or suggestions from their employees. It is a process whereby the ideas,
feelings and perceptions of lower level (employees) are communicated to
the higher level (management).

A request or comment directed towards an individual with authority is the

essence of upward flow of communication. Some examples of upward
communication are progress reports, sales reports, business proposals, and
business reports. Communication between employees direct to their managers
is an example of upward information flow in communication. When
marketing executives submit the sales report, prepare marketing proposals to
meet client needs or express their objections to reorganisation efforts in
business performance, they are actually using upward communication flow.
What are the principles of upward communication flow? The principles

are applicable in any business context. Some researches found that business
organisations of ten neglect upward communication. An effective upward
communication program must include the following:
Ć Must operate continuously

Ć Uses a routine channel
Communication should flow through the proper channel until it reaches
the person who can take action.
Ć Involves objective listening
Listening is basic in communication. Therefore, managers or supervisors
must devote time to listen objectively. Hearing out an employeeÊs problem
and reducing tension are examples of objective listening.
Ć Uses a variety of methods to promote the flow of information
The most effective method of upward communication is daily face-to-
face interaction among managers, superiors and their subordinates.
What are the functions of upward communication flow? Table 2.2 summarises
the reasons why upward communication flow is important.
Table 2.2: Functions of Upward Communication Flow
Functions of Upward Communication Flow

¾ Serves as a measure of the effectiveness of downward communication.
¾ Provides valuable information for the decision making process.
¾ Encourages discussions for grievances among those in the actual operations.
¾ Cultivates appreciation in sharing information and ideas.
¾ Strengthens the relationship among employees and encourages participation.

ACTIVITY 2.2
In your opinion, what can an organisation do to improve upward

communication flow?
(c) Horizontal Communication Flow
Horizontal communication flow refers to the communication

between the employees who work at the same level in an organisation.
It consists of sharing information among peers.
Horizontal communication occurs in situations where employees from

several departments work together and communicate among themselves to
develop and introduce products or services. This form of communication
helps employees to share information and coordinate tasks in a casual way
which is faster and more reliable.
Communication also flows from one department to another, either laterally

or diagonally. Communication between department members however is
called cross-channel. This form of network is shared across functional
barriers, work units or people who are neither subordinate nor superior to
one another.
In any business environment, this form of communication flow occurs

for many reasons. Table 2.3 outlines the functions of horizontal
communication flow.
Table 2.3: Functions of Horizontal Communication Flow
Functions of Horizontal Communication Flow

¾ To coordinate work assignments or tasks in a particular department or work
groups. The section head will meet weekly or monthly to discuss the
performance of each department.
¾ To develop interpersonal ties, relationships and support among colleagues.
¾ To share information and plans for business implementation. The members of one
department will meet with members of another department to share ideas and the
latest data.
¾ To secure common understanding among peers to share the same vision of the
organisation.
¾ To negotiate, problem solving and arbitrate differences to resolve conflicts and avoid
disagreements. This practice can be implemented during budget meetings and uses the
brainstorming technique.

Most common form of horizontal communication in business involves

interpersonal contact or in written form such as telephone conversation, e-
mails, committee meetings, informal discussion during breaks, notes and memos
or social activities among individuals who are at the same level in a particular
business environment.
Figure 2.3 provides a short inventory of communication methods available.
Figure 2.3: A short inventory of communication methods
EXERCISE 2.2
Describe three purposes of a message.
2.3 MEDIA SELECTION IN BUSINESS

COMMUNICATION
Media selection is crucial to ensure that the meanings of messages are
transmitted. In determining which medium is appropriate in a particular
message, think of the messageÊs requirement. The capacity or ability of a medium
to transfer information or convey meaning from one point to the other is known
as media richness.

However, the verbal and face-to face medium is more likely selected for routine
meetings, group discussions, advice giving, negotiating and telephone
conversation. These forms appear to be the media chosen among business
professionals especially when a message is uncertain, complex and requires
immediate feedback. In todayÊs business scenario, e-mail is widely used to send
messages faster than any other means of communication.
Some of the considerations in choosing a medium to communicate and ensuring

the criteria that matches each message are:
Ć Will the medium increase the chance of immediate feedback?

Getting immediate response to your message is important to identify how
much the receiver understands what is being communicated.
Ć Will the medium be able to communicate multiple messages?

Some media carry various messages but some do not. The most appropriate
media accommodate the largest number of messages. In face-to-face
communication for example, you are not only communicating verbally but
you are able to read nonverbal cues which gives meaning to your interaction
with others.
Ć Will this medium enhance communication?

A medium is effective if it allows a message to be conveyed to the target
receiver in a most effective way. Technology for example assists
communication. A communicator must be able to choose the right medium
to achieve maximum impact of a communication purpose. Face-to-face is of
course the most effective method of clarifying issues that require immediate
decision making. To enhance communication purposes, e-mail would be a
perfect choice to deliver messages in a long distance business correspondence.
Figure 2.4 illustrates communication medium of choice.
Figure 2.4: Communication medium of choice

ACTIVITY 2.3
What are the considerations that should be taken into account in

choosing the appropriate medium to communicate?
• There are unique types of communication genre that occurs in any business
activity.
• The communication climate has created various communication practices in the
workplace.
• Communication mode, destination, information flow, medium to
communicate, communication pattern and style, are among the keywords
used to describe the features of how communication is managed in a business
setting.
• In order to communicate effectively, business communicators should be able to
identify the unique forms of communication and types of communication
that are appropriate to their business requirement.
• Many business professionals choose media for their convenience rather than
the criteria presented in this topic. For effective communication in business, a
mix of media will be the best choice to match business communication purposes.
Downward communication Informal communication

External-operational communication Internal-operational communication
Formal communication Personal communication
Horizontal communication flow Upward communication flow

TOPIC 3 TOOLS IN BUSINESS COMMUNICATION W 33
Topic 3 X Tools in
Business
Communication
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Discuss the importance of technologies in business communication;

2. Examine the tools for constructing, presenting, transmitting and
collaborating messages;
3. Apply the tools within the business environment you are or may be
involved with; and
4. Integrate the future technology used in business communication.
X INTRODUCTION
The past years have witnessed changes of technological tools which have
advanced faster than at any time in history. Changes in technology are changing
the way we do business and how businesses are managed. Imagine how work
was done and businesses managed 25 years ago. Business communications were
much slower with numerous limitations of communication technology.
Information was processed manually. In fact, the advancement of technology is
moving business and industry in a new era of exciting business direction. It
allows businessman to send, receive and retrieve information from anywhere at
any time.
However, while technology benefits human lives, it poses challenges for the
business communicator. The first challenge is to understand the rapid
advancement and application in the organisation. Secondly, a business
communicator needs to learn and adapt to the available technology and to

34 X TOPIC 3 TOOLS IN BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
maximise the use of these new technologies to meet the demands of todayÊs
business.
Which technology is available in current business practices? Which technology do

you find most appropriate in your nature of business? What are the challenges of
dealing with technology among businesspeople? Whatever the changes it
brings, businesspeople will simply have to find ways to deal with the new
technology of today and tomorrow.
3.1 COMMUNICATION AND TECHNOLOGY IN

BUSINESS
SELF-CHECK 3.1
In your opinion, can the use of technology improve our

communication skills? Discuss your answer.
The emerging communication technologies are altering the nature of our

communication processes and experiences. The new technologies are bringing
new ways of sharing information, discovering ideas, networking relationship
building and communicating in business.
3.1.1 Tools that Facilitate Oral Communication

A great deal in oral business communication goes on in business especially
in meetings, conferences, workshops, business or project presentation, interviews
or group discussions. Various technology tools are used to facilitate oral
communication in business dealings such as:
Ć Telephones;
Ć Cellular phones;
Ć Teleconferencing; and
Ć Videoconferencing.

(a) Telephones
In any business operation, the telephone is widely used in oral
communication internally or externally. Small businesses for example start
out with a basic telephone as a means of communicating. As the business
grows, more advanced technologies are used to meet growing
communication needs. Additional tools to the telephone are answering
machines, voice mail or conference calling.
(b) Cellular Phones

Cellular phones are used to facilitate oral communication from a distance
anywhere and at anytime. The cellular phone has increased the flexibility
and mobility of businesspeople. It is the greatest advantage which allows
an employee to be in touch when they are away from the office.
(c) Teleconferencing
Teleconferencing as shown in Figure 3.1 provides the opportunity to link
conference participants in various locations via telephone speakers.
Meetings are possible between colleagues from offices or subsidiaries in
other states or countries. Better business decision making can be done much
faster via teleconferencing.
Figure 3.1: Teleconferencing
(d) Videoconferencing
One technology that combines oral and video communication effectively is
videoconferencing. This has been around for a while but the advancement
in optical fibres, bandwidth, software and chip technology will push

videoconferencing even further. Currently, its use is cost effective, saving

travel time and expenses, as well as helps to eliminate many scheduling
problems.
3.1.2 Tools that Facilitate Written Communication

Written communication on the other hand offers the major advantages of
documentation, data storage, and retrieval system. Tools that facilitate written
communication are:
Ć Fax machines;
Ć Scanners; and
Ć Computers and their applications.
Figure 3.2 illustrates the different tools used to facilitate oral and written
communication.
Figure 3.2: Different tools used to facilitate oral and written communication
ACTIVITY 3.1
What are the differences between the tools used in oral and written
communication? Discuss your answers.

3.1.3 Electronic Communication

Business professionals today have greater access to other business associates
through advance communication technology which facilitates electronic
communication. The most common tools that enhance the ability to communicate
electronically are as follows:
Ć Pagers
Ć Personal Digital Assistants ( PDAs)
Ć Networks
- Electronic mail
- Electronic Bulletin systems
Ć The Internet
(a) Pagers
Many business professionals carry pagers that can alert them to calls or
messages from employees, clients or subordinates. Pager facilitates oral
communication by providing instant contact with an individual, regardless
of the individualÊs location.
(b) Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)

PDAÊs have revolutionised the way businesspeople work. Businesspeople
use this device to seek out the recipient of a message by e-mail, telephone,
or pager and send messages in the most efficiently way. Thus, the PDA
ensures that your message is delivered by the best method possible.
(c) Networks
Technology advancement invented the network of two or more computers
linked together physically or via telecommunications to enable users to
share resources such as files, programs and devices. There are many types
of networks such as LAN, MAN and WAN which allow distance
communication.
The services offered by these networks have created a form of Electronic

Mail (E-mail) communication that is more advanced than telephone
services, postal snail-mail (letters) and face-to-face communication. E-
mail provides a cheaper, faster method of transmitting messages
electronically. Technology can also give us options by providing audio
and video which can be attached to our e-mail messages. E-mail
transmissions work with a variety of sending devices. The rapid growth of
email has been the most exciting business communication development in

recent years. Among the advantages are that messages sent will be stored
electronically in mailboxes until the receiver is ready to read them.
Conversely, e-mail saves time and decreases interruptions through
telephone calls. It also speeds up the process of making business decisions
and most of all, it is cheap.
Besides e-mail, Electronic Bulletin Board Systems (BBSs) typically offer

newsgroup (sources of information). BBSs provide businesspeople with
information about software, issues on computer, or latest business news.
(d) The Internet

Through the Internet and the services that come with it, information
can be obtained and transmitted easily and instantaneously. By using
email, Listservs or Usenet, group members can constantly communicate
with each other and extend this interaction to larger group members.
Among the internet services that develop communication within groups are
Newsgroups, Mailing Lists, Chat and Instant Messaging. Figure 3.3
illustrates how Electronic Mail functions.
Figure 3.3: Electronic mail
ACTIVITY 3.2
What are the advantages and disadvantages of using electronic

communication tools in operating a business?

EXERCISE 3.1
1. Define telecommuting.
2. What are the characteristics of a successful telecommuter?
3.2 TOOLS THAT FACILITATE DATA

GATHERING AND MANAGEMENT IN
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
SELF-CHECK 3.2
Name some of the tools that you have used in gathering data. What
are the benefits of using those tools as compared to others?
All business requires data gathering and management of documentation. In order

for businesspeople to manage and gather data, they will need the assistance of
technology tools that can assist them in constructing, presenting, transmitting
and collaborating all these data.
3.2.1 Tools for Constructing Messages

In constructing messages, each stage of the writing process has a set of software
tools that can be used to facilitate the process. These include the following:
Ć Outlining or Brainstorming Functions

Outlining and brainstorming is a useful tool to help businesspeople plan their
documents and report. Brainstorm, list your ideas and use a computer to
group them. Then the documents may be outlined in a split screen. You will
see the outline you are writing and the document you are writing in another.
An excellent tool for planning is a concept, mapping, and idea-generation
program which provides both a visual and outlining mode to suit a particular
task. Figure 3.4 illustrates an example of an outlining tool for planning.

Figure 3.4: Illustration of an outlining tool for planning
Ć Project Management Functions

For a project manager who is working on a huge project that is carried out
over a long period of time, project management programs are excellent for
planning the project. They allow this professional to identify all tasks needed
to complete the project, determine the duration, and generate a time-and-task
chart (Gantt chart). It also helps them to track their progress and reallocate
their resources to complete the project within the budget. Figure 3.5 illustrates
an example of a project management tool (Gantt chart).

Figure 3.5: Illustration of a project management tool (Gantt chart)
Ć Personal Information Management (PIM) Programmes

By using the PIM tools, project managers can plan the time needed to
complete writing projects in business. These time management tools are
shown as electronic calendars. It will remind them of tasks to be completed
and the remaining days before submission. One widely applicable desktop
tool is Microsoft Outlook. It can be merged with PDAs as well as Internet-
based PIM sites. Figure 3.6 shows an example of a PIM tool.

Figure 3.6: Illustration of a personal information management (PIM) tool
Ć Gathering and Collecting Information Functions

Business communication requires a lot of data management. The most
common communications and database programs for gathering and
collecting information are available to assist in managing documents such as
reports and data for presentation. Often when you are writing a business
report, you supplement it with facts. This additional information can be
searched electronically by accessing the database in your internal organisation
(Intranet) or external sources (Extranet). Through this method, you are able to
download the most recent data for your report. Using the Internet can give
you a tremendous competitive advantage.
By completing a profile at a content providerÊs website, you can develop a

filter whereby you only obtain the kind of information you require, as shown
in Figure 3.7. You can also use software agents to monitor sources and notify
you when information you specify is available. The new results page will be
updated to reflect the information available at the moment.

Figure 3.7: Illustration of a tool for collecting data
Ć Statistics, Graphics and Spreadsheet Functions

Three common tools that writers find useful in analysing data are statistics,
graphics and spreadsheet tools. Today, some very sophisticated statistical
programs have been made user-friendly, allowing those with little computer
expertise to use them easily. Some programs may even query you about the
nature of your data and recommend which statistical test to use. Most
spreadsheet programs will compute a broad range of statistics to help writers
give meaningful interpretations to data.
Graphics programs help writers in several ways. They reveal trends and
relationships in data that are often hard to read from raw data. Figure 3.8
illustrates an example of a tool for analysing data.

Figure 3.8: Illustration of a tool for analysing data
Ć Writing Functions
Word processing software is clearly the dominant writing tool for most
writers. TodayÊs word processors allow you to use other writing tools from
within the word processor. Other computer writing tools that help writers
include spelling checkers, electronic thesaurus, grammar and style checkers,
electronic references, graphics, drawing packages and voice recognition tools.
Figure 3.9 illustrates an example of a tool for writing.
Figure 3.9: Illustration of a tool for writing

Some other word processing features that make the writing job easier
are footnoting, track changes, table of contents generating, and index
building. There are also special features of word processing programs for
using columns and fonts, importing graphics and spreadsheet files. Knowing
how to fully apply the features of the word processing software that you are
using will definitely make writing and revising easier for you. Figure 3.10
illustrates another example of a tool for editing.
Figure 3.10: Illustration of a tool for editing
3.2.2 Tools for Presenting Messages

Technology helps in the presentation of documents, particularly with the
application of sophisticated software and hardware.
(a) Software
There are various types of software which can help in the presentation
of documents. In the following paragraphs, we will look into software for
publication, and layout and design in particular.
(i) Publication
Today, you can publish your document in print or electronic form.
For print publication, you can use desktop publishing software or
word processing software. Desktop publishing software is

particularly good for layout of long documents that combine

proposals. This software enables you to present professional-looking
documents. Word processors are also capable of combining these
elements. Most are capable of doing nearly 80% of the tasks full-
featured desktop publishing software can accomplish.
For electronic publication, you can also use these programs to

generate files in hypertext markup language (html) or portable
document file (pdf format). In addition to the text, graphics, and
design elements, electronic documents can contain links, audio and
video elements. At the moment, authoring software is more fully
featured for creating html documents (web documents). Web
documents allow the writer to have some control over the
presentation of the document, but todayÊs browser allows reader to
override the web documents and present them in a format the reader
prefers.
Browsers often display these html documents differently. Therefore, it

is the writerÊs responsibility to test the documents on the most
commonly used browsers to assure that the visual look of their
documents does not distract or interfere with the message content.
Some writers prefer to keep this control and create electronic
documents in PDF, a format that gives the writer control over both
the content and the look.
Generally, professionals who are engaged in designing documents for

publication have the same objective as writers ă to communicate
effectively. Professionals aim for designs that attract the reader but do
not distract. They also understand that successful publications are
those in which the design enhances or complements the meaning
conveyed by the writer.
With publishing programs, you can break out the traditional-looking

page with its roots in the typewriter era to give the reader the best
looking, most readable document possible. However, to do this, you
will need the knowledge of basic design principles and sound
knowledge of some software application.
ACTIVITY 3.3
Can you name one desktop publishing software that is commonly
used for publication purposes? Give comments on the features of the
software?

(ii) Layout and Design

Software contributes with publishing features that combine text,
graphics, links, audio, and video that promotes good layout and design.
Layout and design refers to the arrangement of text and graphics on a

page. It also involves the careful composition of the following basic
elements:
Ć White space for emphasis and readability;
Ć Text for emphasis and balance as well as for visual clues of
organisation;
Ć Visuals such as graphics and drawing; and
Ć Graphic design elements to direct the eye.
(b) Hardware
Other than software, hardware is another component of presenting a
message. If the software has features your printer or other output device
cannot print, the features are useless. Both must work together to produce
messages.
The most common output device is the computer. Depending on the

formality of your communication, you may find yourself using ink-jet
printers for one type of message and laser printers for others. In
circumstances where you must have the best looking documents, you may
even use typeset output. Appearance does convey a message, and the
hardware you choose to complete the presentation of your document is an
important consideration.
Electronic documents have different hardware considerations. The portable

document format (pdf) is used to prepare documents that keep their
formatting across platforms. While they can be printed out, many will be
read on the screen. As writers can use links within a document, reading an
electronic document may vary substantially from reading the same
document in print form. Keeping the readers informed of where they are at
all times within a document is important. It will be an added advantage to
always give a reader ways to move around the document including buttons
and keystroke alternatives.
3.2.3 Tools for Transmitting Messages

A lot of activities in a business setting involve transmitting messages. The
tools for transmitting messages basically depend on the following factors:

(a) Communicators have a variety of choices of media for transmitting their

messages. This will depend on the requirements of the communication and
interaction level involved either internally or externally.
(b) Oral messages can be sent by mobile phone, voice messaging systems and
sound clips.
(c) Videoconferencing technology combines oral and visual messages.
(d) Written messages can be transmitted by fax or email.
ACTIVITY 3.4
Between fax and e-mail, which do you prefer most? Give reasons for
your answer.
3.2.4 Tools for Collaborative Communication

Collaborative communication via networks has created several interactive
communication methods in recent years that take full advantage of computer
technology. These interactive systems are based on networks either LAN, WAN
or MAN, through which users share information at the same time in order to
work as a group on any business project.
The benefits of a collaborative communication system are:

(a) Economical form of communicating;
(b) Several resources available; and
(c) More equitable system of sharing ideas and information without face-
to-face meetings.
Synchronous computer tools are a type of software for collaborative

communication, which are used by all group members at the same time.
However, they can be used either at the same place or at different places. Same-
place tools are generally referred to as electronic meeting systems (EMS).
Different-place tools are sometimes called whiteboard or collaborative tools.
With the same-place EMS tools, a facilitator conducts the meeting and operates
the software that runs on a network. The facilitator may start the group with a
question of statement. The group members will comment on the statement
through their computers simultaneously and anonymously. For example,
members may brainstorm company policy statements and comment on them. The

group under the direction of the facilitator might use other EMS tools to group
related comments, rank-order them, and vote for the final policy statement. This
kind of EMS collaborative tool has been shown to produce significantly higher
quality output than non-computer-supported meetings.
With the different-place collaborative tools, one member of the group initiates the
process either on a network or through Internet connections. This tool often
provides both a chat box and audio connection where users can talk to each other,
a video connection where members can see each other, and a place where shared
documents can be viewed and manipulated. The software can be set for different
levels and types of control. As chatting becomes more widely accepted for
personal communication and as the hardware comes into greater use in business,
we are likely to see much more use of distributed teams working together on
business projects.
• This topic focused on the importance of understanding technology tools in

business.
• It elaborated on the various tools used to facilitate oral and written
communication as well as the use of electronic communication to enhance the
ability to communicate electronically.
• Apart from that, as all business requires data gathering and management of
documentation, we have been exposed to the tools that can assist businesspeople
in constructing, presenting, transmitting and collaborating all the data.
• Although you may have already used some of the tools, it is still crucial to
understand the intricacies as it will enhance your interaction process.
• Therefore, by keeping abreast of the latest developments in communication
technology, we can identify tools that will make our jobs easier.
Collaborative communication Telecommuting

Electronic communication Written communication
Oral communication

50 X TOPIC 4 INTRODUCTION TO ORAL COMMUNICATION
Topic 4 X Introduction
to Oral
Communication
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define oral communication in business;
2. Explore useful techniques for preparing oral business presentations;
3. Assess the channels and types of oral communication; and
4. Examine the obstacles in oral business communication.
X INTRODUCTION
Oral communication is one of the essential elements of our everyday
communication. In business, the application of oral communication is equally
important. It is undoubtedly the most basic and primal form of communication as
it is human input that steers the logical, factual and mechanical requirement of all
business operations. Although some forms of oral communication may be
unreliable, it still remains the unifying factor in a business setup. With the advent
of new communication technologies, many believe that oral communication is no
longer applicable and that it will merely slow down the communication process.
Yet, oral communication is an effective mode of interaction and is still applicable
even with the rise of new technologies.
This topic focuses on the types of oral communication situations that you will
encounter in business. The oral communication channels, the role of oral
communication, and the types of oral communication in a business environment
will also be discussed. In addition, you will also be guided into applying critical
thinking in executing a successful oral communication. Finally, you will be
presented with the advantages of oral communication, which hopefully will help
you in visualising its applicability in your own business setting.

TOPIC 4 INTRODUCTION TO ORAL COMMUNICATION W 51
4.1 ORAL COMMUNICATION IN BUSINESS

SELF-CHECK 4.1
Many job opportunities today require a person with excellent oral and
written communication. In your opinion, why do you think this is an
important criteria that employers search for?
We know that all types of work involve both oral and written communication. In
fact, we spend more time communicating orally than in any other way.
Successful oral communication is embedded in the awareness of the social forces
which influence organisational decision-makers, the audience for the
communication, and the decision- making process. Other important skills include
those that enable employees to address consistent changes of the organisation.
Being competent communicators within an organisation requires skill in

speaking, reading and writing. Oral business communication is very important
for business professionals who are involved in a variety of formal or informal
oral communication, for example during meetings, discussions, speeches,
bargaining, making business presentations, negotiation, introducing products
and services or in personal relationship with collegues.
On the other hand, public speaking skills are gaining a particular emphasis in
recognition of various studies, which identify the ability to communicate in
public as a crucial employment skill. The importance of improving communication
skills in the business environment therefore cannot be overestimated. Business success
simply revolves around effective communication both within a business and between
representatives of that business and other businesses. Many employees already have
effective communication skills that they have learned through school or through their
own personal efforts. Employers should develop ways to assess these skills and
provide appropriate training where necessary.
As long as oral communication was the primary means of sending and receiving
information, people were careful to develop their speaking and listening skills. This is
because people still relied on oral communication to convey complex messages. Reading
aloud, dinnertime discussions, and conversations about current events, politics, and
religion occupied peopleÊs attention in the same way television does today.
Today, most of us spend much more time speaking and listening rather than
writing and reading. This is because, people tend to hear what they want to hear
regardless of their intentions and individual recollections of what was said may
change over time. It is also because, most oral communication occurs

spontaneously and people have less time to consider the impact of what they are
saying before they say it. People tend to associate the message and the messenger,
so that those who deliver bad news orally may be forever associated with that
news. Conversely, appearance, mannerisms, and other nonverbal behaviour of
the presenter may influence a message that needs to be evaluated objectively.

4.2 ROLE OF ORAL COMMUNICATION IN THE

WORKPLACE
SELF-CHECK 4.2
What are the benefits that an employee can gain by having good oral
communication skills?
The central role of communication in the workplace seems obvious when

considering the nature of human society and the integral role of language. We
know that communication skills are very important in the business world. As
discussed in the previous topic, the communication process is the means of
transmitting messages from a sender to a receiver. It is a process of sharing
meanings between a sender and receiver, in the form of speaking and listening.
Generally, business professionals communicate to produce results such as to

inform, to persuade or to instruct. The main goal of most business deals is to
clarify issues, gain understanding or explain a business process or procedures.
Sale personnel for example, communicate orally to persuade buyers. The main
idea is to gain acceptance to an idea or a business proposal presented to them.
Speaking is probably the most valuable communication skill of all human beings.
Furthermore, the importance of workplace communication seems to be increasing
not only in information and service-based industries, which rely on effective
communication, but also generally in todayÊs business world. On the job, oral
communication depends heavily on the ability to speak and listen as conflict
resolution and the provision of meaningful feedback all underpin improvement
in work practices and products. In addition, the way employees negotiate with
their employers about their work conditions and pay has made oral
communication a vital component to contemporary industrial relations.
An oral presentation is also an important means of obtaining and exchanging

information for decision making and policy development. Because many people
receive the message at the same time and they might provide immediate feedback,
oral presentation can reduce message distortions and misinterpretations.

We know that those who are skillful and good at communicating with others are
likely to be rewarded with opportunity, promotion and advancement. Being able
to speak well is not inborn. We actually learn to listen and speak. We learn
words to convey messages, control and express knowledge, viewpoints and
emotions through words.
EXERCISE 4.1
Name three examples of oral communication which take place in

business.
4.3 ORAL COMMUNICATION CHANNELS

The importance oral communication channels vary according to the subject field
and branch of engineering. For example, in the building and construction field
business, oral communication plays an important role as people often work with
unique objects and need to solve specific problems in a short period of time.
Here, the use of the telephone and telefacsimile (for the transmission of diagrams
and others) are examples of invaluable tools used as oral communication
channels. Table 4.1 summarises the advantages and disadvantages of oral
communication channels.
Table 4.1: Advantages and Disadvantages of Oral Communication Channels
Advantages Disadvantages
• Fast and useful for obtaining very • Not open to everyone - established
recent unpublished information. researchers have access to good
networks of contacts, but these usually
take time to cultivate.
• Based on two-way communication and • Can lead to misconceptions because the
therefore promotes an understanding of • Information is sometimes incomplete
the real information need(s) and the (lack of detail etc.).
communication of relevant information.
• Flexible. • Difficult to maintain and therefore
• Simplified and facilitates the
transmission of information between
people working in different subject
areas (useful in interdisciplinary
studies).
• Easy and pleasant to use.

ACTIVITY 4.1
Based on your understanding, name two examples of oral

communication tools and identify its advantages and disadvantages.

4.4 TYPES OF ORAL COMMUNICATION

There are 2 types of oral communication in business:
Ć Informal oral communication
Ć Formal oral communication
(a) Informal Oral Communication

Much of the oral communication in business is informal.
However person-to-person communication requires interpersonal skills and
listening process. Obviously, each one of us experiences this form of
communication and most of us cope with it reasonably well.
Informal oral communication involves person-to-person

communication that occurs whenever people get together and
communicate.
(b) Formal Oral Communication

Often, businesspeople use the telephone to call and communicate orally.
And frequently, businesspeople are involved in formal business
presentations, dictation, lectures, oral reporting or giving speeches. All
these kinds of oral communication are part of on the job work that
businessman do.
Formal oral communication takes place in business when business

people conduct and participate in committee meetings, presentations,
conferences and group discussions.
Apart from formal oral communication, we can expect some less formal
oral presentations such as oral briefings which are shorter and sometimes
requested without advance notice. As such, it is important to be aware that
oral communication is not a simple process of sender, message or receiver.

Rather, it is complex and context dependent. There is no single mode of

communication suitable for all circumstances.
4.4.1 Elements of Effective Oral Communication

Your voice is your trademark. The variation in rate of speech is better than
speaking at the same speed. A fast speaker may cause discomfort to listeners
because it is extremely difficult for an audience (listeners) to digest the thoughts.
However, effective oral business communication techniques may be summarised
based on the following basic elements:
Ć Vocal quality;
Ć Style and pronunciation;
Ć Word choice; and
Ć Adaptation.
(a) Vocal Quality

This refers to the pitch and resonance of the sounds made with speed and
volume. We need to know that voices vary widelyăfrom the unpleasant to
the melodious. As much as our voice is nature itself, we can work to
improve it. The best way to improve voice quality is to first refer to our life
experiences; you know a good voice when you hear it. You will have to be
sensitive towards voices that are too slow, too fast, monotonous, high
pitched, guttural and melodious. With this knowledge in mind, you should
analyse your own voice perhaps with the assistance of a recorder. With
serious effort, you can improve your voice tremendously.
(b) Style and Pronunciation

This refers to how the three parts of voice qualityăpitch, speed, and
volumeăblend together. It is in the unique combination of these three parts
that gives personality to oneÊs oral expression. As such, style refers to a set
of voice behaviours that give uniqueness to a person.
(c) Word Choice

Word choices are closely related to oneÊs vocabulary. The larger the
vocabulary, the more choices one has. The words you choose should be
adjusted to the person you are speaking to as it is only appropriate. They
should convey the morality and courtesy you desire. It also respects the
listenerÊs knowledge of the subject matter.

(d) Adaptation
Adaptation is an extension of the discussion in the previous paragraph. It
means fitting the message to the intended listener. Primarily, this means
fitting the words to the listenerÊs mind. It also includes voice and style. To
illustrate, the voice, style, and words in an oral message aimed at children
might vary from the same message aimed at adults. Similarly, these
qualities might also vary in messages delivered in social situations, work
situations and classrooms.
ACTIVITY 4.2
What are the differences between informal and formal oral

communication? Identify a situation where each form is applied.
4.5 CONVERSATION AS ORAL

COMMUNICATION
Communication is best achieved through simple planning and control. In this
section, we will look at approaches which might help us to communicate
especially during meetings, where conversations need special attention. Most
conversations during meetings sort of drift along, but in business, this is wasteful.
Try seeking communication rather than chatter. To ensure an efficient and
effective conversation, consider these three rules:
Ć You must make your message understandable.

Ć You must receive and understand the intended message sent to you.
Ć You should exert some control over the flow of the communication.
Thus, you must learn to listen and speak. Those who dismiss this as mere
platitudes are already demonstrating an indisposition to listening: the phrase
may be trite, but the message is hugely significant to your effectiveness as a
manager. If you do not explicitly develop the skill of listening, you may not hear
the suggestion or information which could bring you to fame and fortune.
4.5.1 Ambiguity Avoidance

Your words should be pragmatic rather than philosophical. Thus, the use of
words should convey what the speaker intended to say.

Suppose your manager gives you an instruction which contains an ambiguity

which both of you did not notice and as a result, a wrong product has been
produced. In this case, who should be blamed? The answer will be: who cares?
You have been wasting your time and the product produced is not what you
expected to be. Blaming others may be a satisfying (or defensive) exercise but it
does not solve the problem. Thus, in everything you say or hear, you must pay
attention for possible misunderstanding and be ready to clarify any ambiguity.
The following are examples of ambiguity:
(a) Words often have different meanings depending upon context and/or
culture. For example, a „dry‰ country lacks either water or alcohol;
„suspenders‰ keep up either stockings or trousers (pants); a „funny‰
meeting is either humorous or disconcerting; a „couple‰ is either a few or
exactly two. If you recognise that there is a potential misunderstanding,
you must stop the conversation and ask for a valid interpretation.
(b) Some people simply make mistakes. Your job is not simply to spot
ambiguities but also to counter inconsistencies. Thus, if I now advocate that
the wise manager should seek out (perhaps humorously) books on
entomology (creepy crawlies), you would deduce that the word should
have been etymology. Usually, however, you may suffer a momentary
confusion as you think over several alternatives. You may say one word but
mean another. There are good scientific reasons (to do with the associative
nature of the brain) why this happens; therefore you have to be aware of
the potential problem and counter it.
(c) Finally, of course, you may simply mishear. The omission of a simple word
could be devastating. For instance, how long would you last as an
explosives engineer if you failed to hear a simple negative in: „whatever
happens next you must [not] cut the blue wi...‰?
As a conclusion, we now know that word has multiple meanings, it might

not be the one intended, and you may have misheard it in the first place.
4.6 STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVING ORAL

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
For effective oral communication, you should decide (in advance) on the purpose
of the conversation and identify plans for achieving it. There is no alternative to
this. Some people are proficient at „thinking on their feet‰ - but this is generally
because they already have clear understanding of the context and their own goals.
Planning ahead of time is important to achieve effective oral communication.

The following are few techniques for effective oral communication:
(a) Be Assertive
To be assertive means „to declare or state clearly‰. This is your aim of
communicating. If someone argues with you, even loses their temper, you
should be quietly assertive. Much has been written to preach this simple
fact and commonly the final message is a three-fold plan of action:
Ć Acknowledge what is being said by showing an understanding of the
position, or by simply replaying it (a polite way of saying „I heard you
already‰);
Ć State your own point of view clearly and concisely with perhaps a little
supporting evidence; and
Ć State what you want to happen next (move it forward).
Thus, we have something like: „Yes, I see why you need the report by
tomorrow; however, I have no time today to prepare the document because
I am in a meeting with a customer this afternoon. I could either give you
the raw data and you could work on it yourself, or you could make do with
the interim report from last week‰.
You will have to make many personal judgement calls when being
assertive. There will certainly be times when a bit of quiet force from you
will win the day. However, there will also be times when this will get you
nowhere, particularly with more senior (and unenlightened) management.
In the latter case, you must agree to abide by the decision of the senior
manager but you should make your objections (and reasons) clearly known.
Always be aware that your subordinates might be right when they disagree
with you and if events prove them so, acknowledge that fact gracefully.
(b) Handle Confrontations Ethically

When conflict happens in any business dealings, business people should
handle it in a professional manner. Do not lose your self-control simply
because it is of no use. You must be consistent and fair so that your staff
know where they stand. If you deliberately lose your temper for effect, then
that is your decision ·however, you must never lose control.
Insults are ineffective. If you call people names, then they are unlikely to
actually listen to what you have to say; in the short term, you may feel some
relief for „getting things off your chest‰, but in the long run you will be
merely perpetuating a problem since you will not be addressing it. This is
common sense. There are two implications. Firstly, even under pressure,
you have to remember this.

Secondly, what you consider fair comment may be insulting to another ·

and the same problem will emerge. Before you say anything, stop, establish
what you want as the outcome, plan how to achieve this, and then speak.
Finally, if you are going to criticise or discipline someone, always make

certain that you have misunderstood the situation and ask questions first to
check the facts. This simple courtesy will save you from much
embarrassment.
(c) Seek Information

There are two ways of phrasing any question: one way (the closed question)
is likely to lead to a simple grunt in reply (yes, no, maybe). The second way
(the open question) will hand over the speaking role to someone else and
force them to say something a little more informative.
SELF-CHECK 4.3
Can you give some examples of open ended questions and closed
ended questions?
Suppose you are conducting a department meeting to review a proposal

report for the executive in your department. The conversation with the executive
goes something like this:
You: „Have you completed the proposal, Mrs. Lee?‰

Mrs. Lee: „Yes‰
You: „Is everything written up?‰
Mrs. Lee: „Almost‰
You: „So is there documentation left to be done?‰
Mrs. Lee: „Some‰
You: „When can I have it?‰
Mrs. Lee: „By today, hopefully‰
Before your fingers start twitching to place themselves around LeeÊs neck,
consider that your questions are not actually helping the flow of information. The
same flow of questions in an open format would be:
Ć „What is left to do of project X?‰

Ć „What about the documentation?‰
Ć „When will that be completely finished?‰

Asking open questions are extremely easy to formulate in oral communication.

You establish in your own mind the topic or aim of the question and then you
start the sentence with the words WHAT - WHEN - WHICH - WHY - WHERE -
HOW and proceed with the decision. Let others speak and then finish the
conversation. Ask questions like: „What do you think about that idea?‰, „Have
you ever had this problem before?‰, „How would you tackle this situation?‰
In preparing for formal oral communications, there are various strategies to

be adopted. The following steps are essential for successful oral presentation:
Ć Determine the purpose of the presentation
Ć Know the occasion
Ć Know your audience
Ć Select the main ideas and conduct research on the topic
Ć Prepare the draft of presentation
Ć Prepare visual aids
Ć Rehearse the presentation
Ć Ask for comments
By the end of a conversation, you should have given your audience a clear
understanding of the outcome. For instance, if there has been a decision, restate it clearly
(just to be sure) in terms of what should happen and by when; and if you have been
asking questions, summarise the significant (for you) aspects of what you have learnt.
Oral presentations also involve nonverbal communication. In most times we

communicate nonverbally without realising it. We transmit messages
unconsciously. Even if someone in a conversation suddenly leaves the room
without saying a word, that person is communicating nonverbally. Stella who
arrived late for a business appointment or the way Deana reacts to the bossÊs
comments on her report reflect nonverbal cues.
Nonverbal communication is a major dimension of human communication. It

includes all aspects of communication other than words and is formed through
symbols or behaviour, which represent ideas, feelings and people.
Communication by our physiology or body language relates to posture, gestures,

breathing, movement, appearance and facial expression are examples of nonverbal
communication. In addition to gestures, body language and facial expression, other forms
of nonverbal cues in communication relates to tone of voice, rhythm, tempo, volume of
voice and objects that portray or affect images and personal attraction in interaction
patterns. The most important point to remember with these forms of nonverbal
communication is that they are subtle yet more believable than verbal communication.

4.7 THE ADVANTAGES OF ORAL

COMMUNICATION
SELF-CHECK 4.4
For oral communication in business, entertainment speeches are very

common. Do you agree with this statement? Give reasons for your
answer.
In recent years, organisations are rediscovering the importance of oral

communication as a form of business interaction.
Table 4.2 summarises the advantages of oral communication:
Table 4.2: Advantages of Oral Communication
Advantages Descriptions
Determine the Written contracts may be the legal instruments that finally
quality and meaning determine who performs what action for what
of relationships compensation, but the quality and meaning of relationships
between people (and ultimately between organisations) will
be determined by what they say to each other and how they
say it. Written communication, in spite of its abilities to
provide a relatively permanent record and convey complex
information, remains essentially a substitute for oral
communication.
Provide a clearer When handled skillfully, oral communication can provide a

meaning clearer insight into the meaning of a message because
message transmission and feedback are immediate (see the
System/Process Model in the section on Models of the
Communication Process). In most oral communication
situations, we do not have to quit until we understand and
have been understood. The give and take of a discussion,
for example, can achieve consensus much more readily·
and quickly·than a written exchange of the same
information.

Opportunity to Another advantage of oral communication is that as we

explore each other speak and listen to one another, we have the opportunity to
explore each other and our individual relationships to the
message more fully than we do in writing. We can watch
and listen for congruence between the verbal and nonverbal
components of the message and for words and ideas set
off by analog marking, as illustrated in the section on
„Advanced Language Patterns‰ in Language Skills.

4.8 BARRIERS TO ORAL COMMUNICATION

There are various reasons why businesses fail. Sometimes, business people
misjudge others in their communication. Occasionally, they are not clear about
why they are speaking or lack proper understanding of the purpose of
communicating or they misread the context of messages.
Other reasons which contribute to failure in business communication may occur

due to unclear messages, emotions of the listener (client) or timing which is not
right for a particular communication to be successful. There are a number of
obstacles inherent in many business communication situations. These include:
Ć Culture
Ć Stereotypes
Ć Prejudice
(a) Culture
Each organisation has one or more cultures that contain expected behaviour
(rules and norms): written or unwritten. A groupÊs culture can be
characterised as „a set of values, perceptions and meanings shared by a
group of people‰.
In other words, culture in organisation consists of ways of thinking,

interactions over time, behavioural expectation and work culture that is
shared by members in the organisation.
Different business organisations create and practice different cultures. How

we make sense of what goes on in an organisation is useful in our business
dealings. A particular business environment for example, may appear to be
disorganised and irrational but the organisation may have created a culture.
Therefore, those who are engaged in a different business environment must
inevitably identify and deal with the culture of how messages are interpreted
and predict the reactions of those messages (written or verbal).

Organisations, corporations, associations, business partners and clients

bring together people from other cultures. Diversity and mixture of culture,
language, values and norms affect interpersonal relationships. Personal
relationship in business will depend on the ability to communicate
competently with people from other cultures. The challenge of culture in
communication is to understand and appreciate cultural differences and to
translate that understanding into competent interpersonal communication.
It is important to observe the way people work or communicate in different

business environments. By observing the forms of communication practices
in such environments, we can better understand an organisationÊs
underlying values, believes and attitudes.
Culture provides individuals with standards of behaviour and gives them a

feeling of identification and belonging; they feel a part of something
larger than themselves. Communicators who fail to realise the differences
in culture may be misinterpreted and misunderstood. People who interact
with them will judge them as ignorant, rude, insensitive or culturally
confused. In many instances, problems occur between people of different
cultures primarily because people tend to think that their own cultural
norms are the only right way to do things. They tend to believe that the
specific patterns of behaviour desired in their own cultures are universally
valued. Cultural ignorance exacts high costs. It may lead to lost
opportunities; create conflicts among members and increased levels of
tension.
How people communicate either by speaking or writing is shaped by

culture. Different verbal or nonverbal behaviour affect communication style
too. In verbal communication, choice of words in one language do not
always have an equivalent meaning in other languages, and the concepts
the words describe are often different as well.
(b) Stereotypes
Stereotyping suggests that all members of a group will exhibit
characteristics or behaviour observed in just one individual of that group. It
is a mental picture or generalisation of the main characteristics of another
group and it creates ideas about the people in this group. Stereotyping
takes the view that one person is a representative of a class of people rather
than an individual.
All cultures have stereotypes about other cultures. Stereotypes also exist in
business culture. These stereotypes can get in the way of communication
when people interact on the basis of the imagined representative and

not the real individual. For example, Mr. Nad stereotypically pictures
Malaysian workers as lazy and unskilled. The use of an unflattering
stereotype (which may contain a grain of truth but be largely untrue)
becomes a useful device to influence previously informed opinion.
Stereotyping is a great barrier to communication in international relations;

politics, business, economics, and society. It has an impact on business
relationships such as the problems of being a seller or buyer, an employee
or employer. Whether one is based at home or in another country one
is affected by culture and stereotyping.
Figure 4.1 illustrates some of the common stereotypes.
Figure 4.1: Image of stereotypes
(c) Prejudice
A prejudice is a special kind of stereotype which involves prejudging
people, places, objects, circumstance and occurrences. It is a negative social
attitude held by members of one group toward members of another group.
It is a product of in-group members. The purpose of prejudice is not to
enable us to understand the world accurately but to draw the line between
in-group and out-group members. In business we should also be cautious
extremely about prejudging a personÊs intentions or arriving at a conclusion
before having the evidence we need. Sometimes we could be wrong about
others, misjudge their views or motives. As a result, we may end up losing
a business deal before it ever gets underway.

ACTIVITY 4.3
Pick a popular television advertisement and analyse it for
stereotypes. Are these stereotypes appropriate? Are they offensive?
Discuss your answer.
EXERCISE 4.2
List down three obstacles in oral business communication.
• This topic discussed the types and importance of oral communication in

the business world.
• The discussion included strategies for effective oral communication and
outlined some essential steps for making successful presentations.
• By understanding the oral communication processes that will perpetuate an
effective business environment and applying it in your work experience, you
will improve your ability to communicate competently.
Adaptation Prejudice
Culture Stereotypes
Formal oral communication Vocal quality
Informal oral communication Word choice

66 X TOPIC 5 DELIVERING ORAL BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Topic 5 X Delivering
Oral Business
Communication
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Differentiate the various approaches to effective oral
communication;
2. Discuss the importance of effective oral business presentations;
3. Integrate successful oral communication presentations
(presentations, reporting, telephone conversation, dictation and
speech) in business operations;
4. Prepare and conduct meetings; and
5. Write an effective oral report.
X INTRODUCTION
In the business world, there are various kinds of oral presentations. Business
presentations, meetings, telephone conversation and speeches are some forms of
oral communication, which may be formal or informal yet still remain the
unifying factor in a business setup. These provide the barometer in which
business operations, planning and accomplishments can be structured. With
various inputs, within the organisation and from the global environment, more
decisions and blueprints will have to be developed in order to sustain challenges
of current and future business enterprises.
This topic focuses on the approaches to effective ways of achieving different

types of oral business presentations. It includes giving speeches, making
business presentations or business proposals, meetings, dictating, reporting,
interpersonal relationships, as well as telephone conversations, which are part
and parcel of the oral communication process in business.

TOPIC 5 DELIVERING ORAL BUSINESS COMMUNICATION W 67
5.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF SPEECH AND

PRESENTATIONS IN BUSINESS
SELF-CHECK 5.1
Have you ever been approached by a salesman who wants to sell his
product? Did he manage to convince you to buy the product? Why?
Most people find making formal presentations and speaking to an audience

frightening. Presenting in front of an audience that you donÊt really know can
create anxiety. But why do people still engage themselves in speeches or
presentations?
In business, oral communication is an ongoing process. Speeches and

presentations are conducted not only within organisations but also in the public
sphere. They are used to introduce new products or services, to bargain, or to
convince customers to use the same product/ services.
The use of oral presentation techniques also allows for greater „face-to-face‰
interaction between buyers and sellers during the proposal evaluation and
selection processes. It can also occur internally, for example when presentations
are made to financers, to a board of trustees, or top level management to propose
the need to upgrade certain sections or refurbish another. It could also involve
restructuring of operations and decisions upon investments and business
development, as well as guidelines towards interacting with governmental
organisations and the methods to address foreign clients or buyers.
As different business sections expand and merge into the global market, the
demand for oral speech and presentations has become greater and more
complex in nature. The credibility of the speaker and the authenticity of the facts
being presented will convey the position of a business organisation. The speaker
must be of a very persuasive nature and highly knowledgeable in order to
determine the success of the business that he is presenting.
5.1.1 Team (Collaborative) Presentations

Another type of presentation is a group or team presentation. Most of the
requirements for speeches presentation will also be applied here. However, such
presentations are usually done collaboratively.

Guidelines appropriate for a team presentation are as follows:
(a) Plan the Presentation

Take time to plan the presentation, determining the sequence of the
presentation as well as the content of each team memberÊs part. You will
also need to select in detail supporting examples to build continuity of one
part of the presentation to another. Coordinate the type of delivery, use of
notes, graphics and style and colour of attire to present a good image of
competence and professionalism.
(b) Physical Staging

Another aspect to look into is the physical staging. Team members should
know where to sit or stand, how visuals will be handled, how to change
and adjust microphone and how to enter and leave the speaking area.
(c) Pay Attention to the Closing

Attention to the closing of a presentation is also very important. Teams
need to decide who will close the presentation and what will be said.
Practice is a must in circumstances where only the summary of the
presentation is applied and key points must be highlighted to team
members. If a question and answer session is included, decide which team
member should answer and how questions should be answered. Some type
of final note of appreciation needs to be planned with all the team in
agreement.
(d) Conduct Rehearsals

Teams should not overlook the necessity to conduct rehearsals. During
these rehearsals, individual members should constructively criticise each
otherÊs contributions, offering specific ways to improve. These points might
appear trivial but careful attention to them will result in a polished
and coordinated team presentation.
ACTIVITY 5.1
What are the differences in planning for business presentations as an

individual and as a team?

5.1.2 Strategies for Effective Oral Business

Presentation
There are various strategies that can be adopted in the preparation of formal
oral presentations. Table 5.1 summarises the most common strategies in
preparing for business presentations.
Table 5.1: Strategies in Preparing for Business Presentation
Strategies Descriptions
Determine the Purpose of Three basic purposes for giving presentations are
the Presentation informing, persuading or entertaining. Therefore, it is
important to understand the basic objectives or purpose of
the presentation you are involved in. Ask yourself
whether you are presenting to inform, persuade or
entertain. Knowing the purpose of the presentation will
help you plan your speech accordingly.
Know the Occasion Among the questions that you should answer before
giving presentations are, what is the makeup of the
audience? Where can we obtain sources of audience
information? What are their demographics? Finding
information about the people you are speaking to can
often be difficult or even impossible. Nonetheless, it is
important to know the occasion and the makeup of your
intended audience.
Know your Audience By knowing your audience, you are creating a mental
picture of your speech or presentation. Since the
background and composition of your audience varies, it
helps to outline their demographics such as race, gender,
culture, religion, occupations, economic status, education,
age and membership in special organisations. By knowing
the cultural differences of your audience or merely a
single culture, it will help you to create a bond with your
listeners. Thus, it helps you to adjust yourself to their
beliefs and perceptions.
Select the Main Ideas and In any business presentation, selecting the main theme or
Conduct Research on the core idea is the most important aspect that should be done
Topic first. Once you have selected the main ideas, you have to
conduct research on the topic that you are presenting in
order to gather facts, data and information.
Prepare the Draft of Once you have gathered all the facts and information
Presentation required, you need to organise, prepare and write the
draft for the presentation.

Prepare Visual Aids To create an interesting presentation, you should support

your data using visual aids. Sound, tend to disappear
from the listenerÊs concentration. Due to this fact,
speeches often need strong visual support such as charts,
tables, film, and visuals (graphics). Visuals usually carry
the main points or the key parts of the presentation. The
guidelines in preparing visual aids are as follows:
• Make certain that everyone in the audience can see
the visuals.
• Explain the visual to avoid misinterpretation.
• Organise the visuals to fit into the presentation plan.
• Emphasise the visuals and point them with action and
words.
• Talk to the audience and not the visuals. Look at the
visuals only when the audience should look at them.
• Avoid blocking the listenersÊ views of the visuals.
Make sure that the listenersÊ views are not blocked by
lecterns, pillars or chair. Take care not to block
anyoneÊs line of vision.
Figure 5.1 illustrates some examples of visual aids that

can be used in business presentation.
Rehearse the It is important to rehearse your presentation in order to
Presentation focus on your delivery method, decrease anxiety and the
desirable elements of oral and nonverbal delivery.
Memorising the important facts in a speech can be
difficult too. Controlling your breathing, pronunciation,
and vocal quality (voice in varying pitch, rate, and
volume) gives it more interest and appeal in your oral
presentation. A good voice is as important as good
speaking. A voice should attract and not distract listeners
from the message. Unattractive voices generally fall into
four specific areas:
• Lack of pitch variation;
• Lack of variation in speech;
• Lack of vocal emphasis; and
• Unpleasant voice quality.
Ask for Comments This can be done through recorders, watch yourself and
others on video, or watch the instructors, television
personnel, and professional speakers in action. Imitate the
good techniques and avoid the bad ones. Nonetheless,
the most effective technique is the one that you are most
comfortable with.

ACTIVITY 5.2
In delivering an oral presentation for your office or a college course,

which types of visual aids would you prefer to use? Explain the
reasons for your preferences.
Figure 5.1: Examples of visual aids used for business presentations
EXERCISE 5.1
Name three types of visual aids that can be used to create an

interesting oral presentation.
5.1.3 Nonverbal Behaviours in Speech Delivery

When you are delivering a speech or presentation, the audience will be
consistently watching your every move, facial gestures and expression. These
are the essential elements that can affect your speech. In your efforts to improve
the effects of your oral presentations, you should understand the communication
effects of what your listeners see. The following are an expansion of the common
effects on listeners:

(a) The Communication Environment

Much of what the audience sees is the physical things that surround you as
you speak; the stage, lighting, background and so on. These things tend
to paint a general impression. Although it does not have a visual effect,
outside noise may influence it. For the best communication results, the
factors in your communication environment should contribute to your
message, not otherwise. You can also apply your own experience as a
listener to determine what is important.
(b) Personal Appearance

This is an important factor that can sometimes be overlooked. Naturally,
you will have to accept your original appearance but there is always room
for improvement. Specifically, you should dress in a manner appropriate
for the audience and the occasion. Be clean and well groomed. Use facial
expressions and physical movements to your advantage.
(c) Posture
Posture is the most obvious thing that is presented to the audience.
Listeners at a distance will be able to detect facial expressions, eye
movements and the general form of your body. Unfortunately, we are
unable to see our own posture during presentations. Thus, engage others
to inform you how your posture looks like and how it can be improved.
Another option is to watch yourself before a mirror or on a videotape. In
accomplishing good posture, remember that the body weight must be
distributed in a way consistent with the impression you want to make.
You should keep your body erect without appearing stiff and comfortable
without appearing limp. You should maintain a poised, alert and
communicative appearance. And you should do all this unconsciously to
avoid looking artificial.
(d) Walking
Your audience will have their own perception on how you walk. A strong,
sure walk indicates confidence, whereas hesitant, awkward steps convey
the opposite impression. How you place your steps during the presentation
can be good or bad, depending on how you do it. Some speakers use steps
forward and to the side to emphasise points. Too much walking however
attracts attention and detracts from the message. Walk only when it is
necessary to stress a point. However, do not walk away from the
microphone.
(e) Facial Expression

This is the most communicative physical movement of yourself. However,
you may unconsciously use facial expressions that convey unintended
meanings. A smile, a grimace and a puzzled frown all convey clear

messages. You should use these effective communication devices. Eye

contact is extremely important. It shows sincerity, goodwill and flexibility.
Some listeners lose interest when a speaker looks away. On the other hand,
discriminate eye contact tends to show that you have genuine interest in
your audience.
(f) Gestures
There is no clear cut meaning towards gestures of speakers in a
presentation. A clenched fist, however, adds emphasis to a strong point
but it also portrays defiance, threat or respect for a cause. Even though
gestures have vague meanings, they are strong and forceful elements
of speaking. Raising first one hand and then the other stresses divisions.
Although these gestures are common, we do not use them in the exact
same way. It is clear that physical movements can help your speaking.
Its appropriateness is very much related to personality, physical makeup
and the size and nature of the audience. A speaker appearing before an in-
formal group should use more gestures. Nonetheless, which physical
movements and how they are used will depend on your judgement.
(g) Unpleasant Voice Quality

It is rather hard to accept but some voices are unpleasant. Fortunately,
most voices are pleasant. Although therapy can improve these unpleasant
voices, when spoken, it will affect the concentration of the listeners.
Adjusting variations in pitch, speed of delivery and volume can make
even the most unpleasant voice acceptable.
Table 5.2 outlines some of the important elements of speaking.
Table 5.2: Elements of Speaking
Elements of Speaking
• Voice quality • Listening, hearing messages
• Intention • Speaking from the heart
• Manner (directness, sincerity) • Energy
• Dress and clothing (style, color, • Setting, time, place, timing
appropriateness)
• Visual aids, animation • Sensitivity
• Eye contact • Rhythm and pacing
• Emotional content • Attitude and confidence
• Self concept • Agenda
• Purpose of communication • Clarity

5.1.4 Improving Oral Presentation Skills

Making effective presentations to groups or key individuals is also a regular
process in business. Therefore, it is important to deliver understandable
messages that gain the support of the listeners. Obviously this requires good
public speaking ability.
Here are some tips for improving presentation skills:
(a) Know your subject and get your emphasis right.

(b) Prepare for the speaking situation (outline, writing the entire presentation).
(c) Prepare outlines and overheads to help develop self confidence.
(d) Have your outlines (overheads, slides, note cards) with you for reference as
well as to trigger your thoughts as you speak.
(e) In the early stages of your preparation, ask someone you trust to listen to
your presentation and give honest feedback in a one-on-one situation. Ask
them what works well and what needs improvement.
(f) Take classes where you are able to develop presentations and have them
criticise (classes in public speaking or verbal presentation skills).
(g) Tape your presentation (videotape is the best) for review. Watch yourself
and learn to look for subtle body language clues to your confidence or
security.
(h) Talk to people you respect about how they learned to speak well. Request
them to coach you or work with you.
(i) When you are confident, relaxed and enthusiastic about your topic, it will
come through strongly to your audience.
(j) Ask for feedback from your audience about your presentation and pay
attention to what they say.
(k) In workshops, ask participants to introduce themselves, state why they are
there and what they hope to gain from the presentation.
(l) In a management presentation (budget or sales information) stop
occasionally to ask if people understand what you have said.
(m) If you have an executive coach (or someone who can play that role), have
them sit in on your presentations and help pick up clues from the group.
Hand signals and other cues can be used to let us know of our pace
or missing body language.
(n) Practice, practice and practice.

Therefore, as shown in Figure 5.2, we now know that thorough preparation is

crucial for successful oral presentations to large audiences.
Figure 5.2: Example of an oral presentation
ACTIVITY 5.3
Too much time spent reading notes may convince your audience that
you are unprepared. Do you agree with this statement? Give reasons
for your answer.
5.1.5 Speech Anxiety

If you experience the fear of speaking before an audience, you are actually
experiencing speech anxiety. It may help to know that you are not alone in this
matter and that it is perfectly natural. Even the most experienced speakers have
confessed to experiencing speech anxiety. The only way is to know more about
it, how to cope with it and be able to control it.
(a) Communication Apprehension

This is the most severe form of speech anxiety. It is also known as
anxiety syndrome associated with either real or anticipated communication
with another person or persons. Communication apprehension can also be
seen in individuals either being portrayed consciously or unconsciously by
keeping silence. They feel that this method would give them a greater
advantage than speaking out. These individuals fear speaking in all contexts,
including one-on-one communication and small group discussions. Many
would fear the same but communication apprehension refers to the much
deeper problem of virtually cutting oneself off from most, if not all,
communication with others.

(b) Symptoms of Speech Anxiety

Some of the symptoms in speech anxiety are the increased speed of
your heartbeat and the churning of your stomach. Speakers who
experience speech anxiety often display signs as shown in Figure 5.3:
Figure 5.3: Signs of speech anxiety in oral communication
5.1.6 Causes of Speech Anxiety

We can reduce and control speech anxiety if we can determine the underlying
problem. Many try to treat speech anxiety by knowing the symptoms and not the
causes. This could be like fighting a losing battle. It is said that severe speech
anxiety begins at an early age. The fear to ask, express oneself, drawing away
from making mistakes can be a terrible and lasting experience. At times, trying to
impress others and winning in a rat race can also add to the cause. As such,
tremendous pressure is placed upon ourselves and others to be successful.
At times, the failure to succeed, abstains us from continuing our efforts. Among
the causes of speech anxiety are the following:
Ć Fear of physical unattractiveness
Ć Fear of social inadequacy
Ć Fear of criticism
Ć Fear of the unknown
Ć Fear of speech anxiety
Ć Conflicting emotions
Ć Excitement from anticipation
We learn to respond in specific ways when facing something that creates

anxiety because we have become conditioned to do so. Each of these common
reactions to a speech-making situation is learned. As speech anxiety is a learned
behaviour, the only solution for its sufferers is to examine the potential reasons
for the anxiety and learn how to use this knowledge to manage the discomfort.

There are no cures for speech anxiety. The only ways are to reduce, manage or
control it so it does not interfere with your presentation. Experts provide some
guidelines to help you reduce anxieties:
(a) Work hard in accomplishing what is necessary for the topic
(b) Be prepared and confident

With confidence, you will be able to extract the creative side of yourself and
reason out situations with an objective mind. Then, your audience will
benefit most from your speech and your anxiety will be intelligently
suppressed.
(c) Think positively

Positive thinking leads to the success of giving a speech. Positive thoughts
churned out from the brain manifest themselves in action.
(d) Practice the speech

The better your knowledge on the subject matter, the better your speech
deliverance will be. Through a planned presentation, you will achieve
the most comfortable position to execute the speech. As such, practice with
the realisation that perfection in all aspects is not required. Remember
that all speakers are somewhat nervous before a speech and that
nervousness is perfectly normal.
SELF-CHECK 5.2
What are the importances of meetings in a business organisation?
5.2 CONDUCTING AND PARTICIPATING IN

MEETINGS
Most business professionals and many employees in organisations spend an
amazing amount of time in meetings. Some managers or employees have
negative attitudes toward meetings because they perceive them as a waste of
time. Negative attitudes towards meetings can be changed when meetings are
conducted in a proper manner, giving attention to correct procedures and
ethical behaviour to achieve a successful meeting.
In business, we are constantly participating and conducting meetings. This will

range from extreme formality to extreme informality. Formally, we participate in

department or committee meetings. Informally, it is more of discussions with

groups or fellow workers. Whether formal or informal, the meetings will involve
communication. In fact, the quality of the communication will determine the
success of the meetings.
Face-to-face meetings are the usual format used in most organisations. With
todayÊs technology, not all meetings are held face-to-face. Other virtual meetings
of todayÊs modern organisation include conference calling, teleconferencing or
videoconferencing via networks. Meetings however, are the means through
which many organisations reach a consensus, make crucial business decisions,
establish goals and clarify issues or conflicts that arise.
Meetings present opportunities to acquire and disseminate valuable information,

reporting issues and develop skills among staff in an organisation. Conducting
and preparing meetings will involve planning. An agenda will have to be
developed and distributed to attendees to achieve the goals of the meeting. If
you are the leader, it is important to follow the agenda planned in order to avoid
straying from the main objective of the meeting. The discussion must be
progressive and moving from item to item with speed and clarity. Permit
complete discussion and avoid repetition, excessive details and unworthy
comments.
A meeting must also be democratic but done in a controlled environment. Those

who tend to dominate in discussions can be tactfully handled by asking for other
viewpoints or by summarising the discussion and moving on to the next topic.
Participation must also be encouraged for those who have minimal input. Try
showing respect to other peopleÊs comments even if they may sound illogical.
If time is limited, decide at the beginning of the meeting and remind group
members of the time constraints. Then, summarise the meeting by presenting
the accomplishments and minute it.
Using meetings effectively starts with the understanding that meetings are
not the destination but a vehicle for reaching strategic objectives or
organisational destinations. With this in mind we can move meetings forward.
By thinking of meetings as vehicles and as the means to an end, objectives

and itineraries can be clarified. It enables us to get in the driver Ês seat and
focus our attention on the results we want to achieve and the means of achieving
them. This requires selecting the appropriate type and structure of meeting,
picking a competent meeting leader and facilitator, determining the key
participants, and identifying critical steps in order to make the best use of
peoplesÊ time and energy.

With a clear destination in mind and key points noted, it is likely to map possible
routes and determine the most appropriate vehicle to use to get to your
destination faster, whether it is a bike, a bus, a plane, a chariot or a truck. With
clear objectives, we can determine how each part of the meeting should be
structured and managed to achieve the desired results.
The success of meetings is limited only by our understanding of their purpose

and our ability to plan and manage them.
5.2.1 Meeting Management - Preparation

In any organisation, „meetings‰ are a vital part of the organisation and the
flow of information. They act as a mechanism for gathering resources together
from a variety of possibilities and pooling then towards a common objective.
They are disliked and mocked because they are usually futile, boring, time-
wasting, dull, and inconvenient with nothing for most people to do while
others tend to hang-on to issues already debated in the past. Your challenge is
to break this mould and to make your meetings effective. As with every other
managed activities, meetings should be planned beforehand, monitored for
effectiveness, and reviewed for management improvement purposes.
A meeting is the ultimate form of managed conversation. You can organise

the information and structure of the meeting to support the effective
communication of the participants. Some of the ideas below may seem a little too
precise for an easy going, relaxed, semi-informal team atmosphere - but if you
manage to gain a reputation for holding decisive, effective meetings, then people
will value this efficiency and begin to prepare professionally so that their
contributions will be heard.
5.2.2 Meeting Management - Conducting

Whether you actually Chair the meeting or simply lead from the side-lines, you
must provide the necessary support to coordinate the contributions of the
participants. The degree of control which you exercise over the meeting will vary
throughout. If you get the structure right at the beginning, a meeting can be run
effectively, especially if the participants know each other well. Working in a
team, you and your team members may share the responsibility of conducting
the meeting.

In conducting a meeting, the elements that need to be considered are as follows:
(a) Maintaining Communication

Your most important tools are:
Ć Clarification; always clarify the purpose of the meeting, the time
allowed, the rules to be observed (if agreed) by everyone.
Ć Summary; at each stage of the proceedings, you should summarise the
current position and progress: this is what we have achieved/agreed,
this is where we have reached.
Ć Focus on stated goals; at each divergence or pause, re-focus the
proceedings on the original goals.
(b) Code of Conduct

In any meeting, it is possible to begin the proceedings by establishing a
code of conduct, often by merely stating it and asking for any objections
(which will only be accepted if a better system is proposed). Thus, if the
group contains opinionated characters, you might all agree at the onset that
all contributions should be limited to two minutes (which focuses the
mind). You can then impose this with the full backing of the whole group.
(c) Matching Method to Purpose

The (stated) purpose of a meeting may suggest to you a specific way of
conducting the event, and each section might be conducted differently.
For instance, if the purpose is:
Ć To convey information: the meeting might begin with a formal

presentation followed by questions.
Ć To seek information: the meeting would start with a short (clear)

statement of the topic/problem and then an open discussion supported
by notes on a display, or a formal brainstorming session.
Ć To make a decision: the meeting might review the background and

options, establish the criteria to be applied, agree who should make the
decision and how, and then do it.
Ć To explain decisions: Once you have paused to ask yourself the

questions: „what is the purpose of the meeting and how can it be
achieved most effectively?‰ your common sense will then suggest a
working method to expedite the proceedings. You just have to
deliberately pause. Manage the process of the meeting and the meeting
will work.

(d) Support
The success of a meeting will often depend on the confidence with
which the individuals will participate. Thus, all ideas should be welcomed.
No one should be laughed at or dismissed („laughed with‰ is good,
„laughed at‰ is destructive). This means that even bad ideas should be
treated seriously and at least merit a specific reason for not being pursued
further. Not only is this supportive to the speaker, it could also be that a
good idea has been misunderstood and would be lost if merely rejected.
Avoid direct criticism of any person. For instance, if someone has not
come prepared then that fault is obvious to all. You should seek an
undertaking for the missing preparation to be done: „we need to know
this before we can proceed, could you circulate it to us by lunch
tomorrow?‰
ACTIVITY 5.4
What are the most important elements that need to be considered in

conducting a meeting?
5.2.3 Responding to Issues

The rest of this section is devoted to ideas of how you might deal with the
various issues associated with the volatile world of meetings. Some are best
undertaken by the designated Chairperson; but if he/she is ineffective, or if no
one has been appointed, as member you should feel free to help any meeting to
progress. These are some of the guidelines to handle such situations:
Ć If a participant moved away from the agenda item, call him/her back, for
example, „we should deal with that separately, but what do you feel about
the issue X?‰
Ć If there is confusion, you might ask, for example, „Do I understand correctly
that ...?‰
Ć If the speaker begins to ramble, wait until an inhalation of breath and jump in,
for example, „Yes I understand that such is the case, does any one disagree?‰
Ć If a point is too vague, ask for greater clarity, for example, „What exactly do
you have in mind?‰
Ć If someone interrupts (someone other than a rambler), you should suggest
that, for example, „We will hear your contribution after Y has finished.‰

Ć If people chat, you might either simply state your difficulty in

hearing/concentrating on the real speaker, or ask them a direct question, for
example, „What do you think about that point?‰.
Ć If someone gestures disagreement with the speaker (e.g. by a grimace), then
make sure they are brought into the discussion next, for example, „What
do you think, Gretchen?‰
Ć If you do not understand, say so, for example, „I do not understand that,
would you explain it a little more; or do you mean X or Y?‰
Ć If there is an error, look for a good point first, for example: „I see how that
would work if X Y Z, but what would happen if A B C?‰
Ć If you disagree, be very specific, for example, „I disagree because ...‰

Whether you are engaged in a face-to-face or electronic meeting, these
suggestions will help to ensure that your meetings are productive and
successful:
Ć Limit meeting length and the frequency of meetings;
Ć Make satisfactory arrangement in terms of time, date, media equipment and
expected participants;
Ć Distribute the meeting agenda well in advance;
Ć Encourage participation through brainstorming;
Ćĉ Maintain order in the meeting processes;
Ć Manage conflict carefully and try creating a more creative discussion
and superior outcome;
Ć Seek consensus from participants, to represent collective opinion of a group;
and
Ć Prepare minutes to ensure follow-up issues and tracking from decisions
and implementation of previous decisions made (Lehman and Dufrene, 2002).
5.3 COLLECTIVE IDENTITY

Generally, groups are formed to engage in solving problems and making
decisions to achieve certain identified common goals. Most of the time, oral
communication does the work. Nonetheless, working in groups can also be both
frustrating and rewarding. It can either facilitate or limit problem-solving
effectiveness.

Below are the characteristics of effective oral communication in a group:

(a) The atmosphere tends to be informed, comfortable, and relaxed.
(b) There is a lot of discussion in which virtually everyone participates, but it

remains pertinent to the task.
(c) The task or objective is well understood and accepted by the members. There
will be free discussion of the objective at some point, until it is formulated in
such a way that the group members could commit themselves to.
(d) The members listen to each other. Every idea is given a hearing. People do
not appear to be afraid of being foolish; they will offer a creative
thought even if it seems fairly extreme.
(e) There is disagreement. Disagreements are not suppressed or overridden

by premature action. The reasons are carefully examined, and the group
seeks to resolve disagreements rather than dominate dissenters.
(f) Most decisions are reached by consensus in which it is clear that everyone
in general and willing to go along. Formal voting is at a minimum; the
group does not accept a simple majority as a proper basis for action.
(g) Criticism is frequent, frank and relatively comfortable. There is little

evidence of personal attack, either openly or hidden.
(h) People are free to express their feelings and their ideas about the problem
and the groupÊs operation.
(i) When action is taken, clear assignments are made and accepted.
(j) The chairperson of the group does not dominate it, nor does the group
defer unduly to him or her. In fact, the leadership shifts from time to
time, depending on the circumstances. There is little evidence of a struggle
for power as the group operates. The issue is not who controls but how to
get the job done.
(k) The group is self-conscious of its own operation.
5.4 BRAINSTORMING
Another element found in oral communication is brainstorming. This is acquired by
generating ideas from group members at a particular session. It emphasises the right-
brain activity. It is a known fact that fresh ideas come from developing creative
problem solving skills, as well as from encouraging creativity in the workplace.

Brainstorming is a technique used to strike at frozen patterns of thinking and

encourage creativity. This method is used primarily to promote a free flow
of ideas that can be incorporated into the problem solving process. For instance,
although brainstorming is used most frequently when group members meet to
identify a solution, it can also be used to help identify the factors that cause a
problem, the criteria that a solution should meet, and the ways the solution could
be implemented.
To ensure that brainstorming sessions are successful, group members need to

adhere to certain guidelines:
(a) Temporarily suspend judgement; Do not evaluate or criticise ideas.

Instead, adopt a „try anything‰ attitude. This will encourage rather than
stifle the flow of ideas.
(b) Encourage freewheeling; The wilder the ideas that are offered, the better. At
this point, the practicality of an idea is not of primary importance.
(c) Think of as many ideas as you can; At this stage, it is the quantity, not the
quality of ideas that is important. The greater the number of ideas, the
better the chance of finding a good one. Thus, in a brainstorming session,
no self-censorship or group censorship is permitted. All ideas should be
expressed.
(d) Build on and improve or modify the ideas of others; Work to mix
ideas that have been generated during the session.
(e) Evaluate the ideas for usefulness and applicability; This is done only
after the brainstorming session is finished.
(f) Lessens the inhibitions of members and makes it easier for them to get their
ideas heard; Brainstorming is effective because it promotes a warmer,
more playful, enthusiastic and cooperative atmosphere; and encourages
each individualÊs potential for creativity.
5.5 OPINION GIVING

Opinion giving occurs in most interactions either in formal or informal business
communications. It is a vision of what can be achieved rather than factors or
general information. Yet, most people face difficulties in stating their opinion.

Opinion giving involves the following processes:
(a) Elaborating
Redefining suggestions and offering rationale for suggestions made and
try to determine results if suggestions were adopted by the group.
(b) Coordinating
Unifying ideas, suggestions and coordinating activities of group members.
(c) Orienting
Indicating the position of the group by summarising the progress made by
raising questions on the groupÊs direction.
(d) Evaluating
Comparing the groupÊs accomplishments to some standard. This includes
questioning the practicality, logic or procedure of a suggestion.
(e) Energising
Stimulating the group to action or decision, attempting to increase the
level or quality of activity.
(f) Assisting on Procedure

Helping or facilitating group movement by doing things for the group
such as performing routine tasks, for example distributing materials.
(g) Recording
Writing down suggestions, recording group decisions or outcomes of the
discussion.
ACTIVITY 5.5
What are the differences between brainstorming and opinion-giving?
5.6 GRAPEVINE COMMUNICATION

Grapevine communications grow along with formal communications; the more
active the formal communication system, the more active the informal system.
Not surprisingly, the grapevine also grows as the size of the organisation
increases.

The grapevine seems most likely to be used when:

Ć There is great change within the organisation;
Ć The information is new;
Ć Face-to-face communication is physically easy; and
Ć Workers „cluster in clique-groups along the vine‰.
The grapevine is most active immediately after communication occurs and

is most likely to be activated when the news concerns oneÊs intimates, friends,
and associates. It is unlikely to grow in climates that are stable and comfortable.
Change, ambiguity, and organisational secrecy nourish the grapevine.
When employees communicate with one another without regards to position

in the organisation, the factors directing the flow of information are more
personal. Since this is informal communication, personal information emerges
from interaction between people and the direction is unpredictable. This network
is referred to as grapevine or person-to-person method of relaying information
which cannot be obtained through official, formal channels.
Information obtained concerns „what someone said or heard‰ rather than

what was announced by authorities. This is an important aspect of oral
communication as it naturally occurs within the workplace and business
organisations. For instance, a particular technology that can upgrade the business
structure of a company is found in a magazine. This information may travel first
by word-of-mouth before reaching the company board of directors.
The following are the characteristics of the grapevine:

(a) Massively used through word-of-mouth interaction.
(b) Free from organisational and positional restraints.
(c) Moves information rapidly.
(d) The grapevine network is described as a cluster chain because each relayor
tends to cluster people rather than just one person.
(e) Appears to be more a product of the situation rather than the people
in the organisation.
(f) The predominant flow of information on the grapevine tends to occur
within functional groups rather than between them.
(g) Grapevine information is usually somewhat incomplete, lending itself to
misinterpretation even when the details are accurate.
(h) The grapevine tends to churn positive and negative implication upon the
organisation.

The understanding of the grapevine and how it contributes positively towards

the organisation is very important. Effective supervisor-subordinate
relationships seem crucial in order to know that information accepted on the
grapevine reveals something about employeesÊ feelings, even if the information is
incomplete.
SELF-CHECK 5.3
Have you ever experienced dealing with a salesperson who uses a

telephone to sell a product? How do you feel each time you receive
such a call? Is this a good way to sell a product?
5.7 TELEPHONE SKILLS

In a business environment, the telephone is used consistently. The telephone
conversation is a basic in any business communication. It has been used
extremely often even in international communication. Any telephone
conversation is simply a two-way communication. Your client or the other person
on the line will be able to form an opinion of you from this first contact. It is
easy to appear disorganised and unprofessional on the phone but conversely,
using it effectively will make you appear sharp and competent.
For business professionals, telephone conversations are crucial. These points will
help you in developing your own self-perception and increase your effectiveness
over the phone:
(a) Have an Aim

When making a call, always know what you want to discuss. Make sure
that you have all the documentation needed for this aim. This will save
both your time and the time of the person you are talking to.
(b) Tailor your Style to that of the Person you are Talking to
Busy people often prefer a clear cut and direct approach with a minimum of
social chat. Others may prefer a more sociable approach. Tailor your
approach to their style (unless they are miserable or rude).

(c) Limit Social Conversation

Social chat may be pleasant but if taken to extremes, is a waste of
time. It can also be frustrating if you have a lot of work to do.
(d) Give Concise Answers to Questions and Listen Attentively

Be professional, not dull and confusing.
(e) Summarise Points and Provide Necessary Feedback

At the end of the call, summarise the points and agree on what has
been said and what action is to be taken.
Figure 5.4 outlines some clues on telephone skills.
Figure 5.4: Some clues on telephone skills
5.7.1 Wireless Telephones and Their Courteous Use

In recent years, we have experienced the increasing use of wireless
telephone. According to Cingular Wireless (a major equipment and service
provider), more than half of all Americans own a wireless telephone. The benefits
of this technology have greatly expanded our ability to communicate orally.
5.7.2 Effective Voice Mail Techniques

Sometimes, when the person you called is not available, you will leave a voice
message in an electronic mailbox. You must be prepared to transmit complete
and concise messages. Be as courteous as possible and speak as clearly and
distinctly as possible. At the end, leave your number and close with a goodwill
message.

5.7.3 Teleconferencing
One technology that combines oral and video communication effectively is
videoconferencing. This has been around for a while but the advancement in
optical fibres, bandwith, software and chip technology will push
videoconferencing even further. Currently, its use is cost effective, saving
travel time and expenses, and it helps to eliminate many scheduling problems.
5.8 DICTATING MESSAGES IN ORAL

COMMUNICATION
In many instances, your business communication process will encourage you to
dictate many of the messages you receive. Developing good dictation skills
offers many advantages. Firstly, it is much faster than handwriting which permits
around 15 words per minute. The average person speaks at approximately 160
words a minute. Secondly, if you use dictation equipment, you can dictate
when you are ready. In some companies, you can even call in your dictation
from remote locations at any time. Activated systems are also applied for
personal computers. Some word processing packages already handle voice
input. As such, we will see an increase in its usage in the future.
5.8.1 Techniques of Dictating

The following is a summary of dictating techniques useful to you while
conducting business interactions with others:
(a) Gather Your Facts

The first step is to gather all of the information you need for the message.
This involves obtaining past correspondence from the files, consulting
with other employees and reviewing company policy.
(b) Plan the Message

With the facts gathered, begin planning the message. This process decides
on what your message will be and how you will present it.
(c) Give Preliminary Information and Instructions

The transcriptionist requires specific instructions which include the guide
to special handling, enclosures, form and page layout. It will also present
information such as the mailing address, subject line, attention line and
salutation.

(d) Make the Words Flow

To enable dictation, your words must flow consistently. Do not assume
that the transcriptionist or the dictation equipment will fully understand
the meaning of your words. With practice and revision, you will be able to
form clear and understandable words for dictation.
(e) Speak in Strong, Clear Voice

To avoid misinterpretation, your voice must be clear and strong with
reasonable speed. Be very careful when you use dictation equipment for it
may not produce voices as you expected.
(f) Give Paragraphing, Punctuation, and Other Mechanics Needed

How much paragraphing, punctuation and other mechanics needed will
depend on your transcriptionistÊs ability. Some may prove competent, but it
is worthwhile for you to dictate such information. It is also a good idea
to spell out difficult, confusing and unusual words and names such as suite
instead of sweet.
(g) Avoid Side Comments of the Message

Asides (side comments not intended to be part of the message) should be
avoided. They tend to confuse the transcriptionist, who must determine
which words are part of the message and which are not.
(h) Read Back Intelligently

Although you should try to talk through the message without interruption,
you will sometimes need to stop and get a read-back of what you have
dictated. However, do this only when necessary. When you are learning to
dictate, some confusion is normal. Until experience is gained, you may
profit from read-backs.
5.9 REPORTING ORALLY

In the broadest sense, an oral report is any presentation of factual information
and its interpretation using the spoken word. A business oral report would
logically limit coverage to factual business information. By this definition, oral
business reports cover much of the information and analysis exchanged daily
in the conduct of a business. They vary widely in formality. At one extreme,
they cover the most routine and informal reporting situations, and on the
other, they also include highly formal and proper presentations.
5.9.1 Differences between Oral and Written Reports

Oral reports are similar to written reports. Nonetheless, we will focus on the
most significant differences between oral and written reports, as shown below:

(a) Visual Advantage of the Written Word

This is the first difference between oral and written reports. Writing allows
greater use of visuals for communication than speaking. With writing, you
can use visuals to communicate the message and make important points
stand out. On the other hand, when you make an oral presentation, you are
not able to use any of these techniques. In oral reports, you can apply
inflections, pauses, volume emphasis and changes in the rate of delivery.
Depending on the situation, the techniques used in both oral and written
reports are effective in assisting communication.
(b) Reader Control of Written Presentation

A second significant difference between an oral and written report is that
readers of the written report, unlike the listeners of an oral report,
control the pace of communication. They can pause, reread, change their
rate of reading or stop when they choose. Since readers set the pace,
writing can be complex and still communicate. Listeners to an oral report
cannot control the pace of the presentation. They must completely
understand the intended meaning as the speaker presents words. Because
of this limiting factor, good oral reporting must be relatively simple.
(c) Emphasis on Correctness in Writing

The third significant difference is the degree of correctness required
by both reports. Written reports will be open to scrutiny and inspection.
Thus, a high degree of correctness is regarded during the preparation.
This includes grammar, punctuation, sentence structure and others.
However, when you present oral reports, the pressure is lighter, because
oral reports are not recorded for others to inspect at their leisure. Another
reason is because oral communication standards of correctness are less rigid
than written communication standards. However, you should apply the
best language structure and grammar. The differences between writing and
speaking: visual aspects, reader control, and correctness can become the
planning parts to improve your oral report. You will need to identify
these advantages of written reports as barriers to your oral report. You
must also be prepared with the means to overcome them. Such a process
is an essential preliminary step to the actual planning of oral reports.
5.9.2 Planning the Oral Report

Planning is the first logical step in constructing an oral report. For short, informal
oral reports, planning may be minimal. Formal oral reports particularly those
that involve audiences of more than one will demand exhaustive planning such
as for written reports.

(a) Determination of Report Objective

The fist task in planning is to determine your objective in clear, concise
language. Then, state the factors involved in achieving this objective. This
procedure gives you a guide to information you must gather and to
the framework around which your presentation is built. In determining
your report objective, you must be aware of your general objective such as
the general purpose in making a presentation. Is it to persuade, to inform to
recommend? This will be the major influence of your report materials and
the presentation itself.
(b) Organisation of Content

The process of organising an oral report is similar to the process of
organising a written report. You have a choice of organising it in a
direct or indirect order. Nonetheless, the same information is not
necessarily presented in the same manner, orally or in writing. Time
constraints might pose a need to present in direct order rather than
indirectly. Readers in a hurry can always skip to the conclusion of the
report if it is presented indirectly in writing but not in oral reports.
The most used order is the indirect order. This is due to several factors.
Your audience may not have much knowledge of the subject. As such,
introductory remarks may be required to make the message deliverable.
Such remarks may also be useful to arouse interest, stimulate curiosity, or
impress the audience with the importance of the subject. The main goals of
introductory remarks are to state the purpose, define unfamiliar terms,
explain limitations, describe scope and generally cover all the introductory
subjects.
In the body of the oral report, work towards the objectives you have set.
Here, the oral report closely resembles the written report. Division of
subject matter into comparable parts, logical order, introductory
paragraphs, concluding paragraphs and likewise is equally important to
both forms.
The major difference in both reports is the ending. Both forms may end
with a conclusion, a recommendation, a summary or a combination of the
three. However, the oral report is likely to present a final summary, whether or
not it has a conclusion or a recommendation. This final summary serves as
the executive summary by bringing together all the important information,
analysis, conclusions and recommendations in the report. It also assists the
memory by emphasising the points that should stand out. Oral and nonverbal
emphasis techniques also help to develop memory retention.

EXERCISE 5.2
In your department meetings, you have observed how the Chairman
plays his role. List five roles of a Chairperson during and after the
meeting.
• We have come to the end of the topic. The guidelines in developing

speeches/presentations, cultivating speakerÊs ability and addressing anxiety
should transform how you perceive communicating in the business world.
• As this is highly applicable in your future participation in any business
structure, you should equip yourself with all the guidelines provided, in
order to become a credible and excellent speaker.
• Besides that, topics such as meetings, oral presentations, speeches, telephone
conversations, oral reporting and dictating should give you an additional skill
in planning and conducting your business organisation.
• Finally, with the combination of ideas, presenting and dictating, you
should encounter the process of oral communication as a challenging process
in communicating.
Brainstorming Nonverbal behaviours

Collaborative presentations Opinion-giving
Collective identity Telephone skills
Grapevine communication Voice mail techniques
Speech anxiety

Topic 6 X Understanding
Listening
Behaviours
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Examine the importance of listening in business communication;
2. Explain the listening process;
3. Discuss the common barriers to effective listening; and
4. Demonstrate ability to be an active listener.
X INTRODUCTION
In the previous topic, we examined ways to communicate successfully in
an oral business setting. In this topic, we will look at another important
form of communication, which is listening. Receiving skills include aural
communication (listening) which is equally important as speaking and writing.
Yet, it is often forgotten and neglected by many people. We usually used this
skill while communicating with clients during meetings, receiving feedback
from oral presentations, and also during face-to-face interaction with friends
and acquaintances. Besides, we also listen while communicating through
telephone, during interviews, while arguing, while giving or receiving in-
structions, while making decisions based on information received orally, as
well as while generating and obtaining feedback. Misunderstandings that arise
from these relationships will normally occur due to our inability to listen. Poor
listening skills contribute to an unhealthy climate between people and may
lead to serious misunderstanding in business deals. Thus, this topic gives
you the opportunity to explore the listening process and its importance in
business communication. Discussions will focus on topics such as the
benefits of effective listening and the listening obstacles.

TOPIC 6 UNDERSTANDING LISTENING BEHAVIOURS W 95
6.1 LISTENING AND HEARING

SELF-CHECK 6.1
Communication process also takes place during your lectures. Make a
list of several functions of communication that you applied in your
learning.
The listening process exists in all communication contexts. We donÊt only listen
to the sounds that we hear and to what others say, but we also listen to what we
say aloud and what we say to ourselves. We spend each day at the office
listening to our colleaguesÊ discussion, instructions from our superior or speech
by the CEO.
Listening is an active and creative process in communication. Apart from being

able to convey and share ideas, listening skills will enable a listener to
comprehend the message sent to them. To be an effective communicator, a
person must be able to listen attentively and respond accordingly. This is
essential in any communication in business. You achieve information, gain
knowledge of others and most importantly, know yourself in the listening
process.
Hearing is only one part of the listening process. It is a physiological process

that occurs when sound waves are translated and processed by the central
nervous system. It occurs automatically and requires no conscious effort.
Unlike hearing, listening depends on a complex set of skills that must be
acquired. It is a deliberate process through which we seek to understand and
retain aural (heard) stimuli.
Listening is a process in which messages that are conveyed orally are

attended to, perceived, recognised, interpreted and stored for future use. It
is an external as well as internal process that is governed by the inner state of
the listener and requires an active, conscious effort to comprehend and
remember what is heard.

96 X TOPIC 6 UNDERSTANDING LISTENING BEHAVIOURS
In other words, when we listen, we assign meanings to stimuli and in the process
of assigning meaning, we are influenced by our perceptions, habits, attitudes and
goals. Apart from that, who we are and our culture also affects what we listen to.
A competent listener will listen attentively, learn to control internal and external
distractions, as well as take good notes while listening to others.
6.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF LISTENING IN

BUSINESS SETTINGS
Most business professionals spend a major part of their day listening and
speaking with bosses, supervisors, clients, customers and business associates.
Listening commonly consumes more of their time than reading, writing or
speaking. Listening is an interpersonal skill which is crucial in any business
setting. It depends on your ability to receive and decode both verbal and
nonverbal messages.
Individuals listen for many purposes such as:

Ć Interacting socially;
Ć Receiving information;
Ć Provide feedback to information received;
Ć Opinion giving;
Ć Problem solving;
Ć Sharing feelings; and
Ć Improving memory.
Each listening purpose requires different styles of listening and responding.
The important aspects of effective listening among business professionals are as follows:
(a) Effective listeners are well liked by people because they satisfy the basic
human need to be heard.
(b) It is most critical for effective communication improvement because
messages are received and understood.
(c) Listening encourages giving ideas and encourages creativity in
communicating.
(d) Accurate feedback from clients reflects good business potential.
(e) Effective listeners are constantly learning, gain knowledge and achieve job
satisfaction.
(f) Effective listening is important for career competence and promotion.
ACTIVITY 6.1
What are the differences between hearing and listening? How does
hearing affects listening?
6.3 THE LISTENING PROCESS

Wood (2001) outlines the listening process as being mindful, physically
receiving messages, remembering, interpreting, and responding.
(a) Being Mindful

Being mindful means being fully engaged in a particular situation. To be
mindful is to keep our mind on what is happening. When you are being
mindful, you do not let your thoughts wander from the present situation.
You do not think about what someone did yesterday or the argument you
had with your mother, nor do you focus on your own feelings and
issues. Instead, when you listen mindfully, you commit yourself ethically
with the people you are interacting with and try to hear without imposing
your own ideas, judgments, or feelings on them. You demonstrate
mindfulness by paying attention and indicating interest in what others say.
(b) Physically Receiving Messages

In addition to being mindful, listening involves physically receiving a
message. We might receive it by hearing words and sounds or signals.
Sometimes we physically receive a message first, and this causes us to
become mindful. In other instances, choosing to be mindful allows us to
receive communication we might otherwise not notice.
Receiving messages can be more effective by:

Ć Observing the verbal and nonverbal cues;
Ć Focusing your attention on the oral communication process;
Ć Avoiding interruptions while others are explaining or presenting ideas;
and
Ć Handling mental, physical and physiological distractions.

(c) Remembering
The third phase of listening is remembering. In most interpersonal
situations, messages are retained by note taking or recording. What we
select to attend to depends on many factors, including our interests,
cognitive structures, and expectations.
Many listening experts consider the final part of listening as remembering,

which is the process of retaining what you have heard. When you are
listening, it means you are paying attention to what someone is saying.
Therefore, remembering is a thinking process. It is the ability to recall what
is heard and memorised in our minds. Effective listeners retain basic ideas
and general impressions. By being selective about what to remember, we
enhance our listening competence. Selective focusing of attention is
particularly important when we are listening to public speeches, which
often present a great deal of information in a short period of time.
The remembering phase of listening will be more effective by:

Ć Identifying the central or main ideas in the message;
Ć Summarising the message;
Ć Taking note of significant points and not every word; and
Ć Remembering important concepts
(d) Interpreting
The fourth process involved in listening is interpreting the messages that
are communicated by others. Interpreting consists of judging the speakerÊs
intentions. This happens in business meetings, marketing presentations or
in personal arguments between friends. When we interpret, we put
together all that we have selected and try to make sense of the overall
situation.
Interpreting others objectively is equally important in professional and

interpersonal relationships. Recognising othersÊ viewpoint doesnÊt mean
that you have to share their perspectives. However, it requires you to make
an effort to understand their point of view. Thus, to interpret someone with
respect for their views is important.
(e) Responding
Effective listening also involves the act of responding or giving feedback.
You express interest and attention in voicing our own views. Responses
may occur during or after the speaker has stopped talking. Whether a
listener responds verbally or nonverbally, reflects their involvement in the
interaction even though they are not speaking.

The only way that others know how we are listening is through our
feedback. Feedback determines the success or failure of a speaker in
sending messages to the receiver. Good listeners show they are engaged by
giving signs of interest, actively listening to receive the intended message.
Indicators of involvement or engagement include response of involvement,
head nods, eye contact, and vocal cues such as „hmmm‰, „fine‰,
„impressive‰ and „go on‰. Other nonverbal cues such as facial expression
and body movements also act as feedback. In other situations, a person also
indicates disinterest if he appears to be bored or uninvolved (keeping
quiet) in any interactions.
Listening is an important aspect in oral communication. The inability to listen

will affect the ability to deliver responses and presentations. Table 6.1 below
summarises some of the elements involved in listening.
Table 6.1: Elements Involved in Listening
Elements Descriptions
Sensing Our ability to sense the words around us are determined by two
factors:
(a) How well our ears can pick them up. You may realise that all of
us hear differently although hearing aids can reduce our
differences in this respect.
(b) How attentive we are in listening. Based on your experience,

you may be able to recall words with all the intensity you could
handle. However, there are times when you could not even sense
the existence of those words. Most of the time, sensing words can
fall between these extremes.
Filtering The filtering process enables you to give meanings to the symbols you
sense. In this process, the contents of your mind serve as a sort of
filter through which you give meanings to the incoming messages.
This filter is formed by the unique contents of your mind: knowledge,
emotions, beliefs, biases, experiences, expectations, and such. Thus,
messages may be interpreted differently from person to person.
Remembering Remembering is a tricky process. Most of the time, we retain only a

little of what we hear, after several minutes or hours. At times, we
forget almost everything we hear. According to experts, we even
quickly forget most of the message in formal oral communications
(such as speeches), remembering only a bit after two days.

Figure 6.1 illustrates the complex process that involves being mindful,
physically receiving communication, remembering, interpreting, and
responding.
Figure 6.1: The listening process
ACTIVITY 6.2
In the listening process, what are the causes that make the messages
delivered to be interpreted differently from person to person.
6.4 GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE LISTENING

Improving your listening is largely a matter of mental conditioning, which is
concentrating on the activity of sensing. You may want to improve it, for
listening is a willful act. You may be tempted not to listen or you may find it
easier not to listen. Human beings have the ability to avoid work and listening is
mostly attributed to work.
After deciding to improve your listening ability, prepare your mental makeup.
This requires the disciplining of the mind, alertness and paying attention to
spoken words. To improve your sensing, you should work on the accuracy
of filtering. Think of the words as what the speakers intend them to be rather
than what the dictionary states what it would be. Try to think of the words in the
mind of the speaker, judging the speakerÊs words by the speakerÊs knowledge,
experiences, viewpoints and others.

The key guideline for effective listening is to adapt to specific communication

objectives and situation. Listening serves a variety of purposes, such as to:
Ć Learn;
Ć Entertain;
Ć Relate;
Ć Influence; and
Ć Help.
Improving the listening process involves a conscious attempt to focus on

key components of the communication process. Some steps identified to improve
listening skills are:
(a) Understanding the listening process;
(b) Committing to listening and listen attentively;
(c) Attempt to improve memory and mental recap;
(d) Providing supportive feedback; and
(e) Listen and read between words (paralanguage).
Due to the available feedback and nonverbal signs, you can enhance the
effectiveness of your face-to-face listening by following the suggestions as
indicated in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2: Suggestions to Enhance Face-to-Face Listening
Suggestions Descriptions
Control Emotions To improve interpretation and perception, listeners should be able
to control their emotions and biases in a communication event.
They should be able to distinguish between issues and
personalities and grasp the important messages.
Be Observant Gestures, facial expressions, and eye movements can add much to
the words used and the meaning intended. If the speaker cannot
look you in the eye, the sincerity of the remarks may be
questioned. Of course, the opposite is probably true: firm eye
contact may indicate added sincerity or firmness.
Provide Responses A listener should be able to acknowledge understanding,
agreement, disagreement, and a variety of other feedback or
responses through facial expressions, sounds, and gestures.
Listen Attentively Because people in a face-to-face communication are serving as
senders and receivers simultaneously, they may become so
preoccupied with thoughts about what to say that they fail to
listen.

EXERCISE 6.1
What is paralanguage?
6.5 BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE LISTENING
SELF-CHECK 6.2
Have you ever been in a situation where you simply cannot be mindful and
totally involved in all the messages that come your way? Why does this
situation occur?
There are various reasons which contribute to ineffective listening. Let us

examine the indicators of poor listening skills among people. The following
indicators shown in Table 6.3 will help us realise the poor listening habits
and try to reduce negative listening behaviours.
Table 6.3: Indicators of Poor Listening Habits
Indicators Descriptions
Receiving an above- This reflects that the face-to-face communication is
normal amount of ineffective and that written communication is the only
written communication channel available to send messages.
Missing important Poor listeners may attend meetings but miss a lot of
discussions information. They will probably be left out of many
important decision making or discussions that is vital to
the organisations. Others may also perceive poor listeners
as unreliable, slow, inefficient, irresponsible and lazy.
Reacting to problems Poor listeners who do not pay attention could not
rather than preventing anticipate future problems that may occur. They only
them become aware of problems at last minute and the
problems are often unsolved. Poor listeners are often
manipulated by others.

EXERCISE 6.2
What are the importances of listening in many communication

settings?
EXERCISE 6.3
List all the bad listening habits that you have learned in this topic.
Now, let us examine the obstacles to good listening which arise in communication.
These are:
Ć Situational Obstacles
Ć Environmental Factor and Distractions
Ć Internal Obstacles
6.5.1 Situational Obstacles

Learning about situational hindrances to listening can help us to guard against
them or compensate for the interference they create. Among the situational
obstacles are as follows:
(a) Message Overload

Message overload occurs when we receive more messages than we can
effectively process. Each day we are updated by messages from media
(newspapers, magazines, television, radio), electronic systems (email,
telephone, Internet, bulletin boards, faxes), and other people (parents, friends,
children, teachers, supervisors, subordinates). We simply cannot be mindful
and totally involved in all the messages that come our way. Instead, we
have to make choices about which communication needs our attention.
Message overloads often occur in business settings, such as meetings,

brainstorming exercises and group discussions. They may also occur
simultaneously in multiple channels. For instance, you might suffer from
an information overload if a speaker is presenting information orally while
showing a slide with complex statistical data. In such a situation, itÊs
difficult to decide whether to focus your listening energy on the visual or
the oral message.

(b) Complex Messages

Listening may also be impeded by message complexity, which exists when
a message that we are trying to understand is highly complex, packed with
detailed information, or involves intricate reasoning. The more detailed
and complicated the ideas are, the more difficult to follow and retain.
Many jobs today are so specialised that communication among co-workers

involves highly complex messages. We attempt to tune out people who
use technical vocabularies, focus on specifics and use complex sentences.
Effective communicators usually make an effort to reduce the complexity of
their messages and avoid unnecessary jargon. When speakers fail to
translate complex ideas into understandable language, effective listeners
have to put in extra effort. When listening to a message that is complex
and full with information, taking notes can improve retention.
6.5.2 Environmental Factors and Distractions

The second impediment to effective listening is environmental distractions.
Sounds around us can divert our attention or even make it difficult to hear
clearly. For example, during a rally or a football match, you need to shout when
talking to the person next to you. Although most sounds are not as
overwhelming as the roar of a crowd, noise exists in all communication
situations. It might be a television in the background, side comments during a
conference, or muffled traffic sounds from the highway.
To listen effectively, we should reduce environmental distractions. It is

considerate to turn off the radio when talking to someone or when discussing
certain issues at the workplace. Closing a door eliminates hallway noises. Private
conversations can be deferred to the end of a group meeting so that they do not
interfere with listening.
Professionals often have their phone calls put on hold when they are talking with
clients or business associates. Even when we are not able to eliminate distractions,
we can reduce them or move away to a location that is more conducive for good
listening.
6.5.3 Internal Obstacles to Listening

In addition to situational impediments, internal factors within us can also hinder
listening habits. These are:
(a) Preoccupation
One of the most common hindrances to listening is preoccupation. When
we are absorbed with our thoughts and concerns, we cannot focus on what

someone else is saying. Perhaps you have attended a class right before
taking a test in another class and later realise that you got virtually nothing
out of the first class. That is because you were preoccupied with the
upcoming test. If you open your e-mail box and discover twenty unread
messages, you may be preoccupied by feeling obligated to read and
respond to each of them. However, you will not focus on reading and
responding to each one as you open them. This is because, when we are
preoccupied with our thoughts, we are not focussed.
(b) Making Prejudgments

The second internal obstacle to good listening is the tendency to prejudge
others or their ideas. Sometimes we think that we already know what
someone will say, so we do not listen carefully. In other cases, we decide in
advance that others have nothing to offer to us, so we tune them out. If a
co-worker has never come out with ideas that impressed you in the past,
you might assume that the same situation will happen in todayÊs
conversation. However, the risk is that you might miss a good idea.
Keeping an open mind when listening to topics or speakers with whom
you disagree is also advisable. You can miss out on important information
and perspectives if you prejudge speakers or topics.
We also make prejudgments when we read minds. This happens when we

assume that we already know what other people feel and think.
Prejudgment can lead us to misinterpret what they really mean because we
fail to listen to them carefully.
Prejudgments are unfair to other people because they deny their voices.
Instead of listening openly to them, we absorb their words into our
preconceived mind-sets. When we impose our prejudgments on othersÊ
words, at the relationship level of meaning we express a disregard for them
and what they say. Prejudgments also affect the content level of meaning
because we may not grasp important content when we decide in advance
that someone has nothing valuable to say.
(c) Lack of Effort

Listening is hard work. We have to be mindful, focus on what others say,
interpret and organise messages, remember, and respond. We also have
to control distractions inside ourselves and in all situations. Sometimes
we are not willing to listen. In other instances, we want to listen, but we are
tired, ill, or distracted by others. When this happens, it is effective to
postpone interaction until you are ready to listen mindfully.

(d) Not Aware of Diverse Listening Styles

A final hindrance to effective listening is not recognising and adjusting to
different listening styles that reflect diverse cultures and social groups. For
example, the Nepalese people give little vocal feedback during a
conversation because they consider it disrespectful to make sounds while
someone else is talking. Other cultures exhibit differences in listening rules
based on age, ethnicity, gender and other aspects of identity.
Do you know what causes bad listening habits? Table 6.4 summarises the
elements of bad listening habits.
Table 6.4: Bad Listening Habits
Elements Descriptions
Faking Have you ever been called upon by an instructor to answer a

Attention question in class because you were not listening? Have you ever
had a parent, friend, or fellow worker ask you a question and find
you werenÊt listening? Have you ever left a lecture and later
realised that you have no idea what went on? Have you ever been
introduced to someone only to find thirty seconds later that you
missed the name?
Welcome Listening properly requires both physical and emotional effort. As

Disruptions a result, people welcome disruptions when they are engaged in
somewhat difficult listening.
Overlistening Overlistening occurs when listeners attempt to record in writing or

memory so many details that they miss the speakerÊs major points.
Stereotyping Most people use their prejudices and perceptions of others as a

basis for developing stereotypes. As a result, people make
spontaneous judgments about others based on their appearances,
mannerisms, dress, speech delivery, and other criteria which play
a role in their judgments.
Dismissing People tend to use ÂuninterestingÊ as a rationale for not listening.

Subjects As Unfortunately, the decision is usually made before the topic is ever
Uninteresting introduced. A good way to lose an instructorÊs respect is to ask,
„Are we going to have anything important in class today?‰ if you
have to (or want to) miss that dayÊs class.
Failing To Good listening requires use of eyes as well as ears. To listen

Observe effectively, you must observe the speaker. Facial expressions and
Nonverbal Aids body motions always accompany speech and contribute much to
message. Unless you watch the speaker, you may miss the
meaning.

ACTIVITY 6.2
Are you a good listener? Justify your answer.
6.6 STYLES OF EFFECTIVE LISTENING

Because you listen for different purposes, the principles of effective listening
should vary from one situation to another. The following five dimensions of
listening illustrate the appropriateness of different listening modes for different
communication situations.
(a) Passive Listening

The general key to effective listening in interpersonal situations is active
participation. Perhaps the best preparation for participatory listening is to
act (physically and mentally) like a participant.
Effective participatory listening is expressive. Let the listener know that

youÊre participating in the communication interaction. Nonverbally,
maintain eye contact, focus your concentration on the speaker rather
than on others present, and express your feelings facially. Verbally, ask
appropriate questions, signal understanding with ÂI seeÊ or ÂYes,Ê and
express agreement or disagreement as appropriate.
Passive listening is, however, not without merit, and some recognition of
its value is warranted. Passive listening is listening without talking or
directing the speaker in any obvious way-is a powerful means of
communicating acceptance. This is the kind of listening that people ask for
when they say, „Just listen to me‰ TheyÊre essentially asking you to
suspend your judgment and Âjust listen.Ê Passive listening allows the
speaker to develop his or her thoughts and ideas in the presence of
another person who accepts but does not evaluate, and who supports
but does not intrude. By listening passively, you provide a supportive
and receptive environment. Once that has been established, you may
wish to participate in a more active way, verbally and nonverbally.
(b) Empathic and Objective Listening

If you want to understand what a person means and what a person is
feeling, you need to listen empathically: feel with them, see the world as
they see it, feel what they feel. Although empathy is preferred in most
situations, at times you need to go beyond empathy and look at the
situation more objectively. It is important to listen to a friend telling you

how the entire world hates him or her and to understand how your friend
feels and why. But at times you may need to look a bit more objectively at
the situation and perhaps see beyond what your friend sees. Sometimes
you have to put your empathic responses aside and listen with objectivity
and detachment.
(c) Nonjudgemental and Critical Listening

Effective listening involves listening nonjudgmentally to help you
understand and listening critically in order to make an evaluation or
judgment. Listen first with an open mind to help you better understand the
messages, and then supplement it with critical listening.
Avoid distorting messages through oversimplications or leveling-the

tendency to eliminate details and to simplify complex messages so that
theyÊre easier to remember. Also avoid filtering out unpleasant or
undesirable messages; you may miss the very information you need to
change your assumptions or your behaviors.
(d) Surface and Depth Listening

In most messages, there is an obvious meaning that a literal reading of the
words and sentences reveals. But there is often another level of meaning.
Sometimes, itÊs the opposite of the expressed literal meaning; sometimes it
seems totally unrelated. In reality, few messages have only one level of
meaning. Most function on two or three levels at the same time.
When listening interpersonally, be particularly sensitive to different levels

of meaning. If you respond only to the surface-level communication (the
literal meaning), youÊll miss the opportunity to make meaningful contact
with the other personÊs feelings and real needs. For example, if you say to
your parent, ÂYouÊre always complaining. I bet you really love working so
hard,Ê you may be failing to answer a very real call for understanding and
appreciation.
DonÊt disregard the literal (surface) meaning of interpersonal messages

in your attempt to uncover the more hidden (deep) meanings. If you do,
youÊll quickly find that your listening problems disappear: no one will talk
to you anymore. Balance your attention between the surface and the
underlying meanings.

(e) Active and Inactive Listening

Active listening is one of the most important communication skills you can
learn (Gordon 1975). Consider the following brief comments and some
possible responses:
Aminah : That creep gave me a C on the paper. I really worked on

that project, and all I get is a lousy C.
Aliza : ThatÊs not so bad; most people got around the same grade.
I got a C, too.
Aaron : So what? This is your last semester. Who cares about

grades anyway?
Arumugam : You should be pleased with a C. Peggy and Munu both

failed, and John and Chong got Ds.
Diana : You got a C on that paper you were working on for the
last three weeks? You sound really angry and hurt.
All four listeners are probably eager to make Aminah feel better, but they
go about it in very different ways and, you can be sure, with very different
outcomes. The first three listeners give fairly typical responses. Aliza and
Aeron both try to minimize the significance of a C grade, a common
response to someone who has expressed displeasure or disappointment.
Usually, itÊs also inappropriate. Although well-intentioned, this response
does little to promote meaningful communication and understanding.
Arumugam tries to give the C grade a more positive meaning. Note,
however, that all three listeners also say a great deal more: that Aminah
should not be feeling unhappy, that these feelings are not legitimate.
These responses deny the validity of these feelings and put Aminah in
the position of having to defend them.
Diana, however, is different. Diana uses active listening, a process of

sending back to the speaker what the listener thinks the speaker meant,
both literally and emotionally. Active listening does not mean simply
repeating the speakersÊ exact words. It is rather a process of putting into
some meaningful whole your understanding of the speakerÊs total
message-the verbal and the nonverbal, the content and the feelings.

(f) Purpose of Active Listening

Active listening serves a number of important purposes.
Ć It shows that youÊre listening, and often that is the only thing the
speaker really wants; to know that someone cares enough to listen.
Ć It helps you check how accurately you have understood what the
speaker said and meant. By reflecting back what you perceive to be the
speakerÊs meaning, you give the speaker an opportunity to confirm,
clarify, or amend your perceptions. In this way, future messages have a
better chance of being relevant and purposeful.
Ć Through active listening, you express acceptance of the speakersÊ

feelings. Note that in the sample responses given, the first three listeners
challenge the speaker; they refuse to give the expressed feelings
legitimacy. The active listener accepts the speaker. The speakerÊs
feelings are not challenged; rather, theyÊre echoed in a sympathetic and
empathic manner.
Ć In active listening you prompt the speaker to further explore his or her
feelings and thoughts. The active listening response gives the speaker
the opportunity to elaborate on these feelings without having to defend
them. Active listening sets the stage for meaningful dialogue, a dialogue
of mutual understanding. In stimulating this further exploration, active
listening also encourages the speaker to resolve his or her own conflicts.
As stressed throughout this discussion, listening is situational; the type of

listening that is appropriate varies with the situation. You can visualise a
listening situation as one in which you have to make choices among at least the
five dimensions of listening just discussed. Each listening situation should call
for a somewhat different configuration of listening responses; the art of effective
listening is largely one of making appropriate choices along these five
dimensions.
ACTIVITY 6.3
Good listening takes energy, but not practice. Do you agree with this
statement? Give reasons for your answer.

To explore more about effective listening, visit these websites:

http://www.mapnp.org/library/commskls/listen/listen.htm
http://bbll.com/ch02.html
• Poor listeners are annoying to others. It is a major cause of

miscommunication.
• Obviously, poor listening skills are costly for any business and personal
relationships.
• Our own attitude can be the greatest barrier to effective listening. Listening,
or at least good listening demands the whole of your mind and heart.
• Businessman must possess and desire to listen attentively.
• Effective listeners participate actively in the communication process.
• That is why the challenge to become an excellent listener is such an exciting
one.
• Few of us may become great speakers, but great listening is just within our
grasp.
Depth listening Paralanguage

Effective listening Passive listening
Filtering Remembering
Internal obstacles Sensing
Nonjudgemental and critical listening Situational obstacles
Objective listening

Topic 7 X Fundamentals
of Written
Communication
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Recognise the importance of written communication;
2. Explain the writing processes;
3. Evaluate the key steps in developing written documents; and
4. Apply writing skills to improve your written business
communication.
X INTRODUCTION
We have learned in the previous topic that oral communication is essential
in business communication. Whether you choose to communicate orally or in
writing, the effectiveness of your communication in business requires the ability
to convey messages effectively.
Written communication begins with messages. Effective writing and assuring

your communication appeal to the reader are critical elements to business
success. Building good communication with consumers or business associates
involves structuring messages that can effectively convey the intended meaning.
In order to achieve the desired results, business professionals need to employ
important techniques in everyday business. We know that written
communication is common in the workplace. Since it is important for it to be
effective, it is therefore necessary to plan every communication. In this topic, you
will learn the fundamentals of written business communication and the process
involved in composing effective messages.

TOPIC 7 FUNDAMENTALS OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION W 113
7.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF WRITTEN

COMMUNICATION IN BUSINESS
SELF-CHECK 7.1
Based on your understanding, what are the advantages of written
communication over spoken communication?
Writing is a critical success factor in todayÊs business setting. In business

correspondence we involve ourselves in many forms of written communication
such as written messages, business reports, e-mail, notes or letters to our business
counterparts. Mastering writing skills is therefore very important.
Written communication has many advantages over spoken communication. The

advantages are:
(a) Written Messages are Long Lasting

They can be filed for future reference. They form a permanent record of all
business operations, transactions and reports. In business, a major
advantage of written communication is the identical copy of a particular
message by the sender and the receiver. The E-mail messages for
example, can be stored electronically or printed and stored in traditional
files.
(b) The Written Message or Document is a Confirmation of a Decision Being

Made in a Business Dealing
The written record however provides the basis for future discussion or final
settlement between clients. Written messages in other words have legal
value. In certain business decisions or situations, letters, reports and
memos act as contracts.
(c) Written Messages can be Read Continuously

Written messages can be read as many times as needed to
understand their content. This is important if a message is complex.
(d) Written Messages can be Revised Many Times before They are Sent to
Clients
Effective messages provide the receiver clear, specific messages that can be
understood easily. You can check to ensure the content is correct. Sentences
can be rearranged; words can be rephrased. Writing clear sentences saves
time and effort for the receiver and sender and this leads to a strong

114 X TOPIC 7 FUNDAMENTALS OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
business relationship. Electronic resources such as spell check and

grammar can be used, as messages are drafted, revised, and edited. In other
words, messages can be delivered quickly, inexpensively and reliably.
(e) Written Messages are Flexible

Written messages via e-mail offers great flexibility in reaching potential
business associates anywhere in the world. Messages can be sent to many
receivers at the same time and copies to others too. Different messages can
be directed to many receivers at different locations. It also promotes
message comprehension and recall. Written messages are convenient for
both the sender and the receiver.
(f) Written Messages can be Prepared and Read Anytime

Another advantage of written communication is the time given to the
writer to prepare an effective message. The sender can prepare the message
at a location other than his or her office and can do so during or outside
regular work hours. Simultaneously, the receiver may also read the
message at any time or place he or she wishes to do so.
ACTIVITY 7.1
Can you name as many types of communication in business,
which involves writing? Can you identify between a formal and
informal business correspondence?
7.1.1 Types of Written Communication

There are many types of written communication. The lists are as follows:
Ć Memos
Ć Letters
Ć Reports
Ć E-mail
Ć Newspapers
Ć Correspondence
Ć Legal documents
Ć Magazines
Ć Manuals

Ć Bulletins
Ć Directories
Ć Annual reports
Ć Job descriptions
Ć Announcements
Ć Speeches
Ć Flyers
Ć Research
Ć Development reports
Ć Writing and dictating notes
Ć Minutes of meeting
SELF-CHECK 7.2
Are all written messages appropriate for every situation? Compare
and contrast the advantages between face-to face and written
communication in business.
Writing practice in business normally involves using simple and informal

words. However, business writing such as legal documents, high-level
government reports or dissertations are expected to be formal. Table 7.1
summarises the differences between formal and informal words.
Table 7.1: Formal and Informal Words in Business Correspondence
Formal Words Informal Words

Utilise Use
Terminate End
Elucidate Explain
Preposterous Unreasonable
Obstruct Prevent

EXERCISE 7.1
Can you suggest five techniques that can help you learn to write in the
fewest words possible?
7.2 THE WRITING PROCESS

The writing process for business messages involves five (5) distinct steps:
(a) Determining the writing purpose;
(b) Determining the reader (receiver or audience);
(c) Planning and organising the message;
(d) Writing the business message; and
(e) Completing business messages.
7.2.1 Determining the Writing Purpose
SELF-CHECK 7.3
Can you determine between the general purpose and the specific
purpose of the message?
In determining the purpose of writing, think through and ask yourself why you
are writing and what you hope to accomplish. Messages to inform are most
probably used to convey the day to day operations of the business. In most cases,
business professionals involve themselves in responding to written documents or
letters sent by others. Other types of messages may intend to persuade or to
influence when used to sell or promote a product or services.
You must consider whether your purpose of writing is required and worth
pursuing. After identifying the purpose, decide what channel is most
appropriate, most economical and able to deliver in a short period of time. Bear
in mind that different types of messages require different communication
channels and media. Selecting an appropriate channel increases the likelihood
that your audience will understand and accept your message.

Table 7.2: Guidelines to Prepare a Written Business Communication
Guidelines Descriptions
Identifying Key Decision If you can reach them in your audience, other
Makers audience members will fall into place.
Determining Audience Size A report for a large audience requires a more formal
style, organisation, format than one directed to three
or four colleagues in your department.
Looking for Common Interests Include evidence that touches on everyoneÊs area of
interest.
Estimating Audience If your audience shares your general background,

Understanding they will understand your material with little
difficulty. If not educate them, gauge their level of
understanding.
Predicting Audience Reactions Consider whether your audience will react positively
or negatively, with interest or disinterest.
7.2.2 Determining the Reader (Receiver or Audience)

Knowing your audience is critical for developing messages and tailoring your
message accordingly. You might have to respond to a Manager or supervisor, a
factory operator or a CEO, or a General Manager from a multinational Company.
In such cases, you will probably know who to address, the purpose of writing
and the tone, whether it should be written in a formal or informal message to fit
the specific needs of the reader. On the other hand, communication with those
you do not know requires additional effort as you prepare to adapt the message
to your potential reader. This normally happens if a business professional is
introducing a particular product or service to potential clients.
7.2.3 Planning and Organising Business Messages
SELF-CHECK 7.4
Good planning reduces time spent in revising and helps ensure the
success of the communication process. What should be planned and
how to organise the messages?
Before you compose your message, you will most likely need to gather some
information to communicate to your audience. When writing long, formal
reports, formal research is conducted to locate and analyse information relevant
to your purpose and audience. Be careful when deciding what information to

include in your message. There are a few tips to bear in mind when providing
required information:
(a) Test the completeness of your message which answers all the important
questions: who, what, when, where, why, and how.
(b) Gather the materials, data, references and thoughts you need to begin your
first draft.
(c) Be certain that the information you provide is accurate. Check with the
appropriate people before you make statements.
(d) Include enough detail to avoid misleading your audience.
(e) Choose and emphasise points that will especially interest your reader.
7.2.4 Writing Business Messages

When you have completed the organising stage, know what you are writing and
have identified the reader or receiver, the best thing to do is start writing. Writing
is a work in progress. Creating your first draft is the most difficult part in a
writing process. Preparing a good outline will help you begin writing your
report or document comfortably. Bear in mind that different documents require
different approaches to writing. A one-page letter requires less preparation
compared to a business proposal or report.
A well organised report saves time, helps you to strengthen relationships with
your business associates and thus improves work and communication efficiency.
It also helps your audience understand your message well when you have:
Ć A clear subject and purpose.
Ć Facts and figures closely related to the subject and purpose.
Ć Ideas logically arranged and supported by the required information.
ACTIVITY 7.2
Why is preparing a good outline important before writing any

business report?

7.2.5 Completing and Presenting Business Messages

Good writers make their drafts better by reviewing, editing and proofreading.
After completing your first draft, stop for a while and then return to your
message. Do not rush a business document into print without checking the
content and spelling. When reviewing, you might need to add or delete
unnecessary information and make sure your points are adequately supported.
As you revise, be sure to read the message or write-up through from start to
finish. You may need to add transitions, correct spelling or typo errors, delete
repetitive words or sentences, or change words to create a better-written
document. A few questions you may consider before printing the document:
(a) Is the main point outlined clearly?
(b) Is the language appropriate, understandable and concise?
(c) Is the data correct?
(d) Is the format appropriate?
(e) Is it answering the purpose of writing?
(f) Has it been proofread?
(g) Does it meet the standards of a good business document?
(h) Has it been edited by you or a second reader?
(i) Is the tone appropriate?
Even good writers need to edit their writing. Editing should always follow
revision. There is no point in taking time to fix a grammatical error in a sentence
that may be cut when you clarify your meaning or tighten your writing style.
Check to be sure that the following are accurate:

(a) Sentence structure
(b) Subject-verb and noun-pronoun agreement
(c) Punctuation
(d) Right tone to convey your intentions
(e) Word usage
(f) Spelling ă including spelling of names
(g) Numbers
(h) Paragraphing unity and coherence

Reviewing and editing are the best ways to ensure the quality of your messages
so that they achieve the purpose or writing.
Give the editing task the highest priority for important or lengthy, complex
messages such as reports or formal business documents. This is your opportunity
to strengthen your word choice, sentence development, and paragraph
formation. You can check that you have used the chosen organisational plan
effectively.
You may edit some messages many times. Long business reports often are
revised and edited more than once. Be clear, concise, and ensure your tone is
appropriate for your reader and be sure it is businesslike.
The proofreading task is different from revising and editing. It involves checking
each word to ensure it is spelled correctly using proper punctuation and
grammar, to see that sentences are complete and properly constructed, and
that your format meets appropriate standards of a business correspondence.
To proofread, you must slow down your reading speed so you see each
individual letter. Proofreading is somehow difficult because the writer tends
to see what they know should be there rather than what really is there. Since
it is always easier to proof something you have not written, you may want to
swap papers with a proofing buddy among colleagues.
In closing the last paragraph, make your action clear and complete if you want
the reader to do something. You should end the correspondence with a positive,
courteous thought. Keep you last paragraph concise and correct.
EXERCISE 7.2
Give examples of a positive and courteous thought to close a business

correspondence.
The advancement of technology provides a number of electronic tools for

proofreading. Electronic proofreading involves using the grammar and spell
check features of word processing software. It is faster and easier to compose,
edit, format and send written documents via e-mail. Formats can be found
through the Internet.
Technology allows the writing process to take place almost anywhere. However,
technology poses some limitations. You should remember that spell checkers

and grammar checkers are tools, but only tools. Because they do not locate all
types of errors or automatically make changes, these tools merely supplement
good proofreading. A spell checker, for example, would not identify a
keyboarding (form/from) or word choice (principle/principal) error. Figure 7.1
summarises the common errors in writing.
Figure 7.1: Common errors in writing
ACTIVITY 7.3
What are the differences between proofreading and editing tasks?
EXERCISE 7.3
State the differences between revising, editing and proofreading.
To know more about effective business writing, go to:

http://www.ag.iastate.edu/aginfo/communication.html
http://www.cs.unc.edu/~jbs/sm/Part3_ltrsmemos.html
http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/bldsent.html

• Written communication is the root activity of business. Written skills are

essential for business to succeed.
• Your ability to convey messages clearly and effectively will have a direct
bearing on the success you achieve and the business you are in.
• In todayÊs competitive world of business, one canÊt afford the risk of
communicating or delivering unclear written messages, unethical or
insensitive messages.
• It is not enough just to be good at individual business as marketing
professionals, salesperson, accounting Manager or finance; you must be able
to communicate your ideas to those around you.
• In a very real sense, communicating will be your job. Improving your writing
skills may take a little time, but it wonÊt be difficult especially if you are
determined and willing to learn, identify your strength and weaknesses and
make an effort to improve.
Editing
Electronic proofreading
Formal words
Proofreading
Revising

T op i c 8 X Types of
Business
Correspondence
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify the importance of effective writing for business;
2. Elaborate how letters, memos, and e-mail messages differ in format;
3. Formulate the strategy for writing informative and positive messages;
and
4. Assess the three categories of brief messages correspondence.
X INTRODUCTION
Whether you choose to communicate orally or in writing, the effectiveness
of your communication relates directly to your understanding and application of
the principles, processes, and goals of business communication. Business
professionals are frequently called upon to prepare or draft written documents
such as letters, memorandum, reports, and business proposals to their senior
executive or bosses.
As what have learnt in the previous topic, there are numerous types of
written business communication in business. In this topic, we will discuss the
fundamentals of composing effective messages in memorandums, e-mail and
business letters as a form of business correspondence. Three types of brief
business messages will be discussed in this topic, namely positive, negative and
persuasive messages.

124 X TOPIC 8 TYPES OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE
8.1 COMPOSING EFFECTIVE WRITTEN

DOCUMENTS
SELF-CHECK 8.1
In this age of advanced communication technology, do you think
letters are still viable where business communication is concerned?
The effective business communicator requires competent writing skills. The

words you choose as well as your writing style, tone, sentence length and
how you express yourself will be determined by whom youÊre writing for and
the reasons for writing. How do you compose a letter for claims, complaints,
confirmation, job seeking or to sell a product or service. The process of
composing an effective written document should consider the following factors:
Ć Who are the audience or receivers
Ć What is the message
Ć Your reasons for writing
Ć The outcome you expect
What should you consider before you start composing a message? Here are some
guidelines for an effective business correspondence:
(a) Pre writing;
(b) Deciding the objective of the message;
(c) Picture the receiverÊs interest;
(d) Choose ideas to appeal to the receiver and to achieve the objective;
(e) Gather facts to support and strengthen ideas;
(f) Organise the information to be included;
(g) Draft and create the outline;
(h) Edit and revise the draft; and
(i) Review final draft.
8.2 BUSINESS LETTERS, MEMORANDUMS

AND E-MAIL MESSAGES
Getting written information to the people who need it and receiving written
information from the people who have it are easier if you understand the
differences among letters, memos, and e-mail messages.

TOPIC 8 TYPES OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE W 125
SELF-CHECK 8.2
Writing an effective business letter is an important skill for every
manager and business owner. Based on your understanding, what are
the steps in creating an effective business letter?
8.2.1 Business Letters

The medium that is used most often for written messages to internal and
external business associates or individuals is the business letter.
A business letter conveys messages and nonverbal impressions that

affect a readerÊs attitude even before they start reading the content of the
letter. It is written from one business firm to another or from a business
to an individual client. Personal business letters are written by individuals
to business organisations.
A letter enables the writer to communicate in writing with another person.

In most business, a letter is written for various purposes such as to inform,
introduce, persuade, or as a response to a request for information. Formal business
letters include specific facts and not just general statements. It is therefore
important to use the appropriate style suitable for you and your receiver.
Most business letters appear on letterhead stationery, which includes the

companyÊs name and address and other contact information. The first thing to
appear after the letterhead is the date. Next comes the inside address, which
identifies the person receiving the letter. After that comes the salutation, usually
in the form of Dear Mr. or
Ms. Last Name. The message comes next, often running several paragraphs and
sometimes running over to a second page. After the message is the
complimentary close, usually Sincerely or Cordially. Lastly comes the signature
block: space for the signature, followed by the senderÊs printed name and title.
In general, standard parts of a business letter consist of:

• Heading or letterhead
• Date of the letter
• ReceiverÊs address
• SenderÊs address

• Salutation
• Body (content)
• Closing
• Signature of the sender
• Designation
• Reference initials
Figure 8.1: An example of a typical letter
Visit this website to view an example of a simple, clear layout style for letters in
English: http://www.business-english-training.com/sampleletter.jpg

SELF-CHECK 8.3
How are memorandums different from letters? Is it a primary medium
of written communication within companies or between companies?
8.2.2 Memorandums
Memorandums or what are commonly known as memos, interoffice memos
and interdepartmental communication are another form of written
communication within companies. Memos are the most common form of written
communication between employees or departments in any business organisation.
The advantage of a written memo is that it provides a concise, rapid and
convenient means of communication.
You can identify the differences between a memo and a letter by their form.
Memos are commonly used for communication with superiors, colleagues, or
subordinates at the workplace. A memo is a written document following a
format commonly used for instructions, announcements, requests, confirmation,
clarification, recommendations or proposals. Therefore, a well written memo
is important to ensure the reader or receiver understands the message you are
communicating.
Memo formats may differ from one organisation to another. A standard memo as
shown in Figure 8.2 consists of:
Ć A heading;
Ć Body; and
Ć Closing.
The heading of a Memo contains the following items:

(a) TO: [Name and designation of receiver (s)]
(b) FROM: [Name and designation of sender(s)]
(c) DATE: [Date of the memo being written]
(d) SUBJECT: [Topic of the message]
The body of the memorandum is where your message is. It is the most important
part because of the main messages to be sent to the receiver(s). In general,
memoÊs lack salutation and have no complimentary close or signature. Due to
their open construction and informal method of delivery (either interoffice
mail or e-mail), memos are less private than letters. Good memos discuss one
topic and use a conversational tone.

Figure 8.2: Interoffice memo
Why do we write memos and what are the importances of memos? Memos offer
a number of advantages, such as:
(a) Memos can be used to communicate with many people in an organisation
for a specific purpose.
(b) Memos can convey detailed information and complex messages to gain
immediate feedback.
(c) Memos can be used to document, explain or provide details of discussion
to be formalised.
(d) Memos provide a written record of oral conversation that may be subject to
misinterpretation.
Figure 8.3 summarises the purposes of a memorandum.
Figure 8.3: Purposes of a memorandum

EXERCISE 8.1
What are the characteristics of a well written memo?
ACTIVITY 8.1
Provide an example of a situation at the workplace, which requires you
to deliver a memo. Justify your answer for why a memo is used, instead
of a letter or an e-mail.
8.2.3 E-Mail Messages

SELF-CHECK 8.4
Besides being a medium for informal communication between friends,
what are other advantages of using e-mail?
Electronic mail or known as e-mail are tools for communication quickly and
efficiently over long distance. E-mail is capable of delivering a message across to
a large, dispersed audience (receiver) at any time of the day. Today, most
business organisations use e-mail to introduce products and make sales. By using
e-mail, reports and documents can be sent without a hard copy (printed form). It
serves the purpose of communicating almost as conveniently as personal
conversation.
Like memos, e-mail messages also have a heading. The particulars of the
heading depends on the e-mail programme you use, but most include To, From,
and Subject information, at the very least. The heading information is brief; the
To and From lines sometimes show no names or titles, just e-mail addresses. The
heading also often includes information about copies and attachments. The date
is automatically inserted into the document by the programme.
For e-mail messages, a salutation is optional. However, as you will see later in
this topic, using a greeting is highly recommended. After the salutation comes
the message, followed by the complimentary close and the typed name of the
sender. As the information in the header is often extremely brief, you may want
to include contact information after your name, especially if the e-mail is going
outside the company.

E-mail has a reputation for speed and informality. Nevertheless, you will want to
write your e-mail messages carefully. Appearance, organisation, and style are
just as important for electronic messages as for any other type of business
message. In fact, you can take several preps to improve readability and help your
audience accept your short business messages. Figure 8.4 illustrates an example
of a typical e-mail message captured from the Learning Management System
(LMS), Open University Malaysia.
Figure 8.4: An example of a typical e-mail message (LMS)
8.3 UNDERSTANDING THE CATEGORIES OF

MESSAGES SENT: LETTER, MEMO AND
E-MAIL
Whether you send letters, memos, or e-mail messages, all your messages have
three parts: opening, the body, and the close. How you handle these three parts
depends on the type of message you are sending, as shown by the following.
(a) Informative and Positive Messages

The most straightforward business messages are informative and positive
messages. Your readers will most likely be pleased to hear from you,
or at the very least, they will be neutral. In the opening, state your main
idea directly. The body of your message provides all necessary details. The
close is cordial, emphasising your good news or making a statement about

the specific action desired. Informative and positive messages will be

discussed in greater details in 8.3.1.
(b) Negative Messages

Successful communicators take a little extra care with their negative or bad-
news messages. If your audience will be disappointed, it may be best to use
the indirect approach; putting the evidence first and the main idea later.
Open with a neutral statement that acts as a transition to the reasons for the
bad news. In the body, give the reasons that justify a negative answer
before stating or implying the bad news. Your close must always be
cordial. Negative messages are discussed further in 8.4.
(c) Persuasive Messages

An indirect approach is also useful when you know that your audience will
resist your message (will be uninterested in your request or unwilling to
comply without extra coaxing). Before you can persuade people to do
something, you must capture their attention. In the opening, mention a
possible benefit, referring to a problem that the recipient might have,
posing a question, or mentioning an interesting statistic. In the body,
build interest in the subject and arouse your readersÊ desire to comply.
Once you have them thinking, you can introduce your main idea. The close
is cordial and requests the desired action. Persuasive messages are
discussed at greater length in 8.5.
ACTIVITY 8.2
What are the differences between informative and positive messages,
negative messages and persuasive messages?
8.3.1 Organising Informative and Positive Messages

Table 8.1 summarises guidelines to compose effective informative and positive
messages.

Table 8.1: Guidelines to Compose Effective Informative and Positive Messages
Guidelines Descriptions
Give Any Good News and Include the date policies begin, the percent of a
Summarise the Main Points discount, etc. If the reader has already raised the
issue, make it clear that you are responding. Share
good news immediately.
Give Details, Clarification and Do not repeat information you have already given.
Background Do answer all the questions your reader is likely to
have; provide all the information necessary to achieve
your purposes. Present details in the order of
importance to the reader.
Present Any Negative A policy may have limits; information may be

Elements, As Positively As incomplete; the reader may have to satisfy
Possible requirements to get a discount or benefit. Make these
negatives clear, but present them as positively as
possible.
Explain Any Reader Benefits Most informative memos need reader benefits. Show
that the policy or procedure helps readers, not just
the company. Give enough detail to make the benefits
clear and convincing. In letters, you may want to give
benefits of dealing with your company as well as
benefits of the product or policy. In a good news
message, it is often possible to combine a short reader
benefit with a goodwill ending in the last paragraph.
Use a Goodwill Ending; Shifting your emphasis away from message to the
Positive, Personal, and specific reader suggests that serving the reader is
Forward-looking your real concern.
8.3.2 Subject Lines for Informative and Positive

Messages
A subject line is the title of a document. It aids in filling and retrieving the
document, tells readers why they need to read the document, and provides a
framework which sets what you are about to say.
Subject lines are standard in memos. Letters are not required to have a subject
line. However, a survey of business people in the southwest of United States
found that 68% of them considered a subject line in a letter to be very important,
or essential. Only 32% considered subject lines to be unimportant or somewhat
important.

(a) Making Subject Lines Specific

The subject line needs to be specific enough to differentiate the message
from others on the same subject, but broad enough to cover everything in
the message, as shown by the following.
Too General : Training Sessions

Better : Programme for 2004 Training Sessions
Or : Should We Schedule a Short Course on Proposal Writing
for business people?
(b) Making Subject Lines Concise

Most subject lines are relatively short ă usually no more than 10 words,
often 3 to 7 words. If you cannot make the subject both specific and short,
be specific.
Wordy : Survey of Student Preferences in course majoring

Better : StudentsÊ majoring Preference
Or : What potential do Students want out of a particular course
offered by University XYZ
(c) Making Subject Lines Appropriate for the Pattern of the Organisation
Since your subject line introduces your reader to your message, it must
satisfy the psychological demands of the situation. It must be appropriate
to your purposes and to the immediate response you expect from your
reader. In general, do the same thing in your subject line that you would
do in the first paragraph.
When you have good news for the reader, build goodwill by highlighting it
in the subject line. When your information is neutral, summarise it
concisely for the subject line.
Subject: Update on Arrangements for Videoconference with ABC

International trade in France
In the last month, we chose the participants and developed a tentative

agenda for the video-conference with ABC International trade in France
scheduled for October 21, 2004.

8.3.3 Using Reader Benefits in Informative and

Positive Messages
Not all informative and positive messages need reader benefits. Reader benefits
are benefits or advantages that the reader gets by using your services, buying
your products, following your policies, or adopting your ideas. Table 8.2 outlines
the situation when you do need and do not need reader benefits.
Table 8.2: When You Need and Do Not Need Reader Benefits
Do Need Reader Benefits Do Not Need Reader Benefits
• You are presenting policies. • You are presenting factual

information only.
• You want to shape readersÊ attitudes • The readerÊs attitude towards the
toward the information or toward your information does not matter.
organisation.
• Stressing benefits presents readersÊ • Stressing benefits may make the

motives positively. reader sound selfish.
• Some of the benefits may not be obvious • The benefits are so obvious that to
to readers. restate them insults the readerÊs
intelligence.
8.3.4 Writing the One-page Memo

Some organisations force writers to be concise by requiring or encouraging one-
page memos. In simple situations, a page may be more than you need.
Sometimes, careful revising and editing may enable you to cut your memo
to a page. When you cannot get everything on one page even with careful
revision, put the key points on one well-designed page and attach appendices for
readers who need more information.
8.3.5 Ending Informative and Positive Letters and

Memos
Ending a letter or memo gracefully can be a problem in short informative and
positive messages. In a one-page memo where you have omitted details
and proof, you can tell readers where to get more information. In long
messages, you can summarise your basic point. In persuasive messages, as you
will learn in 8.5, you can tell readers what you want them to do. In a short
message containing all the information readers need, you either write a goodwill

paragraph that refers directly to the reader or the readerÊs organisation, or just
stop.
Goodwill endings should focus on the business relationship you share with your
reader rather than on the readerÊs hobbies, family, or personal life. When you
write to one person, a good last paragraph fits that person so specifically that it
would not work if you sent the same basic message to someone else or to a
person with the same title in another organisation. When you write to someone
who represents an organisation, the last paragraph can refer to your companyÊs
relationship to the readerÊs organisation. When you write to a group (for
example, to „All Employees‰), your ending should apply to the whole group.
Use a paragraph that shows you see your reader as an individual. Possibilities
include complimenting the reader for a job well done, describing a reader benefit,
or looking forward to something positive that relates to the subject of the message.
In the following examples, a letter answers the question, „When a patient leaves
the hospital and returns, should we count it as a new stay?‰ For one company the
answer was that if a patient was gone from the hospital overnight or longer, the
hospital should start a new claim when the patient was readmitted.
Weak closing paragraph : Should you have any questions regarding this
matter, please feel free to call me.
Goodwill paragraph : Many employee-patients appreciate the
freedom to leave the hospital for a few hours.
ItÊs nice working with a hospital which is
flexible enough to offer that option.
Also acceptable : Omit the paragraph; stop after the explanation.
Some writers end every message with a standard invitation, for example, „If you
have questions, please do not hesitate to ask.‰
This sentence lacks positive emphasis. However, revising it to „feel free to call‰ is
rarely a good idea. Most of the time, the writer should omit the sentence entirely.
Inviting readers to call suggests that you have not answered the question fully.
In very complicated situations, it may be simpler to let people call with
individual questions. However, in simple situations, you can answer the question
clearly.

8.3.6 Writing E-Mail Messages
SELF-CHECK 8.5
What are the advantages of using e-mails compared to letters or

memos?
E-mail is an essential tool for millions of workers. Readers read and reply to e-
mails quite rapidly. Dealing with 80 to 100 messages in 20 or 30 minutes is
normal. Write messages so that readers can deal with them quickly.
As you use e-mail, keep the following guidelines in mind:

Ć Although e-mail feels informal as discussed in 8.2.3, it is not private as a
conversation might be. Your employer may legally check your messages. A
message sent to one person can be printed out or forwarded to others without
your knowledge or consent. Do not be indiscreet on e-mail.
Ć All the principles of good business writing still apply with e-mail. Remember -
attitude and positive emphasis. Use reader benefits when they are appropriate.
Use the pattern of organisation that fits the purpose of the message.
Ć As e-mail is conversational in character, some writers give less attention to
spelling, grammar, and proofreading. Many e-mail programmes have spell-
check features; use them. Check your message for grammatical correctness
and be sure that you have included all the necessary information.
Ć Re-read and proofread your message before sending it out. E-mail allows you
to be a bit playful in language.
(a) Subject Lines for E-Mail

Subject lines in e-mail are even more important than those in letters and
memos. Subject lines must be specific, concise, and catchy. Some e-mail
users get so many messages that they do not bother reading messages if
they do not recognise the sender or if the subject does not catch their
interest. If you have good news to convey, put it in the subject line. Be as
brief as you can. The following subject lines would be acceptable for
informative and good news e-mail messages:
Ć Travel Plans for Sales Meeting.
Ć Your Proposal Accepted.
Ć Reduced Prices during February.
Ć Your Funding Request Approved.

When you reply to a message, the e-mail system automatically creates a

subject -line „Re: [subject line of message to which you are responding].‰ If
the subject line is good, that is fine. If it is not, you may want to create a
new subject line.
If a series of messages arises, create a new subject line. „Re: Re: Re: Re: on‰
is not an effective subject line.
(b) Format for E-mail Messages

Most e-mail systems start by asking you to indicate to whom you are
sending the message to and what the subject line is. The computer puts in
the date, time of the day and your name and address automatically. Send
yourself an e-mail message so you can see the relationship between what
appears on the screen and what the recipient receives.
Putting the readerÊs name at the beginning of the message is not necessary;
some people like to do it to make the message friendlier.
You do not need a close such as „Sincerely.‰ However, do put your name
after your message, since some e-mail systems strip out the automatic
header. If you are sending the message through a listserv, put your e-mail
address as well, since the header will print the listservÊs address, not the
address of the individual sender.
EXERCISE 8.2
How do you evaluate the e-mail pros and cons for business people?
(c) E-mail Etiquette

Good business etiquette should be practised in all business relations. The
following guidelines provide you with e-mail etiquette in order for you to
become a good e-mail user in any business purpose communication.
Ć Use full caps only to emphasise a single word or two.

Putting the whole message in caps is considered as rude as shouting.
Ć Never send angry messages by e-mail.

If you have a conflict with someone, work it out face-to-face, not
electronically.
Ć Send people only messages they need.
Send copies to your boss or CEO only if he or she has asked you to.

Ć Find out how your recipientÊs system works and adapt your messages
to it.
Most people would rather get a separate short message on each of several
topics, so that the messages can be stored in different mailboxes. However,
people who pay a fee to download each message may prefer longer
messages that deal with several topics. When you respond to a message,
include only the part of the original message that is essential so that the
reader understands your posting. Delete the rest. If the quoted material is
long, put your response first, then the original material.
Ć Use short line lengths.

When you compose a message in your word processor and call it up in e-
mail, use short line lengths (set the right margin at 2.5 or 3 inches).
8.3.7 Varieties of Informative and Positive Messages

Many messages can be informative, negative, or persuasive depending on what
you have to say. A transmittal, for example, can be positive when you are
sending glowing sales figures or persuasive when you want the reader to act on
the information. A performance appraisal is positive when you evaluate someone
who is doing superbly, negative when you want to compile a record to justify
firing someone, and persuasive when you want to motivate a satisfactory worker
to continue to improve. A collection letter is persuasive; it becomes negative in
the last stage when you threaten legal action. Each of these messages is
discussed in the topic of the pattern it uses most frequently.
(a) Transmittals
When you send someone something in an organisation, attach a memo or
letter of transmittal explaining what you are sending. A transmittal can be
as simple as a small yellow Post-it® note with „FYI‰ („for your
information‰) written on it, or it can be a separate typed document.
Organise a memo or letter of transmittal in this order:

Ć Tell the reader what you are sending.
Ć Summarise the main point(s) of the document.
Ć Indicate any special circumstances or information that would help the
reader understand the document. Is it a draft? Is it a partial document
that will be completed later?
Ć Tell the reader what will happen next. Will you do something? Do you
want a response? If you do want the reader to act, specify exactly what
you want the reader to do and give a deadline.

(b) Confirmation
Many informative messages record oral conversations. These messages are
generally short and give only the information shared orally; they go to the
other party in the conversation. Start the message by indicating that it is a
confirmation, not a new message, as shown by the following:
Ć As we discussed on the phone today⁄
Ć As I told you yesterday⁄
Ć Attached is the meeting schedule we discussed earlier today.
Be sure to avoid dangling modifiers.
Dangling modifier : Confirming our conversation, your Hot Springs Hot

Tub Spa is scheduled for delivery April 12. (The
sentence says that the Spa is doing the confirming.)
Correct : As I told you yesterday, your Hot Springs Hot Tub
Spa is scheduled for delivery April 12.
(c) Summaries
You may be asked to summarise a conversation, document, or an outside
meeting for colleagues or superiors. In a summary of a conversation for
internal use, identify the people who were present, the topic of discussion,
decisions made, and who does what next.
To summarise a document, start with the main point. Then go on to give

supporting evidence or details. In some cases, your audience may also
want you to evaluate the document. Should others in the company read
this book? Should someone in the company write a letter to the editor
responding to this newspaper article?
When you visit a client or go to a conference, you may be asked to

share your findings and impressions with other people in your
organisation. Chronological accounts are the easiest to write but the least
useful for the reader. Your company does not need a blow-by-blow account
of what you did; it needs to know what it should do as a result of the
meeting.
Summarise a visit with a client or customer in the following way:

Ć Put the main point from your organisationÊs point of view; the action to
be taken and the perceptions to be changed in the first paragraph.

Ć Provide an umbrella paragraph to cover and foreshadow the points you

will make in the report.
Ć Provide necessary detail to support your conclusions and cover each point.
Use lists and headings to make the structure of the document clear.
8.3.8 Writing Thank You and Congratulatory Notes

Sending a thank you note will encourage people to be more willing to help you
again in the future. Thank you letters can be short but must be prompt. They
need to be specific to sound sincere.
Congratulating someone can cement good feelings between you and the reader
and enhance your own visibility. Again, specifics help.
Avoid language that may seem condescending or patronising. A journalism

professor was offended when a former student wrote to congratulate her for a
feature article that appeared in a major newspaper. As the journalist pointed out,
the letterÊs language implied that the writer has more status than the person
being praised. The appraiser was „quite impressed,‰ congratulated the writer on
reaching a conclusion that she had already reached, and assumed that the
journalist would have wanted to discuss matters with him/her. To the reader,
„Keep up the good work!‰ implied that the one cheering her on had been waiting
for ages at the finish line.
8.4 ORGANISING NEGATIVE MESSAGES IN

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
Whatever the details of your message, when you have negative news, you want
your readers to feel that they have been taken seriously, and you want them to
agree that your news is fair and reasonable. When delivering negative messages,
you have five main goals, namely to:
Ć Convey the bad news;
Ć Gain acceptance for it;
Ć Maintain as much goodwill as possible with your audience;
Ć Maintain a good image for your organisation; and
Ć Reduce or eliminate the need for future correspondence on the matter.
Accomplishing so many goals in a single message is not easy. However, you can
convey negative news more effectively by following the guidelines in this part of the
discussion.
8.4.1 Subject Lines for Negative Messages

(a) When you write to superiors, use a subject line that focuses on solving the
problem, as shown by the following:
Subject: Improving Our Subscription Letter.
(b) When you write to peers and subordinates, put the topic (but not your
action on it) in the subject line, as shown by the following:
Subject: Status of Conversion Table Programme
Due to heavy demands on our time, we have not yet been able
to write programmes for the conversion tables you asked for.
(c) Use a negative subject line in e-mail messages.
(d) Use a negative subject line in letters when you think readers may ignore
what they think is a routine message.
The best subject line for negative e-mail messages depends on whether you
are refusing a request or initiating the negative. When you say no to an e-
mail request, just hit „reply‰ and use „Re:‰ plus whatever the original
subject line was for your response. When you write a new message, you
will have to decide whether to use the negative in the subject line. The
subject line should contain the negative when:
Ć The negative is serious. Many people do not read all their e-mail
messages. A neutral subject line may lead the reader to ignore the
message.
Ć The reader needs the information to make a decision or act.
Ć You report your own errors (as opposed to the readerÊs).
Thus, the following would be acceptable subject lines in e-mail messages:
Subject: We Lost McDonaldÊs Account

Subject: Power to Be Out Sunday, March 8
Subject: Error in Survey Data Summary

When you write to people whom you know well, exaggerated subject
lines are acceptable:
Subject: Gloom, Despair, and Agony
In other situations, a neutral subject line is acceptable:
Subject: Gloom, Despair, and Agony
8.4.2 How do you Organise Negative Letters

Figure 8.5 illustrates how the basic pattern for negative messages can be used.
This letter omits the reason, probably because the change benefits the company,
not the customer. Putting the bad news first (though pairing it immediately with
an alternative) makes it more likely that the recipient will read the letter. If this
letter seemed to be just a routine renewal, or if it opened with the good news that
the premium was lower, few recipients would read the letter carefully, and many
would not read it at all. Then, if they had accidents and found that their coverage
was reduced, they would blame the company for not communicating clearly.
Emphasising the negative here is both good ethics and good business.

Figure 8.5: An example of a negative letter

Source: pg. 195, Locker K.O (2000)
8.4.3 Organising Negative Memos

The best way to organise a negative memo depends on whether you are writing to
a superior, a peer or a subordinate and on the severity of the negative information.
Ć Giving Bad News to Superiors

Your superior expects you to solve minor problems by yourself. However,
sometimes solving a problem requires more authority or resources than you
have. When you give bad news to a superior, also recommend a way to deal
with the problem.

Ć Giving Bad News to Peers and Subordinates

When you must pass along serious bad news to peers and subordinates, you
may use the following methods:
(a) Describe the problem.

Tell whatÊs wrong, clearly and emotionally.
(b) Present an alternative or compromise, if one is available.

An alternative not only gives readers another way to get what they
want but also suggests that you care about readers and helping them
meet their needs.
(c) If possible, ask for input or action.

People in the audience may be able to suggest solutions. And workers
who help make a decision are far more likely to accept the
consequences.
No serious negative (such as being downsized or laid off) should come as a

complete surprise. Managers can prepare for possible negatives by giving full
information as it becomes available. It is also possible to let the people who will
be affected by a decision participate in setting the criteria. Someone who has
bought into the criteria for awarding cash for suggestions or retaining workers is
more likely to accept decisions using such criteria. In some cases, the synergism
of groups may make possible ideas that management did not think of or rejected
as „unacceptable.‰ Some workplaces, for example, might decide to reduce
everyoneÊs pay slightly rather than to lay off some individuals. To avoid firing
workers, Scherer Brothers Lumber in Minneapolis, Minnesota, saved money by
temporarily cutting top officersÊ pay by 25%, eliminating fresh flowers on the
receptionistsÊ desks, and no longer buying professional sports tickets.
For memos, the context of communication is crucial. The readerÊs reaction is

influenced by the following factors.
Ć Do you and the reader have a good relationship?
Ć Does the organisation treat people well?
Ć Have readers been warned of possible negatives?
Ć Have readers „bought into‰ the criteria for the decision?
Ć Do communications after the negative build goodwill?

8.4.4 The Parts of Negative Messages

A bad news message has five sections, namely buffer, explanation, bad news,
counter proposal/resale, and close. Bad news is placed in the middle of the
message. The placement is strategic, not deceptive. The following paragraphs
describe the sections of the bad news message.
(a) Buffer
Bad news messages begin with a buffer.
A buffer is a statement related to the topic of the message but unrelated

to the bad news. Its gets the reader into the message without indicating
whether good or bad news follows. The buffer softens the impact of the
bad news.
A buffer may be positive or neutral. Positive buffers are used when some
aspect of the situation is favourable. For example, a positive buffer would
be used when part of an order can be delivered and part will be delayed. If
no part of the order is available, the buffer would be neutral. A buffer
should be brief. A long buffer may suggest that the writer is avoiding
something and make the reader suspicious.
A good buffer does not indicate whether a request is being approved or

denied. It contains an apology only when the writer is at fault. Here is an
example:
Your October 7 letter describing the problem you are having with
your Springer Lawn Trimmer has been referred to me. I apologise for
not responding to your letter sooner.
In this buffer, the writer is apologising for not responding quickly, not for
the request denial that will come later. The difference is subtle, but
important. Note, too, that the writer did not thank the receiver for his or
her message. Gratitude should be used sparingly and cautiously in bad
news messages because its meaning could be misinterpreted. Are you
thanking the person because you enjoy saying „no‰?
Buffers should not mislead the reader. A writer who, trying to be

positive, says „Thank you for your order and request for credit. We
have been impressed by your success and know that you have a
bright future‰ builds the readerÊs confidence that good news follows.
When readers learn the news is bad, they may be confused or become
angry and resist the explanation. A good buffer introduces the topic
without revealing the bad news and forms a natural bridge to what
follows; an explanation or reasons for the bad news.
ACTIVITY 8.3
Based on your understanding, what is the purpose of having a
buffer before negative messages are conveyed?
(b) Explanation
The explanation is usually the longest part of the message. In this section,
the writer clearly and honestly presents information designed to get the
reader to accept the bad news that will follow.
As you prepare the transition from the buffer to the explanation, choose
your words carefully. Transitional words such as unfortunately and
however signal bad news or a change from the positive/neutral tone of the
opening to bad news. Another word to avoid is but. Think about how you
feel when you ask someone to do something and the response is, „IÊd like
to help you, but. . . .‰ Your reader will feel the same disappointment.
A good explanation shows how the specific reader, or customers/

employees in general, will benefit. For example, „Participants are
guaranteed personal attention when the trainer-student ratio is held at
12:1‰ shows concern for providing a high-quality learning environment.
An explanation such as „We canÊt afford to....‰ is writer-centred and
money-focused. An explanation such as „ItÊs against our policy.‰ is unclear.
Weak explanations can cause reader resentment. What is the policy? Why
does it exist? Be specific.
Only one good reason is required. Include additional reasons if they will
increase reader goodwill and acceptance of the bad news without
destroying the brevity of the message. Stretching for reasons can weaken
the explanation. As part of the planning process, the writer should list and
prioritise the reasons for saying no. If the reasons cannot be listed or if they
are not convincing, re-evaluate the negative decision or action. Be careful,
too, not to insult the reader. Condescending language such as „Surely you
understand‰, „You claim‰, or „We have never had a request like this
before‰ will make the reader defensive.

(c) Bad News

Bad news may be implied or expressed. Implied bad news hints at the no.
Expressed bad news is more specific. If you must use negative words,
choose them carefully. Be tactful, not blunt. Base your choice of implied or
expressed bad news on your analysis of the receiver. In general, implied
bad news is preferred. Notice in the following example that the same item
of bad news can be implied or expressed.
Implied: Paid leaves of absence are available only to employees

who have been with the company for one year or more.
Expressed: Paid leaves of absence are available only to employees
who have been with the company for one year or more.
Because you began working at Goodhue only three
months ago, you are not yet eligible for a paid leave of
absence.
(d) Counter Proposal/Resale

The counter proposal is a valuable section of a bad news message. It
is the place where the writer shows genuine concern and interest in helping
the receiver. It is where the writer says, „I canÊt do what (or everything)
you ask, but hereÊs what I will do.‰ The counter proposal should be
reasonable, as shown in the following example:
Although you donÊt qualify for credit, you are eligible for a discount
when you pay cash.
The counter proposal should be stated positively and clearly. It should

provide all the details that the reader needs to take action. Provide names,
addresses, phone numbers, dates, costs, figures, and other information;
include a reply card or brochure as appropriate. Make the communication
as complete as possible.
As previously noted, writers try to minimise the impact of bad news by

linking it to the explanation or to the counter proposal/resale section.
When linked to the counter proposal, the bad news is typically presented as
a dependent clause. Here is an example:

Although your practical work experience is too limited for you to

become a finalist for the accounts manager position, the account
associate position we have available seems to suit you well. The
position calls for a self-motivated, energetic person who has at least one
year of post-secondary accounting education and familiarity with
information systems.
Resale is used in situations where a counter proposal is impossible or

impractical. Resale material is designed to maintain or build goodwill
between the sender and receiver. For example, a message to scholarship
applicants who were not selected to receive an award does not offer an
opportunity for a counter proposal. A statement or two about some
particular strength of the candidateÊs background would be appropriate.
The statement(s) would be considered resale because they make the reader
feel good about himself or herself and about the scholarship organisation.
Here is an example:
The selection committee was very impressed by your career goals

and your strong work experience. You can be proud of your
accomplishments.
Coupons or discounts on future purchases are additional examples of

resale. If neither a counter proposal nor resale material is appropriate,
include additional reasons for the decision. Any of the three will help
minimise the bad news. Once this section has been presented, it is time to
close the message.
(e) Close
As the last position in a message is prominent, writers want to end with a
positive, friendly close. Any reference to the bad news, no matter how well-
meaning the writer may be, merely reminds the receiver about it. Referring
to the bad news defeats the efforts that went into de-emphasising it.
The close may relate to the reader, the counterproposal, or the business
relationship between the sender and receiver; anything that is on the topic
but off the bad news. Choose words carefully. Avoid words that show
doubt (hope, if) and words that are negative (problem, condition,
situation).

8.4.5 Varieties of Negative Messages

Three of the most difficult kinds of negative messages to write are rejections and
refusals, disciplinary notices and negative performance appraisals, and layoffs
and firings.
(a) Rejections and Refusals

When you refuse requests from people outside your organisation, try to use
a buffer. Give an alternative if one is available. For example, if you are
denying credit, it may still be possible for the reader to put an expensive
item on layaway.
Politeness and length help. Graduating seniors at a south-western

university preferred rejection letters that addressed them as Mr./Ms. rather
than calling them by their first names, that said something specific about
their good qualities, that phrased the refusal itself indirectly, and that were
longer.
When you refuse requests within your organisation, use your knowledge of
the organisationÊs culture and of the specific individual to craft your
message. In some organisations, it may be appropriate to use company
slogans, offer whatever help already-established departments can give, and
refer to the individualÊs good work (if you indeed know that it is good). In
other less personal organisations, a simple negative without embellishment
may be more appropriate.
(b) Disciplinary Notices and Negative Performance Appraisals

Performance appraisals will be positive when they are designed to help a
basically good employee improve. However, when an employee violates a
company rule or fails to improve after repeated negative appraisals, the
company may discipline the employee or build a dossier to support firing
him or her.
Present disciplinary notices and negative performance appraisals directly,

with no buffer. A buffer might encourage the recipient to minimise the
messageÊs importance - and might even become evidence in a court case
that the employee had not been told to shape up „or else.‰ Cite quantifiable
observations of the employeeÊs behaviour, rather than generalisations or
inferences based on it. If an employee is disciplined by being laid off
without pay, specify when the employee is to return.

8.5 ORGANISING PERSUASIVE MESSAGES

How do you design a persuasive message in business? Why do we write
persuasive messages? Persuasive messages aim to:
(a) Get the other person who receives your message understand what
you try to convey;
(b) Get the receiver to agree with the idea;
(c) Get the receiver to take action and accept the idea proposed to them; and
(d) Receive positive feedback from the receiver.
A persuasive strategy is based on the following four factors:

Ć What do you want people to do?
Ć What objections, if any, will the audience have?
Ć How strong a case can you make?
Ć What kind of persuasion is best for the organisation and the culture?
(a) What Do You Want People to Do?

Identify the specific action you want and also, the person who has the
power to do it. If your goal requires several steps, specify what you want
your audience to do now. For instance, your immediate goal may be to
have people come to a meeting or let you make a presentation, even though
your long-term goal is a major sale or a change in policy.
(b) What Objections, if any, will the Audience Have?

If you are asking for something that requires little time, money, or physical
effort and for an action that is part of the personÊs regular duties, the
audience is likely to have few objections. For example, when you order a
product, the firm is happy to supply it.
Often, however, you will encounter some resistance. People may be busy
and have what they feel are more important things to do. They may have
other uses for their time and money. To be persuasive, you need to show
your audience that your proposal meets their needs; you need to overcome
any objections.
The easiest way to learn about objections your audience may have is to ask.
Particularly when you want to persuade people in your own organisation
or your own town, talk to knowledgeable people. Phrase your questions
non-defensively, in a way that does not lock people into taking a stand on
an issue:

Ć „What concerns would you have about a proposal to do x?‰

Ć „Who makes a decision about y?‰
Ć „What do you like best about [the supplier or practice you want to
change]?‰
Ask follow-up questions to be sure you understand:

Ć „Would you be likely to stay with your current supplier if you could get
a lower price from someone else? Why?‰
People are most likely to be aware of and be willing to share objective

concerns such as time and money. They will be less willing to tell you that
their real objection is emotional-linked. Readers have a vested interest in
something if they benefit directly from keeping things as they are. People
who are in power have a vested interest in retaining the system that gives
them their power. Someone who designed a system has a vested interest in
protecting that system from criticism. To admit that the system has faults is
to admit that the designer made mistakes. In such cases, you will need to
probe to find out what the real reasons are.
Both individuals and organisations have self-images. It is easier for readers

to say yes when you ask for something that is consistent with that self-
image. For example, a marine biologist used a financial argument to
persuade Phillips Petroleum to let him harvest the mussels that grow on oil
platforms: „I hear youÊve just written a cheque for $100,000 to a hydro-
blasting company. I could remove those mussels for free.‰ (The biologist
sells the mussels to restaurants). Aramis persuaded men to buy its over-
the-counter skin peel, Lift Off, by linking it to shaving: „men who
exfoliated with the product could reduce their shaving time by one-third?‰
(c) How Strong is Your Case?

The strength of your case is based on three aspects of persuasion, namely
argument, credibility, and emotional appeal.
(i) Argument
Argument refers to the reasons or logic you offer. Sometimes you
may be able to prove conclusively that your solution is best.
Sometimes your reasons may not be as strong, the benefits may not
be as certain, and obstacles may be difficult or impossible to
overcome. For example, suppose that you wanted to persuade your
organisation to offer a tuition reimbursement plan for employees.
You would have a strong argument if you could show that tuition
reimbursement would improve the performance of marginal

workers or that reimbursement would be an attractive recruiting tool

in a tight job market. However, if dozens of fully qualified workers
apply for every opening you have, your argument would be weaker.
The programme might be nice for workers, but you would have a
hard job proving that it would help the company.
(ii) Credibility
Credibility is the audienceÊs response to you as the source of the
message. People are more easily persuaded by someone they see
as an expert, powerful, attractive, or trustworthy. A sexual
abstinence programme in Atlanta was effective in large part because
the lessons on how to say no without hurting the other personÊs
feelings were presented by teenagers slightly older than the students
in the programme. Adults would have been much less credible.
When you do not have the credibility that comes from being an
expert or being powerful as yet, build credibility by the language and
strategy you use. You need to:
• Be factual. Do not exaggerate.
• Be specific. If you say „X is better,‰ show in detail how it is better.
Show the reader exactly where the savings or other benefits come
from so that it is clear that the proposal really is as good as you
say it is.
• Be reliable. If you suspect that a project will take longer to
complete, cost more money, or be less effective than you originally
thought, tell your audience immediately. Negotiate a new
schedule that you can meet.
(iii) Emotional Appeal

Emotional appeal means making the reader want to do what you ask.
People do not make decisions, not even business decisions - based on
logic alone. J. C. Mathes and Dwight W. Stevenson cite the following
example. During his summer job, an engineering student who was
asked to evaluate his companyÊs waste treatment system saw a way
that the system could be redesigned to save the company over
$200,000 a year. He wrote a report recommending the change and
gave it to his boss. Nothing happened. Why not? His supervisor was
not about to send up a report that would require him to explain why
heÊd been wasting over $200,000 a year of the companyÊs money.

(d) What Kind of Persuasion is Best for the Organisation and the Culture?
A strategy that works in one organisation may not work somewhere else.
James Suchan and Ron Dulek pointed out that DECÊs corporate culture
values no-holds- barred aggressiveness. „Even if opposition is expected, a
subordinate should write a proposal in a forceful, direct manner.‰ In
another organisation with different cultural values, an employee who used
a hard-sell strategy for a request antagonised the boss. Corporate culture
is not written down; it is learned by imitation and observation. What
style do high-level people in your organisation use? When you show a
draft to your boss, are you told to tone down your statements or to make
them stronger? Role models and advice are two ways organisations
communicate their culture to newcomers.
Different cultures also have different preferences for gaining compliance. In

one study, students who were native speakers of American English
judged direct statements („Do this‰; „I want you to do this‰) clearer
and more effective than questions („Could you do this?‰) or hints („This
is needed‰). In contrast, students who were native speakers of Korean
judged direct statements to be least effective. In the Korean culture, the
clearer a request is the ruder and therefore less effective it is.
8.6 THREE CATEGORIES OF BRIEF MESSAGES

CORRESPONDENCE
The following are three categories of brief messages correspondence.
8.6.1 Writing Direct Requests

When you expect quick agreement, save the reader Ês time by presenting the
request directly, Also use the direct request pattern for busy people who do not
read all the messages they receive and in organisations whose cultures favour
putting the request first.
(a) Consider Asking Immediately for the Information or Service You Want
Delay the request if it seems too abrupt or if you have several purposes in
the message.
(b) Give Readers All the Information They Will Need to Act on Your Request
Number your questions or set them off with bullets so the reader can
check to see that all of them have been answered. In a claim (where a
product is under warranty or a, shipment was defective), explain the
circumstances so that the reader knows what happened. Be sure to include

all the relevant details, for example date of purchase, model or

invoice number, and so on. In more complicated direct requests, anticipate
possible responses. Suppose you are asking for information about
equipment meeting certain specifications. Explain which criteria are most
important so that the reader can recommend an alternative if no single
product meets all your needs. You may also want to tell the reader what
your price constraints are and ask whether the item is in stock or must be
specially ordered.
(c) Ask for the Action you Want

Do you want a cheque? A replacement? A catalogue? Answers to your
questions? If you need an answer by a certain time, say so. If possible, show
the reader why the time limit is necessary.
Direct request does not contain reader benefits and does not need to
overcome objections: it simply asks for what is needed. Direct requests should be
direct. Do not make the reader guess what you want.
Indirect request : Is there a newer version of the 1995 Accounting

Reference Manual?
Direct request : If there is a newer version of the 1995 Accounting
Reference Manual, please send it to me.
8.6.2 Writing Problem-solving Messages

Use an indirect approach and observe the organisationÊs problem-solving pattern
when you expect resistance from your reader. Do show that doing what you
want will solve a problem that you and your reader share. This pattern allows
you to disarm opposition by showing all the reasons in favour of your position
before you give your readers a chance to say no.
Ć Catch the ReaderÊs Interest by Mentioning a Common Ground

Show that your message will be interesting or beneficial. You may want to
catch attention with a negative remark (which you will go on to show that it
can be solved).
Ć Define the Problem you Both Share (Which your Request will Solve)
Present the problem objectively; do not assign blame or mention
personalities. Be specific about the cost in money, time, lost goodwill, and so
on. You have to convince readers that something has to be done before you
can convince them that your solution is the best one.

Ć Explain the Solution to the Problem

If you know that the reader will favour another solution, start with that
solution and show why it will not work before you present your solution.
Ć Present your Solution without Using the Words I or My

Do not let personalities enter the picture; do not let the reader think he or she
should say no just because you have other requests accepted recently.
Ć Show that any Negative Elements (Cost, Time, etc.) are Outweighed by the
Advantages
Ć Summarise any Additional Benefits of the Solution

The main benefit ă solving the problem ă can be presented briefly since you
described the problem in detail. However, if there are any additional benefits,
mention them.
Ć Ask for the Action you Want

Often your reader will authorise or approve something; other people will
implement the action. Give your reader a reason to act promptly, perhaps
offering a new reader benefit. („By buying now, we can avoid the next
quarterÊs price hikes.‰)
8.6.3 Varieties of Persuasive Messages

Other types of persuasive messages are collection letters, performance appraisals,
and letters of recommendation. Telephone switches carry among the most
common varieties of persuasive messages.
(a) Collection Letters

Most businesses find that phoning rather than writing results in faster
payment. However, as more and more companies install voice mail
systems, you will need to write letters when leaving messages do not work.
Collection letters ask customers to pay (as they have already agreed to do)
for the goods and services they have already received. Instead of sending
one letter, or repeated copies of the same letter, good credit departments
send a series of letters. Letters in the series should be only a week apart.
Waiting a month between letters implies that you are prepared to wait a
long time and the reader will be happy to oblige you!
(i) Early Letters

Early letters are gentle, assuming that the reader intends to pay
but has forgotten or has met with temporary reverses. Early letters
can be obvious form letters or even just a second copy of the bill
with the words „Second Notice‰ or „Past Due‰ stamped on it.

A student who has not yet been reimbursed by a company for a visit
to the companyÊs office puts the second request in the PS. of a letter
refusing a job offer:
PS. The cheque to cover my expenses when I visited your office

in March hasnÊt come yet; could you check to see whether you
can find a record of it? The amount was $490 (airfare $290, hotel
room $185, taxi $15).
Early collection letters sometimes use humour to defuse negative

feelings and to set themselves apart from other mail. Since readersÊ
sense of humour differ, the real test of a collection letter using
humour should take into consideration the following factors:
Ć Does it enrage readers who think they have already paid?
Ć Does it make the request seem trivial, as though the bill is a joke?
If the answer to either of these questions is yes, do not use the

humour.
If one or two early letters do not result in payment, call the customer
to ask if your company has created a problem. It is possible that you
shipped something the customer did not want or you sent the wrong
quantity. It is possible that the invoice arrived before the product and
was filed and forgotten. It is possible that the invoice document is
poorly designed, so customers set it aside until they could figure it
out. If any of these situations apply, you will build goodwill by
solving the problem rather than arrogantly asking for payment.
(ii) Middle Letters

Middle letters are more assertive in asking for payment. This form of
letter is merged with database information about the customerÊs
name, the amount due, and the magazine the customer is receiving.
Other middle letters offer to negotiate a schedule for repayment if the
reader is not able to pay the whole bill immediately, may remind
the reader of the importance of a good credit rating (which will
be endangered if the bill remains unpaid), educate the reader about
credit, and explain why the creditor must have prompt payment.
Unless you have firm evidence to the contrary, middle letters should
assume that readers have some legitimate reason for not yet paying.
Perhaps they have been out of town. Perhaps their cheques were lost

in the mail. Perhaps they are waiting to receive payments due to

them so that they can pay their own creditors. Even people who are
„juggling‰ payments because they do not have enough money to pay
all their bills or people who will put payment off as long as possible
will respond more quickly if you do not accuse them. If a reader is
offended by your assumption that he or she is dishonest, that anger
can become an excuse to continue delaying payment.
(iii) Late Letters

Late letters threaten legal action if the bill is not paid. Under federal
law, the writer cannot threaten legal action unless he or she actually
intends to sue. Other regulations also spell out what a writer may and
may not do in a late letter.
Many small businesses find that establishing personal relationships

with customers is the best way to speed payment.
(b) Performance Appraisals

At regular intervals, supervisors evaluate or appraise the performance of
their subordinates. In most organisations, employees have access to their
files; sometimes they must sign the appraisal to show that they have read it.
The superior normally meets with the subordinate to discuss the appraisal.
As a subordinate, you should prepare for the appraisal interview by listing

your achievements and goals. Where do you want to be in a year or five
years? What training and experience do you need to reach your goals? Also
think about any weaknesses. If you need training, advice, or support from
the organisation to improve, the appraisal interview is a good time to ask
for this help.
Appraisals need to protect the organisation and motivate the employee.

These two purposes conflict. Most of us will see a candid appraisal as
negative; we need praise and reassurance to believe that we are valued
and can do better. However, the praise that motivates someone to improve
can come back to haunt the company if the person does not eventually do
acceptable work. An organisation is in trouble if it tries to fire someone
whose evaluations never mention mistakes.
Good supervisors try not only to identify the specific problems in

subordinatesÊ behaviour but also in conversations to discover the causes of
the problem. Does the employee need more training? Perhaps a training
course or a mentor will help. Does he or she need to work harder? Then the
supervisor needs to motivate the worker and help him or her manage

distractions. Is a difficult situation causing the problem? Perhaps the

situation can be changed. If it cannot be changed, the supervisor and the
company should realise that the worker is not at fault.
(c) Letters of Recommendation

In an effort to protect themselves against lawsuits, some companies only
state how long they employed someone and the position that person held.
Such barebones letters have themselves been the target of lawsuits when
employers did not reveal relevant negatives. Whatever the legal climate
might be, there may be times when you want to recommend someone for
an award or for a job.
Letters of recommendation must be specific. General positives that are not

backed up with specific examples and evidence are seen as weak
recommendations. Letters of recommendation that focus on minor points
also suggest that the person is weak.
Either in the first or the last paragraph, summarise your overall evaluation
of the person. Early in the letter, perhaps in the first paragraph, show how
well and how long you have known the person. In the middle of the letter,
offer specific details about the personÊs performance. At the end of the
letter, indicate whether you would be willing to rehire the person and
repeat your overall evaluation.
Experts are divided on whether you should include negatives. Some people
feel that any negative weakens the letter. Other people feel that presenting
but not emphasising honest negatives makes the letter more convincing.
In many discourse communities, the words „Call me if you need more

information‰ in a letter of recommendation mean „I have negative
information that I am unwilling to put on paper. Call me and IÊll tell you
what I really think.‰
To know more about effective business writing, you can surf the following
website: http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/
bldsent.html

ACTIVITY 8.4
Discuss the different types of persuasive messages as discussed in this
topic.
• The aim of effective business writing is to demonstrate understanding,

knowledge, professionalism, and efficiency.
• Accomplishing this goal takes careful planning; not only with regards to the
words we use but also with regards to the form we use to convey those
words.
• Getting the desired results in messages is largely a matter of skilful writing
and of understanding how people respond to words.
• No doubt, in business you need to know when to use a casual tone,
conversational style or when to be formal.
• Just as important, you need to know when to mail a letter, send a
memo, or transmit an e-mail message, be it a positive, negative or a
persuasive one.
Direct request
Informative messages
Negative messages
Persuasive messages
Problem-solving messages

Topic 9 X Business Reports
and Proposals
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the differences between formal and informal reports;
2. Discuss the components of a formal report;
3. Assess the difference between presenting a business proposal and
business report;
4. Apply the writing process in preparing reports and proposals; and
5. Write a business proposal.
X INTRODUCTION
In any business setting, reports are prepared for the purpose of delivering
information to interested readers. Reports present information in support of a
specific purpose. They appear in various forms and styles, ranging from one
page to formal 10 page reports, formal or informal, internal or external.
Organisations use reports to provide a verifiable link between people, businesses,
places, and context. However, formal reports are not the only structured
documents used within organisations. Proposals, a method for finding
information or solving a problem, fall into this category. As such are the
opportunities to write and submit reports in your career, it is essential for you to
become an effective report writer. Both document types will be discussed in this
topic.

TOPIC 9 BUSINESS REPORTS AND PROPOSALS W 161
9.1 REPORT TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS

SELF-CHECK 9.1
What are the elements that you think is important in creating a
good report style?
Every business entity is involved in preparing reports in their business activities.

Literally, millions of reports are prepared each year for the purpose of delivering
information about the company. Regardless of the type of business you are in
and the type of report you produce, understanding the basic principles involved
in preparing reports will benefit you and the business you are representing.
Like any type of communication medium, reports are only as effective as the
person designing and preparing them. Written reports vary from short, informal
reports to long, formal reports. The language can vary from conversational, first-
person language to highly structured, third person language. This section
provides a brief introduction to informal and formal reports; each type is then
discussed individually.
9.1.1 Informal Reports

Informal reports are generally brief. They can consist of a body and a title page or
a body only; informal reports are often formatted as memos or letters. Memo
reports communicate information to individuals within an organisation. This
style is used primarily for reporting routine information concerning day-to-day
operations or to provide a written record. Letter reports use a letter format to
present information and make recommendations to individuals outside an
organisation; a subject line may be used to identify the topic of the report. When
formatted as correspondence, informal reports use headings to guide the reader
from topic to topic. This type of report will not contain graphic aids or draw on
material from secondary sources. Informal reports are usually written in the first
person, for example, (I recommend that ⁄).
In business, the informal report is used much more frequently than the formal
report. There are many different types of informal reports; two of the most
common are progress reports and technical reports.
(a) Progress Reports

A progress report (also called a status report) is used to inform readers
about the status of a particular project. A progress report provides

162 X TOPIC 9 BUSINESS REPORTS AND PROPOSALS
managers with up-to-date information at regularly scheduled intervals

about a major project. These intervals may be daily, weekly, monthly,
quarterly, or annually. The report assists managers in monitoring and
making decisions about the project. The report should inform the reader
about the work that has been accomplished, the work that is being done
currently, and the work that is scheduled to be done in the next reporting
period. Any significant progress or problems should be discussed in the
report. The frequency of the reports will depend on the type or nature of
the project being discussed.
Marketing companies use progress reports to report on sales. The

information which can be found in a progress report include information
about the status and state that has been accomplished since the last report,
issues that need to be highlighted, and projected sales. It should be
reported in short and direct to allow readers to gauge the gist of the
progress in a short time.
ACTIVITY 9.1
LetÊs say you are involved in a particular project at your workplace
which requires you to constantly update and monitor its development.
How does the progress report help you in ensuring that work is carried
out efficiently and on time?
(b) Technical Reports

A technical report conveys specialised or scientific information. There are
no standard formats or organisational plans for technical reports.
However, organisations will often specify particular formats and plans to
be used for internal reports. Standardised formats make it easy for
readers to scan reports for information of particular interest to them.
Technical terms need not be defined when a technical report is prepared for
someone familiar with the terminology. If the reader does not have the
appropriate technical expertise, words used in the report must be clarified.
A good rule to follow is to remember the principles of business
communication discussed in Topic 1.

9.1.2 Formal Report

A formal report may consist of some or all of the following parts:
Ć Title page;
Ć Authorisation message;
Ć Transmittal message;
Ć Table of contents;
Ć List of illustrations;
Ć Abstract;
Ć Body;
Ć Glossary;
Ć Appendix; and
Ć Bibliography.
The body of the report will span several pages and include multiple levels of
headings. Content could be drawn from primary and/or secondary sources.
Visual aids assist readers to interpret information presented as text. Formal
reports are usually written in the third person (It is recommended that⁄) Recent
trends, however, suggest that informality is acceptable in formal reports. The
degree of formality is determined after the report originator has analysed the
receiver.
EXERCISE 9.1
List down the functions of reports?
9.2 FORMAL WRITTEN REPORTS

SELF-CHECK 9.2
What are the situations at the workplace which call for formal written
reports?
A formal report is prepared for and read by individuals in top levels of

management and possibly individuals outside of the writerÊs organisation. It may
take from several weeks to several months to research and write the report.

These activities can be completed by one person or by a team.
A formal report generally contains three major divisions:

Ć The preliminary section;
Ć The body; and
Ć The supplementary section.
A formal report may contain all or some of the following parts, as shown in
Figure 9.1.
Figure 9.1: Parts of a formal business report
9.2.1 Preliminary Section

The preliminary section contains all the parts of a report that precede the body.
The specific preliminary pages included in the report will vary with the formality
of the report. A discussion of the individual parts is as follows.
(a) Title Page

A title page typically contains the title of the report, namely the writerÊs
name, title, and department, and the date of submission. The name of the
person or company receiving the report is used when reports are prepared
for clients or others outside the organisation. The title should indicate the
purpose and content of the report.
Some organisations have specific guidelines for the preparation of title

pages; others permit artistic freedom. If specific guidelines do not exist, the
traditional format may be the best choice. In traditional format, each line on
the title page is centred horizontally with equal vertical spacing between
items. Titles containing more than one line are single-spaced. The title
should be all capitals; other lines may be either all capitals or initial
capitals.
(b) Letter or Memo of Transmittal

The letter or memo of transmittal, if used, is written by the report writer
and is used to introduce the report to the reader. A report to readers
outside the organisation would contain a letter, whereas reports for internal
use would contain a memo. In more formal reports, a preface or foreword
may be used. The letter or memo of transmittal should be concise and may
be subjective, where the writer may offer a suggestion or opinion not
supported by data. It may contain personal comments. The letter or
memo may also refer readers to parts of the report of special interest or
suggest special uses of the information. In general, any item worthy of
discussion may be included in the letter or memo of transmittal. The
message typically ends with a statement expressing appreciation for the
opportunity to participate in the project.
(c) Table of Contents

A table of contents lists all major sections that follow it and pages on which
each section begins. Its purpose is to aid the reader in quickly locating
specific information in the report. A table of contents is not normally used
in reports of fewer than five pages. Section heads should be listed exactly as
they appear in the body and should be connected to the page number by
dot leaders (horizontally-spaced periods). Page numbers are optional for
subheadings. The table of contents is normally prepared after the report is
typed or printed in its final form. Figure 9.2 illustrates an example of an
annual report table of contents.

Figure 9.2: An example of an annual report table of contents
(d) List of Illustrations

Visual aids are identified in a list of illustrations. The list can be on the
same page as the table of contents, or it may begin on the page following
the table of contents if the report contains more than four illustrations. The
list of illustrations uses the same format as the table of contents, with
illustration caption instead of section heads. A report may group all
visual aids into one list of illustrations, or it may group each type
(table, chart, graph, etc.) separately. This section is normally prepared
after the report is typed or printed in its final form.
(e) Executive Summary

An executive summary is a brief version of the report; it restates each
section of the report in abbreviated form with an emphasis on finding
conclusions and recommendations. Other common names for an executive
summary are summary, abstract, overview, and synopsis. The summary,
which is approximately 10 percent of the length of the report up to a
limit of two single-spaced pages, saves readersÊ time by providing an
overview of its contents. Reports that include a synopsis in the letter of
transmittal generally do not contain an executive summary.

9.2.2 Body
Most formal reports will contain all the information presented in the sections
discussed in this part of the topic. However, some of the sections may be
combined. The material in the body may be presented using the direct or the
indirect approach. The conclusions, recommendations, or both, come at the
beginning of the body when the direct approach is used; they come at the end of
the body in the indirect approach.
(a) Introduction
The introduction provides adequate background concerning the study so
that the reader can understand the scope and sequence of the report.
(b) Background
The introduction often begins with the background, a general description
of the problem that was studied and the main issues involved in it. The
background leads to the statement of the problem.
(c) Statement of the Problem

The statement of the problem clearly identifies the specific problem that
was researched. The statement of the problem should be brief and
informative.
(d) Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study indicates why the study was conducted.
The purpose should help convince the reader of the worthiness of the
report. The purpose may be stated as a question („Which insurance
company will best serve our needs?‰) or as a statement („The purpose
of this study is to provide information so that the insurance company
with the most effective plan will be selected.‰).
(e) Scope
The scope of the research is defined by the main factors that were studied
and generally appears next in the introductory section. It lets the reader
know the extent of the research. Boundaries set by the researcher as well as
factors over which the researcher had no control are listed in this section of
the introduction. These limitations can include lack of resources, lack of
time, or geographic boundaries.
(f) Related Literature

Related literature is material collected while doing research on a topic
being studied. A review of related literature may be included in the
introduction if only a limited amount of literature is available about the

topic. A separate section should be used when extensive amounts of related

literature are reviewed.
(g) Unfamiliar Terms

Definitions of terms unfamiliar to the reader can be included in the
introductory section. When many terms need to be defined, however,
a glossary should be included in the supplementary section.
(h) Procedures
The procedures or methodology section describes the steps taken in
conducting the study. One purpose of this section is to allow readers to
determine whether all aspects of the problem were adequately
investigated. This section can also be used by another researcher to conduct
a similar study that could validate or disprove the results of the original
study.
(i) Findings
Findings are results discovered during the research. This section should be
presented in a factual and objective manner without personal opinions
or interpretations. Present all findings-positive and negative. Visual aids
can be used to assist the writer in communicating the findings of the study.
(j) Analysis
The analysis section contains the writerÊs interpretation of the qualitative or
quantitative assessment of the findings. If prior research on the topic exists,
the writer compares its results with the findings of the current study.
Information in the analysis section assists the reader in determining which
relationships are important.
(k) Conclusions
A conclusion is a statement of reasoning made by a researcher after a
thorough investigation. All conclusions should be made using the findings
of the study and should be based on the analysis section of the report. In
many studies, conclusions are summary statements of the content of the
analysis section. No new data should be presented in this section. A study
may have one or several conclusions. As these statements become the basis
for the writerÊs recommendations, the two sections may be combined.
(l) Recommendations
A recommendation is the writerÊs suggestion to the reader as to the
action(s) that should be taken to solve the problem that was studied.
Recommendations should develop logically from the findings, analysis,
and conclusions of the study. A study can result in one or more

recommendations. If three or more recommendations are presented, they

can be listed and numbered. This section may contain only the
recommendations, or it may contain both the recommendations and the
supportive reasoning for their development.
9.2.3 Supplementary Section

The final section of a written report contains materials that relate indirectly to the
main topic of the study. This section may consist of one or more subsections,
such as a glossary, an appendix and a bibliography.
(a) Glossary
A glossary is an alphabetic list of terms used in the report, terms with
which the reader might be unfamiliar. It is used only when numerous
unfamiliar terms are included in the text. When the report contains only a
few specialised terms, the writer should define them in the introduction or
when they first occur in the text.
(b) Appendix
An appendix contains related information excluded from the body to
improve its readability. When appending two or more items, label each
separately and identify it with a capital letter, as shown by the following:
Appendix A: Computer Printout of Daily Sales
Appendix B: Sample Follow-Up Letter
All appendices should be referred to in the body of the report. If the

material is not referred to in the body, it is not relevant enough to be
included as an appendix. Some items commonly included as appendices
include questionnaires, computer printouts, follow-up letters, reports of
similar studies, working papers, intricate tables, and supporting material.
(c) Bibliography
A bibliography, also known as a reference list, is an alphabetical list of all
references used as sources of information in the study, including those that
do not appear in footnotes. Refer to a reference manual for information on
how to display entries for various sources.
EXERCISE 9.2
What are the three stages of a report process?

9.2.4 Mechanics of Formal Reports

The mechanics of a written report - format, spacing, footnotes, and so forth - are
as important as the mechanics of a letter or memo in that they make the first
impression on the reader. The readerÊs first impression of the report will be based
on its appearance. A negative first impression may increase the time it takes for a
reader to gain confidence in the report writerÊs credibility.
When preparing the document, the writer must consider general guidelines
of report mechanics as well as the guidelines and policies of the organisation.
The primary consideration in the physical presentation of a written report is that
the mechanics improve the readability of the report. Readability is one of the
report characteristics cited. Paragraphs averaging six to seven lines make it easy
for the reader to concentrate on the written material. Proper spacing between
paragraphs and correct margins make it easy for the reader to follow the
material. Headings lead the reader from one section to the next by announcing
the next topic.
(a) Cover
The cover protects the contents of the report. Therefore, it is often
constructed of light-weight card stock. Information can be printed on the
cover or displayed through a cut-out section (window). The cover should
be attractive and may contain an appropriate picture or drawing that will
add to the impact of the report. Many organisations use pre-printed covers
on which the author can place the variable information. The four items
generally displayed on a report cover are the title, the name of the receiver,
the name of the author, and the date the report was submitted. Normally,
the title is in uppercase letters, and the authorÊs name has initial capital
letters. Covers are usually used on long, formal reports.
(b) Margins
Proper margins in a report are important because they create the white
space that makes the report visually appealing to the reader. As a general
rule, report margins should be 1 inch on all sides. However, reports that are
bound at the left should have a 1 1/2-inch left margin, and reports that are
bound at the top should have a 2-inch top margin. Preliminary parts,
supplementary parts, and the opening page of major sections typically
have larger (2-inch) top margins.
(c) Spacing
Reports may be single-spaced or double-spaced. The trend in business
organisations is towards single-spacing to reduce the number of sheets of
paper that have to be handled. In reports using double-spacing, paragraph

indentations should be ó inch from the left margin; no space is

added between paragraphs. Single-spaced reports should be double-
spaced between paragraphs; indenting the first line of the paragraph is
optional.
(d) Headings
Appropriate headings help the reader follow the report organisation and
enable him or her to refer quickly to specific sections within the report.
Sections that are of little interest can be skipped or scanned quickly.
Headings may be either informative or structural. An informative heading

indicates the content of a section and orients readers so that they can
easily understand the material better. A structural heading emphasises the
functional sections within the report. Once the type of heading is selected,
it should be used consistently throughout the report. The following is an
example of informative heading.
Informative Heading:
CUSTOMERSÊ ATTITUDES TOWARD TELEVISION AS ADVERTISING
MEDIUM
ACTIVITY 9.2
An example of an Informative Heading has been provided above. Now,
based on your understanding, come up with an example of a Structural
Heading.
(e) Findings
The ways headings are presented vary according to the style used by
the organisation. Regardless of the method selected, consistency of
presentation is vital. An explanation of one widely accepted method
follows.
First-level headings (main headings) are centred on the page in uppercase

letters. Main headings may be printed in boldface uppercase letters but
preferably not in uppercase letters and underscored. Second-level headings
(side headings) begin at the left margin, and the first letter of each main
word is capitalised. Side headings are often underlined or boldfaced for
emphasis. The third-level heading (paragraph heading) begins one-half
inch from the left margin, is underlined or bold-faced, and has the first

letter capitalised. The headings at each level must be constructed so that

they are grammatically parallel. For example, all first-level headings must
be parallel; however, first-level headings do not have to be parallel with
second-level headings. In the following example, the second-level headings
are parallel, but the first-level headings are not:
INCOME FOR FIRST QUARTER

Rent
Dividends
WAYS THAT FIRST WAURTER INCOME IS SPENT
Wages
Insurance
Travel
This example could be corrected by changing „WAYS THAT FIRST

QUARTER INCOME IS SPENT‰ to „EXPENSES FOR FIRST QUARTER.‰
The rules of outlining should be followed when preparing headings

in a written report. That is, when second or third-level headings are used,
each level must have at least two headings.
All first and second-level headings within a report should be set, preceding
and superseding text by a double space. Text for sections with third-level
headings should begin two word spaces after the period in the heading.
This method of organising headings is shown in Figure 9.3.

Figure 9.3: An example of levels of headings
(f) Footnotes
Footnotes must be used to give credit to the source of quoted or
paraphrased material. Reports in the business community do not contain
as many footnotes as reports in other fields because business reports
usually only contain information that is based on data gathered through
primary research. Two commonly used methods for citing sources are as
follows:

Ć The Traditional Method

The traditional method of footnoting is convenient for the reader when
a report contains information gathered from a number of sources.
Material to be footnoted is marked by an Arabic numeral that is placed
at the end of the quoted material and raised ó line (superscript).
Numbering for the footnote numbers begin with 1 and are consecutive
throughout the report. The footnote is separated from the text by a 1-
inch or 2-inch horizontal rule beginning at the left margin, 1 line below
the last line of the text material. In addition, the footnote is typed or
printed on the second line under the rule; it is single-spaced, with the
first line indented ó inch from the left margin. The superscript number
identification precedes the citation.
The footnoting feature of word processing software makes enumeration

and placement easy, but the report writer must still ensure that the
citation is complete and correct. Information contained in traditional
footnotes varies depending on the source-book, periodical,
encyclopedia, government publication, newspaper, or unpublished
material. An example of a traditional footnote for information taken
from a periodical is as shown by the following. Footnotes for material
from other sources vary slightly.
The number of new oil wells being drilled has decreased by 10

percent from the number drilled last year (Hodde, 1998, p. 8). There
will be a shortage of oil products if the trend of drilling fewer wells
continues for the rest of this decade.
1A.W. Hodde, „Oil Production in 1997,‰ Petroleum Quarterly 9,
(1998) p.8
Ć The Contemporary Method

A contemporary method of footnoting information is more appropriate for
reports that contain information from only a few sources. These sources
can be documented easily by placing the information (name of author, date
of publication, and page number) in parentheses at the end of the sentence
relating to the citation. For information about the source, a reader would
refer to the bibliography. An example of this method is as follows:
The number of new oil wells being drilled has decreased by 10

percent from the number drilled last year (Hodde, 1998, p.8). There
will be a shortage of oil products if the trend of drilling fewer wells
continues for the rest of this decade.

(g) Page Numbering

Pages in reports of only one or two pages do not have to be numbered.
Pages in reports should be numbered consecutively. Preliminary pages
(pages prior to the body of a report) should be numbered by placing small
Roman numerals (ii, iii, iv, etc.) at the centre of the page, one inch from the
bottom, beginning with the second page. The title page is considered page
1 even though no page number is displayed.
The body of the report should begin as page one, identified with Arabic
numerals (1, 2, 3, 4, etc.). For each section or topic that is started on a
separate page, page number should be centred one inch from the bottom.
On the remaining pages of unbound or left-bound reports, the number
should be placed on the fourth line from the top of the page in the
right margin; on top-bound reports the number should be centred and
one inch from the bottom edge of the page. The page numbering
feature of word processing software simplifies the placement process. An
example of a formal report appears in page 328-339 of the reference,
Business Communication. 5th Ed. By A.C. Krizan, Patricia Merrier, and
Carol L. Jones.
9.3 BUSINESS PROPOSALS

A proposal is a formal request for action that results from a perceived business
problem or business opportunity. It is a persuasive message in which a writer
analyses a problem and recommends a solution. The problem may be a need
for solutions of equipment, services, research, a plan of action, or other
things. The recommended solution may be products, personnel, a business study,
a description of work to be performed, or any of several other outcomes. In
appearance, a proposal is like reports. The difference can be seen in its functions
and content.
Proposals are common in business and it is important that they be clear, be

concise and meet readersÊ expectations. Business people look for initiative. They
welcome suggestions about how to change things for the better. Customers and
suppliers want to receive proposals that will benefit them and you. Successful
organisations depend on the creation of ideas that will improve productivity and
profitability. Proposals are gambles. They take time to develop and are often
rejected. Some proposal developers believe that they are doing well if they win
acceptance of one of every ten proposals. Effective proposal writers are risk
takers; they assess the probability of success and then decide whether to proceed.

9.3.1 Types of Business Proposals

Proposals can be external or internal, solicited or unsolicited, formal or informal.
(a) External Proposals

External proposals go outside an organisation to current or prospective
customers, government agencies, or to private agencies and foundations.
These messages include proposals to supply products at given prices, to
build roads, or to perform audits. This category also encompasses requests
for grants of money or goods to support the work of non-profit agencies
or other groups hoping to meet some societal or humanitarian need. Such
requests are submitted to foundations established solely for the purpose of
funding projects in areas such as the arts, education, environment, or
human services. They are also submitted to corporations, whose missions
often include returning a portion of their profits to the communities or
region in which they do business. Receiving approval of external proposals
is essential to the success of many profit and non-profit organisations.
(b) Internal Proposals

Proposals sent to others within an organisation are internal proposals.
These can be proposals to solve problems or to meet needs by improving
procedures, changing products, adding personnel, reorganising
departments, expanding facilities, reducing budgets, or making other
changes. Ideas for internal improvement, creatively developed and
effectively presented, are the lifeblood of organisations.
(c) A Solicited Proposal

A solicited proposal is prepared in response to a request for proposal
(RFP). The solicitation may be made face-to-face, by telephone, or in
writing. Solicited proposals are generally submitted externally. When
responding to solicitations for proposals, writers must provide all the
requested information and use the specified format. Failure to do so may
eliminate the proposal from consideration.
(d) An Unsolicited Proposal

Proposals prepared at the writerÊs initiative rather than in response to an
RFP are called unsolicited proposals. These proposals represent an
independent analysis of problems faced by others or needs and the creation
of possible solutions. Unsolicited proposals may be internal or external.
When submitting proposals to foundations or government agencies,
writers must match the goals of the writerÊs organisation to those of the
foundation or agency.

(e) Informal Proposals

Informal proposals generally take the form of letters (external) or memos
(internal). Some foundations, corporations, and government agencies
encourage or require proposal writers to submit pre-proposals or letters of
inquiry. These documents, which are submitted without attachments,
provide a succinct description of the project. After review, the funding
agency either rejects the proposal or directs the writer to submit a full
proposal.
9.3.2 Qualities of a Successful Business Proposal

Successful proposals have qualities that separate them from unsuccessful ones.
Although success sometimes depends on factors such as luck, politics, timing,
and reputation, most proposals must have excellent content and be clearly
presented to be accepted. The following qualities usually are required for a
successful proposal:
Ć The purpose of the proposal is stated clearly;
Ć The problem or need is understood and defined clearly;
Ć The solution is innovative and presented convincingly;
Ć The benefits outweigh the costs;
Ć The personnel implementing the solution are qualified;
Ć The solution can be achieved on a timely basis;
Ć The proposal is honest, factual, realistic, and objective; and
Ć The presentation is professional and attractive.
To convey these qualities in the proposal, the writer must carefully analyse the
situation and the receivers, use the you viewpoint, and apply the principles of
business communication.
The proposal should be a powerful, persuasive message. The receivers are going
to be looking for the benefits to them, their department, the company, the
community, the society, or some other group to which they belong. The proposal
should get the receiversÊ attention, clearly show the benefits of accepting the
proposal, give proof of those benefits, and motivate favourable action.

9.4 BUSINESS PLANS

SELF-CHECK 9.3
What is a business plan? Have you ever been involved in preparing a
business plan? What is the difference between a business proposal
and a business plan?
A business plan is a comprehensive, detailed document specially designed to

persuade a particular person to invest in a new business or new business
venture. It explains and justifies the business concept and potentials. The
information which is generally included in a business plan are:
(a) Background of business
(b) The kind of business and services you want to establish
(c) Rationale of the business as a good investment
(d) Plans for management of staff
(e) Budget need
(f) Return of investment
(g) Marketing plans and strategies for promotion
9.5 THE ELEMENTS OF A FORMAL PROPOSAL

Items contained in a proposal vary with the situation and the reader. A
successful proposal contains essential elements or parts. The lists of possible
proposal elements are:
(a) Cover letter or memo;
(b) Title page or cover;
(c) Reference to authorisation;
(d) Table of contents;
(e) List of illustrations;
(f) Proposal summary;
(g) Purpose;
(h) Problem or need;
(i) Background;

(j) Benefits of the proposal;

(k) Description of the solution;
(l) Evaluation plan;
(m) Qualifications of personnel;
(n) Time schedule;
(o) Cost;
(p) Glossary;
(q) Appendices; and
(r) Reference list.
Although all these elements are important for many large proposals, the key
elements are the purpose, problem or need, benefits of implementing the
solution, description of the solution, qualifications of personnel, time schedule,
and cost. All the proposal elements are described in the following sections.
(a) Cover Letter or Memo

The cover letter or memo, also referred to as a transmittal message,
introduces the proposal to the reader. A letter is used for an external
proposal and a memo for an internal proposal. The cover letter or memo
should include content that provides coherence for the reader, reviews
the highlights of the proposal, and encourages action.
(b) Title Page or Cover

The information contained on the title page or cover of a proposal can
include the title of the proposal, name and location of the receiver, name
and location of the submitter, date of submission, principal investigator,
proposed cost, and the proposed duration of the project. The title should be
concise, preferably under ten words. Consider which of the six „W and H‰
questions what? when? where? who? why? how? - must be answered by
the title. The title of the proposal should attract the readerÊs attention and
because it will be used to identify the proposal, it should be easy to
remember. Eliminate meaningless words such as „A Study of‰ or „An
Examination of‰; use descriptive adjective-noun combinations.
(c) Reference to Authorisation

If the proposal is solicited, the request should be noted in a reference
to authorisation - the permission or request for the proposal. The
information contained in the reference to authorisation depends on the
RFP. For an informal or short RFP, the reference could be as simple as
listing the RFP number on the cover or including a line in the cover letter or
memo that says „This proposal is in response to your telephone call of

May 5, 200-.‰ For a formal RFP, the reference to authorisation could be one
or more pages following the title page or cover. A lengthy RFP may require
an abstract as a reference to authorisation.
(d) Table of Contents

The table of contents lists the titles and page numbers of all the major
sections of the proposal. It will assist in orienting readers and will serve as
an aid to locating specific information. The names and page numbers of
the appendices are also included in the table of contents.
(e) List of Illustrations

The titles and page numbers of any tables, figures, graphs, or other
illustrations are placed in a list of illustrations immediately following the
table of contents.
(f) Proposal Summary

The proposal summary is the proposal in capsule form. This section, which
contains the most vital information from each of the major sections of the
proposal, is prepared after the proposal has been written. It should be
short. The summary is designed to give busy people a quick but complete
overview of the proposal. For short proposals, the summary may be just a
paragraph. For a long proposal of 100 to 500 pages, the summary might be
1 to 10 pages. If the RFP specifies a length, be sure to make the summary
that length and no longer.
(g) Purpose
Following the summary, the actual proposal begins. The purpose should be
stated first. The purpose statement helps the reader understand clearly:
Ć The reason you are making the proposal; and
Ć The nature of the proposal - how it will accomplish the purpose.
Examples of purpose statements are as follows:

Ć This is a proposal to reduce manufacturing costs 10 percent by
replacing the Assembly Line A conveyor system.
Ć The purpose of this proposal is to increase sales by adding commission
sales personnel.
Ć The purpose of this proposal is to improve the quality of life of
MiddletonÊs senior citizens by securing funding and constructing a
senior centre adjacent to the community library.

These purpose statements may stand alone or they may be followed

by brief explanations. The amount of explanation given depends on the
readerÊs knowledge and his or her need for information.
(h) Problem or Need

The next section should describe the problem being solved or the need
being met. This section should use coherence techniques to link it to
the section in which the purpose is stated. For example, the first
purpose statement given in the previous section might be followed by a
problem statement, as shown by the following:
Manufacturing costs for the second quarter are up 5 percent over the
first quarter. Most of this cost increase can be attributed to the
new labour agreement that became effective March 1. To meet
competition, we must find new ways to reduce manufacturing costs.
(i) Background
If it is necessary for your readers to obtain complete understanding, you
should provide background data on the problem. The background section
may be combined with the problem/ need section or, if both sections are
long, it can be presented separately. In the background section, you may
explain the problem; how it developed, its magnitude, and the
consequences if nothing is done.
(j) Benefits of the Proposal

The benefits of the proposal are important. Benefits of the proposal
represent the outcomes of the implementation of the proposed solution.
The benefits must be stated in the you-viewpoint; they must clearly serve
the interests of the reader and/or his or her organisation. The benefits must
outweigh their cost. (The cost data will be given later in the proposal.) If
your proposal is competing with other proposals, the benefits you cite must
be more cost-effective than your competitorsÊ benefits for your proposal to
be the winning one.
(k) Description of the Solution

The description of the solution is the most important section in the
proposal. It will most likely be the largest section. It contains the solution
to the problem or your recommendation of meeting the need.
The description of the solution section must tie coherently to the

information given previously in the proposal. References must be made in
this section to the purpose, the problem or need, and the benefits of the
proposal. Your readers must clearly understand your solution and be

convinced that it achieves the purpose, solves the problem, and provides
the benefits cited earlier.
The description of the solution should include specifically what you are
proposing to be done, who will do it, when it will be done, where it is to be
done, how it will be done, and why it should be done. As mentioned
earlier, proposals submitted in response to an RFP must carefully provide
all the information called for in the request.
You will want to stress the innovative aspects of your proposal, the special
nature of the resources you are recommending, and the strength of your
solutionÊs rationale. Show how these features of your proposal fit your
readerÊs needs or mission. A good way to do this is to relate your
solutions directly to each of the benefits given earlier. Those benefits might
be listed individually, with each followed by an appropriate part of the
description of the solution. The intent is to show clearly that:
Ć You have carefully thought through all aspects of the proposed
solution;
Ć It represents a realistic, feasible, and desirable way of solving the
problem or meeting the need; and
Ć You, your department, or your organisation are capable of
implementing the solution.
(l) Evaluation Plan

If appropriate for your proposal, you will want to include an evaluation
plan. The evaluation plan is a way to measure the degree of success
achieved if your proposal were implemented. This plan could consist of a
record-keeping system; a review by a panel of experts; statistical analysis
procedures; a reporting system; or any number of control, analysis,
measurement, or judgment techniques.
An evaluation plan is a major element in proposals for research studies. In

other proposals, such as increased staffing proposals, the evaluation system
might be an employee performance review procedure already in place. In
this case, only a brief reference to the existing plan would be needed.
(m) Qualifications of Personnel

In the qualifications of personnel section, you provide biographical
information about each key participant involved in implementing the
proposal. You show his or her qualifications to provide the services
proposed.

The information should include the education, experience,

accomplishments, successes, and evidences of achievement that directly
relate to each participantÊs involvement in the proposed solution. In this
section, you are justifying to the reader that these persons are fully
qualified to serve in their assigned roles.
Depending on the nature of the proposal, the amount of data presented for
each individual will vary from a few lines to several pages. In some
proposals, brief summaries are presented in the qualifications of personnel
section and full resumes are provided in an appendix. If you are
responding to an RFP, provide exactly the amount and type of personnel
information specified.
(n) Time Schedule

The time schedule shows when activity is to start and when it is to be
completed. For simple proposals, the time schedule may consist of a listing
of activities and their beginning and ending dates. For elaborate proposals,
it may be necessary to use more complex task-time analysis charts such
as Gantt, PERT (Program Evaluation Review Technique), or Milestone.
If you need assistance in selecting a time-schedule format, most libraries

have good reference materials you can use. Your responsibility in this
section is to show the reader a realistic time schedule.
(o) Cost
The cost or the price of the proposed solution is shown next. This section
may be labelled Cost, Prices, Budget, or given other appropriate titles. The
cost may be presented in logical parts, such as personnel, supplies,
equipment, and facilities; or it may be organised by benefits, parts of the
description of the solution, time phases, or other appropriate categories.
The cost of the proposed solution must cover your expenses and, if
appropriate, a profit. It must also be reasonable in relation to the benefits
and the products or services to be provided. If you are following the
guidelines in an RFP, the format for the cost section will most likely be
specified and should be used.
SELF-CHECK 9.4
In selling, do you introduce price after you have convinced the reader
to buy?

(p) Glossary
Based on a careful analysis of your readers, you may decide to include a
glossary in your proposal. A glossary alphabetically lists the unfamiliar
terms used in the proposal and gives their definitions. Include a glossary
only when many unfamiliar, specialised, or technical terms have to be
used. When there are only a few such terms, define them the first time they
are used.
(q) Appendices
To keep the body of the proposal as short and readable as possible,
it is sometimes appropriate to place complex supporting information in an
appendix. An appendix contains items that are indirectly related to
the proposal but are excluded from the body to improve readability.
It was suggested earlier that resumes of key personnel might appropriately

be placed in an appendix. Other information that might be placed in
appendices include your organisationÊs history, product specifications,
records of past successes with similar projects, letters of support, details
that support information in the description section, a questionnaire to be
used for the proposed research, or other porting and reference materials.
An RFP may specify what appendices are to be included. Be sure to include

those essential to the readerÊs understanding and decision making. If the
proposal becomes too bulky, it will be less acceptable to a potential
approver, funder or purchaser.
(r) Reference List

If you think it strengthens your case, include a reference list in the
proposal. A reference list is an alphabetical listing of all sources of
information in the proposal, including those items presented as footnotes.
9.5.1 Writing a Business Proposal

For a long, complex proposal, a writing team may be formed. Sections of the
proposal may be assigned to different individuals for writing. In this case, it is
important to have one chief writer to assure consistency throughout the proposal
and to tie all the parts together coherently.
For short proposals one person is responsible for the writing. It may or may
not be appropriate for that writer to ask others to read the proposal before it is
finalised and submitted.

Whether written by one person or a team, proposals, correspondence and

reports require planning. The principles of business communication must be
applied as the document is drafted, revised, and edited.
Format, too, plays a part in readability and can help to generate interest in the
proposal. Headings, margin notes, bullet points, outlines, charts, and diagrams
can serve as road signs to guide the reader. White space can help to highlight
important items.
Proposals are the way that new ideas are conveyed to decision makers. Most of
the recommendations in this section on proposals apply to both written and oral
proposals. Successful business people develop and submit many proposals in
their careers. They are not deterred by rejections. They keep developing and
submitting proposals and realise professional and personal gains when their
proposals are accepted.
To know more about report and proposal writing, go to:

http/www.fiincenter. org
http://www.npguides.org
http://www.fcrundations.orglgrantrnakers.html
• As a business professional, you work with various types of information used

not only to make decisions but also to inform others.
• Information in other words runs businesses through formal and informal
reports.
• Therefore, how information is gathered, communicated, analysed and
reported is essential in business proposals and reports.
• The preparation requires research which may be as simple as pulling up data
with a computer programme or as complicated as calling many different
people, conducting experiments.
• Therefore, careful planning, proposing, and researching reports is needed to
produce reliable data in reports.
• As business reports and proposals are intended to inform, persuade and
assist business in the decision-making process or problem-solving, they must
be accurate, complete and well researched.

Bussiness proposal
Contemporary method
Formal report
Informal report
Traditional method

Answers
TOPIC 1: UNDERSTANDING BUSINESS

COMMUNICATION
Exercise 1.1
Ć System
Ć Symbolic interaction
Ć Shared meanings
Ć It is a process
Ć Information sharing
Ć Unique
Ć Sharing of ideas
Exercise 1.2
Ć Physical (passing cars, screaming)
Ć Physiological (visual impairments, hearing loss, memory loss, articulation

problems)
Ć Psychological (bias or prejudice, closed-mindedness, anger, love, hatred,

excitement)
Ć Semantic (speaking different languages, complex jargon)

188 X ANSWERS
TOPIC 2: MANAGING BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Exercise 2.1
Mode of Communication Channels Rating

Written only 2
Oral only 3
Written and oral 1
Bulletin board 4
Grapevine 5
Exercise 2.2
1. Setting goals
2. Testing assumptions
3. Clarify issues
TOPIC 3: TOOLS IN BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Exercise 3.1
1. A working method that allows an employee to hold a full time job while
working from home or traveling to office by uplinking with the companyÊs
central computer via telephone wires and cellular communication.
2. (a) Has little need for face-to-face with co workers

(b) Able to commute directly from home to client
(c) Has access to quiet office space at home
(d) Have access at home to needed equipment
(e) Working with little supervision
(f) Perform tasks that can be done from home
(g) Exist element of trust from employer

ANSWERS W 189
TOPIC 4: INTRODUCTION TO ORAL COMMUNICATION

Exercise 4.1
Ć Telephone conversation.
Ć Formal oral communication, for example, department meetings, business
presentations or board meeting, formal speeches.
Ć Informal oral communication for example discussions with colleagues.
Exercise 4.2
Ć Feelings
Ć Language (words)
Ć Nonverbal cues
TOPIC 5: DELIVERING ORAL BUSINESS

COMMUNICATION
Exercise 5.1
Ć Powerpoint
Ć Video and audio
Ć Posters
Ć Short notes
Ć Brochures
Exercise 5.2
Ć Prepare an opening statement in advance

Ć Involve all members in the discussion, if possible
Ć Encourage participantsÊ comments to be positive; from trying to solve a
problem to encouraging others into more helpful roles.
Ć Manage conflict carefully and try creating a more creative discussion
Ć Encouraging members to evaluate options before making a decision

190 X ANSWERS
Ć Be precise in stating the conclusions and finally go through Minutes of

meetings & meeting agenda (maintain order in meeting processes)
Ć Ensure follow-up issues and tracking from decisions and implementation of
previous decisions made
Ć Keep discussion very brief and solutions to issues
Ć limit meeting length and frequency of having meetings
TOPIC 6: UNDERSTANDING LISTENING BEHAVIOURS

Exercise 6.1
Communication which has no actual words. Includes sounds, vocal expressions

such as murmurs, gasps, sighing, vocal qualities, volume, rhythm, pitch and
inflection.
Exercise 6.2
Ć To gain information
Ć To gain ideas
Ć To question
Ć To test evidence
Ć To motivate self interest
Ć To improve your own communication skills
Exercise 6.3
Ć Faking attention
Ć Overlistening
Ć Stereotyping
Ć Failing to observe nonverbal cues
Ć Allowing disturbances
Ć Pseudolistening

ANSWERS W 191
TOPIC 7: FUNDAMENTALS OF WRITTEN

COMMUNICATION
Exercise 7.1
Ć Avoid redundancies
Ć Identify details that the reader needs to understand the message
Ć Avoid wordy messages
Ć Avoid unnecessary messages
Ć Do not restate ideas that are sufficiently implied
Ć Use short sentences
Exercise 7.2
1. Include apologies and negative statements before the last paragraph
2. Show appreciation
3. Be friendly
4. Occasionally add a personal note
5. Use short and complete sentences
6. Make the action request clear and complete with the 5W 1H, for example:
- What and who : clearly state what action is desired and who do it.
- How and where : make action easy
- When : deadlines if desirable
- Why : inform the reader of the benefits, if possible.
Exercise 7.3
Revising means making changes that will better satisfy your purposes and
your audience.
Editing means making surface-level changes that make the document

grammatically correct.
Proofreading means checking to be sure the document is free from typographical

errors.

192 X ANSWERS
TOPIC 8: TYPES OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE

Exercise 8.1
Ć Well organised
Ć Precise
Ć Informative
Ć Correct
Ć Clear & concise
Ć Complete
Ć Concise
Ć Readable
Exercise 8.2
Pros (Advantages):
(a) Message can be stored in the electronic boxes until ready to read.
(b) E-mail eliminates telephone tag (busy people who are always not
available for direct phone calls).
(c) Saves time.
(d) E-mail can speed up decision making process.
(e) Permits unlimited communication across time and space.
Cons (Disadvantages):
(a) Not confidential.

(b) Does not communicate the senderÊs emotions well as compared to
face-to face meeting or telephone conversation. i.e. voice intonation, facial
expression.
(c) Feedback is always delayed or may be ignored by the receiver.

ANSWERS W 193
TOPIC 9: BUSINESS REPORTS AND PROPOSALS

Exercise 9.1
Ć To control to ensure all units/ dept are functioning

Ć To give information
Ć To provide an analysis
Ć To persuade others to act on a particular issue
The functions are sometimes interrelated.
Exercise 9.2
Ć Analysis stage ă to determine the purpose of report writing

Ć Conducting research and using data
Ć Preparing the final report

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OUM Business School

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writer: Massila Hamzah

Moderator: Lilian Kek Siew Yick

Editor: Gina Marini Victor Sathiaratnam

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, January 2004

Topic 1: Understanding Business Communication 1

Topic 2: Managing Business Communication 20

Topic 3: Tools in Business Communication 33

Topic 4: Introduction to Oral Communication 50

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

4.4.1 Elements of Effective Oral Communication 55

Topic 5: Delivering Oral Business Communication 66

Topic 6: Understanding Listening Behaviours 94

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

6.5.1 Situational Obstacles 103

Topic 7: Fundamentals of Written Communication 112

Topic 8: Types of Business Correspondence 123

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

8.6 Three Categories of Brief Messages Correspondence 153

Topic 9: Business Reports and Proposals 160

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

Topic 1 provides an understanding of „business communication‰ and its

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 2 will introduce students to the main forms of communication in

Topic 4 will present the relationship of the current business environment

Topic 7 introduces learners to the importance of business communication in

Topic 8 explains the different categories of written business correspondences,

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

References: References is where a list of relevant and useful textbooks, journals,

Lehman, C. M., Himsstreet, W. C., & Baty, W. M. (2007). Business communication

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Research has been carried out to analyse the importance of communication in

Why are organisations so concerned with communication skills? Is it true that

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1.1 COMMUNICATION IN BUSINESS

Based on your understanding, what does the term ÂcommunicationÊ

The ability to communicate effectively in business is essential to both the

Through communication we learn about ourselves, others, small groups, teams,

In the process of communicating, we learn to minimise listening disability and

Communication involves the process of sending and receiving messages.

Generally, communication is defined as the interaction and the sharing of

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Some refer to communication as the art of transmitting knowledge, the

Communication occurs in various forms and context. It is social in nature. Most

List down as many key words in defining communication.

The rapid development of businesses works simultaneously with good

There are four basic requirements in business communication, which involves:

Nonetheless, this fact is often overlooked by employers and also employees. In

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Within your study group, discuss and list down as many

1.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION

LetÊs suppose that you are assigned by your manager to present

Communication is a major and essential part of a business relationship. For this