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ECE522 4-RealPower PDF
ECE522 4-RealPower PDF
Spring 2014
Instructor: Kai Sun
1
References
2
Background
3
Frequency Deviations
• Under normal conditions, the power system frequency in a large Interconnection
(e.g. the EI) varies approximately 0.03Hz from the scheduled value
• When abnormal events, e.g. loss of a large generator unit, the frequency
experiences larger deviations.
4
Control of Frequency
• As frequency is a common factor throughout the system, a
change in real power demand at one point is reflected
through the system by a change in frequency
• In an interconnected system with two or more independently
controlled areas, in addition to control of frequency, the
generation within each area has to be controlled so as to
maintain scheduled power interchange.
• The control of generation and frequency is commonly
referred to as Load Frequency Control (LFC), which
involves
– Speed governing system with each generator
– Automatic Generation Control (AGC) for interconnected systems
5
Generator Control Loops
6
Speed Governing System
7
Generator Model
Initial values: P0=0T0
P=rT
P=P0+P, T=T0+T
r=0+r
P0+P=(0+r)(T0+T)
0T0+ 0T +rT0 (r T 0)
so
P=0T +rT0
Pm=0Tm+rTm0
Pe=0Te +rTe0
Pm
=0
Pm-Pe=0(Tm-Te)+r(Tm0-Te0)
=Tm-Te in per unit (0=1) Pe
= Tm-Te
8
Consider a frequency-dependent load model
Pe=PL +Dr
PL Frequency-insensitive load change
Dr Frequency-sensitive load change
D Load damping constant, typically at 1~2, i.e. 1~2%
change in load per 1% frequency change
Pm
Pe
Pm-Pe =2Hsr PL D
Pm-PL-Dr=2Hsr
Pm-PL =(2Hs+D)r
=(Ms+D)r
9
Relationship between Load and Frequency
D=2
10
Kundur’s Example 11.1
• A small system consists of 4 identical 500MVA generating units feeding a
total load of 1,020MW. The inertia constant H of each unit is 5.0 on
500MVA base. The load varies by 1.5% for a 1% change in frequency.
When there is a sudden drop in load by 20MW
a. Determine the system block diagram with constants H and D expressed
on 2,000MVA base
b. Find the frequency deviation, assuming that there is no speed-
governing action
11
12
. .
=
/
13
Governor Model
Speed changer
Linkage mechanism
Speed governor
Hydraulic Amplifier
14
Governor Model
Pref Pv
15
Turbine Model Pv Pm
• The prime mover, i.e. the source of mechanical power, may be hydraulic turbines
at water falls, steam turbines burning coal and nuclear fuel, or gas turbines
• The model for the turbine relates changes in mechanical power output Pm to
changes in gate or valve position PV
T is in 0.2~2.0 seconds
16
Load Frequency Control block Diagram
(s)
17
Load Frequency Control block Diagram
(s)
1 1
2 1 1 1/
1
1 1 1
⋯
1 2
18
Saadat’s Example 12.1
19
(s)
20
Review: Stability of a Linear System
• A necessary and sufficient condition for a linear system to be stable: Poles of the
system transfer function (i.e. roots of the characteristic equation) are only in the left-
hand portion of the s-plane (i.e. having negative real parts)
21
Review: Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
• Characteristic equation
ansn+an-1sn-1+…+a1s+a0=0 (an>0) s 3 + 7.08s 2 + 10.56s + 0.8 + K = 0
• Routh table:
For i>2, xij=(xi-2,j+1xi-1,1 xi-2,1xi-1,j+1)/xi-1,1
where xij is the element in the i-th row and j-th column
s3 1 10.56
7.08 0.8 + K
s2
73.965 - K
s1 0
7.08
s0 0.8 + K 0
24
Using the MATLAB toolbox with Saadat’s book
chp12.ex1.m
sim12ex1.mdl
50
45
0 20 40 60 80 100
t, sec 25
Saadat’s Example 12.2
Note: two generators use different MVA bases. Select 1000MVA as the common MVA base
Dw S Dw Sbase1 Dw S Dw Rbase1 =
Sbase1
Rbase 2
Rbase1 = = base1 = = base1 Sbase 2
D P base1 DP Sbase 2 DP / Sbase 2 Sbase 2 D P base 2
1000 1000 90
R1 = (0.06) = 0.1 pu R2 = (0.04) = 0.08 pu DPL = = 0.09 pu
600 500 1000
26
(a) D=0 (b) D=1.5(900+90)/1000=1.485 (frequency dependent)
-DPL -0.09 -DPL -0.09
Dwss = = =-0.004 pu Dwss = = = -0.00375 pu
1 1 10 +12.5 1 1 + +
+ + +D 10 12.5 1.485
R1 R2 R1 R2
Df = -0.004 ´ 60 = -0.24 Hz Df = -0.00375´60 = -0.225 Hz
Dw -0.004 Dw -0.00375
DP1 =- =- = 0.04 pu = 40 MW DP1 = - =- = 0.0375 pu=37.5MW
R1 0.1 R1 0.1
Dw -0.004 Dw -0.00375
DP2 =- =- = 0.05 pu = 50 MW DP2 = - =- = 0.0469 pu=46.9MW
R2 0.08 R2 0.08
Unit 1 supplies 540MW and unit 2 Unit supplies 537.5MW and unit 2 supplies 446.9MW
supplies 450MW at the new operating at the new operating frequency of 59.775Hz. The total
frequency of 59.76Hz. change in generation is 84.4MW, i.e. 5.6MW less than
90MW load change, because of the change in load
due to frequency drop.
Dw
DP2 =-
R2
D P1 R
= 2
D P2 R1
D=1.485
D=0
=
⋯ ⋯
29
• Frequency response characteristic (FRC) or Frequency bias factor
=D+1/Req =|PL/f | (Unit: MW/0.1 Hz)
• FRC can be developed for any section of a power system. It relates the MW
response of the system (or section of the system) to a change in frequency.
• FRC depends on:
– The governor droop settings of all on-line units in the system.
– The condition of the power system when the frequency deviation occurs.
– The condition of the power system includes current generator output
levels, transmission line outages, voltage levels, etc.
– The frequency response of the connected load in the system.
30
FRCs of Different
Interconnections
31
Limitations of Governor Frequency Control
• Governors do not recover frequency back to the scheduled value
(60Hz) due to the required % droop characteristic.
• Governor control does not adequately consider the cost of power
production so control with governors alone is usually not the most
economical alternative.
• Governor control is intended as a primary means of frequency control.
As such governor control is course and not suited to fine adjustment of
the interconnected system frequency
• Other limitations (see Sec. 4.3 in EPRI Tutorial)
– Spinning Reserve is not considered
– Governors have dead-bands (not functioning in 600.03~0.04Hz)
– Depends on the type of Unit (Hydro: very responsive; Combustion turbine:
may or may not be responsive; Steam: varies depending on the type)
– Governors may be blocked: a generator operator can intentionally prevent
the unit from responding to a frequency disturbance
32
Automatic Generation Control (AGC)
• Adding supplementary control on
load reference set-points of
selected generators
− Controlling prime-mover power
to match load variations
− As system load is continually
changing, it is necessary to
change the output of generators
automatically
• Primary objective:
– LFC, i.e. regulating frequency to the specified nominal value, e.g. 60Hz,
and maintaining the interchange power between control areas at the
scheduled values by adjusting the output of selected generators
• Secondary objective:
– Generation dispatch, i.e. distributing the required change in generation
among generators to minimize operation costs.
• AGC is bypassed during large disturbances and emergencies, and
other emergency controls are applied.
33
AGC for an Isolated Power System
• An integral controller is added with gain KI
34
LFC for a Two-Area System
• Generators in each area is coherent, i.e. closely coupled internally
• Two areas are represented by two equivalent generators (modeled by a voltage
source behind an equivalent reactance) interconnected by a lossless tie line
E1 E2 X T X 1 X tie X 2
P12 = sin d12
XT 12 1 2
dP12
DP12 » Dd12 = Ps Dd12 = Ps (Dd1 -Dd2 )
d d12 d120
dP12 E1 E2
Ps = = cos Dd120
d d12 d120
XT
P12
P12,max
Slope=Ps
12
35 12,0
LFC with only the Primary Loop
• Consider a load change PL1 in area 1.
Both areas have the same steady-state
frequency deviation
Dw = Dw1 = Dw2
DPm1 -DP12 -DPL1 = Dw D1
DPm 2 + DP12 - 0 = Dw D2
DP12 = Dw D2 -DPm 2
• The change in mechanical power is
determined by the governor speed
characteristics
=0
-Dw -Dw
DPm1 = DPm 2 =
R1 R2
• Solve and P12
1
-( + D2 )DPL1
-DPL1 -DPL1 R2 b2
Dw = = DP12 = = (-DPL1 )
( + D1 ) + ( + D2 ) b1 + b2 b + b
1 1 1 1
( + D1 ) + ( + D2 ) 1 2
R1 R2 R1 R2
36
37
AGC with Frequency Bias Tie-Line Control
• The objective is to restore generation-load balance in each area
• A simple control strategy:
– Keep frequency approximately at the nominal value (60Hz)
– Maintain the tie-line flow at about schedule
– Each area should absorb its own load changes
• Area Control Error (ACE): supplementary control signal added to the
primary LFC through an integral controller
n
ACEi = å DPij + BiDw
j =1
38
Comparing different Bi’s in ACE signals
• Consider a sudden load increase in Area 1:
Bi=i=D+1/Ri
b2 -DPL1
ACE1 = DP12 + b1Dw = (-DPL1 ) + b1 = -DPL1
b1 + b2 b1 + b2
b2 -DPL1
ACE 2 = -DP12 + b2Dw = - (-DPL1 ) + b2 =0
b1 + b2 b1 + b2
What does k1 mean? (k>1: the generator is more active in dynamics)
39
Bi=i=D+1/Ri
1~0
2~0
Pref1
Pm1>0
Pref2
Pm2~0
P12~0
=0
Bi=2i
1
2
41
• The control center is the headquarters of the BA, where the AGC
computer system is typically located. All the data collected by the
AGC system is processed in the control center.
• Based on the gathered data, the AGC signals are transmitted from the
control center to the various generators currently involved in
supplementary control to tell the generators what generation levels to
hold (adjust the generator set-points).
• It is not necessary for the AGC system to regulate the output of all the
generators in a BA. Most BAs have policies which require that as
many units as needed are under control and able to respond to the
BA’s continual load changes. Those units that receive and respond to
AGC signals are called regulating units. The number vary from a few
for a small BA to 40~50 for the largest BA
42
NERC Balancing Authorities
• The EI is composed of
approximately 90 BAs,
which range in load size
from over 130GW peaks to
BAs that serve no load but
simply use their generation
for meeting interchange
responsibilities.
• The WI (WECC) is
composed of approximately
30 BAs with a distribution
similar to the Eastern
Interconnection.
• The ERCOT and Hydro
Quebec are each operated
as single BAs.
43
AGC for more than two areas
• By means of ACEs, the frequency bias tie-line control scheme
schedules the net import/export for each area, i.e. the algebraic sum of
power flows on all the tie lines from that area to the others
44
Influences from reserves
• Sufficient or insufficient spinning reserve
– Normal conditions: each area has sufficient generation reserve to
carry out its supplementary control (AGC) obligations to eliminate
the ACE
– Abnormal conditions: one or more areas cannot fully eliminate the
ACE due to insufficient generation reserve; thus, there will be
changes in frequency and tie-line flows (under both supplementary
control and primary control)
• Operating reserve resources
– Spinning reserve: unloaded generating capacity (Pref,max-Pref), interruptible
load (controlled automatically)
– Non-spinning reserve: not currently connected to the system but can be
available within a specific time period, e.g. 15 minutes. Examples are such
as combustion turbines while cold standby and some interruptible load.
Each BA shall carry enough operating reserves.
45
Kundur’s Example 11.3
Spinning reserve:
Spinning reserve:
1,000 of 4,000MW
1,000 of 10,000MW
B1=250MW/0.1Hz
B2=500MW/0.1Hz
46
Notes on AGC
-å i DPL ,i = (å i 1 / Ri + å i Di )Df
= (1 / R + D )Df
48
Spinning reserve: 1000
Spinning reserve:
1,000 of 4,000MW
1,000 of 10,000MW
B1=250MW/0.1Hz
B2=500MW/0.1Hz
Loss of 1,000MW load
49
Spinning reserve: 1000
322.56 Spinning reserve:
1,000 of 4,000MW
1,000 of 10,000MW
B1=250MW/0.1Hz
B2=500MW/0.1Hz
Loss of 1,000MW load
50
Spinning reserve: 1000
1000 Spinning reserve:
1,000 of 4,000MW
1,000 of 10,000MW
B1=250MW/0.1Hz
B2=500MW/0.1Hz
Loss of 1,000MW load
51
Spinning reserve: 1000
Spinning reserve:
1,000 of 4,000MW ?
1000
1,000 of 10,000MW
B1=250MW/0.1Hz
B2=500MW/0.1Hz
Loss of 500MW
generation carrying part
of spinning reserve
833.33-500=333.33MW
52
Spinning reserve: 1000
1,937.50 Spinning reserve:
1,000 of 4,000MW
1,000 of 10,000MW
B1=250MW/0.1Hz
B2=500MW/0.1Hz
Loss of 2,000MW
generation, not carrying
spinning reserve
53
Spinning reserve:
Spinning reserve:
1,000 of 4,000MW
1,000 of 10,000MW
B1=250MW/0.1Hz X
B2=500MW/0.1Hz
54
Spinning reserve:
Spinning reserve:
1,000 of 4,000MW
1,000 of 10,000MW
B1=250MW/0.1Hz X
B2=500MW/0.1Hz
55
Frequency response following the loss of a generator
56
Impact of Abnormal Frequency Deviations
• Prolonged operation at frequencies above or below 60Hz can damage
power system equipment.
• Turbine blades of steam turbine generators can be exposed to only a
certain amount of off-frequency operation over their entire lifetime.
• Steam turbine generators often have under- and over-frequency relays
installed to trip the unit if operated at off-frequencies for a period
57
Frequency Decay Due to Generation Deficiency
• Severe system disturbances can result in cascading outages and
isolation of areas to form electrical islands.
• If such an islanded area does not have sufficient generation (and
spinning reserve), it will experience a frequency decline, which is
largely determined by frequency sensitive characteristics of loads.
58
Underfrequency Load Shedding
• In many situations, the frequency decline may lead to tripping of
steam turbine generators by underfrequency protective relays, thus
aggravating the situation further
59
• A typical UFLS setting for a North American utility may include
three steps conducted by under-frequency relays, e.g.,
– shedding 10% of the load at 59.3 HZ
– shedding 10% additional load at 59.0 HZ, and
– shedding 10% more at 58.7Hz
60
UFLS and Automatic Load Restoration in the
Western Interconnection
Maximum delay
61
Homework
62