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By: Gebremariam Fisseha

Adigrat University, Ethiopia
2009 E.C
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Chapter-6: Dielectric Materials

6.1. Introduction
The word „Dielectric‟ comes from the Greek prefix „di‟ or „dia‟ meaning „across‟. That is, this
material which is placed across the plates of a capacitor, just like a non-conducting bridge.

Dielectrics are the materials having electric dipole moment permanently. A dipole is an entity in
which equal positive and negative charges are separated by a small distance. The product of
magnitude of either of the charges and separation distance between them is called dipole
moment.

All dielectrics are electrical insulators with dielectric constant greater than one and they are
mainly used to store electrical energy. It stores with minimum dissipation power. Since, the
electrons are bound to their parent molecules & hence, there is no free charge. The term insulator
is generally used to indicate electrical obstruction while the term dielectric is used to indicate the
energy storing capacity of the material (by means of polarization). Examples of dielectrics are:
Mica, glass, plastic, water & polar molecules.

6.2. Polarization and mechanisms of polarization in dielectrics

6.2.1 Polarization
A dielectric material has polar molecules which has dipoles. These dipoles are generally in
random orientations when no electric field is applied. However when an external electric field
which flows from positive to negative part of the plate is applied as shown in the figure, the
dielectric material gets polarized, by aligning the dipole moments of polar molecules. Such
alignment of the dipole moments of the fixed or induced dipole in the direction of the peripheral
electric field is termed as Polarization.
When the material is polarized, the positive and negative part of its dipole moments are attracted
by the negative and positive part of the plate respectively. Thus because of this polarization,
positive charges of the dielectric material are displaced toward the field and negative charges
shift in the opposite direction. This creates an internal electric field in opposite direction to the
peripheral field. This reduces the overall field within the dielectric itself. The effective (resultant)
electric field ,ER is the difference of the main field ,Em and the field due to polarization ,Ep.
i.e. ER=Em-Ep=Em/k ;k=dielectric constant

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++
__
++
__
+
__
++ __
++ _
+

++
Figure 6.1: Dielectric Polarization

The extent, to which the molecules of a dielectric become polarized by an electric field, or
oriented in the direction of the field, is described by a vector quantity called the electric
polarization.

P = np
n = molecules per unit volume
p = dipole moment of each molecule
6.2.2 Mechanisms of polarization
Materials experience an electric polarization in an electric field. The electric polarization is a
measure of the degree to which the bound charge in a medium polarizes, with positive
components being pulled in the direction of the electric field and negative components being
pulled in the direction opposite to the electric field. There are fundamentally four divisions of
polarization mechanisms namely Electronic polarization, Orientation polarization, Ionic
polarization and Interfacial polarization.
1) Electronic or Atomic polarization:
Within each atom or ion there is positively charged nucleus surrounded by an electron cloud.
When an electric field is applied to this atom, the positively charged nucleus displaces in the
direction of field and the electron could in opposite direction. This kind of displacement will
produce an electric dipole with in the atom. This kind of polarization is mostly exhibited in
monatomic gases.

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2) Ionic polarization
Usually solid material must have an ionic structure. This means they are composed of cations
and anions, equal and opposite charges, held together by an ionic bond which already possesses a
dipole moment which nullifies each other field (no net polarization). This is because for every
dipole moment there is a neighboring one with exactly the same magnitude, but opposite sign.
However when external field is applied the ions feel forces in opposite directions which them
leads to have small displacement of ions from their equilibrium positions. The following figure
shows that the distance between the ions increases by d, as a resultant dipole moment will be,
µ = q (d+do).

3) Dipolar or Orientation polarization

Due to the thermal equilibrium of the molecules, in normal state the dipoles will be randomly
aligned. When an external electric field is applied the dipoles align to some degree and results in
polarization. E.g.: It usually occurs in gases and liquids such as H2O, HCl etc.

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A water molecule is bent structured. Here, oxygen atom has the covalent bond with two
hydrogen atoms. Oxygen portion of the water molecule is slightly negative whereas hydrogen
portions are slightly positive. These negative positive portions of the molecules form two dipole
moments pointed from the center of oxygen atom to center of hydrogen atoms.

The angle between these two dipole moments is 105o. There would be a resultant of these two
dipole moments. This resultant dipole moment is present in each of the water molecule even in
the absence of any externally applied field. So, the water molecule has a permanent dipole
moment. Nitrogen dioxide or similar types of molecules have same permanent dipole moment
for same reason.

When an electric field is applied externally, the molecules with permanent dipole moment orient
themselves according to the direction of applied electric field. This is because external electric
field exerts a torque on the permanent dipole moment of each molecule. The process of
orientation of permanent dipole moments along the axis of applied electric field is called
orientational polarization.

4) Interfacial or Space charge Polarization

This involves limited movement of charges resulting in alignment of charge dipoles under
applied field. This usually happens at the grain boundaries or any other interface such as
electrode-material interface

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6.3. Susceptibility, Dielectric Constant and Complex permittivity a dielectric material

Matter has an ability to resist an electric field. Permittivity is a measure of how much the
molecules oppose the external E-field. The greater permittivity the material has the greater
electric energy storing capability and the lower internal flux it has. Generally permittivity varies
with frequency, temperature, and humidity and it is often treated as a complex function, consists
of real and the imaginary. The first is constant in the static limit and decreases with increasing
frequency, the latter is called dielectric loss.

The permittivity of free space is resistance of a vacuum to an electric field and is constant, ε0 =
8.854.10-12 F/m for all frequencies. But permittivity of another Medias varies based on their
structure. Relative permittivity or dielectric constant (εr) is the ratio of the permittivity of a
substance to the permittivity of free space. It tells us that how much times the permittivity of a
medium is greater than vacuum permittivity. Various substances have dielectric constants er
greater than 1. These substances are generally called dielectric materials, or simply dielectrics.
permittivity of a medium is defined as, ε = εr ε0.

Permittivity is directly related to “Electric Susceptibility” which is quantitative measure of the

extent to which an electric field applied to a dielectric material causes polarization, the slight
displacement of positive and negative charge within the material. Now let us see how to relate
them.
Michael Faraday who first noticed that when a capacitor of value C0 under vacuum is filled with
a dielectric material, its charge storage capacity (capacitance) increases to a value of C. The ratio
of the increase of capacitance ΔC =C-C0 to its initial capacitance- C0,is the electrical
susceptibility, χe.

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χe =
C  C o C
; C=
A

Co Co d
*But the most of used terminology instead of susceptibility (χe), dielectric constant is given as:

εr = C =  ; εr-relative permittivity or dielectric constant

Co  o
*From the above equations we can relate the electric susceptibility and the dielectric permittivity
as follows: χe = εr – 1

6.4. Influence of frequency on permittivity

We know that a dielectric becomes polarised in an electric field. Now imagine switching the
direction of the field. The direction of the polarisation will also switch in order to align with the
new field. This cannot occur instantaneously: some time is needed for the movement of charges
or rotation of dipoles.

If the field is switched, there is a characteristic time that average dipole orientation takes to
adjust, called the relaxation time. Typical relaxation times are ~10-11 s. Therefore, if the electric
field switches direction at a frequency higher than ~1011 Hz, the dipole orientation cannot „keep
up‟ with the alternating field, the polarisation direction is unable to remain aligned with the field,
and this polarisation mechanism ceases to contribute to the polarisation of the dielectric.

In general, as frequency increases, the material‟s net polarization drops as each polarization
mechanism ceases to contribute, and hence its dielectric constant drops. This means that the
dielectric constant εr will approach 1 as frequency approaches infinity.
6.5. Lorentz field, Properties of dielectric materials
6.5.1 Properties of dielectric materials
 Increase electric breakdown potential of capacitors.
 Increase capacitance.
 Provide mechanical support.
6.5.2 Lorenz field or internal field
On a macroscopic scale, the overall field in a material is zero due to the condition of electrical
neutrality, when we start looking at the scale of individual atoms and molecules, it is not the
case. Although this local field which is nothing but the sum of applied field and some other fields
and can be solved using a simple approach, by using Lorentz model where we divide the field
into different components.

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Consider a dielectric be placed between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor and let there be an
imaginary spherical cavity around the atom A inside the dielectric. The internal field at the atom
site „A‟ can be made up of four components E1, E2, and E3 & E4.

 Field E1: field intensity at A due to the charge density on the plates.

E1 = D = E+ P ; D=  o E+P
o o

 Field E2: field intensity at A due to charge density induced on the two sides of the
dielectric.
P
E2 =
o
 Field E3: field intensity at A due to the atoms contained in the cavity, So E3=0
P
 Field E4: due to polarized charges on the surface of the entire cavity,E4=
3 o
Then, the internal field or Lorenz field can be written as:
Ei = E1+E2+E3+E4
P P P
= (E+ )+ + 0+
o o 3 o
P
= E+
3 o

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From the last equation it can be seen that local or microscopic field is larger than the

macroscopic field E by an additional factor P .

3 o

6.6. Mechanisms of electrical breakdown of dielectric materials

Every material is bound to fail or breakdown under certain conditions. Basically, in case of a
dielectric it means short circuiting across the dielectric.
Technically speaking, dielectric breakdown occurs:
 When applied electric field strength reaches a threshold point :
When the electron density in the conduction band becomes very high during the application of an
electric field such that conductivity increases rapidly resulting in a permanent damage to
material. The most critical parameter is the field strength E in the dielectric. If it exceeds a
critical limit, a sudden increase in current destroy the dielectric, hence breakdown occurs. The
(DC) current vs. field strength characteristic of a dielectric is shown in the figure below:

However, Ec is not a well-defined material property; it depends on many parameters such as

material thickness (bulk or thin film), temperature, atmosphere, level of porosity, crystalline
anisotropy, level of crystalinity and composition.

 Gradual time dependent manner:

While electric field plays an important role, dielectric may also break in a gradual time
dependent manner and in such cases we would rather call it as „failure‟. In such situation, the
field may be well below the nominal breakdown or critical field and material is destroyed in long
time. In such cases, normally the breakdown field also decreases with time. In such cases, the
breakdown may not be sudden, rather a leakage current develops which increases over time, and
it may develop until it suddenly increases leading to complete failure. You can do this
measurement rather easily by letting a small current pass through the samples and then monitor
the voltage needed as a function of time. You will notice that the voltage needed to pass this
current reduces as time progresses indicating that materials are getting leakier.

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(a)Field dependent (b) Time dependent failure

Figure 6.2: Dielectric break down

There are three postulated mechanisms to explain the above dielectric breakdown of insulating
materials. These are Electro thermal break down, intrinsic breakdown and electrochemical break
down.

6.6.1 Intrinsic or Ionic break down

Intrinsic breakdown depends upon the presence of free electrons which are capable of migration
through the lattice of the dielectric. Usually, a small number of conduction electrons are present
in solid dielectrics, along with some structural imperfections and small amounts of impurities.
The impurity atoms, or molecules or both act as traps for the conduction electrons up to certain
ranges of electric fields and temperatures. When these ranges are exceeded, additional electrons
in addition to trapped electrons are released, and these electrons participate in the conduction
process. Based on this principle, two types of intrinsic breakdown mechanisms have been
proposed.
 Electronic Breakdown
Intrinsic breakdown occurs in time of the order of 10-8 s and therefore is assumed to be
electronic in nature. The initial density of conduction (free) electrons is also assumed to
be large, and electron-electron collisions occur. When an electric field is applied,
electrons gain energy from the electric field and cross the forbidden energy gap from the
valence band to the conduction band. When this process is repeated, more and more
electrons become available in the conduction band, eventually leading to breakdown.

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 Avalanche or Streamer Breakdown

This is similar to breakdown in gases due to cumulative ionization. Conduction electrons
gain sufficient energy above a certain critical electric field and cause liberation of
electrons from the lattice atoms by collision. Under uniform field conditions, if the
electrodes are embedded in the specimen, breakdown will occur when an electron
avalanche bridges the electrode gap.

An electron within the dielectric, starting from the cathode will drift towards the anode
and during this motion gains energy from the field and loses it during collisions. When
the energy gained by an electron exceeds the lattice ionization potential, an additional
electron will be liberated due to collision of the first electron. This process repeats itself
resulting in the formation of an electron avalanche. Breakdown will occur, when the
avalanche exceeds a certain critical size.

In practice, breakdown does not occur by the formation of a single avalanche itself, but
occurs as a result of many avalanches formed within the dielectric and extending step by
step through the entire thickness of the material.
6.6.2 Thermal breakdown
When an electric field is applied to a dielectric, conduction current however small it
maybe, flows through the material. The current heats up the specimen and the
temperature rise. The heat generated is transferred to the surrounding medium by
conduction through the solid dielectric and by radiation from its outer surfaces.
Because of this low conductivity the solid dielectrics are poorer conductors of heat. At a
given applied voltage if the heat generated due to losses is greater than the heat dissipated
and if the voltage is applied for a long enough period then the dielectric will become
unable to reach a state of internal thermal equilibrium resulting in an electro thermal
breakdown of the dielectric.
6.6.3 Electrochemical breakdown
In the presence of air and other gases some dielectric materials undergo chemical changes
when subjected to continuous stresses. Some of the important chemical reactions that
occur are: Oxidation, hydrolysis and chemical actions.

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The above chemical actions result in surface cracks, reduction of electrical and
mechanical strength and reduction of electrical and mechanical properties. The life of the
specimen considerably reduces.
6.6.4 Discharge/void breakdown
Solid insulating materials, and to a lesser extent liquid dielectrics contain voids or
cavities within the medium or at the boundaries between the dielectric and the electrodes.
These voids are generally filled with a medium of lower dielectric strength, and the
dielectric constant of the medium in the voids is lower than that of the insulation. Hence,
the electric field strength in the voids is higher than that across the dielectric. Therefore,
even under normal working voltages the field in the voids may exceed their breakdown
value, and breakdown may occur.
6.7. Ferro electricity Classification and applications
6.7.1 Ferro electricity
In some Polar dielectrics, the permanent dipoles are oriented in certain directions, even in the
absence of exteternal applied electric field So they show spontaneous polarisation . These are
called ferroelectric materials .
Similar to a magnetization of ferromagnetic materials Ferroelectricity ceases in a given material
above a characteristic temperature, called its Curie temperature, because the heat agitates the
dipoles sufficiently to overcome the forces that spontaneously align them.

The special characters of ferroelectric materials are:

 Hysteresis behavior ( P~E curve)
 The polarization is dependent not only on the current electric field but also on its
history, yielding a hysteresis loop.
 Spontaneous polarization
 They have electric polarization without electric field.
 Reversibility of polarization
 Their spontaneous electric polarization that can be reversed by the application of
an external electric field.
 Ferroelectric transition temperature
 These materials demonstrate their Ferrelectricity only below a certain phase
transition temperature, called the Curie temperature, Tc. Above this temperature:

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the spontaneous polarization vanishes, and the ferroelectric crystal transforms

into the paraelectric state.

6.7.2 Classification of Ferroelectric Materials

I. Based on Crystal-chemical:
 Hydrogen-bonded (e.g. KH2PO4)
 Double oxide
II. Based on Number of allowed spontaneous polarization directions :
 Single direction (e.g. PbTa2O6),
 Multiple directions (e.g. BaTiO3).

III. Based on existence of lack of centre of symmetry

 Non Centro symmetric non-polar phase: E.g. Rochelle salt

 Centro symmetric non-polar phase: E.g. Barium titanate

IV. Based on the nature of phase change occurring at Curie point:

 Order disorder type transition  Curie constant ≈ 103
 Displasive type transition  Curie constant ≈ 105

6.7.3 Application of Ferroelectric Materials

 To make capacitors with tunable capacitance
 In Tunable microwave devices
 In optical waveguides
 Sensor applications
 In ferroelectric RAM, which stores a lot more data in lesser space and is also more
reusable
 In Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) tags – Which is the use of radio waves to read
and capture information stored on a tag attached to an object.

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