Design of FABSEC Cellular Beams in

Non-Composite and Composite Applications

For Both Normal Temperature and Fire

Engineering Conditions

Revised April 2006

Fabsec Limited
Tel: 0845 094 2530
Fax: 0845 094 2533
E-mail: sales@fabsec.co.uk
Web: www.fabsec.co.uk
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study or criticism or review, as permitted under
the Copyright Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may not be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in
any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic
reproduction only in accordance with the terms of the licenses issued by the UK Copyright Licensing Agency, or
in accordance with the terms of licenses issued by the appropriate Reproduction Rights Organisation outside the
UK.

Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to the publishers, Fabsec Ltd

Although care has been taken to ensure, to the best of our knowledge, that all data and information contained
herein are accurate to the extent that they relate to either matters of fact or accepted practice or matters of opinion
at the time of publication, Fabsec Ltd, the authors and any reviewers assume no responsibility for any errors in or
misinterpretations of such data and/or information or any loss or damage arising from or related to their use.

ii
FOREWORD
This publication has been prepared by Dr R M Lawson, Dr D Oshatogbe and Mr G M Newman of The Steel
Construction Institute for Fabsec Ltd, to assist designers in the design of long span fabricated steel beams,
including design for fire, using the product range manufactured by Fabsec Ltd.

The accompanying FBEAM software has been developed by the Steel Construction Institute for the design of
fabricated steel beams. The software authors are Dr D Oshatogbe, M Buller and G M Newman of the SCI and A
V Pottage of Severfield Reeve Ltd.

FBEAM analyses primary or secondary composite floor beams and non-composite roof beam. Composite options
include normal weight concrete and lightweight concrete slabs with profiled steel decking. All common steel
decks are included. Uniformly distributed load and point loads may be applied to the beams. The design
procedure is presented in accordance with BS5950 Part 1 (revised in 2000) and BS5950 Part 3: 1990. Some
requirements for the design of composite asymmetric beams are adopted from Eurocode 4 Part 1.1.

FBEAM now includes a fire design module for composite beams, which computes the reduced load resistance of
the beam including web openings at elevated temperatures, and assesses the required thickness of Firetex FB 120
intumescent coating. This coating has been developed by Leigh’s Paints specifically for Fabsec beams and can
provide up to 120 minutes fire resistance.

The purpose of the software is to enable steel designers to rapidly and confidently choose the optimum flange and
web dimensions for a fabricated beam, including any longitudinal tapers or curves. The designer may also choose
to make the beam asymmetric for improved composite properties. In addition, the designer may select either
rectangular or circular openings for integration of services within the beam depth.

Using FBEAM, it is demonstrated that a high degree of service integration can be achieved through the use of
tapered sections, and/or large web openings. Compared to conventional short span construction, long spans with
service integration offer many benefits at no, or modest cost premium.

Fabsec Ltd has funded the development of this publication and the accompanying FBEAMbv software prepared
by The Steel Construction Institute. The software and design/estimating services for the Fabsec Beam product
range are available free of charge from:

Fabsec Limited
Tel: 0845 094 2530
Fax: 0845 094 2533
E-mail: sales@Fabsec.co.uk
Web: www.Fabsec.co.uk

iii
CONTENTS

FOREWORD PAGE NO.

FOREWORD iii

SUMMARY vi

1 INTRODUCTION 2
1.1 Advantages of FABSEC beams 2
1.2 Off-site intumescent coatings 4
1.3 Identification of FABSEC beams 4
1.4 Scope of this Publication 5

2 TYPICAL APPLICATIONS AND THEIR DESIGN ISSUES 7

2.1 Roof beams 7
2.2 Composite floor beams 7
2.3 Other applications 8

3 GENERAL FABRICATION ISSUES 9

3.1 Steel grades and plate sizes 9
3.2 Welding 9
3.3 Width: thickness of plate 9
3.4 Allowance for supporting members 10
3.5 Other fabrication issues 10
3.6 Designation of FABSEC beams 10

4 DESIGN OF STEEL FABRICATED BEAMS 12

4.1 Section classification 12
4.2 Bending resistance 14
4.3 Lateral torsional buckling 15
4.4 Shear resistance 19
4.5 Local forces acting on web 20
4.6 Local flange bending 20
4.7 Stiffener design 21
4.8 Weld design 21

5 DESIGN OF COMPOSITE FABRICATED BEAMS 22

5.1 Plastic bending resistance of composite section 22
5.2 Partial shear connection 23
5.3 Elastic section properties 24
5.4 Transverse reinforcement 25
5.5 Edge beams 25

6 DESIGNS FOR WEB OPENINGS IN FABRICATED BEAMS 26

6.1 Non-rectangular openings 26
6.2 Design procedure for composite beams 26
6.3 Design procedure for non-composite beams 34
6.4 Serviceability requirements 34
6.5 Detailing rules 35

iv
7 FIRE RESISTANCE USING INTUMESCENT COATINGS 38
7.1 Fire test programme 38
7.2 Structural model 47
7.3 Thermal model 54
7.4 Predicted and measured performance in fire 55

8 PRECAST CONCRETE SLABS IN COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION 58

8.1 Introduction to design principles 58
8.2 Hollowcore units with concrete infills 59
8.3 Hollowcore units with concrete topping 62
8.4 Solid p.c. slabs with concrete topping 62

Appendix A DESIGN FORMULAE FOR STEEL AND COMPOSITE FABSEC BEAMS 65

Appendix B WEB-POST BUCKLING MODEL 70

B.2 Results of finite element analysis
B.3 Design equations for web post between regularly spaced circular openings.
B.4 Square and Rectangular openings
B.5 Limiting horizontal shear stress
B.6 Conclusions on web-post buckling model

REFERENCES 86

v
SUMMARY
This publication covers the design of fabricated steel beams which may prismatic or be tapered along their length,
and which may be designed to act compositely with a concrete or composite floor slab. The design procedure is
presented in accordance with BS 5950 Part 1 (revised in 2000) and BS 5950 Part 3: 1990. Some requirements for
the design of composite asymmetric beams are adopted from Eurocode 4 Part 1.1.

The design of these beams with large web openings is considered in detail, as services can be located through the
fabricated beams. The application rules for all cases are presented in the form of step by step design procedures
which are adopted also in the software, FBEAM, specifically developed for the analysis of these fabricated
sections.

Issues related to steel fabrication and procurement of these sections are also presented. In comparison to
conventional short span construction, it is concluded that the cost premium in long span construction with facility
for service integration is negligible.

The design options are extended to include cellular beams with regular circular openings by developing a new
design model for web post buckling, based on a modified strut analogy, which is calibrated against finite element
tests. This same approach may be used for closely spaced rectangular or elongated openings.

For parallel flanged composite beams only, FBEAM now includes a fire module which computes the reduced load
resistance of the beam, including web openings. The shear bending resistance is computed at elevated
temperatures, and FBEAM assesses the required thickness of Firetex FB120 intumescent coating. This coating has
been developed by Leigh’s Paints specifically for Fabsec beams and can provide up to 120 minutes fire
resistance. The design for the fire condition is considered in detail, together with a description of the full-scale fire
tests which have been used in the development of the design procedure.

Design using precast concrete slabs is included in FBEAM, but this does not extend to use of the fire engineering
method for Firetex FB120.

Worked Examples (which may be found as separate PDFs) demonstrate the analysis method used for normal and
fire design and compare the results with a typical results from FBEAM.

vi
 1 INTRODUCTION

Fabsec beams are fabricated by automatic welding of profiled steel plates used to form the flanges and web of the
section. Fabsec beams are aimed at long span applications in buildings, and in roof structures. A wide range of
prismatic, tapered and curved beams may be manufactured.

The design of Fabsec or other fabricated steel sections is covered by the provisions of BS 5950 Part 1(1), but
certain application rules or additional guidance is required to address design cases outside the code provisions.
This is particularly the case for: 

• beams with tapered cross-section, or changes of cross-section

• composite design of non-symmetric beams
• d esign for large openings or regular openings in the web of the beams
• c urved or multi-faceted beams.

A previous SCI publication ‘Design of Fabricated Composite Beams in Buildings’(2) addressed some of these
design issues, but it is now appropriate to prepare more general design guidance to support the use of Fabsec
beams.

1.1 Advantages of FABSEC beams

The general benefits of Fabsec beams are:

• the section shape and weight can be optimised for the particular loading or design case, within certain
parameters

• the fabrication process permits high quality, economical, cellular or bespoke beams

• web openings can be bespoke or cellular and circular, rectangular or obround

• the main applications are for primary and secondary floor beams and rafters

A typical Fabsec beam used in composite construction is illustrated in Figure 1.1. The success of Fabsec beams
in the commercial building sector is implicitly related to the notion that long span construction in buildings leads
to greater use of internal space, to facility for service integration, and to ease of future adaptability. All these
benefits are part of the philosophy of ‘sustainable’ construction.

A recent SCI Report 166(3) examined the broad benefits of long span construction, taking account of:

• savings in cladding cost when service integration is properly addressed, so that the floor- floor height is
reduced.

• reduction in the number and total weight of the steel columns and their foundations.

• greater usable space, due to fewer (or no) internal columns.

• fewer steel elements, leading to faster speed of erection of the primary structure.

2
Figure 1.1 Typical Fabsec beam used as a composite beam

These benefits are in addition to the normal and widely recognised benefits of steel construction which are:

• speed of construction due to early completion of the building fabric.

• its light weight in comparison to heavy reinforced concrete.

• quality and reliability of material properties.

• ease of future adaption (such as forming openings etc).

The SCI publication(3) concluded that the cost increase in using long span construction is rarely more than 2% of
the total building cost, and costs are comparable to more conventional short span construction when other savings
are taken into account.

In recent years, cellular beams have become popular, as they offer facility for service integration through
provision of regular circular openings. This technology has been extended using fabricated beams to include:

• circular openings of variable spacing, independent of the depth of the section

• mixed provision of rectangular, elongated and circular openings

• wider web posts at point loads, secondary beams, and close to supports.

A good example of the use of regular elongated and discrete rectangular openings is illustrated in Figure 1.2.

3
1.2 Off-site intumescent coatings
The modern use of steel construction often requires that fire protection materials are applied off-site, in order to
reduce the time and disruption due to on-site fire protection operations. Intumescent coatings have been
developed which achieve 90 mm or 120 minutes fire resistance when applied on a single layer in an off-site
factory controlled process. This dramatically improves the economy of steel construction where the benefits of
speed of construction can be realised.

Fabsec has the facility to offer fabricated beams with the Leigh’s Paints product Firetex FB120, which can
achieve a fire resistance of 120 minutes for relatively heavy sections, or for beams with a reduced load level. This
option is now included in the software for unperforated composite beams, or those with discrete circular or
rectangular web openings.

Traditional fire protection materials may be specified using the existing ASFP/SCI publications, based on the
limiting temperature method in BS 5950 Part 8.

1.3 Identification of FABSEC beams

Fabsec beams are designated in specifications and drawings by the prefix FB followed a string of symbols to
define the beam. (See Section 3.6).

Figure 1.2 Regular openings in a composite beam for service integration

4
1.4 Scope of this Publication
This publication addresses the structural design of Fabsec beams in various well-defined applications, and covers
some important issues of fabrication that may affect the specification of these beams. The applications that are
addressed are:

• Cellular beams with multiple regular openings

• Non-symmetric beams used for roofs, and other long span applications

• Tapered non-symmetric beams used for roofs (the top flange is tapered)

• Non-symmetric beams used in composite construction.

• Beams used in composite construction where the bottom flange is tapered

• Beams with discrete large circular, elongated or rectangular web openings for services (generally used in
composite construction)

• Multi-faceted beams

• Composite floor beams protected using Firetex FB 120 intumescent coating (see Section 7)

• Composite action through use of precast concrete units.

Cases not considered are:

• Fabricated sections used as columns, or inclined beams subject to high compression forces

• Non-composite or tapered sections in fire conditions

• Curved beams (curved on plan or on elevation).

The design guidance is presented in accordance with the recent revision of BS 5950 Part 1 (revised in 2000), and
with the current version of BS 5950 Part 3(4). However, because composite design of non-symmetric sections is
not strictly covered by this Code, the application rules of Eurocode 4 Part 1.1 are used to provide additional
guidance on the composite design of these sections.

The design guidance is also extended to the normal design of cellular beams with regular circular openings, by
considering web-post buckling, based on a modified strut analogy. This is calibrated against the results of finite
element analyses in Appendix B.

The fire protection requirements are based on the principles of BS 5950 Part 8 and EC4-1-2 and on standard fire
resistance tests for beams with discrete web openings carried out at Warrington Fire Research Centre.

The publication makes reference to service integration based on SCI publication 166(3), but detailed structure-
service integration issues are not covered. Regular openings provide for future adaptability, as illustrated in Figure
1.2.

5
The welding of the plates is carried out by submerged arc methods from one side, which improves fabrication
efficiency. However, certain measures are required to ensure weld quality and to avoid distortion, which are
covered in this publication.

Fully Worked Examples illustrate the use of the design guidance for design of composite beams, including local
conditions at circular and rectangular openings.

6
 2 TYPICAL APPLICATIONS AND THEIR DESIGN
ISSUES
The use of Fabsec beams creates many novel design opportunities, which are reviewed here. Their general design
procedure follows the conventional design of fabricated steel sections, but there are some issues which are
particular to the use of Fabsec beams. These design issues are identified in the following sections and are
presented in detail in Sections 4 to 6.

The design for fire conditions and fire protection requirements are presented in Section 7.

2.1 Roof beams

Roof beams are generally designed to achieve long spans and to be lightweight. The section depth is optimised in
order to control deflections, and to prevent buckling between points of lateral restraint. Therefore, the web depth:
thickness ratio is often very high and the section is designed based on its elastic properties.

The beam may be tapered upwards to provide a shallow roof slope, or faceted by multiple changes of taper to
create a curved appearance. The web may be perforated by multiple circular openings (also of varying diameter)
to emphasise the lightness of the section. Monopitch roofs may also be created.

The general design issues in the design of roof beams are as follows:

• Section classification of non-symmetric sections

•T
 reatment of lateral torsional buckling, as influenced by the variation in section shape

• Requirements for stiffeners at changes of taper angle

•C
 alculation of deflections, taking account of the variation in section depth

•D
 esign for multiple perforations.

2.2 Composite floor beams

In most building applications, floor beams are designed compositely, which is achieved by shear connectors
welded through the steel decking to the top flange of the beams and embedded in the floor slab. Composite action
greatly increases the bending resistance and stiffness of the beams, and allows the section to be designed for a
greater degree of asymmetry than in non-composite applications. Shallower and lighter construction is possible
whilst satisfying normal serviceability criteria.

Fabsec beams may be used as long span secondary beams, or as heavily loaded primary beams. The sensible span
range is 12 m to 20 m. A high degree of service integration can be achieved by:

• Provision of regular circular openings (generally appropriate for secondary beams)

•P
 rovision of large openings in the middle portion of the span (where shear forces are low)

•  A reduction in the beam depth adjacent to the supports.

7
Rectangular floor grids can optimise the overall design by achieving similar secondary and primary beam depths,
so that the structure-service zone is minimised. The spacing between the secondary beams is typically 3 m, based
on a 1.5 m planning grid. This is compatible with the spans of composite slabs of 120 mm to 150 mm depth. The
terminal air conditioning units (VAV boxes or Fan Coil Units) are located between the beams in order to
minimise the depth of the construction.

The general design issues in the design of composite Fabsec beams are as follows:

•R
 equirements for the construction condition (as a non-composite section)

•P
 lastic properties of composite asymmetric section

•M
 inimum degree of shear connection, as influenced by the taper angle and asymmetry of the section

•C
 hecks at intermediate points in the span for tapered sections

• Influence of composite action around the web openings

•C
 ontrol of web buckling at changes of bottom flange slope, and adjacent to and between openings

• Calculation of deflections of the composite section, taking account of the variation of section depth and the web
openings.

The treatment of single and multiple web openings is addressed in detail in Section 6. It is generally more
efficient to perforate heavily loaded beams close to mid-span, where shear is less critical. For cellular-type beams,
the web post between regular openings is often the critical element.

2.3 Other applications

Fabsec beams may be used to support precast concrete slabs by selecting the width of the top flange to support
the PC Units. Applications include car parks and medium-span bridges (particularly foot-bridges). Special
requirements include:

•S
 tability during construction

•C
 ombined bending and torsion due to eccentric loading

•E
 ffective composite action, particularly when using Hollowcore units.

The design aspects appropriate to the use of precast concrete units in composite construction are presented in
Section 8.

Fabsec beams may be designed so that they resist compression and bending. Moments may be applied to the
ends of the beams through the steel section. The magnitude of these moments is limited to a maximum of 20% of
the midspan moment applied to the beam, which is typical of an end plate type connection. In these cases, it is
assumed that the compression of the unrestrained flange is sufficiently small so that it can be resisted by torsional
restraint to the beam.

8
 3 GENERAL FABRICATION ISSUES
3.1 Steel grades and plate sizes
Fabsec beams are generally fabricated from steel plates that are butt welded to create the lengths required and are
cut to the required width by multiple head flame cutting. Some optimisation may be possible in order to gain the
maximum utilisation of steel from one standard plate width, allowing for small losses due to the burning
operation. Recommended steel thicknesses are 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 20, 25, 30 or 35 mm, and for sensible design, the
flange thickness should not exceed 2.5 times the web thickness.

S275 and S355 JR steel (former grades 43A and 50B) to BS EN 10025 may be used. Design strengths of plates
may be mixed if plastic analysis is used, but there is no advantage in elastic analysis, as the weaker steel strength
is used in establishing the bending resistance of the section.

The maximum length of 6 mm plate is 13.5 m, and for 8 mm to 10 mm plate is 18.3 m, which is suitable for most
applications of continuous webs. The web thickness can be varied at well defined locations along the beam,
provided the savings in plate thickness and stiffeners etc exceed the additional cost of welding of the plates at butt
joints.

Flanges are usually fabricated from thicker plate and have to be butt welded at points along their length. Flange
plates up to 35 mm thick can be automatically welded, whereas thicker flanges are manually welded, which
consequently increases costs.

Losses due to cutting plate are 3 mm per cut, and 20 mm for stripping of the edges of the parent plate, which is
normally 2100 mm wide.

3.2 Welding
Welding of the flanges to the web of the larger Fabsec beams is carried out by a double sided process. The
process uses a thin wire submerged arc which creates a 7 mm fillet weld in a single pass. Larger welds require
multiple passes.

3.3 Width: thickness of plate

There are no fabrication limitations on width: thickness ratios of plates, but the limits in Table 3.1 are used in
practical design cases.

9
The capacity of the production equipment, and the practical sizes of plates, impose various limits on the sizes of
Fabsec beams, as follows:

The maximum taper angle is 15°, but generally the actual taper angle is controlled by the structural design, as the
depth of the section should be such as to resist the applied loads at all points in the span. Typically the depth of
section at the supports should exceed one-half of that of mid-span. The flange may be bent at small changes of
taper (up to 10°). At large changes of taper, a local stiffener may be required. A butt joint is often required in the
web and flange at the mid-span position of long span beams.

3.4 Allowance for supporting members

Fabsec beams should be designed based on the dimensions between the centreline of the supporting columns or
beams, unless specific information is available at the design stage to determine the delivered length of the beam
including its connections. Fabsec beams may be trimmed or cropped by the fabricator, depending on the
dimensions of the supporting member.

3.5 Other fabrication issues

Openings can be created accurately by flame cutting. Although the design approach does allow for use of
horizontal stiffeners, it is generally more economic to use a thicker web to avoid use of stiffeners at openings.

A modest precamber can be introduced into fabricated beams by profiling the top cut of the web and adjusting the
bottom cut.

3.6 Specification of FABSEC beams

The specification of a Fabsec beam, not designed for the fire condition, is made up as follows:

FABSEC + depth + “x” + top flange width + “/” + bottom flange width + average weight + steel grade +
descriptive code

The descriptive code is made up of one or two letters and is given in Table 3.3

10
The specification of a Fabsec beam, designed for the fire condition, is made up as follows:

FIREBEAM + depth + “x” + top flange width + “/” + bottom flange width + average weight + steel grade +
“FB120 x ” + top flange protection thickness + “/” + web protection thickness + “/” + bottom flange protection
thickness + “R” + fire resistance

The descriptive code is omitted.

Circular openings may be provided at regular spacings along the beam, whereas large discrete openings are
usually of rectangular or elongated circular shape. Additional information should be supplied to Fabsec Limited
in order to define these opening shapes.

Specification Example 1:

FABSEC 775 x 150/180 x 103kg/m S355 P

A Fabsec floor beam, which is of uniform section and has horizontal flanges. The beam is of overall depth 775
mm, and the top flange width is 150 mm and the bottom flange width is 180 mm. The average weight is 103kg/m.

Specification Example 2:

FIREBEAM 775 x 150/180 x 103kg/m S355 FB120 x 0.8 R90

The same size beam as in Example 1, but used as a fire protected floor beam. The thickness of FB120 of 0.8 mm
is applied to the top flange, web and bottom flange. The fire resistance is 90 minutes.

These specifications do not give sufficient information for fabrication, but define the beam shape. Therefore, a
precise schedule of plate components should be provided to Fabsec Ltd. The purpose-written software FBEAM
outputs a precise schedule for use in detailing and fabrication.

The length of the beam should be defined as between the centre-line of the columns, as its precise length will be
determined by the column dimensions and connection details.

11
 4 DESIGN OF STEEL FABRICATED BEAMS
The wide range of plate sizes that are possible using Fabsec beams means that the cross-section may be classified
as Class 1 to 4, (or ‘plastic’ through to ‘slender’). The section classification determines the use of plastic or elastic
section properties. Furthermore the web has a high depth: thickness ratio even if the flanges are relatively stocky,
and consideration of web buckling is important. Local compression forces can occur at secondary beam locations,
and changes in the flange taper. These aspects also require special consideration and are addressed in the
following sections.

4.1 Section classification

The section classification is carried out separately for the compression flange (generally the top flange) and the
web, in accordance with the 2000 revision to BS 5950 Part 1(1). (The classification is now defined as Class 1 to 4
to be consistent with Eurocode 3). Asymmetry of the section means that the neutral axis position is not at mid-
height, and therefore more of the web can be in compression. The limits for section classification of welded
sections are presented in Table 4.1.

In using Table 4.1, the following parameters are used:

Class 1 or 2 webs: r1 = Fc/(d t py) (1)

where Fc is the net compression force acting on the web (or the difference between the flange forces in non-
symmetric sections).

Class 3 or 4 webs: r2 = (f1 + f2)/(2 d t py) (2)

where f1 and f2 are the stresses in the extreme fibres of the web (f2 is negative for tension due to bending).

Plastic section properties may be used for Class 1 ‘plastic’ or Class 2 ‘compact’ sections, or those section with
Class 3 ‘semi-compact’ webs in which the depth of web exceeding the Class 3 limit is neglected. This approach is
not permitted for Class 4 ‘slender’ webs or Class 3 ‘semi-compact’ flanges, in which cases elastic properties must
be used. This approach is summarised in Table 4.2, and in Figure 4.1.

12
Similarly the proportions of any stiffeners should be compatible with the requirements of Table 4.1.

13
4.2 Bending Resistance
4.2.1 Elastic Bending Resistance
The elastic bending resistance of a non-symmetric section may be calculated from first principles by establishing
the position of the elastic neutral axis and then taking second moments of area around the neutral axis position
(see Figure 4.2(a)). The maximum stress for semi-compact sections is limited to py. For slender sections, an
effective section is used, as in Figure 4.1, in which the remaining section is considered to act at a stress of py.

4.2.2 Plastic Bending Resistance

Plastic section properties may be calculated from first principles by establishing equal areas of the section in
tension and compression. The plastic section modulus is calculated from the first moment of area of each stress
block around the plastic neutral axis (see Figure 4.2(b)).

As noted earlier, semi-compact webs may be considered by ignoring the depth of web outside the compact limits
of 20 tε adjacent to the compression flange and plastic neutral axis (see Figure 4.2(c)). This means that there is a
consistent approach to the determination of section properties when designing beams with Class 2 and 3 webs.
Design formulae for the plastic bending resistance of asymmetric sections with Class 2 and 3 webs are presented
in Appendix A.

4.2.3 Bending Resistance Envelope

By using tapered beams, it is possible to vary the bending resistance of the cross-section to match the applied
bending moment at all points in the span. For beams with a single taper, it is often found that the critical cross-
section is at the one-quarter span positions rather than mid-span.

14
4.3 Lateral Torsional Buckling
4.3.1 Uniform Moment
The treatment of lateral torsional buckling is subtly different in BS 5950 Part 1:2000 from that in the 1990
version. The effective slenderness of a beam for lateral torsional buckling is given by:

λLT = uvλ (3)

where λ is the slenderness of the beam, considered as a strut

U is the buckling parameter
V is the slenderness factor, which is given for non-symmetric sections, by:
v = [ψ + (4η (1 −η ) + 0.05 (λ / x) 2 +ψ 2 )0.5 ]−0.5 .

where η = I yc /( I yc + I yt ) (4)

and ψ is the monosymmetric index, and

I yc is the minor axis inertia of the compression flange
I yt is the minor axis inertia of the tension flange
x is the torsional index, which may be approximated by the ratio of beam depth to flange thickness,
D/tf .

As a reasonable approximation u = 1.0 for plate girders, and:

ψ = 0.9 (1 − ( I y / I x ) 2 (2η −1) (5)

The slenderness factor, v , may be determined from Table 4.7 of BS 5950 Part 1 as a function of λ / x and η (see
table 4.3).

The term β depends on the section classification and may be taken as:

β = 1.0 Class 1 and 2 sections

βw = Z x / S x Class 3 sections.

The effective slenderness λLT is used to determine the bending strength of the beam, pb , as in Table 4.6 of BS
5950 Part 1, which is reproduced here as Table 4.4.

The buckling resistance moment is therefore:

Class 1 or 2 sections: Mb = pb S x
Class 3 sections: Mb = pb Z x

15
Where S x and Z x are the plastic and elastic moduli of the section, as defined earlier.

4.3.2 Non-Uniform Moment and Tapered Section

The design moment for consideration of buckling between positions of adjacent lateral restraints is the maximum
moment in this part of the span multiplied by the moment variation factor, m. For tapered sections, the value of m
may be calculated by considering the stress in the compression flange at three equidistant points between these
restraints. Expressed as a function of the maximum flange stress, σ max , the moment variation factor is given by a
modification of Simpson’s Rule, as follows:

0.2σ max + 0.15σ 2 + 0.5σ 3 + 0.15σ 4

m = (6)
σ max

and 1.0 ≥ m ≥ 0.4

The location of these stresses is illustrated in Figure 4.3. The design moment for buckling checks is given by:

M = mS xσ max (7)

For an acceptable design in terms of lateral torsional buckling:

M ≤ Mb

where M b is determined as for uniform moment, as in the previous section.

Figure 4.3 Stress profile for calculation of moment variation factor

16
17
18
4.3.3 Combined Bending and Compression
Compression applied at the centroid of the section may be included in the analysis by adding a direct compressive
stress into the calculation routine for the stability of both flanges, using the approach of Equation (6). This
assumes that the compressive stress is relatively low (less than half) of the maximum bending stress in the
member. Applications include portal frame columns and beams subject to axial wind forces.

4.3.4 End Moments

Moments may be applied at the ends of beams through the connections. For negative (hogging) moments, the
applied moment in mid-span is reduced leading also to reduced deflections. The stability of the top flange may be
checked, as in Equation (6), including these end moments. Where the bottom flange is otherwise unrestrained, the
magnitude of the negative end moment is limited to a maximum of 20% of the maximum moment applied to the
beam (in mid-span), so that the bottom flange is considered to be stabilised by torsional restraint to the beam.

4.3.5 Restraints
Restraints should be positioned in various points along the compression flange in order that the buckling
resistance moment exceeds the applied moment at all points in the span. Generally restraints are provided at
discrete points by secondary beam connections, or continuously along the beam by a composite slab or by steel
decking.

An effective lateral restraint should be directly attached to the top flange of the beam, or not more than 15 t below
the top flange (where t is the web thickness). The sum of all intermediate restraints should be capable of resisting
a minimum force of 2½% of the maximum compression force in the flange, but each intermediate restraint should
be capable of resisting at least 1% of the compression force.

In practical terms, steel decking is capable of providing lateral restraint if it has sufficient shear resistance
equivalent to 1% of the compression force in the flange. Precast concrete units provide restraint when the joints
between the units are grouted, but may only provide partial restraint in the construction stage, when the beam is
also subject to torsion.

4.4 Shear Resistance

4.4.1 Pure Shear

The shear resistance of the web is determined either from its plastic resistance, or for more slender webs, from its
web buckling resistance, as follows:

For d / t ≤ 62ε
Pv = 0.6 p y d t (8)

For d / t > 62ε

Pv = pw d t (9)

where p w is the web shear buckling strength obtained from Table 4.9 of BS 5950 (Table 4.5 in this publication)

19
4.5 Local Forces Acting on Web
High local compression forces can occur in the web due to severe changes of taper angle or attachment of
secondary beams. These actions at changes of taper are illustrated in Figure 4.4. A slender web may buckle under
these actions, and therefore, the presence of a local stiffener is beneficial at these positions.

To resist web buckling, the web may be considered to have a slenderness of 2.5 deff/t where deff is the unsupported
height of the web, taking into account the depth of the stiffener. (This assumes an effective height of 0.7 deff). The
effective width of the web for calculation of web buckling is equal to deff (i.e. corresponding to a 45° projection
from the load point). For an unstiffened web, deff = d.

It is also necessary to check for web bearing due to this compression force and, in this case, the local bearing
stress is calculated from an effective web area of 7 tf t (where tf = flange thickness). This web bearing stress
should not exceed py.

The maximum change of taper angle before a vertical stiffener is required is also dependent on the proportions of
the flange (see next section). The unstiffened web, or the stiffener and its weld, should be designed to resist the
compression force T sin α ' , where T is the tension force in the flange at this point, and α ' is the change of flange
slope.

20
 Figure 4.4 Local forces causing web buckling

4.6 Local Flange Bending

In beams with wide flanges, local bending of the bottom flange can occur at changes of taper, which reduces the
effectiveness of the flange in resisting tension. This effect can be eliminated by a local stiffener, as in Figure
4.4(b), but for an unstiffened web it is necessary to limit the change in taper angle, depending on the stress ratio in
the flange and the width: thickness of the flange.

4.7 Stiffener Design

Vertical stiffeners are designed to transfer the required forces smoothly into the web, and therefore their size and
length is dependent on the:

•F
 orce to be transferred

•C
 ompact proportions of the stiffener to prevent local buckling

•W
 eld size used (i.e. its resistance per unit length)

•S
 tability of the unsupported web above the stiffener.

For the case in Figure 4.4(b), the local force in the stiffener is approximately 2 T α . The length of the stiffener
would normally be chosen to control web buckling (see Section 4.5).

4.8 Weld Design

21
FBEAM carries out stress calculations at 51 points long the beam and, therefore the longitudinal shear flow
between the flange and the web is calculated, depending on whether the beam is designed as composite or non-
composite. Single -sided or double -sided fillet welds may be used subject to the following checks:

• In all cases, the maximum shear flow is used to design the weld.

•W
 eld sizes are based on electrodes Class 42 to BS EN 756.

•T
 he same weld sizes are used throughout for both flanges.

•F
 illet welds are continuous along the beam.

•T
 he minimum weld size is 5 mm.

• If the calculated weld size for single-sided welding exceeds 7 mm, then 5 mm fillet double-sided welds will be
used.

• If single -sided welds are used, they should not be designed for more than 80% of the longitudinal shear flow
(to allow for eccentricity of the weld).

•T
 he above limit of 80% is not required for double-sided welds.

For a composite beam, it is the longitudinal shear flow due to transfer of force from the shear connectors that
generally controls the weld design.

22
 5 DESIGN OF COMPOSITE FABRICATED BEAMS
Fabsec beams may be designed as composite beams to achieve greater economy and to improve the stiffness of
the construction. Asymmetric beams are very efficient when designed compositely because the compression
resistance of the top flange is enhanced by its attachment to the concrete slab. However, in unpropped
construction, the steel beam is still designed to resist the loads developed at the construction stage.

All composite beams may be treated as ‘compact’ provided the top flange of the steel section is at least ‘semi-
compact’ because the plastic neutral axis position is close to the top flange, and it is restrained by its attachment to
the concrete or composite slab.

5.1 Plastic bending resistance of composite section

The compression resistance of the concrete or composite slab is determined from its effective width, beff , which is
given in BS 5950 Part 3: 1990(4) as:

beff = L/4 (10)

but ≤ 0.8 b for primary beams
≤ b for secondary beams

where:

L is the beam
b is the beam spacing

The compression resistance of the concrete slab, for the case where the decking is orientated perpendicular to the
beam, is:

Rc = 0.45 f cu beff ( Ds − D p ) (11)

Where:

f cu is the concrete grade

(
and Ds − D p ) is the depth of concrete above the decking.
This case also applies conservatively where the decking is orientated parallel to the beam. The tensile resistance
of the steel beam is given by Rs = Ap y , where A is the cross-sectional area of the section.

The position of the plastic neutral axis of the composite section is calculated from three conditions, as illustrated
in Figure 5.1:

Rc > Rs Plastic neutral axis in the concrete slab

R s > R c > R w - ∆R f Plastic neutral axis in the top flange
R c < Rw - ∆ R f Plastic neutral axis in the web

Where ∆ R f is the difference between the tensile resistance of the bottom and top flange, and Rw is the tensile
resistance of the web.

23
The plastic bending resistance is obtained by taking first moments of area of each stress block around the plastic
neutral axis.

Separate design formulae can be developed for each case (see Appendix A)

5.2 Partial Shear Connection

5.2.1 Shear Connectors
The design resistance of welded stud shear connectors may be obtained from BS 5950 Part 3, and is typically 80
kN for 19 mm diameter studs in normal weight concrete, and 72 kN in light weight concrete. However, it is
necessary to make a further reduction in the shear resistance for studs placed in pairs or groups.

For the case where decking is orientated perpendicular to the beam, an empirical equation reduces the design
resistance of the studs dependent on the proportions of the decking. Generally, this reduction factor is in the range
of 0.7 to 1.0 for modern deck profiles. The factor should not exceed 0.8 for studs placed in pairs.

5.2.2 Prismatic Sections

Shear connection is achieved by transfer of longitudinal forces between the steel beam and the concrete slab. ‘Full
shear connection’ means that there are sufficient shear connectors to develop the smaller of Rc or Rs, so that the
plastic resistance of the composite section can be developed at the point of maximum moment.

Partial shear connection’ means that there are insufficient shear connectors for full shear connection at the point
of maximum moment and, therefore, the compression force in the slab is less than Rc or Rs. The plastic bending
resistance may be calculated using the longitudinal force Fc, which is the shear force developed by the shear
connectors placed between the supports and the point of maximum moment. The plastic neutral axis position is
also modified, and in cases of partial shear connection, the web is often in compression.

For long span beams, it is generally required to achieve close to full shear connection by satisfying a semi-
empirical equation for the minimum degree of shear connection as a function of span. The formula in BS 5950

24
Part 3 applies only to rolled sections. For highly asymmetric sections, Eurocode 4 Part 1.1(5) provides a suitable
approach, and expresses the minimum degree of shear connection as:

K ≥ 0.4 + 0.03 L (12)

Where L is the beam span (in m). Full shear connection is required for L > 20 m.

5.2.3 Tapered Sections

The design of composite tapered sections is not covered directly by BS 5950 Part 3 or Eurocode 4 and, in this
case, it is recommended to use the same limit on the degree of shear connection as for asymmetric sections (see
Equation 12).

In addition, for tapered beams, it is also necessary to check the bending resistance of the reduced depth section at
other points in the span. At these points, the degree of shear connection varies between zero at the supports and
full shear connection at the point of maximum moment. The bending resistances may be calculated at
representative positions in the span by using the principles of partial shear connection (see the equations in
Appendix A.3). This is done by replacing Rc by Fc at that point in the span. In this case, Fc is determined from the
number of shear connectors between the nearer support and that point, multiplied by their design resistance.

5.3 Elastic Section Properties

Elastic properties are required for calculation of stiffnesses for deflections. In this case, the cross-sectional area of
concrete is divided by the modular ratio, α e , and the elastic section properties are calculated from an ‘equivalent’
steel section including the reduced area of the slab. The elastic stresses in the composite section are illustrated in
Figure 5.2. Generally, the elastic neutral axis lies in or close to the top flange of the beam.

Figure 5.2 Elastic Stresses in Composite Section

α e is a function of the concrete type and the duration of loading as given in Table 5.1. An average value of α e is
appropriate for imposed load deflections, but the long term modular ratio should be used when loads are
permanent, such as due to removal of props in propped construction.

Design formulae for the second moment of area and section modulus of an asymmetric composite section are
presented in Appendix A2. Stress checks are required at the serviceability limit state to ensure that elastic
conditions exist. In this case, the steel stress should not exceed py and the concrete stress should not exceed 0.45
fcu.

25
For natural frequency calculations, the short-term dynamic modulus may be used to calculate the stiffness of the
beam. The natural frequency is given approximately by:

f = 18 / δ sw in cycles/sec

where δ sw is the instantaneous deflection (in mm) due to reapplication of all permanent loads to the composite
section. In this context, the permanent loads include the self weight, services and finishes, and 10% of the
imposed load.

For acceptable design of individual members, f ≥ 4 Hz but it may be necessary to increase this limit for primary
beams supporting long span secondary beams, and for specialist applications.

5.4 Transverse Reinforcement

Transverse reinforcement is required to prevent splitting of the concrete slab in the region of the shear connectors.
Steel decking passing over the beams can act as transverse reinforcement, but in primary beams, it is usual to
neglect this effect, and include additional reinforcing bars in the high shear regions.

5.5 Edge Beams

Edge beams that are designed compositely should have U bars around the shear connectors in order that splitting
is prevented. Ideally, the shear connectors should not be placed at less than 150 mm from the edge of the slab.
Detailing rules are presented in Figure 5.3.

26
27
 6 DESIGN FOR WEB OPENINGS IN FABRICATED
BEAMS
Various shapes, sizes and locations of openings may be used in the webs of Fabsec beams. The openings may be
circular, elongated circular, or rectangular in elevation. They may be reinforced by horizontal stiffeners above and
below the openings in order to increase the resistance to Vierendeel bending and, in extreme cases, by vertical
stiffeners.

Ideally, openings should be placed centrally in the depth of the beam in order to avoid transfer of asymmetric
shear forces across the web. For cellular beams, this effect can limit the shear resistance of the web post between
the openings.

6.1 Non-Rectangular Openings

For the purposes of analysis, all openings are reduced to effective rectangular openings, as indicated in Figure 6.1.
For a circular opening, the effective length may be taken as 0.5 do, where do is its diameter. No reduction is made
in the effective depth of the opening. For an elongated opening comprising two circular openings that are joined
together, the effective length may be taken as the actual length minus 0.5 do.

6.2 Design Procedure for Composite Beams

The design rules are expressed in a step by step manner (as the rules are used in the design software) in
accordance with BS 5950 Part 3 (and following the application rules of Eurocode 4). The general design guidance
extends the SCI/CIRIA publication ‘Design for openings in the webs of composite beams’(6) to cover fabricated
and tapered beams. The analysis has also been extended to cover cellular beams by inclusion of rules for web-
post buckling as a modified strut analogy, in which the effective width and slenderness of the web post are
defined geometrically. This approach has been calibrated against finite element analyses in Appendix B. It applies
for a wide range of web-post sizes from 0.2d0 to d0, and also for discrete openings with spacing exceeding d0.

6.2.1 Shear Resistance

1. At an opening, the shear resistance of an unstiffened web is given by:
28
 Vw = 0.6 Py (Av1 + Av2)

Where: Av1 and Av2 are the shear areas of the upper and lower web respectively (ignoring the flanges for
welded sections). In Step 17, the maximum ratio of the depth of the Tees is limited to 3:1.

Note: In BS 5950 Part 1: 2000, the shape factor of 0.9 for a Tee section has been increased to 1.0.

2. At an opening the net shear force acting on the web of the composite section is given by:

Vo’ = V o - Vc

Where:

Vo is the shear force acting at the centre-line of the opening, and

Vc is the shear resistance of the solid portion of the concrete slab acting over an effective width of
3Ds, where Ds is the slab depth.
Vo may be reduced for the effect of the taper angle, as in Section 4.4.2.
Vc should be ignored for non-composite sections.

3. The effective web thickness of the web-flange sections should be reduced in the presence of high shear
force, as follows:

2
te ff  2V '  V'
= 1 −  o − 1 for o > 0.5
t  Vw  Vw

where: teff is the effective web thickness

t is the actual web thickness

For low shear regions, where Vo’ ≤ 0.5Vw , t eff = t .

6.2.2 Bending resistance

4. The maximum tensile force that can be developed in the lower web-flange section is given by:

Ty = A b py

Where:

Ab is the cross-sectional area of the lower web-flange section using teff and any suitably welded
horizontal stiffeners.

5. The maximum compression force that can be developed in the concrete slab at the lower moment side
of the opening is:

Fc = N1 P d

But Fc ≤ 0.45 fcu beff (Ds – Dp)

29
 Where: beff is the effective width of the slab at the position of the opening, which
conservatively equals x/2.
fcu is the cube strength of the concrete
(Ds – Dp) is the depth of slab over the decking
x is the distance of the edge of the opening from the nearer support
N1 is the number of shear connectors provided in length x (ignoring the last 300 mm
if the connection type is not known).
Pd is the design resistance of a shear connector

In general, partial shear connection exists at the opening, in which case, the compression force
developed in the upper web-flange section is given by (Ty – Fc), which should not exceed the
compression resistance of this section.

6. For partial shear connection, the plastic bending resistance of the composite beam at the opening
position is given by:

Mc = Ty (D – yt – yb) + Fc (Ds + yt – 0.5 yc)

Where: yb and yt are the distances of the centroids of the lower and upper web-flange sections
respectively from the outer edge of each flange, and

(
Yc is the depth of concrete in compression yc ≤ Ds − D p . ( ))
And: D is the total depth of the section at that point.

7. The actual forces T and F developed in the web-flange sections are dependent on the moment acting at
the opening position, and are given approximately in the proportion to the moment ratio, or utilisation
factor, as:

T F M
= =
Ty Fc M c

where: M is the moment acting at the centre-line of the opening.

The actual degree of shear connection acting at this point should be such that the longitudinal force
developed by the shear connectors, F, is at least 40% of the tensile force, T, in the bottom flange.

Composite action should be ignored at the opening if insufficient shear connectors are provided
between the support and this point. It is for this reason that large opening are not recommended at less
than 0.1 x span or (2D) from the supports.

6.2.3 Vierendeel bending

8. The Vierendeel bending resistance of the lower web-flange section is reduced by the presence of shear
and tensile forces, and is given by:

 T 
n

Mv1red = M v 1 −   
  T y 
 
 

30
Where: n = 1 for horizontally stiffened webs.

And: n = 2 for unstiffened webs.

Mv is the local bending resistance of the lower web-flange section, using elastic or plastic section
properties, (see Step 12) and modified by using teff and suitably welded horizontal stiffeners.

9. The Vierendeel bending resistance of the upper web-flange section is also reduced by the presence of
shear and axial force, as above, but replacing T by (T - Fc). Mv is the local bending resistance of the
upper web-flange section as modified by using teff and suitably welded stiffeners.

10. The additional Vierendeel bending resistance due to local composite action above the opening may be
approximated by:

Mvc = N2 Pd (Ds + yt)

Where: N2 is the number of shear connectors provided in a length ( l + D s ) above the

opening, where Ds is the depth of the slab.

11. The applied Vierendeel moment is V0 l , where l is the effective length of the opening, defined in
Section 6.1.

For equilibrium at an opening:

V0 l ≤ ∑ M v , red + M vc

Where ∑ M v ,red is the sum of the Vierendeel bending resistances of four web-flange sections above
and below the opening.

The shear force, V0, is taken as not less than 15% of the maximum shear force acting at the ends of the
beam in order to take account of possible pattern loading on the beam.

6.2.4 Web buckling

12. It is necessary to prevent local buckling of the unstiffened web above an opening, which determines
whether plastic or elastic section properties can be used to calculate Mv.

The effective depth of an unstiffened web is given by:

2
 40t 
deff = d t 1 −  eff 
 l 

where: dt is the depth of web below the web-flange weld, and :

ε= (275 / p )
y

If deff ≤ 9 tε or if l < 40 tε , the unstiffened web is at least Class 2 and plastic section properties may
be used. If not, elastic properties of the web-flange section should be used.
31
 Limits for unstiffened Class 2 webs are defined in Table 6.1 below:

All stiffeners should be Class 2, if plastic section properties are used (see Table 4.1)

13. The unstiffened vertical edge at a discrete opening should be checked by buckling as a strut, by
considering a compression force of Vt acting over an effective width of web equal to:

0.5d 0 for unstiffened webs

0.5(d 0 + l s − l) for stiffened webs

where: Vt is the shear force transferred by the deeper of the web-flange sections (=V0/2 for the
symmetric opening case).

And: d0 is the depth of the opening

ls is the length of the horizontal stiffeners

For rectangular openings, the effective shear force in the web post is increased due to the combination
of shear and moment. In this case, Vt is increased by the ratio: (l + s0 ) / (d 0 + s0 ) where s0 is the edge
to edge spacing of the openings and l is the average length of adjacent openings. This ratio is unity for
a square or circular opening.

For square or rectangular openings, the effective height for buckling of the web is d0, and its
slenderness is therefore approximately 3.5d0/t for web buckling.

For circular openings, the effective height of the opening is reduced to 0.7d0 and the slenderness of the
web is 2.5d0/t for web buckling.

14. Where the edges of adjacent openings are closer apart than do, the compression force Vt on the web-post
acts over a width of half of the web post, given by 0.5 so.

The effective length of the web-post as equivalent strut is given by:

2 2
l e = 0.5 so + d o - circular openings

2 2
l e = 0.7 s0 + d 0 - rectangular openings

The slenderness of the web post is then given by 3.46 l e / t. These equations apply for closely spaced
openings with do ≥ s0 ≥ 0.2d 0 and are derived in Appendix B.
32
When s0 ≥ d 0, the interaction between the openings reduces to the formulae in Step 13.

The stability of the web post should be checked using strut curve (c) in Table 4.14 of BS 5950, for the
slenderness given in Step 13, or as above. Web buckling may be neglected for small openings when
d0/t<20.

The web buckling check on the web adjacent to rectangular or circular opening is illustrated in Figure
6.2.

Figure 6.2 Web Buckling Check Adjacent to Openings

33
15. The shear forces acting on the web post between adjacent openings may be calculated from first
principles. The horizontal shear force acting at the web post is given by:

Vh = V0
(so + l )
D + Ds

This shear force should not exceed:

Vh ≤ 0.6 p y t (0.9 s 0 )

Where S0 is the width of the web-post.

The shape factor of 0.9 is used because of the non-uniform shear that exists in the web post.

For rectangular openings, this horizontal shear force causes an in-lane bending moment in the web-post.
An additional check on the bending resistance of the web-post is made, as follows:

s 20 tp y
Vh ≤
3d 0

The condition controls when the edge to edge spacing of rectangular openings is less than 1.6 d0.

For circular openings, a similar check is made, but the effective depth is taken as 0.7d0 and the effective
width of the web-post is taken as (s0 + 0.3 d0). It follows that this condition controls when s0 ≤ 0.3d 0.

16. If a vertical stiffener is provided adjacent to the opening, it should be designed to resits a compression
force of V0/2 applied at its top point.

6.2.5 Non-Central Openings

17. Openings placed non-centrally in the depth of the beam can lead to additional in-plane moments acting on
the web post between openings, as illustrated from equilibrium of the upper and lower parts of the section
in Figure 6.1. The magnitude of the in-plane moment depends on the shear transferred by the web above
and below the opening.

For a composite beam, the in-plate moment, Mh, in the web-post is given by:

M h = (Vb − Vt − Vc )S / 2 − Vh e + ∆C (Ds ,eff + xt ) / 2

where:

Vb is the shear force transmitted by the lower web

Vt is the shear force transmitted by the upper web
Vc is the shear force resisted by the concrete slab
Vh is the horizontal shear force in the web post
S is the centre to centre spacing of the openings
e is the eccentricity of the centre-line of the opening above the centre-line of the beam
34
 ∆C is the increase in compression force in the slab due to the shear connectors in length, S
Ds,eff is the effective slab depth
x1 is the elastic centroid of the top Tee section below the top of the beam

The shear forces, Vt and Vb, may be distributed between the Tees so that Mh is set to zero in the above
equation. However, for higher levels of shear (when either Vt or Vb reaches its shear resistance), Mh
should be calculated as above.

This check is not necessary when the ratio of depth of the webs above or below the opening does not
exceed 1.5:1 (see geometric limits in Section 6.5). In all cases, the maximum ration of the depth of the
top and bottom webs should not exceed 3:1 in order to avoid high web-post moments in cellular beams.

17. The in-plane moment, Mh, calculated above, should not exceed the elastic bending resistance of the web-
post at its narrowest point, given by:

2
M h ≤ p yts0 / 6

Figure 6.2 In-plane moment acting in the web post for non-centrally placed openings
Figure 6.3 In-plane moment acting in the web post for non-centrally placed openings

35
6.3 Design Procedure for Non-Composite Beams
The design rules for web openings in composite beams may be modified to cover the case of non-composite
beams, by ignoring the parts of the step by step procedure in Section 6.2 referring to composite action. The stress
distribution is illustrated in Figure 6.3, depending on the classification of the web. Elastic section properties of
the web-flange section are used for Class 3 sections, or for webs not satisfying the limits in Table 6.1. Plastic
section properties are used for Class 1 or 2 sections.

The relevant modifications are as follows:

2. Ignore the shear force Vc transferred by the composite slab. Calculate the effective thickness of the web
as in 3.

5. Ignore the compression force Fc in the composite slab. The compression force developed in the upper
web-flange section is given by the compression resistance of the section (but not to exceed the tensile
resistance of the lower web-flange section).

6. The plastic bending resistance of the steel section at the opening position is given by:

M s = Tc (D − y t − y b )

where: Tc is the of the compression resistance of the upper web-flange section, (but Tc < Ty).

7. Ignore the Vierendeel bending resistance, Mvc, due to composite action. Therefore: V0 l > ∑ M v ,red , where
Mv,red is the reduced bending resistance of a web-flange section.

For non-centrally placed openings, the equation for the in-plane moment, Mh, acting on the web post,
should ignore the term due to composite action. For a composite beam, the shear forces are sufficiently
low at the construction stage that Mh can be taken as zero in all cases.

6.4 Serviceability Requirements

It is not necessary to check for local stresses around the openings at the serviceability limit state because local
yielding will have a negligible effect on deflections. However, the openings contribute to increased deflections
due to elastic effects caused by the local variations in bending and shear stiffness along the beam.

The precise analysis depends on integrating curvatures along the beam. Simple rules are therefore appropriate for
hand-analysis. The addition deflection due to each opening (expressed as a percentage of the maximum deflection
of an unperforated beam) may be estimated from Table 6.2.

36
Openings less than 40% of the beam depth may be neglected in terms of their effect of deflections. For beams
with regular circular openings, this approach is conservative, and the increase in deflection due to these regular
openings should not exceed 25%.

6.5 Detailing Rules

Detailing rules for welding of stiffeners are presented in figure 6.4. A gap of at least 50 mm from the flanges is
recommended to facilitate welding, although this is dependent also on the width of the flange. The offset of the
stiffener from the edge of the opening is typically 15 mm. All stiffeners should be at least Class 2 if plastic
analysis is used (hence d s ≤ 9t s ε ) .

37
 Figure 6.4 Detailing of stiffeners

Stiffeners may be welded from one side of the web when the web is sufficiently stiff in transverse bending. A
proposed limit is when d/t ≤ 60. Furthermore, the stiffener area should not exceed that of the remaining adjacent
web. If this is not satisfied, double sided stiffeners should be used.

The projection of horizontal stiffeners past the opening which is defined by the distance la, should be stiffened to
generate the tensile resistance of the stiffener at the edge of the opening, as in Figure 6.5(a). Typically, the
projection should be at least 150 mm.

Openings may be placed off-centre in the depth of the section provided they are stiffened, as illustrated in Figure
6.5(b), so that the deeper portion of web is assumed to resist all the shear and Vierendeel bending. Highly
asymmetric openings should be placed sufficiently wide apart (> 2do ) so that web-post moments can be neglected
(refer to Section 6.2.5).

The minimum distance between adjacent circular or rectangular openings may be reduced if account is taken of
web post buckling and bending, as described in Section 6.2.4 Steps 14 and 15. This may limit the shear force that
can be transferred. Similarly, for openings that are placed non-centrally in the depth of the section, it is necessary
to limit the degree of asymmetry in order to reduce the in -plane moment acting on the web-post, as described in
Section 6.2.5. The ratio of web depths (defining the eccentricity of the opening) and the minimum depth of web
are also presented in Table 6.3.

All of these suggested minimum dimensions or ratios can be reduced if justified by the calculation methods
presented in Section 6.2. However, they are recommended for scheme design. Additional limits are introduced for
fire resistant design in order to conform to the range of fire test data (see Section 7). In particular, the minimum
spacing between adjacent openings is increased in order to reduce the risk of web buckling in fire conditions.

38
l

Figure 6.5 Detailing rules for off-centre openings

39
 7 FIRE RESISTANCE USING INTUMESCENT
COATINGS
The fire resistance of a fabricated steel beam is assessed by a modification to the design used in normal
conditions. The procedure, therefore, generally follows the step-wise approach described in Section 6.2. The main
difference is that the material properties used are those are appropriate to elevated temperatures. Reduced partial
factors for material strengths and loads appropriate to the fire limit state are taken from BS 5950-8: 19907.

The temperature of parts of the cross-section depend on the amount of applied fire protection and the required fire
resistance. In this design guide, the beams must be protected with the intumescent coating, Firetex FB 120,
developed by Leigh’s Paints

Five loaded fire resistance tests on protected composite beams were carried out at Warrington Fire Research
Centre (WFRC) and numerous unloaded short sections have been tested at WFRC and W & J Leigh’s test furnace
at Bolton. Based on these tests, a mathematical model of the performance of steel sections protected with Firetex
FB 120 has been developed. Using this model, the temperature distribution on any section may be obtained. From
the temperature distribution, the reduced shear, global bending and Vierendeel bending resistance of openings
may be calculated.

An important feature of the thermal model is its ability to allow users of the FBEAM software to optimise the
design of the beam so that the thickness of protection can be applied in one coating. The maximum thickness that
can be applied in one coating is approximately 1.5 mm. The software will warn users if the necessary thickness is
greater than this maximum thickness so that the user can change the beam design, e.g. increase the web thickness.
Thicknesses greater than 1.5 mm will normally have to be applied in two coatings resulting in considerable
increase in cost of the fabricated steelwork.

The structural model used to assess the resistance to local and global actions is described in Section 7.2, and the
development of the thermal model is described in Section 7.3. It does not apply to non-composite or tapered
beams or beams, supporting precast concrete slabs.

7.1 Fire Test Programme

The purpose of the test programme was to investigate the behaviour of composite fabricated beams with web
openings in fire conditions, and to establish the required thicknesses of fire protection to achieve up to 120
minutes fire resistance. The test programme consisted of 5 fire protected loaded beams tested at WFRC
supplemented by a number of unloaded fire protected short beams. These beams were tested alongside the loaded
beams at WFRC and in W and J Leigh’s own furnace.

In the first three tests, discrete rectangular and circular openings were introduced. The applied thickness of
intumescent coating was slightly greater than the 1.5 mm which can normally be applied in one coat. However the
thickness of protection in the third test was very close to 1.5 mm.

In Tests 4 and 5, cellular beams with closely spaced circular openings were tested to assess the effect of web
buckling between openings. Reduced thicknesses of fire protection were applied to obtain information for 30 and
60 minutes fire resistance.

40
The main details of these tests are summarised, as follows:

7.1.1 Beam Test 1

The general arrangement of the test on a fabricated steel beam with circular openings is shown in Figure 7.1. The
beam details were:

Depth of steel beam 400 mm

Top flange 200 mm x 15 mm
Bottom flange 200 mm x 35 mm
Web thickness 12 mm
Steel grade S275
Composite slab 1200 mm wide x 120 mm deep
Grade 30 concrete
51 mm deep Holorib steel decking
A19 mesh reinforcement
Shear connectors 2 x 19 mm diameter studs @ 150 mm centres
Openings, on centre of web at 2 x 40 mm diameter circular openings
Quarter points
Fire protection 1.8 mm FB 120 (average thickness)

Four equal points loads of 120 kN were applied to the beam. Under this loading the critical structural condition
for normal design was in the region of the openings rather than overall bending of the beam, which is usually the
controlling condition.

The beam failed after 117 minutes due to excessive deflection of approximately span/30. The deflections
recorded in all three tests are shown in Error! Reference source not found. The deflection increased rapidly
when a shear failure occurred at one of the openings, as illustrated in Figure 7.3.

41
At failure, the average bottom flange temperature was 7000C and the web temperature remote from the opening
was 7150C. The temperature of the web at 20 mm from the edge of the opening was 8750C.

42
7.1.2 Beam Test 2
The general arrangement of the test was similar to Beam Test 1, except that the two openings were rectangular
and one opening had both top and bottom stiffeners. The beam details were:

Depth of steel beam 400 mm

Top flange 200 mm x 20 mm
Bottom flange 200 mm x 45 mm
Web thickness 15 mm
Steel grade S275
Composite slab 1200 mm wide x 120 mm deep
Grade 30 concrete
51 mm deep Holorib steel decking
A193 mesh reinforcement
Shear connectors 2 19 mm diameter studs @ 150 centres
Openings, on centre of 350 mm long x 200 mm high, unstiffened
Web at quarter points 450 mm long x 200 mm high, stiffened on both sides with
50 x 6 steel plates
Fire protection 1.7 mm FB 120 (average thickness)

In order to ensure that 120 minutes fire resistance was achieved, the applied loading was reduced to 110 kN at
each point. Under this loading, the critical structural condition for normal (cold) design was again in the region of
the openings. Rectangular openings may be expected to fail in Vierendeel (local) bending due to the transfer of
shear forces.

The beam failed after 135 minutes due to excessive deflection (see Error! Reference source not found.) At
failure, but openings were beginning to show signs of Vierendeel bending failure (see Figure 7.4)

At failure, the average bottom flange temperature was 7300C and the web temperture remote from the opening
was 7800C. The temperature of the web 20 mm from the edge of the opening was 900 0C.

43
7.1.3 Beam Test 3
The test was very similar to Beam Test 1, except that the two circular openings were slightly larger and were
fitted with ring stiffeners. The clear internal diameter of the opening was the same as in the first test. The beam
details were:

Depth of steel beam 400 mm

Top flange 200 mm x 15 mm
Bottom flange 200 mm x 35 mm
Web thickness 12 mm
Steel grade S275
Composite slab 1200 mm wide x 120 mm deep
Grade 30 concrete
51 mm deep Holorib steel decking
A193 mesh reinforcement
Shear connectors 2 19 mm diameter studs @ 150 centres
Openings, on centre of 2 x 240 mm diameter with a 5 mm thick ring
Web at quarter points stiffener.
Fire protection 1.5 mm FB 120 (average thickness)

The thickness of fire protection was reduced to 1.52 mm and the point loads were reduced to 100 kN to ensure
that 120 minutes fire resistance could be achieved. Under this loading the critical structural condition for normal
(cold) design was again in the region of the openings.

The beam failed after 121 minutes due to excessive deflection. However, in this test there appeared to be no local
deformation at the openings and failure occurred by overall bending (see Figure 7.5).

At failure the average bottom flange temperature was 733°C and the web temperature a distance from the opening
was 785°C. The ring stiffeners had the effect of the reducing the temperatures recorded close to the openings
(probably due to the additional protection thickness in these areas).
44
7.1.4 Beam Test 4
Tests 4 and 5 were designed to provide information on web post buckling and used thinner coatings. Two similar
test beams were constructed. Each beam had 6 openings of which 4 were circular and 2 were semi-circular
openings. The spacing of the openings was varied so that the temperatures of different width web-posts could be
studied. The general arrangement of the tests is shown in Figure 7.6. The beam details were:

Depth of steel beam 400 mm

Top flange 200 mm x 12 mm
Bottom flange 200 mm x 25 mm
Web thickness 8 mm
Steel grade S275
Composite slab 700 mm wide x 120 mm deep
Grade 30 concrete
51 mm deep Holorib steel decking
A193 mesh reinforcement
Shear connectors 219 mm diameter studs @ 150 centres
Openings, at centre of web 4 x 260 mm diameter (semi-circular)
250 mm web-post width
Fire protection 0.6 mm FB120 (average thickness)

The outer two point loads were each 60 kN and the central point loads were each 120 kN. The outer loads were
reduced to avoid web buckling at these points. Under this loading, the critical condition for normal design was
again in the region of the openings.

The beam failed after 57 minutes due to excessive deformation around the openings. It was apparent that the
narrower of the web-posts has buckled (as shown in Figure 7.7)

45
At failure, the average bottom flange temperature was 7330C and the web temperature remote from the opening
was 7850C. The temperature at the centre of the web-post was 7410C.

7.1.5 Beam Test 5

The test was very similar to Beam Test 4, except that the thickness of fire protection was reduced to 0.25 mm,
which is the minimum sensible for practical application.

Depth of steel beam 400 mm

Top flange 200 mm x 12 mm
Bottom flange 200 mm x 25 mm
Web thickness 8 mm
Steel grade S275
Composite slab 700 mm wide x 120 mm deep
Grade 30 concrete
51 mm deep Holorib steel decking
A193 mesh reinforcement
Shear connectors 2 19 mm diameter studs @ 150 centres
Openings, on centre of 4 x 260 mm diameter
Web at quarter points 125 mm and 175 mm web-post width
2 x 260 mm diameter (semi-circular)
250 mm web-post width
Fire protection 0.25 mm FB 120 (average thickness)

The beam failed after 47 minutes due to excessive deformation at the opening. The mode of failure appeared to
be web crushing below one of the point loads rather than web-post buckling. The main aim of the test had been
achieved in that the beam had more than 30 minutes fire resistance with a very thin coating (see Figure 7.8.) It
can be seen that the protection had become detached on large areas at the end of the test. The process of
intumescing had finished after about 30 minutes and detachment of the protection followed.

46
At failure, the average bottom flange temperature was 6100C and the web temperature a distance from the opening
was 7500C.

Based on this test, the minimum thickness of protection is specified as 0.25 mm.

7.1.6 Unloaded Tests

Data on the performance of the protection material was collected in 26 tests on unloaded short sections and the
five loaded beam tests. The sections sizes and protection thicknesses for all these tests are summarised in Table
7.1.

47
48
7.2 Structural Model
The design rules are expressed in a step by step in a manner similar to that followed for normal design. The rules
have been developed by SCI and follow the principles of BS5950-8(7) and EC4-1-2. They apply to Class 1 or 2
sections.

7.2.1 Bending Resistance of Unperforated Beam

The bending resistance of a beam is calculated using plastic bending theory.

The plastic neutral axis of a composite beam may be determined by equating the compression and tensile forces in
the concrete and steel elements, such that:

n m

∑ Ai Py+,θ/,−i + ∑ Ai f c,θ ,i, = 0

i =1 i =1

where:

Ai is the area of element i

Py ,θ ,i is the effective yield strengths of steel element i
f c ,θ ,i is the design strength of concrete element i at temperature θ .
Tension in concrete is ignored.

The design moment of resistance, Mfi,t,Rd, of a composite beam may be determined by taking the moment of each
element about the plastic neutral axis, as follows:

n m
M fi ,t , Rd = ∑ Ai z i p y ,θ ,i + ∑ Ai z i f c ,θ ,i
i =1 i =1

where:

zi is the distance of element i measured to the plastic neutral axis.

Partial shear connection is taken into account in the similar manner to that employed for normal design. In fire,
the resistance of shear connectors is based on a temperature equal to 80% of the top flange temperature (EC4-1-
2). The compressive force in the concrete is limited by the resistance of the shear connectors from the support to
the point under consideration.

7.2.2 Shear Resistance of Unperforated Beam

In fire, the total shear resistance is made up of contributions from the concrete slab, the top flange and the web.
The contribution of the bottom flange to the shear resistance is generally small and is ignored.

Voverall = Vslab + Vtopflange + Vweb

Slab contribution:

The shear resistance of the solid portion (above the steel decking) of the concrete slab is considered to act over an
effective width of 3 ds, where ds is the effective slab depth, and is given by:
49
  1.5 
Vslab = 3v c k c d s d top x 
 1.3 

where:

vc shear strength of lightly reinforce slab in normal conditions

kc concrete strength reduction factor (see below)
ds depth of composite slab
dtop depth of concrete above the steel decking

The ratio of 1.5:1.3 arises from the different partial factors for concrete strength used in normal and in fire
conditions.

The strength reduction factor for concrete, kc, is assumed to vary with fire resistance period as follows:

Top flange contribution:

The shear resistance of the top flange is based on the web thickness, two leg lengths of weld (assumed to be 16
mm), and two times the flange thickness and is given by:

Vtopflange = 0.6 p y ,θ t f (16 + t w + 2t f )

where:

tf is the thickness of the top flange

tw is the web thickness
p y ,θ is the reduced strength of the steel at flange temperature, θ f

This enhancement is justified by correlation with the fire tests.

Web contribution:

The shear resistance for the unperforated web is given by:

Vweb = 0.6 Av p y ,θ

where:

50
Av is the shear area of the web
p y ,θ is the reduced strength of the steel at web temperature, θ w

The effective web thickness for bending checks of the web-flange sections should be reduced in the presence of
high shear force, as follows:

  2V0, fire  
2
V0, fire
t eff = t w 1 −  − 1  for ≥ 0.5
  Vtotal   Vtotal

where:

teff is the effective web thickness

tw is the actual web thickness
Vtotal is the total shear resistance of the section

For low shear regions, teff = t.

7.2.3 Shear Resistance of Beam at an Opening

At an opening, the total shear resistance of the web is in two parts, as follows:

Web contribution:

For an unstiffened web, its shear resistance is given by:

Vw = 0.6 × 0.9 × (Av1 p y ,θ ,1 + Av 2 p y ,θ , 2 )

where:

Av1 is the shear area of the upper web

Av2 is the shear areas of the lower web
p y ,θ ,2 is the effective yield strength of the upper web at temperature θ 1
p y ,θ ,2 is the effective yield strength of the lower web at temperature θ 2

A shape factor of 0.9 is used for the perforated web in fire conditions.

51
7.2.4 Bending Resistance
The bending resistance of the cross section at an opening is calculated using plastic bending theory as described in
Section 7.2.1. The web thickness is taken as teff and any suitably welded horizontal stiffeners are included. The
section is divided up into up to 9 elements (Figure 7.9), and the calculation takes into account the temperature and
strength of each element. Any concrete within the steel decking is ignored.

7.2.5 Vierendeel Bending

The Vierendeel bending resistance of an opening is given by the sum of the 4 bending resistances at the corners of
the opening, calculated using teff. At the top of the section, one of these resistances includes a contribution from
the composite slab. All the other 3 resistances are due to the steel Tee sections. The total Vierendeel bending
resistance is therefore:

M v ,θ = M vc ,θ + M t ,θ + 2M b ,θ

These bending resistances are calculated using the method given in Section 7.2.1, using the temperature
dependent material strengths.

The Vierendeel bending resistance of the lower web-flange section (Mb,) is reduced by the presence of shear
and tensile forces, and is given by:

 M0 
M b,θ ,eff = M b,θ 1 − 
 M fi ,Rd 

The Vierendeel bending resistance of the upper web-flange section is also reduced by the presence of shear and
axial force.

52
For a composite beam, the axial load effect in the upper flange is small when it is close to the plastic neutral axis
and, in fire, any reduction is ignored. The beneficial effect of the tensile resistance of the reinforcement is not
included.

The depth of an unstiffened web is reduced to the limit corresponding to a Class 2 section. The effective depth is
given as for normal design in Section 6.2.4. The thickness of the web used in calculating the bending resistance
may also be reduced when subject to high shear (see Section 7.2.2).

The Vierendeel bending resistance of the composite section above the opening is calculated taking account of
shear connectors provided in a length ( l + Ds) above the opening, where Ds is the depth of the slab.

The applied Vierendeel moment is Vo,fi l , where l is the effective length of the opening, defined in Section 6.1,
and Vo,fi is the shear force acting at the centre of the opening at the fire limit state.

For equilibrium of shear transfer across the opening:

M v ,θ ≥ V0, fi l

As in normal design, the minimum shear force is taken as 15% of the maximum shear force at the ends of the
beam in order to take account of possible asymmetry of loading in fire conditions.

7.2.6 Horizontal web shear

The web post between openings is checked for horizontal shear (see Figure 7.11). The shear resistance of the web
post is given by:

Vh = 0.6 × 0.9 × bwt w p y ,θ

53
where bw is the width of the web post. A shape factor of 0.9 is used for the web post.

The increase in tensile force in the bottom Tee of the section between openings cannot be greater than Vh.
Thus:

Vh ≥ T 2 − T 1

The tensile forces are computed at each opening and then the in crease in force, T2 - T1, is compared with the
shear resistance Vh. If the shear resistance is exceeded, the tensile force at the second opening, T2, must be
reduced, accordingly to:

T 2 = T 1 + Vh

The bending resistance at the second opening is recomputed using this force T2.

In FBEAM, the Unity Factor for horizontal shear cannot exceed 1.00. It follows that if the Unity Factor is
displayed as 1.00, the bending resistance at the opening has been reduced corresponding to the above limit on the
horizontal shear resistance.

7.2.7 Web Buckling

The unstiffened vertical edge of a web at an opening is checked for buckling as a strut, by considering a
compression force of Vt acting over an effective width of web. Because of the complex stress state in fire
conditions, the shear force, Vt, is taken as the average of the shear forces transferred by the web above and below
the opening. If the slenderness (height of opening / tw) is less than 20, no check on stability of the web post is
carried out.

54
In fire conditions, web buckling is checked using buckling curve ‘c’ of BS5950- 1, and uses elevated temperature
properties for the effective yield strength and elastic modulus. Therefore:

Euler buckling resistance:

π 2 Eθ I
N cr =
l2

Compression resistance:

N pl = wt w p y ,θ

Non-dimensional slenderness:

N pl
λ fi =
N cr

From thee parameters:

[
φ = 0.5 1 + 0.49(λ fi − 0.2 ) + λ fi 2 ]
and

1
X =
[φ + (φ 2
− λ fi )
2 1/ 2
]
The buckling resistance of the web is given by:

NRd =XNpl

The calculations of the effective web width and effective length are slightly different for closely spaced circular
openings and rectangular openings, as follows:

55
The effective width is taken is the smaller of half the web post width and half the opening diameter (for so ≥ d 0 ).
For openings of different size, or mixed use of circular and rectangular openings, half the average depth of
opening is used, instead of half the opening diameter.

For fire design, the web-post width must be not less than 120 mm and 0.4 x the average opening diameter, which
corresponds to the limits of the beams in the fire tests.

The effective length of the web in buckling is taken as 0.7 L (where the diagonal length, L, is defined in Figure
7.12).

If the opening on either side of a web post is either rectangular or elongated, the web post width must be not less
than the length of the longer opening or 2 x the depth of the deeper opening. Again, this requirement reflects the
limits in the fire tests. [It could be relaxed in future].

The effective width of the web post is taken as half the depth of the opening. For openings of different size, half
the average depth of opening is used. The effective length of the web in buckling is taken as 0.7 L (as defined in
Figure 7.13).

7.3 Thermal Model

The purpose of the thermal model is to enable the temperature of various parts of a beam to be predicted for fire
resistances of 30, 60, 90 and 120 minutes and for practical thicknesses of Firetex FB 120.

The fire test results were analysed using various methods. The best correlation was found using a regression
method from ENV13381-4, as follows:

di θ θ a
t = a 0 + a1d i + a 2 + a 3θ s + a 4 d iθ s + a 5 d i s + a 6 s + 7
A /V A /V A /V A /V
where:

t = Time in minutes to steel temperature

di = Thickness of fire protection (mm)
A/V = Section factor (m-1)
a0 etc = Regression coefficients (determined from tests)
θs = Steel temperature (°C)

56
During the tests, the temperature of various parts of beam were recorded. The measured bottom flange for one test
are shown in Figure 7.14. The shape of the curve is typical of steel protected by an intumescent coating. Initially
the steel heats up rapidly, almost as if were unprotected. At a steel temperature of about 240°C, the intumescent
process starts and the rate of temperature rise reduces. The steel then heats at a steady rate until the coating begins
to detach or break up. At this point, the rate of rise of temperature increases.

To use the regression technique, the individual tests were analysed to obtain the time when the top flange, web
and bottom flange reached temperatures in the range of 350 to 850°C (in steps of 50°C). This data was then
analysed using the above regression equation and the coefficients, a0 etc., were obtained for each part of the
section.

For each part of the section, tables of steel temperature were computed for 30 to 120 minutes, for a range of
section factors and thicknesses of FB120 from 0.2 to 2.2 mm. The three tables were combined into one. To obtain
the temperature of a given steel beam, FBEAM2 reads this table from a secure data-file.

In addition to the basic top flange, web and bottom flange temperatures, the data file contains information on the
temperature distributions around openings. It was found that the local increase in temperatures around openings
were very consistent and predictable.

7.4 Predicted and Measured Performance in Fire

7.4.1 Structural Performance
For each of the loaded fire tests, the predicted performance and the measured performance has been compared.
Calculations were based on measured temperatures and material properties and were performed using a modified
version of FBEAM. The results of these analyses are summarised in Table 7.3. In each case, the structural model
correctly identified the mode of failure observed in the test. Also, the predicted load capacity of each beam was
close to the applied load in the test.

57
In Test 1, the mode of failure was by shear at one of the openings. The highest Unity Factor of 1.10 indicates that
shear at the openings was the governing mode.

In Test 2, the beam was showing signs of a Vierendeel bending failure at both openings. The highest Unity
Factors of 1.11 and 1.04 indicate that Vierendeel bending at the openings was the governing mode.

In Test 3, the openings had ring stiffeners and no local failures occurred. At the end of the test, the beam was
starting to fail in overall bending. The effect of ring stiffeners has not been examined in any detail and is outside
the scope of the current version of FBEAM. The shear resistance and web buckling resistances have not been
calculated and are not shown.

In Test 4, the mode of failure was web post buckling and this is reflected in the highest Unity Factor of 1.11.

In Tests 1, 2 and 4, the Unity Factor for horizontal shear is 1.00. This indicates that the bending resistance at an
adjacent opening was limited by the ability of the web to transfer the necessary force into the bottom Tee of the
section.

In Tests 1 and 2, the web slenderness (height of opening / web thickness) was less than 20, and web buckling was
not considered.

The results for Test 5 are not shown. In this test, the beam which had a very thin intumescent coating, and failed
in web crushing below a heavy point load. This local mode of failure is not considered by further as a stiffener
should be provided.

58
Except in the case of test 3, the maximum Unity Factors are about 1.1, indicating a modelling safety factor of at
least 10%. It is expected that further research will lead to more accurate methods, and hence a reduction in this
value.

7.4.2 Thermal Performance

The temperatures of the top flange, web and bottom flange were modelled using the regression formula described
earlier (Section 7.3). The correlation coefficients, r2, were all greater than 0.98 indicating that the variability in the
data was small. The standard minimum value adopted by the fire protection industry is 0.95. On average, on the
loaded tests, the predicted temperatures were 5% higher than the measured values.

7.4.3 Summary of Comparisons

The comparisons shown in Sections 7.4.1 and 7.4.2 show that the structural and thermal models are adequate to
predict the performance of Fabsec beams protected with Firetex FB 120. The differences between calculation and
test are not significant. Also, in practical applications, there are many inherently conservative factors which are
not taken into account in the modelling. Actual material properties will be greater than the nominal properties
which are used in calculations and the average applied thickness of coating will, invariably, be greater than the
specified value.

59
 8 PRECAST CONCRETE SLABS INCOMPOSITE
CONSTRUCTION

8.1 Introduction to design principles

Precast concrete units may be designed to act compositely with steel beams, provided certain modifications are
made to the design approach. Three types of precast concrete slabs are included:

• Hollowcore units with concrete infills in the hollow cores

• Hollowcore units, as above, but with a concrete topping
• Solid slabs with a concrete topping

The hollowcore units are produced with regular circular or elongated openings, as illustrated in Figure 8.1. The
ends of the hollowcore units are chamfered and alternate hollowcores broken out, so that in-situ concrete can be
placed to develop composite action. In most cases, shear connectors are pre-welded to the beams.

Composite action may be developed only with beams that directly support the slab and not with beams parallel to
the span of the slab. Therefore, long span secondary beams are normally orientated to span the longer distance
between short span primary beams, or onto concrete walls. Edge beams may also be designed as composite,
provided detailing rules are observed.

Solid p.c. units support an in -situ topping and are designed as a solid slab in terms of composite action. If the p.c.
units are detailed in such a way that the joints can be infilled, the total depth of the slab less 25 mm may be
considered. If not, only the depth of the topping is considered. For solid p.c. units, both the secondary and
primary beams may be designed as composite.

The following sections describe how the design procedure may be modified when considering the use of precast
concrete units. However, the following limitations are made to the approach for beams with web openings and for
fire engineering design:

• Web openings must not exceed the following proportions of the beam depth, D, depending on the type of p.c.
unit in order to limit the effect of additional shear on the p.c. units due to the local flexibility of the beam:
• hollowcore units do ≤ 0.3 D
• solid units do ≤ 0.6 D
• Fire engineering design, using the method given in Section 7, is not permitted for p.c. units. However,
conventional fire protection in the form of boards or sprays may be used.

60
8.2 Hollowcore units with concrete infills
Secondary beams directly supporting hollowcore units may be treated as composite either with or without a
concrete topping. The beams should be sufficiently wide so that there is a gap of at least 50 mm around pre-
welded shear connectors, and at least 55 mm nominal end bearing for the p.c. units (see Figure 8.2).

Transverse reinforcement placed in the infills transfers the force from the shear connectors welded to the beam
into the slab. In design, the effective width of the slab, Be is taken as a function of various parameters, but is less
than that used for other types of composite beams. It is given by an empirical equation, as follows:

Be = beam span/8

But not exceeding: Infill width and + Gap between the units, or Be ≤ 1250 mm.

The full depth of the p.c. slab is assumed to resist compression, acting at a stress of 0.45 × cube strength of the in-
situ concrete infill.

The minimum gap between the hollowcore units affects the design resistance of the shear connectors. Shear
connectors are usually pre-welded to the beams, in which case, the minimum gap for composite action is 50 mm.
This minimum gap is increased to 65 mm for site welded shear connectors. Allowing for end bearing of the p.c.
units, the minimum beam width suitable for composite design is 180 mm (456 x 178 UB is also permitted)
increasing to 195 mm for site-welded shear connectors.

For edge beams, it is also necessary to ensure sufficient edge distance from the line of shear connectors to the
edge of the slab and, in this case, the minimum beam width is 210 mm. In this case, U bars are looped around the
shear connectors and placed in adjacent filled hollowcores (see Figure 8.3).

61
62
The following detailed aspects of design should be addressed when using hollowcore units in composite
construction:

• The self weight of the precast concrete units, depends on the type of p.c. unit selected.
• The flange width should observe a minimum of 180 mm (for p.c. units up to 6 m long) and 190 mm for longer
units, in order to have sufficient space for welding of the shear connectors. However, a 406 × 178 UB is
considered to be acceptable (for p.c. units up to 6 m).
• The gap between the units influences the resistance of the shear connectors and is given by the flange width less
130 mm (i.e. 65 mm bearing).
• The depth of the units is selected from a standard list given by the 3 major hollowcore manufacturers, and
should be between 150 and 260 mm for use in composite construction.
• The effective depth may be taken as the full depth of the slab, provided at least alternate hollowcores are infilled
with concrete and transverse reinforcement.
• The effective width of the slab is greatly simplified, and is generally controlled by the length of the infill. In no
case should the effective width exceed 1250 mm.
• Transverse reinforcement should be placed in the filled hollowcores at average spacing of 200 to 350 mm
depending on the slab type selected. Transverse reinforcement checks are as for normal composite design.
• Shear connectors of 120 mm height are recommended. However, 19 or 22 mm diameter shear connectors may
be used (most shear connectors are pre-welded).
• The shear connector resistance is defined as the basic stud resistance in BS 5950 Part 3 Pd, with modification
factors, F1 to F2 as follows:

Pd,eff = 0.8Pd × F1 × F2 × F30.5

Where F1 = 0.5 (1+gap/70) ≤ 1.0 but ≥ 0.86

F2 = 0.5 (1+dia. of bar/20) ≤ 1.0 but ≥ 0.7
F3 = 0.5(1+width of unit/600) ≤ 1.5 but ≥ 1.0
F1 × F2 × F30.5 ≤ 1.0
and gap= spacing between the edges of the p.c. units.

63
• The limit on degree of shear connection is the same as for composite or solid slabs. However, full shear
connection is generally achieved.
• For edge beams, the minimum beam width is 210 mm to allow sufficient edge distance for welding of the shear
connectors. U bars should be placed around them and placed in the filled hollowcores.
• To avoid the risk of lateral torsional buckling during installation of the hollowcore units, the top flange of the
beam should be restrained laterally during construction at a spacing not exceeding 8 m.

8.3 Hollowcore Units with Concrete Topping

Hollowcore units may also be used with a concrete topping, in which case the depth of the concrete may also
include the depth of the topping. The effective width of slab is, nevertheless, taken as for a hollowcore slab
without a topping. The following aspects of design should be addressed:

• The depth of topping that may be included should not exceed 100 mm. The minimum depth of topping is 50
mm.
• The self weight of the concrete topping should be calculated. Both NWC and LWC can be used, but a further
reduction of 10% should be made to the shear connector resistance in the case of the LWC.
• Mesh reinforcement is placed in the topping and may be included as transverse reinforcement.

8.4 Solid PC Slabs with Concrete Topping

Solid p.c. units are often used in composite construction, particularly car parks or other semi-exposed
applications. Both secondary and primary beams may be designed as composite with provision of a suitable depth
of topping and transverse reinforcement. The shear connectors should project above the top of the solid slab,
unless the reinforcement is best below the head of the shear connector. The typical design cases are illustrated in
Figure 8.4. The same general rules for composite design apply as for composite slabs, except as follows:

• The p.c. slab depth is either 75 or 100 mm.

• The effective depth of the p.c. slab is taken as the total slab depth minus 25 mm to allow for the rib on the solid
slab. The depth of topping can be included.
• The self weight of the p.c. unit should be calculated from the slab depth (NWC only). The self weight of the
topping should be calculated (NWC or LWC). The minimum topping is 50 mm and the maximum is 100 mm.
• The minimum beam width is 180 mm in all cases, increasing to 190 mm for edge beams. The gap between the
p.c. units is the flange width minus 120 mm (i.e. 60 mm min. bearing).
• The effective slab width is calculated as for a composite slab.
• Transverse reinforcement checks are as for composite slabs.
• Shear connectors should project at least 35 mm over the top of the solid slab (120 mm as-welded height for 75
mm deep slabs and 145 mm for 100 mm deep slabs). Studs of 19 or 22 mm diameter may be used.
• The shear connector resistance is defined as for hollowcore units (see Section 8.2).

64
65
66
 APPENDIX A DESIGN FORMULAE FOR STEEL AND
COMPOSITE FABSEC BEAMS

A.1 Plastic Bending Resistance of Asymmetric Section

Rf1 = tensile resistance of top flange

Rf2 = tensile resistance of bottom flange
Rw = tensile resistance of web

Case 1: Compact web:

Depth of web in compression = yp

yp Rw + R f 2 − R f 1
=
d 2 Rw

( )
M s = R f 1 ( y p + 0.5t f 1 ) + R f 2 (d − y p + 0.5t f 2 ) + 0.5Rw y p + (d − y p ) / d
2 2

Case 2: Semi-compact web:

Reduced resistance of web in compression = R0 = 40 t2εpy

67
 yp R0 + R f 2 − R f 1
=
d 2 Rw

M s = R f 1 ( y p + 0.5t f 1 ) + R f 2 (d − y p + 0.5 t f 2 ) + 0.5 R0 y p + 0.5Rw (d − y p ) / d

2

A.2 Elastic Stiffness of Asymmetric Section

Depth of web in compression = ye

y e A f 2 (d + 0.5t f 2 ) + A f 1 (0.5t f 1 ) + 0.5 Aw d

=
d A f 1 + A f 2 Aw

Second moment of area

I s = A f 1 ( ye + 0.5t f 1 )2 + A f 2 (d − ye + 0.5t f 2 ) + Aw d 2 / 12 + Aw ( ye − 0.5d )

2 2

68
 A.3 Plastic Bending Resistance of Composite Asymmetric
Section

Case 1: Plastic neutral axis in slab:

Where: Rc > Rs and Rs = Rf1 + Rf2 + Rw

yc = Rs/Rc . (Ds – Dp)

Mc = Rs (Ds + yp) + 0.5 Rcyp2/(Ds – Dp)

Case 2: Plastic neutral axis in top flange:

Where: R s ≥ Rc ≥ R w + R f 2 − R f 1

y c ≈ Ds

M c = Rs y p + 0.5Rc ( Ds + D p )

Case 3: Plastic neutral axis in web:

Where: Rc ≤ R w + R f 2 − R f 1

yc =
(R w + R f 2 − R f 1 − Rc )d
+ Ds + t f 1
2 Rw

M c = R f 1 ( yc − Ds − 0.5t f 1 ) + R f 2 (D + Ds − yc − 0.5t f 2 )
Rw
+ (y c − Ds − t f 1 )2 + Rw (D + Ds − y c − t f 2 )2
2d 2d
69
For partial shear connection, replace Rc by Fc, which is the longitudinal force developed by the shear connectors
placed between the adjacent support and the point in the span under consideration.

70
 A.4 Elastic Stiffness of Composite Asymmetric Section

Elastic neutral axis of composite section:

Ac = Be (Ds – Dp)

As = Af1 + Af2 + Aw

yec = ( As ( Ds + t f 1 + y e ) + Ac / α e ( Ds − D p ) / 2) /( As + Ac / α e )

where ye is obtained from Appendix A2

and α e = modular ratio of steel/concrete

Second moment of area of composite section (in steel units):

Ac ( y ec − 0.5(Ds + D p ))/ α e + As (Ds + y ec )

2
Ic =

Section modulus (bottom flange):

Zs = I c / (D + Ds − y ec )(steel units )

Section modulus concrete:

Zc = I c /(α e y ec ) (concrete units)

71
 APPENDIX B WEB-POST BUCKLING MODEL
The behaviour of web posts between regularly spaced circular and rectangular openings in the webs of fabricated
steel beams was investigated using a Finite Element Analysis (FEA). The FEA was carried out for a range of
parameters, including the proportionate depth of the openings and the web slenderness. The main objective was to
devise a design model for this complex failure mode.

The FEA was carried out using ANSYS, which included material non-linearity (ie plastic behaviour) and
geometrical non-linearity (buckling). The model used in FEA consisted of a short section of beam between the
centre-line of adjacent openings. The analyses were carried out for non-composite beams as this would give
conservative results for composite beams. The main area of interest was the stability of the web-post under the
combined effect of shear and compression, especially at the edge of the opening, where the stabilising effect of
tension-field action is less than at the centre of the web-post.

From these analyses, a design model was developed based on a ‘strut’ analogy in which the stability of the web is
checked using buckling curves to BS 5950-1. This strut analogy is presented in terms of the effective width and
effective length of the strut, which were derived to give the best fit over the range of opening parameters.

B.1 Finite Element Model

The Finite Element Analysis (FEA) model used in this study was based on a 610mm deep section with an opening
diameter/opening depth, dO, of 406mm, giving a beam depth/opening ratio D/dO of 1.5. Using this basic model,
the web thickness and spacing of the holes were varied to assess the effect on web post capacity. A parametric
study was conducted to investigate the effect of S/dO ratio on the resistance of the web post (S is the centre to
centre spacing of the openings). Seven S/dO ratios in the range 1.2 to 1.8 were studied with four web thicknesses
of 5mm, 6.4mm, 7.8mm and 10mm, giving dO/t ratios which vary from 40.6 to 81.2. The model was also extended
to examine square openings of depth, dO, in order to compare the behaviour with circular openings of the same
depth.

The web-post model used 4 noded plastic shell elements with 6 degrees of freedom at each node. Depending on
the S/dO ratio, three different finite element meshes were used to model the web posts. As the width of the web
post increases, the number of elements used to model its width also increases in order to maintain the element
size. A typical mesh with 10 elements at midheight is shown in Figure B.1. Table B.1 shows the range of S/dO
ratios for each mesh.

72
In order to initiate buckling of the web post, an initial imperfection was created in the model. It was felt that a sine
wave was the most realistic shape for this imperfection which was defined with a maximum amplitude at mid -
height of D/500.

A bi-linear representation of the stress strain curve has been used as shown in Figure B.2. The initial elastic
modulus, E, is taken as 205kN/mm2 with a reduction to 2.05kN/mm2 (E/100) on reaching the yield point specified
as 355N/mm2. The material model uses the von Mises yield criterion with kinematic hardening which is suitable
for most metals, including steel.

The boundary conditions used in the model are as shown in Figure 7.3 and Table 7.2.

73
The web-flange connection was assumed to be pinned as a safe lower bound, independent of the flange size and
type of weld. In practice, some degree of fixity would exist, which increases the web buckling resistance.

Load was applied to the FE model as a vertical shear on the top and bottom web flange tees at the right hand side
of the model. The magnitude of the applied load varied for each case and was applied in a minimum of 100
substeps, the size of which could be automatically varied by the software in order to achieve convergence as the
solution approached the failure load.

B.2 Results of Finite Element Analysis

The behaviour of the web post is illustrated in Figure B.4. Compressive and tensile forces act across the web post
on opposite diagonals. In the finite element analysis, failure occurred when a local web buckle forms adjacent to
the opening as show by the shaded areas in Figure B.4. The initial position is normally close to the quarter
opening depth.

74
This strut model is the basis of the design method in which the effective width and effective length of the strut are
determined. The results of the finite element analysis of web-post buckling is shown in Table B.3 and Figure B.5
in terms of applied vertical shear force VV at failure. The compressive stress acting on the strut is calculated using
the force in the upper T-section (or half the applied vertical shear force for a symmetrically placed opening).

In the subsequent model, the effective width of the web post resisting compression is taken as half the total width
of the web post (ie sO/2).

The compressive stress acting on the strut is therefore:

Vv V
σ= = v
2( s 0 / 2)t s 0 t

where

sO is the edge to edge spacing of the openings.

The variation of this compressive stress with S/dO ratio is shown in Figure B.6.
(S = centre to centre spacing of openings).

In the subsequent analysis, the results for the 10.0mm webs are not illustrated because it was found that these
stocky webs are controlled by yielding rather than buckling and are eliminated from the analysis.

75
76
B.3 Design Equations for Web Post between Regularly Spaced Circular Openings.
The design model derived from the finite element analysis is based on a simple strut model. The strut is
considered to act diagonally across the member as shown in Figure B.7.

This model can be applied to web posts with high dO/t ratio. For lower dO/t ratios, the Vierendeel bending capacity
will be the design check that governs rather than web post buckling. This means that stocky webs do not fail by
buckling. The effective width, be, of the strut is taken as half the width of the web post for use in determining the
compressive stresses, shown in Figure 7.6.

be = 0.5s 0

The effective length, l e, of the strut is calculated as the diagonal distance across the web post using an effective
length factor of 0.5, as follows:

2 2
l e = 0.5 s 0 + d 0

77
where

so is the width of the web post

do is the opening diameter

The slenderness, λ , of the web-post as a strut is then calculated as:

12l e
λ=
t

where t is the thickness of the web.

This value of slenderness is used to obtain the compressive strength, pc, from buckling curve ‘c’ of BS 5950-1,
which is appropriate for fabricated sections.

Figure B.8 shows the compressive strength calculated using the design model for dO/t ratios of 81.2 and 63.4
plotted against the failure stress obtained from the finite element analysis.

B.3.1 Lower Bound to Web-Post Buckling

The finite element analyses have shown that yielding rather than buckling occurs for stockier webs. This means
that web-post buckling does not occur and failure is by Vierendeel bending of the T-section at approximately
0.25dO from the centre-line of the opening.

Figure B.9 shows the compressive strength calculated from the design model for dO/t = 51.2 plotted against the FE
results. The stress on the strut corresponding to the limiting vertical shear force determined from the maximum
Vierendeel moment capacity of the top T-section is also plotted.

The limiting vertical shear force resulting from Vierendeel bending of the top Tee is calculated by converting the
circular opening into an equivalent rectangular opening with a width of 0.5dO and depth dO, as shown in Figure
B.10.

The limiting vertical shear force in the top Tee is then given as follows:

Vv M pt
=
2 0.25d 0

where:

Mpt is the plastic moment capacity of the top Tee.

However, when dT/t for the web of the Tee exceeds the limit of 9 ε for a compact section (in BS 5950-1), the
moment capacity, Mpt, is calculated using elastic properties of the section, where t is the web thickness and the
depth of the stem of the Tee and, dT, is shown in Figure B.10.

From BS 5950-1:

0.5
 275 
ε =  

 py 
78
Figure B.9 shows that the Vierendeel moment check is critical for dO/t = 51.2 and S/dO > 1.4.

B.3.2 Comparison with F E Model

The vertical shear resistance, VV, due to web post buckling is calculated as follows:

Vv = 2 p c be t = p c s 0 t

Table B.4 shows the vertical shear resistances calculated from this equation using pc derived from the effective
slenderness of the web. These are conservative by up to 40% for narrow web posts, as shown by the comparison
in Table B.5 but the level of conservatism reduces for greater web thickness. The shaded area indicates where
Vierendeel bending rather than web-post buckling controls. This is also illustrated in Figure B.9 for dO/t = 52.1.

79
The unconservative stresses resulting from the design model for S/dO > 1.4 will not lead to unsafe design for this
web slenderness, as the Vierendeel bending resistance is checked separately.

In conclusion, the design model for web-post buckling applies for circular openings to dO/t > 55 and S/dO = 1.2 to
2.0.

80
B.3.3 Widely Spaced Circular Openings
For widely spaced openings, the shear resistance obtained using S/d0 = 2.0 may be used as a cut-off in this
analysis. In this limiting case:

be = 0.5 d0

le = 0.5 2d 0 ≈ 0.7d 0

Vv = pc d0 t

In all cases, the shear resistance cannot exceed that given by a stress of 0.6 py acting on the web post.

This also applies to single circular openings.

B.4 Square and Rectangular openings

B.4.1 Closely Spaced Square Openings

The FEA has been repeated for square openings of depth dO and centre to centre spacing S, in order to determine
the effect of opening shape. The analysis was carried out for S/dO = 1.5 and 1.8, as this represents the sensible
range of application.

A strut model similar to the one used for circular openings was adopted. However, in this case the effective
length factor is taken as 0.7 because of the reduced stiffening effect of the web above and below the opening. The
effective length, le, for the strut is therefore:

2 2
l e = 0.7 s0 + d 0

where:
so is the width of the web post

do is the depth of the opening

The slenderness, λ , of the strut is then calculated as:

81
 12l e
λ=
t

where t is the thickness of the web.

This value of slenderness is used to obtain the compressive strength, pc, from buckling curve ‘c’ of BS 5950-1.

As for circular openings, the Vierendeel bending check may become critical. The limiting vertical shear force due
to Vierendeel bending of the top Tee (see Figure B.11) in the case of a square opening is given as follows:

Vv M pt
=
2 0.5l

where:

Mpt is the plastic moment capacity of the top T-section

l is the width of the opening (= dO for square openings)

However, when dT/t for the web of the Tee exceeds the limit of 9 ε for a compact section (in BS 5950-1) the
moment capacity, Mpt, is calculated using elastic properties of the section.

Figure B.12 shows the compressive strength for 5.0 mm and 6.4 mm thick webs compared with the FE results at
S/dO ratios of 1.5, 1.6, 1.8 and 2.0. Better agreement could be obtained using an effective length factor of 0.65
rather than 0.7, but the factor of 0.7 is adopted in order to consist with the current approach for widely spaced
openings.

Figure B.13 shows the compressive strength calculated from the design model for dO/t = 51.2 plotted against the
FE results. The stress on the strut corresponding to the vertical shear force determined from the Vierendeel
moment capacity of the top T-section is also plotted. This illustrates that for S/do ratios greater than 1.3, the
Vierendeel moment capacity will be the critical design check.

82
The vertical shear force is calculated as follows:

Vv = 2 p c be t = p c s 0 t

Table B.6 shows the vertical shear resistances calculated from this equation. These are conservative by up to 30%
when compared with the available FE results as shown in Table B.7.

In conclusion, the design model for web-post buckling applies for square openings to dO/t >55 and S/dO = 1.2 to
2.0.

83
B.4.2 Widely Spaced Square Openings
For widely spaced openings, the shear resistance obtained using S/dO = 2.0 may be used as a cut-off. In this
limiting case:

be = 0.5d 0

l e = 0.7 2d 0 ≈ d 0

Vv = p c d 0 t

This also applies to single discrete rectangular openings.

B.4.3 Rectangular Openings

The finite element analyses were carried out for square openings of width, do. The method may be extended to
rectangular openings of length, l , by increasing the effective vertical shear force for the combined effects of
moment and shear. The effective vertical shear force acting on the web post adjacent to a rectangular opening is
given by:

 l + s0 
Vv .eff = Vv  
d +
 0 0 s

84
This ratio corresponds to the distance between the centre-line of the opening and the mid-distance between the
openings, and represents the effective increase of shear in the web post for rectangular openings in comparison to
square openings. As previously, so is the edge-edge spacing of the opening.

The analysis is carried out by comparing the effective shear force to the compressive resistance of the strut, as
follows:

Vv = p c s 0 t

or

(d 0 + s0 )
Vv = pst
(l + s0 ) c 0
pc is the compressive strength of the strut calculated as for a square opening (in Appendix B.4.1).

For widely spaced rectangular openings:

2d 0
Vv = pd t
(l + d 0 ) c 0

85
B.5 Limiting Horizontal Shear Stress
From equilibrium, the horizontal shear force on the web post can be determined as follows:

S
Vh = Vv
D

where:

Vh is the horizontal shear force (see Figure B.14)

D is the beam depth (or more correctly the depth between the centroid of the Tees)

S is the centre-centre spacing of the openings

The horizontal stress, σ hs, acting on the web post is then given by:

Vh
σ hs =
0.9 s0 t

The maximum shear stress is given by:

σ bs = 0.6 p y

The shape factor of 0.9 in retained for a plate, because of the non-uniform shear flow existing in the web post.

B.6 Conclusions on Web-Post Buckling Model

Using the results of finite element analysis on models with circular and rectangular openings, a design model was
developed for web-post buckling. The design model is based on a strut analogy to web-post behaviour. The
design model is the same for both circular and rectangular openings apart from the value of effective length used
in determining the compressive strength.
86
The effective length of the equivalent strut is calculated as follows:

Circular openings

2 2
l e = 0.5 s 0 + d 0

where

so is the width of the web post

do is the opening diameter

The slenderness, λ , of the strut is then calculated as:

12l e
λ=
t

where t is the thickness of the web.

This value of slenderness is used to obtain the compressive strength, pc, from buckling curve ‘c’ of BS 5950-1.

The vertical shear resistance is calculated as:

Vv = 2 p c be t = p c s 0 t

This model can be applied to so/do = 0.2 to 1.0 (normal design).

Square Openings

2 2
l e = 0.7 s0 + d 0

The value of λ , p c and Vv are calculated above.

Rectangular Openings

For rectangular openings, the vertical shear resistance is calculated as above.

The applied shear force Vv at any opening of length l >d0 is multiplied by the ratio (l + s0 ) / (d 0 + s0 ).

The shear resistance is calculated as for a square opening.

The model can be applied to: s0 / d0 = 0.5 to 1.0.

B.6.1 Discrete Openings

For widely spaced openings, the shear resistance obtained using S/dO = 2.0 may be used as a cut-off. In this
limiting case, the effective length of the webpost for circular and rectangular openings is calculated as follows:

87
In all cases, the vertical shear resistance is given by:
Vv = p c d 0 t

Circular Openings

l e = 0.5 2d 0 ≈ 0.7d 0

The effective slenderness is λ = 2.5d 0 / t

Square Openings

l e = 0.7 2d 0 ≈ d 0

The effective slenderness is λ = 3.5d 0 t

Rectangular Openings

For rectangular openings, the shear force, Vv, at an opening is multiplied by the ratio (l + s0 ) / (d 0 + s0 ) . The
vertical shear resistance is calculated as for a square opening.

88
REFERENCES
1 British Standards Institution
The structural use of steelwork in buildings
BS 5950 Part 1:2000

2 Owens, G.W.
Design of fabricated composite beams in buildings
The Steel Construction Institute, P-059, 1999.

3 McKenna, P.D. and Lawson, R.M.

The design of steel frames buildings for service integration
The Steel Construction Institute. P-166, 1997

4 British Standards Institution

The structural use of steelwork in buildings: Design in composite construction
BS 5950 Part 3: 1990

5 British Standards Institution

Eurocode 4 Part 1.1 Design of composite steel and concrete structures
ENV 1994-1-1, 1993.

6 Lawson, R.M.
Design for openings in the webs of composite beams
SCI/CIRIA P-068, 1988.

7 British Standards Institution

The structural use of steelwork in buildings: fire resistant design
BS 5950 Part 8: 1990

89