Classen 2012 - Rural Space in The Middle Ages and Early Modern Age-De Gruyter (2012)

Rural Space in the Middle Ages and Early Modern Age
Fundamentals of Medieval
and Early Modern Culture
Edited by
Albrecht Classen and Marilyn Sandidge
De Gruyter
Rural Space in the Middle Ages
and Early Modern Age
The Spatial Turn in Premodern Studies
Edited by
Albrecht Classen
with the collaboration of

Christopher R. Clason
De Gruyter
ISBN 978-3-11-028536-9
e-ISBN 978-3-11-028542-0
ISSN 1864-3396
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TableȱofȱContents
Introduction
AlbrechtȱClassen
RuralȱSpaceȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱTimes:ȱ
AȱSignificantȱDomainȱIgnoredȱForȱTooȱLongȱbyȱModernȱResearch? . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.ȱCriticalȱInquiry:ȱTheȱRelevanceȱofȱRuralȱSpace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.ȱNaturalȱSpaceȱandȱtheȱMedievalȱEncyclopedia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.ȱTheȱSpatialȱTurnȱinȱMedievalȱandȱPremodernȱStudies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.ȱRuralȱSpaceȱandȱEcocriticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.ȱSpaceȱandȱHistoricalȬLiteraryȱInvestigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.ȱPerceptionȱofȱRuralȱSpaceȱinȱTheȱVoyageȱofȱSt.ȱBrendan:
AnȱEarlyȬMedievalȱVoiceȱ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
7.ȱNatureȱinȱaȱSpanishȱMedievalȱEpicȱPoem:ȱ
ElȱPoemaȱdeȱMíoȱCid:ȱHumanȱDramaȱinȱtheȱWilderness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
8.ȱTheȱMountainȱinȱtheȱArtȱandȱLiteratureȱofȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ
andȱtheȱEarlyȱModernȱAge:ȱ
TheȱMostȱMassiveȱChallengeȱinȱNature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
9.ȱClimbingȱtheȱMountain,ȱorȱAscendingȱtoȱtheȱRenaissance?
FrancesoȱPetrarca’sȱReflectionsȱonȱNature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
10.ȱOswaldȱvonȱWolkenstein:ȱTheȱAristocratȱversusȱtheȱPeasant
SecretȱLongingȱforȱLifeȱinȱRuralȱSpace? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
11.ȱTheȱPerceptionȱofȱtheȱNaturalȱWorld:ȱTheȱTestimonyȱofȱ
MedievalȱCourtlyȱLiterature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
12.ȱȱGrowingȱupȱinȱtheȱWilderness:ȱYouthfulȱExperiencesȱinȱ
theȱForest:ȱPerceval/ParzivalȱinȱtheȱRomancesȱbyȱChrétienȱ
deȱTroyeȱandȱWolframȱvonȱEschenbach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
13.ȱOminousȱApproaches:ȱWolframȱvonȱEschenbach’sȱTiturel:ȱ
SeekingȱRefugeȱfromȱSocietyȱinȱtheȱForest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
14.ȱNatureȱandȱtheȱCourtlyȱWorld:ȱLiteraryȱReflectionsȱonȱRuralȱ
SpaceȱinȱHighȱMedievalȱLiterature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
15.ȱTheȱProtagonist’sȱExistentialȱTestȱinȱNature:ȱSirȱGawainȱandȱ
theȱGreenȱKnight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
vi TableȱofȱContents
16.ȱLoveȱ(?)ȱinȱtheȱMountains:ȱJuanȱRuiz’sȱLibroȱdeȱbuenȱamor
LateȬMedievalȱSpanishȱReflectionsȱonȱRuralȱSpace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
17.ȱRuralȱSpaceȱinȱLateȬMedievalȱShortȱVerseȱNarratives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
18.ȱTheȱCourt,ȱtheȱCity,ȱandȱtheȱRuralȱSpaceȱinȱBoccaccio’sȱDecameron . . . . . . . 69
19.ȱWilliamȱLangland’sȱPiersȱtheȱPlowman:ȱLateȬMedievalȱEnglishȱ
ReligiousȱandȱSocialȱReflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
20.ȱJohannesȱvonȱTepl’sȱAckermann:ȱAȱGermanȬCzechȱWriter’sȱ
ReferenceȱtoȱtheȱMetaphoricalȱPeasant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
21.ȱHugoȱvonȱTrimberg’sȱRenner:ȱAȱThirteenthȬCenturyȱDidacticȱ
PerspectiveȱTowardȱPeasants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
22.ȱWernherȱderȱGartenære’sȱHelmbrecht:ȱTheȱAttemptedȱBreakȱ
OutȱofȱtheȱSocialȱOrder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
23.ȱTheȱTestimonyȱofȱMedievalȱandȱLateȬMedievalȱArt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
24.ȱPeasants,ȱRuralȱExistence,ȱtheȱProtestantȱReformationȱandȱ
Farmer’sȱSelfȬExpressionȱUntilȱtheȱSeventeenthȱCentury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
25.ȱEconomicȱAspectsȱPertainingȱtoȱRuralȱSpace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
26.ȱHeinrichȱWittenwiler’sȱRing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
27.ȱRuralȱSpaceȱandȱtheȱSupportiveȱPeasantȱFigureȱinȱQueenȱ
Sibilleȱ(ElisabethȱvonȱNassauȬSaarbrücken) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
28.ȱCollaborationȱofȱtheȱGoodȱPeasantȱwithȱtheȱNobleȱLady . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
29.ȱExplorationȱofȱRuralȱSpaceȱinȱSixteenthȬCenturyȱLiterature:
TillȱEulenspiegelȱandȱMargueriteȱdeȱNavarre’sȱHeptaméron . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
30.ȱTheȱTestimonyȱofȱLateȬMedievalȱArtȱOnceȱAgain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
31.ȱAcknowledgmentȱandȱSummariesȱofȱ
AllȱContributionsȱinȱthisȱVolume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
32.ȱConclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Chapterȱ1
KathrynȱL.ȱJasper
ReformingȱtheȱMonasticȱLandscape:ȱPeterȱDamian’sȱDesignȱ
forȱPersonalȱandȱCommunalȱDevotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Chapterȱ2
SherriȱOlsonȱ
Women’sȱPlaceȱandȱWomen’sȱSpaceȱinȱtheȱMedievalȱVillage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Chapterȱ3
ChristopherȱR.ȱClason
“Gebrochenȱbluomenȱundeȱgras”:ȱMedievalȱEcologicalȱConsciousnessȱ
inȱSelectedȱPoemsȱbyȱWaltherȱvonȱderȱVogelweide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
TableȱofȱContents vii
Chapterȱ4
AlbrechtȱClassen
UtopianȱSpaceȱinȱtheȱCountryside:ȱLoveȱandȱMarriageȱbetweenȱaȱKnightȱ
andȱaȱPeasantȱGirlȱinȱMedievalȱGermanȱLiterature.ȱHartmannȱ
vonȱAue’sȱDerȱarmeȱHeinrich,ȱAnonymous,ȱ“Disȱistȱvonȱ
demȱHeselin,”ȱWaltherȱvonȱderȱVogelweide,ȱOswaldȱvonȱ
Wolkenstein,ȱandȱLateȬMedievalȱPopularȱPoetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Chapterȱ5
SarahȱGordon
RuralȱSpaceȱandȱAgriculturalȱSpaceȱinȱtheȱOldȱFrenchȱFabliauxȱ
andȱtheȱRomanȱdeȱRenart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Chapterȱ6
AndrewȱBreeze
Wood,ȱCourt,ȱandȱRiverȱinȱtheȱFourȱBranchesȱofȱtheȱMabinogi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Chapterȱ7
PennyȱSimons
RuralȱSpaceȱandȱTransgressiveȱSpaceȱinȱBérengerȱauȱloncȱcul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Chapterȱ8
DanielȱF.ȱPigg
LifeȱonȱtheȱManorȱandȱinȱRuralȱSpace:ȱAnsweringȱtheȱChallengesȱ
ofȱSocialȱDecayȱinȱWilliamȱLangland’sȱPiersȱPlowman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Chapterȱ9
AbigailȱP.ȱDowling
LandscapeȱofȱLuxuries:ȱMahautȱd’Artois’sȱ(1302–1329)ȱManagementȱ
andȱUseȱofȱtheȱParkȱatȱHesdin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Chapterȱ10
MarilynȱL.ȱSandidge
HuntingȱorȱGardening:ȱParksȱandȱRoyalȱRuralȱSpace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Chapterȱ11
PennyȱSimons
TheȱSignificanceȱofȱRuralȱSpaceȱinȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
viii TableȱofȱContents
Chapterȱ12
Rosa A. Perez
TheȱForestȱasȱLocusȱofȱTransitionȱandȱTransformationȱinȱtheȱEpicȱ
RomanceȱBerteȱausȱgransȱpies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
Chapterȱ13
MariaȱCeciliaȱRuiz
JuanȱManuel’sȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱ(ca.ȱ1325) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
Chapterȱ14
JacquelineȱStuhmiller
HuntingȱasȱSalvationȱinȱGastonȱPhebus’sȱLivreȱdeȱchasse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
Chapterȱ15
AlbrechtȱClassen
RuralȱSpaceȱinȱLateȱMedievalȱBooksȱofȱHours:ȱBookȱIllustrationsȱasȱaȱ
LookingȬGlassȱIntoȱMedievalȱMentalityȱandȱMirrorsȱofȱEcocriticism . . . . . . . 529
Chapterȱ16
LiaȱB.ȱRoss
TheȱTameȱWildernessȱofȱPrinces:ȱImagesȱofȱNatureȱinȱExemplarsȱofȱ
BooksȱofȱHoursȱandȱinȱtheȱLivreȱduȱCœurȱd’amourȱéprisȱofȱKingȱ
RenéȱofȱAnjou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
Chapterȱ17
JeanȱE.ȱJost
MarshyȱSpacesȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱEnglishȱAwntyrsȱoffȱArthureȱatȱtheȱ
TerneȱWathelyne:ȱPhysicalȱandȱSpiritualȱTerritory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
Chapterȱ18
NicolinoȱApplauso
PeasantȱAuthorsȱandȱPeasantȱHaters:ȱMatazoneȱdaȱCaliganoȱandȱtheȱ
AmbiguityȱofȱtheȱSatiraȱdelȱvillanoȱinȱHighȱandȱLateȱMedievalȱItaly . . . . . 607
Chapterȱ19
BirgitȱWiedl
“LazarusȱandȱAbraham,ȱourȱJewsȱofȱEggenburg”:ȱJewsȱinȱtheȱAustrianȱ
CountrysideȱinȱtheȱFourteenthȱCentury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
TableȱofȱContents ix
Chapterȱ20
EvelineȱBrugger
SmallȱTown,ȱBigȱBusiness:ȱAȱWealthyȱJewishȱMoneylenderȱinȱtheȱ
AustrianȱCountryside . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673
Chapterȱ21
ScottȱL.ȱTaylor
Usosȱrerumȱrusticarum:ȱȱMalaeȱconsuetudines,ȱmaleȱusosȱlegeȱandȱPeasantȱ
RebellionȱasȱResistanceȱorȱAdaptationȱtoȱLegalȱChange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
Chapterȱ22
SharonȱD.ȱKing
Village People: The Presence of the Rural in Late Medieval French Comedies . . . . 703
Chapterȱ23
ElizabethȱChesneyȱZeguraȱ
UprootedȱTreesȱandȱSlaughteredȱPeasants:ȱTheȱSavagingȱofȱRuralȱSpaceȱ
inȱAriosto’sȱOrlandoȱFuriosoȱ(1532) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
Chapterȱ24
KyleȱDiRoberto
RepresentationsȱofȱtheȱPlowmanȱandȱtheȱProstituteȱinȱPuritanȱandȱ
AntiȬPuritanȱSatire:ȱOrȱtheȱRhetoricȱofȱPlainnessȱandȱtheȱReformationȱ
ofȱtheȱPopularȱinȱtheȱHarveyȱNasheȱQuarrel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755
Chapterȱ25
JessicaȱTvordi
TheȱPoetȱinȱExile:ȱRobertȱHerrickȱandȱtheȱ“loathedȱCountryȬlife” . . . . . . . . . . 795
Chapterȱ26
MarthaȱMoffittȱPeacock
WomenȱatȱtheȱHunt:ȱDevelopingȱaȱGenderedȱLogicȱofȱRuralȱSpaceȱ
inȱtheȱNetherlandishȱVisualȱTradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 819
Chapterȱ27
ThomasȱWillard
“TheȱfreeȱEnjoymentȱofȱtheȱEarth”:ȱGerrardȱWinstanleyȱonȱLandȱReform . . . 865
x TableȱofȱContents
ListȱofȱIllustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 891
Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905
Introduction
AlbrechtȱClassen
(TheȱUniversityȱofȱArizona,ȱTucson)
RuralȱSpaceȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱ
EarlyȱModernȱTimes:ȱAȱSignificantȱDomainȱIgnoredȱFor
TooȱLongȱbyȱModernȱResearch?
1.ȱCriticalȱInquiry:ȱTheȱRelevanceȱofȱRuralȱSpace
Culturalȱandȱliteraryȱhistoriansȱfaceȱaȱcuriousȱproblemȱinȱapproachingȱtheirȱperiod
ofȱinvestigations,ȱwhichȱtheyȱareȱoftenȱratherȱignorantȱof,ȱsinceȱweȱareȱfacingȱa
kindȱofȱfilterȱthroughȱwhichȱweȱreceiveȱtheȱdataȱallowingȱusȱtoȱunderstandȱthe
past.ȱAȱvastȱmajorityȱofȱtexts,ȱimages,ȱsculptures,ȱbuildings,ȱmusicalȱcompositions,
andȱ artȱ worksȱ wereȱ producedȱ forȱ andȱ byȱ membersȱ ofȱ theȱ aristocracyȱ andȱ the
clergy,ȱ althoughȱ theyȱ constitutedȱ atȱ mostȱ onlyȱ fiveȱ percentȱ ofȱ theȱ entire
population.ȱThisȱchangedȱquiteȱaȱbitȱbyȱtheȱlateȱMiddleȱAgesȱwhenȱtheȱworldȱof
urbanȱcentersȱgainedȱtremendouslyȱinȱinfluence,ȱbutȱcityȱdwellersȱtendedȱvery
muchȱtoȱimitateȱaristocraticȱculture,ȱthatȱis,ȱtheyȱacculturatedȱthemselvesȱtoȱthe
worldȱofȱtheȱcourts,ȱthoughȱtheyȱcertainlyȱpursuedȱtheirȱownȱpolitical,ȱeconomic,
andȱideologicalȱinterests.ȱTournamentsȱwereȱheldȱinȱlateȬmedievalȱcities,ȱbankers
boughtȱ castlesȱ fromȱ impoverishedȱ noblesȱ andȱ restoredȱ themȱ toȱ theirȱ previous
glory,ȱandȱthenȱlivedȱinȱthoseȱaristocraticȱspacesȱtryingȱhardȱtoȱcopyȱtheȱtraditional
valuesȱandȱidealsȱforȱtheirȱownȱpurposes—see,ȱforȱinstance,ȱCastleȱRunkelstein
outsideȱofȱBozenȱinȱSouthȱTyrol,ȱtodayȱnorthernȱItaly.1ȱ
1
Helmutȱ Stampfer,ȱ “Dasȱ Bildȱ desȱ Adelsȱ inȱ derȱ Tirolerȱ Wandmalereiȱ zurȱ Zeitȱ Oswaldsȱ von
Wolkenstein,”ȱOswaldȱvonȱWolkenstein:ȱLebenȱ–ȱWerkȱ–ȱRezeption,ȱed.ȱUlrichȱMüllerȱandȱMargarete
Springethȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱDeȱGruyter,ȱ2011),ȱ109–19.
2 AlbrechtȱClassen
Theȱoriginȱofȱmostȱmedievalȱcitiesȱgoesȱbackȱatȱleastȱtoȱtheȱeleventhȱcentury,ȱand
consideringȱtheȱsurvivalȱofȱmanyȱancientȱRomanȱcitiesȱintoȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱwe
canȱevenȱpointȱtoȱcontinuousȱtraditionsȱspanningȱthousandsȱofȱyears.ȱPremodern
cities,ȱ asȱ weȱ thusȱ shouldȱ callȱ themȱ toȱ payȱ attentionȱ toȱ theȱ ongoingȱ historyȱ of
medievalȱcitiesȱthroughȱtheȱfollowingȱcenturiesȱandȱthenȱuntilȱtoday,ȱpreviously
overlooked,ȱhaveȱbyȱnowȱattractedȱasȱmuchȱinterestȱbyȱmodernȱscholarsȱasȱthe
worldȱofȱtheȱcourtsȱandȱtheȱmedievalȱChurchȱatȱlarge.2ȱ
Byȱtheȱsameȱtoken,ȱneitherȱtheȱruralȱpopulationȱnorȱtheȱvillage,ȱneitherȱrural
space,ȱincludingȱtheȱforest,ȱtheȱpastureȱorȱmeadow,ȱtheȱmountains,ȱnorȱbodiesȱof
waterȱeverȱseemȱtoȱhaveȱarousedȱmuchȱinterest,ȱatȱleastȱnotȱuntilȱca.ȱ1800ȱinȱthe
wakeȱofȱRomanticism,ȱifȱweȱbelieveȱwhatȱtheȱmajorityȱofȱresearchȱofȱtheȱMiddle
Agesȱ andȱ theȱ earlyȱ modernȱ ageȱ seemsȱ toȱ indicate.ȱ However,ȱ andȱ quite
significantly,ȱweȱcanȱobserveȱaȱconsiderableȱchangeȱinȱthatȱregardȱandȱvirtuallyȱon
allȱfronts,ȱbothȱinȱtheȱstudyȱofȱliteratureȱandȱtheȱarts,ȱandȱthenȱalsoȱamongȱscholars
inȱ theȱ fieldsȱ ofȱ premodernȱ cultureȱ andȱ history.ȱ Nevertheless,ȱ mostȱ recent
contributionsȱ toȱ thisȱ largeȱ andȱ yetȱ stillȱ mostlyȱ uncharteredȱ terrainȱ content
themselvesȱwithȱtheȱdiscussionȱofȱ‘environmentȱinȱsocial,ȱeconomic,ȱagricultural,
andȱtechnicalȱterms.3ȱ
Asȱaȱconsequenceȱofȱtheȱ‘spatialȱturn’ȱ(seeȱbelow),ȱtodayȱweȱareȱprobingȱmuch
moreȱthanȱeverȱbeforeȱtheȱissueȱofȱruralȱspaceȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱearly
modernȱ age,ȱ andȱ thisȱ bothȱ inȱ theoreticalȱ andȱ inȱ philological,ȱ artȬhistorical,
philosophical,ȱsocialȬeconomic,ȱandȱbiologicalȬscientificȱterms.4ȱWeȱwouldȱbeȱwell
2
SeeȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱUrbanȱSpaceȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱEarlyȱModernȱAge,ȱed.ȱAlbrecht
Classen.ȱFundamentalsȱofȱMedievalȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱCulture,ȱ4ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱWalter
deȱ Gruyter,ȱ 2009).ȱ Iȱ haveȱ engagedȱ withȱ theȱ richȱ historyȱ ofȱ scholarshipȱ onȱ thisȱ topicȱ inȱ my
introductionȱthere.ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱStädtischeȱRäumeȱimȱMittelalter,ȱed.ȱSusanneȱErisch
andȱJörgȱObersteȱ(Regensburg:ȱSchnellȱ&ȱSteiner,ȱ2009).
3
TheȱcontributorsȱtoȱUmweltȱundȱHerrschaftȱinȱderȱGeschichte:ȱEnvironnnementȱetȱpouvoir:ȱuneȱapproche
historique,ȱ ed.ȱ Françoisȱ DuceppeȬLamarreȱ andȱ Jensȱ Ivoȱ Engels.ȱ Ateliersȱ desȱ Deutschen
HistorischenȱInstitutsȱParis,ȱ2ȱ(Munich:ȱR.ȱOldenbourg,ȱ2008),ȱgenerallyȱdiscussȱwhatȱresearchȱhas
beenȱcarriedȱout,ȱbutȱdoȱnotȱyetȱengageȱwithȱtheȱmentalȬhistoricalȱandȱsocialȬhistoricalȱrealities
ofȱruralȱspaceȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges.
4
Utaȱ StörmerȬCaysa,ȱ Grundstrukturenȱ mittelalterlicherȱ Erzählungen:ȱ Raumȱ undȱ Zeitȱ imȱ höfischen
Roman.ȱdeȱGruyterȱStudienbuchȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱWalterȱdeȱGruyter,ȱ2007),ȱdiscussesȱthe
philosophicalȱapproachȱtoȱspaceȱinȱantiquityȱ(Aristotle)ȱandȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱ34–63,ȱetȱpassim,
andȱthenȱprobesȱhowȱmedievalȱpoetsȱreflectedȱtheirȱspaceȱmodalities.ȱSheȱdiscounts,ȱhowever,ȱthe
awarenessȱofȱruralȱspaceȱatȱthatȱ timeȱ tooȱmuch,ȱwhenȱsheȱclaims:ȱ“EineȱLandkarteȱunterȱdie
BewegungenȱdesȱHeldenȱzuȱlegenȱmachtȱnichtȱvielȱSinn,ȱdennȱdieȱgeographischenȱNamenȱsind
insȱUnwirklicheȱentrückt,ȱinȱdieȱNachbarschaftȱvonȱAvalon”ȱ(47;ȱtoȱutilizeȱaȱmapȱtoȱtraceȱthe
heroes’ȱmovementsȱdoesȱnotȱmakeȱmuchȱsenseȱbecauseȱtheȱgeographicalȱnamesȱareȱremovedȱinto
theȱsphereȱofȱtheȱunreal,ȱinȱtheȱneighborhoodȱofȱAvalon).ȱFromȱaȱgenerallyȱstructuralȱpointȱof
viewȱweȱcouldȱsupportȱStörmerȬCaysa’sȱperspectives,ȱbutȱthereȱareȱmanyȱmoreȱdimensionsȱin
ruralȱspaceȱthanȱsheȱmightȱhaveȱimagined.ȱThisȱvolumeȱwillȱtryȱtoȱcounterȬbalanceȱherȱapproach,
andȱthatȱofȱmanyȱofȱherȱsources.
Introduction 3
advisedȱtoȱpayȱheedȱtoȱhowȱNoelȱCastreeȱdefinesȱspace,ȱwhoȱemphasizesȱthatȱ‘the
termȱ placeȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ derivesȱ itsȱ character,ȱ inȱ part,ȱ fromȱ itsȱ willingȱ orȱ unwilling
engagementȱwithȱsomethingȱ‘bigger’ȱorȱ‘wider’ȱthanȱitself.”5ȱTheȱcontextȱmatters
aȱlot,ȱandȱhenceȱtheȱlargerȱframework,ȱespeciallyȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱtheȱhistoryȱof
mentality.ȱTheȱpresentȱvolumeȱwantsȱtoȱpushȱthisȱissueȱfurtherȱasȱmuchȱasȱpossible
andȱtoȱsetȱnewȱstandardsȱatȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱbringingȱtoȱlightȱaȱhostȱofȱnewȱcritical
dimensionsȱinȱtheȱexplorationȱofȱmedievalȱandȱearlyȬmodernȱhistoryȱofȱmentality,
artȱhistory,ȱsocialȱhistory,ȱandȱliteraryȱhistory.6ȱ
Oneȱfascinating,ȱmaybeȱatȱfirstȱunexpectedȱyetȱhighlyȱilluminating,ȱexampleȱof
howȱcomplexȱtheȱsituationȱhadȱbeenȱinȱtermsȱofȱpoliticalȱstructuresȱandȱeconomic
control,ȱforcingȱusȱtoȱconceiveȱofȱspaceȱinȱaȱvarietyȱofȱapproaches,ȱwouldȱbeȱthe
worldȱofȱtheȱLombardȱplainsȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges.ȱWhileȱtraditionallyȱartȱhistorians
andȱurbanȱhistoriansȱhaveȱstronglyȱsuggestedȱthatȱtheȱmajorȱchangesȱinȱtheȱtwelfth
andȱthirteenthȱcenturiesȱtransformingȱnorthernȱItalyȱduringȱtheȱthirteenthȱand
fourteenthȱ centuriesȱ wereȱ primarilyȱ influencedȱ byȱ theȱ riseȱ ofȱ theȱ bourgeois,
merchantȱclass,ȱtheȱoppositeȱnowȱseemsȱtoȱhaveȱbeenȱtheȱcase,ȱatȱleastȱthere.ȱNot
thatȱ weȱ wouldȱ haveȱ toȱ assumeȱ thatȱ theȱ peasantȱ populationȱ dominatedȱ inȱ that
region,ȱ butȱ asȱ itȱ hasȱ becomeȱ veryȱ clearȱ byȱ now,ȱ theȱ Lombardȱ plainsȱ wereȱ not
simplyȱcontrolledȱbyȱrisingȱcitiesȱdottingȱtheȱlandscape,ȱbutȱbyȱtheȱaffluentȱand
independentȱlandedȱnobility.7ȱ
5
NoelȱCastree,ȱ“DifferentialȱGeographies:ȱPlace,ȱIndigenousȱRightsȱandȱ‘LocalȱResources,”ȱPolitical
Geographyȱ23ȱ(Feb.ȱ2004):ȱ133–67;ȱhereȱ138ȱn.ȱ7.
6
Forȱsomeȱpreliminaryȱandȱfoundationalȱresearch,ȱseeȱGüntherȱE.ȱThiery,ȱ“Natur/Umwelt:ȱAntike”
(641–48);ȱHarryȱKühnel,ȱtogetherȱwithȱPeterȱDinzelbacher,ȱ“ȱNatur/Umwelt:ȱMittelalter”ȱ(648–68);
RolfȱP.ȱSieferle,”ȱ“Natur/Umwelt:ȱNeuzeit”ȱ(668–80),ȱEuropäischeȱMentalitätsgeschichte:ȱHauptthemen
inȱ Einzeldarstellungen,ȱ ed.ȱ Peterȱ Dinzelbacher.ȱ 2ndȱ revisedȱ andȱ expandedȱ edition.ȱ Kröners
Taschenausgabe,ȱ469ȱ(1993;ȱStuttgart:ȱKröner,ȱ2008).ȱInȱlightȱofȱmyȱpresentȱunderstandingȱIȱwould
haveȱcertainlyȱincludedȱtheȱtopicȱofȱ‘nature’ȱorȱ‘ruralȱspace’ȱinȱtheȱHandbookȱofȱMedievalȱStudies,
ed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassen.ȱ3ȱvols.ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱDeȱGruyter,ȱ2010),ȱbutȱthereȱwereȱsimply
limitationsȱ evenȱ forȱ thatȱ gargantuanȱ referenceȱ work.ȱ Theȱ newȱ project,ȱ Handbookȱ ofȱ Medieval
Culture,ȱwhichȱIȱamȱalsoȱeditingȱforȱDeȱGruyterȱatȱtheȱmoment,ȱwillȱincludeȱaȱnumberȱofȱentries
onȱanimals,ȱfish,ȱandȱbirds,ȱthenȱonȱpoorȱandȱrich,ȱandȱfinallyȱonȱtheȱruralȱworldȱandȱpeasants.
7
CarloȱBertelli,ȱLombardiaȱmedievale:ȱarteȱeȱarchitettura.ȱConȱsaggiȱdiȱMariaȱTeresaȱDonatȱetȱal.ȱ(Milan:
Skira,ȱ2002);ȱforȱaȱ contrastiveȱview,ȱseeȱnowȱAreliȱMarina,ȱ“MagnificentȱArchitectureȱinȱLate
MedievalȱItaly,”ȱMagnificenceȱandȱtheȱSublimeȱinȱMedievalȱAesthetics:ȱArt,ȱArchitecture,ȱLiterature,
Music,ȱed.ȱC.ȱStephenȱJaeger.ȱTheȱNewȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(Houndmills,ȱBasingstoke,ȱHampshire,ȱand
London:ȱPalgraveȱMacmillan,ȱ2010),ȱ193–214;ȱIȱwillȱreturnȱtoȱtheȱtopicȱaddressedȱinȱherȱarticle
laterȱ inȱ thisȱ Introduction.ȱ Itȱ has,ȱ however,ȱ alwaysȱ beenȱ easierȱ toȱ turnȱ one’sȱ attentionȱ toȱ city
development,ȱchurchȱbuildings,ȱtheȱcourts,ȱandȱcastlesȱthanȱtoȱtheȱruralȱcommunity,ȱtheȱvillage,
orȱtheȱcountrysideȱbecauseȱtheyȱdoȱnotȱspeakȱasȱloudlyȱasȱtheȱotherȱspaces.ȱNevertheless,ȱrecent
researchȱhasȱbegunȱtoȱturnȱitsȱattentionȱevenȱtoȱtheȱeconomicȱconditionsȱinȱruralȱcommunities;ȱsee
Hannesȱ Obermair,ȱ andȱ Volkerȱ Stamm,ȱ Zurȱ Ökonomieȱ einerȱ ländlichenȱ Pfarrgemeindeȱ im
Spätmittelalter:ȱ Dasȱ Rechnungsbuchȱ derȱ Marienpfarrkircheȱ Griesȱ (Bozen)ȱ vonȱ 1422ȱ bisȱ 1440.
Veröffentlichungenȱ desȱ südtirolerȱ Landesarchivsȱ pubblicazioniȱ dellȇarchivoȱ provincialeȱ di
4 AlbrechtȱClassen
AsȱNicolinoȱApplausoȱobservesȱinȱaȱpersonalȱcommentȱtoȱme:ȱ“Aȱgoodȱexample
ofȱthisȱcanȱbeȱfoundȱinȱ[theȱcaseȱof]ȱtheȱcityȱofȱMassaȱLombarda,ȱnearȱBologna.ȱI
wasȱthereȱthisȱsummerȱandȱconsultedȱtheȱ1250ȱdeedȱthatȱratifiedȱtheȱboundaries
forȱeachȱcultivableȱsiteȱestablishedȱforȱtheȱ87ȱpeasantȱfamiliesȱ(andȱgrantedȱthem
considerableȱautonomy).ȱEachȱfamilyȱunitȱmovedȱtoȱundevelopedȱareasȱfromȱthe
Lombardȱ region.ȱ Theyȱ wereȱ obviouslyȱ professionalȱ cultivatorsȱ becauseȱ their
communitiesȱflourished.ȱInȱnorthernȱItalyȱnumerousȱmembersȱfromȱtheȱpeasant
communityȱareȱtheȱonesȱwhoȱinitiallyȱcreatedȱwhatȱbecameȱlaterȱsuccessfulȱurban
centers.”8ȱAȱsimilarȱcaseȱisȱalsoȱnoticeableȱinȱtheȱregionsȱofȱLatiumȱandȱTuscany
whereȱruralȱsettlementsȱeventuallyȱbecameȱimportantȱurbanȱcentersȱlikeȱCerveteri
andȱVulci.9ȱFourteenthȬcenturyȱFlorence,ȱSiena,ȱandȱotherȱprominentȱNorthern
Italianȱcomuniȱseemȱtoȱhaveȱforgottenȱtheirȱpeasantȱoriginsȱwhenȱtheyȱwroteȱtheir
respectiveȱchronicles,ȱboastingȱtheirȱRomanȱaristocraticȱancestryȱ(seeȱtheȱChronicle
byȱVillani,ȱandȱDanteȱasȱwell).10ȱ
Weȱcanȱnowȱalsoȱaddȱtheȱpresenceȱofȱaȱnumberȱofȱsignificantȱruralȱtownsȱand
otherȱ settlementsȱ (civitates)ȱ thatȱ enjoyedȱ considerableȱ influenceȱ evenȱ onȱ the
Lombardȱ Leagueȱ andȱ wereȱ treatedȱ asȱ independentȱ entitiesȱ worthyȱ ofȱ public
respect.ȱ Butȱ inȱ theȱ courseȱ ofȱ timeȱ theȱ majorȱ citiesȱ suchȱ asȱ Milanȱ capturedȱ the
absoluteȱhegemonyȱoverȱtheirȱentireȱterritoryȱsurroundingȱthem,ȱwhichȱmadeȱthe
smallȱruralȱtownsȱmostlyȱdisappearȱfromȱtheȱrecordsȱbyȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱtwelfth
century.11
Bolzanoȱ(Bozen:ȱȱAthesiadruck,ȱ2011).
8
ApplausoȱinȱanȱemailȱtoȱAlbrechtȱClassen,ȱOctoberȱ2011.ȱSeeȱMarioȱTabanelli,ȱQuestaȱeъȱlaȱMassa:
StoriaȱeȱcronacheȱdellaȱMassaȱdeiȱLombardiȱdalleȱoriginiȱalȱ1578.ȱMemorieȱdiȱRomagnaȱ(Faenza:ȱFratelli
Lega,ȱ1972).ȱ
9
MauroȱCristofani,ȱTheȱEtruscans:ȱAȱNewȱInvestigation,ȱtrans.ȱBrianȱPhillipsȱ(NewȱYork:ȱGalahad
Books,ȱ1979).ȱMauroȱCristofaniȱexplainsȱtheȱtransitionȱfromȱruralȱsettlementsȱtoȱresidentialȱcenters
inȱtheȱsouthernȱEtruscanȱterritoryȱbyȱevokingȱPlato’sȱLawsȱ(III,ȱ680–81)ȱandȱproposingȱthatȱinȱninth
centuryȱB.C.ȱ“groupsȱofȱmenȱcameȱdownȱfromȱtheȱmountainsȱandȱsettledȱinȱtheȱcountryȬside
below,ȱ erectingȱ woodenȱ fencedȱ asȱ aȱ protectionȱ againstȱ wildȱ animalsȱ andȱ buildingȱ aȱ large
communalȱdwelling”ȱ(17).ȱȱMoreȱinformationȱonȱtheȱruralȱoriginȱofȱTuscanyȱcanȱbeȱalsoȱfoundȱin
Etruria,ȱTuscia,ȱToscana:ȱLȱȇidentitaȱdiȱunaȱregioneȱattraversoȱiȱsecoli,ȱed.ȱMicheleȱLuzzati.ȱVol.ȱ1.ȱ(Pisa:
PaciniȱEditore,ȱ1992.).
10
Giovanniȱ Villani,ȱ “Cronicaȱ diȱ Giovanniȱ Villani.”ȱ Cronicheȱ diȱ Giovanni,ȱ Matteoȱ eȱ Filippoȱ Villani
secondoȱ leȱ miglioriȱ stampeȱ eȱ corredateȱ diȱ noteȱ filologicheȱ eȱ storiche:ȱ testoȱ diȱ lingua,.ȱ Vol.ȱ 1.ȱ (Trieste:
TipografiaȱdelȱLioydȱAustriaco,ȱ1857),ȱ7–597.ȱThisȱinformationȱdatesȱfromȱseveralȱpersonalȱemails
(Dec.ȱ3ȱandȱ13,ȱ2011)ȱandȱisȱbasedȱonȱhisȱownȱfindingsȱasȱreflectedȱinȱhisȱcontributionȱtoȱthis
volume.ȱ Iȱ appreciateȱ hisȱ valuableȱ comment.ȱ Applausoȱ himselfȱ refersȱ toȱ Corradoȱ Barberis,ȱ “I
caratteriȱoriginariȱdelȱmondoȱruraleȱitaliano,”ȱTrasformazioniȱdelleȱsocietàȱruraliȱneiȱpaesiȱdell’Europa
occidentaleȱeȱmediterraneaȱ(secoliȱXIX–XX):ȱBilancioȱdegliȱstudiȱeȱprospettiveȱdiȱricerca,ȱedȱPasquale
Villani.ȱGuidaȱricerca:ȱstoriaȱ(Naples:ȱGuida,ȱ1986),ȱ269–88.
11
GianlucaȱRaccagni,ȱTheȱLombardȱLeagueȱ1167–1125ȱ(OxfordȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱOxfordȱUniversity
Press,ȱ2010),ȱ65–67.
Introduction 5
Notȱsurprisingly,ȱapartȱfromȱtheȱgrowthȱofȱmanyȱnewȱurbanȱcentersȱtheȱrural
developmentȱ alsoȱ becomesȱ aȱ majorȱ factorȱ duringȱ theȱ twelfthȱ century,ȱ which
modernȱresearchȱhasȱtendedȱtoȱignoreȱforȱmuchȱtooȱlongȱinȱfavorȱofȱitsȱsometimes
almostȱexclusiveȱfocusȱonȱtheȱexcitementȱwhichȱfourteenthȬȱandȱfifteenthȬcentury
urbanȱ cultureȱ inȱ Italy,ȱ commonlyȱ identifiedȱ withȱ theȱ Renaissance,ȱ exertsȱ until
today.12
Inȱotherȱwords,ȱtheȱtrueȱpowerȱstructuresȱthroughoutȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱin
theȱearlyȱmodernȱage,ȱandȱhenceȱalsoȱtheȱperceptionȱofȱandȱdealingȱwithȱspace,
alwaysȱ dependedȱ onȱ specificȱ localȱ conditions,ȱ evenȱ thoughȱ feudalismȱ wasȱ the
paradigmaticȱ conceptȱ determiningȱ mostȱ Europeanȱ countries,ȱ withȱ theȱ notable
exceptionȱofȱIcelandȱandȱSwitzerland,ȱtoȱsomeȱextent.13ȱInȱIceland,ȱforȱinstance,ȱno
oneȱindividual,ȱorȱoneȱfamilyȱhasȱeverȱhadȱsufficientȱpowerȱtoȱcontrolȱtheȱentire
island,ȱbutȱsoonȱenoughȱinȱtheȱtenthȱcenturyȱaȱgroupȱofȱca.ȱthirtyȬsixȱchieftaincies,
goðorð,ȱemerged,ȱeachȱheadedȱbyȱoneȱorȱmoreȱchieftain,ȱgoðar.ȱOnlyȱinȱtheȱtwelfth
centuryȱdidȱaȱmoreȱcentralizedȱgovernmentȱform,ȱpredicatedȱonȱRiki,ȱaȱterritorial
lordship,ȱ andȱ henceȱ aȱ typeȱ ofȱ aristocracy,ȱ whichȱ fromȱ thenȱ onȱ increasingly
accumulatedȱpowerȱinȱitsȱownȱhands.ȱThingsȱthenȱchangedȱquiteȱradicallyȱinȱthe
thirteenthȱcenturyȱwhenȱtheȱNorwegianȱkingȱmanagedȱtoȱinterveneȱandȱtoȱassume
aȱcentralȱpositionȱinȱIcelandicȱpolitics,ȱwhichȱfoundȱitsȱmostȱvividȱexpressionȱin
IcelandȱswearingȱtoȱtheȱNorwegianȱkingȱtheirȱloyalty,ȱandȱpledgingȱtoȱbecomeȱa
tributaryȱcountry.ȱInȱfact,ȱtheȱchieftainsȱbecameȱtheȱking’sȱmenȱandȱcarriedȱoutȱhis
orders.14ȱ
Aȱ similarlyȱ complexȱ historicalȱ developmentȱ canȱ beȱ observedȱ inȱ Switzerland
whereȱ theȱ ruralȱ populationȱ hasȱ alwaysȱ enjoyedȱ strongȱ respect,15ȱ andȱ weȱ can
12
LuisaȱChiappaȱMauri,ȱContadoȱeȱcittàȱinȱdialogo:ȱcomuniȱurbaniȱeȱcomunitàȱruraliȱnellaȱLombardia
medievale.ȱQuaderniȱdiȱAcmeȱ/ȱUniversitàȱdegliȱstudiȱdiȱMilano,ȱFacoltàȱdiȱlettereȱeȱfilosofia,ȱ62
(Milan:ȱCisalpino,ȱ2003);ȱseeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱKathrynȱL.ȱJasper.ȱ
13
See,ȱforȱinstance,ȱGuyȱP.ȱMarchal,ȱSempachȱ1386:ȱVonȱdenȱAnfängenȱdesȱTerritorialstaatesȱLuzern:
BeiträgeȱzurȱFrühgeschichteȱdesȱKantonȱLuzern.ȱMitȱeinerȱStudieȱvonȱWaltraudȱHörsch,ȱ“Adelȱim
BannkreisȱÖsterreichs”ȱ(Basel:ȱHelbingȱ&ȱLichtenhahn,ȱ1986);ȱMattiasȱWeishaupt,ȱBauern,ȱHirten
undȱ“frumeȱedleȱpuren”:ȱBauernȬȱundȱBauernstaatsideologieȱinȱderȱspätmittelalterlichenȱEidgenossenschaft
undȱderȱnationalenȱGeschichtsschreibungȱderȱSchweiz.ȱKulturelleȱVielfaltȱundȱnationaleȱIdentität,
NationalesȱForschungsprogramm,ȱ21ȱ(BaselȱandȱFrankfurtȱa.ȱM.:ȱHelbingȱ&ȱLichtenhahn,ȱ1992);
DieterȱFahrni,ȱSchweizerȱGeschichte:ȱEinȱhistorischerȱAbrißȱvonȱdenȱAnfängenȱbisȱzurȱGegenwart.ȱ5th
ed.ȱ (1982;ȱ Zürich:ȱ Proȱ Helvetia,ȱ 1991);ȱ T.ȱ K.ȱ Derry,ȱ Aȱ Historyȱ ofȱ Scandinavia:ȱ Norway,ȱ Sweden,
Denmark,ȱFinland,ȱandȱIcelandȱ(Minneapolis:ȱUniversityȱofȱMinnesotaȱPress,ȱ1979);ȱJesseȱLȱByock,
VikingȱAgeȱIcelandȱ(London:ȱPenguin,ȱ2001).
14
Forȱfurtherȱdetails,ȱseeȱMagnúsȱStefánsson,ȱ“Iceland,”ȱMedievalȱScandinavia:ȱAnȱEncyclopedia,ȱed.
PhillipȱPulsianoȱandȱKirstenȱWolfȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱLondon:ȱGarlandȱPublishing,ȱ1993),ȱ311–19,
withȱanȱextensiveȱbibliography.
15
WalterȱDrack,ȱIllustrierteȱGeschichteȱderȱSchweiz.ȱ3ȱvols.ȱ([Einsiedeln]ȱBenziger,ȱ1958–1999);ȱMartin
Kistler,ȱEinungȱundȱEidgenossenschaft:ȱdieȱVerfassungȱderȱvorderösterreichischenȱGrafschaftȱHauenstein
imȱVergleichȱmitȱderȱEntwicklungȱundȱdenȱVerfassungenȱderȱGründungsorteȱderȱEidgenossenschaft.ȱBasler
6 AlbrechtȱClassen
certainlyȱfindȱotherȱregionsȱinȱmedievalȱEuropeȱwhereȱtheȱriseȱofȱtheȱaristocracy
wasȱ notȱ soȱ rapidȱ asȱ inȱ Germany,ȱ France,ȱ orȱ England,ȱ andȱ whereȱ theȱ rural
populationȱcontinuedȱtoȱenjoyȱconsiderableȱinfluenceȱoverȱtheȱcenturies.16
Whileȱ ‘ruralȱ space’ȱ constitutesȱ oneȱ particularȱ aspect,ȱ Medievalȱ andȱ Early
ModernȱStudiesȱhaveȱrecentlyȱrecognizedȱthatȱ‘environment’ȱatȱlargeȱconstitutes
aȱ significantȱ componentȱ andȱ deservesȱ muchȱ moreȱ attentionȱ thanȱ inȱ theȱ past.
However,ȱ despiteȱ someȱ preliminaryȱ investigations,ȱ andȱ disregardingȱ aȱ good
numberȱofȱcriticalȱstudiesȱfocusedȱonȱspatialȱaspectsȱdealingȱwithȱ‘environment’
avantȱlaȱlettre,ȱtheȱruralȱworldȱasȱperceivedȱandȱinteractedȱwithȱinȱtheȱpremodern
worldȱstillȱawaitsȱitsȱcomprehensiveȱexamination.ȱThisȱvolumeȱhopesȱtoȱlayȱmore
ofȱtheȱnecessaryȱfoundationsȱandȱtoȱshedȱlightȱonȱaȱvastȱvarietyȱofȱrelevantȱaspects,
focusing,ȱaboveȱall,ȱonȱtheȱruralȱinȱspecificȱcontrastȱtoȱtheȱurban.17
Inȱlightȱofȱthatȱobservation,ȱkeepingȱespeciallyȱculturalȬhistoricalȱdocumentsȱin
mindȱreflectingȱonȱsocialȬeconomicȱconditions,ȱweȱareȱimmediatelyȱalertedȱtoȱthe
curiousȱ butȱ mostȱ significantȱ phenomenonȱ thatȱ weȱ cannotȱ simplyȱ focusȱ onȱ the
StudienȱzurȱRechtswissenschaft,ȱBȱ74ȱ(Basel,ȱMunich,ȱetȱal.:ȱHelbingȱ&ȱLichtenhahn,ȱ2006);ȱseeȱalso
theȱcontributionsȱtoȱDieȱBauernȱinȱderȱGeschichteȱderȱSchweiz,ȱed.ȱAlbertȱTannerȱandȱAnneȬLise
HeadȬKönig.ȱ Schweizerischeȱ Gesellschaftȱ fürȱ WirtschaftsȬȱ undȱ Sozialgeschichte,ȱ 10ȱ (Basel:
Chronos,ȱ1992).
16
Michaelȱ Toch,ȱ Peasantsȱ andȱ Jewsȱ inȱ Medievalȱ Germany:ȱ Studiesȱ inȱ Cultural,ȱ Social,ȱ andȱ Economic
History.ȱCollectedȱStudiesȱ(Aldershot,ȱHampshire,ȱEngland;ȱBurlington,ȱVT:ȱAshgate,ȱ2003).ȱFor
aȱglobalȱoverview,ȱseeȱTheȱCambridgeȱEconomicȱHistoryȱofȱEurope,ȱgeneralȱeditorsȱM.ȱM.ȱPostanȱand
H.ȱJ.ȱHabakkuk.ȱ2ndȱed.ȱ8vols.ȱSinceȱvol.ȱVII,ȱD.ȱC.ȱColemanȱwasȱcoȬeditorȱ(1941–1952;ȱCambridge:
CambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1966–1989).ȱHereȱcannotȱbeȱtheȱspaceȱtoȱengageȱwithȱtheȱvirtually
endlessȱspectrumȱofȱagrarianȱhistoryȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges.ȱAfterȱall,ȱeachȱregionȱinȱmedievalȱand
earlyȱ modernȱ Europeȱ underwentȱ differentȱ developments,ȱ dependingȱ onȱ social,ȱ economic,
political,ȱ climatic,ȱ andȱ soȱ alsoȱ religiousȱ andȱ ideologicalȱ conditions.ȱ Inȱ someȱ areasȱ slavery
continuedȱforȱaȱlongȱtime,ȱfarȱintoȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱinȱothersȱserfdomȱquicklyȱprovedȱtoȱbeȱless
efficient,ȱwhileȱfeudalȱcontractsȱcouldȱserveȱtheȱoverarchingȱpurposesȱmuchȱbetter.ȱVol.ȱ1ȱofȱthe
Cambridgeȱ Economicȱ Historyȱ (1941ȱ [seeȱ noteȱ 16])ȱ covers,ȱ forȱ instance,ȱ theȱ followingȱ topics:ȱ the
settlementȱandȱcolonizationȱofȱEuropeȱ(RichardȱKoebner),ȱagricultureȱandȱruralȱlifeȱinȱtheȱlater
RomanȱEmpireȱ(CourtenayȱEdwardȱStevens),ȱtheȱevolutionȱofȱagriculturalȱtechnologyȱ(Charles
Parain),ȱagrarianȱinstitutionsȱofȱtheȱGermanicȱkingdomsȱfromȱtheȱfifthȱtoȱtheȱninthȱcenturyȱ(Alfons
Dopsch),ȱagrarianȱconditionsȱinȱtheȱByzantineȱEmpireȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(GeorgȱOstrogorsey),
theȱriseȱofȱdependentȱcultivationȱandȱseigniorialȱinstitutionsȱ(MarcȱBloch),ȱMedievalȱagrarian
societyȱinȱitsȱprime:ȱFranceȱ(FrançoisȱLouisȱGanshof),ȱItalyȱ(GunnarȱMickwith),ȱSpainȱ(RobertȱS.
Smith),ȱtheȱlandsȱeastȱofȱtheȱElbeȱandȱGermanȱcolonizationȱeastwardsȱ(HermannȱAubin),ȱPoland,
Lithuania,ȱ andȱ Hungaryȱ (Janȱ Rutkowski),ȱ Russiaȱ (Peterȱ Struve),ȱ Englandȱ (Nellieȱ Neilson),
Scandinaviaȱ(StoreȱBolin),ȱandȱmedievalȱagrarianȱsocietyȱinȱtransitionȱ(HansȱNabholz).
17
Forȱaȱrecentȱsurveyȱofȱenvironmentalȱaspects,ȱseeȱGerritȱJasperȱSchenk,ȱ“DerȱMenschȱzwischen
NaturȱundȱKultur:ȱAufȱderȱSucheȱnachȱeinerȱUmweltgeschichtsschreibungȱinȱderȱdeutschsprachiȬ
genȱMediävistikȱ–ȱeineȱSkizze,”ȱUmweltȱundȱHerrschaftȱinȱderȱGeschichteȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ27–51.ȱUrban
spaceȱasȱanȱentityȱbyȱitselfȱremainsȱexcludedȱhereȱbecauseȱweȱhaveȱworkedȱonȱthisȱtopicȱalready
inȱtheȱvolumeȱUrbanȱSpaceȱ(seeȱnoteȱ2).
Introduction 7
courtlyȱworldȱalone,ȱorȱbeȱcontentȱwithȱstudyingȱlateȬmedievalȱandȱearlyȬmodern
courtsȱandȱcitiesȱasȱtheȱallȬcommandingȱcentersȱofȱculturalȱandȱeconomicȱactivities.
Toȱ emphasizeȱ theȱ complexityȱ ofȱ medievalȱ andȱ earlyȬmodernȱ socialȱ conditions
wouldȱ beȱ tantamountȱ toȱ carryingȱ coalsȱ toȱ Newscastle.ȱ Nevertheless,ȱ literary
historians,ȱartȱhistorians,ȱsocialȱandȱeconomicȱhistoriansȱhaveȱnotȱyetȱtalkedȱto
eachȱotherȱthoroughlyȱenough,ȱandȱtheȱtopicȱofȱ‘ruralȱspace’ȱtrulyȱinvitesȱcrossȬ
disciplinaryȱinvestigations.ȱToȱbeȱsure,ȱspaceȱitselfȱhasȱbeenȱrecognizedȱasȱaȱvery
importantȱcategoryȱinȱassessingȱmedievalȱandȱearlyȬmodernȱliterature,ȱtheȱarts,
chronicles,ȱandȱmaps,ȱamongȱotherȱmediaȱandȱgenres.ȱButȱtheȱdominantȱapproach
continuesȱtoȱbeȱtoȱfavorȱspaceȱwhereȱknightsȱoperate,ȱarchitectural,ȱinteriorȱspace,
orȱtopicalȱimagesȱofȱspaceȱinȱloveȱpoetry,ȱforȱinstance.18
AsȱmuchȱasȱmedievalȱandȱearlyȬmodernȱaristocracyȱandȱclergyȱmadeȱgreatest
effortsȱtoȱdominateȱallȱfieldsȱofȱcommunication,ȱartȱworks,ȱphilosophy,ȱreligion,
politics,ȱandȱarchitecture,ȱweȱwouldȱfoolȱourselvesȱifȱweȱsimplyȱacceptedȱthose
strongȱimpressions.ȱAfterȱall,ȱtheȱvastȱmajorityȱofȱpremodernȱsocietiesȱlivedȱinȱthe
countryside.ȱ Everyoneȱ dependedȱ onȱ theȱ ruralȱ worldȱ forȱ foodstuff,ȱ andȱ no
individualȱcanȱexistȱwithoutȱtheȱnaturalȱenvironment.ȱPlants,ȱbirds,ȱanimal,ȱand
fishȱareȱallȱintegralȱelementsȱofȱtheȱlargerȱcontextȱofȱhumanity,ȱhenceȱtheȱgreat
needȱtoȱapproachȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱearlyȱmodernȱageȱfromȱthisȱperspective
asȱ well.ȱ Althoughȱ countlessȱ numbersȱ ofȱ modernȱ philosophers,ȱ suchȱ asȱ Hegel,
Nietzsche,ȱHusserlȱorȱRitterȱrepeatedlyȱemphasizedȱthatȱtheȱdiscoveryȱofȱnature
constitutedȱ theȱ (Italian)ȱ Renaissance,ȱ theȱ medievalȱ evidenceȱ doesȱ notȱ really
supportȱ suchȱ aȱ view,ȱ althoughȱ weȱ stillȱ haveȱ toȱ developȱ moreȱ preciseȱ analytic
instrumentsȱandȱperspectivesȱtoȱidentifyȱwhatȱlandscapeȱorȱtheȱagriculturalȱworld
meantȱforȱpeopleȱduringȱtheȱMiddleȱAges.ȱ
Theȱ presentȱ volumeȱ intendsȱ toȱ beȱ aȱ companionȱ pieceȱ toȱ ourȱ previousȱ book
publication,ȱUrbanȱSpaceȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱEarlyȱModernȱAgeȱ(2009),ȱand
18
SeeȱnowȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱProjektionȱ–ȱReflexionȱ–ȱFerne:ȱRäumlicheȱVorstellungenȱundȱDenkfiguren
imȱMittelalter,ȱed.ȱSonjaȱGlauch,ȱSusanneȱKöbele,ȱandȱUtaȱStörmerȬCaysaȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:
DeȱGruyter,ȱ2011).ȱTheȱcentralȱfocusȱrestsȱonȱspaceȱtraversedȱbyȱorȱinhabitedȱbyȱcourtlyȱknights,
suchȱasȱParzivalȱinȱWolframȱvonȱEschenbach’sȱeponymousȱromanceȱ(seeȱtheȱcontributionȱbyȱKarl
Bertau),ȱ orȱ onȱ topicalȱ sceneriesȱ inȱ courtlyȱ loveȱ poetryȱ (seeȱ theȱ contributionȱ byȱ Katharina
Philipowski).ȱ Otherwise,ȱ theȱ usualȱ interestȱ inȱ ‘classical’ȱ citiesȱ suchȱ asȱ Jerusalemȱ (Ingrid
Baumgärtner)ȱorȱNurembergȱ(HorstȱBrunner)ȱdominateȱtheȱcollectionȱofȱstudies.ȱAsȱfarȱasȱrural
spaceȱisȱconcerned,ȱthereȱareȱnoȱnoteworthyȱeffortsȱtoȱexploreȱnewȱthemesȱandȱconcepts;ȱinstead
weȱ learn,ȱ onceȱ again,ȱ aboutȱ theȱ topicalȱ sceneȱ ofȱ theȱ locusȱ amoenusȱ (Dorotheaȱ Klein)ȱ orȱ ofȱ the
relevanceȱofȱroadsȱorȱpathsȱwhichȱtheȱcourtlyȱprotagonistsȱchooseȱ(ElisabethȱSchmid).ȱSimilarly,
BurghartȱWachingerȱrevisitsȱtheȱsameȱtopic,ȱtheȱcorrelationȱofȱnatureȱscenesȱandȱeroticȱloveȱpoetry
inȱhisȱarticleȱ“NaturȱundȱErosȱimȱmittelalterlichenȱLied,”ȱid.,ȱLiederȱundȱLiederbücher.ȱGesammelte
AufsätzeȱzurȱmittelhochdeutschenȱLyrikȱ(BerlinȱundȱNewȱYork:ȱDeȱGruyter,ȱ2011),ȱ67–95.ȱȱHowever,
heȱrightlyȱemphasizesȱthatȱOswaldȱvonȱWolkenstein’sȱuseȱofȱnatureȱimagesȱprovesȱtoȱsomewhat
unusualȱandȱcreative,ȱespeciallyȱhisȱreferencesȱtoȱbirdsȱandȱmushroomsȱinȱorderȱtoȱemphasizeȱthe
eroticȱcomponentȱ(93–95).
8 AlbrechtȱClassen
bothȱbooksȱtogetherȱwillȱset,ȱweȱhope,ȱtheȱrecordȱstraightȱandȱallowȱtheȱmultitude
ofȱotherȱvoices,ȱimages,ȱconcepts,ȱmaterialȱobjects,ȱandȱideasȱthatȱdeterminedȱthe
worldȱ outsideȱ ofȱ theȱ courtȱ andȱ theȱ churchȱ comeȱ toȱ theȱ foregroundȱ asȱ well.
Significantly,ȱweȱjoinȱaȱgrowingȱnumberȱofȱresearchersȱwhoȱhaveȱchallengedȱthe
traditionalȱ approachesȱ andȱ haveȱ increasinglyȱ arguedȱ thatȱ ruralȱ space,ȱ thatȱ is
natureȱinȱtheȱbroadestȱsenseȱofȱtheȱword,ȱwasȱtreatedȱwithȱconsiderableȱrespect,
curiosity,ȱandȱinterest,ȱandȱthisȱalreadyȱinȱtheȱpremodernȱworld.19
TheȱpresentȱIntroductionȱtriesȱtoȱcreateȱaȱbroadȱplatform,ȱfromȱwhichȱthenȱthe
subsequentȱcollectionȱofȱcritical,ȱscholarlyȱarticlesȱcanȱbeȱlaunched.ȱOurȱintentȱwas
toȱbeȱasȱinterdisciplinaryȱasȱpossible,ȱbutȱthereȱareȱalwaysȱlimitsȱtoȱsuchȱgoals.ȱI
admitȱthatȱweȱhaveȱgivenȱliteraryȱhistoryȱperhapsȱmoreȱweightȱthanȱdesirable,ȱbut
thereȱwillȱbeȱenoughȱalternativeȱfieldsȱofȱinvestigationȱthatȱareȱconsideredȱhereȱto
createȱaȱtrulyȱkaleidoscopicȱscenarioȱofȱruralȱspaceȱinȱitsȱmyriadȱofȱmeanings.ȱI
wouldȱhaveȱlikedȱtoȱseeȱcontributionsȱbyȱmusicȱhistorians,ȱeconomicȱhistorians,
andȱarcheologists,ȱnotȱtoȱmentionȱhistoriansȱofȱphilosophy,ȱforȱinstance,ȱbutȱthe
presentȱ anthologyȱ isȱ theȱ bestȱ weȱ couldȱ assemble,ȱ basedȱ onȱ ourȱ longȬtermȱ and
intensiveȱoutreachȱefforts,ȱcallsȱforȱpapers,ȱandȱinternationalȱsearchȱforȱsignificant
collaboratorsȱforȱtheȱpresentȱproject.ȱRuralȱspaceȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱanȱidealȱtopicȱfor
interdisciplinaryȱresearchȱandȱalertsȱusȱtoȱnumerousȱperspectivesȱregardingȱthe
premodernȱworldȱthatȱhaveȱnotȱyetȱbeenȱdiscussedȱsufficientlyȱenough.ȱPursuing
thatȱapproachȱweȱwillȱalsoȱhaveȱtoȱtakeȱintoȱconsiderationȱfundamentalȱquestions
ofȱepistemologicalȱperceptions,ȱattitudes,ȱandȱhenceȱmentalityȱatȱlarge.20
Toȱbeȱsure,ȱruralȱspaceȱencompassesȱmanyȱdifferentȱaspects,ȱincludingȱtheȱrural
populationȱ asȱ such,ȱ theȱ village,ȱ theȱ farm,ȱ farmȱ animals,ȱ agriculturalȱ activities,
includingȱplowing,ȱsowing,ȱandȱharvesting,ȱthenȱtheȱvariousȱruralȱspaces,ȱsuchȱas
theȱpasture,ȱtheȱforest,ȱtheȱbodyȱofȱwater,ȱandȱtheȱmountain.21ȱWeȱwillȱhaveȱto
considerȱ bothȱ theȱ interactionsȱ amongȱ theȱ peasants,ȱ asȱ presentedȱ inȱ sermons,
hagiographicalȱtexts,ȱliteraryȱdocuments,ȱartȱworks,ȱchronicles,ȱandȱlawȱbooks,ȱand
theȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱpeasantsȱandȱtheȱmembersȱofȱtheȱupperȱclassesȱinȱmuch
greaterȱdetail,ȱbutȱweȱcanȱalsoȱrelyȱonȱmuchȱextensiveȱresearchȱonȱthisȱtopic,ȱsuch
19
Forȱtheoreticalȱreflectionsȱonȱthisȱtopic,ȱseeȱJensȱPfeiffer,ȱ“‘Landschaft’ȱimȱMittelalter?ȱoderȱWarum
dieȱ Landschaftȱ angeblichȱ derȱ Moderneȱ gehört,”ȱ ‘Landschaftȱ imȱ Mittelalter?ȱ –ȱ Augenscheinȱ und
Literatur,ȱed.ȱid.ȱDasȱMittelalterȱ14ȱ(2011):ȱ11–30;ȱseeȱalsoȱhisȱbibliographyȱonȱthisȱtopic,ȱibid.,ȱ3–4.
20
Forȱmodernȱperspectivesȱofȱaȱhighlyȱinterdisciplinaryȱkind,ȱprobingȱhowȱhumanȱbeingsȱperceive
spaceȱinȱtheȱfirstȱplace,ȱandȱhowȱcartographyȱassistsȱusȱinȱthatȱprocess,ȱseeȱVolkerȱKaminske,ȱDie
räumlicheȱWahrnehmung:GrundlageȱfürȱGeographieȱundȱKartographieȱ(Darmstadt:ȱWissenschaftliche
Buchgesellschaft,ȱ 2011);ȱ seeȱ alsoȱ Karlȱ Schlögel,ȱ Imȱ Raumeȱ lesenȱ wirȱ dieȱ Zeit:ȱ überȱ ZivilisationsȬ
geschichteȱundȱGeopolitikȱ(MunichȱandȱVienna:ȱHanser,ȱ2003).
21
LianaȱVardi,ȱ“ImaginingȱtheȱHarvestȱinȱEarlyȱModernȱEurope,”ȱAmericanȱHistoricalȱReviewȱ101
(1996):ȱ1356–97.
Introduction 9
asȱ theȱ conferenceȱ proceedingsȱ fromȱ aȱ scholarlyȱ meetingȱ atȱ theȱ Universityȱ of
BremenȱinȱFebruaryȱ2004.22ȱ
Moreover,ȱruralȱspaceȱalsoȱexistsȱoutsideȱandȱindependentȱofȱsociety;ȱhenceȱwe
willȱ haveȱ toȱ studyȱ carefullyȱ howȱ individualȱ writers,ȱ artists,ȱ orȱ philosophers
reflectedȱ onȱ theȱ forest,ȱ riversȱ andȱ oceans,ȱ naturalȱ phenomena,ȱ flowers,ȱ birds,
reptiles,ȱandȱallȱkindsȱofȱanimals.ȱAlbertusȱMagnusȱ(1193/1206–1280),ȱforȱinstance,
dedicatedȱmuchȱattentionȱtoȱtheȱcarefulȱanalysisȱandȱdescriptionȱofȱtheȱnatural
world,ȱ whenȱ heȱ composedȱ hisȱ famousȱ treatiseȱ Deȱ animalibusȱ libriȱ XXVIȱ inȱ the
1260s,ȱbasedȱonȱMichaelȱScot’sȱrenderingȱofȱAristotle’sȱnaturalȱtreatisesȱintoȱLatin
inȱtheȱ1220s.23ȱSometimesȱitȱwillȱbeȱimportantȱtoȱtraceȱhowȱlearnedȱauthorsȱdiscuss
natureȱinȱitsȱidyllic,ȱtopicalȱappearance;ȱandȱsometimesȱweȱwillȱhaveȱtoȱpayȱclose
attentionȱtoȱtheȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱartistsȱhaveȱrepresentedȱnature,ȱeitherȱinȱtheȱform
ofȱ aȱ gardenȱ orȱ asȱ wildȱ andȱ undomesticatedȱ space.24ȱ Ruralȱ spaceȱ canȱ alsoȱ be
regardedȱasȱtheȱcontainedȱhuntingȱground,ȱtheȱpark,ȱandȱtheȱgarden,ȱdepending
onȱhowȱweȱwantȱtoȱemphasizeȱthisȱcontrastiveȱconceptȱspecificallyȱopposedȱtoȱthe
urbanȱ andȱ theȱ courtlyȱ space.ȱ Ultimately,ȱ theȱ studyȱ ofȱ ruralȱ spaceȱ offersȱ many
opportunitiesȱtoȱdevelopȱinnovativeȱepistemologicalȱstrategiesȱandȱcontributesȱto
theȱeverȱwideningȱperspectiveȱpursuedȱinȱMedievalȱStudiesȱandȱEarlyȱModern
Studies.
2.ȱNaturalȱSpaceȱandȱtheȱMedievalȱEncyclopedia
Ifȱ weȱ refer,ȱ forȱ instance,ȱ toȱ theȱ presentationȱ ofȱ animalsȱ inȱ medievalȱ andȱ early
modernȱsculptures,ȱpaintings,ȱandȱcarvings,ȱweȱwouldȱhaveȱtoȱadmitȱimmediately
howȱmuchȱruralȱspaceȱoccupiedȱmedievalȱminds.ȱMuchȱdepends,ȱofȱcourse,ȱonȱthe
investigativeȱlens,ȱtheȱspecialȱfocus,ȱandȱtheȱresearchȱinterest,ȱnotȱtoȱforgetȱthe
primaryȱobjectsȱofȱinvestigation.ȱInsofarȱasȱnatureȱwasȱtheȱbookȱwrittenȱbyȱGod,
accordingȱtoȱmedievalȱideas,ȱbasedȱonȱ“Psalmȱ148ȱandȱtheȱsongȱglorifyingȱthe
CreationȱinȱDanielȱ3,”ȱtheȱlearnedȱandȱtheȱreligiousȱpersonȱonlyȱneededȱtoȱturn
22
TätigkeitsfelderȱundȱErfahrungshorizonteȱdesȱländlichenȱMenschenȱinȱderȱfrühmittelalterlichenȱGrundȬ
herrschaftȱ(bisȱca.ȱ1000):ȱFestschriftȱfürȱDieterȱHägermannȱzumȱ65.ȱGeburtstag,ȱed.ȱBrigitteȱKasten.
VierteljahresschriftȱfürȱSozialȬȱundȱWirtschaftsgeschichte,ȱBeiheft,ȱ184ȱ(Stuttgart:ȱSteiner,ȱ2006).
Theȱessaysȱareȱgroupedȱaccordingȱtoȱfourȱmajorȱthemes:ȱ1.ȱpeopleȱinȱtheirȱspace;ȱ2.ȱtheȱworking
peopleȱinȱtheȱsecularȱsphere;ȱ3.ȱworkingȱpeopleȱinȱtheȱecclesiasticalȱsphere;ȱandȱ4.ȱpeopleȱandȱtheir
toolsȱandȱinstruments.
23
AlbertȱtheȱGreat,ȱManȱandȱtheȱBeasts:ȱDeȱanimalibusȱ(Booksȱ22–26),ȱtrans.ȱJamesȱJ.ȱScanlan.ȱMedieval
&ȱRenaissanceȱTextsȱ&ȱStudies,ȱ47ȱ(Binghamton,ȱNY:ȱMedievalȱ&ȱRenaissanceȱTextsȱ&ȱStudies,
1987),ȱ12–14.
24
IȱwillȱaddressȱthisȱseveralȱtimesȱhereȱinȱtheȱIntroductionȱandȱthenȱinȱoneȱofȱmyȱownȱcontributions.
10 AlbrechtȱClassen
his/herȱeyesȱtowardȱtheȱnaturalȱenvironmentȱtoȱgraspȱtheȱmeaningȱofȱtheȱdivine
messages.25ȱ
Everyȱaspectȱinȱnatureȱprovidedȱepistemologicalȱriddlesȱandȱpromisesȱatȱthe
sameȱtime.ȱFruitȱandȱplants,ȱgrassȱandȱherbs,ȱbushesȱandȱshrubs,ȱflowersȱandȱtrees
allȱcarriedȱaȱmeaning,ȱwhichȱmade,ȱindeed,ȱruralȱspaceȱintoȱaȱveritableȱlexiconȱof
God’sȱcreation.26ȱ‘Scientists’ȱsuchȱasȱHildegardȱofȱBingenȱ(1098–1179)ȱandȱKonrad
ofȱMegenbergȱ(1309–1374)ȱproducedȱextensiveȱresearchȱonȱtheȱmedicinalȱeffects
andȱreligiousȱsymbolismȱofȱplants,27ȱwhichȱwasȱadmittedlyȱnotȱyetȱatȱparȱwithȱsuch
voluminousȱandȱdetailedȱcompendiaȱonȱplantsȱwrittenȱinȱtheȱRenaissance,ȱsuchȱas
Leonhartȱ Fuchs’sȱ famousȱ Deȱ historiaȱ stirpiumȱ commentariiȱ insignesȱ fromȱ 1542.28
However,ȱitȱwasȱcertainlyȱtheȱresultȱofȱthoroughȱandȱpracticalȱinvestigations.ȱWe
wouldȱdoȱinjusticeȱtoȱmedievalȱintellectualsȱandȱpractitionersȱifȱweȱclaimedȱthat
theyȱhadȱlittleȱorȱnoȱtrustworthyȱunderstandingȱofȱtheȱwideȱrangeȱofȱplantsȱand
herbs,ȱandȱsubsequentlyȱofȱtheȱmedicinalȱdrugsȱextractedȱfromȱthem.29ȱInȱother
words,ȱnaturalȱscientistsȱalsoȱhadȱmuchȱtoȱsayȱaboutȱtheȱruralȱenvironment,ȱasȱthe
manyȱbeautifullyȱillustratedȱmedievalȱmanuscriptsȱofȱPlinyȱtheȱElder’sȱHistoria
naturalisȱconfirm,ȱespeciallyȱthoseȱfromȱtheȱfifteenthȱcentury.30ȱTheȱreaderȱcould
25
WernerȱTelesko,ȱTheȱWisdomȱofȱNature:ȱTheȱHealingȱPowersȱandȱSymbolismȱofȱPlantsȱandȱAnimalsȱin
theȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(Munich,ȱLondon,ȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱPrestel,ȱ2001),ȱ7.
26
CeliaȱFisher,ȱTheȱMedievalȱFlowerȱBookȱ(London:ȱTheȱBritishȱLibrary,ȱ2007).
27
Helmutȱ Birkhan,ȱ Pflanzenȱ imȱ Mittelalter:ȱ Eineȱ Kulturgeschichteȱ (Cologne,ȱ Weimar,ȱ andȱ Vienna:
Böhlau,ȱ2012).ȱIȱwas,ȱhowever,ȱnotȱableȱtoȱconsultȱthisȱnewȱstudyȱsinceȱitȱwasȱnotȱyetȱinȱprintȱwhen
IȱcompletedȱthisȱIntroduction.
28
FrederickȱG.ȱMeyer,ȱEmilyȱEmmartȱTrueblood,ȱandȱJohnȱL.ȱHeller,ȱTheȱGreatȱHerbalȱofȱLeonhart
Fuchs:ȱDeȱhistoriaȱstirpiumȱcommentariiȱinsignes,ȱ1542ȱ(NotableȱCommentariesȱonȱtheȱHistoryȱof
Plants).ȱForewordȱbyȱJosephȱEwan.ȱ2ȱvols.ȱ(Stanford:ȱStanfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1999).
29
Meyer,ȱTrueblood,ȱandȱHeller,ȱTheȱGreatȱHerbalȱ(seeȱnoteȱ28),ȱvol.ȱI,ȱ7–8.ȱTheȱmodernȱperspective
pursuedȱhereȱblindsȱtheȱauthorsȱtoȱsomeȱextentȱregardingȱtheȱactualȱachievementsȱbyȱmedieval
herbalists.ȱForȱthem,ȱ“[f]romȱtheȱearlyȱMiddleȱAgesȱtoȱalmostȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱfifteenthȱcentury,
herbalisticȬmedicalȱliteratureȱwasȱessentiallyȱaȱmixȱofȱlocalȱfolkȱpracticesȱandȱbitsȱandȱpiecesȱof
genuineȱDioscorideanȱtradition,ȱheldȱtogether,ȱsoȱtoȱspeak,ȱbyȱmaterialȱderivedȱfromȱPlinyȱthe
Elder’sȱNaturalȱHistoryȱandȱtractsȱattributedȱtoȱHippocratesȱandȱGalen.ȱTheȱcorpusȱofȱlateȱmedieval
herbalisticȬmedicalȱ literature,ȱ inȱ bothȱ Latinȱ andȱ theȱ vernacular,ȱ boreȱ littleȱ resemblanceȱ to
Dioscorides’ȱwork,ȱalthoughȱitȱindirectlyȱderivedȱfromȱit.”ȱ(I,ȱ7).ȱButȱthenȱtheyȱonlyȱmention
namesȱsuchȱasȱConstantineȱtheȱAfrican,ȱMatthaeusȱPlateariusȱofȱSalerno,ȱandȱPietroȱd’Abano,
subsequentlyȱimmediatelyȱswitchingȱtoȱIslamicȱwriters.ȱTheyȱdoȱnotȱevenȱmentionȱHildegardȱof
Bingen,ȱPetrusȱdeȱCrescentiis,ȱMasterȱRichard,ȱGottfriedȱofȱFranken,ȱorȱWilhelmȱofȱHirnkofen;ȱcf.
BernhardȱDietrichȱHaageȱandȱWolfgangȱWegner,ȱtogetherȱwithȱGundolfȱKeilȱandȱHelgaȱHaageȬ
Naber,ȱ Deutscheȱ Fachliteraturȱ derȱ Artesȱ inȱ Mittelalterȱ undȱ Früherȱ Neuzeit.ȱ Grundlagenȱ der
Germanistik,ȱ43ȱ(Berlin:ȱErichȱSchmidtȱVerlag,ȱ2007),ȱ147–50.ȱSeeȱalsoȱWilfridȱBluntȱandȱSandra
Raphael,ȱ Theȱ Illustratedȱ Herbalȱ (London:ȱ Francesȱ Lincolnȱ Publishersȱ Limited,ȱ distributedȱ by
WeidenfeldȱandȱNicolson,ȱ[1979]);ȱMintaȱCollins,ȱMedievalȱHerbals:ȱTheȱIllustrativeȱTraditions.ȱThe
BritishȱLibraryȱStudiesȱinȱMedievalȱCultureȱ(London:ȱTheȱBritishȱLibrary;ȱTorontoȱandȱBuffalo:
UniversityȱofȱTorontoȱPress,ȱ2000).
30
JoyceȱIreneȱWhalley,ȱPlinyȱtheȱElder:ȱHistoriaȱnaturalisȱ(London:ȱSidgewickȱ&ȱJackson,ȱ1982).
Introduction 11
gleanȱmuchȱinformationȱaboutȱmammals,ȱwildȱandȱdomesticated,ȱacquaticȱspecies,
birds,ȱinsects,ȱtrees,ȱvinesȱandȱtheȱvarietyȱofȱwines,ȱolives,ȱfruitȱtrees,ȱtheȱvarious
crops,ȱflax,ȱherbsȱandȱmedicinalȱplants,ȱmetals,ȱstones,ȱgems,ȱandȱaȱvarietyȱofȱother
objectsȱorȱlivingȱcreatures.ȱWeȱalsoȱwouldȱhaveȱtoȱreferȱtoȱtheȱextensiveȱbiological
andȱ pharmaceuticalȱ researchȱ carriedȱ outȱ byȱ Islamicȱ scholars,ȱ especiallyȱ in
Andalusia,ȱSpain,ȱsuchȱasȱAlȬBiruniȱ(d.ȱ1048),ȱAlȬGafiqiȱ(twelfthȱcentury),ȱandȱIbn
AlȬBaytarȱ(d.ȱ1248).31ȱ
InȱtheȱPhysiologusȱweȱread,ȱforȱinstance,ȱ“Thereȱisȱanȱanimalȱcalledȱtheȱelephant
whoseȱ copulatingȱ isȱ freeȱ fromȱ wickedȱ desire.ȱ Theȱ tragelaphus,ȱ however,ȱ isȱ a
differentȱanimal.ȱIfȱtheȱelephantȱwishesȱtoȱproduceȱyoung,ȱheȱgoesȱoffȱtoȱtheȱeast
nearȱparadiseȱwhereȱthereȱisȱaȱtreeȱcalledȱtheȱmandrake.ȱAndȱheȱgoesȱthereȱwith
hisȱmate,ȱwhoȱfirstȱtakesȱaȱpartȱofȱtheȱtreeȱandȱgivesȱitȱtoȱherȱhusbandȱandȱcajoles
himȱuntilȱheȱeatsȱit.”32ȱAnotherȱexcellentȱexampleȱpertainsȱtoȱtheȱstag:ȱ“Theȱstagȱis
anȱenemyȱofȱtheȱdragon.ȱMoreover,ȱtheȱdragonȱfleesȱfromȱtheȱstagȱintoȱtheȱcracks
inȱtheȱearth,ȱandȱtheȱstag,ȱgoingȱandȱdrinkingȱfromȱaȱstreamȱuntilȱhisȱmuzzleȱis
full,ȱthenȱspitsȱoutȱtheȱwaterȱintoȱtheȱcracksȱandȱdrawsȱtheȱdragonȱoutȱandȱstamps
onȱ himȱ andȱ killsȱ him”ȱ (No.ȱ XLV,ȱ 58).ȱ Theȱ religiousȱ metaphoricalȱ language,
equatingȱtheȱstagȱwithȱChristȱandȱtheȱdragonȱwithȱtheȱdevil,ȱisȱselfȬmanifest.ȱThe
authorȱdemonstratesȱinterestȱinȱnatureȱonlyȱinsofarȱasȱitȱhelpsȱhimȱtoȱexplicateȱthe
divineȱ messageȱ ofȱ theȱ Newȱ Testament.ȱ Nevertheless,ȱ weȱ stillȱ recognizeȱ the
tremendousȱinterestȱinȱtheȱelementsȱthatȱmakeȱupȱruralȱspace,ȱwhetherȱanimalsȱor
birds,ȱtreesȱorȱbushes.ȱEverythingȱcreatedȱspeaksȱtoȱtheȱreligiousȱauthorȱandȱhis
countlessȱtranslatorsȱandȱadaptators.ȱIndeed,ȱChristianityȱwouldȱnotȱbeȱtheȱsame
withoutȱitsȱfullȱacknowledgmentȱofȱhowȱmuchȱnatureȱmatteredȱforȱhumanȱlife.
ThroughoutȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱindividualȱauthors,ȱhavingȱlearnedȱmuchȱfromȱthis
enormousȱ popularȱ treatiseȱ Physiologusȱ andȱ thenȱ Isidorȱ ofȱ Seville’sȱ Etymologiae,
cameȱforwardȱwithȱimportantȱtreatisesȱonȱagriculture,ȱgardening,ȱandȱtheȱproper
managingȱofȱfarms.ȱSomeȱofȱtheȱmostȱimportantȱnamesȱwereȱPetrusȱdeȱCrescentiis
(b.ȱca.ȱ1230/1233),ȱMeisterȱRichardȱ(earlyȱfourteenthȱcentury),ȱGottfriedȱofȱFranken
(b.ȱlateȱthirteenthȱcentury),ȱWilhelmȱofȱHirnhofenȱ(fl.ȱlateȱfifteenthȱcentury),ȱand
31
EleonoraȱdiȱVincenzo,ȱKitabȱalȬ‘adwiyaȱalȬmufradaȱdiȱ‘AbuȱGa’farȱ‘Ahmadȱb.ȱMuhammadȱb.’Ahmadȱb.
SayyidȱAlȬGafiqiȱ(Xiiȱsec.):ȱEdizioneȱdelȱcapitoloȱ‘Alifȱconȱindiciȱeȱapparatoȱcriticoȱinȱnota.ȱSupplemento
No.ȱ1ȱallaȱRivistaȱdegliȱstudiȱorientali,ȱnuovaȱserie,ȱLXXXIȱ(PisaȱandȱRome:ȱFabrizioȱserraȱeditore,
2009).ȱ Seeȱ theȱ excellentȱ reviewȱ byȱ Adamȱ C.ȱ McCollum,ȱ withȱ additionalȱ bibliography,ȱ inȱ The
MedievalȱReviewȱ12.01.13ȱ(online).
32
Physiologus,ȱtrans.ȱbyȱMichaelȱJ.ȱCurleyȱ(1979;ȱChicagoȱandȱLondon:ȱUniversityȱofȱChicagoȱPress,
2009),ȱ No.ȱ XX,ȱ 29.ȱ Forȱ anȱ excellentȱ introductionȱ toȱ thisȱ texts,ȱ seeȱ Valentineȱ Anthonyȱ Pakis,
“Contextualȱ Duplicityȱ andȱ Textualȱ Variation:ȱ Theȱ Sirenȱ andȱ Onocentaurȱ inȱ theȱ Physiologus
Tradition,”ȱMediaevistikȱ23ȱ(2011),ȱforthcoming.
NikolausȱEngelmannȱ(fl.ȱearlyȱsixteenthȱcentury).33ȱThenȱweȱfindȱnumerousȱbooks
onȱ hunting,ȱ onȱ animals,ȱ andȱ onȱ forestry—allȱ ofȱ fundamentalȱ importanceȱ for
medievalȱandȱearlyȱmodernȱsociety.34
Animals,ȱaboveȱall,ȱattractedȱmedievalȱartists’ȱandȱwriters’ȱattentionȱsinceȱthey
servedȱexceedinglyȱwellȱinȱheraldry,ȱinȱmoralizingȱsculptures,ȱasȱrepresentatives
ofȱvirtuesȱandȱvices,ȱofȱ evilȱ incarnateȱandȱtheȱgoodȱitself,ȱandȱasȱsymbolsȱofȱa
multiplicityȱofȱvariousȱaspectsȱinȱhumanȱlife.35ȱInȱfact,ȱtheȱrelationshipȱbetween
manȱandȱnatureȱmightȱhaveȱbeenȱmuchȱcloserȱinȱtheȱpremodernȱworldȱthanȱtoday,
whichȱwouldȱunderscoreȱevenȱfurtherȱtheȱutmostȱimportanceȱofȱstudyingȱrural
spaceȱinȱmuchȱgreaterȱdetail.
Allȱ theseȱ aspectsȱ wereȱ ultimatelyȱ embracedȱ byȱ theȱ medievalȱ encyclopedia
writers,ȱsuchȱasȱAlbertusȱMagnusȱ(1193/1206–1280),36ȱHonorusȱAugustodunensis
(d.ȱ ca.ȱ 1150),37ȱ Herradȱ ofȱ Hohenbergȱ andȱ herȱ fellowȱ sistersȱ (Hortusȱ deliciarum,
secondȱhalfȱofȱtheȱtwelfthȱcentury),38ȱVincentȱofȱBeauvaisȱ(ca.ȱ1190–1264),ȱThomas
Cantimpratensisȱ(1201–1263/172),39ȱBartholomewȱtheȱEnglishmanȱ(alsoȱknownȱas
BartholomaeusȱAnglicus,ȱfl.ȱ1231),40ȱAlexanderȱNeckamȱ(1157–1217),41ȱorȱKonrad
33
BernhardȱDietrichȱHaageȱandȱWolfgangȱWegner,ȱtogetherȱwithȱGundolfȱKeilȱandȱHelgaȱHaageȬ
Naber,ȱ Deutscheȱ Fachliteraturȱ derȱ Artesȱ inȱ Mittelalterȱ undȱ Früherȱ Neuzeit.ȱ Grundlagenȱ der
Germanistik,ȱ43ȱ(Berlin:ȱErichȱSchmidt,ȱ2007),ȱ147–50ȱ(Wegner).
34
DeutscheȱFachliteraturȱ(seeȱnoteȱ33),ȱ166–77ȱ(Wegner).ȱAȱnumberȱofȱtheȱcontributorsȱtoȱtheȱpresent
volumeȱ criticallyȱ engageȱ withȱ huntingȱ itself,ȱ theȱ artȱ ofȱ hunting,ȱ huntingȱ parks,ȱ andȱ hunting
animals;ȱ seeȱ Abigailȱ P.ȱ Dowling,ȱ Marilynȱ L.ȱ Sandidge,ȱ Mariaȱ Ceciliaȱ Ruiz,ȱ andȱ Jacqueline
Stuhmiller.ȱIȱwillȱreturnȱtoȱthisȱissueȱinȱgreaterȱdetailȱfurtherȱdown.
35
F.ȱD.ȱKlingender,ȱAnimalsȱinȱArtȱandȱThoughtȱtoȱtheȱEndȱofȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱed.ȱEvelynȱAntalȱand
Johnȱ Harthanȱ (Cambridge,ȱ MA:ȱ M.ȱ I.ȱ T.ȱ Pressȱ [1971]);ȱ Janettaȱ Reboldȱ Benton,ȱ Theȱ Medieval
Menagerie:ȱAnimalsȱinȱtheȱArtȱofȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(NewȱYork,ȱLondon,ȱandȱParis:ȱAbbevilleȱPress
Publishers,ȱ1992).
36
AlbertȱtheȱGreat,ȱManȱandȱtheȱBeastsȱ(Deȱanimalibus,ȱbooksȱ22Ȭ26)ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ23).
37
Dagmarȱ Gottschall,ȱ Dasȱ ‘Elucidarium’ȱ desȱ Honoriusȱ Augustodunensis:ȱ Untersuchungenȱ zuȱ seiner
UberlieferungsȬȱundȱRezeptionsgeschichteȱimȱdeutschsprachigenȱRaumȱmitȱAusgabeȱderȱniederdeutschen
Übersetzung.ȱTexteȱundȱTextgeschichte,ȱ33ȱ(Tübingen:ȱMaxȱNiemeyer,ȱ1992).ȱForȱtheȱhistoryȱof
receptionȱofȱAugstodunensis’sȱwork,ȱseeȱErnstpeterȱRuhe,ȱElucidariumȱundȱLucidaires:ȱzurȱRezeption
desȱ Werksȱ vonȱ Honoriusȱ Augustodunensisȱ inȱ derȱ Romaniaȱ undȱ inȱ England.ȱ Wissensliteraturȱ im
Mittelalter,ȱ7ȱ(Wiesbaden:ȱLudwigȱReichert,ȱ1993).
38
FionaȱJ.ȱGriffiths,ȱTheȱGardenȱofȱDelights:ȱReformȱandȱRenaissanceȱforȱWomenȱinȱtheȱTwelfthȱCentury.
TheȱMiddleȱAgesȱSeriesȱ(Philadelphia:ȱUniversityȱofȱPennsylvaniaȱPress,ȱ2007).
39
TomásȱdeȱCantimpré,ȱDeȱnaturaȱrerumȱ(lib.ȱIV–XII).ȱEdiciónȱfacsímil,ȱdirigidaȱporȱLuisȱGarcía
Ballester.ȱ Bibliotecaȱ Universitariaȱ deȱ Granada.ȱ Manuscript.ȱ C–67ȱ (Granada:ȱ Universidadȱ de
Granada,ȱ1973?–1974).
40
M.ȱ C.ȱ Seymourȱ andȱ hisȱ Colleagues,ȱ Bartholomaeusȱ Anglicusȱ andȱ Hisȱ Encyclopediaȱ (Aldershot,
Hampshire,ȱ Greatȱ Britain:ȱ Variorum;ȱ Brookfield,ȱ VT:ȱ Ashgate,ȱ 1992);ȱ Heinzȱ Meyer,ȱ Die
EnzyklopädieȱdesȱBartholomäusȱAnglicus:ȱUntersuchungenȱzurȱÜberlieferungsȬȱundȱRezeptionsgeschichte
vonȱ‘Deȱproprietatibusȱrerum’.ȱMünsterscheȱMittelalterȬSchriften,ȱ77ȱ(Munich:ȱWilhelmȱFink,ȱ2000),
identifiesȱtheȱfollowingȱareasȱasȱcentralȱtoȱBartholomaeus’sȱscholarlyȱinterest:ȱa.ȱtheologyȱand
philosophy;ȱb.ȱmedicine;ȱc.ȱastronomyȱandȱastrology;ȱd.ȱgeography;ȱe.ȱlapidaryȱsciences;ȱf.ȱplants;
Introduction 13
ofȱ Megenbergȱ (1309–1374).42ȱ Theseȱ inȱ turnȱ spurnedȱ aȱ wholeȱ floodȱ ofȱ future
scholarsȱwhoȱacceptedȱtheȱchallengesȱandȱmadeȱeverȱgreaterȱeffortsȱtoȱcollectȱany
possibleȱaspectȱaboutȱtheȱnatural,ȱorȱruralȱworldȱandȱtoȱsummarizeȱallȱthoseȱdetails
inȱ theirȱ voluminousȱ tomesȱ andȱ toȱ engage,ȱ atȱ leastȱ fromȱ aȱ philosophical,
intellectual,ȱ andȱ alsoȱ theologicalȱ perspective,ȱ withȱ theȱ naturalȱ environment.43
Althoughȱtheȱencyclopedistsȱgenerallyȱintendedȱtoȱreadȱtheirȱworldȱthroughȱthe
lensȱ ofȱ theȱ Bible,ȱ utilizingȱ theȱ materialȱ objectsȱ asȱ symbolsȱ orȱ allegoriesȱ ofȱ the
spiritualȱworldȱ(ultimately,ȱofferingȱexegesis),ȱtheyȱstillȱopenedȱtheirȱreaders’ȱeyes
towardȱ theȱ spaceȱ outsideȱ ofȱ theȱ domesticȱ sphere,ȱ theȱ house,ȱ theȱ palace,ȱ the
monasticȱcell,ȱtheȱchurch,ȱorȱtheȱcourt.44
Toȱillustrateȱhowȱnaturalȱspaceȱwasȱviewedȱandȱtreatedȱbyȱtheseȱauthors,ȱletȱus
considerȱatȱleastȱoneȱexampleȱfromȱtheȱCornishȱwriterȱJohnȱTrevisa’sȱ(1342–1402)
translationȱ ofȱ Bartholomaeusȱ Anglicus’sȱ Deȱ proprietatibusȱ rerum.45ȱ Asȱ theȱ word
‘encyclopedia’ȱ indicates,ȱ virtuallyȱ everyȱ imaginableȱ aspectȱ ofȱ theȱ physical
existenceȱisȱbeingȱtreatedȱmoreȱorȱlessȱmeticulouslyȱandȱobjectively,ȱatȱleastȱinȱthe
g.ȱanimals;ȱh.ȱothers.ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱBartholomaeusȱAnglicus,ȱDeȱproprietatibusȱrerum:
Texteȱlatinȱetȱréceptionȱvernaculaire.ȱLateinischerȱTextȱundȱvolkssprachigeȱRezeptionȱ(Actesȱduȱcolloque
internationalȱ–ȱAktenȱdesȱInternationalenȱKolloquiumsȱ–ȱMünster,ȱ9.–11.ȱ2003,ȱed.ȱBaudouinȱvanȱden
AbeeeleȱandȱHeinzȱMeyer.ȱDeȱDiversisȱArtibus,ȱ74ȱ(Turnhout:ȱBrepols,ȱ2005).
41
R.ȱ W.ȱ Hunt,ȱ Theȱ Schoolsȱ andȱ theȱ Cloister:ȱ Theȱ Lifeȱ andȱ Writingsȱ ofȱ Alexanderȱ Nequam
(1157–1217),ȱed.ȱandȱrev.ȱbyȱMargaretȱGibsonȱ(1936;ȱOxfordȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱClarendonȱPress,
1984).
42
Dagmarȱ Gottschall,ȱ Konradȱ vonȱ Megenbergsȱ Buchȱ vonȱ denȱ natürlichenȱ Dingen:ȱ Einȱ Dokument
deutschsprachigerȱAlbertusȬMagnusȬRezeptionȱimȱ14.ȱJahrhundert.ȱStudienȱundȱTexteȱzurȱGeistesȬ
geschichteȱ desȱ Mittelalters,ȱ LXXXIIIȱ (Leidenȱ andȱ Boston:ȱ Brill,ȱ 2004).ȱ Robertȱ Luff,
WissensvermittlungȱimȱeuropäischenȱMittelalter:ȱ‘Imagoȱmundi’ȬWerkeȱundȱihreȱProloge.ȱTexteȱund
Textgeschichte,ȱ47ȱ(Tübingen:ȱMaxȱNiemeyer,ȱ1999),ȱoffersȱanȱexcellentȱsurveyȱofȱtheȱentireȱgenre.
Forȱrecentȱstudies,ȱseeȱKonradȱvonȱMegenberg:ȱ(1309ȱ–ȱ1374);ȱeinȱspätmittelalterlicherȱ“Enzyklopädist”
imȱ europäischenȱ Kontext.ȱ Beiträgeȱ derȱ interdisziplinärenȱ Tagungȱ vomȱ 27.ȱ bisȱ 29.ȱ Augustȱ 2009ȱ in
Regensburg,ȱ ed.ȱ Edithȱ Feistner,ȱ togetherȱ withȱ Ninaȱ Prifling.ȱ Jahrbuchȱ derȱ OswaldȬvonȬȱ WolkenȬ
steinȬGesellschaftȱȱ18ȱ(2010/11).
43
KonradȱvonȱMegenberg,ȱDasȱ“BuchȱderȱNatur”.ȱVol.ȱII:ȱKritischerȱTextȱnachȱdenȱHandschriftenȱ,ȱed.
RobertȱLuffȱandȱGeorgȱSteer.ȱTexteȱundȱTextgeschichte,ȱ54ȱ(Tübingen:ȱM.ȱNiemeyer,ȱ2003).
44
BernardȱRibémont,ȱDeȱnaturaȱrerum:ȱétudesȱsurȱlesȱencyclopédiesȱmédiévales.ȱMedievalia,ȱ18ȱ(Orléans:
Paradigme,ȱ1995);ȱMaryȱFranklinȬBrown,ȱ“Encyclopedias,”ȱTheȱOxfordȱDictionaryȱofȱtheȱMiddle
Ages,ȱed.ȱRobertȱE.ȱBjork.ȱVol.ȱ2ȱ(OxfordȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2010),ȱ562–63.
SeeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱVomȱWeltbuchȱbisȱzumȱWorldȱWideȱWebȱ–ȱEnzyklopädischeȱLiteraturen,
ed.ȱWaltraudȱWiethölter,ȱFraukeȱBerndt,ȱandȱStephanȱKammer.ȱNeuesȱForumȱfürȱAllgemeineȱund
Vergleichendeȱ Literaturwissenschaft,ȱ 21ȱ (Heidelberg:ȱ Universitätsverlag,ȱ 2005).ȱ Althoughȱ the
focusȱrestsȱprimarilyȱonȱmodernȱattemptsȱtoȱgraspȱtheȱworldȱinȱencyclopedicȱterms,ȱatȱleastȱwithin
aȱliteraryȱframework,ȱseveralȱstudiesȱalsoȱaddressȱmedievalȱencyclopediasȱ(JürgenȱMittelstrass,
KarlheinzȱStierle,ȱandȱFrankȬRutgerȱHausmann).ȱ
45
Davidȱ C.ȱ Fowler,ȱ Theȱ Lifeȱ andȱ Timesȱ ofȱ Johnȱ Trevisa,ȱ Medievalȱ Scholarȱ (Seattle:ȱ Universityȱ of
WashingtonȱPress,ȱ1995).
medievalȱsenseȱofȱtheȱword.ȱSoȱitȱwillȱbeȱenoughȱforȱusȱtoȱlistenȱonlyȱtoȱwhat
Trevisaȱhasȱtoȱsayȱaboutȱrivers:
Aȱryuerȱhatteȱfluuiusȱandȱhatȱþatȱnameȱaȱfluendoȱ‘rennynge’.ȱForȱasȱYsiderȱseith,ȱaȱryuer
isȱeuerelastyngeȱrynnynge,ȱforȱitȱrenneþȱcontinulichȱandȱcesethȱno˄tȱtoȱrenneȱbutȱ˄ifȱþe
hedeȱ þereofȱ beȱ ystoppedȱ oþerȱ yturnedeȱ andȱ ylette.ȱ Itȱ isȱ toȱ knoweȱ inȱ aȱ ruyer
euerlastyngeȱ rennyngeȱ andȱ depnesseȱ ofȱ placeȱ andȱ wyndyngeȱ andȱ turnyngeȱ of
meuynge.ȱForȱofteȱaȱryuerȱrenneþȱbyȱfulȱlongȱspaceȱofȱcontreisȱandȱlondes.ȱAlsoȱthe
heuedeȱ isȱ [to]ȱ knowen,ȱ andȱ þeȱ welleȱ sprynge,ȱ andȱ þeȱ fynalȱ eendeȱ whidirwardȱ it
renneþ,ȱandȱþeȱmanereȱofȱspryngynge.46
Trevisaȱwasȱveryȱclearȱaboutȱtheȱallegoricalȱmeaningȱofȱallȱmaterialȱproperties,ȱas
heȱindicatedȱinȱtheȱprologue:
ȱ
TheȱapostleȱseithȱþatȱþeȱvnseyeȱþingesȱofȱGodȱbethȱiknoweȱandȱvndirstondeȱbyȱþinges
þatȱbethȱiseye.ȱÞerforeȱdiuynyteȱvsithȱholyȱinformaciounȱandȱpoesiesȱþatȱmyistikȱand
dirkȱvndirstondingeȱandȱfiguratifȱspeches,ȱmenyngeȱwhatȱweȱshalȱtrowe,ȱmayȱbeȱitake
ofȱþeȱliknesȱofȱþingesȱþatȱbeþȱiseye,ȱsoȱþatȱspiritualȱþingesȱandȱþingesȱvnseyeȱmayȱbe
couenablicheȱordeynedȱtoȱfleisschlicheȱandȱtoȱþingesȱþatȱbeþȱiseyeȱ(41).ȱ
Ruralȱspace,ȱhereȱgloballyȱunderstoodȱasȱtheȱmaterial,ȱnotȱmanȬmadeȱexistence,
henceȱinvitesȱtheȱcriticalȱinvestigation,ȱandȱthisȱalreadyȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges.47
3.ȱTheȱSpatialȱTurnȱinȱMedievalȱandȱPremodernȱStudiesȱ
Inȱtheȱwakeȱofȱtheȱ‘spatialȱturn’ȱinȱliteraryȱandȱculturalȱstudiesȱoverȱtheȱlastȱdecade
orȱso,ȱprofoundlyȱinitiatedȱbyȱHenriȱLefebvre’sȱLaȱproductionȱdeȱl’espaceȱ(1974),48ȱwe
46
JohnȱTrevisa,ȱOnȱtheȱPropertiesȱofȱThings:ȱJohnȱTrevisa’sȱTranslationȱofȱBartholomæusȱAnglicusȱDe
ProprietatibusȱRerum:ȱAȱCriticalȱText,ȱed.ȱM.ȱC.ȱSeymour.ȱ3ȱvols.ȱ(Oxford:ȱAtȱtheȱClarendonȱPress,
1975–1988),ȱ651.
47
NadiaȱMargolis,ȱ“Encyclopedias,”ȱHandbookȱofȱMedievalȱStudies,ȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassen.ȱVol.ȱ2ȱ(Berlin
andȱNewȱYork:ȱDeȱGruyter,ȱ2010),ȱ1767–74.
48
HenriȱLefebvre,ȱTheȱProductionȱofȱSpace,ȱtrans.ȱDonaldȱNicholsonȬSmithȱ(1974;ȱMalden,ȱMA,ȱand
Oxford:ȱBlackwell,ȱ1991),ȱ412,ȱemphasizesȱthatȱeachȱsocietyȱorȱcultureȱdeterminesȱandȱshapesȱits
ownȱspace,ȱandȱhenceȱalsoȱspaceȱperception.ȱSeeȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱMedievalȱPracticesȱofȱSpace,
ed.ȱBarbaraȱA.ȱHanawaltȱandȱMichalȱKobialka.ȱMedievalȱCultures,ȱ23ȱ(MinneapolisȱandȱLondon:
UniversityȱofȱMinnesotaȱPress,ȱ2000);ȱOttoȱGerhardȱOexle,ȱ“‘Erinnerungsorte’ȱ–ȱeineȱhistorische
Fragestellungȱ undȱ wasȱ sieȱ unsȱ sehenȱ lässt,”ȱ Mittelalterȱ undȱ Industrialisierung:ȱ St.ȱ Urbanusȱ in
Huckarde,ȱed.ȱThomasȱSchilpȱandȱBarbaraȱWelzel.ȱSchriftenȱderȱConradȬvonȬSoestȬGesellschaft,
12ȱ(Bielefeld:ȱVerlagȱfürȱRegionalgeschichte,ȱ2009),ȱ17–23;ȱStefanȱKipfer,ȱKanishkaȱGoonewardena,
ChristianȱSchmid,ȱandȱRichardȱMilgrom,ȱ“OnȱtheȱProductionȱofȱHenriȱLefebvre,”ȱSpace,ȱDifference,
EverydayȱLife:ȱReadingȱHenriȱLefebvre,ȱed.ȱid.ȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱLondon:ȱRoutledge,ȱ2008),ȱ1–23;ȱhere
9.ȱSeeȱalsoȱChristianȱSchmid,ȱ“HenriȱLefebvre’sȱTheoryȱofȱtheȱProductionȱofȱSpace:ȱTowardsȱa
ThreeȬDimensionalȱDialectic,”ȱibid.,ȱ27–45.ȱCf.ȱStuardȱElden,ȱUnderstandingȱHenriȱLefebvreȱ(London
andȱNewȱYork:ȱContinuum,ȱ2004);ȱBennoȱWerlen,ȱSociety,ȱActionȱandȱSpace—AnȱAlternativeȱHuman
Introduction 15
haveȱrealizedȱhowȱmuchȱallȱhumanȱactivities,ȱproducts,ȱandȱperformance,ȱthatȱis,
humanȱcultureȱatȱlarge,ȱmustȱbeȱunderstoodȱinȱrelationshipȱtoȱtheȱspaceȱwhere
theyȱareȱlocatedȱorȱbroughtȱabout.49ȱAlthoughȱtheȱemphasisȱofȱSpatialityȱStudies
mostlyȱrestsȱonȱmodernȱandȱpostmodernȱphenomena,ȱtheȱturnȱtowardȱruralȱspace
inȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱearlyȱmodernȱage—andȱbyȱtheȱsameȱtokenȱalready
towardȱ urbanȱ space50—allowsȱ usȱ toȱ reȬbalanceȱ theȱ traditionalȱ viewpointsȱ and
comprehensionȱ ofȱ thoseȱ cultures,ȱ recoupingȱ aȱ dimension,ȱ spaceȱ outsideȱ ofȱ the
courtȱandȱtheȱcity,ȱfromȱtheȱcommonȱapproachȱinformedȱbyȱtopology,ȱtherebyȱreȬ
injectingȱ aȱ clearerȱ notionȱ ofȱ howȱ peopleȱ operatedȱ inȱ social,ȱ material,ȱ and
ideologicalȱcoordinates,ȱparticularlyȱwithinȱnature,ȱtheȱwilderness,ȱonȱtheȱwater,
inȱtheȱmountains,ȱorȱelsewhere,ȱatȱleastȱoutsideȱofȱtheȱcityȱandȱtheȱcourt.51ȱ
Researchȱonȱtheȱspatialȱturnȱhasȱalertedȱusȱtoȱtheȱneedȱtoȱpayȱcloseȱattentionȱto
theȱ interactionsȱ ofȱ bodiesȱ andȱ objectsȱ inȱ theirȱ socialȱ practiceȱ withinȱ aȱ broadly
definedȱ spatialȱ context.ȱ Theȱ contributorsȱ toȱ theȱ volumeȱ Orteȱ –ȱ Ordnungenȱ –
Geographyȱ(London:ȱRoutledge,ȱ1993);ȱAlbertȱGosztonyi,ȱDerȱRaum—GeschichteȱseinerȱProblemeȱin
PhilosophieȱundȱWissenschaftȱ(Freiburgȱi.ȱBr.ȱandȱMunich:ȱKarlȱAlber,ȱ1976).ȱForȱolder,ȱbutȱstillȱvery
importantȱ researchȱ onȱ spaceȱ inȱ courtlyȱ romances,ȱ seeȱ Ingridȱ Hahn,ȱ Raumȱ undȱ Landschaftȱ in
GottfriedsȱTristan:ȱEinȱBeitragȱzurȱWerkdeutung.ȱMediumȱAevum.ȱPhilologischeȱStudien,ȱ3ȱ(Munich:
EidosȱVerlag,ȱ1963).
49
SeeȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱTheȱSpatialȱTurn:ȱInterdisciplinaryȱPerspectives,ȱed.ȱBarneyȱWarfȱandȱSanta
Arias.ȱRoutledgeȱStudiesȱinȱHumanȱGeography,ȱ26ȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱLondon:ȱRoutledge,ȱ2009).ȱFor
aȱrecent,ȱthoughȱnotȱveryȱsuccessfulȱattemptȱtoȱapproachȱmedievalȱcourtlyȱliteratureȱbyȱwayȱof
viewingȱitȱthroughȱtheȱlensȱofȱopticalȱperceptionsȱandȱaȱfocusȱonȱspacesȱwhereȱtheȱprotagonists
actȱ andȱ perform,ȱ seeȱ Carstenȱ Morsch,ȱ Blickwendungen:ȱ Virtuelleȱ Räumeȱ undȱ WahrnehmungsȬ
erfahrungenȱinȱhöfischenȱErzählungenȱumȱ1200.ȱPhilologischeȱStudienȱundȱQuellen,ȱ230ȱ(Berlin:ȱErich
Schmidt,ȱ2010);ȱseeȱmyȱreview,ȱinȱMediaevistik,ȱforthcoming.ȱMorschȱrelies,ȱofȱcourse,ȱheavilyȱon
theȱworkȱofȱhisȱdoctoralȱadvisor,ȱHorstȱWenzel,ȱwhoȱhasȱcoveredȱmuchȱofȱtheȱsameȱfieldȱalready
inȱhisȱSpiegelungen:ȱZurȱKulturȱderȱVisualitätȱimȱMittelalter.ȱPhilologischeȱStudienȱundȱQuellen,ȱ216
(Berlin:ȱErichȱSchmidt,ȱ2009).ȱTheȱentireȱfieldȱofȱspaceȱperceptionȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱisȱaddressed
byȱtheȱcontributorsȱtoȱRäumeȱderȱWahrnehmung.ȱThematicȱissueȱofȱZeitschriftȱSpracheȱundȱLiteratur,
ed.ȱ Horstȱ Wenzel,ȱ 35ȱ (2004).ȱ Seeȱ alsoȱ theȱ contributionsȱ toȱ Visualisierungsstrategienȱ in
mittelalterlichenȱTextenȱundȱBildern,ȱed.ȱHorstȱWenzelȱandȱC.ȱStephenȱJaeger,ȱtogetherȱwithȱChristof
L.ȱDiedrichs,ȱWolfgangȱHarms,ȱandȱPeterȱStrohschneider.ȱPhilologischeȱStudienȱundȱQuellen,ȱ195
(Berlin:ȱErichȱSchmidt,ȱ2006).ȱVeryȱproductiveȱnowȱalsoȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱDorisȱBachmannȬMedick,
Culturalȱ Turns:ȱ Neuorientierungenȱ inȱ denȱ Kulturwissenschaften.ȱ Sec.ȱ ed.ȱ Rororo:ȱ Rowohlts
Enzyklopädie,ȱ55675ȱ(2006;ȱReinbekȱbeiȱHamburg:ȱRowohlt,ȱ2007;ȱ4thȱed.ȱ2010),ȱ284–328.
50
SeeȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱUrbanȱSpaceȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱEarlyȱModernȱAge,ȱed.ȱAlbrecht
Classen,ȱ2009ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ2).
51
Zentrumȱ undȱ Netzwerk:ȱ Kirchlicheȱ Kommunikationȱ undȱ Raumstrukturenȱ imȱ Mittelalter,ȱ ed.ȱ Gisela
DrossbachȱandȱHansȬJoachimȱSchmidt.ȱscriniumȱFriburgense,ȱ22ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱWalter
deȱGruyter,ȱ2008).ȱForȱaȱsolidȱreview,ȱseeȱMirkoȱBreitenstein,ȱMediaevistikȱ23ȱ(2010):ȱ336–40.ȱSee
nowȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱProjektionȱ–ȱReflexionȱ–ȱFerne:ȱRäumlicheȱVorstellungenȱundȱDenkfigurenȱim
Mittelalter,ȱed.ȱSonjaȱGlauch,ȱSusanneȱKöbele,ȱandȱUtaȱStörmerȬCaysaȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱDe
Gruyter,ȱ2011).ȱTheȱfocusȱrestsȱonȱtheȱpoeticȱprojectionȱofȱspaceȱinȱmedievalȱGermanȱandȱFrench
literature,ȱ exploringȱ theȱ threeȱ fieldsȱ ofȱ ‘spatialityȱ ofȱ imaginedȱ spaces,’ȱ ‘theȱ treatmentȱ ofȱ real
spaces,’ȱandȱofȱ‘conceptsȱaboutȱhowȱtoȱoperateȱinȱspaces.’
Oszillationen,ȱbasedȱonȱtheȱpapersȱdeliveredȱatȱaȱconferenceȱatȱtheȱUniversityȱof
Trier,ȱ Decemberȱ 4ȱ andȱ 5,ȱ 2009,ȱ emphasize,ȱ aboveȱ all,ȱ theȱ groundingȱ ofȱ all
knowledgeȱinȱtheȱ“ProzesseȱderȱVerräumlichung”ȱ(processesȱofȱspaceȱcreation).
Theyȱraiseȱtheȱissuesȱasȱtoȱhowȱinformationȱisȱcorrelatedȱwithȱspaceȱandȱorderȱof
thingsȱandȱhowȱwriters,ȱamongȱothers,ȱconstructȱspacesȱofȱinformationȱinȱaȱvariety
ofȱmedia,ȱandȱthisȱfromȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱtoȱtheȱtwentiethȱcentury.52
OlderȱresearchȱgaveȱtooȱmuchȱcreditȱtoȱtheȱteachingsȱofȱtheȱChristianȱChurch
whichȱheld,ȱasȱAlfredȱBieseȱcomments,ȱ“thatȱCreation,ȱthroughȱtheȱentranceȱofȱsin,
hadȱbecomeȱaȱcaricature,ȱandȱthatȱearthlyȱexistenceȱhadȱonlyȱtheȱveryȱlimitedȱvalue
ofȱaȱthoroughfareȱtoȱtheȱeternalȱKingdom.”53ȱHeȱalsoȱscouredȱtheȱwritingsȱofȱthe
ChurchȱFathers,ȱofȱmanyȱdifferentȱreligiousȱtextsȱfromȱtheȱearlyȱMiddleȱAges,ȱand
thenȱ turnsȱ toȱ theȱ chroniclersȱ ofȱ theȱ Crusadesȱ andȱ lateȬmedievalȱ authorsȱ of
pilgrimageȱaccountsȱwhoȱcaredȱveryȱlittleȱaboutȱnatureȱandȱitsȱintrinsicȱvalueȱand
beautyȱ(66ff.).ȱTheȱimpressivelyȱdetailedȱdescriptionȱofȱtheȱVeronaȱpassȱcrossing
theȱAlpsȱbyȱtwelfthȬcenturyȱGuntherusȱLigurinusȱstrikesȱhimȱasȱhighlyȱunusual
(73–74),ȱwhileȱtheȱMiddleȱHighȱGermanȱheroicȱepicsȱNibelungenliedȱandȱKudrun
proveȱ toȱ him,ȱ onceȱ again,ȱ theȱ absenceȱ ofȱ any,ȱ asȱ weȱ wouldȱ say,ȱ ecocritical
awarenessȱandȱappreciationȱ(75–80).ȱLookingȱforȱevidenceȱofȱtrueȱinterestȱinȱnature
amongȱ courtlyȱ loveȱ poetsȱ (troubadoursȱ andȱ Minnesänger),ȱ heȱ comesȱ upȱ mostly
emptyȬhandedȱ becauseȱ theȱ tropologicalȱ characterȱ ofȱ mostȱ referencesȱ toȱ nature
appearȱtoȱbeȱtheȱcustomaryȱstumblingȱblock.ȱ
AsȱtoȱtheȱCarminaȱBuranaȱ(ca.ȱ1220–1240),ȱforȱinstance,ȱcomposedȱbyȱmembers
ofȱtheȱlearnedȱclergy,ȱperhapsȱ“university”ȱprofessorsȱandȱteachersȱatȱtheȱcathedral
schools,ȱBieseȱposits:ȱ“Theȱdimȱlightȱofȱchurchesȱandȱbareȱcellȱwallsȱmayȱhave
doubledȱtheȱmonks’ȱappreciationȱofȱblueȱskiesȱandȱopenȬairȱlife;ȱbutȱtheyȱwere
fetteredȱbyȱtheȱconstantȱfightȱwithȱtheȱsenses;ȱNatureȱtoȱthemȱmustȱneedsȱbeȱless
aȱworkȱofȱGodȱforȱman’sȱdelight,ȱthanȱaȱdangerousȱmeansȱofȱseduction”ȱ(103).
OnlyȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱRenaissanceȱthoughtȱandȱculture,ȱbestȱrepresentedȱby
Boccaccioȱ andȱ Petrarch,ȱ openedȱ aȱ longȬclosedȱ windowȱ towardȱ nature:ȱ “This
sentimentalȱandȱsubjectiveȱfeelingȱforȱNature,ȱhalfȬidyllic,ȱhalfȬromantic,ȱwhich
seemedȱ toȱ ariseȱ suddenlyȱ andȱ spontaneouslyȱ inȱ Petrarch,ȱ isȱ notȱ toȱ beȱ wholly
explainedȱbyȱaȱmarkedȱindividuality,ȱnourishedȱbyȱtheȱtendenciesȱofȱtheȱperiod;
52
HereȱIȱreferȱtoȱtheȱonlineȱsummaryȱofȱtheȱcontent,ȱhttp://www.reichertȬverlag.de/default.aspȱ(last
accessedȱonȱNov.ȱ11,ȱ2011).ȱOrteȱ–ȱOrdnungenȱ–ȱOszillationen:ȱRaumerschaffungȱdurchȱWissenȱund
räumlicheȱStrukturȱvonȱWissen,ȱed.ȱNataliaȱFilatkinaȱandȱMartinȱPrzybilski.ȱTriererȱBeiträgeȱzuȱden
historischenȱKulturwissenschaften,ȱȱ4ȱ(Wiesbaden:ȱLudwigȱReichertȱVerlag,ȱ2011).ȱSeeȱalsoȱSpatial
Turn:ȱ dasȱ Raumparadigmaȱ inȱ denȱ KulturȬȱ undȱ Sozialwissenschaften,ȱ ed.ȱ Jörgȱ Döringȱ (Bielefeld:
Transcript,ȱ2009);ȱcf.ȱalsoȱTheȱSpatialȱTurn,ȱed.ȱBarneyȱWarfȱandȱSantaȱArias,ȱ2009ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ49).
53
AlfredȱBiese,ȱTheȱDevelopmentȱofȱtheȱFeelingȱforȱNatureȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱModernȱTimes.ȱTrans.
fromȱtheȱGerman.ȱBurtȱFranklinȱResearchȱandȱSourceȱWorksȱSeries,ȱ61ȱ(1905;ȱNewȱYork:ȱBurt
Franklin,ȱ[1964]),ȱ22.
Introduction 17
theȱinfluenceȱofȱRomanȱliterature,ȱtheȱreȬbirthȱofȱtheȱclassic,ȱmustȱalsoȱbeȱtakenȱinto
account”ȱ(120).ȱHowever,ȱsinceȱBieseȱsimplyȱstringsȱtogetherȱaȱvastȱnumberȱof
quotesȱfromȱdifferentȱtimes,ȱcultures,ȱandȱpoets,ȱheȱcreatesȱaȱhelterȬskelterȱcanvas
ofȱpuzzleȱpiecesȱthatȱonlyȱseemȱtoȱconveyȱaȱconsistentȱculturalȬhistoricalȱsurvey
ofȱideasȱaboutȱandȱattitudesȱtowardȱnature.ȱ
WhileȱUtaȱStörmerȬCaysaȱarguesȱthatȱcourtlyȱromancesȱareȱpredeterminedȱby
cystallizedȱspacesȱwhereȱtheȱprotagonistsȱoperateȱfreelyȱwithoutȱconcernȱregarding
theȱ conditionsȱ ofȱ naturalȱ space,ȱ Iȱ haveȱ suggestedȱ thatȱ weȱ canȱ findȱ numerous
counterȬexamples,ȱsuchȱasȱinȱGottfriedȱvonȱStraßburg’sȱTristanȱ(ca.ȱ1210),ȱwhere
theȱroleȱofȱislands,ȱofȱlargerȱbodiesȱofȱwater,ȱevenȱmountainsȱandȱwildȱforests
assumeȱcentralȱimportance.54
4.ȱRuralȱSpaceȱandȱEcocriticism
Weȱhaveȱbyȱnowȱprogressedȱmuchȱbeyondȱsuchȱpositivisticȱapproachesȱandȱhave
realizedȱthroughȱaȱmuchȱmoreȱsensitiveȱandȱopenȬmindedȱreadingȱofȱmedieval
literatureȱandȱtheȱartsȱhowȱmuchȱthereȱwasȱaȱnoticeableȱawarenessȱofȱtheȱrural
space,ȱwhetherȱregardedȱpositivelyȱorȱnegativelyȱ(threatening).ȱUndoubtedly,ȱthe
evidenceȱconsistentlyȱpointsȱtowardȱtheȱlateȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱRenaissanceȱas
theȱrelevantȱperiodȱwhenȱaȱtrueȱchange,ȱaȱbroadȱreawakeningȱofȱfascinationȱwith
ruralȱ spaceȱ occurred.55ȱ However,ȱ thisȱ doesȱ notȱ implyȱ aȱ completeȱ deletionȱ and
deliberateȱ blindnessȱ toȱ theȱ naturalȱ elementsȱ andȱ environmentsȱ inȱ theȱ earlier
periodsȱ(lateȱantiquityȱthroughȱtheȱHighȱMiddleȱAges).ȱCertainly,ȱmanyȱtimesȱthe
heroicȱepicsȱandȱreligiousȱpaintingsȱconveyȱaȱsenseȱofȱdangerȱandȱmoralȱthreat,ȱbut
weȱstillȱrecognizeȱaȱremarkableȱrealizationȱofȱtheȱimpactȱthatȱruralȱspaceȱexerted
onȱallȱindividuals.56ȱ
54
UtaȱStörmerȬCaysa,ȱGrundstrukturenȱmittelalterlicherȱErzählungenȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4);ȱAlbrechtȱClassen,
“Spatialityȱ inȱ Gottfriedȱ vonȱ Straßburg’sȱ Tristan:ȱ Socialȱ andȱ Livedȱ Spaceȱ withinȱ theȱ Courtly
World,”ȱTristaniaȱ25ȱ(2009):ȱ25–48.ȱForȱanȱinsightfulȱdiscussionȱofȱwhatȱaȱforestȱcouldȱreallyȱmean
forȱaȱfemaleȱprotagonistȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱseeȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱRosaȱAlvarez
Perez.
55
DerekȱPearsallȱandȱElizabethȱSalter,ȱLandscapesȱandȱSeasonsȱofȱtheȱMedievalȱWorldȱ(London:ȱPaul
Elek,ȱ1973),ȱ161–205.
56
BernardȱF.ȱHuppé,ȱ“NatureȱinȱBeowulfȱandȱRoland,”ȱApproachesȱtoȱNatureȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges:ȱPapers
ofȱtheȱTenthȱAnnualȱConferenceȱofȱtheȱCenterȱforȱMedievalȱ&ȱEarlyȱRenaissanceȱStudies,ȱed.ȱLawrence
D.ȱRoberts.ȱMedievalȱ&ȱRenaissanceȱTextsȱ&ȱStudies,ȱ16ȱ(Binghamton,ȱNY:ȱCenterȱforȱMedieval
&ȱ Earlyȱ Renaissanceȱ Studies,ȱ 1982),ȱ 3–41.ȱ Asȱ toȱ theȱ Chansonȱ deȱ Roland,ȱ heȱ comments,ȱ “The
upheavelȱofȱNatureȱsoȱvividlyȱandȱrealisticallyȱdescribedȱhasȱanythingȱbutȱaȱ‘realistic’ȱfunction.
Natureȱisȱaȱveilȱthroughȱwhichȱweȱperceiveȱdimlyȱtheȱeternalȱreality”ȱ(39).
Althoughȱ theȱ narrativeȱ focusȱ inȱ virtuallyȱ allȱ heroicȱ epicsȱ restsȱ onȱ theȱ physical
challengesȱbyȱmonstersȱorȱmilitaryȱopponents,ȱbothȱinȱtheȱOldȱEnglishȱBeowulfȱ(ca.
1000,ȱ butȱ perhapsȱ alsoȱ earlierȱ orȱ later)ȱ andȱ inȱ theȱ Middleȱ Highȱ German
Nibelungenliedȱ(ca.ȱ1200),ȱbutȱthenȱalsoȱinȱtheȱOldȱFrenchȱChansonȱdeȱRolandȱ(ca.
1130–1170)ȱandȱinȱtheȱOldȱSpanishȱElȱPoemaȱdeȱMíoȱCidȱ(ca.ȱ1200)ȱweȱcanȱdiscover,
atȱtimes,ȱaȱveryȱparticularȱconcernȱwithȱtheȱnaturalȱenvironment.ȱBeowulf,ȱfor
instance,ȱhasȱtoȱproveȱhisȱheroicȱpowersȱaȱnumberȱofȱtimesȱwhileȱheȱisȱswimming
inȱtheȱocean,ȱfirstȱinȱtheȱcompetitionȱwithȱBreca,ȱandȱlaterȱwhenȱheȱisȱdivingȱinto
theȱ depthȱ ofȱ theȱ waterȱ toȱ followȱ Grendel’sȱ motherȱ andȱ toȱ killȱ herȱ inȱ the
underworldȱcaveȱofȱancientȱtimes.ȱContemptuouslyȱcorrectingȱtheȱevilȬminded
Unferth,ȱBeowulfȱdetailsȱwhatȱhadȱhappenedȱtoȱhimȱinȱtheȱwinterȱsportȱaȱlong
timeȱago:ȱ
Weȱfoughtȱwithȱtheȱfloodȱ/ȱforȱfiveȱnights,ȱ/ȱswimmingȱsideȱbyȱside,ȱ/ȱuntilȱaȱsudden
stormȱ/ȱandȱdeepȱdarknessȱ/ȱdroveȱusȱapart.ȱ/ȱBattleȬfierceȱblastsȱblewȱfromȱtheȱnorth
/ȱ straightȱ inȱ ourȱ faces,ȱ /ȱ stirringȱ upȱ theȱ depths,ȱ /ȱ excitingȱ theȱ seaȬmonsters,ȱ /ȱ who
swarmedȱtoȱattackȱme.57ȱ
EvenȱthoughȱBeowulfȱhadȱneverȱbeenȱinȱdangerȱofȱbeingȱovercomeȱbyȱtheȱsea
monsters,ȱtheȱnarrativeȱstillȱunderscoresȱhowȱmuchȱhisȱheroicȱqualitiesȱwereȱtested
inȱtheȱicyȱwater,ȱsurroundedȱbyȱmanyȱthreateningȱbeastsȱofȱtheȱoceans.ȱInȱfact,
BeowulfȱclearedȱtheȱwatersȱfromȱallȱthoseȱdangersȱandȱmadeȱfutureȱseaȬfaringȱsafe
allȱbyȱhimself,ȱhavingȱdefiedȱallȱthoseȱdangersȱinȱtheȱthreateningȱworldȱofȱthe
ocean:ȱ“ButȱIȱsurvivedȱthoseȱfoes’ȱ/ȱvenomousȱassaultȱ/ȱandȱtheȱfloodȱsweptȱmeȱ/
far,ȱ farȱ away,ȱ /ȱ aloneȱ andȱ exhausted,ȱ /ȱ toȱ theȱ landȱ ofȱ theȱ Finns”ȱ (1155–60).
SubsequentlyȱBeowulfȱcanȱonlyȱscornȱatȱUnferth’sȱmiserableȱattemptsȱtoȱmalign
himȱandȱtoȱchangeȱhistoricalȱfacts,ȱtryingȱtoȱridiculeȱthisȱuniqueȱheroȱforȱwhom
thereȱexistedȱnoȱequal.ȱ
Thisȱearlyȱcompetition,ȱhowever,ȱalreadyȱsignaledȱmostȱclearlyȱhowȱimportant
theȱchallengeȱinȱnatureȱprovedȱtoȱbeȱforȱBeowulfȱtoȱproveȱhisȱtrueȱpower,ȱstrength,
andȱresolveȱtoȱfightȱanyȱenemyȱwhomȱheȱmightȱencounter.ȱNotȱsurprisingly,ȱonce
heȱ isȱ pursuingȱ Grendel’sȱ motherȱ andȱ arrivesȱ atȱ theȱ coastȱ whereȱ sheȱ had
disappearedȱinȱtheȱdeepȱwater,ȱheȱimmediatelyȱfollowsȱher,ȱagainȱacceptingȱthe
ultimateȱdangerȱforȱhisȱlifeȱloomingȱinȱtheȱuncannyȱrealmȱatȱtheȱunknownȱbottom
ofȱtheȱsea.ȱ
Atȱ first,ȱ however,ȱ Beowulfȱ andȱ theȱ entireȱ companyȱ ofȱ menȱ followȱ theȱ sheȬ
monster’sȱtrailȱ“overȱmurkyȱmoorsȱ/ȱandȱmistȬshroudedȱhills”ȱ(2809–10),ȱtaking
themȱ furtherȱ andȱ furtherȱ awayȱ fromȱ theȱ centerȱ ofȱ theirȱ ownȱ civilization,
57
Beowulf:ȱAȱNewȱTranslationȱforȱOralȱDeliveryȱbyȱDickȱRinglerȱ(IndianapolisȱandȱCambridge:ȱHackett
PublishingȱCompany,ȱ2007),ȱ1087–98.ȱForȱaȱcriticalȱeditionȱwithȱanȱevenȱbetterȱtranslation,ȱseeȱThe
BeowulfȱManuscript:ȱCompleteȱTextsȱandȱtheȱFightȱatȱFinnsburg,ȱed.ȱandȱtrans.ȱR.ȱD.ȱFulk.ȱDumbarton
OaksȱMedievalȱLibraryȱ(Cambridge,ȱMA,ȱandȱLondon:ȱHarvardȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2010),ȱ122–23.
Introduction 19
Hrothgar’sȱfamousȱhall.ȱNevertheless,ȱBeowulfȱneverȱdisplaysȱanyȱfearȱandȱeagerly
followsȱGrendel’sȱmotherȱdeepȱintoȱherȱownȱzoneȱofȱactivities,ȱsheȱbeingȱperhaps
theȱmostȱaweȬȱandȱfearȬinspiringȱrepresentativeȱofȱarchȬnature,ȱmotherȱofȱlifeȱand
death.ȱTheȱpoetȱdisplaysȱgreatȱdelightȱinȱpresentingȱtoȱusȱinȱextraordinaryȱdetails,
almostȱinȱaȱcinematographicȱfashion,ȱtheȱwarriors’ȱrushȱintoȱtheȱwildnerness,ȱas
theyȱ “struggledȱ overȱ steepȱ /ȱ stoneȬcoveredȱ slopesȱ /ȱ orȱ threadedȱ [their]ȱ wayȱ /
throughȱthinȱdefiles”ȱ(2819–22).ȱ
Thisȱ isȱ notȱ welcomingȱ nature,ȱ pleasantȱ pasture,ȱ orȱ theȱ loveȬfilledȱ natureȱ of
courtlyȱloveȱasȱdealtȱwithȱseveralȱhundredsȱyearsȱlaterȱinȱcountlessȱpoemsȱand
romances.ȱInstead,ȱtheȱBeowulfȱpoetȱtakesȱusȱthroughȱaȱhorrifyingȱpathȱȱdownȱto
theȱshoreȱwhereȱGrendel’sȱmotherȱhasȱleftȱbehindȱÆschere’sȱheadȱ(2842),ȱbefore
sheȱherselfȱvanishedȱintoȱtheȱdarkȱofȱtheȱwater.ȱTheȱwaterȱbeforeȱthemȱisȱcrowded
withȱstrangeȱandȱcruelȱcreatures,ȱrepresentativesȱofȱaȱmostȱthreateningȱandȱfierce
domainȱhostileȱtoȱallȱmen.ȱNevertheless,ȱBeowulfȱkillsȱoneȱofȱthem,ȱwhichȱthey
utilizeȱasȱaȱtrophyȱtoȱcalmȱtheirȱownȱfearȱandȱtoȱemboldenȱthemselves,ȱbeforeȱtheir
leaderȱarmsȱhimselfȱandȱthenȱstepsȱintoȱtheȱwater,ȱasȱDanteȱtheȱpilgrimȱwasȱto
enterȱtheȱrealmȱofȱInfernoȱonȱhisȱlife’sȱvoyageȱseveralȱhundredȱyearsȱlater.ȱ
Theȱparallelsȱactuallyȱextendȱevenȱtoȱtheȱsubsequentȱevents,ȱasȱBeowulf,ȱhaving
killedȱGrendel’sȱmotherȱandȱhavingȱdecapitatedȱdeadȱGrendel,ȱleavesȱallȱspoils
behindȱandȱonlyȱtakesȱGrendel’sȱheadȱandȱtheȱhiltȱofȱtheȱancientȱsword,ȱwhichȱhad
meltedȱinȱGrendel’sȱpoisonousȱblood,ȱasȱhisȱtrophiesȱbackȱonȱtheȱsurface.ȱTheȱpoet
underscoresȱwithȱallȱdramaticȱskillsȱhowȱmuchȱtheȱunderwaterȱcaveȱhadȱbeenȱa
kingdomȱofȱevil,ȱwhichȱtheȱprotagonistȱnowȱcanȱleaveȱbehind,ȱhavingȱclearedȱit
fromȱallȱthreats:ȱ“Theȱoceanȱdepthsȱ/ȱhadȱbeenȱexorcised,ȱ/ȱcleansedȱofȱevil,ȱ/ȱwhen
theȱcruelȱfiendȱ/ȱleftȱthisȱtransientȱ/ȱandȱdelusiveȱworld”ȱ(3239–44).ȱBeowulfȱreturns
toȱhisȱfriendsȱasȱtheȱgreatȱliberator,ȱasȱtheȱnewȱmasterȱofȱtheȱworld,ȱbothȱonȱthe
surfaceȱandȱdeepȱunderȱtheȱsea,ȱwhichȱseemedȱsoȱunlikelyȱtoȱHrothgarȱandȱhis
menȱthatȱtheyȱallȱleaveȱuponȱobservingȱtheȱbloodȱsurgingȱinȱtheȱabyssȱ(3188–3203).ȱ
Fiftyȱyearsȱlater,ȱhowever,ȱBeowulfȱhasȱtoȱresumeȱalmostȱtheȱsameȱstruggleȱand
fightȱagainstȱanotherȱfiend,ȱthisȱtimeȱoccupyingȱtheȱspaceȱofȱaȱcave,ȱtheȱmonstrous
dragon.ȱAsȱweȱknow,ȱatȱtheȱendȱtheȱbyȱthenȱoldȱheroȱsucceedsȱonceȱagain,ȱbutȱnot
withoutȱreceivingȱaȱdeadlyȱwoundȱbyȱtheȱevilȱcreaure.ȱHowever,ȱatȱthatȱpointȱone,
andȱunfortunatelyȱtheȱonlyȱloyalȱvassal,ȱWiglaf,ȱrushesȱtoȱhisȱrescueȱandȱwounds
theȱdragonȱseriouslyȱenoughȱforȱhisȱlordȱtoȱfinishȱoffȱtheȱbeast.ȱ
Butȱletȱusȱconsiderȱtheȱwayȱinȱwhichȱtheȱpoetȱdealsȱwithȱtheȱspaceȱsetting,ȱwhich
opensȱtheȱperspectiveȱtowardȱruralȱspaceȱonceȱagain,ȱorȱallowsȱusȱtoȱapplyȱan
ecocriticalȱperspectiveȱtoȱthisȱheroicȱepic.ȱEnteringȱtheȱdragon’sȱlair,ȱBeowulfȱhas
toȱpenetrateȱdeeplyȱintoȱtheȱearth,ȱagainȱapproachingȱaȱhellishȱregionȱintoȱwhich
onlyȱtheȱbravestȱofȱthemȱallȱwouldȱdareȱtoȱmove.ȱHeȱ“sawȱstoneȱarchesȱ/ȱstanding
beforeȱhim,ȱ/ȱspewingȱforthȱstreamsȱ/ȱofȱsplashingȱflameȱ/ȱandȱnoxiousȱfumes”
(5089–93).ȱ Theȱ deadlyȱ battleȱ takesȱ placeȱ inȱ theȱ dragon’sȱ cave,ȱ whereȱ theȱ hero
receivesȱhisȱdeadlyȱwound,ȱbutȱnotȱbeforeȱkillingȱtheȱdragonȱwithȱhisȱdagger.ȱAs
inȱtheȱpreviousȱbattleȱagainstȱGrendel’sȱmother,ȱtheȱprotagonistȱisȱfarȱawayȱfrom
hisȱretinue,ȱandȱsoȱfromȱtheȱcourt,ȱhenceȱinȱtheȱforbiddenȱrealmȱofȱhostileȱnature,
whichȱheȱmustȱovercomeȱforȱtheȱwellȬbeing,ȱifȱnotȱsurvival,ȱofȱhumanȱexistence.58
Beowulf’sȱbodyȱisȱsubsequentlyȱbroughtȱupȱfromȱtheȱcave,ȱplacedȱonȱaȱmound,
andȱburnedȱbyȱtheȱpyre,ȱaȱgloriousȱacknowledgmentȱofȱhisȱheroicȱdeeds,ȱnow
shiningȱ forthȱ inȱ public,ȱ openlyȱ toȱ beȱ seenȱ byȱ peopleȱ farȱ andȱ wide,ȱ sending
messagesȱacrossȱtheȱwatersȱtoȱmanyȱforeignȱlands.ȱTheȱdeadȱdragon,ȱhowever,ȱis
simplyȱkickedȱ“overȱtheȱseaȬcliff”ȱ(6263),ȱandȱsoȱthisȱevilȱcreatureȱendsȱatȱtheȱsame
locationȱ whereȱ Grendel’sȱ motherȱ hadȱ diedȱ asȱ well,ȱ squashed,ȱ destroyed,ȱ and
buriedȱinȱtheȱdepthȱofȱtheȱocean.ȱForȱtheȱanonymousȱpoet,ȱthen,ȱtheȱmoveȱfromȱthe
heroicȱcourtȱtoȱtheȱbattlegroundȱdeepȱunderȱtheȱearth,ȱinȱaȱcave,ȱorȱatȱtheȱbottom
ofȱtheȱsea,ȱrepresentsȱtheȱultimateȱturnȱawayȱfromȱearthly,ȱcivilizedȱexistenceȱtoȱthe
spiritualȱstruggle,ȱsoȱheȱmadeȱeveryȱeffortȱtoȱprojectȱtheȱarchetypalȱclashȱbetween
goodȱandȱevilȱatȱtheȱmostȱremoteȱlocations.59
IfȱweȱconsideredȱtheȱMiddleȱHighȱGermanȱNibelungenliedȱ(ca.ȱ1200),ȱweȱwould
findȱmanyȱintriguingȱconfirmationsȱthatȱtheȱGermanicȱheroȱhasȱtoȱstruggleȱfirst
andȱ foremostȱ againstȱ forcesȱ ofȱ nature,ȱ orȱ againstȱ representativesȱ ofȱ theȱ nether
world,ȱwhetherȱdragonsȱorȱdwarves.ȱHereȱIȱwouldȱlikeȱtoȱfocusȱonȱoneȱsceneȱonly
whichȱillustratesȱmostȱpowerfullyȱhowȱmuchȱtravelȱthroughȱruralȱspaceȱallowsȱthe
protagonist/sȱ toȱ learnȱ whatȱ destinyȱ holdsȱ forȱ them.ȱ Leavingȱ asideȱ theȱ most
commonȱmotifȱofȱcrossingȱbodiesȱofȱwaterȱonȱaȱseaȱvoyage,ȱorȱjourneyingȱonȱa
riverȱtoȱaȱdistantȱgoalȱonȱaȱbridalȱquest,ȱsuchȱasȱtoȱBrünhild’sȱkingdomȱfarȱinȱthe
north,ȱ hereȱ Iȱ wantȱ toȱ focusȱ onȱ theȱ oneȱ sceneȱ whereȱ Hagenȱ ferriesȱ theȱ entire
Burgundianȱ armyȱ acrossȱ theȱ riverȱ Danubeȱ whileȱ theyȱ travelȱ toȱ theȱ Hungarian
kingdomȱ whereȱ theirȱ sister,ȱ afterȱ theȱ murderȱ ofȱ herȱ firstȱ husbandȱ Siegfried,ȱ is
marriedȱtoȱKingȱEtzelȱ(Attila).ȱHavingȱalreadyȱlearnedȱfromȱwildȱnixiesȱwhatȱtheir
futureȱholdsȱforȱthemȱall,ȱthatȱisȱcertainȱdeath,ȱexceptȱforȱtheȱchaplain,ȱtheȱliminal
58
GeoffreyȱRussom,ȱ“HistoricityȱandȱAnachronismȱinȱBeowulf,”ȱEpicȱandȱHistory,ȱed.ȱDavidȱKonstan
andȱKurtȱA.ȱRaaflaub.ȱTheȱAncientȱWorld:ȱComparativeȱHistoriesȱ(Malden,ȱMA,ȱandȱOxford:
WileyȬBlackwell,ȱ2010),ȱ243–61.
59
F.ȱW.ȱMoorman,ȱTheȱInterpretationȱofȱNatureȱinȱEnglishȱPoetryȱfromȱBeowulfȱtoȱShakespeare.ȱQuellen
undȱForschungenȱzurȱSprachȬȱundȱKulturgeschichteȱderȱgermanischenȱVölker,ȱ95ȱ(Strassburg:ȱK.
J.ȱTrübner,ȱ1905;ȱrpt.ȱNewȱYork:ȱAMSȱPress,ȱ1972);ȱJoyceȱTallyȱLionarons,ȱTheȱMedievalȱDragon:ȱThe
NatureȱofȱtheȱBeastȱinȱGermanicȱLiteratureȱ(EnfieldȱLock,ȱMiddlesex,ȱUK:ȱHisarlikȱPress,ȱ1998);ȱsee
alsoȱBettyȱT.ȱMann,ȱ“WaterȱImageryȱandȱtheȱBaptismȱMotifȱinȱBeowulf,”ȱPh.D.ȱdiss.ȱUniversity
ofȱNorthȱTexas,ȱ1977ȱ(DAIȬAȱ38/07,ȱp.ȱ4149,ȱJanȱ1978);ȱforȱbiblicalȱanalogiesȱinȱBeowulfȱandȱparallel
AngloȬSaxonȱ texts,ȱ seeȱ Danielȱ Anlezark,ȱ Waterȱ andȱ Fire:ȱ Theȱ Mythȱ ofȱ theȱ Floodȱ inȱ AngloȬSaxon
England.ȱManchesterȱMedievalȱLiteratureȱ(ManchesterȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱManchesterȱUniversity
Press,ȱ2006).ȱForȱrecentȱstudiesȱonȱthisȱfamousȱepic,ȱseeȱTheȱPostmodernȱBeowulfȱ:ȱAȱCriticalȱCasebook,
ed.ȱEileenȱA.ȱJoy,ȱMaryȱK.ȱRamsey,ȱwithȱtheȱassistanceȱofȱBruceȱD.ȱGilchristȱ(Morgantown:ȱWest
VirginiaȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2006).
Introduction 21
figureȱHagenȱrecklesslyȱandȱbrutallyȱthrowsȱtheȱlatterȱoverboardȱand,ȱpreventing
allȱothersȱinȱtheirȱcompanyȱfromȱcomingȱtoȱtheȱpoorȱman’sȱrescue,ȱforcesȱhimȱto
tryȱtoȱsaveȱhisȱlifeȱbyȱstrugglingȱtoȱtheȱriverȱembankment.ȱ
Althoughȱtheȱclericȱreallyȱdoesȱnotȱknowȱhowȱtoȱswim,ȱGodȱsavesȱhim,ȱwhich
signalsȱtoȱHagenȱthatȱtheirȱchanceȱofȱsurvivalȱatȱKingȱEtzel’sȱcourtȱwouldȱbeȱnil.
Hence,ȱheȱsmashesȱtheȱoneȱandȱonlyȱferryboat,ȱbecauseȱthereȱisȱnoȱneedȱforȱanyone
amongȱtheȱBurgundianȱwarriorsȱtoȱthinkȱofȱtheȱjourneyȱbackȱhome.ȱTheyȱareȱall
doomedȱtoȱdie,ȱsoȱtheȱdestructionȱofȱtheȱboatȱservesȱexceedinglyȱwellȱasȱtheȱmost
powerfulȱsymbolȱofȱtheirȱimpendingȱdestiny.ȱTheȱpoetȱworkedȱoutȱtheȱcrossingȱof
theȱDanubeȱtrulyȱmagnificently,ȱpresentingȱusȱwithȱaȱmostȱmeaningfulȱreflection
onȱtheȱsignificanceȱofȱbodiesȱofȱwaterȱinȱheroicȱliteratureȱ(seeȱalreadyȱBeowulf).60ȱ
Thoseȱwhoȱfaceȱaȱriverȱorȱaȱseaȱquicklyȱunderstandȱthatȱtheirȱultimateȱchallenge
hasȱarrived,ȱsinceȱtheȱcrossingȱofȱthatȱbodyȱofȱwaterȱconstitutesȱtheȱmomentȱof
truth,ȱalmostȱlikeȱinȱancientȱGreekȱmythologyȱwhereȱtheȱRiverȱStyxȱconstituted
suchȱ aȱ monumentalȱ landmarkȱ inȱ thanatologyȱ byȱ establishingȱ theȱ boundary
betweenȱ Earthȱ andȱ Hades.61ȱ Inȱ theȱ Nibelungenlied,ȱ traversingȱ theȱ Danube
represents,ȱ inȱ mostȱ explicitȱ terms,ȱ theȱ transitionȱ fromȱ lifeȱ toȱ death,ȱ although
virtuallyȱunknownȱtoȱtheȱentireȱarmy,ȱexceptȱforȱHagen.ȱOnceȱheȱhasȱrealizedȱthat
theȱ nixiesȱ hadȱ beenȱ correctȱ inȱ theirȱ prophecyȱ concerningȱ theȱ clericȱ andȱ allȱ the
others’ȱlives,ȱheȱunderstandsȱthatȱtheyȱwouldȱalsoȱbeȱrightȱregardingȱtheȱsecond
60
Forȱaȱcriticalȱdiscussionȱofȱcourtlyȱprotagonists’ȱprecariousȱexistenceȱandȱtheȱmeaningȱofȱspace,
orȱrather,ȱtheȱcrossingȱofȱandȱleavingȱbehindȱspacesȱinȱcourtlyȱliterature,ȱseeȱMollyȱRobinson
Kelly,ȱTheȱHero’sȱPlace:ȱMedievalȱLiteraryȱTraditionsȱofȱSpaceȱandȱBelongingȱ(Washington,ȱDC:ȱThe
CatholicȱUniversityȱofȱAmericaȱPress,ȱ2009).ȱTheȱonlyȱotherȱsignificantȱmedievalȱnarrativeȱwhere
theȱdismantlingȱofȱaȱshipȱmattersȱprofoundlyȱcanȱbeȱfoundȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱHighȱGermanȱverse
narrativeȱ Mauritiusȱ vonȱ Craûnȱ (ca.ȱ 1220–1230).ȱ Theȱ protagonistȱ hasȱ aȱ fabulousȱ shipȱ builtȱ for
himselfȱwhichȱallowsȱhimȱtoȱtravelȱacrossȱdryȱland,ȱwithȱhorsesȱinsideȱtheȱfakeȱshipȱpullingȱthe
entireȱprop.ȱArrivingȱatȱtheȱcastleȱwhereȱhisȱladyȱisȱawaitingȱtheȱbeginningȱofȱaȱtournament,ȱher
preconditionȱ forȱ theirȱ loveȱ affair,ȱ asȱ sheȱ hadȱ demanded,ȱ sheȱ provesȱ toȱ beȱ ratherȱ impressed,
althoughȱsheȱidentifiesȱMauritiusȱasȱtheȱAntiȬChrist,ȱorȱSaintȱBrendan.ȱLater,ȱafterȱtheȱtournament,
theȱprotagonistȱhandsȱoverȱtheȱshipȱtoȱallȱtheȱminstrelsȱandȱotherȱpeopleȱinȱhisȱretinue,ȱwho
quicklyȱripȱtheȱshipȱapart,ȱtryingȱtoȱsecureȱsomeȱvaluableȱpartsȱforȱthemselves.ȱInȱthatȱprocessȱone
personȱisȱevenȱkilled.ȱWeȱcouldȱnotȱnecessarilyȱidentifyȱthisȱentireȱaccountȱasȱaȱreflectionȱonȱrural
spaceȱ(water),ȱbutȱtheȱsymbolicȱfunctionȱofȱaȱshipȱisȱmadeȱcrystalȱclearȱhereȱasȱwell.ȱMauritiusȱvon
Craûn,ȱ ed.ȱ Heimoȱ Reinitzer.ȱ Altdeutscheȱ Textbibliothek,ȱ 113ȱ (Tübingen:ȱ Niemeyer,ȱ 2000);ȱ cf.
HubertusȱFischer,ȱRitter,ȱSchiffȱundȱDame:ȱMauritiusȱvonȱCraûn:ȱTextȱundȱKontext.ȱBeiträgeȱzur
älterenȱLiteraturgeschichteȱ(Heidelberg:ȱUniversitätsverlagȱWinter,ȱ2006),ȱ101–38.
61
BrigitteȱEnglisch,ȱ“Weltflüsse,”ȱBurgen,ȱLänder,ȱOrte,ȱed.ȱUlrichȱMüllerȱandȱWernerȱWunderlich,
togetherȱwithȱMargareteȱSpringeth.ȱMittelalterȱMythen,ȱ5ȱ(Constance:ȱUVKȱVerlagsgesellschaft,
2008),ȱ981–96.
partȱofȱtheirȱprophecyȱconcerningȱtheȱoutcomeȱofȱtheȱvisitȱatȱKingȱEtzel’sȱcourt:
“‘Theseȱknightsȱareȱdoomedȱtoȱdie,’ȱthoughtȱhe.”62ȱ
VeryȱsimilarȱtoȱtheȱexperiencesȱformulatedȱbyȱtheȱnarratorȱofȱTheȱVoyageȱofȱSaint
Brendan,ȱhereȱweȱareȱclearlyȱalertedȱtoȱtheȱsymbolicȱandȱspiritualȱsignificanceȱof
waterȱatȱlarge,ȱwhichȱtheȱprotagonistsȱhaveȱtoȱcrossȱinȱorderȱtoȱreachȱtheȱnextȱstage
inȱtheirȱlives,ȱthatȱis,ȱactually,ȱtheirȱdeath.63
InȱtheȱanonymousȱOldȱFrenchȱChansonȱdeȱRolandȱ(copiedȱsometimeȱbetweenȱ1130
andȱ1170,ȱbutȱprobablyȱcomposedȱsometimeȱatȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱeleventhȱcentury)ȱthe
fundamentalȱtransitionȱpointȱisȱnotȱatȱaȱriverȱorȱanȱocean,ȱbutȱatȱaȱmountainȱpass
inȱtheȱPyreneesȱwhereȱRolandȱandȱhisȱmenȱsuddenlyȱfaceȱtheȱMuslimȱenemiesȱwho
haveȱcomeȱuponȱthemȱafterȱRoland’sȱstepfatherȱhasȱbetrayedȱhimȱandȱhisȱmenȱin
Charlemagne’sȱrearȬguard.64ȱ
Asȱtheȱnarratorȱinformsȱusȱinȱlaisseȱ80:ȱ“Oliverȱisȱonȱaȱloftyȱhilltop.ȱ/ȱHeȱlooks
downȱtoȱtheȱrightȱoverȱaȱgrassyȱvaleȱ/ȱAndȱheȱseesȱtheȱapproachȱofȱtheȱpagan
army”ȱ(1017–19).ȱRealizingȱtheȱmortalȱdangerȱforȱtheirȱsmallȱband,ȱOliverȱrushes
downȱfromȱtheȱhill,ȱraisesȱalarm,ȱandȱrepeatedlyȱurgesȱRolandȱtoȱblowȱtheȱhorn
(laissesȱ83,ȱ84,ȱandȱ85)ȱinȱorderȱtoȱcallȱbackȱCharlemagneȱwithȱhisȱhugeȱarmy.
Roland’sȱarrogance,ȱhowever,ȱpreventsȱhimȱfromȱlisteningȱtoȱthatȱadvice,ȱorȱrather
strongȱappeal,ȱwhichȱultimatelyȱmeansȱallȱtheirȱdoomȱatȱtheȱhandsȱofȱtheȱMuslim
opponents.ȱ
Fromȱ thenȱ onȱ theȱ focusȱ onȱ natureȱ recedesȱ intoȱ theȱ backgroundȱ sinceȱ the
exclusiveȱinterestȱrestsȱonȱtheȱbattles,ȱtheȱslaughterȱofȱallȱtheȱmen,ȱandȱtheȱbrave
andȱ fierceȱ fighting.ȱ Theȱ fact,ȱ however,ȱ thatȱ Oliverȱ observesȱ theȱ arrivalȱ ofȱ the
ArabicȱarmyȱonȱaȱhillȬtop,ȱrushesȱdownȱtoȱtheirȱownȱcamp,ȱandȱthenȱtriesȱinȱvain
toȱ convinceȱ Rolandȱ toȱ callȱ forȱ helpȱ underscores,ȱ onceȱ again,ȱ howȱ muchȱ the
62
TheȱNibelungenlied,ȱtrans.ȱA.ȱT.ȱHattoȱ(1965;ȱLondon:ȱPenguin,ȱ2004),ȱChapterȱ25,ȱ198.ȱModern
researchȱonȱthisȱepicȱpoemȱisȱlegion;ȱsee,ȱforȱinstance,ȱJanȬDirkȱMüller,ȱDasȱNibelungenlied.ȱ3rd,
newlyȱrev.ȱandȱexpandedȱed.ȱKlassikerȬLektüren,ȱ5ȱ(2001;ȱBerlin:ȱErichȱSchmidtȱVerlag,ȱ2009);ȱfor
aȱvarietyȱofȱperspectives,ȱseeȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱAȱCompanionȱtoȱtheȱNibelungenlied,ȱed.ȱWinder
McConnell.ȱ Studiesȱ inȱ Germanȱ Literature,ȱ Linguistics,ȱ andȱ Cultureȱ (Columbia,ȱ SC:ȱ Camden
House,ȱ1998).ȱNowȱseeȱalsoȱAlbrechtȱClassen,ȱ“TheȱNibelungenliedȱ–ȱMythȱandȱHistory:ȱAȱMiddle
HighȱGermanȱEpicȱPoemȱatȱtheȱCrossroadsȱofȱPastȱandȱPresent,ȱDespairȱandȱHope,”ȱEpicȱand
Historyȱ(seeȱnoteȱ58),ȱ262–79.
63
AnneȱScott,ȱ“ComeȱHellȱorȱHighȱWater:ȱAqueousȱMomentsȱinȱMedievalȱEpic,ȱRomance,ȱAllegory,
andȱFabliau,”ȱTheȱNatureȱandȱFunctionȱofȱWater,ȱBaths,ȱBathing,ȱandȱHygieneȱfromȱAntiquityȱThrough
theȱRenaissance,ȱed.ȱCynthiaȱKossoȱandȱeadem.ȱTechnologyȱandȱChangeȱinȱHistory,ȱIIȱ(Leidenȱand
Boston:ȱBrill,ȱ2009),ȱ407–25.
64
TheȱSongȱofȱRoland,ȱtrans.ȱwithȱanȱintrod.ȱandȱnotesȱbyȱGlynȱBurgessȱ(London:ȱPenguin,ȱ1990),
laisseȱ79ff.ȱSeeȱnowȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱtheȱhighlyȱusefulȱandȱinsightfulȱvolumeȱApproachesȱto
TeachingȱtheȱSongȱofȱRoland,ȱed.ȱWilliamȱW.ȱKiblerȱandȱLeslieȱZarkerȱMorgan.ȱApproachesȱto
TeachingȱWorldȱLiteratureȱ(NewȱYork:ȱTheȱModernȱLanguageȱAssociationȱofȱAmerica,ȱ2006).
However,ȱtheȱrelevanceȱofȱruralȱspaceȱinȱthisȱheroicȱepicȱisȱnotȱamongȱtheȱconcernsȱdealtȱwith
here.
Introduction 23
selectionȱ ofȱ aȱ specialȱ spotȱ inȱ aȱ forestȱ (Elȱ Poemaȱ deȱ Míoȱ Cid),ȱ inȱ theȱ deepȱ water
(Beowulf)ȱorȱatȱaȱriverȱ(Nibelungenlied)ȱhelpedȱtheȱmedievalȱauthorsȱtoȱpresentȱin
mostȱvividȱtermsȱhowȱhumanȱdestinyȱisȱreflectedȱinȱnaturalȱspace.ȱWeȱcouldȱalso
argueȱ thatȱ theȱ representativesȱ ofȱ earlyȬmedievalȱ societiesȱ whoȱ createdȱ those
magnificentȱepicsȱwereȱfullyȱawareȱofȱtheȱextraordinaryȱimportanceȱofȱtheȱrural
worldȱ withȱ itsȱ supremeȱ symbolicȱ andȱ metaphoricalȱ significance.ȱ Theȱ fightȱ for
survivalȱofȱtheȱhumanȱrace,ȱtheȱstruggleȱbetweenȱgoodȱandȱevil,ȱandȱtheȱchallenge
ofȱlifeȱandȱdeathȱallȱbyȱitselfȱwereȱallȱdeliberatelyȱlocatedȱinȱtheȱheartȱofȱnature,ȱthe
worldȱoutsideȱofȱconstructedȱcivilization.
Inȱmanyȱrespectsȱtheȱruralȱworld,ȱthatȱis,ȱbothȱtheȱfarmȱandȱtheȱvillage,ȱtheȱforest
andȱ theȱ meadows,ȱ andȱ atȱ timesȱ evenȱ theȱ gardenȱ inȱ allȱ itsȱ domesticated
constructionȱ ofȱ nature,ȱ playedȱ aȱ significantȱ role,ȱ ifȱ notȱ anȱ everȱ growingȱ one
throughoutȱtheȱcenturiesȱinȱliterature,ȱreligion,ȱphilosophy,ȱandȱart.65ȱNatureȱwas
commonlyȱviewedȱasȱGod’sȱBook,ȱandȱman’sȱtaskȱconsistedȱofȱdecipheringȱand
comprehendingȱtheȱlettersȱwrittenȱonȱitsȱpages.66
ConsideringȱtheȱfamousȱLuttrellȱPsalter,ȱforȱinstance,ȱwhichȱwasȱcreatedȱatȱthe
endȱofȱtheȱfourteenthȱcenturyȱonȱbehalfȱofȱLordȱGeoffreyȱLuttrellȱ(1276–1345),ȱwe
canȱeasilyȱrecognizeȱhowȱimportantȱtheȱfarmȱworldȱwasȱforȱtheȱnobilityȱasȱwell,
sinceȱtheyȱdrew,ȱofȱcourse,ȱtheirȱfoodstuffȱfromȱthere.67ȱHowever,ȱitȱisȱoneȱthingȱto
appreciateȱnobleȱinterestsȱinȱaȱvarietyȱofȱsubjectsȱpertainingȱtoȱnature,ȱtheȱpeasant
class,ȱorȱanimals,ȱbirds,ȱinsects,ȱandȱfish,ȱandȱquiteȱanotherȱtoȱunderstandȱtoȱwhat
extentȱnobleȱandȱmerchantȱaudiencesȱdemonstratedȱtrueȱconcernȱandȱfascination
withȱruralȱspaceȱasȱaȱnormal,ȱcomplementaryȱaspectȱofȱtheirȱownȱexistence.
65
IȱwillȱlaterȱinȱthisȱIntroductionȱengageȱwithȱmuchȱotherȱscholarship,ȱbutȱseeȱhere,ȱforȱthisȱspecial
topic,ȱSylviaȱLandsberg,ȱTheȱMedievalȱGardenȱ(TorontoȱandȱBuffalo:ȱUniversityȱofȱTorontoȱPress,
2005);ȱcf.ȱalsoȱCeliaȱFisher,ȱFlowersȱinȱMedievalȱManuscriptsȱ(TorontoȱandȱBuffalo:ȱUniversityȱof
Torontoȱ Press,ȱ 2004).ȱ Seeȱ alsoȱ theȱ contributionsȱ toȱ Medievalȱ Gardens,ȱ ed.ȱ Elisabethȱ Blair
MacDougall.ȱ Dumbartonȱ Oaksȱ Colloquiumȱ onȱ theȱ Historyȱ ofȱ Landscapeȱ Architecture,ȱ 9
(Washington,ȱDC:ȱDumbartonȱOaksȱResearchȱLibraryȱandȱCollection,ȱ1986).ȱForȱaȱspecialȱcase
study,ȱseeȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱAbigailȱP.ȱDowling.
66
SeeȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱTheȱBookȱandȱtheȱMagicȱofȱReadingȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassen.
GarlandȱReferenceȱLibraryȱofȱtheȱHumanities,ȱ2118ȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱLondon:ȱGarlandȱPublishing,
1999);ȱandȱtoȱTheȱBookȱofȱNatureȱinȱAntiquityȱandȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱed.ȱArjoȱVanderjagtȱandȱKlaasȱvan
Berkel.ȱGroningenȱStudiesȱinȱCulturalȱChange,ȱXVIȱ(Leuven,ȱParis,ȱandȱDudley,ȱMA:ȱPeeters,
2005).
67
JanetȱBackhouse,ȱMedievalȱRuralȱLifeȱinȱtheȱLuttrellȱ Psalterȱ(TorontoȱandȱBuffalo:ȱUniversityȱof
TorontoȱPress,ȱ2000);ȱTheȱLuttrellȱPsalter:ȱAȱFacsimile,ȱcommentaryȱbyȱMichelleȱP.ȱBrownȱ(London:
TheȱBritishȱLibrary,ȱ2006);ȱforȱaȱstudyȱofȱHungarianȱconditions,ȱseeȱMartynȱRady,ȱNobility,ȱLand
andȱServiceȱinȱMedievalȱHungary.ȱStudiesȱinȱRussiaȱandȱEastȱEuropeȱ(Houndmills,ȱBasingstoke,
Hampshire,ȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱPalgrave,ȱinȱassociationȱwithȱSchoolȱofȱSlavonicȱandȱEastȱEuropean
Studies,ȱUniversityȱCollegeȱLondon,ȱ2000).ȱ
Asȱ Ruralȱ Spaceȱ Studiesȱ canȱ reveal,ȱ thereȱ wasȱ alreadyȱ greatȱ interestȱ inȱ the
symbolicȱandȱmaterialȱfunctionȱofȱtheȱisland,ȱtheȱmountain,ȱandȱtheȱforestȱduring
theȱpremodernȱworld.ȱAllȱthoseȱdomainsȱinvitedȱsymbolicȱ interpretationsȱand
offeredȱ naturalȱ imageryȱ forȱ archetypalȱ aspectsȱ inȱ humanȱ life.ȱ Ruralȱ spaceȱ has
alwaysȱ beenȱ crucialȱ inȱ projectingȱ mythicalȱ elements,ȱ andȱ theȱ darkȱ orȱ lonely
locationsȱfarȱawayȱfromȱurbanȱandȱcourtlyȱcivilizationȱhaveȱconsistentlyȱinvited
speculation,ȱ fantasyȱ imagination,ȱ andȱ dreamȱ projections.68ȱ Theȱ growthȱ or
shrinkageȱofȱforests,ȱandȱbyȱtheȱsameȱtoken,ȱtheȱexpansionȱorȱreductionȱofȱthe
timberȱ lineȱ onȱ mountainsȱ dependȱ onȱ theȱ climateȱ andȱ onȱ humanȱ impacts,ȱ soȱ a
carefulȱstudyȱofȱtheȱinteractionȱbetweenȱpeopleȱandȱforestsȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱfor
instance,ȱcanȱyieldȱfarȬreachingȱresultsȱconcerningȱbothȱsidesȱofȱtheȱequation.69
Ecocriticism,ȱperhapsȱaȱmoreȱfancyȱwordȱthanȱnecessaryȱforȱourȱpurposes,ȱcan
haveȱaȱveryȱhealthyȱinfluenceȱonȱMedievalȱStudiesȱifȱitȱforcesȱusȱtoȱreexamine
manyȱofȱtheȱliterary,ȱhistorical,ȱorȱartȬhistoricalȱsourcesȱwhichȱweȱhaveȱalready
scouredȱforȱaȱmyriadȱofȱotherȱpurposesȱandȱinterests.ȱEcocriticismȱinvitesȱusȱto
studyȱwithȱrenewedȱinterestȱandȱcareȱwhatȱindividualȱpoets,ȱartists,ȱwriters,ȱand
historicalȱorȱotherȱtextsȱhadȱtoȱsayȱaboutȱtheȱnaturalȱworld,ȱruralȱspace,ȱandȱhow
theyȱviewedȱit.ȱAsȱGrahamȱHugganȱandȱHelenȱTiffinȱputȱitȱinȱtheȱintroductionȱto
theirȱradicalȱcritiqueȱinformedȱbyȱecocriticism,
Postcolonialȱstudiesȱhasȱcomeȱtoȱunderstandȱenvironmentalȱissuesȱnotȱonlyȱasȱcentral
toȱtheȱprojectsȱofȱEuropeanȱconquestȱandȱglobalȱdomination,ȱbutȱalsoȱasȱinherentȱinȱthe
ideologiesȱ ofȱ imperialismȱ andȱ racismȱ onȱ whichȱ thoseȱ projectsȱ historically—and
persistently—depend.ȱ Notȱ onlyȱ wereȱ otherȱ peopleȱ oftenȱ regardedȱ asȱ partȱ of
nature—andȱthusȱ treatedȱinstrumentallyȱasȱanimals—butȱalsoȱtheyȱwereȱforcedȱor
coȬoptedȱoverȱtimeȱintoȱwesternȱviewsȱofȱtheȱenvironment,ȱtherebyȱrenderingȱcultural
andȱenvironmentalȱrestitutionȱdifficultȱifȱnotȱimpossibleȱtoȱachieve.ȱOnceȱinvasionȱand
settlementȱhadȱbeenȱaccomplished,ȱorȱatȱleastȱonceȱadministrativeȱstructuresȱhadȱbeen
setȱup,ȱtheȱenvironmentalȱimpactsȱofȱwesternȱattitudesȱtoȱhumanȱbeingȬinȬtheȬworld
wereȱfacilitatedȱorȱreinforcedȱbyȱtheȱdeliberateȱ(orȱaccidental)ȱtransportȱofȱanimals,
68
Folkerȱ Reichert,ȱ “Mythischeȱ Inseln”ȱ (639–57);ȱ Albrechtȱ Classen,ȱ “Derȱ Mythosȱ vomȱ Rhein:
Geschichte,ȱKultur,ȱLiteraturȱundȱIdeologie:ȱDieȱRolleȱeinesȱeuropäischenȱFlussesȱvomȱMittelalter
bisȱzurȱGegenwart”ȱ(711–25);ȱHildegardȱE.ȱKeller,ȱ“Wald,ȱWälder:ȱStreifzügeȱdurchȱeinenȱTopos”
(927–41);ȱ eadem,ȱ “Wüste”ȱ (997–1007),ȱ Burgen,ȱ Länder,ȱ Orteȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 61)ȱ ;ȱ Albrechtȱ Classen,ȱ
“CaughtȱonȱanȱIsland:ȱGeographicȱandȱSpiritualȱIsolationȱinȱMedievalȱGermanȱCourtlyȱLiterature:
HerzogȱErnst,ȱGregorius,ȱTristan,ȱandȱPartonopierȱundȱMeliur,”ȱStudiaȱNeophilologicaȱ79ȱ(2007):ȱ69–80.
69
ImpactȱofȱPrehistoricȱandȱMedievalȱManȱonȱtheȱVegetation:ȱManȱatȱtheȱForestȱLimit.ȱReportȱofȱtheȱMeeting
HeldȱinȱRavello,ȱDecemberȱ9,ȱandȱ10,ȱ1989,ȱPACTȱNetwork,ȱPalaeecology,ȱed.ȱD.ȱMoeȱandȱS.ȱHicks.
PACT,ȱ31ȱ(Strasbourg:ȱConseilȱdeȱl’Europe,ȱ1990).
Introduction 25
plantsȱ andȱ peoplesȱ throughoutȱ theȱ Europeanȱ empires,ȱ instigatingȱ wideȬspread

ecosystemȱchangeȱunderȱconspicuouslyȱunequalȱpowerȱregimes.70
HugganȱandȱTiffinȱremain,ȱhowever,ȱsensitiveȱtoȱtheȱspecificȱpropertiesȱofȱliterary
texts,ȱwhenȱtheyȱinsist,ȱ“postcolonialȱecocriticismȱpreservesȱtheȱaestheticȱfunction
ofȱtheȱliteraryȱtextȱwhileȱdrawingȱattentionȱtoȱitsȱsocialȱandȱpoliticalȱusefulness,ȱits
capacityȱ toȱ setȱ outȱ symbolicȱ guidelinesȱ forȱ theȱ materialȱ transformationȱ ofȱ the
world”ȱ(14).ȱ
OneȱsuchȱapproachȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱtheȱstudyȱofȱtreesȱinȱtheȱAngloȬSaxonȱperiodȱin
England,ȱ whichȱ Dellaȱ Hookȱ hasȱ nowȱ developedȱ inȱ aȱ painȬstakingȱ andȱ most
meticulousȱ fashion.71ȱ Sheȱ studies,ȱ first,ȱ treesȱ firstȱ asȱ theyȱ appearȱ inȱ religious,
folkloric,ȱandȱliteraryȱtextsȱandȱserveȱspecificallyȱsymbolicȱpurposes;ȱsecond,ȱhow
Christianȱmissionariesȱtendedȱtoȱcutȱdownȱholyȱtreesȱandȱclearedȱlandȱtoȱimpose
theirȱownȱreligion;ȱandȱthird,ȱtheȱspiritualȱdimensionȱofȱforestsȱandȱindividual
trees,ȱ asȱ reflectedȱ inȱ literaryȱ texts,ȱ notȱ toȱ speakȱ ofȱ herȱ botanicalȬarcheological
interestsȱinȱtreesȱandȱtheȱquestionȱwhetherȱearlyȬmedievalȱEnglandȱwasȱreallyȱthat
woodsyȱandȱwasȱclearedȱofȱforestsȱonlyȱinȱtheȱsubsequentȱcenturies.72ȱ
SheȱsuggestsȱthatȱalreadyȱbyȱtheȱBronzeȱAgeȱthatȱdevelopmentȱhadȱsetȱin,ȱso
treesȱ andȱ forestsȱ wereȱ notȱ inȱ suchȱ abundanceȱ duringȱ theȱ AngloȬSaxonȱ eraȱ as
scholarshipȱhadȱassumedȱinȱtheȱpast.73ȱHoweverȱweȱmightȱapproachȱthisȱtopic,ȱwe
70
Grahamȱ Hugganȱ andȱ Helenȱ Tiffin,ȱ Postcolonialȱ Ecocriticism:ȱ Literature,ȱ Animals,ȱ Environment
(Londonȱ andȱ Newȱ York:ȱ Routledge,ȱ 2010),ȱ 6.ȱ Seeȱ nowȱ alsoȱ Timothyȱ Clark,ȱ Theȱ Cambridge
IntroductionȱtoȱLiteratureȱandȱtheȱEnvironmentȱ(Cambridge,ȱNewȱYork,ȱetȱal.:ȱCambridgeȱUniversity
Press,ȱ2011).ȱHowever,ȱhereȱagainȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱearlyȱmodernȱageȱareȱleftȱout.ȱSeeȱalso
Serpilȱ Oppermann,ȱ Theȱ Futureȱ ofȱ Ecocriticismȱ (Newcastleȱ uponȱ Tyne:ȱ Cambridgeȱ Scholars
Publications,ȱ2011);ȱToddȱA.ȱBorlik,ȱEcocriticismȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱEnglishȱLiterature:ȱGreenȱPastures.
RoutledgeȱStudiesȱinȱRenaissanceȱLiteratureȱandȱCulture,ȱ16ȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱLondon:ȱRoutledge,
2011).ȱForȱglobalȱandȱspecificallyȱpostcolonialȱperspectives,ȱseeȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱPostcolonial
Green:ȱEnvironmentalȱPoliticsȱ&ȱWorldȱNarratives,ȱBonnieȱRooȱandȱAlexȱHunt.ȱUnderȱtheȱSignȱof
Nature:ȱExplorationsȱinȱEcocriticismȱ(Charlottesville:ȱUniversityȱofȱVirginiaȱPress,ȱ2010).
71
DellaȱHooke,ȱTreesȱinȱAngloȬSaxonȱEngland:ȱLiterature,ȱLoreȱandȱLandscapeȱ(Woodbridge,ȱEngland,
andȱRochester,ȱNY:ȱBoydell,ȱ2010).ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱexcellentȱreviewȱbyȱRichardȱKeyserȱinȱTheȱMedieval
ReviewȱTMRȱ11.06.36ȱ(online).
72
Seeȱ alsoȱ Rolandȱ Bechmann,ȱ Treesȱ andȱ Man:ȱ Theȱ Forestȱ inȱ theȱ Middleȱ Ages,ȱ trans.ȱ byȱ Katharyn
Dunhamȱ(NewȱYork:ȱParagonȱHouse,ȱ1990).
73
MatthewȱH.ȱJohnson,ȱ“OnȱtheȱParticularismȱofȱEnglishȱLandscapeȱArchaeology,”ȱInternational
JournalȱofȱHistoricalȱArchaeologyȱ9ȱ(2005):ȱ111Ȭ22;ȱNicholasȱHowe,ȱ“TheȱLandscapeȱofȱAngloȬSaxon
England:ȱInherited,ȱInvented,ȱImagined,”ȱInventingȱMedievalȱLandscapes:ȱSensesȱofȱPlaceȱinȱWestern
Europe,ȱed.ȱJohnȱHoweȱandȱMichaelȱWolfeȱ(Gainesville:ȱUniversityȱPressȱofȱFlorida,ȱ2002),ȱ91Ȭ112;
ClareȱLeesȱandȱGillianȱOvering,ȱ“AngloȬSaxonȱHorizons:ȱPlacesȱofȱtheȱMindȱinȱtheȱNorthumbrian
Landscape,”ȱ Aȱ Placeȱ toȱ Believeȱ In:ȱ Locatingȱ Medievalȱ Landscapes,ȱ ed.ȱ id.ȱ (Universityȱ Park,ȱ PA:
PennsylvaniaȱStateȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2006);ȱAlfredȱSiewers,ȱ“LandscapesȱofȱConversion:ȱGuthlacȇs
MoundȱandȱGrendelȇsȱMereȱasȱExpressionsȱofȱAngloȬSaxonȱNationȬBuilding,”ȱViatorȱ34ȱ(2003):
1Ȭ39;ȱOliverȱRackham,ȱAncientȱWoodland:ȱItsȱHistory,ȱVegetation,ȱandȱUsesȱinȱEngland,ȱrev.ȱed.ȱ(1980;
Dalbeattie:ȱCastlepointȱPress,ȱ2003);ȱDollyȱWilsonȱ[nowȱJorgensen],ȱ“MultiȬUseȱManagementȱof
canȱbeȱcertainȱthatȱweȱwillȱemergeȱfromȱthisȱdebateȱwithȱaȱhealthyȱreevaluationȱof
theȱ dataȱ availableȱ toȱ usȱ reflectingȱ theȱ relationshipȱ betweenȱ peopleȱ andȱ their
naturalȱenvironment.ȱAfterȱall,ȱhumanȱexistenceȱhasȱconstantlyȱmadeȱanȱimpact
onȱthatȱspace,ȱtryingȱtoȱconquer,ȱcontrol,ȱmanipulate,ȱchange,ȱifȱnotȱsubdueȱitȱwith
allȱitsȱmeansȱavailable,ȱwhileȱthatȱveryȱspaceȱhasȱalso,ȱwhichȱweȱneverȱshould
forget,ȱdeeplyȱinfluencedȱandȱdeterminedȱhumanityȱatȱlarge.ȱOtherȱscholarsȱhave
alsoȱpursuedȱthatȱresearchȱinterest,ȱsuchȱasȱAlfredȱK.ȱSiewers,ȱwhoȱfocusesȱonȱthe
earlyȱMiddleȱAges,74ȱandȱGillianȱRudd,ȱwhoȱexploresȱtheȱrelationshipȱbetween
humanȱsocietyȱandȱitsȱnaturalȱenvironmentȱinȱlateȬmedievalȱEngland.75ȱ
Theȱmystiqueȱandȱimportanceȱofȱtheȱforest,ȱwhichȱIȱwillȱexploreȱjustȱaȱlittleȱlater
inȱgreaterȱdetail,ȱasȱitȱappearedȱtoȱearlyȬmodernȱspectators,ȱisȱtheȱtopicȱofȱJeffrey
S.ȱ Theis’sȱ study.76ȱ Butȱ itȱ isȱ notȱ simplyȱ nature,ȱ i.e.,ȱ theȱ garden,ȱ theȱ pasture,ȱ the
forest,ȱ theȱ hills,ȱ orȱ theȱ shoreȱ whichȱ matterȱ inȱ medievalȱ andȱ earlyȬmodern
consciousness.ȱWeȱcan,ȱorȱshould,ȱevenȱincorporateȱtheȱworldȱofȱfishermen,ȱof
fishponds,ȱ workingȱ onȱ theȱ seashore,ȱ fishingȱ inȱ theȱ ocean,ȱ etc.ȱ Inȱ fact,ȱ the
possibilitiesȱtoȱfindȱtrailsȱintoȱtheȱworldȱofȱtheȱpeasants,ȱorȱruralȱactivities,ȱand
then,ȱwhichȱisȱmostȱintriguing,ȱandȱwhichȱwouldȱexplainȱtheȱreferenceȱtoȱfishery,
intoȱtheȱcloseȱcollaborationȱofȱtheȱpeopleȱworkingȱinȱtheȱfieldsȱorȱasȱfishersȱinȱthe
ponds,ȱparticularlyȱonȱtheȱgreatȱnobleȱestatesȱorȱinȱmonasteries,ȱareȱinfinite.77
Asȱ Christopherȱ R.ȱ Clasonȱ alertsȱ us,ȱ thereȱ wereȱ manyȱ differentȱ categoriesȱ of
space,ȱsuchȱasȱcosmic,ȱcourtly,ȱurban,ȱsacred,ȱgendered,ȱandȱhenceȱweȱalsoȱneed
toȱconsiderȱveryȱcarefullyȱhowȱpremodernȱsocietiesȱviewedȱtheȱundoubtedlyȱrural
space.78ȱThisȱinvolvesȱalsoȱtheȱterrainȱofȱtheȱmountains,ȱtraditionallyȱviewedȱwith
theȱMedievalȱAngloȬNormanȱForest,”ȱJournalȱofȱtheȱOxfordȱUniversityȱHistoryȱSocietyȱ1ȱ(2004):ȱ1Ȭ16;
Richardȱ Keyser,ȱ “Theȱ Transformationȱ ofȱ Traditionalȱ Woodlandȱ Management:ȱ Commercial
SylvicultureȱinȱMedievalȱChampagne,”ȱFrenchȱHistoricalȱStudiesȱ32ȱ(2009):ȱ353Ȭ84.ȱSeeȱalsoȱJennifer
Neville,ȱRepresentationsȱofȱtheȱNaturalȱWorldȱinȱOldȱEnglishȱPoetryȱ(Cambridge:ȱCambridge
UniversityȱPress,ȱ1999).ȱIȱoweȱtheseȱreferencesȱtoȱRichardȱKeyser’sȱreviewȱ(seeȱnoteȱ71).
74
AlfredȱK.ȱ Siewers,ȱStrangeȱBeauty:ȱEcocriticalȱApproachesȱtoȱEarlyȱMedievalȱLandscape.ȱTheȱNew
MiddleȱAgesȱ(Houndmills,ȱBasingstoke,ȱHampshire,ȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱPalgraveȱMacmillan,ȱ2009).
75
GillianȱRudd,ȱGreenery:ȱEcocriticalȱReadingsȱofȱLateȱMedievalȱEnglishȱLiterature.ȱManchesterȱMedieval
Literatureȱ(Manchester,ȱUKȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱManchesterȱUniversityȱPress;ȱNewȱYork:ȱPalgrave,
2007).
76
JeffreyȱS.ȱTheis,ȱWritingȱtheȱForestȱinȱEarlyȱModernȱEngland:ȱAȱSylvanȱPastoralȱNation.ȱMedievalȱ&
RenaissanceȱLiteratureȱSeriesȱ(Pittsburgh,ȱPA:ȱDuquesneȱUniversityȱPress;ȱLancaster:ȱGazelle,
2010).ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱtheȱpresentȱvolumeȱbyȱRosaȱA.ȱPerez.
77
Thereȱareȱevenȱnumerousȱspecificȱtextsȱdealingȱwithȱtheȱfisher’sȱcraft;ȱseeȱRichardȱC.ȱHoffmann,
Fisher’sȱCraftȱandȱLetteredȱArt:ȱTractsȱonȱFishingȱfromȱtheȱEndȱofȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(Toronto,ȱBuffalo,ȱand
London:ȱ Universityȱ ofȱ Torontoȱ Press,ȱ 1997).ȱ Thisȱ aspectȱ alsoȱ blursȱ theȱ traditionalȱ distinction
betweenȱpopularȱandȱhighȱculture,ȱbetweenȱoralȱandȱliterateȱculture,ȱandȱbetweenȱcourtlyȱand
ruralȱculture,ȱasȱHoffmannȱemphasizesȱ(10–11).
78
ChristopherȱR.ȱClason,ȱ“SpaceȱandȱNature,”ȱHandbookȱofȱMedievalȱStudies,ȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassen.
Vol.ȱ2ȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱLondon:ȱDeȱGruyter,ȱ2010),ȱ1563–75.
Introduction 27
horrorȱandȱgreatȱdislikeȱthroughoutȱtheȱMiddleȱAges.ȱNevertheless,ȱalreadyȱinȱthe
twelfthȱandȱthirteenthȱcenturiesȱwritersȱandȱartistsȱbeganȱtoȱreflectȱonȱmountains
inȱ generalȱ terms,ȱ andȱ weȱ canȱ certainlyȱ traceȱ aȱ considerableȱ growthȱ inȱ the
fascinationȱwithȱmountains,ȱmassiveȱgeologicalȱbarriersȱbutȱalsoȱimportantȱborder
markersȱ inȱ humanȱ consciousness.ȱ However,ȱ mountains,ȱ suchȱ asȱ Mountȱ Sinai,
couldȱalsoȱrepresentȱholyȱsites,ȱandȱthenȱwereȱregardedȱwithȱgreatȱadmirationȱand
inspiredȱprofoundȱlongingȱinȱChristianȱpilgrims.79
Trueȱ acceptanceȱ ofȱ mountains,ȱ forȱ instance,ȱ didȱ notȱ occurȱ reallyȱ untilȱ the
eighteenthȱcentury,ȱbutȱtheȱevidenceȱgrewȱthroughoutȱtheȱlateȱMiddleȱAgesȱand
theȱearlyȱmodernȱageȱpointingȱtowardȱaȱnewȱawarenessȱaboutȱandȱattitudeȱtoward
mountains.80ȱ Ernstȱ Robertȱ Curtiusȱ hadȱ warnedȱ us,ȱ inȱ hisȱ seminalȱ studyȱ on
Europeanȱ Literatureȱ andȱ theȱ Latinȱ Middleȱ Agesȱ fromȱ 1948ȱ thatȱ “[m]edieval
descriptionsȱofȱnatureȱareȱnotȱmeantȱtoȱrepresentȱreality.”81ȱHeȱqualifies,ȱhowever,
hisȱ ownȱ observationȱ byȱ distinguishingȱ betweenȱ medievalȱ artȱ andȱ medieval
literature,ȱwhereȱtheȱpresentationȱofȱnatureȱinȱitsȱmyriadȱofȱmanifestationsȱcan
haveȱaȱplethoraȱofȱfunctions,ȱbothȱrealisticȱandȱsymbolic,ȱconcreteȱandȱallegorical.
Andȱifȱweȱholdȱotherȱevidenceȱagainstȱhisȱviewpoint,ȱweȱwouldȱrealizeȱtheȱgreat
needȱ toȱ discriminateȱ muchȱ moreȱ inȱ ourȱ culturalȬhistoricalȱ approachesȱ than
previousȱgenerationsȱofȱscholarsȱdid.ȱ
Theȱ famousȱ philosopherȱ Joachimȱ Ritterȱ hadȱ stronglyȱ arguedȱ thatȱ aȱ true
awarenessȱofȱlandscapeȱandȱruralȱspaceȱasȱaestheticallyȱpleasingȱdidȱnotȱoccur
untilȱ theȱ lastȱ thirdȱ ofȱ theȱ eighteenthȱ centuryȱ becauseȱ onlyȱ thenȱ theȱ necessary
developmentȱofȱtheȱmodernȱsubjectȱhadȱhappenedȱwhichȱwouldȱbeȱnecessaryȱfor
theȱopenȬmindedȱappreciationȱofȱnatureȱinȱitsȱownȱterms.82ȱInȱthisȱregardȱRitter
wasȱ deeplyȱ influencedȱ byȱ Germanȱ Idealism,ȱ andȱ heȱ hadȱ noȱ clearȱ conceptȱ of
medievalȱ literature,ȱ theȱ arts,ȱ andȱ philosophy.ȱ Asȱ weȱ willȱ observe,ȱ bothȱ the
theoreticalȱandȱtheȱpracticalȱpositionsȱofȱRitter’sȱandȱalsoȱCurtius’sȱapproachȱwill
haveȱtoȱbeȱrevisedȱandȱviewedȱratherȱcriticallyȱinȱlightȱofȱmuchȱnewȱevidence.
79
SeeȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱApproachingȱtheȱHolyȱMountain:ȱArtȱandȱLiturgyȱatȱSt.ȱCatherineȇsȱMonastery
inȱtheȱSinai,ȱed.ȱSharonȱE.ȱJ.ȱGerstelȱandȱRobertȱS.ȱNelson.ȱCursorȱMundiȱ(Turnhout:ȱȱBrepols,
2010).
80
SeeȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱHeightsȱofȱReflection:ȱMountainsȱinȱtheȱGermanȱImaginationȱfromȱtheȱMiddle
AgesȱtoȱtheȱTwentyȬFirstȱCentury,ȱed.ȱSeanȱIretonȱandȱCarolineȱSchaumannȱ(Rochester,ȱNY:ȱCamden
House,ȱ2012).
81
ErnstȱRobertȱCurtius,ȱEuropeanȱLiteratureȱandȱtheȱLatinȱMiddleȱAges,ȱtrans.ȱfromȱtheȱGermanȱby
WillardȱR.ȱTrask.ȱBollingenȱSeries,ȱXXXVIȱ(1948;ȱPrinceton:ȱPrincetonȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1990),ȱ183.
82
JoachimȱRitter,ȱLandschaft:ȱZurȱFunktionȱdesȱÄsthetischenȱinȱderȱmodernenȱGesellschaft.ȱSchriftenȱder
GesellschaftȱzurȱFörderungȱderȱWestfälischenȱWilhelmsȬUniversitätȱzuȱMünster,ȱ54ȱ(Münster:
Aschendorff,ȱ 1963).ȱ Forȱ aȱ criticalȱ reflectionȱ ofȱ Ritter’sȱ highlyȱ influentialȱ comments,ȱ seeȱ now
HelmutȱBrallȬTuchel,ȱ“FrömmigkeitȱundȱHerrschaft,ȱWonneȱundȱWeg:ȱLandschaftȱinȱderȱLiteratur
desȱ Mittelalters,”ȱ ‘Landschaftȱ imȱ Mittelalter?ȱ –ȱ Augenscheinȱ undȱ Literatur,ȱ ed.ȱ Jensȱ Pfeffer.ȱ Das
Mittelalter:ȱPerspektivenȱmediävistischerȱForschungȱ16.1ȱ(2011):104–30;ȱhereȱ105–06.
Surprisingly,ȱ whenȱ weȱ turnȱ toȱ researchȱ carriedȱ outȱ inȱ theȱ earlyȱ twentieth
century,ȱweȱalreadyȱfindȱsignificantȱexamplesȱtoȱtheȱcontrary.ȱAlfredȱBiese,ȱfor
example,ȱpointsȱoutȱthatȱchroniclersȱsuchȱasȱAbbéȱMajolusȱofȱClunyȱ(970),ȱAribert
ofȱ Milanȱ (1027),ȱ Annoȱ ofȱ Cologneȱ (1064),ȱ andȱ Bernardȱ ofȱ Hildesheimȱ (1101)
reflectedȱuponȱtheirȱcrossingȱofȱtheȱAlps,ȱalthoughȱtheyȱdidȱnotȱcommentȱonȱthe
iceȱandȱtheȱsnowȱupȱthere.ȱInȱthisȱregardȱtheyȱwereȱveryȱsimilarȱtoȱmanyȱother
travelȱwritersȱfarȱintoȱtheȱsixteenthȱcentury,ȱbutȱweȱhaveȱtoȱkeepȱinȱmindȱwhat
theirȱprimaryȱpurposeȱwasȱwhenȱtheyȱjourneyedȱtoȱItaly.83
Forȱ example,ȱ asȱ manyȱ laterȱ scholarsȱ inȱ theȱ areasȱ ofȱ philosophy,ȱ theology,
metaphysics,ȱtheȱhistoryȱofȱsciences,ȱtheȱhistoryȱofȱlaw,ȱanthropology,ȱculture,ȱand
iconographyȱhaveȱtaughtȱus,ȱtheȱtermȱ‘nature’ȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱratherȱamorphous,
expansive,ȱandȱcanȱbeȱidentifiedȱfromȱmanyȱdifferentȱperspectives.ȱAlchemists
interactedȱasȱmuchȱwithȱ‘nature’ȱasȱtheologiansȱandȱpoets,ȱcomposersȱandȱartists,
writersȱ andȱ scientists,ȱ bothȱ inȱ theȱ Middleȱ Agesȱ andȱ everȱ since.84ȱ Afterȱ all,ȱ we
alwaysȱneedȱtoȱkeepȱinȱmindȱthatȱinȱtheȱpremodernȱworldȱtheȱroleȱofȱGodȱasȱthe
creatorȱ ofȱ manȱ andȱ natureȱ wasȱ ofȱ centralȱ andȱ allȬdominatingȱ importance,ȱ and
nothingȱcouldȱbeȱstudied,ȱperceived,ȱrecognized,ȱandȱutilizedȱwithoutȱHisȱhelp.
However,ȱasȱtrueȱasȱthatȱmightȱcertainlyȱbe,ȱifȱweȱoperateȱonȱsuchȱaȱglobalȱlevel,
discussingȱ‘nature’ȱinȱitsȱmostȱuniversalȱmeaning,ȱincludingȱtheȱ‘natureȱofȱman’ȱor
theȱ‘natureȱofȱGod,’ȱtheȱ‘natureȱofȱmysticalȱrevelations,’ȱorȱtheȱ‘natureȱofȱhuman
eroticism,’ȱasȱtheȱtraditionalȱapproachȱhasȱoftenȱbeen,ȱweȱfaceȱtheȱdangerȱofȱlosing
ourselvesȱ inȱ aȱ highlyȱ metaphysical,ȱ ultimately,ȱ perhaps,ȱ almostȱ meaningless
discourse.85
83
Biese,ȱTheȱDevelopmentȱofȱtheȱFeelingȱforȱNatureȱ(seeȱnoteȱ53),ȱ73.
84
Seeȱ theȱ richȱ contributionsȱ toȱ Menschȱ undȱ Naturȱ imȱ Mittelalter,ȱ ed.ȱ Albertȱ Zimmermannȱ and
AndreasȱSpeer.ȱ2ȱvols.ȱMiscellaneaȱMediaevalia,ȱ21/1–2ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱWalterȱdeȱGruyter,
1991).
85
SeeȱmyȱreviewȱofȱMenschȱundȱNaturȱ(seeȱnoteȱ84)ȱinȱMittellateinischesȱJahrbuchȱ28.1ȱ(1993):ȱ134–42.
Manyȱrecentȱstudies,ȱhowever,ȱimportantȱandȱvaluableȱbyȱthemselves,ȱhaveȱpursuedȱjustȱsuchȱa
perspective;ȱsee,ȱforȱinstance,ȱM.ȱD.ȱChenu,ȱNature,ȱMan,ȱandȱSocietyȱinȱtheȱTwelfthȱCentury:ȱEssays
onȱNewȱTheologicalȱPerspectivesȱinȱtheȱLatinȱWest,ȱwithȱaȱprefaceȱbyȱEtienneȱGilson.ȱSelected,ȱedited,
andȱtranslatedȱbyȱJeromeȱTaylorȱandȱLesterȱK.ȱLittleȱ(Chicago:ȱUniversityȱofȱChicagoȱPress,ȱ1968);
seeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱManȱandȱNatureȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱed.ȱSusanȱJ.ȱRidyardȱandȱRobert
G.ȱBenson.ȱSewaneeȱMediaevalȱStudies,ȱ6ȱ(Sewanee,ȱTN:ȱUniversityȱofȱtheȱSouthȱPress,ȱ1995);ȱand
theȱcontributionsȱtoȱMenschȱundȱNaturȱimȱmittelalterlichenȱEuropa:ȱarchäologische,ȱhistorischeȱund
naturwissenschaftlicheȱBefunde.ȱAktenȱderȱAkademieȱFriesachȱ“StadtȱundȱKulturȱimȱMittelalter”,ȱFriesach
(Kärnten),ȱ 1.ȱ Ȭȱ 5.ȱ Septemberȱ 1997,ȱ ed.ȱ Konradȱ Spindler.ȱ Akademieȱ Friesach:ȱ Schriftenreiheȱ der
AkademieȱFriesach,ȱ4ȱ(Klagenfurth:ȱWieser,ȱ1998);ȱWolfgangȱAchtner,ȱVomȱErkennenȱzumȱHandeln:
dieȱ Dynamisierungȱ vonȱ Menschȱ undȱ Naturȱ imȱ ausgehendenȱ Mittelalterȱ alsȱ Voraussetzungȱ fürȱ die
Entstehungȱ naturwissenschaftlicherȱ Rationalität.ȱ Religion,ȱ Theologieȱ undȱ Naturwissenschaft,ȱ 12
(Göttingen:ȱVandenhoeckȱ&ȱRuprecht,ȱ2008);ȱNaturȱalsȱGrenzerfahrung:ȱeuropäischeȱPerspektivenȱder
MenschȬNaturȬBeziehungȱ inȱ Mittelalterȱ undȱ Neuzeit:ȱ Ressourcennutzung,ȱ Entdeckungen,
Naturkatastrophen,ȱ ed.ȱ Larsȱ Kreye,ȱ Carstenȱ Stühringȱ andȱ Tanjaȱ Zwingelbergȱ (Göttingen:
UniversitätsȬVerlagȱGöttingen,ȱ2009).
Introduction 29
5.ȱSpaceȱandȱHistoricalȬLiteraryȱInvestigations
Medievalȱchroniclersȱhesitatedȱlittleȱtoȱdiscussȱspecificȱnatureȱsettingsȱ without
allegorizingȱthem,ȱwhileȱreligiousȱwritersȱ(andȱalsoȱpainters)ȱwouldȱdoȱsoȱquite
easily.ȱAfterȱhavingȱdiscussedȱancientȱandȱmodernȱexamples,ȱErnstȱRobertȱCurtius
concludes:ȱ “Asȱ theȱ twoȱ lastȱ examplesȱ show,ȱ theȱ motifȱ ofȱ theȱ bucolicȱ contest
betweenȱsingersȱandȱpoetsȱramifiesȱorganicallyȱtoȱproduceȱtheȱdescriptionȱofȱa
delightfulȱspot—descriptionsȱfarȱmoreȱdetailedȱthanȱtheȱcorrespondingȱpassageȱin
Homer,ȱ butȱ stillȱ saturatedȱ withȱ actualȱ observations.”86ȱ Undoubtedly,ȱ nature
settingsȱregularlyȱfollowȱrhetoricalȱtraditions,ȱandȱitȱwouldȱbeȱhardȱtoȱignoreȱthe
commonȱ narrativeȱ strategies,ȱ yetȱ itȱ wouldȱ alsoȱ beȱ dangerousȱ toȱ dismissȱ those
natureȱsettings,ȱwhetherȱtheȱwildȱforestȱorȱtheȱbeautifulȱmeadow,ȱasȱlocusȱamoenus,
identifyingȱ themȱ asȱ simpleȱ propsȱ withoutȱ anyȱ referencesȱ toȱ orȱ withoutȱ being
anchoredȱinȱaȱtrueȱinterestȱinȱtheȱnaturalȱenvironment.ȱ87
Curtiusȱoffersȱbrilliantȱcomparativeȱanalyses,ȱbutȱheȱmightȱalsoȱleadȱusȱintoȱa
rhetoricalȱfallacyȱthatȱmakesȱusȱforgetȱwhereȱtheȱpoetsȱandȱartistsȱreallyȱborrowed
theirȱ materialȱ from.ȱ Theȱ termȱ “epicȱ adumbrationȱ ofȱ landscape”ȱ (201)ȱ works
exceedinglyȱwellȱinȱtheȱcriticalȱanalysisȱofȱliteraryȱandȱartisticȱworks,ȱbutȱevenȱthe
bestȱstageȱpropȱorȱstageȱdirectionȱmustȱhaveȱoriginatedȱinȱsomeȱkindȱofȱawareness
ofȱtheȱnaturalȱworld,ȱifȱnotȱinȱsomeȱsortȱofȱfascinationȱwithȱandȱloveȱofȱthatȱworld.
DerekȱPearsallȱandȱElizabethȱSalterȱcloselyȱfollowedȱCurtius’sȱapproachȱinȱtheir
intensiveȱdiscussionȱofȱmedievalȱcourtlyȱliterature,ȱbutȱtheyȱalsoȱadmitted:ȱ
Theȱviewȱofȱtheȱforestȱwhichȱprevailsȱinȱhighȱmedievalȱromanceȱisȱaȱreflection,ȱalbeit
somewhatȱ dated,ȱ ofȱ physicalȱ reality.ȱ Inȱ anȱ ageȱ whenȱ forestȱ stillȱ coveredȱ mostȱ of
WesternȱEurope,ȱtheȱ‘wildȱwood’ȱcouldȱretainȱsomethingȱofȱitsȱhorrorȱandȱmystery,
andȱcouldȱbeȱanȱaptȱsymbol,ȱtherefore,ȱofȱtheȱalienȱwilderness.ȱButȱbyȱtheȱlateȱtwelfth
century,ȱitȱisȱclear,ȱtheȱsituationȱwasȱchanging.ȱAȱrapidlyȱexpandingȱeconomyȱmeant
anȱincreasedȱdemandȱforȱtimberȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱandȱforȱtheȱcasteȱprivilegesȱofȱtheȱchase,ȱandȱthe
forestsȱbeganȱtoȱrecede.ȱFromȱbeingȱaȱconstantȱreminderȱofȱtheȱfragileȱpresenceȱofȱman
inȱaȱhostileȱenvironment,ȱtheyȱbecameȱpreciousȱpreservesȱforȱexploitation,ȱandȱthe
proliferationȱofȱrulesȱconcerningȱrightsȱandȱusages,ȱprotectionȱandȱreservation,ȱand
especiallyȱtheȱforestȱlawsȱofȱtheȱreignȱofȱHenryȱII,ȱwereȱboundȱtoȱmakeȱaȱdifferenceȱto
theȱsymbolismȱofȱtheȱwildȱwood.88
86
Curtius,ȱEuropeanȱLiteratureȱ(seeȱnoteȱ81),ȱ190.
87
Theȱ worldȱ ofȱ chroniclesȱ isȱ nowȱ beautifullyȱ ‘chronicled’ȱ byȱ theȱ Encyclopediaȱ ofȱ theȱ Medieval
Chronicle,ȱed.ȱGraemeȱDunphy.ȱ2ȱvols.ȱ(LeidenȱandȱBoston:ȱBrill,ȱ2010),ȱbutȱtheȱconceptȱofȱ‘space’
doesȱnotȱfindȱparticularȱattention.ȱAsȱhelpfulȱasȱtheȱsupplementȱtoȱtheȱDictionaryȱofȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,
ed.ȱWilliamȱChesterȱJordan.ȱSupplement,ȱ1ȱ(NewȱYork,ȱDetroit,ȱetȱal.:ȱCharlesȱScribner’sȱSons,
2004),ȱprovesȱtoȱbe,ȱthereȱareȱnoȱentriesȱforȱ‘space,’ȱ‘peasants’,ȱorȱ‘ruralȱspace.’
88
DerekȱPearsallȱandȱElizabethȱSalter,ȱLandscapesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ55),ȱ53.
Onȱ theȱ oneȱ hand,ȱ asȱ theyȱ affirm,ȱ thereȱ wasȱ aȱ “closeȱ associationȱ betweenȱ the
developingȱplesaunceȱofȱlandscapeȱandȱconceptsȱofȱsecularȱlove,”89ȱandȱonȱtheȱother
oneȱcouldȱobserveȱanȱincreasingȱinterestȱinȱcreatingȱenclosures,ȱbothȱinȱtheȱform
ofȱgardens,ȱoftenȱparallelingȱparadise,ȱandȱparks,ȱservingȱforȱhuntingȱpurposes.
Anyoneȱ whoȱ hasȱ everȱ perusedȱ carefullyȱ anȱ illuminatedȱ medievalȱ manuscript
mightȱ haveȱ noticedȱ theȱ enormousȱ wealthȱ ofȱ marginalȱ drawingsȱ withȱ specific
naturalȱscenesȱandȱsetting,ȱsometimesȱhighlyȱfanciful,ȱotherȱtimesȱhighlyȱconcrete
andȱrealistic,ȱsuchȱasȱinȱtheȱHowardȱPsalter,ȱBL,ȱArundelȱMs.ȱ83,ȱfol.ȱ14,ȱfromȱthe
earlyȱfourteenthȱcentury,ȱorȱinȱtheȱBookȱofȱHoursȱbyȱtheȱSpitzȱMaster,ȱParis,ȱfrom
ca.ȱ1420,ȱJohnȱPaulȱGettyȱMuseum,ȱMs.ȱ57,ȱfol.ȱ89v.90
6.ȱPerceptionȱofȱRuralȱSpaceȱinȱTheȱVoyageȱofȱSt.ȱBrendan:
AnȱEarlyȬMedievalȱVoice
Toȱcombatȱtheȱerroneousȱperceptionȱthatȱtheȱawarenessȱofȱruralȱspaceȱdeveloped
andȱgrewȱnotȱuntilȱtheȱlateȱMiddleȱAges,ȱorȱtheȱRenaissance,ȱhereȱIȱwantȱtoȱdiscuss
brieflyȱtheȱmostȱfamousȱVoyageȱofȱSt.ȱBrendan,ȱwhichȱsoonȱbecameȱaȱpanȬEuropean
travelȱnarrativeȱwithȱgreatȱreligiousȱappeal,ȱoftenȱprovidingȱliteraryȱimageryȱeven
ofȱ anȱ archetypalȱ nature,ȱ henceȱ quicklyȱ gainingȱ theȱ statusȱ ofȱ aȱ mythicalȱ text.
WhetherȱthisȱfamousȱBrendanȱ(Irish:ȱBrénainn;ȱLatin:ȱBrendanusȱorȱBrandanus),
whoȱlivedȱfromȱca.ȱ484ȱtoȱca.ȱ577,ȱtrulyȱtraveledȱfarȱintoȱtheȱwestȱandȱthenȱmight
evenȱhaveȱdiscoveredȱAmerica,ȱlongȱbeforeȱtheȱVikingȱErikȱtheȱRedȱ(ca.ȱ1000),ȱor
Columbusȱ(1492),ȱwillȱnotȱconcernȱusȱhere.91ȱ
TheȱVoyageȱwasȱfirstȱcomposedȱinȱLatin,ȱinȱoneȱstrandȱofȱversionsȱasȱNavigatio
sanctiȱBrendaniȱabbatis,ȱandȱinȱanotherȱasȱVitaȱBrendani,ȱsometimeȱinȱtheȱearlyȱninth
century,ȱandȱsoonȱenoughȱwasȱcopiedȱandȱtranslatedȱallȱoverȱEurope,ȱultimately
makingȱitȱevenȱintoȱtheȱworldȱofȱincunabulaȱandȱearlyȬmodernȱprints.ȱHereȱweȱdo
notȱneedȱtoȱconcernȱourselvesȱwithȱdifferencesȱinȱtheȱindividualȱversions,ȱand
subsequentȱreceptions.ȱWhatȱmattersȱforȱusȱisȱtheȱwayȱruralȱspace,ȱorȱallȱnatural
space,ȱisȱperceivedȱandȱdescribedȱinȱthisȱtravelȱaccount,ȱhereȱtheȱNavigatio,ȱwhich
willȱ confirmȱ thatȱ earlyȬmedievalȱ writersȱ alreadyȱ demonstratedȱ considerable
89
PearsallȱandȱSalter,ȱLandscapesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ55),ȱ53.
90
MargotȱMcilwainȱNishimura,ȱImagesȱinȱtheȱMargins.ȱTheȱMedievalȱImaginationȱ(LosȱAngeles,ȱCA:
GettyȱPublications;ȱLondon:ȱTheȱBritishȱLibrary,ȱ2009),ȱ14–15ȱandȱ24.ȱForȱfurtherȱstudyȱofȱthis
topic,ȱ seeȱ herȱ bibliography,ȱ 77,ȱ especiallyȱ Michaelȱ Camille,ȱ Imageȱ onȱ theȱ Edge:ȱ Theȱ Marginsȱ of
MedievalȱArt.ȱEssaysȱinȱArtȱandȱCultureȱ(Cambridge:ȱMA:ȱHarvardȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1992).
91
TheȱVoyageȱofȱSaintȱBrendan:ȱRepresentativeȱVersionsȱofȱtheȱLegendȱinȱEnglishȱTranslationȱwithȱIndexes
ofȱ Themesȱ andȱ Motifsȱ fromȱ theȱ Stories,ȱ ed.ȱ W.ȱ R.ȱ J.ȱ Barronȱ andȱ Glynȱ S.ȱ Burgessȱ (2002;ȱ Exeter:
Universityȱ ofȱ Exeterȱ Press,ȱ 2005).ȱ Seeȱ alsoȱ Gearóidȱ Óȱ Donnchadha,ȱ Stȱ Brendanȱ ofȱ Kerry,ȱ the
Navigator:ȱHisȱLifeȱandȱVoyageȱ(Dublin:ȱFourȱCourts,ȱ2004).
Introduction 31
interestȱinȱtheirȱenvironmentȱandȱpaidȱgreatȱattentionȱtoȱnaturalȱchallenges,ȱtoȱthe
fascinationȱwhichȱforeignȱworldsȱexertedȱonȱtheirȱprotagonists,ȱandȱtoȱtheȱmirabilia
andȱmonsters,ȱwhoȱallȱfigureȱprominentlyȱamidstȱsurprisinglyȱrealisticȱcontexts.92ȱ
Theȱentireȱaccount,ȱwhetherȱfocusingȱonȱSt.ȱBrendanȱandȱhisȱmenȱorȱonȱother
figures,ȱ isȱ stronglyȱ characterizedȱ byȱ referencesȱ toȱ nature.ȱ Inȱ fact,ȱ despiteȱ the
religiousȱallegoryȱofȱthisȱvoyage,ȱtheȱnarratorȱheavilyȱreliedȱonȱelementsȱborrowed
fromȱnature,ȱespeciallyȱbecauseȱtheȱprotagonistsȱdoȱnotȱexploreȱcivilizedȱlandsȱor
islands,ȱbutȱenterȱaȱterraȱincognitaȱwhereȱhellishȱandȱparadisiacalȱfeaturesȱtranscend
theȱnaturalȱsphere.ȱButȱtheȱoneȱdimensionȱdoesȱnotȱeclipseȱtheȱother,ȱandȱinȱfact
theȱmaterialȱworldȱmirrorsȱinȱmultipleȱfashionȱtheȱspiritual.ȱAsȱmuchȱasȱBrendan
andȱ hisȱ disciplesȱ traverseȱ aȱ worldȱ ofȱ manyȱ strangeȱ islands,ȱ asȱ muchȱ theyȱ also
experienceȱanȱencounterȱwithȱtheȱafterworld,ȱhiddenȱbehindȱtheȱveilȱofȱtheȱrural
elements.ȱAȱfewȱexamplesȱwillȱsufficeȱtoȱconfirmȱthisȱobservation:ȱ
andȱthereȱappearedȱtoȱusȱaȱlandȱwide,ȱandȱfullȱofȱgrassȱandȱfruit.ȱWhenȱtheȱboatȱlanded
weȱdisembarkedȱandȱbeganȱtoȱgoȱandȱwalkȱroundȱtheȱislandȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱWeȱsawȱnoȱplants
thatȱhadȱnotȱflowers,ȱnotȱtreesȱthatȱhadȱnotȱfruit.ȱ (27)
Theȱallusionȱtoȱparadiseȱcannotȱbeȱoverlooked,ȱandȱyetȱthereȱisȱaȱstrongȱsenseȱthat
thisȱdescriptionȱwasȱsomewhatȱpredicatedȱonȱactualȱexperiencesȱinȱnature.ȱOnce
Brendan,ȱhavingȱbeenȱinspiredȱbyȱthisȱmysteriousȱreport,ȱhasȱembarkedȱonȱhis
ownȱjourney,ȱheȱandȱhisȱmonksȱwitnessȱcountlessȱadventures,ȱsomeȱmundaneȱand
typicalȱofȱwhatȱanyȱearlyȬmedievalȱtravelerȱthroughȱtheȱwatersȱwestȱofȱIreland
wouldȱhaveȱexperienced,ȱwhileȱothersȱareȱobviouslyȱmodeledȱafterȱbiblicalȱimages.
ConsciouslyȱplayingȱonȱChrist’sȱownȱfastingȱofȱfortyȱdaysȱandȱfortyȱnights,ȱthe
companyȱundergoesȱalmostȱtheȱsameȱsuffering:ȱ
Whenȱfortyȱdaysȱwereȱupȱandȱallȱtheȱvictualsȱhadȱbeenȱconsumed,ȱanȱislandȱappeared
toȱthemȱtowardsȱtheȱnorth,ȱrockyȱandȱhigh.ȱWhenȱtheyȱcameȱnearȱitsȱshoreȱtheyȱsaw
aȱhighȱcliffȱlikeȱaȱwallȱandȱvariousȱstreamsȱflowingȱdownȱfromȱtheȱtopȱofȱtheȱisland
intoȱtheȱsea.ȱNeverthelessȱtheyȱfailedȱtotallyȱtoȱfindȱaȱlandingȱplaceȱwhereȱtheyȱcould
putȱinȱtheȱboat.ȱ (30)
Quiteȱnaturally,ȱtheȱcompanyȱisȱtemptedȱbyȱtheȱdevil,ȱandȱsomeȱofȱthemȱproveȱto
haveȱ fallenȱ alreadyȱ earlier,ȱ andȱ soȱ areȱ takenȱ downȱ toȱ hell.ȱ Someȱ islandsȱ are
paradiseȬlike,ȱothersȱproveȱtoȱbeȱhighlyȱdangerousȱdespiteȱtheirȱmostȱpleasant
appearance:ȱ
Theȱislandȱwasȱstonyȱandȱwithoutȱgrass.ȱThereȱwereȱaȱfewȱpiecesȱofȱdriftwoodȱonȱit,
butȱnoȱsandȱonȱitsȱshore.ȱWhileȱtheȱbrothersȱspentȱtheȱnightȱoutsideȱinȱprayersȱand
92
TheȱOtherworldȱVoyageȱinȱEarlyȱIrishȱLiterature:ȱAnȱAnthologyȱofȱCriticism,ȱed.ȱJonathanȱM.ȱWooding
(Dublin:ȱFourȱCourtsȱPress,ȱ2000).
vigils,ȱtheȱmanȱofȱGodȱremainedȱsittingȱinsideȱinȱtheȱboat.ȱForȱheȱknewȱtheȱkindȱof
islandȱitȱwas,ȱbutȱheȱdidȱnotȱwantȱtoȱtellȱthem,ȱlestȱtheyȱbeȱterrified.ȱ(34)
Soonȱenoughȱtheyȱrealizeȱthatȱtheȱislandȱisȱmoving,ȱbecauseȱitȱisȱnotȱanȱislandȱin
reality,ȱbutȱaȱhumongousȱfish,ȱcalledȱJasconius.ȱSt.ȱBrendanȱhadȱbeenȱinformed
aboutȱthisȱfactȱatȱnightȱwhenȱGodȱhadȱsentȱhimȱaȱvision,ȱbutȱtheȱmonksȱhadȱto
experienceȱthisȱmiracleȱthemselves,ȱandȱsoȱtheȱaudience.ȱSpiritualȱandȱmaterial
featuresȱintertwineȱandȱconfirmȱhowȱmuchȱruralȱspaceȱandȱdivineȱspaceȱareȱpart
andȱparcelȱofȱGod’sȱcreation.ȱMonstersȱpassȱby,ȱmagicalȱbirdsȱspeakȱtoȱthem,ȱand
atȱtimesȱtheyȱareȱgrantedȱaȱcrystalȬclearȱviewȱintoȱtheȱdepthȱofȱtheȱocean:
Itȱ happenedȱ onȱ oneȱ occasionȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ theyȱ foundȱ theȱ seaȱ soȱ clearȱ thatȱ theyȱ couldȱ see
whateverȱwasȱunderneathȱthem.ȱThenȱtheyȱlookedȱintoȱtheȱdeepȱtheyȱsawȱtheȱdifferent
kindsȱofȱfishȱlyingȱonȱtheȱsandȱbelow.ȱItȱevenȱseemedȱtoȱthemȱthatȱtheyȱcouldȱtouch
themȱwithȱtheirȱhands,ȱsoȱclearȱwasȱthatȱsea.ȱTheyȱwereȱlikeȱherdsȱlyingȱinȱpastures.
Theyȱwereȱsoȱnumerousȱthatȱtheyȱlookedȱlikeȱaȱcityȱofȱcirclesȱasȱtheyȱlay,ȱtheirȱheads
touchingȱtheirȱtails.ȱ (52–53)
Atȱoneȱpointȱweȱcomeȱevenȱacrossȱaȱsurprisinglyȱdetailedȱdescriptionȱofȱaȱvolcano:
“theyȱsawȱthatȱtheȱmountainȱwasȱnoȱlongerȱcoveredȱwithȱsmoke,ȱbutȱwasȱspouting
flamesȱfromȱitselfȱupȱtoȱtheȱetherȱandȱthenȱbreathingȱback,ȱasȱitȱwere,ȱtheȱsame
flamesȱagainȱuponȱitself.ȱTheȱwholeȱmountainȱfromȱtheȱsummitȱrightȱdownȱtoȱthe
seaȱlookedȱlikeȱonȱbigȱpyre”ȱ(56).ȱSurprisingly,ȱhowever,ȱinȱthisȱcaseȱtheȱspiritual
interpretationȱisȱnotȱgiven;ȱinsteadȱtheȱnaturalȱimageȱstandsȱallȱbyȱandȱforȱitself,
althoughȱ weȱ canȱ easilyȱ associateȱ thisȱ imageȱ withȱ Hellȱ toȱ whichȱ oneȱ ofȱ their
brothersȱhadȱbeenȱtaken.ȱ
Asȱmuchȱasȱheȱandȱhisȱcompanionsȱtravelȱthroughȱaȱfascinatingȱworldȱofȱislands,
mountains,ȱandȱforeignȱlands,ȱasȱmuchȱtheyȱexperienceȱtheȱafterlifeȱalreadyȱhere
onȱearth,ȱprivilegedȱbyȱGodȱtoȱbeȱwitnessesȱofȱthoseȱwonders.ȱHowever,ȱdespite
theȱ deepȱ concernȱ withȱ allegorizingȱ theȱ entireȱ travelȱ account,ȱ itȱ isȱ soȱ much
predicatedȱonȱconcrete,ȱnaturalȱdescriptionȱthatȱweȱcanȱfirmlyȱpositȱthatȱthisȱearly
medievalȱauthorȱwasȱprofoundlyȱtouchedȱbyȱtheȱfascinationȱexertedȱbyȱrural,ȱand
inȱthisȱcaseȱoftenȱmaritimeȱspace.ȱThereȱwouldȱbeȱnoȱproblemȱtodayȱtoȱtransform
theȱNavigatioȱintoȱaȱfilmȱscriptȱsinceȱtheȱprotagonistsȱcrossȱfromȱtheȱmaterialȱtoȱthe
spiritualȱdimension,ȱandȱthenȱbackȱagain.
LetȱusȱquicklyȱalsoȱconsiderȱanȱeconomicȬhistoricalȱaspect,ȱwhichȱwillȱtakeȱus
intoȱaȱcompletelyȱdifferentȱtextualȱgenre,ȱyetȱwillȱallowȱusȱtoȱcontextualizeȱThe
Voyageȱ ofȱ St.ȱ Brendanȱ withinȱ theȱ practicalȱ conditionsȱ ofȱ thatȱ timeȱ visȬàȬvisȱ the
perceptionȱofȱandȱattitudeȱtowardȱnature,ȱdomesticatedȱorȱwild.ȱTheȱbestȱexample
providesȱtheȱfamousȱCapitulareȱdeȱvillis,ȱwrittenȱonȱbehalfȱof,ȱifȱnotȱevenȱsomewhat
directedȱpersonallyȱbyȱtheȱEmperorȱCharlemagneȱinȱtheȱearlyȱninthȱcentury—
possiblyȱalsoȱbyȱhisȱson,ȱEmperorȱLouisȱtheȱPiousȱinȱ794ȱduringȱtheȱȱestateȱreforms,
Introduction 33
ifȱweȱdoȱnotȱevenȱwantȱtoȱassumeȱthatȱtheȱdocumentȱwasȱeditedȱandȱexpandedȱat
laterȱtimesȱasȱwell.93ȱ
AlthoughȱweȱcanȱcertainlyȱacceptȱtheȱgeneralȱviewpointȱthatȱtheȱearlyȱMiddle
Agesȱknewȱvirtuallyȱnothingȱaboutȱecocriticalȱapproachesȱtoȱnature,ȱandȱinstead
utilizedȱnatureȱasȱtheȱdomainȱgivenȱtoȱpeopleȱbyȱGod’sȱgraceȱpurelyȱforȱtheirȱown
use,ȱitȱwouldȱbeȱerroneousȱtoȱtreatȱearlyȬmedievalȱstatementsȱtowardȱtheȱrural
spaceȱasȱcompletelyȱdeterminedȱbyȱanȱallegoricalȱorȱevenȱanagogicalȱperspective.
Afterȱall,ȱalmostȱ95%ȱorȱmoreȱpercentȱofȱtheȱpopulationȱlivedȱinȱtheȱcountryside
andȱdependedȱcompletelyȱonȱstableȱandȱsufficientȱharvestsȱtoȱsurvive,ȱwhichȱwas
actuallyȱoftenȱnotȱquiteȱtheȱcase.94ȱHence,ȱagricultureȱandȱraisingȱanimalsȱwereȱof
centralȱimportance.ȱRuralȱspaceȱwasȱthusȱmostlyȱregardedȱinȱhighlyȱpragmatic
terms,ȱunlessȱaȱspiritualȱpurposeȱdominatedȱtheȱviewpoint,ȱasȱinȱTheȱVoyage.95
TheȱauthorȱofȱtheȱCapitulareȱdeȱvillisȱvoicesȱhisȱstrongȱdesireȱtoȱhaveȱtheȱestates
completelyȱserveȱhisȱownȱpurposes,ȱandȱtoȱtheȱmaximumȱofȱtheirȱpotential.ȱThe
instructionsȱtoȱtheȱstewardsȱareȱmostȱdetailedȱandȱconsiderȱvirtuallyȱeveryȱaspect
onȱtheȱfarmsȱandȱtheȱsurroundings,ȱalmostȱlikeȱtheȱpropertiesȱofȱanȱabsolutistȱruler
sixȱhundredȱyearsȱlater.ȱAsȱtoȱtheȱforests,ȱforȱinstance,ȱweȱlearn:
Thatȱourȱwoodsȱandȱforestsȱshallȱbeȱwellȱprotected;ȱifȱthereȱisȱanȱareaȱtoȱbeȱcleared,ȱthe
stewardsȱareȱtoȱhaveȱitȱcleared,ȱandȱshallȱnotȱallowȱfieldsȱtoȱbecomeȱovergrownȱwith
woodland.ȱ Whereȱ woodsȱ areȱ supposedȱ toȱ existȱ theyȱ shallȱ notȱ allowȱ themȱ toȱ be
excessivelyȱcutȱandȱdamaged.ȱInsideȱtheȱforestsȱtheyȱareȱtoȱtakeȱgoodȱcareȱofȱourȱgame;
likewise,ȱtheyȱshallȱkeepȱourȱhawksȱandȱfalconsȱinȱreadinessȱforȱourȱuse,ȱandȱshall
diligentlyȱcollectȱourȱduesȱthere.ȱAndȱtheȱstewards,ȱorȱourȱmayorsȱorȱtheirȱmen,ȱifȱthey
sendȱtheirȱpigsȱintoȱourȱwoodsȱtoȱbeȱfattened,ȱshallȱbeȱtheȱfirstȱtoȱpayȱtheȱtitheȱforȱthis,
93
ForȱanȱEnglishȱtranslation,ȱseeȱTheȱReignȱofȱCharlemagne:ȱDocumentsȱonȱCarolingianȱGovernmentȱand
Administration,ȱed.ȱH.ȱR.ȱLoynȱandȱJohnȱPercival.ȱDocumentsȱofȱMedievalȱHistory,ȱ2ȱ(NewȱYork:
St.ȱMartin’sȱPress,ȱ1975),ȱ64–73.ȱTheȱonlyȱsurvivingȱmanuscriptȱofȱtheȱCapitulareȱdeȱvillisȱisȱhoused
todayȱinȱtheȱHerzogȱAugustȱBibliothek,ȱWolfenbüttel,ȱCodexȱHelmstadendisȱ254.ȱSeeȱErnstȱW.
Wies,ȱ“Capitulareȱdeȱvillisȱetȱcurtisȱimperialibus”:ȱ(VerordnungȱüberȱdieȱKrongüterȱundȱReichshöfe)ȱund
dieȱGeheimnisseȱdesȱKräutergartensȱKarlsȱdesȱGroßenȱ(Aachen:ȱEinhardȬVerlag,ȱ1992).ȱForȱaȱbroader
discussion,ȱseeȱJohnȱJ.ȱButt,ȱDailyȱLifeȱinȱtheȱAgeȱofȱCharlemagne.ȱTheȱGreenwoodȱPressȱ“DailyȱLife
ThroughȱHistory”ȱSeriesȱ(Westport,ȱCT,ȱandȱLondon:ȱGreenwoodȱPress,ȱ2002),ȱ77–86.
94
ItȱseemsȱveryȱdifficultȱtoȱestimateȱmoreȱpreciselyȱtheȱactualȱyieldȱofȱharvestsȱinȱtheȱearlyȱMiddle
Ages,ȱbutȱweȱcanȱbeȱcertainȱthatȱitȱwasȱconsiderablyȱlowerȱthanȱinȱtheȱhighȱandȱlateȱMiddleȱAges;
seeȱDelȱSweeney,ȱAgricultureȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges:ȱTechnology,ȱPractice,ȱandȱRepresentation.ȱMiddle
Agesȱ Seriesȱ (Philadelphia:ȱ Universityȱ ofȱ Pennsylvaniaȱ Press,ȱ 1995);ȱ C.ȱ C.ȱ Bakels,ȱ Theȱ Western
Europeanȱ Loessȱ Beltȱ Agrarianȱ History,ȱ 5300ȱ BC–ADȱ 1000ȱ (Dordrecht:ȱ Springer,ȱ 2009).ȱ Forȱ an
overviewȱ ofȱ theȱ historyȱ ofȱ research,ȱ seeȱ Harryȱ Kitsikopoulos,ȱ “Socialȱ Historyȱ andȱ Medieval
Studies,”ȱHandbookȱofȱMedievalȱStudies,ȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassen.ȱVol.ȱ2ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱDe
Gruyter,ȱ2010),ȱ1292–1304.
95
FranzȱNeiske,ȱEuropaȱimȱfrühenȱMittelalterȱ500–1050:ȱEineȱKulturȬȱundȱMentalitätsgeschichte.ȱKultur
undȱMentalitätȱ(Darmstadt:ȱWissenschaftlicheȱBuchgesellschaft,ȱ2007),ȱ148–61;ȱheȱhimselfȱpoints
outȱremarkableȱcounterȬexamples,ȱsuchȱasȱpoemsȱbyȱVenantiusȱFortunatusȱ(ca.ȱ555–600)ȱorȱby
WalahfridȱStrabo,ȱAbbotȱofȱtheȱMonasteryȱofȱReichenauȱ(ca.ȱ808–849),ȱ159–61.
soȱasȱtoȱsetȱaȱgoodȱexampleȱandȱencourageȱotherȱmenȱtoȱpayȱtheirȱtitheȱinȱfullȱinȱthe
future.96
Theȱstewardsȱareȱchargedȱwithȱgivingȱaccurateȱaccountsȱandȱwithȱactingȱasȱthe
mostȱdiligentȱmanagersȱpossible.ȱThisȱchargeȱextendedȱtoȱeveryȱaspectȱrelevantȱon
theȱestates,ȱincludingȱfish,ȱaȱveryȱimportantȱfoodȱitemȱwithinȱaȱChristianȱworld:
“Thatȱtheȱfishȱfromȱourȱfishpondsȱshallȱbeȱsold,ȱandȱothersȱputȱinȱtheirȱplace,ȱso
thatȱthereȱisȱalwaysȱaȱsupplyȱofȱfish;ȱhowever,ȱwhenȱweȱdoȱnotȱvisitȱtheȱestates
theyȱareȱtoȱbeȱsold,ȱandȱourȱstewardsȱareȱtoȱgetȱaȱprofitȱfromȱthemȱforȱourȱbenefit”
(72–73;ȱch.ȱ65).97ȱ
Ofȱcourse,ȱCharlemagneȱisȱonlyȱconcernedȱwithȱdomesticatedȱnature,ȱandȱyetȱhis
documentȱ revealsȱ theȱ extentȱ toȱ whichȱ evenȱ anȱ emperorȱ atȱ thatȱ timeȱ fully
understandȱ theȱ extremeȱ importanceȱ ofȱ ruralȱ space.ȱ Withoutȱ aȱ goodȱ ecocritical
perspective,ȱweȱmightȱsay,ȱrelyingȱonȱmodernȱparlance,ȱearlyȬmedievalȱestates
couldȱ notȱ runȱ efficiently.ȱ Aȱ finalȱ exampleȱ willȱ illustrateȱ thisȱ mostȱ poignantly,
especiallyȱbecauseȱhereȱweȱareȱgivenȱinsightȱintoȱtheȱdelicateȱbalanceȱbetweenȱthe
civilizedȱspaceȱofȱtheȱestateȱandȱtheȱwildȱspaceȱofȱtheȱforests:ȱ“Theyȱ[theȱstewards]
shallȱatȱallȱtimesȱkeepȱusȱinformedȱaboutȱwolves,ȱhowȱmanyȱeachȱofȱthemȱhas
caught,ȱandȱshallȱhaveȱtheȱskinsȱdeliveredȱtoȱus.ȱAndȱinȱtheȱmonthȱofȱMayȱtheyȱare
toȱseekȱoutȱtheȱwolfȱcubsȱandȱcatchȱthem,ȱwithȱpoisonȱandȱhooksȱasȱwellȱasȱwith
pitsȱandȱdogs”ȱ(73,ȱch.ȱ69).ȱ98
96
TheȱReignȱofȱCharlemagne,ȱ69ȱ(ch.ȱ36).ȱForȱanȱhighlyȱfascinatingȱtextualȱnetworkȱconnectingȱthe
earlyȱwithȱtheȱlateȱMiddleȱAgesȱwithȱregardȱtoȱnaturalȱsciences,ȱseeȱBrigitteȱBaumannȱandȱHelmut
Baumann,ȱ “Dieȱ Mainzerȱ KräuterbuchȬInkunabelnȱ “Herbariusȱ Moguntinus”ȱ (1484),ȱ “Gartȱ der
Gesundheit”ȱ (1485),ȱ “Hortusȱ Sanitatis”ȱ (1491)ȱ :ȱ wissenschaftshistorischeȱ Untersuchungȱ derȱ drei
PrototypenȱbotanischȬmedizinischerȱLiteraturȱdesȱSpätmittelaltersȱ;ȱunterȱBerücksichtigungȱderȱVorläufer
“Etymologiae”ȱ(umȱ630),ȱ“CapitulareȱdeȱVillis”ȱ(umȱ800),ȱ“Hortulus”ȱ(umȱ840),ȱ“Physica”ȱ(1152),ȱ“De
Vegetabilibus”ȱ (1256/1257),ȱ “Buchȱ derȱ Natur”ȱ (1475),ȱ “Lateinischerȱ Macerȱ Floridus”ȱ (1.ȱ Hälfteȱ 13.
Jahrhundert),ȱ“DeutscherȱMacerȱFloridus”ȱ(1.ȱHälfteȱ15.ȱJahrhundert),ȱ“PseudoȬApuleiusȬPlatonicus”
(1481/1482),ȱ “Promptuariumȱ Medicinae”ȱ (1483)ȱ undȱ derȱ “Gartȱ derȱ Gesundheit”Ȭ/”Hortus
Sanitatis”ȬNachdruckeȱvonȱGrüningerȱ(1485/1486),ȱFurterȱ(1486),ȱDinckmutȱ(1487),ȱPrüssȱ(1497)ȱsowie
dieȱinȱderȱBildtraditionȱstehendenȱWerkeȱ“Arbolayre”ȱ(1486/87),ȱ“Ruraliaȱcommoda”ȱ(1493)ȱundȱ“Liber
deȱarteȱdistillandi”ȱ(1500).ȱDenkmälerȱderȱBuchkunst,ȱ15ȱ(Stuttgart:ȱHiersemann,ȱ2010).ȱTheȱresearch
onȱthisȱdocumentȱis,ȱofȱcourse,ȱveryȱrich;ȱsee,ȱforȱinstance,ȱChristophȱDette,ȱ“Geschichteȱund
Archäologie:ȱ Versuchȱ einerȱ interdisziplinärenȱ Betrachtungȱ desȱ Capitulareȱ deȱ villis,”
RealienforschungȱundȱhistorischeȱQuellen.ȱArchäologischeȱMitteilungenȱausȱNordwestdeutschland,
Beihefte,ȱ15ȱ(1996):ȱ45–100.
97
ForȱaȱsimilarȱconcernȱwithȱmanagingȱestatesȱandȱhenceȱalsoȱfishpondsȱinȱtheȱhighȱMiddleȱAges,
seeȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱAbigailȱP.ȱDowling.ȱCf.ȱalsoȱRichardȱC.ȱHoffmann,ȱFishers’
CraftȱandȱLetteredȱArt:ȱTractsȱonȱFishingȱfromȱtheȱEndȱofȱtheȱMiddleȱAges.ȱTorontoȱMedievalȱTextsȱand
Translations,ȱ 12ȱ (Toronto,ȱ Buffalo,ȱ andȱ London:ȱ Universityȱ ofȱ Torontoȱ Press,ȱ 1997);ȱ Dietrich
SahrhageȱandȱJohannesȱLundbeck,ȱAȱHistoryȱofȱFishingȱ(Berlin,ȱHeidelberg,ȱȱetȱal.:ȱSpringer,ȱ1992).
98
JacquesȱBerlioz,ȱ“Lesȱloupsȱsontȱentréȱ dansȱParis:ȱLeȱtémoignageȱduȱJournalȱd’unȱbourgeoisȱde
Paris,”ȱid.,ȱCatastrophesȱnaturellesȱetȱcalamitésȱauȱMoyenȱAge.ȱMicrologus’ȱLibrary,ȱ1ȱ(Turnhout,
Belgium:ȱSismeȱ–ȱEdizioniȱdelȱGalluzzo,ȱ1998),ȱ28–31;ȱAleksanderȱPluskowski,ȱWolvesȱandȱthe
Introduction 35
TheȱCapitulareȱdeȱvillisȱreflectedȱclearlyȱtheȱgreatȱneedȱforȱtheȱCarolingianȱrulers
toȱmaintainȱaȱwellȬkeptȱnetworkȱofȱtheseȱestatesȱsinceȱtheyȱprovidedȱtheȱessential
foodstuffȱ forȱ themselves,ȱ theirȱ households,ȱ andȱ theirȱ armies,ȱ notȱ toȱ forgetȱ the
criticalȱ incomeȱ fromȱ salesȱ ofȱ agriculturalȱ products.ȱ Havingȱ learnedȱ fromȱ the
devastatingȱconsequencesȱofȱtheȱfamineȱinȱAquitaineȱinȱ792–793,ȱatȱthatȱtimeȱruled
byȱ hisȱ sonȱ Louis,ȱ laterȱ calledȱ theȱ Pious,ȱ Charlemagneȱ tookȱ everyȱ possible
precautionȱtoȱpreventȱsuchȱcatastrophesȱinȱtheȱfuture.ȱInȱthisȱregardȱheȱviewedȱhis
entireȱempireȱasȱencompassingȱeveryȱpersonȱandȱeveryȱland,ȱwhichȱallȱhadȱtoȱbe
administeredȱ withȱ theȱ greatestȱ care.ȱ Consideringȱ thisȱ allȬencompassing
perspective,ȱweȱclearlyȱrecognizeȱinȱtheȱauthorȱandȱrulerȱaȱmanȱwhoȱclaimedȱfor
himselfȱtheȱpositionȱofȱtheȱpaterȱfamiliae,ȱorȱtheȱheadȱofȱaȱpatrocinium,ȱforȱwhom,ȱin
fact,ȱnothingȱinȱhisȱpropertyȱwasȱofȱlowȱrelevance.99
7.ȱNatureȱinȱaȱSpanishȱMedievalȱEpicȱPoem:ȱElȱPoemaȱdeȱMíoȱCid
HumanȱDramaȱinȱtheȱWilderness
ButȱletȱusȱquicklyȱconsiderȱaȱremarkableȱexampleȱfromȱtheȱearlyȱMiddleȱAges
whereȱ theȱ forestȱ andȱ theȱ wideȱ openȱ landȱ gainȱ astonishingȱ attentionȱ inȱ an
unexpectedȱcontext.ȱInȱtheȱSpanishȱ‘national’ȱepicȱPoemaȱdeȱMíoȱCidȱfromȱca.ȱ1200
lateȱinȱtheȱplotȱdevelopmentȱtheȱprotagonist’sȱtwoȱdaughtersȱareȱtakenȱbyȱtheir
husbands,ȱtheȱCarriónȱbrothers,ȱbackȱtoȱtheirȱhomeȱcountry.ȱButȱtheyȱhaveȱproven
toȱbeȱtrueȱcowardsȱandȱareȱnotȱcompetentȱinȱmilitaryȱterms,ȱalthoughȱElȱCidȱdoes
notȱquiteȱknowȱthisȱuntilȱlaterȱbecauseȱhisȱmenȱhaveȱkeptȱthisȱreportȱawayȱfrom
himȱoutȱofȱaȱdeepȱsenseȱofȱembarrassment,ȱbutȱalsoȱangerȱandȱfrustration.ȱ
Inȱ orderȱ toȱ compensateȱ forȱ theirȱ ownȱ failingsȱ andȱ lackȱ ofȱ prowess,ȱ theȱ two
miserableȱbrothersȱdecideȱtoȱtakeȱtheirȱrevengeȱonȱtheirȱhelplessȱthoughȱdignified
wives,ȱwhomȱtheyȱwhipȱwithȱtheirȱbeltsȱalmostȱtoȱdeath.ȱOnceȱtheyȱbelieveȱthat
theyȱ haveȱ completedȱ theirȱ goal,ȱ theyȱ leaveȱ theȱ lifelessȱ bodiesȱ behindȱ and
disappear.ȱ However,ȱ Míoȱ Cid’sȱ nephew,ȱ Félixȱ Muñoz,ȱ hadȱ notȱ leftȱ theȱ camp
completelyȱasȱorderedȱbyȱtheȱCarriónȱbrothers,ȱandȱhidȱinȱthickȱunderbrushȱto
observeȱ whenȱ theyȱ wouldȱ followȱ theirȱ troupe.ȱ Onceȱ theȱ twoȱ menȱ thenȱ have
WildernessȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(Woodbridge:ȱBoydellȱPress,ȱ2006);ȱMalcolmȱDrewȱDonalson,ȱTheȱ
Historyȱ ofȱ theȱ Wolfȱ inȱ Westernȱ Civilizationȱ fromȱ Antiquityȱ toȱ theȱ Middleȱ Agesȱ (Lewiston,ȱ NY,
Queenston,ȱON,ȱandȱLampeter,ȱWales:ȱEdwinȱMellenȱPress,ȱ2006).ȱForȱaȱsurveyȱofȱrecentȱresearch
onȱcatastrophesȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱbeyond,ȱseeȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱHistorischeȱKatastrophenȬ
forschung:ȱ Begriffe,ȱ Konzepteȱ undȱ Fallbeispiele,ȱ ed.ȱ Gerritȱ Jasperȱ Schenkȱ andȱ Jensȱ Ivoȱ Engels.
HistorischeȱSozialforschung,ȱ32.3ȱ(Cologne:ȱZentrumȱfürȱHistorischeȱSozialforschung,ȱ2007).
99
Karlȱ Josefȱ Strankȱ andȱ Karlȱ Schultheis,ȱ “Dieȱ Landgüterverordnungȱ Karlsȱ desȱ Großen:ȱ Das
Capitulareȱdeȱvillisȱvelȱcurtisȱimperii,”ȱObst,ȱGemüseȱundȱKräuterȱKarlsȱdesȱGrossen,ȱed.ȱKarlȬJosef
StrankȱandȱJuttaȱMeurersȬBalkeȱ(Mainz:ȱVerlagȱPhilippȱvonȱZabern,ȱ2008),ȱ10–37.
passed,ȱ Muñozȱ tracesȱ theirȱ tracksȱ backȱ toȱ theȱ campȱ andȱ findsȱ theȱ nearȬdead
women.ȱ Heȱ canȱ rescueȱ them,ȱ andȱ bringȱ themȱ backȱ toȱ theirȱ father,ȱ which
subsequentlyȱinitiatesȱtheȱlengthyȱjudicialȱtrialȱofȱMíoȱCidȱagainstȱtheȱformerȱsonsȬ
inȬlaw,ȱwhoȱareȱultimatelyȱbadlyȱdefeatedȱandȱexposed,ȱhenceȱalsoȱcondemned
andȱdisgraced,ȱdisappearingȱinȱhistory.ȱ
Asȱmuchȱasȱthisȱmajorȱepicȱpoemȱfocusesȱprimarilyȱonȱtheȱbattleȱscenesȱandȱthen
theȱhighȬstakeȱpoliticalȱtrial,ȱtheȱpoetȱalsoȱendeavoredȱmostȱintriguinglyȱtoȱgiveȱus
aȱ goodȱ senseȱ ofȱ theȱ journeyȱ throughȱ theȱ woodedȱ mountains,ȱ almostȱ inȱ a
cinematographicȱfashion:ȱ“TheȱCarriónsȱleftȱAnsarera,ȱ/ȱNotȱstoppingȱbyȱdayȱor
night,ȱ /ȱ Passingȱ toȱ theȱ leftȱ ofȱ theȱ Atienzaȱ cliff,ȱ /ȱ Overȱ theȱ Miedesȱ mountains,
DashingȱoverȱtheȱhillsȱofȱClaros,ȱ/ȱRidingȱtoȱtheȱleftȱofȱGriza,ȱbuiltȱbyȱAlamos—ȱ/
WentȱhurriedlyȱbyȱSanȱEsteban,ȱtoȱtheȱright,ȱ/ȱAndȱcameȱtoȱtheȱCorpesȱwoods,ȱ/
Whereȱoaksȱgrowȱsoȱtallȱtheirȱbranchesȱalmostȱscrapeȱtheȱsky,ȱ/ȱAndȱfierceȱwild
beastsȱareȱeverywhere.”100ȱ
Onceȱtheȱeveningȱhasȱsetȱin,ȱtheȱcompanyȱisȱlookingȱforȱaȱrestingȱplace,ȱandȱfind
aȱlocationȱthatȱstronglyȱremindsȱus,ȱonceȱagain,ȱofȱaȱlocusȱamoenus:ȱ“Theyȱfoundȱa
clearing,ȱthroughȱwhichȱaȱspringȱwentȱrunning,ȱ/ȱAndȱorderedȱaȱtentȱsetȱup”ȱ(128).
Inȱorderȱtoȱdeceiveȱeveryone,ȱevenȱtheirȱownȱwives,ȱtheȱbrothersȱdisplayȱtheȱmost
lovingȱmanners,ȱactingȱasȱlovingȱhusbands:ȱ“Theyȱsleptȱthere,ȱthatȱnight,ȱwithȱall
theirȱmen,ȱ/ȱOftenȱembracingȱtheirȱwives,ȱandȱshowingȱtheirȱlove”ȱ(128).ȱEarlyȱin
theȱmorning,ȱhowever,ȱonceȱtheȱcampȱhasȱbeenȱpackedȱup,ȱtheȱbrothersȱorder
everyoneȱ toȱ leave,ȱ allegedlyȱ forȱ personal,ȱ intimateȱ purposes:ȱ “Theyȱ wishedȱ to
enjoyȱthemȱ[theirȱwives],ȱcompletelyȱalone”ȱ(128).ȱ
Thisȱ strategyȱ works,ȱ andȱ whenȱ theyȱ areȱ alone,ȱ theȱ horribleȱ beatingȱ begins,
althoughȱtheȱtwoȱwomenȱbegȱtheirȱmeanȬspiritedȱandȱfoulȱhusbandsȱtoȱdecapitate
themȱsoȱthatȱtheyȱcouldȱdieȱanȱhonorableȱdeathȱasȱmartyrs,ȱandȱnotȱbeȱhumiliated
throughȱtheȱdeadlyȱwhipping.ȱAllȱtheirȱpleadingȱisȱtoȱnoȱavail,ȱwhichȱthenȱleads
theȱnarrativeȱplotȱtoȱtheȱnextȱmajorȱevents,ȱmentionedȱabove.ȱButȱthereȱisȱoneȱmore
importantȱreferenceȱtoȱtheȱforestȱwildernessȱinȱwhichȱMuñezȱdiscoversȱtheȱtwo
miserableȱvictims,ȱsinceȱheȱisȱdesperatelyȱtryingȱtoȱrescueȱthem:ȱ“Coveringȱthem
bothȱwithȱhisȱcloak,ȱ/ȱThenȱquicklyȱtookȱtheȱreinsȱandȱledȱthemȱaway.ȱ/ȱCompletely
alone,ȱinȱtheȱCorpesȱforest,ȱ/ȱHeȱgotȱthemȱoutȱofȱtheȱmountainsȱbyȱtheȱendȱofȱthe
day”ȱ(191,ȱcansoȱ131).ȱ
TheȱruralȱspaceȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱmostȱcriticalȱforȱtheȱCarriónȱbrothersȱtoȱcarryȱout
theirȱcriminalȱact,ȱtryingȱtoȱmurderȱtheirȱwivesȱinȱaȱmostȱshamefulȱmanner.ȱTheir
viciousȱ behaviorȱ gainsȱ particularlyȱ inȱ negativityȱ becauseȱ theyȱ transgressȱ the
100
TheȱSongȱofȱtheȱCid:ȱAȱDualȬLanguageȱEditionȱwithȱParallelȱText,ȱtrans.ȱbyȱBurtonȱRaffel.ȱIntroduction
andȱNotesȱbyȱMaríaȱRosaȱMenocalȱ(London:ȱPenguin,ȱ2009),ȱ185,ȱcansoȱ128.ȱSeeȱnowȱCantarȱdeȱMio
Cid,ȱed.,ȱestudioȱyȱnotasȱdeȱAlbertoȱMontaner,ȱconȱunȱensayoȱdeȱFranciscoȱRico.ȱBibliotecaȱclásica
/ȱGalaxiaȱGutenbergȱ(Barcelona:ȱGalaxiaȱGutenberg:ȱCírculoȱdeȱLectores,ȱ2011).
Introduction 37
typicalȱ locusȱ amoenusȱ andȱ makeȱ itȱ intoȱ theȱ siteȱ ofȱ theirȱ attemptedȱ murder.
However,ȱtheȱpoetȱalsoȱutilizedȱtheȱlonelinessȱofȱtheȱforestedȱmountainȱregionȱto
facilitateȱMuñoz’sȱsuccessfulȱrescueȱoperation.ȱAlthoughȱtheȱPoemaȱdeȱMíoȱCidȱfalls
squarelyȱintoȱtheȱgenreȱofȱheroicȱepics,ȱitȱalsoȱcontains,ȱasȱweȱmayȱconclude,ȱa
significantȱopennessȱtowardȱtheȱruralȱspaceȱandȱtreatsȱitȱwithȱgreatȱattentionȱto
detail,ȱ almostȱ asȱ muchȱ asȱ weȱ areȱ wontȱ toȱ observeȱ normallyȱ inȱ lateȬmedieval
literature.ȱOneȱofȱtheȱreasonsȱmightȱbeȱthatȱtheȱpoetȱintendedȱtoȱunderscoreȱthe
criminalȱactȱevenȱfurtherȱandȱlocateȱitȱinȱvirginalȱland,ȱasȱaȱnegativeȱmirrorȱofȱthe
attemptedȱdoubleȬmurder.101
8.ȱTheȱMountainȱinȱtheȱArtȱandȱLiteratureȱofȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ
andȱtheȱEarlyȱModernȱAge:ȱ
TheȱMostȱMassiveȱChallengeȱinȱNature
Certainly,ȱ inȱ theȱ Middleȱ Agesȱ theȱ mountainȱ was,ȱ apartȱ fromȱ beingȱ deeply
threateningȱbecauseȱofȱitsȱsheerȱphysicality,ȱheight,ȱfreezingȱtemperatures,ȱand
lackȱofȱwater,ȱtheȱsiteȱwhereȱGodȱdidȱandȱcouldȱshowȱHimselfȱagain,ȱandȱthisȱin
directȱ responseȱ toȱ theȱ manyȱ differentȱ statementsȱ inȱ theȱ Oldȱ andȱ theȱ New
Testament.ȱ Aȱ goodȱ exampleȱ forȱ thisȱ wouldȱ beȱ theȱ “Bambergȱ Apocalypse,”ȱ an
Ottonianȱ manuscriptȱ fromȱ ca.ȱ 1010,ȱ showingȱ theȱ Lambȱ ofȱ Godȱ onȱ topȱ ofȱ a
mountainȱ(Bamberg,ȱStaatsbibliothek,ȱMsc.ȱBibl.ȱ140).ȱNumerousȱartistsȱprojected
theȱmountainȱasȱtheȱsiteȱwhereȱmanȱcouldȱencounterȱGod,ȱsuchȱasȱinȱtheȱ“Pope
Leo’sȱ Bible,”ȱ inȱ theȱ Bibliothecaȱ Apostolicaȱ Vaticana,ȱ Reg.ȱ gr.ȱ 1ȱ B,ȱ fol.ȱ 155v.
Similarly,ȱtheȱmountainȱcouldȱprovideȱdivineȱinspiration;ȱitȱcouldȱbeȱtheȱsiteȱof
God’sȱ Passion,ȱ orȱ itȱ couldȱ serveȱ asȱ anȱ importantȱ backdropȱ forȱ humanȱ events,
reflectingȱonȱemotionalȱattitudesȱandȱsensations,ȱwhenȱwarȱscenesȱwereȱdepicted,
especiallyȱinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱtheȱTrojanȱWar,ȱsuchȱasȱinȱGuidoȱdeȱColumna’sȱTrojan
War,ȱVienna,ȱÖsterreichischeȱNationalbibliothek,ȱCod.ȱ2773,ȱfol.ȱ9v.ȱ
TurningȱtoȱRenaissanceȱpaintings,ȱespeciallyȱofȱhermitsȱandȱsaints,ȱweȱobserve
aȱgrowingȱinterestȱinȱdepictingȱmountainousȱlandscapesȱthatȱcloselyȱinteractȱwith
101
Forȱ furtherȱ discussionȱ ofȱ thisȱ epicȱ poemȱ inȱ ecoȬcriticalȱ terms,ȱ seeȱ nowȱ Connieȱ Scarborough,
“GeographicalȱandȱAllegoricalȱSettings:ȱAnȱEcocriticalȱReadingȱofȱ“AfrentaȱdeȱCorpes”ȱinȱtheȱPoema
deȱMioȱCid,”ȱMediaevistikȱ24ȱ(2012),ȱ111–24.ȱSheȱconcludesȱmostȱappropriately:ȱ“InȱtheȱAfrentaȱde
Corpes,ȱtheȱattackȱonȱtheȱCid’sȱdaughtersȱmustȱoccurȱoutsideȱtheȱcenter—inȱtheȱrobledo,ȱi.e.,ȱthe
wildernessȱspace,ȱwhereas,ȱtheȱrestitutionȱofȱhonorȱmustȱoccurȱinȱtheȱCortesȱandȱonȱtheȱfieldȱof
combat—spacesȱ fullyȱ underȱ societalȱ control.ȱ ȱ Theȱ naturalȱ settingsȱ forȱ theseȱ eventsȱ cannotȱ be
consideredȱmerelyȱasȱ‘backdrop’ȱorȱ‘landscape.’ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱEitherȱaȱliteralȱcartographicalȱreadingȱorȱan
exclusivelyȱallegoricalȱreadingȱofȱtheseȱspacesȱlimitsȱourȱappreciationȱofȱtheȱdramaticȱtensionsȱand
nuancedȱconstructionȱofȱspaceȱachievedȱbyȱtheȱCidȱpoet”ȱ(124).
theȱfiguresȱinȱorderȱtoȱunderscoreȱtheȱspiritualȱmeaning.ȱAsȱLieselotteȱE.ȱSaurmaȬ
Jeltschȱnowȱcomments,ȱ
BergeȱsindȱinȱdenȱmittelalterlichenȱDarstellungenȱbisȱweitȱinsȱSpätmittelalterȱtopische
Elemente.ȱ Sieȱ dienenȱ derȱ Narration,ȱ indemȱ sieȱ denȱ OrtȬȱ oderȱ Szenenwechsel
bezeichnen.ȱ Nichtȱ seltenȱ übernehmenȱ sieȱ attributiveȱ Aufgaben,ȱ etwaȱ imȱ Sinneȱ der
ErhöhungȱeinerȱFigurȱoderȱeinerȱBurg.ȱFürȱdieseȱZweckeȱgenügtȱeineȱChiffre,ȱeine
Erhebungȱ oderȱ etwasȱ ausführlicherȱ seitȱ demȱ 13.ȱ Jahrhundertȱ derȱ byzantinische
Schollenberg.ȱ Zweitens:ȱ Derȱ Bergȱ gewinntȱ inȱ gewissenȱ Zusammenhängenȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ im
Hochmittelalterȱ nahezuȱ auschließlichȱ inȱ derȱ christlichenȱ Ikonographieȱ –ȱ eine
metaphorischeȱ Bedeutungȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ Zunehmendȱ lässtȱ sichȱ imȱ Laufeȱ desȱ 14.ȱ undȱ 15.
Jahrhundertsȱ eineȱ einfühlsameȱ Zusammengehörigkeitȱ vonȱ Bergȱ undȱ Mensch
beobachten.102
[Inȱmedievalȱdepictionsȱmountainsȱare,ȱfarȱintoȱtheȱlateȱMiddleȱAges,ȱtopicalȱelements.
Theyȱserveȱtheȱnarrationȱbyȱwayȱofȱsignalingȱtheȱchangeȱofȱplacesȱandȱscenes.ȱThey
assumeȱquiteȱoftenȱattributiveȱfunctions,ȱforȱexampleȱbyȱliftingȱaȱfigureȱupȱtoȱheights,
orȱpresentingȱaȱcastleȱonȱtopȱofȱaȱmountain.ȱForȱthisȱpurposeȱaȱsmallȱindicationȱwas
enough,ȱsuchȱasȱaȱslightȱelevationȱor,ȱmoreȱextensivelyȱsinceȱtheȱthirteenthȱcentury,ȱthe
Byzantineȱmountainȱconsistingȱofȱfolds.ȱSecondly,ȱtheȱmountainȱassumesȱinȱcertain
contextsȱduringȱtheȱhighȱMiddleȱAges,ȱalmostȱexclusivelyȱinȱChristianȱiconography,
aȱ metaphoricalȱ meaning.ȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ Increasingly,ȱ duringȱ theȱ fourteenthȱ andȱ fifteenth
centuries,ȱweȱobserveȱanȱintuitive/sensitiveȱcorrelationȱbetweenȱmanȱandȱmountain.]ȱ
Asȱmanyȱliteraryȱexamplesȱconfirm,ȱtheȱmountainȱwasȱcommonlyȱregardedȱasȱa
mythicalȱ entityȱ whereȱ miraculousȱ eventsȱ couldȱ takeȱ place,ȱ whereȱ theȱ divine
becameȱmanifest,ȱwhereȱheroesȱdemonstratedȱtheirȱtrueȱcharacterȱandȱstrength,
whereȱprotagonistsȱcouldȱfindȱrefuge,ȱorȱwhereȱtheyȱwereȱexiledȱto.103ȱ
Oneȱofȱtheȱmostȱcharmingȱandȱintriguingȱreferencesȱtoȱaȱmajorȱmountainȱin
medievalȱliteratureȱcanȱbeȱfoundȱinȱtheȱlaiȱ“Lesȱdeusȱamanz”ȱbyȱMarieȱdeȱFrance
(ca.ȱ1180–1190)ȱwhereȱaȱjealousȱfatherȱtriesȱtoȱkeepȱhisȱdaughterȱallȱforȱhimself
afterȱtheȱdeathȱofȱhisȱownȱwife.ȱWhenȱhisȱpeopleȱbeginȱtoȱreproachȱhimȱforȱthis
inappropriateȱ behavior,ȱ castingȱ aȱ badȱ lightȱ onȱ himȱ asȱ herȱ father,ȱ heȱ setsȱ upȱ a
challengeȱthatȱonlyȱtheȱoneȱmanȱwouldȱwinȱherȱhandȱinȱmarriageȱwhoȱcouldȱcarry
herȱupȱtheȱmountainȱwithoutȱresting.ȱThisȱtask,ȱhowever,ȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱimpossible,
asȱtheȱkingȱhasȱforeseenȱandȱhopedȱfor.ȱFinally,ȱaȱyoungȱman,ȱdeeplyȱinȱloveȱwith
theȱprincess,ȱwhoȱreturnsȱhisȱfeelings,ȱendeavorsȱtoȱachieveȱthatȱtask.ȱSheȱsends
102
Lieselotteȱ E.ȱ SaurmaȬJeltsch,ȱ “Derȱ Bergȱ alsȱ Bildmetapherȱ inȱ derȱ Kunstȱ desȱ Mittelalters,”ȱ Das
Mittelalterȱ16ȱ(2011):ȱ47–71;ȱhereȱ70.ȱAllȱreferencesȱtoȱthoseȱspecificȱartȱworksȱareȱtakenȱfromȱher
study.
103
ClaudeȱLecouteux,ȱ“DerȱBerg:ȱSeinȱmythischerȱAspektȱimȱMittelalter,”ȱBurgen,ȱLänder,ȱOrte,ȱed.
UlrichȱMüllerȱandȱWernerȱWunderlich,ȱtogetherȱwithȱMargareteȱSpringeth.ȱMittelalterȱMythen,
5ȱ(Constance:ȱUVKȱVerlagsgesellschaft,ȱ2008),ȱ109–20.
Introduction 39
himȱtoȱherȱauntȱinȱSalernoȱwhoȱconcoctsȱaȱspecialȱpotionȱthatȱwouldȱgiveȱhimȱthe
necessaryȱstrengthȱtoȱachieveȱtheȱfeat.ȱ
Tragically,ȱhowever,ȱtheȱyoungȱmanȱsuddenlyȱfeelsȱsoȱinspiredȱtoȱproveȱhisȱown
strengthȱinȱviewȱofȱtheȱpublicȱthatȱheȱrefusesȱtoȱtakeȱtheȱpotion,ȱalthoughȱsheȱoffers
itȱ toȱ himȱ severalȱ timesȱ whenȱ sheȱ realizesȱ hisȱ oncomingȱ fatigue.ȱ Hisȱ lackȱ of
moderationȱ provesȱ toȱ beȱ hisȱ fatalȱ flaw,ȱ althoughȱ heȱ actuallyȱ reachesȱ theȱ top
carryingȱherȱinȱhisȱarms.ȱButȱhardlyȱhasȱheȱreachedȱthatȱpoint,ȱ“heȱfellȱdownȱand
neverȱroseȱagain,ȱforȱhisȱheartȱleftȱhisȱbody.”104Asȱsoonȱasȱtheȱprincesȱhasȱrealized
herȱ lover’sȱ death,ȱ sheȱ “lamentedȱ himȱ loudlyȱ andȱ thenȱ threwȱ awayȱ theȱ vessel
containingȱ theȱ potion,ȱ scatteringȱ itsȱ contentsȱ soȱ thatȱ theȱ mountainȱ wasȱ well
sprinkledȱwithȱit,ȱandȱtheȱlandȱandȱsurroundingȱareaȱmuchȱimproved.ȱManyȱgood
plantsȱwereȱfoundȱthereȱwhichȱtookȱrootȱbecauseȱofȱtheȱpotion”ȱ(85).ȱMarieȱthen
onlyȱmentionsȱthatȱtheȱprincessȱalsoȱdied,ȱoutȱofȱgrief.ȱOutȱofȱrespectȱforȱtheirȱdeep
andȱtrueȱlove,ȱtheȱdeadȱcoupleȱisȱlaterȱburiedȱonȱtheȱtopȱofȱtheȱmountain,ȱwhich
thusȱbecomesȱaȱmemorialȱtoȱtheseȱmemorableȱyoungȱpeopleȱandȱtheirȱprofound
passionȱforȱeachȱother.ȱOfȱcourse,ȱthereȱwouldȱbeȱmuchȱtoȱcriticizeȱhere,ȱespecially
theȱ youngȱ man’sȱ stubbornnessȱ andȱ recalcitrance,ȱ refusingȱ toȱ listenȱ toȱ herȱ lifeȬ
savingȱadvice.ȱHowever,ȱthisȱshortȱlaiȱemergesȱasȱanȱunsuspectedȱpoeticȱpaeanȱto
aȱmountainȱbecauseȱitȱbecomesȱtheȱsiteȱwhereȱtragicȱloveȱfindsȱitsȱend.105
Moreover,ȱatȱcloserȱanalysisȱweȱdiscoverȱhowȱmuchȱMarieȱvoicedȱcriticismȱofȱthe
courtȱatȱlarge,ȱignoredȱurbanȱsettingsȱaltogether,ȱandȱpresented,ȱquiteȱregularly,
theȱforestȱorȱtheȱcountrysideȱasȱanȱalmostȱidealȱrefugeȱfromȱtheȱdangersȱinvolved
withȱlifeȱatȱcourt,ȱsuchȱasȱinȱherȱlaiȱ“Lanval.”
Consideringȱcontemporaryȱencyclopedicȱwriting,ȱorȱtheȱreflectionsȱbyȱmedieval
scientists,ȱ weȱ alsoȱ wouldȱ haveȱ toȱ recognizeȱ thatȱ theȱ mountainȱ itselfȱ wasȱ well
understoodȱasȱaȱgeoȬphysicalȱentity,ȱtheȱoriginȱandȱpropertiesȱofȱwhichȱcouldȱbe
explainedȱreasonablyȱwell.ȱAȱgoodȱexampleȱforȱthisȱobservationȱcanȱbeȱfoundȱin
JohnȱTrevisa’sȱtranslationȱofȱBartholomaeusȱAnglicus’sȱDeȱproprietatibusȱrerum.
Repeatedlyȱ referringȱ toȱ Aristotle,ȱ Trevisaȱ comments,ȱ “Alsoȱ inȱ libroȱ metheroȬ
logicorumȱ Aristotelȱ seithȱ þatȱ sometymeȱ mounteynsȱ benȱ ymadeȱ byȱ stronge
ertheskakynge,ȱforȱsometymeȱ[þer]byȱertheȱisȱareredȱandȱymadeȱaȱmountayne;ȱ[as]
ofȱaȱgreteȱreyneȱofȱwaterȱcomethȱholowenesseȱandȱisȱmadeȱaȱvaleye.ȱAlsoȱþerȱhe
104
Theȱ Laisȱ ofȱ Marieȱ deȱ France,ȱ trans.ȱ withȱ anȱ introductionȱ byȱ Glynȱ S.ȱ Burgessȱ andȱ Keithȱ Busby
(London:ȱPenguin,ȱ1986),ȱ84.
105
Scholarsȱhaveȱoftenȱcommentedȱonȱthisȱfamousȱlai,ȱsuchȱasȱR.ȱHowardȱBloch,ȱTheȱAnonymousȱMarie
deȱFranceȱ(ChicagoȱandȱLondon:ȱTheȱUniversityȱofȱChicagoȱPress,ȱ2003),ȱ89–91;ȱAnnaȱKukuÙkaȬ
Wojtasik,ȱ Laȱ dameȱ etȱ l’amourȱ auȱ Moyenȱ Age:ȱ Symboliqueȱ duȱ portraitȱ amoureuxȱ dansȱ laȱ littérature
courtoiseȱduȱXIIeȱsiècleȱ(Warsaw:ȱUniversitéȱdeȱVarsovie,ȱ2007),ȱ178–82.ȱTheȱhighlyȱinstrumental
functionȱ ofȱ theȱ mountain,ȱ however,ȱ inȱ manyȱ waysȱ fullyȱ integratedȱ intoȱ theȱ worldȱ ofȱ courtly
society,ȱhasȱescapedȱmostȱresearchers.
seithȱþatȱþeȱcommyngeȱandȱþeȱgoyngeȱofȱþeȱseeȱforwerieþȱandȱbrekeþȱþeȱlondȱin
someȱplaceȱandȱmakeþȱhilles.”106ȱ
Moreover,ȱ heȱ refersȱ toȱ theȱ manyȱ mineralsȱ andȱ oresȱ oneȱ canȱ extractȱ from
mountains;ȱthenȱheȱstressesȱthatȱsomeȱmountainsȱareȱvolcanoes,ȱthatȱsomeȱareȱso
highȱthatȱtheirȱpeaksȱareȱsnowȬcapped,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱCaucasus,ȱtheȱmountainsȱin
Lebanon,ȱandȱtheȱPyrenees.ȱThisȱisȱallȱbookȱknowledge,ȱsinceȱheȱrefersȱexclusively
toȱhisȱlearnedȱauthoritiesȱandȱtheȱBible,ȱandȱsoȱitȱdoesȱnotȱcomeȱasȱaȱsurpriseȱthat
heȱasȱanȱEnglishȱauthorȱdoesȱnotȱevenȱmentionȱtheȱAlpsȱ(696–97).ȱNevertheless,ȱthe
specialȱdetailsȱcharacteristicȱofȱmountainsȱappearȱtoȱbeȱcorrect,ȱsoȱwhenȱTrevis
pointsȱoutȱwithȱregardȱtoȱMountȱTabor,ȱ“Þereȱbenȱhi˄ȱtreenȱþatȱlesenȱnou˄tȱhere
leuesȱneþerȱgreneȱcolourȱinȱwynterȱneþerȱinȱsomere.ȱÞereȱisȱsongeȱofȱdyuersȱand
manyȱbriddesȱandȱfoulesȱ andȱ hereȱvoiceȱisȱlikyngeȱtoȱþeȱherynge,ȱandȱdyuers
disposiciounȱofȱhereȱfeþerenȱisȱlikyngeȱtoȱþeȱsy˄t,ȱandȱswetenesseȱisȱlykyngeȱtoȱþe
taast”ȱ(716).ȱ
9.ȱClimbingȱtheȱMountain,ȱorȱAscendingȱtoȱtheȱRenaissance?
FrancesoȱPetrarca’sȱReflectionsȱonȱNature
Oneȱofȱtheȱmostȱimportantȱliteraryȱexamplesȱforȱthisȱfundamentalȱchangeȱinȱthe
attitudeȱtowardȱtheȱmountainȱwasȱprovidedȱbyȱPetrarchȱ(1304–1374),ȱwhenȱhe
climbedȱtheȱMontȱVentouxȱandȱreportedȱaboutȱitȱinȱhisȱletterȱfromȱ1336ȱorȱlater
(untilȱtheȱlateȱ1350s)ȱtoȱhisȱfriend,ȱtheȱAugustinianȱmonkȱDionisioȱdaȱBorgoȱSan
Sepolcro.ȱHeȱhadȱbeenȱPetrarch’sȱconfessor,ȱwhoȱhadȱonceȱgivenȱhimȱaȱcopyȱofȱSt.
Augustine’sȱConfessiones,ȱwhichȱplaysȱanȱimportantȱroleȱinȱPetrarch’sȱaccount,ȱnow
containedȱinȱhisȱEpistolaeȱFamiliaresȱ(IV,ȱ1;ȱLettersȱonȱFamiliarȱMatters).ȱIrrespective
ofȱ manyȱ topoiȱ andȱ narrativeȱ strategiesȱ thatȱ underscoreȱ thisȱ famousȱ text,ȱ it
powerfullyȱillustratesȱaȱsignificantȱparadigmȱshiftȱthatȱdeservesȱcloseȱattentionȱin
ourȱcontext.ȱ
Petrarchȱexplainsȱhisȱmotivationȱtoȱdoȱthatȱascentȱwithȱaȱsimpleȱreferenceȱtoȱhis
“wishȱ toȱ seeȱ whatȱ soȱ greatȱ aȱ heightȱ hadȱ toȱ offer”ȱ (14).107ȱ Then,ȱ ofȱ course,ȱ he
qualifiesȱ thisȱ statementȱ andȱ addsȱ thatȱ notȱ onlyȱ hadȱ heȱ wonderedȱ aboutȱ that
106
Trevisa,ȱOnȱtheȱPropertiesȱofȱThingsȱ(seeȱnoteȱ46),ȱvol.ȱ2,ȱ695–96.
107
TheȱItalianȱRenaissanceȱReader,ȱed.ȱJuliaȱConawayȱBondanellaȱandȱMarkȱMusaȱ(NewȱYork:ȱPenguin,
1987),ȱ14–21.ȱForȱtheȱhistoricalȬcriticalȱedition,ȱseeȱFrancescoȱPetrarca,ȱLeȱFamiliari,ȱed.ȱVittorio
RossiȱandȱUmbertoȱBoscoȱ(1968;ȱFlorence:ȱLeȱLettere,ȱ1997).ȱPetrarchȱisȱtooȱwellȱknownȱtoȱneed
furtherȱintroductions;ȱbutȱseeȱPetrarch:ȱAȱCriticalȱGuideȱtoȱtheȱCompleteȱWorks,ȱed.ȱVictoriaȱKirkham
andȱArmandoȱMaggiȱ(Chicago:ȱUniversityȱofȱChicagoȱPress,ȱ2009);ȱseeȱalsoȱGurȱZak,ȱPetrarchȇs
HumanismȱandȱtheȱCareȱofȱtheȱSelfȱ(CambridgeȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱCambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2010).
Specificallyȱregardingȱhisȱascent,ȱseeȱJensȱPfeiffer,ȱ“PetrarcaȱundȱderȱMontȱVentoux,”ȱGermanischȬ
RomanischeȱMonatsschriftȱNFȱ47ȱ(1997):ȱ1–24.
Introduction 41
mountainȱforȱmanyȱyears,ȱlivingȱatȱitsȱfoot,ȱbutȱthatȱheȱalsoȱhadȱbeenȱinspiredȱto
accomplishȱthisȱfeatȱthroughȱhisȱstudyȱofȱLivy’sȱHistoryȱofȱRomeȱwhichȱincludesȱa
passageȱ aboutȱ Kingȱ Philipȱ ofȱ Macedonȱ whoȱ climbedȱ Mountȱ Haemusȱ in
Thessaly—whichȱisȱactuallyȱMountȱBalkanȱinȱBulgaria,ȱlocatedȱinȱThrace,ȱnotȱin
Thessaly.ȱ Theȱ promiseȱ toȱ beȱ ableȱ toȱ seeȱ intoȱ theȱ farȱ distanceȱ fromȱ theȱ summit
deeplyȱappealedȱtoȱPetrarch,ȱwhoȱlaterȱrelatesȱaboutȱhisȱownȱexperience:ȱ“Iȱstood
thereȱlikeȱaȱdazedȱperson.ȱIȱcouldȱseeȱtheȱcloudsȱunderȱourȱfeet,ȱandȱtheȱtalesȱIȱhad
readȱofȱAthosȱandȱOlympusȱseemedȱlessȱincredibleȱasȱIȱmyselfȱwasȱwitnessingȱthe
veryȱsameȱthingsȱfromȱaȱlessȱfamousȱmountain”ȱ(17).108ȱ
Combiningȱhisȱactualȱobservationsȱwithȱhisȱinnerȱlongingȱforȱhisȱhomeȱcountry,
Petrarchȱcomments:ȱ“IȱturnedȱmyȱeyesȱtowardȱItaly,ȱtheȱplaceȱtoȱwhichȱmyȱheart
wasȱ mostȱ inclined.ȱ Theȱ greatȱ andȱ snowcappedȱ Alpsȱ seemedȱ toȱ riseȱ closeȱ by,
thoughȱtheyȱwereȱfarȱaway—thoseȱsameȱAlpsȱthroughȱwhichȱthatȱfierceȱenemyȱof
theȱRomanȱnameȱonceȱmadeȱhisȱway,ȱsplittingȱtheȱrocks,ȱifȱweȱcanȱbelieveȱtheȱstory
byȱmeansȱofȱvinegar”ȱ(17).ȱInȱfact,ȱtheȱascentȱmadeȱitȱpossibleȱforȱhimȱtoȱreconnect,
atȱleastȱinȱhisȱmind,ȱwithȱhisȱhomeȱcountry,ȱwithȱhisȱfriendsȱinȱtheȱfarȱdistance.
Petrarchȱblamesȱhimselfȱforȱthisȱmomentȱofȱweakness,ȱandȱyetȱalsoȱinsistsȱonȱthe
validityȱ ofȱ hisȱ longing,ȱ whichȱ manyȱ authoritiesȱ wouldȱ haveȱ supported,
consideringȱ theȱ humanisticȱ valueȱ ofȱ friendshipȱ andȱ ofȱ theȱ identityȱ withȱ one’s
home.
Theȱ criticalȱ challengeȱ ofȱ climbingȱ thisȱ mightyȱ mountain—stillȱ aȱ challenge
today,ȱ toȱ beȱ sure—consistedȱ of,ȱ first,ȱ findingȱ theȱ rightȱ companion,ȱ andȱ since
Petrarchȱthenȱrealizedȱthatȱheȱcouldȱnotȱreallyȱtrustȱanyȱofȱhisȱfriendsȱtoȱmeetȱhis
expectationȱonȱthisȱexpedition,ȱheȱfinallyȱsettledȱonȱhisȱyoungerȱbrother,ȱwhoȱwas
delightedȱ atȱ theȱ “thoughtȱ ofȱ actingȱ atȱ theȱ sameȱ timeȱ asȱ aȱ friendȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ a
brother”ȱ(15).ȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱconfrontingȱtheȱtasksȱofȱ‘conquering’ȱdangerousȱand
unfamiliarȱruralȱspaceȱallowedȱPetrarchȱtoȱanalyzeȱandȱthenȱcomprehendȱtheȱtrue
natureȱofȱhisȱfriends.109
Whenȱtheseȱtwoȱareȱaboutȱtoȱbeginȱwithȱ theirȱascent,ȱtheyȱencounterȱanȱold
shepherdȱwhoȱtriesȱveryȱhardȱtoȱdiscourageȱthemȱfromȱtheirȱendeavorȱbecause
“Never,ȱaccordingȱtoȱwhatȱheȱorȱhisȱfriendsȱknew,ȱhadȱanyoneȱeverȱtriedȱtheȱascent
beforeȱorȱafterȱhim”ȱ(15).ȱHowever,ȱparticularlyȱtheȱnoveltyȱofȱtheȱclimbȱmotivates
108
IȱhaveȱexploredȱthisȱtopicȱmoreȱbroadlyȱandȱinȱcomparisonȱwithȱseveralȱotherȱtextsȱinȱAlbrecht
Classen,ȱ“TheȱDiscoveryȱofȱtheȱMountainȱasȱanȱEpistemologicalȱChallenge:ȱAȱParadigmȱShiftȱin
theȱ Approachȱ toȱ Highlyȱ Elevatedȱ Nature.ȱ Petrarch’sȱ Ascentȱ toȱ Montȱ Ventouxȱ andȱ Emperor
Maximilian’sȱTheuerdank,”ȱTheȱBookȱofȱNatureȱandȱHumanity:ȱNaturalȱandȱHumanȱWorldsȱinȱMedieval
andȱ Earlyȱ Modernȱ Europe,ȱ ed.ȱ Davidȱ Hawkes.ȱ Arizonaȱ Studiesȱ inȱ theȱ Middleȱ Agesȱ andȱ the
Renaissanceȱ(Turnhout:ȱBrepols,ȱforthcoming).ȱ
109
AlbrechtȱClassen,ȱ“Friendship—TheȱQuestȱforȱaȱHumanȱIdealȱandȱValue:ȱFromȱAntiquityȱtoȱthe
Earlyȱ Modernȱ Time,”ȱ Friendshipȱ inȱ theȱ Middleȱ Agesȱ andȱ Earlyȱ Modernȱ Age:ȱ Explorationsȱ ofȱ a
FundamentalȱEthicalȱDiscourse,ȱed.ȱid.ȱandȱMarilynȱSandidge.ȱFundamentalsȱofȱMedievalȱandȱEarly
ModernȱCulture,ȱ6ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱDeȱGruyter,ȱ2010),ȱ1–183;ȱhereȱ63–66.
theȱ twoȱ brothersȱ evenȱ further,ȱ andȱ inȱ thisȱ regardȱ theirȱ ascentȱ mightȱ wellȱ be
consideredȱaȱhallmarkȱofȱtheȱearlyȱmodernȱageȱinȱwhichȱruralȱspaceȱbeginsȱto
attractȱpeopleȱsimplyȱforȱitsȱownȱsake.110ȱ
Nevertheless,ȱPetrarchȱwasȱcertainlyȱnotȱtheȱnaiveȱnaturalistȱwhoȱviewedȱany
physicalȱelevationȱasȱwhatȱitȱis,ȱaȱsimpleȱchallengeȱthatȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱmetȱforȱitsȱown
sake.ȱHisȱhighlyȱstylizedȱandȱstrategizingȱaccountȱconstantlyȱrevealsȱhowȱmany
literary,ȱphilosophical,ȱandȱethicalȱconceptsȱinformȱhisȱreport,ȱwhichȱmight,ȱor
mightȱ notȱ beȱ realistic,ȱ althoughȱ thisȱ wouldȱ notȱ matterȱ forȱ usȱ inȱ theȱ present
context.111ȱPetrarchȱsimplyȱstatesȱthatȱheȱisȱclimbingȱtheȱmountain,ȱandȱheȱdoesȱso
notȱoutȱofȱnecessity,ȱbutȱbecauseȱheȱwantsȱtoȱdoȱso.ȱOfȱcourse,ȱbyȱtheȱsameȱtoken
theȱascentȱallowsȱhimȱtoȱreflectȱonȱmanyȱdifferentȱaspects,ȱandȱbeingȱtheȱgreat
writerȱ thatȱ heȱ was,ȱ heȱ immediatelyȱ transformsȱ hisȱ ownȱ attemptȱ toȱ climbȱ that
enormousȱheightȱintoȱaȱmetaphorȱofȱhisȱownȱandȱofȱallȱhumanȱlife.ȱ
Heȱquicklyȱfeelsȱtiredȱandȱexhausted,ȱsoȱheȱbeginsȱtoȱlookȱforȱanȱeasierȱway
uphill,ȱ notȱ realizingȱ forȱ aȱ longȱ timeȱ thatȱ heȱ isȱ reallyȱ walkingȱ downhillȱ again:
“Thus,ȱonceȱagainȱIȱfoundȱmyselfȱtakingȱtheȱeasyȱway,ȱtheȱroundaboutȱpathȱof
windingȱhollows,ȱonlyȱtoȱfindȱmyselfȱsoonȱbackȱinȱmyȱoldȱdifficulty.ȱIȱwasȱsimply
puttingȱoffȱtheȱtroubleȱofȱclimbing;ȱbutȱnoȱman’sȱwitȱcanȱalterȱtheȱnatureȱofȱthings,
andȱthereȱisȱnoȱwayȱtoȱreachȱtheȱheightsȱbyȱgoingȱdownward”ȱ(16).ȱ
Whetherȱweȱhaveȱtoȱreadȱtheȱentireȱaccountȱasȱtopologicalȱorȱnot,ȱwouldȱnot
changeȱanythingȱinȱtheȱfascinatingȱapproachȱtoȱtheȱmountainȱinȱtheȱfirstȱplace,
particularlyȱbecauseȱPetrarchȱutilizesȱhisȱascentȱasȱaȱmetaphorȱofȱhumanȱlifeȱat
largeȱandȱdemonstratesȱhowȱmuchȱallȱpeopleȱare,ȱinȱfact,ȱinvolvedȱinȱaȱconstant
climbȱandȱneedȱtoȱrememberȱtheȱneedȱtoȱreflectȱcarefullyȱaboutȱtheȱpathȱwhich
theyȱtakeȱtoȱreachȱtheȱpeakȱinȱaȱmostȱefficientȱandȱstraightforwardȱfashion,ȱtheȱway
thatȱPetrarch’sȱbrotherȱdoesȱit,ȱevenȱthoughȱheȱisȱnotȱreportedȱasȱhavingȱreflected
onȱhisȱownȱactionȱinȱanyȱway.ȱ
110
ThisȱwasȱtoȱbecomeȱoneȱofȱtheȱcriticalȱissuesȱinȱtheȱRenaissanceȱatȱlarge;ȱsee,ȱforȱinstance,ȱRobert
N.ȱWatson,ȱBackȱtoȱNature:ȱTheȱGreenȱandȱtheȱRealȱinȱtheȱLateȱRenaissanceȱ(Philadelphia:ȱUniversity
ofȱPennsylvaniaȱPress,ȱ2006);ȱseeȱalsoȱDanieleȱDuport,ȱLeȱjardinȱetȱlaȱnature:ȱordreȱetȱvarieteȱdansȱla
litteratureȱ deȱ laȱ Renaissance.ȱ Travauxȱ d’humanismeȱ etȱ Renaissance,ȱ 363ȱ (Geneva:ȱ Droz,ȱ 2002);
ThomasȱDaCostaȱKaufmann,ȱTheȱMasteryȱofȱNature:ȱAspectsȱofȱArt,ȱScience,ȱandȱHumanismȱinȱthe
Renaissance.ȱPrincetonȱEssaysȱonȱtheȱArtsȱ(Princeton,ȱNJ:ȱPrincetonȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1993);ȱaȱvery
differentȱperspective,ȱcertainlyȱfarȬreachingȱinȱthisȱcontext,ȱproveȱtoȱbeȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱRural
andȱUrban:ȱArchitectureȱBetweenȱTwoȱCultures,ȱed.ȱAndrewȱBallantyneȱ(LondonȱandȱNewȱYork:
Routledge,ȱ2010).
111
OneȱofȱtheȱbestȱcriticalȱintroductionsȱtoȱPetrarch’sȱlifeȱandȱwork,ȱwithȱaȱstrongȱemphasisȱonȱthe
intellectualȱbackground,ȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱKarlheinzȱStierle,ȱFrancescoȱPetrarca:ȱEinȱIntellektuellerȱim
Europaȱdesȱ14.ȱJahrhundertsȱ(MunichȱandȱVienna:ȱHanser,ȱ2003);ȱseeȱalsoȱEssaysȱüberȱPetrarca,ȱtrans.,
ed.,ȱandȱcommentedȱbyȱGiuseppeȱGazzolaȱandȱOlafȱMüller.ȱStauffenburgȬBibliothek,ȱ4ȱ(Tübingen:
Stauffenburg,ȱ2006);ȱWilliamȱT.ȱRossiter:ȱChaucerȱandȱPetrarch.ȱChaucerȱStudies,ȱ41ȱ(Cambridge:
CambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2010).
Introduction 43
BeingȱexposedȱtoȱtheȱhardshipȱofȱclimbingȱtheȱsteepȱslopesȱofȱMontȱVentoux,
Petrarchȱrealizesȱwhatȱapproachȱheȱwouldȱhaveȱtoȱtakeȱtoȱimproveȱhisȱlifeȱandȱto
liftȱ himselfȱ outȱ ofȱ theȱ doldrumsȱ ofȱ hisȱ ordinaryȱ existence:ȱ “Theseȱ thoughts
stimulatedȱmyȱbodyȱandȱmindȱtoȱaȱremarkableȱdegreeȱandȱmadeȱmeȱfaceȱupȱtoȱthe
difficultiesȱwhichȱstillȱremained.ȱOh,ȱthatȱmyȱsoulȱmightȱfollowȱthatȱotherȱroadȱfor
whichȱIȱlongȱdayȱandȱnight,ȱevenȱasȱtodayȱIȱconqueredȱmaterialȱobstaclesȱbyȱbodily
force!”(16–17).ȱInȱfact,ȱtheȱmountainȱitselfȱthusȱbecomesȱaȱmetaphor,ȱifȱnotȱthe
catharsisȱitself,ȱinsofarȱasȱPetrarchȱsuddenlyȱcomprehendsȱandȱformulatesȱmost
clearly:ȱ“Andȱwhyȱshouldȱitȱnotȱbeȱfarȱeasier:ȱafterȱall,ȱtheȱagile,ȱimmortalȱsoulȱcan
reachȱ itsȱ goalȱ inȱ theȱ twinklingȱ ofȱ anȱ eyeȱ withoutȱ intermediateȱ space,ȱ while
progressȱtodayȱhadȱtoȱbeȱslowȱbecauseȱmyȱfeebleȱbodyȱwasȱburdenedȱbyȱitsȱheavy
members”ȱ(17).ȱ
Notȱsurprisingly,ȱonceȱhisȱmindȱhasȱbeenȱclearedȱofȱallȱobscureȱthoughtsȱand
emotions,ȱhavingȱevenȱdistancedȱhimselfȱfromȱtheȱfeelingsȱofȱlongingȱforȱItaly,
Petrarchȱ recognizesȱ whatȱ hisȱ realȱ taskȱ wouldȱ be,ȱ rightȱ thereȱ onȱ topȱ ofȱ the
mountain,ȱ thatȱ is,ȱ toȱ beginȱ theȱ searchȱ forȱ hisȱ ownȱ soul,ȱ whichȱ heȱ initiatesȱ by
pullingȱ outȱ ofȱ hisȱ pocketȱ St.ȱ Augustine’sȱ Confessionesȱ andȱ studyingȱ theȱ deep
insightsȱofferedȱbyȱtheȱChurchȱfather.ȱInȱdirectȱresponseȱtoȱtheȱfascinationȱwhich
theȱpanoramicȱviewȱfromȱtheȱtopȱofȱtheȱmountainȱoffersȱhim,ȱbutȱnowȱlistening
closelyȱ toȱ theȱ theologicalȱ teachings,ȱ Petrarchȱ realizesȱ howȱ muchȱ heȱ hadȱ been
blindedȱtoȱtheȱtrueȱtreasureȱinȱhumanȱlife,ȱhisȱownȱsoul:ȱ“Iȱshouldȱhaveȱlearnedȱa
longȱtimeȱagoȱfromȱtheȱpaganȱphilosophersȱthemselvesȱthatȱnothingȱisȱadmirable
butȱtheȱsoulȱbesideȱwhoseȱgreatnessȱnothingȱcanȱbeȱasȱgreat.ȱThen,ȱhavingȱseen
enoughȱ ofȱ theȱ mountainȱ Iȱ turnedȱ anȱ inwardȱ eyeȱ uponȱ myself,ȱ andȱ fromȱ that
momentȱonȱnotȱaȱsyllableȱpassedȱmyȱlipsȱuntilȱweȱreachedȱtheȱbottom”ȱ(19).ȱ
Asȱmuchȱasȱtheȱascentȱhenceȱseemedȱtoȱhimȱaȱdangerousȱtemptationȱtoȱignore
theȱ interiorȱ worldȱ inȱ favorȱ ofȱ theȱ external,ȱ or,ȱ toȱ forgetȱ aboutȱ theȱ spiritual
dimensionȱinȱfavorȱofȱtheȱmaterial,ȱasȱmuchȱasȱitȱalsoȱhelpedȱhimȱtoȱgraspȱthe
significantȱ difference,ȱ soȱ heȱ canȱ finallyȱ returnȱ hisȱ gazeȱ toȱ theȱ mountainȱ and
fundamentallyȱsituateȱitȱintoȱitsȱproperȱcontextȱandȱrelevance:ȱ“Howȱmanyȱtimes
Iȱturnedȱbackȱthatȱdayȱtoȱlookȱatȱtheȱmountainȱtopȱwhichȱseemedȱscarcelyȱmore
thanȱaȱcubitȱhighȱcomparedȱwithȱtheȱheightȱofȱhumanȱcontemplation,ȱunlessȱitȱis
immersedȱinȱtheȱfoulnessȱofȱtheȱearth?”ȱ(19).ȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱtheȱmountainȱitself
thusȱprovesȱtoȱhaveȱbeenȱofȱnoȱepistemologicalȱsignificance,ȱandȱyetȱtheȱascent
revealsȱitsȱtrueȱnature,ȱasȱaȱmetaphorȱofȱtheȱbody’sȱclimbȱtowardȱtheȱself.ȱPetrarch
convincinglyȱdemonstratesȱhowȱmuchȱtheȱnaturalȱworldȱplaysȱaȱroleȱinȱhuman
epistemology,ȱevenȱifȱonlyȱbyȱdefaultȱasȱinȱhisȱcase.ȱTheȱascentȱcertainlyȱserved
himȱexceedinglyȱwellȱtoȱgainȱdeeperȱinsightȱintoȱtheȱessenceȱofȱhisȱownȱexistence
andȱhisȱlargerȱrelationshipȱtowardȱGod.
10.ȱOswaldȱvonȱWolkenstein:ȱTheȱAristocratȱversusȱtheȱPeasant
SecretȱLongingȱforȱLifeȱinȱRuralȱSpace?
Theȱlandedȱgentryȱlivedȱinȱmuchȱcloserȱsocialȱproximityȱtoȱtheȱpeasantȱpopulation
thanȱweȱmightȱusuallyȱassume,ȱbutȱifȱweȱconsiderȱsomeȱlateȬmedievalȱpoetryȱwe
canȱ findȱ plentyȱ ofȱ evidenceȱ forȱ thisȱ argument.ȱ Inȱ Oswaldȱ vonȱ Wolkenstein’s
(1376/77–1445)ȱœuvre,ȱforȱexample,ȱaȱnumberȱofȱpoemsȱreflectȱonȱtheȱexperience
ofȱtheȱnarrativeȱvoiceȱinȱnature,ȱonȱtheȱfarm,ȱinȱconflictȱwithȱtheȱruralȱneighbors,
andȱtheirȱownȱactivitiesȱinȱtheȱfieldsȱandȱpastures.112ȱInȱ“Irȱaltenȱweib”ȱ(Kl.ȱ21)ȱthe
poetȱcomposedȱaȱjubilatingȱsongȱonȱtheȱrevivalȱinȱSpringȱafterȱtheȱcoldȱwinter,
includingȱ remarkableȱ referencesȱ toȱ theȱ farmer’sȱ workȱ asȱ wellȱ and,ȱ asȱ the
concludingȱ cascadeȱ ofȱ onomatopoeticȱ phrasesȱ representingȱ uninhibitedȱ loveȬ
makingȱinȱnatureȱsignals,ȱcommonȱtermsȱforȱattractingȱchickenȱtoȱtheirȱfood.ȱIn
“Vilȱlieberȱgrüsseȱsüsse”ȱ(Kl.ȱ42)ȱOswaldȱexperimentedȱwithȱtheȱtraditionalȱgenre
ofȱnatureȱorȱspringȱsongs,ȱbutȱexpandedȱtheȱimageryȱconsiderably,ȱincludingȱa
wideȱrangeȱofȱplants,ȱflowers,ȱshrubs,ȱandȱbushesȱthatȱbeginȱtoȱbloomȱandȱtoȱgrow
inȱtheȱwarmȱseason.113ȱ
Theȱpoetȱgoesȱsoȱfarȱtoȱreferȱevenȱtoȱmushroomsȱandȱwormsȱthatȱdelightȱinȱthe
splendidȱenvironment,ȱandȱthenȱconcludes,ȱonceȱagain,ȱwithȱintenseȱimagesȱof
loveȬmakingȱ onȱ theȱ meadow.ȱ Asȱ Burghartȱ Wachingerȱ nowȱ comments,ȱ raising
importantȱrhetoricalȱquestions:ȱ“StehenȱdahinterȱnurȱdieȱrealenȱErfahrungenȱdes
Landedelmanns?ȱ Oderȱ wirdȱ hier,ȱ wieȱ auchȱ immerȱ anȱ denȱ ungelehrtenȱ Ritter
112
DieȱLiederȱOswaldsȱvonȱWolkenstein,ȱed.ȱKarlȱKurtȱKleinȱwithȱWalterȱWeißȱandȱNotburgaȱWolf.ȱ3rd,
newlyȱrevisedȱandȱexpandedȱed.ȱbyȱHansȱMoser,ȱNorbertȱRichardȱWolf,ȱandȱNotburgaȱWolf.
AltdeutscheȱTextbibliothek,ȱ55ȱ(1962;ȱTübingen:ȱNiemeyer,ȱ1987);ȱseeȱLambertusȱOkkenȱandȱHansȬ
DieterȱMück,ȱDieȱsatirischenȱLiederȱOswaldsȱvonȱWolkensteinȱwiderȱdieȱBauern:ȱUntersuchungenȱzum
Wortschatzȱ undȱ zurȱ literarhistorischenȱ Einordnung.ȱ Göppingerȱ Arbeitenȱ zurȱ Germanistik,ȱ 316
(Göppingen:ȱ Kümmerle,ȱ 1981);ȱ Albrechtȱ Classen,ȱ “Derȱ Bauerȱ inȱ derȱ Lyrikȱ Oswaldsȱ von
Wolkenstein,”ȱEuphorionȱ82.2ȱ(1988):ȱ150–67.ȱItȱwouldȱindeedȱbeȱabsurdȱtoȱtraceȱaȱpreȬRomantic
perceptionȱofȱnatureȱinȱOswald’sȱpoems.ȱHeȱdidȱnot,ȱveryȱsimilarȱtoȱmostȱcontemporaryȱpoets,
idealizeȱ theȱ mountainsȱ orȱ theȱ darkȱ forestsȱ ofȱ hisȱ homeȱ countryȱ inȱ theȱ SouthȬTyroleanȱ Alps.
However,ȱ weȱ canȱ certainlyȱ confirmȱ thatȱ heȱ reflectedȱ uponȱ theȱ natureȱ surroundingȱ hisȱ castle
Hauenstein,ȱthatȱheȱdealtȱwithȱtheȱruralȱpopulation,ȱandȱevenȱincludedȱtypicalȱdialectȱphrases,ȱor
wordsȱfromȱtheȱLadinianȱlanguage.ȱSeeȱRolandȱVerra,ȱ“OswaldȱvonȱWolkensteinȱundȱLadinien,”
OswaldȱvonȱWolkensteinȱ–ȱLebenȱ–ȱWerkȱ–ȱRezeptionȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1),ȱ101–08.ȱHeȱrefersȱespeciallyȱto
Oswald’sȱsongȱKlȱ116ȱ“Zergangenȱistȱmeinsȱherzenȱwe”ȱinȱwhichȱtheȱpoetȱintroducesȱaȱremarkable
Springȱscenarioȱasȱheȱobservedȱitȱinȱhisȱmountainousȱhomeȱcountry,ȱplacingȱgreatȱemphasisȱon
theȱdelightȱwhichȱheȱfeltȱwhenȱlisteningȱtoȱtheȱchorusȱofȱbirdsȱwelcomingȱtheȱnewȱwarmȱseason.
Oswaldȱdescribesȱinȱdetailȱhowȱtheȱsnowȱisȱmeltingȱonȱtheȱmountainȱslopesȱandȱhowȱtheȱearthȱis
breathingȱ again,ȱ fillingȱ allȱ creeksȱ andȱ riversȱ withȱ rushingȱ water.ȱ Inȱ theȱ secondȱ stanzaȱ he
approachesȱtheȱanimalsȱandȱencouragesȱthemȱtoȱleaveȱtheirȱburrows,ȱtoȱventureȱoutȱagainȱintoȱthe
meadows,ȱandȱtoȱenjoyȱtheirȱlives.ȱ
113
Seeȱmyȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱ(“UtopianȱSpaceȱinȱtheȱCountryside”).
Introduction 45
vermittelt,ȱ dieȱ umfassendeȱ Vitalitätȱ spürbar,ȱ dieȱ demȱ mittelalterlichen

Naturbegriffȱ inhärentȱ ist?”114ȱ (Doȱ weȱ discoverȱ behindȱ allȱ thatȱ onlyȱ theȱ real
experiencesȱofȱtheȱmemberȱofȱtheȱlandedȱgentry?ȱOrȱcanȱweȱsenseȱhere,ȱhowever
transmittedȱtoȱtheȱuneducatedȱknight,ȱtheȱallȬencompassingȱvitalityȱthatȱisȱinherent
inȱ theȱ medievalȱ conceptȱ ofȱ nature?).ȱ Heȱ subsequentlyȱ suggestsȱ thatȱ weȱ might
recognizeȱ inȱ Oswald’sȱ poetryȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ mostȱ important,ȱ lateȬmedieval
concretizationsȱofȱtheȱexperienceȱofȱnatureȱbyȱwayȱofȱtheȱerotic.115
Quiteȱdifferently,ȱyetȱstillȱfocusingȱonȱtheȱpersonalȱexperiencesȱwithȱtheȱrural
settingȱandȱpopulation,ȱOswaldȱreflectsȱonȱhisȱpersonalȱmisery,ȱbeingȱcutȱoffȱfrom
theȱ previouslyȱ courtlyȱ world,ȱ internationalȱ travels,ȱ andȱ publicȱ esteemȱ atȱ the
imperialȱcourt.ȱTryingȱtoȱcompensateȱforȱhisȱdeepȱfrustrationȱwithȱeverything,
bothȱhisȱpersonalȱlifeȱandȱtheȱconflictsȱwithȱhisȱfarmerȱneighborsȱandȱhisȱterritorial
duke,ȱOswald,ȱdespiteȱhisȱsomberȱmood,ȱskillfullyȱandȱrefreshinglyȱdiscussesȱthe
naturalȱenvironmentȱofȱhisȱcastleȱSchlern,ȱcomplainingȱaboutȱtheȱlonelinessȱinȱthe
Tyroleanȱforests,ȱtheȱfearfulȱimpressionȱconveyedȱbyȱtheȱtallȱmountainsȱandȱdeep
valleys,ȱandȱtheȱeconomicȱcrisisȱinȱhisȱpersonalȱlife.ȱHeȱimpressivelyȱcontrastsȱthe
dazzlingȱlifeȱonȱtheȱinternationalȱpoliticalȱstageȱthatȱheȱhadȱenjoyedȱinȱtheȱpast,
withȱtheȱplainȱexistenceȱnowȱbackȱhome,ȱstuckȱinȱtheȱAlps:ȱ
Wellentȱichȱgugk,ȱsoȱhindertȱmich
köstlicherȱziereȱsinder,
derȱichȱeȱpflag,ȱdaȱfürȱichȱsich
neurȱkelber,ȱgaiss,ȱböck,ȱrinder,
undȱknospotȱleut,ȱswarz,ȱhässeleich,
vastȱrüssigȱgenȱdemȱwinder;
ȱ dieȱgebenȱmütȱalsȱsackweinȱvich. (43–49)
[WhereverȱIȱlook,ȱtheȱburntȬoutȱremains
ofȱmostȱvaluableȱdecorationsȱblockȱmyȱview.
InsteadȱofȱherȱwithȱwhomȱIȱonceȱenjoyedȱcompany,
Iȱonlyȱseeȱcalves,ȱgoats,ȱrams,ȱandȱcows
andȱclumsyȱpeople,ȱsunburnedȱandȱugly,
entirelyȱcoveredȱbyȱsootȱduringȱwinter.
Theyȱmakeȱmeȱhappyȱlikeȱbadȱwineȱandȱroaches.]116
Althoughȱheȱexpressedȱstronglyȱnegativeȱfeelingsȱaboutȱtheȱruralȱpopulation,ȱhe
revealedȱthroughȱtheseȱfewȱversesȱhowȱmuchȱheȱwasȱactuallyȱawareȱaboutȱthem
andȱwillingȱtoȱincorporateȱsomeȱallusionsȱtoȱthem.ȱ
114
Wachinger,ȱ“NaturȱundȱEros”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ18),ȱ94.
115
Wachinger,ȱ“NaturȱundȱEros”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ18),ȱ95.
116
AlbrechtȱClassen,ȱTheȱPoemsȱofȱOswaldȱvonȱWolkenstein:ȱAnȱEnglishȱTranslationȱofȱtheȱCompleteȱWorks
(1376/77–1445).ȱTheȱNewȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(Houndmills,ȱBasingstoke,ȱHampshire,ȱandȱNewȱYork:
PalgraveȱMacmillan,ȱ2008).
Theseȱultimatelyȱindicateȱclearlyȱthatȱourȱnotionȱofȱaȱstrongȱseparationȱofȱthe
socialȱclassesȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱmightȱbeȱaȱmodernȱmyth.ȱInȱfact,ȱifȱweȱturnȱto
earlierȱ timesȱ andȱ includeȱ theȱ poetryȱ byȱ theȱ AustrianȬBavarianȱ Minnesinger
Neidhartȱ(formerly,ȱthoughȱincorrectly,ȱidentifiedȱasȱ‘vonȱReuental,’ȱwhichȱwas
onlyȱtheȱnameȱofȱhisȱpoeticȱfigure),117ȱweȱencounterȱaȱwealthȱofȱsongsȱinȱwhichȱthe
peasantȱ worldȱ figuresȱ prominently.ȱ Inȱ theȱ Springȱ songs,ȱ theȱ knightlyȱ figure
Neidhartȱenjoysȱtheȱeroticȱfavorȱofȱtheȱvillageȱgirls,ȱandȱsometimesȱevenȱofȱtheir
oldȱmothers;118ȱinȱtheȱWinterȱsongs,ȱbyȱcontrast,ȱhereȱdisregardingȱthoseȱwhereȱthe
poeticȱfiguresȱenjoyȱiceȱskatingȱandȱotherȱoutdoorȱactivities,ȱtheȱprotagonistȱfaces
hardȱtimes,ȱlackingȱinȱfunds,ȱnotȱhavingȱaȱwarmȱabode,ȱwhileȱtheȱrichȱvillageȱlads
proudlyȱdisplayȱtheirȱwealthȱandȱridiculeȱtheirȱknightlyȱopponent.119ȱ
Weȱ wouldȱ notȱ beȱ hardȱ pressedȱ toȱ identifyȱ otherȱ medievalȱ poetry,ȱ romances,
chronicleȱliterature,ȱorȱhagiographicalȱtextsȱwhereȱtheȱpeasantȱworld,ȱtheȱfarmer,
orȱtheȱfarmȱanimalsȱfigureȱsoȱprominently.120ȱForȱinstance,ȱandȱmostȱstunningly,
ifȱweȱturnȱtoȱtheȱrichȱcorpusȱofȱBooksȱofȱHours,ȱweȱdiscoverȱcountlessȱreferencesȱto
farmingȱ andȱ agriculture,121ȱ whichȱ confirmȱ theȱ transparencyȱ ofȱ theȱ social
117
NeidhartȬLieder:ȱTexteȱundȱMelodienȱsämtlicherȱHandschriftenȱundȱDrucke,ȱed.ȱUlrichȱMüller,ȱIngrid
Bennewitz,ȱandȱFranzȱViktorȱSpechtler.ȱ3ȱvols.ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱWalterȱdeȱGruyter,ȱ2007);
DorotheeȱLindemann,ȱStudienȱzurȱNeidhartȬTradition:ȱUntersuchungenȱzuȱdenȱLiedernȱcȱ2,ȱ8ȱundȱ15/16
derȱ Berlinerȱ Handschriftȱ cȱ (Editionȱ undȱ Kommetar),ȱ zumȱ Spiegelraubmotivȱ undȱ zuȱ den
FürstȬFriedrichȬLiedernȱ(Herne:ȱVerlagȱfürȱWissenschaftȱundȱKunst,ȱ2004);ȱAlbrechtȱClassen,ȱ“The
UltimateȱTransgressionȱofȱtheȱCourtlyȱWorld:ȱPeasantsȱonȱtheȱCourtlyȱStageȱandȱTheirȱGrotesque
QuestsȱforȱSexualȱPleasures.ȱTheȱPoetryȱbyȱtheȱThirteenthȬCenturyȱAustrianȬBavarianȱNeidhart,”
Medievaliaȱ etȱ Humanisticaȱ 36ȱ (2010):ȱ 1–24.ȱ Forȱ aȱ goodȱ summaryȱ ofȱ theȱ basicȱ factsȱ regarding
Neidhart,ȱseeȱGüntherȱSchweikle,ȱNeidhart.ȱSammlungȱMetzler,ȱ253ȱ(Stuttgart:ȱMetzler,ȱ1990).
118
Annaȱ Kathrinȱ Bleuler,ȱ Überlieferungskritikȱ undȱ Poetologie:ȱ Strukturierungȱ undȱ Beurteilungȱ der
SommerliedüberlieferungȱNeidhartsȱaufȱderȱBasisȱdesȱpoetologischenȱMusters.ȱMünchenerȱTexteȱund
UntersuchungenȱzurȱdeutschenȱLiteraturȱdesȱMittelalter,ȱ136ȱ(Tübingen:ȱMaxȱNiemeyer,ȱ2008),
63ȱandȱ117.
119
BrunoȱFritsch,ȱDieȱerotischenȱMotiveȱinȱdenȱLiedernȱNeidharts.ȱGöppingerȱArbeitenȱzurȱGermanistik,
189ȱ(Göppingen:ȱKümmerle,ȱ1976),ȱ43–48;ȱWachinger,ȱ“NaturȱundȱEros”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ18),ȱ75–77.
120
PaulȱFreedman,ȱImagesȱofȱtheȱMedievalȱPeasant.ȱFiguraeȱ(Stanford,ȱCA:ȱStanfordȱUniversityȱPress,
1999);ȱAnimalsȱinȱArtȱandȱThoughtȱtoȱtheȱEndȱofȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱed.ȱEvelynȱAntalȱandȱJohnȱHarthan
(Cambridge,ȱMA:ȱM.I.T.ȱPressȱ[1971]);ȱJoyceȱE.ȱSalisbury,ȱTheȱBeastȱWithin:ȱAnimalsȱinȱtheȱMiddle
Agesȱ(NewȱYork:ȱRoutledge,ȱ1994);ȱAnimalsȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges:ȱAȱBookȱofȱEssays,ȱed.ȱNonaȱC.ȱFlores.
GarlandȱReferenceȱLibraryȱofȱtheȱHumanities,ȱ1716ȱ(NewȱYork:ȱGarland,ȱ1996).Forȱaȱdiscussion
ofȱhowȱpeopleȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱtreatedȱanimalsȱandȱwhatȱfeelingsȱtheyȱmightȱhaveȱhadȱtoward
them,ȱ seeȱ nowȱ Peterȱ Dinzelbacher,ȱ Gebrauchstiereȱ undȱ Tierfantasien:ȱ Überblickȱ überȱ das
VerhältnisȱdesȱMenschenȱzumȱTierȱinȱderȱeuropäischenȱGeschichte,”ȱAusȱPolitikȱundȱZeitgeschichte
31–34ȱ(2011):ȱ1–7.
121
WendyȱBeckett,ȱTheȱDukeȱandȱtheȱPeasant:ȱLifeȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges:ȱTheȱCalendarȱPicturesȱinȱtheȱDuc
deȱ Berryȇsȱ Trèsȱ Richesȱ Heures.ȱ Adventuresȱ inȱ Artȱ (Newȱ York:ȱ Prestel,ȱ 1997).ȱ Seeȱ alsoȱ Albrecht
Classen’sȱcontributionȱonȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱinȱthisȱvolume.ȱForȱanȱexcellentȱsurvey,ȱseeȱTheȱFitzwilliam
BookȱofȱHoursȱMSȱ1058–1975.ȱCommentaryȱbyȱStellaȱPanayotovaȱ(London:ȱTheȱFolioȱSociety,ȱ2009).
Introduction 47
boundariesȱalsoȱatȱthoseȱtimes.ȱOswaldȱprovidesȱanotherȱexcellentȱconfirmation
forȱthisȱobservationȱwithȱhisȱpoemȱ“Standȱauff,ȱMaredel”ȱ(Kl.ȱ48)ȱinȱwhichȱthe
nobleȱpoetȱpresentsȱtoȱusȱaȱveryȱmundaneȱsituationȱonȱtheȱfarm,ȱorȱperhapsȱatȱan
estateȱwhereȱtheȱlady,ȱorȱtheȱfarmer’sȱwife,ȱwakesȱupȱherȱmaidȱMaredelȱandȱforces
herȱ toȱ getȱ upȱ fromȱ herȱ bedȱ inȱ whichȱ sheȱ hasȱ spentȱ theȱ nightȱ withȱ herȱ lover
Chünzel.ȱTheȱmaidȱisȱmoroseȱandȱdoesȱnotȱwantȱtoȱcomplyȱwithȱtheȱcommand
sinceȱitȱisȱstillȱtooȱearlyȱandȱsheȱwouldȱpreferȱtoȱspendȱmoreȱtimeȱwithȱChünzel.
Theȱlady,ȱhowever,ȱisȱruthlessȱandȱdoesȱnotȱletȱupȱwithȱherȱdemands,ȱcallingȱup
otherȱ farmȱ handsȱ andȱ maids,ȱ whileȱ sheȱ insistsȱ thatȱ thisȱ Chünzelȱ stayȱ with
her—perhapsȱbecauseȱsheȱhasȱeroticȱintentionsȱwithȱhimȱasȱwell?ȱMaredelȱbitterly
complainsȱaboutȱtheȱpainȱwhichȱworkȱcauses,ȱandȱinsistsȱhowȱmuchȱsheȱlovesȱthe
youngȱ man.ȱ Whateverȱ herȱ mistressȱ mightȱ tellȱ orȱ promiseȱ her,ȱ sheȱ paysȱ only
attentionȱtoȱherȱlover:ȱ“seinȱleibȱpringtȱfreudenȱvil,ȱdarnachȱsichȱsenntȱmeinȱgier”
(37;ȱHeȱgivesȱmeȱmuchȱhappiness,ȱandȱthat’sȱwhatȱIȱdesireȱveryȱmuch).ȱ
Inȱanotherȱcontextȱweȱalsoȱlearnȱofȱtheȱmilitaryȱconflictsȱbetweenȱtheȱlanded
gentryȱ andȱ theȱ ruralȱ communitiesȱ thatȱ joinedȱ forcesȱ withȱ theȱ territorialȱ duke.
Oswaldȱ developedȱ thisȱ themeȱ powerfullyȱ inȱ hisȱ songȱ “‘Nuȱ huss!’ȱ sprachȱ der
MichelȱvonȱWolkenstain”ȱ(Kl.ȱ85)ȱwhichȱmightȱwellȱbeȱoneȱofȱtheȱbestȱwarȱsongs
inȱ medievalȱ Germanȱ literature,ȱ perhapsȱ basedȱ onȱ aȱ similarȱ oneȱ byȱ Giannozzo
Sacchetti,ȱ“Mentreȱioȱd’amorȱpensave,ȱudiiȱgridare.”122ȱTheȱhistoricalȱcontextȱof
thatȱwarȱsong,ȱwhichȱdescribesȱinȱmostȱdramaticȱterms,ȱtheȱbreakingȱupȱofȱaȱsiege
ofȱcastleȱGreiffensteinȱ(ifȱnotȱcastleȱRafenstein)ȱinȱ1418,ȱinȱwhichȱtheȱWolkenstein
brothersȱ wereȱ involved,ȱ doesȱ notȱ concernȱ usȱ here.123ȱ Whatȱ matters,ȱ however,
concernsȱtheȱcontemptibleȱremarksȱaboutȱtheȱfutileȱattemptsȱbyȱtheȱfarmersȱfrom
theȱneighboringȱvillagesȱtoȱalignȱthemselvesȱwithȱtheȱDukeȱofȱTyrolȱandȱtoȱhelp
himȱdefeatȱtheȱlandedȱgentry.ȱOswaldȱpresentsȱaȱmostȱlivelyȱpoeticȱportraitȱofȱthe
counterȱ attackȱ andȱ includesȱ bitingȱ mockeryȱ aboutȱ theseȱ peasantsȱ whoȱ had
allegedlyȱbrokenȱtheirȱloyaltyȱoathsȱandȱnowȱwouldȱsufferȱinȱtheȱmilitaryȱmelee
(17–20).
ThereȱisȱnoȱdoubtȱaboutȱOswald’sȱstronglyȱaristocraticȱorientation,ȱorȱhisȱ‘class’
consciousness,ȱclearlyȱrejectingȱtheȱpeasantȱworldȱasȱmuchȱasȱanyȱotherȱaristocrat
wouldȱhaveȱatȱhisȱtime.ȱNevertheless,ȱinȱsomeȱofȱhisȱpoemsȱheȱrevealsȱaȱcertain
feelingȱofȱbeingȱattractedȱtoȱtheȱseemingȱfreedomȱwhichȱtheȱpeasantsȱcouldȱenjoy
inȱnature.ȱMoreȱspecifically,ȱforȱhimȱtheȱfullȱdelightȱinȱloveȱwasȱapparentlyȱonly
122
AlbrechtȱClassen,ȱ“GiannozzoȱSacchetti’ȱMentr’ȱioȱd’ȱamorȱpensavaȱasȱaȱSourceȱforȱOswaldȱvon
Wolkenstein’sȱ SongȬPoetry,”ȱ Monatshefteȱ 80.4ȱ (1988):ȱ 459–68.ȱ Forȱ anȱ editionȱ ofȱ Giannozzo
Sacchetti’sȱsongs,ȱseeȱRime.ȱEd.ȱcriticaȱaȱcuraȱdiȱTizianaȱArvigo.ȱSceltaȱdiȱCuriositàȱLetterarie
inediteȱoȱrareȱdalȱsecoloȱXIIIȱalȱXI,ȱCCXCVIȱ(Bologna:Commissioneȱperȱiȱtestiȱdiȱlingua,ȱ2005).
123
WernerȱMarold,ȱKommentarȱzuȱdenȱLiedernȱOswaldsȱvonȱWolkenstein,ȱrev.ȱandȱed.ȱAlanȱRobertshaw.
InnsbruckerȱBeiträgeȱzurȱKulturwissenschaft.ȱGermanistischeȱReihe,ȱ52ȱ(Innsbruck:ȱInstitutȱfür
Germanistik,ȱ1995),ȱ216–20.
possible,ȱ asȱ manyȱ otherȱ medievalȱ poetsȱ reflected,ȱ ifȱ heȱ couldȱ partakeȱ inȱ the
pleasuresȱofȱnatureȱandȱexperienceȱtheȱsameȱlustȱandȱeroticȱexcitementȱasȱallȱthe
plantsȱandȱanimals,ȱandȱthen,ȱofȱcourse,ȱtheȱpeasantsȱasȱwell.ȱ
OtherwiseȱweȱwouldȱnotȱbeȱableȱtoȱexplainȱsomeȱofȱOswald’sȱmostȱintriguing
andȱplayfullyȱeroticȱsongsȱinȱwhichȱtheȱsexualȱjoysȱfindȱtheirȱrealizationȱinȱaȱvery
ruralȱsetting,ȱsuchȱasȱinȱ“Treibȱher,ȱtreibȱüberher”ȱ(Kl.ȱ92),ȱwhichȱcloselyȱfollows
theȱ traditionȱ ofȱ theȱ pastourelle,ȱ butȱ isȱ noȱ longerȱ predicatedȱ onȱ anyȱ socialȱ class
conflict.ȱInstead,ȱaȱshepherdȱsimplyȱtriesȱtoȱseduceȱaȱshepherdessȱonȱtheȱotherȱside
ofȱtheȱfenceȱtoȱjoinȱhimȱinȱloveȬmaking.ȱDespiteȱallȱherȱhesitations,ȱatȱtheȱendȱshe
agrees,ȱandȱtheȱtwoȱpeopleȱspendȱtheȱrestȱofȱtheȱafternoonȱinȱeroticȱembrace.124
Despiteȱtheȱplayfulnessȱofȱthisȱsong,ȱandȱdespiteȱtheȱadaptationȱofȱtheȱtraditional
model,ȱOswaldȱtrulyȱidealizesȱtheȱsexualȱfreedomȱwhichȱmembersȱofȱtheȱrural
communitiesȱ canȱ enjoyȱ becauseȱ heȱ obviouslyȱ feltȱ aȱ strongȱ attachmentȱ toȱ the
naturalȱspaceȱandȱembracedȱit,ȱatȱleastȱduringȱSpringȱtimeȱandȱwhenȱheȱwasȱinȱa
goodȱmood,ȱasȱtheȱcriticalȱlocationȱforȱtheȱfulfillmentȱofȱlove.125ȱ
WaltherȱvonȱderȱVogelweideȱ(d.ȱca.ȱ1220)ȱhadȱdevelopedȱaȱsimilarlyȱutopian
perspectiveȱinȱhisȱfamousȱsongȱ“Underȱderȱlinde,”ȱwhichȱwillȱreceiveȱmuchȱmore
detailedȱattentionȱlaterȱinȱthisȱvolume.126ȱHowever,ȱinȱtheȱlateȱMiddleȱAgesȱthe
fascinationȱwithȱtheȱruralȱspaceȱcertainlyȱincreasedȱconsiderablyȱandȱgainedȱmuch
moreȱrespectȱfromȱpoetsȱandȱartistsȱalike.
11.ȱTheȱPerceptionȱofȱtheȱNaturalȱWorld:
TheȱTestimonyȱofȱMedievalȱCourtlyȱLiterature
Asȱrecentȱresearchȱhasȱdemonstrated,ȱevenȱtheȱworldȱofȱanimals,ȱbothȱwildȱand
domesticated,ȱhasȱmovedȱmuchȱmoreȱintoȱourȱsphereȱofȱinterestȱthanȱinȱtheȱpast.
Whileȱ bestiariesȱ commonlyȱ reflectedȱ theȱ levelȱ ofȱ medievalȱ approachesȱ to
animals,127ȱaȱcarefulȱexaminationȱofȱmanyȱdifferentȱsources,ȱfromȱhagiographies
124
Forȱtheȱsexualȱmotif,ȱseeȱnowȱAlbrechtȱClassen,ȱSexȱimȱMittelalter:ȱDieȱandereȱSeiteȱeinerȱidealisierten
Vergangenheitȱ(Badenweiler:ȱWissenschaftlicherȱVerlagȱDr.ȱMichaelȱBachmann,ȱ2011).
125
TheȱMedievalȱPastourelle,ȱtranslatedȱandȱeditedȱbyȱWilliamȱD.ȱPaden.ȱGarlandȱLibraryȱofȱMedieval
Literature,ȱ 34Ȭ35ȱ (Newȱ Yorkȱ andȱ London:ȱ Garland,ȱ 1987);ȱ Geriȱ L.ȱ Smith,ȱ Theȱ Medievalȱ French
PastourelleȱTradition:ȱPoeticȱMotivationsȱandȱGenericȱTransformationsȱ(Gainesville,ȱTallahassee,ȱetȱal.:
UniversityȱPressȱofȱFlorida,ȱ2009).
126
SeeȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱChristopherȱR.ȱClason.
127
SeeȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱBeastȱandȱBirdsȱofȱtheȱMiddleȱAges:ȱTheȱBestiaryȱandȱItsȱLegacy,ȱed.ȱWillene
B.ȱClarkȱandȱMeradithȱT.ȱMcMunn.ȱMiddleȱAgesȱSeriesȱ(Philadelphia:ȱUniversityȱofȱPennsylvania
Press,ȱ 1989);ȱ Nonaȱ Cȱ Flores,ȱ Animalsȱ inȱ theȱ Middleȱ Ages:ȱ Aȱ Bookȱ ofȱ Essays.ȱ Garlandȱ Medieval
Casebooks,ȱ13ȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱLondon:ȱGarland,ȱ1997);ȱWilleneȱB.ȱClark,ȱAȱMedievalȱBookȱofȱBeasts:
TheȱSecondȬFamilyȱBestiary;ȱCommentary,ȱArt,ȱTextȱandȱTranslationȱ(Woodbridge:ȱBoydellȱPress,
2006).ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱFaunaȱandȱFloraȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱed.ȱSieglindeȱHartmann.
Introduction 49
toȱheroicȱepics,ȱfromȱcourtlyȱromancesȱtoȱverseȱandȱproseȱnovellas,ȱallowsȱusȱto
recognizeȱhowȱmanyȱdifferentȱanimalsȱwereȱcommonlyȱtreatedȱasȱman’sȱfriends,
asȱ companions,ȱ andȱ supporters.ȱ Ofȱ course,ȱ justȱ asȱ today,ȱ mostȱ domesticated
animalsȱwereȱusedȱforȱmeatȱsupplies,ȱforȱtheirȱskinȱ(parchment),ȱandȱotherȱparts,
soȱtheyȱwereȱkeptȱinȱstablesȱorȱonȱpastures.ȱAndȱwildȱanimalsȱwereȱcommonlyȱthe
objectȱofȱhunting,ȱoneȱofȱtheȱfavoriteȱsportsȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱforȱtheȱnobility.128
However,ȱanimalsȱasȱfriendsȱalsoȱbelongȱtoȱthatȱworld,ȱwhetherȱweȱthinkȱofȱtheȱlap
dog,ȱtheȱtrustworthyȱandȱloyalȱhorse,ȱtheȱproudȱstag,ȱtheȱsupportiveȱandȱidealistic
huntingȱdogȱwhoȱneverȱabandonsȱhisȱlord,ȱorȱwhetherȱweȱconsiderȱtheȱhighly
symbolicȱlion,ȱtheȱproudȱfalcon,ȱandȱtheȱpeacefulȱlamb,ȱallȱofȱthemȱdidȱassume
mostȱhumanȱcharacteristicsȱandȱfunctionedȱtrulyȱasȱfriends.129
Byȱtheȱsameȱtoken,ȱasȱmuchȱasȱtheȱeventsȱinȱcourtlyȱliteratureȱseemȱtoȱstartȱout
mostlyȱatȱKingȱArthur’sȱcourt,ȱwhereȱaȱgrandȱtournamentȱtakesȱplaceȱ(e.g.,ȱErecȱby
HartmannȱvonȱAue),ȱsoonȱenoughȱtheȱprotagonistsȱareȱchallengedȱbyȱoutsidersȱor
externalȱforcesȱandȱhaveȱtoȱembarkȱonȱtheirȱadventuresȱwhichȱtakeȱthemȱthrough
manyȱforeignȱlands,ȱdarkȱforests,ȱdangerousȱregions,ȱandȱwideȱopenȱspacesȱwhere
theirȱownȱindividualityȱisȱgreatlyȱchallengedȱandȱendangered.ȱTheȱforestȱactually
provesȱ toȱ beȱ aȱ mostȱ fascinatingȱ andȱ yetȱ alsoȱ fearfulȱ territory,ȱ whereȱ outcasts,
robbers,ȱ giants,ȱ dwarves,ȱ andȱ otherȱ oddȱ charactersȱ reside.ȱ Butȱ theȱ courtly
protagonistsȱregularlyȱtraverseȱwildȱforestsȱasȱwellȱwhereȱtheyȱexperienceȱtheir
mostȱchallengingȱadventures,ȱwhetherȱweȱthinkȱofȱChrétienȱdeȱTroyes’ȱErecȱand
Yvainȱ(orȱHartmannȱvonȱAue’sȱcomplimentaryȱromancesȱinȱMiddleȱHighȱGerman),
orȱofȱtheȱanonymousȱSirȱGawainȱandȱtheȱGreenȱKnight.ȱ
ParticularlyȱtheȱcaseȱofȱYvainȱillustratesȱtheȱpowerȱofȱtheȱwildȱwhichȱcanȱtake
holdȱofȱanȱindividualȱonceȱs/heȱhasȱlostȱcontrolȱoverȱher/himselfȱandȱsuddenly
joinsȱ theȱ worldȱ ofȱ theȱ wild.ȱ Thereȱ heȱ killsȱ animalsȱ withȱ hisȱ bowȱ and
arrow—remnantsȱofȱhumanȱcivilizationȱforȱhim—andȱthenȱeatsȱthemȱraw,ȱeven
drinksȱtheirȱblood,ȱasȱaȱsignȱofȱtheȱsavageȱstateȱheȱisȱin.ȱOnlyȱonceȱheȱmakesȱthe
BeihefteȱzurȱMediaevistik,ȱ8ȱ(Frankfurtȱa.ȱM.,ȱBerlin,ȱetȱal.:ȱPeterȱLang,ȱ2007).ȱTheseȱdealȱwith
horseȱsacrifice,ȱtheȱroleȱofȱdogs,ȱcats,ȱcamels,ȱandȱotherȱanimals,ȱthenȱwithȱreflectionsȱonȱplants
andȱherbsȱinȱaȱvarietyȱofȱcontexts.ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱexcellentȱcontributionsȱtoȱMenschȱundȱTierȱinȱder
GeschichteȱEuropas,ȱed.ȱPeterȱDinzelbacher.ȱKrönersȱTaschenausgabe,ȱ342ȱ(Stuttgart:ȱKröner,ȱ2000),
andȱDinzelbacher,ȱ“Gebrauchstiere”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ120).
128
KurtȱLindner,ȱDieȱJagdȱimȱfrühenȱMittelalter.ȱGeschichteȱdesȱDeutschenȱWeidwerk,ȱIIȱ(Berlin:ȱWalter
deȱGruyter,ȱ1940);ȱVitoȱFumagalli,ȱLandscapesȱofȱFearȱPerceptionsȱofȱNatureȱandȱtheȱCityȱinȱtheȱMiddle
Agesȱ(Cambridge,ȱUK:ȱPolityȱPress;ȱCambridge,ȱMA:ȱBlackwellȱPublishers,ȱ1994);ȱWernerȱRösener,
JagdȱundȱhöfischeȱKulturȱimȱMittelalter.ȱVeröffentlichungenȱdesȱMaxȬPlanckȬȱInstitutsȱfürȱGeschichte,
135ȱ(Göttingen:ȱVandenhoeckȱ&ȱRuprecht,ȱ1997).
129
TiereȱalsȱFreundeȱimȱMittelalter:ȱEineȱAnthologie.ȱEingeleitet,ȱausgewählt,ȱübersetztȱundȱkommentiert
vonȱGabrielaȱKompatscherȱzusammenȱmitȱAlbrechtȱClassenȱundȱPeterȱDinzelbacherȱ(Badenweiler:
WissenschaftlicherȱVerlagȱBachmann,ȱ2010);ȱseeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱTiereȱundȱFabelwesenȱim
Mittelalter,ȱed.ȱSabineȱObermaierȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱWalterȱdeȱGruyter,ȱ2009).
acquaintanceȱwithȱtheȱhermitȱandȱlearnsȱtoȱeatȱcookedȱmeat,ȱdoesȱheȱslowlyȱbegin
withȱtheȱrecoveryȱofȱhisȱhumanȱnature,ȱthoughȱtheȱchangeȱofȱhisȱdietȱdoesȱnot
achieveȱ theȱ expectedȱ result,ȱ sinceȱ hisȱ sicknessȱ isȱ mental,ȱ andȱ notȱ bodily.130ȱ As
JacqueȱLeȱGoffȱcomments,ȱ
Yvain’sȱ itinerary,ȱ asȱ weȱ haveȱ reconstructedȱ itȱ withȱ theȱ aidȱ ofȱ structuralȱ analysis,
intersectsȱ withȱ andȱ shedsȱ lightȱ onȱ severalȱ historicalȱ schemata.ȱ Theȱ keyȱ space,ȱ the
clearing,ȱ correspondsȱ toȱ aȱ veryȱ importantȱ economicȱ phenomenonȱ ofȱ theȱ twelfth
century,ȱtheȱclearingȱofȱland.ȱYvainȇsȱadventureȱfollowsȱinȱtheȱfootstepsȱofȱtheȱgroups
ofȱ“youths”ȱidentifiedȱbyȱGeorgesȱDuby,ȱwhoseȱcontradictoryȱrelationsȱwithȱtheȱrest
ofȱsocietyȱhaveȱbeenȱanalyzedȱbyȱErichȱKöhler.ȱFinally,ȱtheȱChristianȱatmosphereȱofȱthe
timeȱisȱpresentȱinȱtheȱveryȱtextureȱofȱtheȱanalysis,ȱinȱtheȱimplicitȱjudgmentȱonȱchivalric
behavior,ȱand,ȱmoreȱspecifically,ȱatȱcriticalȱtransitionalȱstagesȱinȱYvainȇsȱtrajectory:ȱa
chapelȱwatchesȱoverȱtheȱstairs,ȱtheȱpine,ȱandȱtheȱmagicȱfountainȱwhereȱeverything
begins;ȱ aȱ hermitȱ preservesȱ Yvain’sȱ humanity;ȱ andȱ Yvainȇsȱ rehabilitationȱ is
accomplishedȱthroughȱaȱconfrontationȱwithȱtheȱworldȱofȱtheȱdevil.ȱInȱorderȱtoȱreturn
toȱtheȱworldȱofȱcultureȱYvainȱhimselfȱmustȱfirstȱbeȱChristianized,ȱandȱevenȱtheȱforest
isȱmarkedȱbyȱChristianȱsigns. (131)
Particularlyȱtheȱforeignnessȱandȱtheȱfamiliarityȱofȱtheȱforestȱatȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱmade
itȱ soȱ appealingȱ toȱ courtlyȱ authors.131ȱ Mostȱ probablyȱ theyȱ witnessedȱ theȱ rapid
disappearanceȱofȱtheȱancientȱdenseȱforestsȱthatȱhadȱcoveredȱnorthernȱEuropeȱuntil
theȱearlyȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱprojectedȱfearfulȱscenesȱintoȱaȱdisappearingȱlandscape,
justȱasȱRomanticȱwritersȱwereȱtoȱdoȱca.ȱsixȱhundredȱyearsȱlater.ȱButȱtheȱmedieval
forestȱisȱnotȱsoȱmuchȱanȱalternativeȱspace,ȱbutȱtheȱlocationȱwhereȱtheȱprotagonist
experiencesȱhisȱorȱherȱtransformation,ȱchallenge,ȱandȱultimateȱgrowthȱintoȱthe
idealȱofȱaȱmemberȱofȱcourtlyȱsocietyȱ(afterȱhavingȱleftȱtheȱforest).ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtime
theȱforestȱprovedȱtoȱbeȱaȱmostȱvaluableȱresourceȱforȱwood,ȱmedicine,ȱfoodstuff
(suchȱasȱacornsȱforȱtheȱswine),ȱand,ȱofȱcourse,ȱwildȱanimalsȱtoȱbeȱhunted,ȱbutȱthat
isȱanotherȱmatterȱhere.132
130
Jacquesȱ Leȱ Goff,ȱ “LeviȬStraussȱ inȱ Broceliande,”ȱ id.,ȱ Theȱ Medievalȱ Imagination,ȱ trans.ȱ Arthur
Goldhammerȱ(1985;ȱChicagoȱandȱLondon:ȱUniversityȱofȱChicagoȱPress,ȱ1988),ȱ113–14;ȱforȱaȱgood
summaryȱ andȱ furtherȱ reflectionsȱ onȱ thisȱ topic,ȱ seeȱ Dorothyȱ Yamamoto,ȱ Theȱ Boundariesȱ ofȱ the
HumanȱinȱMedievalȱEnglishȱLiteratureȱ(Oxford:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2000),ȱ182–87.ȱSheȱrightly
concludes:ȱ“TheȱwildȬman/knightsȱreturnȱfromȱtheirȱprovingȬground,ȱtheȱwilderness,ȱand,ȱtoȱa
man,ȱreȬembrace,ȱandȱsoȱreaffirmȱtheȱvaluesȱofȱtheirȱnativeȱsociety”ȱ(187).
131
RolandȱBechmann,ȱTreesȱandȱMan:ȱTheȱForestȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱtrans.ȱKatharynȱDunhamȱ(1984;
Newȱ York:ȱ Paragonȱ House,ȱ 1990);ȱ seeȱ alsoȱ theȱ contributionsȱ toȱ Derȱ Waldȱ inȱ Mittelalterȱ und
Renaissance,ȱed.ȱJosefȱSemmler.ȱStudiaȱhumaniora,ȱ17ȱ(Düsseldorf:ȱDrosteȱVerlag,ȱ1991).ȱForȱa
broadȱ overviewȱ ofȱ theȱ historyȱ ofȱ theȱ forest,ȱ seeȱ Jormaȱ Ahvenainen,ȱ “Manȱ andȱ theȱ Forestȱ in
NorthernȱEuropeȱfromȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱtoȱtheȱ19thȱCentury,”ȱVierteljahrschriftȱfürȱSozialȬȱund
Wirtschaftsgeschichteȱ83.1ȱ(1996):ȱ1–24.
132
C.ȱHugounet,ȱ“Lesȱfôretsȱdeȱl’EuropeȱoccidentalesȱduȱVeȱauȱXIeȱsiècles,”ȱAgricoltureȱeȱmondoȱrurale
inȱOccidenteȱnell’ȱaltoȱmedioevo.ȱSettimaneȱdiȱstudioȱdelȱCentroȱItalianoȱdiȱStudiȱsull’ȱAltoȱMedioevo,
13ȱ(Spoleto:ȱPressoȱlaȱsedeȱdelȱCentro,ȱ1966);ȱJosefȱSemmler,ȱ“DerȱForstȱdesȱKönigs,”ȱDerȱWaldȱin
Introduction 51
12.ȱGrowingȱupȱinȱtheȱWilderness:ȱYouthfulȱExperiencesȱinȱthe
Forest:ȱPerceval/ParzivalȱinȱtheȱRomancesȱbyȱChrétienȱdeȱTroyeȱ
andȱWolframȱvonȱEschenbach
Oneȱofȱtheȱmostȱintriguingȱtreatmentsȱofȱtheȱforestȱasȱaȱrefugeȱfromȱtheȱdangerous
worldȱofȱknighthoodȱcanȱbeȱfoundȱbothȱinȱChrétienȱdeȱTroyesȱPercevalȱ(ca.ȱ1170)
andȱ inȱ itsȱ complementaryȱ Middleȱ Highȱ Germanȱ ‘version’,ȱ Wolframȱ von
Eschenbach’sȱParzivalȱ(ca.ȱ1205).ȱInȱChrétien’sȱversionȱweȱdoȱnotȱlearnȱmuchȱabout
theȱforestȱsinceȱtheȱintroductionȱisȱsoȱbrief.ȱNevertheless,ȱweȱencounterȱtheȱyoung,
almostȱ stillȱ childishȱ protagonistȱ inȱ theȱ midstȱ ofȱ theȱ forestȱ whereȱ hisȱ widowed
motherȱ hasȱ retiredȱ to,ȱ whoȱ isȱ identifiedȱ asȱ “theȱ widowedȱ ladyȱ ofȱ theȱ remote
DesolateȱForest.”133ȱ
YoungȱPercevalȱoperatesȱonlyȱasȱaȱhunter,ȱusing,ȱhowever,ȱnothingȱbutȱjavelins,
henceȱ noȱ advancedȱ weapons,ȱ whichȱ reflectsȱ hisȱ primitiveȱ stageȱ toȱ whichȱ his
motherȱ hasȱ movedȱ him,ȱ althoughȱ heȱ provesȱ toȱ beȱ anȱ expertȱ inȱ handlingȱ the
javelinsȱandȱknowsȱhowȱtoȱkillȱanyȱanimalȱorȱbirdȱwithȱthem.ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱthe
narratorȱincludesȱaȱreferenceȱtoȱtheȱfarmersȱworkingȱinȱtheȱvicinity,ȱ“whoȱwere
sowingȱoatsȱonȱherȱland;ȱtheyȱhadȱsixȱplowsȱandȱtwelveȱoxen”ȱ(340).ȱPerceval
provesȱtoȱbeȱaȱhappyȱfellowȱwhomȱnothingȱseemsȱtoȱbother;ȱinsteadȱheȱrevelsȱin
theȱsimpleȱjoysȱofȱnature,ȱwithȱtheȱpleasantriesȱofȱtheȱSpringȱseasonȱaroundȱhim
andȱtheȱsweetȱbirdȱsongsȱfillingȱtheȱair.ȱInȱfact,ȱPercevalȱfeelsȱsoȱmuchȱdelight
aboutȱtheȱrelaxingȱatmosphereȱthatȱheȱ“unbridledȱhisȱhuntingȱhorseȱandȱletȱitȱgo
grazeȱonȱtheȱfreshȱgreenȱgrass”ȱ(340).ȱ
Butȱsoonȱenoughȱtheȱgroupȱofȱknightsȱappears,ȱintroducing,ȱsoȱtoȱspeak,ȱcourtly
civilizationȱtoȱthisȱnaturalȱrefuge,ȱtheȱfocusȱquicklyȱshiftsȱawayȱfromȱtheȱforestȱand
trailsȱPerceval’sȱdepartureȱforȱKingȱArthur’sȱcourtȱandȱultimatelyȱforȱtheȱGrail
kingdom.ȱThereȱisȱaȱshortȱretardation,ȱorȱaȱslowȬdownȱofȱtheȱeventsȱinsofarȱas
Percevalȱtakesȱtheȱknightsȱtoȱhisȱfarmersȱtoȱinquireȱfurtherȱaboutȱtheȱwhereabouts
ofȱ theȱ fleeingȱ company,ȱ butȱ thoseȱ menȱ areȱ tremblingȱ withȱ fearȱ becauseȱ ofȱ the
armedȱmenȱandȱbecauseȱtheyȱknowȱthatȱtheȱarrivalȱofȱthoseȱknightsȱmeansȱthat
MittelalterȱundȱRenaissanceȱ(seeȱnoteȱ131),ȱ130–47.
133
TheȱCompleteȱRomancesȱofȱChétienȱdeȱTroyes,ȱtrans.ȱwithȱanȱintrod.ȱbyȱDavidȱStainesȱ(Bloomington
andȱIndianapolis:ȱIndianaȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1990),ȱ340.ȱForȱtheȱhistoricalȬcriticalȱedition,ȱseeȱLe
RomanȱdeȱPercevalȱouȱLeȱConteȱduȱGraal,ȱed.ȱWilliamȱRoach.ȱ2ndȱrev.ȱandȱexpandedȱed.ȱTextes
littérairesȱfrançais,ȱ71ȱ(Geneva:ȱDroz;ȱParis:ȱMinard,ȱ1959).ȱTheȱbaseȱtextȱthereȱisȱMS.ȱB.N.ȱ12576.
Forȱ aȱ bibliographyȱ ofȱ secondaryȱ literatureȱ onȱ theȱ Perceval,ȱ seeȱ thereȱ 531–33.ȱ Seeȱ nowȱ the
contributionsȱtoȱPercevalȱ=ȱParzival:ȱAȱCasebook,ȱed.ȱwithȱanȱintrod.ȱbyȱArthurȱGroosȱandȱNorris
J.ȱLacy.ȱArthurianȱCharactersȱandȱThemesȱ(NewȱYork:ȱRoutledge,ȱ2002);ȱPhilippeȱWalter,ȱPerceval:
leȱpêcheurȱetȱleȱGraalȱ(Paris:ȱImago,ȱ2004).ȱSeeȱnowȱalsoȱBerndȱSchirok,ȱ“Menschenbild,”ȱWolfram
vonȱEschenbach:ȱEinȱHandbuch,ȱed.ȱJoachimȱHeinzle.ȱVol.ȱI:ȱAutor,ȱWerk,ȱWirkungȱ(BerlinȱandȱNew
York:ȱDeȱGruyter,ȱ2011),ȱ366–410;ȱhereȱ369–70.
theirȱownȱlordȱwouldȱthenȱdesireȱtoȱjoinȱKingȱArthur’sȱcourtȱasȱwell,ȱandȱthisȱto
Perceval’sȱ mother’sȱ greatȱ miseryȱ andȱ distress.ȱ Andȱ weȱ shouldȱ alsoȱ notȱ ignore
Perceval’sȱ shortȱ commentȱ toȱ theȱ knights,ȱ directingȱ themȱ toȱ theȱ siteȱ whereȱ the
peasantsȱareȱdoingȱtheirȱwork:ȱ“‘Sir,ȱlookȱnowȱatȱtheȱtallȱtreesȱyouȱseeȱonȱtheȱridge
ofȱthatȱmountain.ȱThatȱisȱtheȱValdoneȱPass,’ȱheȱsaid.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ‘Myȱmother’sȱplowmenȱare
there,ȱ plowingȱ andȱ harrowingȱ herȱ fields.ȱ Ifȱ thoseȱ peopleȱ passedȱ byȱ there,ȱ the
plowmen,ȱifȱtheyȱsawȱthem,ȱwillȱtellȱyou’”ȱ(343).ȱ
Theȱyoungȱmanȱisȱthoroughlyȱfamiliarȱwithȱtheȱentireȱregion,ȱknowsȱexceedinglyȱ
wellȱwhereȱheȱcanȱgoȱhunting,ȱwhereȱtheȱfieldsȱare,ȱwhoȱisȱworkingȱonȱthemȱand
when.ȱ Nevertheless,ȱ nothingȱ holdsȱ himȱ back,ȱ notȱ evenȱ hisȱ mother’sȱ pleading.
Irrespectiveȱofȱtheȱreportȱofȱhisȱfather’sȱdeathȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱhisȱgriefȱoverȱtheȱdeath
ofȱhisȱtwoȱolderȱsons,ȱalsoȱinȱknightlyȱcombat,ȱPerceval’sȱonlyȱconcernȱisȱtoȱbe
knightedȱbyȱKingȱArthur,ȱandȱsoȱheȱquicklyȱleavesȱtheȱforestȱrefuge,ȱdisregarding
evenȱtheȱdramaȱofȱwitnessingȱfromȱtheȱdistanceȱhisȱmotherȱcollapsingȱuponȱhis
departureȱ(347).
Rosemarieȱ Deistȱ recentlyȱ madeȱ aȱ trulyȱ insightfulȱ commentȱ aboutȱ theȱ entire
scene,ȱwhichȱdeservesȱtoȱbeȱquotedȱatȱlength:
Theȱforestȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱ“aȱcheerfulȱagriculturalȱidyllȱenhancedȱbyȱtheȱlocusȱamoenus
toposȱofȱtheȱsingingȱbirdsȱinȱspring”ȱ(307ff.).ȱButȱthisȱidyllȱisȱaȱculturalȱconstruction.
InȱtheȱtongueȬinȬcheekȱfashionȱsoȱtypicalȱforȱthisȱromance,ȱtheȱpictureȱofȱblissȱinȱthe
thicketȱpinpointsȱtheȱirreconcilableȱconflictȱsheȱisȱconfrontedȱwithȱasȱaȱmother.ȱThe
forestȱisȱanȱenvironmentȱbeyondȱtheȱconfinesȱofȱtheȱcivicȱworld.ȱLyingȱoutsideȱofȱa
commonȱjuridicalȱsphere,ȱitȱcannotȱbeȱrefined.ȱTheȱmotherȱhasȱmadeȱtheȱdeepȱwoods
aȱpermanentȱexileȱforȱherselfȱandȱherȱson,ȱinȱwhichȱsheȱcanȱmournȱforȱherȱotherȱtwo
sons,ȱdeadȱinȱknightlyȱcombat,ȱherȱhusbandȱwhoȱdiedȱofȱgrief,ȱandȱtheȱlossȱofȱallȱtheir
possessions.ȱ Devastationȱ broughtȱ uponȱ byȱ knighthoodȱ hasȱ madeȱ herȱ whatȱ she
presentlyȱis:ȱmotherȱtoȱherȱlastȱsonȱandȱwidowȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.134
Indeed,ȱDeistȱisȱquiteȱcorrectȱinȱherȱassessment,ȱtheȱforestȱhasȱtransformedȱintoȱan
exile,ȱifȱnotȱintoȱaȱgraveȱsiteȱfromȱwhichȱtheȱolderȱgenerationȱcanȱnoȱlongerȱescape,
whereasȱ theȱ youngȱ man,ȱ becauseȱ heȱ isȱ soȱ naiveȱ andȱ impetuous,ȱ freesȱ himself
radically,ȱdisregardingȱallȱofȱhisȱmother’sȱprofoundȱemotions.ȱNotȱsurprisingly,
inȱtheȱcourseȱofȱhisȱexperiencesȱinȱtheȱworldȱofȱchivalry,ȱPercevalȱcausesȱmany
problemsȱandȱtransgressesȱmanyȱtimes,ȱuntilȱheȱcanȱfinallyȱbeȱtaughtȱtheȱright
lessonsȱandȱthenȱbecomeȱpurifiedȱbyȱhisȱmaternalȱuncle,ȱwhoȱhasȱalsoȱwithdrawn
intoȱtheȱforestȱtoȱdoȱpenanceȱforȱhisȱfamily’sȱtragicȱactionsȱandȱtoȱhelpȱthemȱto
redeemȱtheirȱsinsȱthroughȱhisȱprayersȱasȱanȱhermit.ȱDeistȱdeservesȱtoȱbeȱquoted
onceȱagainȱtoȱclarifyȱthisȱstructuralȱdevelopment:ȱ“Inȱaȱlinearȱprogression,ȱPerceval
134
RosemarieȱDeist,ȱGenderȱandȱPower:ȱCounsellorsȱandȱTheirȱMastersȱinȱAntiquityȱandȱMedievalȱCourtly
Romance.ȱBeiträgeȱzurȱälterenȱLiteraturgeschichteȱ(Heidelberg:ȱUniversitätsverlagȱWinter,ȱ2003),
138–39.
Introduction 53
movesȱfromȱtheȱforestȱofȱtheȱmotherȱatȱtheȱbeginningȱofȱtheȱstoryȱtoȱthatȱofȱthe
maternalȱuncleȱatȱtheȱend.ȱByȱhisȱcounsel,ȱtheȱhermitȱjoinsȱtheȱtwoȱforestsȱand
givesȱmeaningȱtoȱPerceval’sȱnarrativeȱexistence.ȱInȱstructuralȱterms,ȱhisȱwordsȱare
theȱfinalȱmarkerȱinȱPerceval’sȱpathȱleadingȱbackȱtoȱtheȱmother”ȱ(139).135
LetȱusȱcompareȱtheȱforestȱepisodeȱinȱChrétien’sȱoriginalȱversionȱwithȱtheȱone
developedȱbyȱWolframȱvonȱEschenbachȱinȱhisȱMiddleȱHighȱGermanȱromance,
largely,ȱbutȱcertainlyȱnotȱcompletelyȱbasedȱonȱtheȱFrenchȱtext.136ȱFocusingȱonȱthe
descriptionȱ ofȱ theȱ forestȱ solitudeȱ willȱ allowȱ usȱ toȱ gainȱ newȱ insightsȱ intoȱ the
differenceȱbetweenȱbothȱromances,ȱandȱwillȱalsoȱshedȱnewȱlightȱonȱtheȱawareness
ofȱruralȱspaceȱasȱprojectedȱbyȱWolfram.ȱHeȱoffersȱconsiderablyȱmoreȱintroductory
commentsȱandȱexplanationsȱwhyȱHerzeloyde,ȱParzival’sȱmother,ȱretiresȱintoȱthat
woodsyȱexile:ȱ“Herȱheart’sȱsorrowȱwasȱsoȱentireȱthatȱsheȱhadȱnoȱinterestȱinȱany
garland,ȱ whetherȱ redȱ orȱ faded.ȱ Toȱ thatȱ placeȱ sheȱ took,ȱ seekingȱ refuge,ȱ noble
Gahmuret’sȱson”ȱ(50).ȱHerzeloydeȱdoesȱnot,ȱhowever,ȱsimplyȱwithdrawȱintoȱthe
forest;ȱinsteadȱsheȱtakesȱallȱherȱworkersȱwithȱherȱandȱordersȱthemȱtoȱclearȱtheȱland
andȱtoȱstartȱfarming,ȱbutȱthisȱdoesȱnotȱmatterȱmuchȱinȱthisȱcontext.ȱAsȱtheȱnarrator
relates,ȱ sheȱ isȱ primarilyȱ concernedȱ thatȱ herȱ youngȱ sonȱ willȱ neverȱ hearȱ aȱ word
aboutȱknighthood,ȱsoȱsheȱinstructsȱallȱtheȱworkersȱtoȱwatchȱtheirȱspeechȱandȱto
keepȱhimȱinȱsplendidȱisolationȱbecauseȱsheȱwantsȱtoȱprotectȱParizvalȱatȱallȱcosts
fromȱbeingȱdrawnȱintoȱtheȱworldȱofȱknighthood,ȱwhichȱisȱfatallyȱflawed,ȱasȱshe
correctlyȱperceivesȱit.ȱ
Theȱnarrator,ȱhowever,ȱfaultsȱherȱforȱthisȱpedagogicalȱapproachȱbecauseȱshe
deprivesȱ Parzivalȱ ofȱ theȱ necessaryȱ lessonsȱ aboutȱ realȱ life,ȱ preventsȱ himȱ from
growingȱintoȱadulthood,ȱandȱhopesȱtoȱkeepȱhimȱasȱaȱchild,ȱkindȱofȱsubstitutingȱfor
herȱdeceasedȱhusband—thereȱisȱnoȱmentionȱofȱotherȱchildren,ȱwhichȱintensifiesȱher
maternalȱdesireȱtoȱprotectȱherȱonlyȱson:ȱ“Thyȱboyȱwasȱhiddenȱthus,ȱbroughtȱupȱin
135
PeggyȱMcCracken,ȱ“MothersȱinȱtheȱGrailȱQuest:ȱDesire,ȱPleasure,ȱandȱConception,”ȱArthurianaȱ8.1
(1998):ȱ35Ȭ48;ȱMatildaȱTomarynȱBruckner,ȱ“ȱRewritingȱChrétien’sȱConteȱduȱgraal:ȱMothersȱand
Sons:ȱQuestions,ȱContradictions,ȱandȱConnections,”ȱTheȱMedievalȱOpus:ȱImitation,ȱRewriting,ȱand
TransmissionȱinȱtheȱFrenchȱTradition:ȱProceedingsȱofȱtheȱSymposiumȱHeldȱatȱtheȱInstituteȱforȱResearchȱin
theȱHumanities,ȱOctoberȱ5Ȭ7ȱ1995,ȱtheȱUniversityȱofȱWisconsinȬMadison,ȱed.ȱDouglasȱKelly.ȱFauxȱTitre,
116ȱ (Amsterdamȱ andȱ Atlanta:ȱ Rodopi,ȱ 1996),ȱ 213–44;ȱ Ewaȱ Slojka,ȱ “Escapeȱ fromȱ Paradox:
PercevalȇsȱUpbringingȱinȱtheȱConteȱduȱGraal,”ȱArthurianaȱ18.4ȱ(2008):ȱ66–86.
136
WolframȱvonȱEschenbach,ȱParzival:ȱStudienausgabe.ȱMittelhochdeutscherȱTextȱnachȱderȱsechsten
AusgabeȱvonȱKarlȱLachmann.ȱÜbersetzungȱvonȱPeterȱKnecht.ȱEinführungȱzumȱTextȱvonȱBernd
Schirokȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱWalterȱdeȱGruyter,ȱ1998);ȱWolframȱvonȱEschenbach,ȱParzivalȱand
Titurel.ȱTranslatedȱwithȱNotesȱbyȱCyrilȱEdwards.ȱWithȱanȱIntroductionȱbyȱRichardȱBarberȱ(Oxford:
OxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2006).ȱForȱanȱexcellentȱintroductionȱandȱinȬdepthȱanalysisȱatȱtheȱsame
time,ȱseeȱJoachimȱBumke,ȱWolframȱvonȱEschenbach.ȱ8th,ȱcompletelyȱrev.ȱed.ȱSammlungȱMetzler,ȱ36
(StuttgartȱandȱWeimar:ȱ2004).ȱSeeȱalsoȱD.ȱH.ȱGreen,ȱTheȱArtȱofȱRecognitionȱinȱWolfram’sȱParzival
(Cambridge:ȱCambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1982),ȱ60–77.ȱForȱrecentȱcriticalȱapproaches,ȱseeȱthe
annualȱWolframȱStudien;ȱandȱAȱCompanionȱtoȱWolfram’sȱParzival,ȱed.ȱWillȱHasty.ȱStudiesȱinȱGerman
Literature,ȱLinguistics,ȱandȱCultureȱ(Columbia,ȱSC:ȱCamdenȱHouse,ȱ1999).
theȱWasteȱofȱSoltane,ȱcheatedȱofȱkinglyȱways,ȱwereȱitȱnotȱforȱsomeȱsport—aȱbow
andȱlittleȱbolts”ȱ(51).ȱNevertheless,ȱasȱweȱlearnȱfromȱtheȱtext,ȱParzivalȱprovesȱtoȱbe
aȱ veryȱ sensitiveȱ andȱ observantȱ child,ȱ evenȱ thoughȱ heȱ continuesȱ toȱ displayȱ a
considerableȱdegreeȱofȱimmaturityȱforȱaȱlongȱtime,ȱevenȱafterȱhisȱdepartureȱfrom
Soltane.ȱAsȱscholarsȱhaveȱnotedȱmanyȱtimes,ȱParzivalȱdemonstratesȱgreatȱgriefȱand
pityȱforȱtheȱdeadȱbirdsȱthatȱheȱhimselfȱhadȱshotȱwithȱhisȱarrows:ȱ“Thoseȱheȱcut
withȱhisȱownȱhandȱandȱshotȱdownȱmanyȱbirdsȱheȱfoundȱthere.ȱYetȱwheneverȱhe
shotȱaȱbirdȱwhoseȱnoiseȱhadȱbeenȱsoȱloudȱwithȱsongȱbefore,ȱheȱwouldȱweepȱand
tearȱatȱhimself,ȱwreakingȱvengeanceȱonȱhisȱhair”ȱ(51).ȱ
Muchȱ later,ȱ onceȱ heȱ hasȱ learnedȱ theȱ fundamentalȱ lessonsȱ fromȱ hisȱ uncle
Trevrizent,ȱParzivalȱfinallyȱunderstandsȱtheȱtragedyȱthatȱhadȱbefallenȱhisȱentire
family,ȱyetȱheȱisȱthenȱinȱgoodȱhandsȱbecauseȱTrevrizentȱassumes,ȱatȱlast,ȱallȱhisȱsins
andȱatonesȱforȱthemȱonȱhisȱbehalf.ȱParzivalȱoriginates,ȱweȱmightȱsay,ȱfromȱtheȱwild
forest,ȱandȱreturnsȱtoȱthatȱforestȱofȱhisȱuncle’sȱabodeȱtoȱrecoverȱhisȱtrueȱselfȱandȱto
prepareȱhimselfȱforȱhisȱdestiny,ȱtoȱassumeȱtheȱthroneȱofȱtheȱGrailȱkingdom.ȱ
Inȱ hisȱ earlyȱ days,ȱ however,ȱ theȱ birdsongȱ bringsȱ tearsȱ toȱ hisȱ eyes:ȱ “Heȱ was
ignorantȱofȱanxiety,ȱexceptȱforȱtheȱbirdsongȱaboveȱhim—thatȱsweetnessȱpressed
intoȱhisȱheart,ȱstretchingȱhisȱlittleȱbreasts”ȱ(52).ȱYet,ȱwhenȱaskedȱbyȱhisȱmother
whatȱcausedȱhisȱgreatȱsorrow,ȱheȱcannotȱevenȱtellȱwhatȱtheȱtrueȱsourceȱmightȱbe,
untilȱsheȱdiscoversȱoneȱdayȱhowȱmuchȱthatȱnaturalȱbeautyȱovercomesȱhimȱand
exposesȱhisȱsoulȱtoȱtheȱgreatȱsorrow.ȱConsequentlyȱsheȱhasȱherȱservantsȱkillȱas
manyȱ birdsȱ asȱ theyȱ canȱ catch,ȱ untilȱ Parzivalȱ realizesȱ theȱ greatȱ slaughterȱ and
intervenes,ȱ demonstratingȱ remarkablyȱ wellȱ theȱ trueȱ virtueȱ ofȱ hisȱ soul.ȱ Not
surprisingly,ȱHerzeloydeȱimmediatelyȱfeelsȱremorse,ȱstopsȱtheȱkilling,ȱandȱkisses
herȱson,ȱadmittingȱtoȱherself:ȱ“‘WhyȱdoȱIȱcontraveneȱHisȱcommandment—Heȱwho
is,ȱafterȱall,ȱtheȱHighestȱGood?ȱShallȱbirdsȱforȱmyȱsakeȱabandonȱjoy?’”ȱ(51).ȱ
Theȱsubsequentȱeventsȱwithȱtheȱknights,ȱParzival’sȱdesireȱtoȱlearnȱeverything
aboutȱknighthood,ȱhisȱrequestȱfromȱhisȱmotherȱtoȱletȱhimȱgoȱtoȱKingȱArthur,ȱand
herȱ poorȱ lessonsȱ areȱ allȱ moreȱ orȱ lessȱ theȱ sameȱ asȱ inȱ Chrétien’sȱ version.
Nevertheless,ȱWolframȱcontinuesȱtoȱdivergeȱfromȱhisȱsourceȱatȱmanyȱpointsȱofȱhis
narrative,ȱandȱhasȱtheȱyoungȱheroȱnotȱwitness,ȱforȱexample,ȱtheȱcollapseȱofȱhis
motherȱ (55).ȱ Moreover,ȱ theȱ impactȱ ofȱ natureȱ onȱ thisȱ protagonistȱ findsȱ another
powerful,ȱthoughȱalmostȱfoolishȱexample.ȱHerzeloydeȱhadȱgivenȱParzivalȱseveral
piecesȱofȱadviceȱbeforeȱhisȱdeparture,ȱsuchȱas:ȱ“onȱuntroddenȱroadsȱyouȱmust
avoidȱ darkȱ fords—thoseȱ whichȱ areȱ shallowȱ andȱ clear,ȱ thereȱ youȱ mustȱ rideȱ in
boldly”ȱ(55).ȱButȱwhenȱheȱarrivesȱatȱaȱbrookȱwithȱnoȱrealȱwaterȱdepth,ȱheȱdoesȱnot
dareȱtoȱcrossȱitȱbecauseȱofȱhisȱmother’sȱrecommendation,ȱuntilȱheȱfindsȱaȱ“ford,
clearȱandȱbeautiful”ȱ(56).ȱ
Asȱserendipityȱarrangesȱit,ȱhowever,ȱthisȱisȱtheȱveryȱspotȱwhereȱonȱtheȱotherȱside
ofȱtheȱbrookȱOrilusȱhadȱpitchedȱaȱtentȱforȱhisȱwifeȱJeschuteȱandȱhimself,ȱandȱhere
Parzivalȱwillȱcommitȱhisȱfirstȱmajorȱtransgressionȱagainstȱtheȱlady,ȱagainȱfollowing
Introduction 55
butȱmisunderstandingȱhisȱmother’sȱwordsȱvisȬàȬvisȱwomenȱheȱwouldȱencounter
inȱtheȱworld.ȱAlthoughȱheȱisȱnotȱrapingȱJeschuteȱinȱtheȱnarrowȱsenseȱofȱtheȱword,
hisȱbehaviorȱcausesȱaȱmajorȱdisruptionȱinȱherȱmarriage,ȱcreatesȱenormousȱpainȱon
bothȱ sides,ȱ andȱ bodesȱ extremelyȱ badlyȱ forȱ theȱ protagonist’sȱ further
development.137
Asȱ bothȱ Chrétienȱ andȱ Wolframȱ signalȱ throughȱ theirȱ presentationȱ ofȱ the
protagonist’sȱyouth,ȱgrowingȱupȱwithoutȱmuchȱguidance,ȱmostlyȱfollowingȱjustȱhis
ownȱwhimsȱandȱinterests,ȱwithȱhisȱmotherȱabandonedȱtoȱherȱownȱgriefȱoverȱthe
lossȱofȱherȱhusbandȱandȱtwoȱotherȱsonsȱ(Chrétien),ȱtheȱforestȱcouldȱbeȱbothȱaȱsafe
havenȱandȱaȱlocationȱofȱillusionaryȱquality,ȱthatȱis,ȱofȱselfȬdeception.ȱBothȱauthors
underscoreȱhowȱlittleȱtheȱmotherȱreallyȱlivesȱupȱtoȱherȱparentalȱobligationsȱand
whatȱ theȱ consequencesȱ areȱ forȱ Perceval/Parzivalȱ whenȱ heȱ finallyȱ encounters
peopleȱfromȱoutsideȱandȱthenȱventuresȱthereȱhimself.138ȱCorpsesȱareȱstrewnȱwhere
theȱyoungȱprotagonistȱroamsȱsinceȱheȱhasȱneverȱlearnedȱanythingȱaboutȱproper
behavior,ȱsocialȱnorms,ȱethics,ȱandȱreligionȱwhileȱheȱstillȱlivedȱinȱtheȱforest.139
137
AlbrechtȱClassen,ȱSexualȱViolenceȱandȱRapeȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges:ȱAȱCriticalȱDiscourseȱinȱPremodern
GermanȱandȱEuropeanȱLiterature.ȱFundamentalsȱofȱMedievalȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱCulture,ȱ7ȱ(Berlin
andȱNewȱYork:ȱDeȱGruyter,ȱ2011),ȱ7–9,ȱ21,ȱ63,ȱetȱpassim.
138
ClarissaȱW.ȱAtkinson,ȱTheȱOldestȱVocation:ȱChristianȱMotherhoodȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(Ithaca,ȱNY,ȱand
London:ȱCornellȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1991);ȱunfortunately,ȱsheȱdoesȱnotȱengageȱwithȱChrétienȱor
Wolframȱ atȱ all.ȱ Forȱ aȱ discussionȱ ofȱ Parzival’sȱ mother,ȱ seeȱ Michaelȱ Dallapiazza,ȱ Wolframȱ von
Eschenbach:ȱParizval.ȱKlassikerȬLektüren,ȱ12ȱ(Berlin:ȱErichȱSchmidtȱVerlag,ȱ2009),ȱ34–41.ȱSeeȱalso
MarionȱE.ȱGibbs,ȱ“IdealsȱofȱFleshȱandȱBlood:ȱWomenȱCharactersȱinȱParzival,”ȱAȱCompanionȱto
Wolfram’sȱ Parzival,ȱ ed.ȱ Willȱ Hasty.ȱ Studiesȱ inȱ Germanȱ Literature,ȱ Linguistics,ȱ andȱ Culture
(Columbia,ȱS.C.:ȱCamdenȱHouse,ȱ1999),ȱ12–36.ȱForȱolder,ȱyetȱstillȱrelevantȱresearch,ȱparticularly
withȱaȱtheologicalȱorientationȱregardingȱtheȱmotherȱfigure,ȱseeȱG.ȱRichardȱDimler,ȱS.J.,ȱ“Parzivalȇs
Guilt:ȱAȱTheologicalȱInterpretation,”ȱMonatshefteȱ62ȱ(1970):ȱ123–34;ȱMariaȱDorninger,ȱ“Aspekte
derȱ Mutterȱ undȱ TochterȬBeziehungȱ inȱ derȱ mittelhochdeutschenȱ Epik:ȱ Beobachtungenȱ zuȱ den
Trojanerromanenȱ Konradsȱ vonȱ Würzburgȱ undȱ Herbortsȱ vonȱ Fritzlarȱ undȱ demȱ ȇWillehalmȇ
Wolframsȱ vonȱEschenbach,”ȱLove,ȱMarriage,ȱandȱFamilyȱTiesȱinȱtheȱLaterȱMiddleȱAge,ȱed.ȱIsabel
Davis,ȱMiriamȱMüller,ȱandȱSarahȱReesȱJones.ȱInternationalȱMedievalȱResearch,ȱ11ȱ(Turnhout:
Brepols,ȱ2003),ȱ157Ȭ80.
139
HelmutȱBrackert,ȱ“‘derȱlacȱanȱriterschefteȱtôt’:ȱParzivalȱundȱdasȱLeidȱderȱFrauen,”ȱIstȱzwîvelȱherzen
nâchgebûr:ȱGüntherȱSchweikleȱzumȱ60.ȱGeburtstag,ȱed.ȱRüdigerȱKrüger,ȱJürgenȱKühnel,ȱandȱJoachim
Kuolt.ȱHelfantȱStudien,ȱSȱ5ȱ(Stuttgart:ȱHelfant,ȱ1989),ȱ143–63.ȱForȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱtheȱfamilyȱin
Wolfram’sȱthinking,ȱseeȱSylviaȱStevens,ȱFamilyȱinȱWolframȱvonȱEschenbach’sȱWillehalm:ȱmînerȱmâge
triweȱistȱmirȱwolȱkuont.ȱStudiesȱonȱThemesȱandȱMotifsȱinȱLiterature,ȱ18ȱ(NewȱYork,ȱWashington,
DC,ȱetȱal.:ȱPeterȱLang,ȱ1997),ȱ1–30.
13.ȱOminousȱApproaches:ȱWolframȱvonȱEschenbach’sȱ
Titurel:ȱSeekingȱRefugeȱfromȱSocietyȱinȱtheȱForest
WolframȱvonȱEschenbachȱalsoȱdevelopedȱratherȱambivalentȱimagesȱofȱtheȱforest
inȱhisȱmysteriousȱandȱfragmentaryȱTiturelȱwhereȱtheȱtwoȱveryȱyoungȱloversȱSigûne
andȱSchionatulanderȱspendȱtimeȱinȱaȱforestȱidyll,ȱwithȱhimȱfishingȱinȱaȱcreek,ȱwhile
sheȱisȱrestingȱinȱaȱtent.140ȱSuddenlyȱaȱdogȱarrivesȱwhoȱhasȱescapedȱhisȱlordȱwhile
onȱpursuitȱofȱsomeȱanimalȱprey.ȱSchionatulanderȱmanagesȱtoȱcatchȱtheȱdogȱand
bringsȱitȱtoȱhisȱbeloved,ȱwhoȱimmediatelyȱrecognizesȱtheȱmagicalȱnatureȱofȱthis
animalȱbecauseȱofȱtheȱmostȱfancifulȱleashȱonȱwhichȱtheȱaccountsȱofȱtragicȱloversȱis
writtenȱbyȱmeansȱofȱgemsȱembossedȱintoȱtheȱmaterial.ȱTheȱdog,ȱasȱisȱthenȱrevealed,
carriesȱtheȱnameȱ“Gardevîaz”ȱ(148,ȱ4),ȱwhichȱmeans,ȱasȱtheȱnarratorȱtranslatesȱfor
us:ȱ“‘Hüeteȱderȱverte!’”ȱ(148,ȱ4;ȱWatchȱyourȱway!).ȱHowever,ȱthoseȱloversȱwhose
livesȱareȱdescribedȱinȱtheȱscriptȱwrittenȱonȱtheȱleashȱdoȱnotȱseemȱtoȱhaveȱbeen
consideredȱandȱmatureȱenough,ȱsoȱtheȱmen’sȱwooingȱledȱtoȱtheirȱdeath,ȱandȱtheir
mistressesȱsubsequentlyȱdiedȱasȱwellȱoutȱofȱgrief.ȱTheȱdog,ȱhowever,ȱwasȱsentȱby
aȱ ladyȱ toȱ herȱ lover,ȱ theȱ Dukeȱ Ehcunavertȱ vonȱ Bluomeȱ diuȱ wildeȱ (ofȱ theȱ wild
flowers),ȱandȱthisȱloveȱtokenȱisȱtoȱbeȱconsidered,ȱreflectingȱonȱhisȱname,ȱaȱtokenȱof
hisȱwildness,ȱorȱofȱtheȱuncontrollableȱnatureȱofȱloveȱ(158).ȱ
Sigûneȱisȱmostȱanxiousȱtoȱreadȱtheȱwholeȱstoryȱonȱtheȱleash,ȱprobablyȱbecause
theȱsadȱaccountȱlinkingȱloveȱwithȱdeathȱdeeplyȱappealsȱtoȱher,ȱperhapsȱasȱaȱsomber
foreshadowingȱofȱherȱownȱdestiny.ȱTheȱdog,ȱfeelingȱtheȱlooseningȱofȱleash,ȱstrains,
andȱcanȱfreeȱhimself,ȱsoȱheȱcontinuesȱhisȱhuntȱaccordingȱtoȱhisȱownȱnature.ȱInȱher
desperation,ȱSigûneȱtriesȱtoȱholdȱonȱtoȱtheȱleash,ȱbutȱtheȱgemsȱscratchȱthroughȱher
palmȱandȱleaveȱbloodyȱtracesȱ(161,ȱ167),ȱwhichȱcouldȱbeȱunderstoodȱasȱaȱbloody
script.ȱAlertedȱbyȱtheȱloudȱdisturbance,ȱSchionatulanderȱdropsȱhisȱanglingȱgear
andȱruns,ȱwithȱbareȱfeet,ȱafterȱtheȱdog,ȱdisregardingȱallȱtheȱbushesȱandȱbrambles
surroundingȱtheirȱidyllicȱsettingȱinȱtheȱforest.ȱWhenȱheȱreturns,ȱemptyȬhanded,ȱhis
feetȱandȱlegsȱareȱallȱscratchedȱandȱcoveredȱwithȱwoundsȱ(166),ȱanotherȱsymbolic
actȱofȱwritingȱontoȱhisȱbody.ȱ
Bothȱtimesȱtheȱwildernessȱofȱnature,ȱhenceȱofȱlove,ȱhasȱwrittenȱitselfȱontoȱthese
twoȱlovers,ȱwhoȱdoȱnotȱyetȱknowȱwhatȱtragicȱfateȱwillȱawaitȱthem.ȱTheyȱconsole
eachȱ other,ȱ butȱ sheȱ insistsȱ thatȱ heȱ mustȱ recoverȱ theȱ dogȱ andȱ henceȱ theȱ leash
140
WolframȱvonȱEschenbach,ȱTiturel.ȱHerausgegeben,ȱübersetztȱundȱmitȱeinemȱStellenkommentar
sowieȱeinerȱEinführungȱversehenȱvonȱHelmutȱBrackertȱundȱStephanȱFuchsȬJolieȱ(BerlinȱandȱNew
York:ȱWalterȱdeȱGruyter,ȱ2003);ȱforȱcriticalȱstudiesȱonȱthisȱmostȱsignificantȱtext,ȱlongȱignoredȱor
littleȱunderstood,ȱseeȱAlbrechtȱClassen,ȱUtopieȱundȱLogos.ȱVierȱStudienȱzuȱWolframsȱvonȱEschenbach
“TiturelȬȱFragmenten.ȱBeiträgeȱzurȱälterenȱLiteraturgeschichteȱ(Heidelberg:ȱCarlȱWinterȱUniversiȬ
tätsverlag,ȱ1990);ȱAlexanderȱSager,ȱMinneȱvonȱmaeren:ȱOnȱWolfram’sȱ“Titurel”.ȱTransatlantische
StudienȱzuȱMittelalterȱundȱFrüherȱNeuzeit,ȱ2ȱ(Göttingen:ȱV&Rȱunipress,ȱ2006).
Introduction 57
becauseȱsheȱmustȱknowȱtheȱendingȱofȱtheȱaccountȱthatȱsheȱhadȱreadȱonȱtheȱleash.
Onȱthatȱconditionȱsheȱwouldȱpromiseȱhimȱallȱherȱlove,ȱbutȱonlyȱonceȱheȱwould
haveȱcompletedȱthatȱtask.ȱTragically,ȱhowever,ȱasȱweȱknowȱfromȱWolfram’sȱearlier
work,ȱParzival,ȱyoungȱSchionatulanderȱwillȱfindȱhisȱdeathȱinȱthisȱendeavor,ȱbeing
killedȱbyȱtheȱmightyȱDukeȱOrilus,ȱhusbandȱofȱJeschûte,ȱwhomȱyoungȱParzivalȱwill,
innocently,ȱbadlyȱmolest,ȱwhichȱsubsequentlyȱleadsȱtoȱmanyȱterrifyingȱeventsȱinȱ
theȱArthurianȱworld,ȱunderminingȱmanyȱofȱitsȱtraditionalȱvaluesȱandȱquestionsȱits
ownȱ ideologicalȱ framework.ȱ Asȱ Wolframȱ indicates,ȱ theȱ forestȱ couldȱ beȱ aȱ safe
haven,ȱifȱnotȱevenȱanȱidyll,ȱbutȱtheȱoutsideȱworldȱwasȱneverȱfarȱawayȱandȱcould
easilyȱembarkȱonȱtheȱutopianȱlocusȱandȱthreatenȱtheȱpeaceȱandȱharmonyȱwhichȱthe
individualsȱinȱthereȱenjoyȱtemporarily.
14.ȱNatureȱandȱtheȱCourtlyȱWorld
LiteraryȱReflectionsȱonȱRuralȱSpaceȱinȱHighȱMedievalȱLiterature
Evenȱ thoughȱ weȱ wouldȱ likeȱ toȱ determineȱ withȱ completeȱ clarityȱ theȱ symbolic
meaningȱofȱtheȱforestȱinȱcourtlyȱromance,ȱoneȱspecificȱinterpretationȱcannotȱbe
givenȱbecauseȱȱeachȱwriterȱandȱeachȱtextȱidentifiedȱtheȱforestȱwithȱdifferentȱvalues
andȱfunctions.ȱSometimesȱitȱisȱtheȱspaceȱforȱrobberȱknightsȱandȱthieves;ȱthenȱit
appearsȱasȱtheȱspaceȱwhereȱwildȱandȱferociousȱanimalsȱroamȱandȱthreatenȱthe
unexpectedȱtraveler’sȱlife;ȱitȱcouldȱalsoȱbeȱtheȱspaceȱwhereȱtheȱloversȱretireȱinto
andȱ rescueȱ themselvesȱ fromȱ courtlyȱ persecutions,ȱ orȱ whereȱ anȱ individual
protagonistȱfindsȱrescueȱfromȱunjustȱpersecutions,ȱsuchȱasȱinȱAdenetȱleȱRoi’sȱLi
RoumansȱdeȱBerteȱausȱGransȱpiésȱfromȱ1273.141ȱErec,ȱinȱChrétien’sȱandȱinȱHartmann’s
respectiveȱ versions,ȱ seeminglyȱ diesȱ inȱ theȱ forestȱ afterȱ havingȱ rescuedȱ aȱ fellow
knightȱfromȱtheȱclutchesȱofȱmeanȬspiritedȱgiants.ȱHisȱwife,ȱEnite,ȱbelievesȱso,ȱat
least,ȱandȱbeginsȱaȱlongȱmourningȱritualȱatȱtheȱendȱofȱwhichȱsheȱintendsȱtoȱcommit
suicide,ȱonlyȱtoȱbeȱpreventedȱfromȱhittingȱherselfȱwithȱErec’sȱswordȱinȱtheȱlast
minute.142ȱ
Whereverȱweȱturn,ȱconsideringȱeitherȱromancesȱorȱheroicȱepics,ȱcourtlyȱpoetry
orȱallegoricalȱromances,ȱeachȱtimeȱtheȱforestȱwithȱitsȱdarkȱandȱovergrownȱspace
canȱrepresentȱsomethingȱdifferent.ȱAsȱCorinneȱJ.ȱSaundersȱalertsȱus,ȱ“Theȱforest
mayȱ beȱ identified,ȱ inȱ structuralistȱ terms,ȱ asȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ morphemesȱ orȱ deep
141
SeeȱRosaȱA.ȱPerez’sȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolume.ȱCf.ȱalsoȱmyȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱKöniginȱSibilleȱnovel
below,ȱasȱitȱhasȱsurvivedȱinȱOldȱSpanish,ȱFrench,ȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱGerman.
142
TheȱCompleteȱRomancesȱofȱChrétienȱdeȱTroyes,ȱtrans.ȱwithȱanȱintrod.ȱbyȱDavidȱStainesȱ(Bloomington
andȱ Indianapolis:ȱ Indianaȱ Universityȱ Press,ȱ 1990),ȱ 1–86;ȱ esp,ȱ 57–59;ȱ Theȱ Completeȱ Worksȱ of
HartmannȱvonȱAue,ȱtrans.ȱwithȱcommentaryȱbyȱFrankȱTobin,ȱKimȱVivian,ȱandȱRichardȱH.ȱLawson.
ArthurianȱRomances,ȱTales,ȱandȱLyricȱPoetryȱ(UniversityȱPark:ȱTheȱPennsylvaniaȱStateȱUniversity
Press,ȱ2001),ȱ51–163;ȱesp.ȱ118–23.
structuresȱofȱromance,ȱyetȱitsȱsymbolismȱshiftsȱandȱalters,ȱfunctioningȱinȱcomplex
andȱvaryingȱways.ȱItȱdrawsȱatȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱuponȱtheȱcontemporaryȱrealityȱofȱthe
actualȱ forestȱ andȱ uponȱ theȱ universalȱ orȱ archetypal,ȱ thusȱ bothȱ reflectingȱ and
reflectingȱuponȱtheȱparticularȱcommunityȱofȱwhichȱitȱformsȱaȱpartȱandȱuponȱthe
humanȱpsyche.”143
Inȱthisȱregardȱitȱbehoovesȱusȱtoȱconsiderȱtheȱcomplexityȱofȱallȱruralȱspaces,ȱsince
theyȱneedȱtoȱbeȱtreatedȱfirstȱofȱallȱfromȱaȱconcrete,ȱhistoricalȱperspective,ȱserving
specificȱ purposesȱ forȱ humanȱ societyȱ orȱ representingȱ aȱ challenge,ȱ aȱ hurdle,ȱ a
barrier,ȱorȱsimplyȱwasteȱland.ȱThenȱweȱhaveȱalwaysȱtoȱconsiderȱhowȱmuchȱallȱrural
spaceȱcouldȱcomplyȱwithȱbiblicalȱimagesȱandȱthusȱconveyȱreligiousȱmetaphors,ȱas
weȱhaveȱalreadyȱseenȱinȱtheȱendȱpartȱofȱParzival’sȱlife,ȱshortlyȱbeforeȱheȱcanȱfinally
returnȱ toȱ Kingȱ Arthur’sȱ courtȱ andȱ fromȱ thereȱ makeȱ hisȱ wayȱ backȱ toȱ Castle
Munsalvaescheȱ whereȱ theȱ Grailȱ isȱ awaitingȱ him.ȱ Thenȱ thereȱ isȱ theȱ forestȱ as
projectedȱinȱtheȱclassicalȱtradition,ȱprovidingȱresourcesȱtoȱbuildȱcities,ȱsuchȱasȱin
theȱRomanȱd’Eneas.ȱ
Moreover,ȱ theȱ forestȱ representsȱ theȱ mysteriousȱ andȱ theȱ mystical,ȱ since
magicians,ȱhermits,ȱwitches,ȱandȱsaintsȱliveȱinȱtheȱdarkȱareas,ȱbarelyȱvisibleȱfrom
theȱ outside,ȱ yetȱ exertingȱ tremendousȱ influence,ȱ asȱ illustratedȱ byȱ theȱ figureȱ of
Merlin.ȱSaundersȱsummarizesȱherȱanalysisȱasȱfollows:ȱ“Theȱworldȱofȱtheseȱforests
isȱ characterizedȱ byȱ theȱ universalȱ romanceȱ themesȱ ofȱ love,ȱ adventure,ȱ quest,
enchantmentȱandȱvision,ȱandȱbyȱtheirȱdarkerȱcounterparts,ȱrape,ȱdeath,ȱmadness,
imprisonment,ȱpenance,ȱrenderingȱtheȱforestȱaȱspecializedȱlandscapeȱjustȱonȱthe
marginsȱofȱhumanȱcredibility,ȱlingeringȱsomewhereȱbetweenȱnightmareȱandȱwishȬ
fulfillment.”144ȱTheȱforestȱcanȱbeȱtheȱcentralȱiconȱofȱaȱfairyȬtaleȱworld,ȱorȱitȱcanȱbe
aȱsymbolȱofȱtremendousȱforce,ȱreflectingȱanȱindividual’sȱsenseȱofȱbeingȱlostȱinȱlife,
suchȱasȱinȱDante’sȱDivinaȱCommedia.145ȱAndȱtheȱpilgrimȱtraverses,ȱasȱAleksandr
Dobrochotowȱ hasȱ observed,ȱ onȱ hisȱ wayȱ fromȱ Infernoȱ throughȱ Purgatorioȱ to
Paradisoȱtheȱvariousȱstagesȱofȱhumanȱnature,ȱultimatelyȱreachingȱtheȱheightȱofȱall
existence,ȱtheȱdivineȱitself.146
143
CorinneȱJ.ȱSaunders,ȱTheȱForestȱofȱMedievalȱRomance:ȱAvernus,ȱBroceliande,ȱArdenȱ(Cambridgeȱand
Rochester,ȱNY:ȱD.ȱS.ȱBrewer,ȱ1993),ȱxii.
144
Saunders,ȱTheȱForestȱofȱMedievalȱRomanceȱ(seeȱnoteȱ143),ȱ205.
145
MarianneȱStauffer,ȱDerȱWald:ȱZurȱDarstellungȱundȱDeutungȱderȱNaturȱimȱMittelalter.ȱStudiorum
RomanicorumȱCollectioȱTuricensis,ȱXȱ(Bern:ȱFranckeȱVerlag,ȱ1959).
146
AleksandreȱDobrochotow,ȱ“DerȱMenschȱundȱdieȱNaturȱimȱ‘Fegefeuer’ȱDantesȱ(GesangȱXXX),”
MenschȱundȱNaturȱimȱMittelalterȱ(seeȱnoteȱ84),ȱvol.ȱ2,ȱ791–94.ȱCf.ȱalsoȱtheȱolder,ȱyetȱstillȱvaluable
studyȱbyȱOscarȱKuhns,ȱTheȱTreatmentȱofȱNatureȱinȱDante’sȱDivinaȱcommediaȱ(1897;ȱPortȱWashington,
Kennikatȱ Press,ȱ 1987);ȱ Patrickȱ Boyde,ȱ L’uomoȱ nelȱ cosmo:ȱ Filosofiaȱ dellaȱ naturaȱ eȱ poesiaȱ inȱ Dante.
Collezioneȱdiȱtestiȱeȱdiȱstudi.ȱLinguisticaȱeȱcriticaȱletterariaȱ(Bologna:ȱSocietàȱeditriceȱilȱMulino,
1984);ȱRichardȱH.ȱLansing,ȱDanteȱandȱPilosophy:ȱNature,ȱtheȱCosmos,ȱandȱtheȱEthicalȱImperative.ȱDante,
theȱCriticalȱComplex,ȱ3ȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱLondon:ȱRoutledge,ȱ2003).
Introduction 59
Whetherȱmedievalȱpoetsȱandȱromanceȱauthorsȱhadȱaȱclearȱawarenessȱofȱrural
spaceȱwillȱalwaysȱremainȱaȱmatterȱofȱdebate,ȱbutȱweȱcanȱbeȱcertainȱthatȱfromȱearly
onȱtheyȱintegratedȱaȱmultiplicityȱofȱnatureȱscenesȱintoȱtheirȱworksȱasȱessential
backdropȱtoȱtheȱcentralȱmotifsȱorȱthemes.ȱThereȱareȱmanyȱmajorȱtopoiȱpredicated
onȱnature,ȱandȱtheseȱareȱtheȱlandscapeȱofȱparadise,ȱtheȱenclosedȱgarden,ȱandȱthe
landscapeȱofȱtheȱvariousȱseasons.
15.ȱTheȱProtagonist’sȱExistentialȱTestȱinȱNature:ȱ
SirȱGawainȱandȱtheȱGreenȱKnight
Anotherȱ usefulȱ exampleȱ provesȱ toȱ beȱ theȱ anonymousȱ alliterativeȱ romanceȱ Sir
GawainȱandȱtheȱGreenȱKnight,ȱcomposedȱsometimeȱinȱtheȱlateȱfourteenthȱcentury.147
Asȱscholarshipȱhasȱalreadyȱnotedȱnumerousȱtimes,ȱtheȱauthor’sȱdescriptiveȱskills,
hisȱamazingȱabilityȱtoȱcaptureȱourȱattentionȱthroughȱtheȱpresentationȱofȱcountless
details,ȱandȱtheȱhighlyȱdramaticȱplotȱdevelopment,ȱbeautifullyȱcoupledȱwithȱthe
strongȱemphasisȱonȱrhetoricalȱskillsȱthatȱreallyȱdetermineȱtheȱoutcomeȱofȱGawain’s
almostȱfatalȱchallenge,ȱmarkȱthisȱworkȱasȱoneȱofȱtheȱgreatȱmasterpiecesȱofȱmedieval
literature.148ȱApartȱfromȱtheȱfactȱthatȱtheȱpoetȱpowerfullyȱparallelsȱtheȱeventsȱinȱthe
forestȱoutsideȱofȱCastleȱHautȱDesert,ȱownedȱbyȱBercelakȱdeȱHautdesert,ȱwithȱthose
inȱGawain’sȱbedroom,ȱwhereȱtheȱlord’sȱwifeȱtriesȱtoȱseduceȱhim,ȱwithoutȱachieving
herȱgoal,ȱandȱthisȱforȱthreeȱdays,ȱalthoughȱBercelakȱkillsȱoneȱsymbolicȱanimalȱafter
theȱotherȱduringȱhisȱhunt,ȱweȱdiscoverȱanotherȱmajorȱ episodeȱfocusingȱonȱthe
naturalȱspace.ȱ
SearchingȱforȱtheȱGreenȱChapelȱwhereȱheȱwouldȱencounterȱtheȱGreenȱKnight
againȱwhomȱheȱthenȱwouldȱhaveȱtoȱpermitȱtoȱdecapitateȱhimȱinȱreturnȱforȱwhatȱhe
himselfȱhadȱdoneȱtoȱthatȱmysteriousȱfigureȱoneȱyearȱearlier,ȱGawainȱtraversesȱwide
swathsȱofȱEnglandȱwhileȱtheȱwinterȱweatherȱisȱsettingȱinȱandȱcausingȱhimȱmany
147
HereȱIȱwillȱrelyȱonȱSirȱGawainȱandȱtheȱGreenȱKnight:ȱAȱDualȬLanguageȱVersion,ȱed.ȱandȱtrans.ȱby
WilliamȱVantuono.ȱGarlandȱReferenceȱLibraryȱofȱtheȱHumanities,ȱ1265ȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱLondon:
Garland,ȱ 1991);ȱ nowȱ seeȱ Sirȱ Gawainȱ andȱ theȱ Greenȱ Knight:ȱ Anȱ Authoritativeȱ Translation,
Contexts,ȱ Criticism,ȱ trans.ȱ Marieȱ Borroff;ȱ ed.ȱ byȱ Marieȱ Borroffȱ andȱ Lauraȱ L.ȱ Howes.ȱ Norton
CriticalȱEditionȱ(NewȱYork:ȱW.ȱW.ȱNorton,ȱ2010).ȱIȱalsoȱfindȱtheȱtranslationȱbyȱJosephȱGlaserȱvery
sympathetic:ȱSirȱGawainȱandȱtheȱGreenȱKnight,ȱtrans.,ȱwithȱnotes,ȱbyȱJosephȱGlaser.ȱIntroductionȱby
ChristineȱChismȱ(IndianapolisȱandȱCambridge:ȱHackettȱPublishingȱCompany,ȱ2011).ȱSeeȱalsoȱSir
GawainȱandȱtheȱGreenȱKnight:ȱSourcesȱandȱAnalogues,ȱcompiledȱbyȱElisabethȱBrewer.ȱArthurian
Studies,ȱ 27.ȱ 2ndȱ ed.ȱ (Woodbridge,ȱ Suffolk,ȱ UK,ȱ andȱ Rochester,ȱ NY:ȱ D.ȱ S.ȱ Brewer,ȱ 1992).ȱ The
numberȱofȱcriticalȱstudiesȱonȱthisȱtextȱis,ȱofȱcourse,ȱlegion.
148
J.ȱJ.ȱAnderson,ȱLanguageȱandȱImaginationȱinȱtheȱGawainȬPoems.ȱManchesterȱMedievalȱLiterature
(Manchester,ȱUK,ȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱManchesterȱUniversityȱPress;ȱNewȱYork:ȱPalgrave,ȱ2005).ȱSee
alsoȱ theȱ contributionsȱ toȱ Gawain:ȱ Aȱ Casebook,ȱ ed.ȱ Raymondȱ H.ȱ Thompsonȱ andȱ Keithȱ Busby.
ArthurianȱCharactersȱandȱThemes,ȱ8ȱ(NewȱYork:ȱRoutledge,ȱ2006).
problems.ȱTheȱpoetȱprimarilyȱpresentsȱhimȱasȱtheȱtypicalȱcourtlyȱknightȱonȱaȱquest,
allȱbyȱhimself,ȱridingȱthroughȱtheȱwilderness,ȱthreatenedȱeverywhereȱbyȱcreatures,
evilȱfigures,ȱandȱtheȱinclementȱweather:ȱ“Strangeȱroadsȱtheȱknightȱdidȱrange,ȱ/
Withȱperilousȱpathsȱinȱbetween;ȱ/ȱHisȱmoodȱquiteȱoftenȱdidȱchangeȱ/ȱBeforeȱthat
chapelȱwasȱseen”ȱ(709–12).ȱGawainȱclimbsȱonȱmanyȱcliffsȱtoȱgainȱaȱlookoutȱ(713),
heȱ hasȱ toȱ wadeȱ throughȱ manyȱ riversȱ (715),ȱ andȱ alsoȱ clashesȱ withȱ numerous
enemiesȱsomewhereȱinȱtheȱmountains:ȱ“Soȱmanyȱmarvelsȱinȱtheȱmountainsȱdoes
theȱmanȱfind”ȱ(718).ȱHowever,ȱtheȱpoetȱrefrainsȱfromȱgoingȱintoȱfurtherȱdetailsȱand
contentsȱhimselfȱwithȱstressingȱhowȱfearsomeȱtheȱprotagonist’sȱexperiencesȱwere
whereverȱheȱwent.ȱ
Althoughȱtheȱnarratorȱprojectsȱaȱdangerousȱworldȱoutsideȱofȱtheȱcourtȱpopulated
byȱtrollsȱandȱmonsters,ȱallȱofȱthemȱhostileȱbyȱnatureȱtowardȱtheȱcourtlyȱhero,ȱhe
stillȱrevealsȱaȱprofoundȱinterestȱinȱwhatȱnatureȱdoes,ȱevenȱinȱtheȱnightȱofȱwinter:
“Hadȱ heȱnotȱbeenȱstrongȱandȱsteadfast,ȱandȱservedȱtheȱLord,ȱ/ȱDoubtlesslyȱhe
wouldȱhaveȱdied,ȱdroppedȱdownȱonȱtheȱearth.ȱ/ȱIfȱtheȱwarringȱwasȱnerveȬwracking
thatȱwinterȱwasȱworse,ȱ/ȱWhenȱtheȱcoldȱclearȱwaterȱscatteredȱfromȱtheȱclouds,ȱ/
Andȱfrozeȱbeforeȱitȱfellȱonȱtheȱfadedȱearth”ȱ(724–28).ȱ
Insofarȱ asȱ Gawainȱ believesȱ thatȱ heȱ isȱ approachingȱ hisȱ ownȱ death,ȱ itȱ isȱ most
fittingȱthatȱnatureȱalsoȱreflectsȱitsȱownȱdeath,ȱorȱwinter.149ȱUltimately,ȱthingsȱseem
toȱgetȱreallyȱbad,ȱandȱthereȱwouldȱbeȱgoodȱreasonȱforȱGawainȱtoȱdespairȱbecause
bothȱweatherȱandȱtheȱnaturalȱenvironmentȱturnȱfromȱbadȱtoȱworse:ȱ“Byȱaȱmount
inȱtheȱmorningȱtheȱgoodȱmanȱthenȱridesȱ/ȱIntoȱaȱforestȱfullȱdeep,ȱfantasticȱandȱwild,
/ȱHighȱhillsȱonȱeachȱside,ȱandȱheavyȱwoodsȱbeneathȱ/ȱWithȱbareȱoaks,ȱveryȱhuge,
aȱhundredȱtogether.ȱ/ȱTheȱhazelȱandȱtheȱhawthornȱwereȱthicklyȱensnarled,ȱ/ȱWith
rough,ȱraggedȱmossȱarrayedȱeverywhere,ȱ/ȱWithȱmanyȱbirds,ȱnotȱblitheful,ȱupon
bareȱtwigs,ȱ/ȱThatȱpiteouslyȱpipedȱthereȱinȱpainȱfromȱtheȱcold”ȱ(740–47).ȱGawain
hasȱalmostȱgivenȱupȱanyȱhopeȱofȱfindingȱaȱsafeȱlocationȱtoȱcelebrateȱtheȱChristmas
season,ȱwhenȱheȱsuddenlyȱespiesȱaȱcastle,ȱwhere,ȱunbeknownstȱtoȱhimȱsoȱfar,ȱhis
greatestȱ challengeȱ willȱ awaitȱ him.ȱ However,ȱ thisȱ castle,ȱ Hautdesert,ȱ atȱ least
providesȱ himȱ withȱ shelterȱ andȱ protectionȱ fromȱ theȱ bitingȱ cold.ȱ Sinceȱ hisȱ goal
appearsȱonlyȱafterȱheȱcrossesȱhimselfȱthrice,ȱtheȱlandscapeȱisȱoftenȱconsideredȱa
partȱofȱaȱChristianȱallegory.
Theȱrestȱofȱtheȱnarrativeȱdoesȱnotȱneedȱtoȱbeȱdiscussedȱfurther;ȱitȱisȱenoughȱto
realizeȱhowȱmuchȱtheȱpoetȱpredicatedȱhisȱnarrativeȱpresentationȱonȱreferringȱto
coldȱnature,ȱonȱtheȱvirtuallyȱdeadȱlandscape,ȱandȱonȱtheȱfearsomeȱforest.ȱWithout
thatȱincredibleȱchallengeȱinȱtheȱoutdoors,ȱGawainȱwouldȱnotȱhaveȱgraspedȱthe
significanceȱofȱhisȱnextȱstageȱinȱhisȱquest,ȱandȱheȱwouldȱnotȱhaveȱfeltȱtheȱgratitude
149
Albrechtȱ Classen,ȱ “Winterȱ asȱ aȱ Phenomenonȱ inȱ Medievalȱ Literature:ȱ Aȱ Transgressionȱ ofȱ the
TraditionalȱChronotopos?,”ȱtoȱappearȱinȱMediaevistik.
Introduction 61
thatȱsubsequentlyȱleadsȱhimȱtoȱobeyȱmostȱmeticulouslyȱtheȱlawsȱofȱguestsȱandȱtheir
hosts.ȱ
WhateverȱBercilak’sȱwifeȱwillȱthenȱtryȱtoȱachieve,ȱsheȱcanȱneverȱseduceȱtheȱnoble
knightȱbecauseȱheȱhasȱalreadyȱgoneȱthroughȱtheȱfirstȱstageȱofȱhisȱcatharsis,ȱand
havingȱsurvivedȱtheȱterribleȱwinterȱlandscape,ȱhisȱownȱsoulȱandȱcharacterȱhave
provenȱ toȱ beȱ worthyȱ forȱ theȱ nextȱ challenge,ȱ whichȱ takesȱ placeȱ atȱ court,ȱ atȱ the
centerȱofȱcourtlyȱsociety.ȱNevertheless,ȱGawainȱstillȱhasȱtoȱfindȱtheȱGreenȱChapel,
whereȱhisȱultimateȱchallengeȱrests.ȱButȱthatȱisȱnotȱanȱeasyȱgoal,ȱdespiteȱtheȱclear
direction.ȱ First,ȱ theȱ servantȱ temptsȱ himȱ toȱ abandonȱ thatȱ challenge,ȱ andȱ then
Gawainȱcontinuesȱonȱhisȱindividualȱquest,ȱthoughȱheȱhasȱaȱhardȱtimeȱrecognizing
theȱchapel.ȱHisȱultimateȱgoalȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱtheȱchapel,ȱbutȱthatȱinȱitselfȱturnsȱoutȱto
beȱanȱiconȱofȱhisȱownȱhonor,ȱasȱimpressiveȱandȱrealisticȱasȱtheȱdescriptionȱofȱthe
naturalȱ settingȱ mightȱ be:ȱ “Heȱ sawȱ noȱ suchȱ thingȱ onȱ anyȱ side—andȱ itȱ seemed
strangeȱtoȱhim—ȱ/ȱSave,ȱaȱshortȱdistanceȱintoȱtheȱglade,ȱaȱdrearyȱmound,ȱ/ȱAȱround
barrowȱonȱaȱslopeȱbesideȱtheȱbank,ȱ/ȱByȱtheȱbrookȱbubbledȱthereinȱasȱifȱitȱhad
boiled”ȱ(2170–74).ȱAlthoughȱitȱisȱanȱoldȱchapel,ȱGawainȱrealizesȱhowȱmuchȱthe
existentialȱthreatȱhasȱtoȱbeȱfacedȱinȱnature,ȱsoȱnotȱatȱcourtȱasȱoneȱyearȱago.ȱForȱthe
poet,ȱthen,ȱparticularlyȱbecauseȱtheȱprotagonistȱsurvivesȱtheȱchallenge,ȱofȱcourse,
positioningȱhisȱheroȱinȱthisȱlifeȬthreateningȱsituationȱrightȱnextȱtoȱtheȱGreenȱChapel
signalsȱthatȱlifeȱcannotȱbeȱsimplyȱsubduedȱandȱdestroyed,ȱjustȱbecauseȱofȱaȱsilly
gameȱwithȱtheȱGreenȱKnight,ȱBercilakȱdeȱHautdesert,ȱor,ȱasȱheȱlaterȱadmits,ȱwith
MorganȱleȱFayȱ(2446).ȱ
AsȱmuchȱasȱGawain’sȱsubsequentȱexperiencesȱcorrelateȱhimȱonceȱagainȱwith
KingȱArthurȱandȱtheȱworldȱofȱtheȱcourt,ȱweȱcanȱnowȱaffirmȱtheȱextentȱtoȱwhichȱthe
naturalȱ environment,ȱ theȱ forest,ȱ orȱ anyȱ otherȱ wildȱ settingȱ representȱ theȱ stage
whereȱhumanȱlifeȱreallyȱfacesȱitsȱfundamentalȱchallengeȱandȱcanȱliveȱoutȱtoȱits
fullest.ȱWhatȱSirȱGawainȱandȱtheȱGreenȱKnightȱsignals,ȱthen,ȱisȱtheȱrealizationȱofȱhowȱ
muchȱhumanȱlifeȱdependsȱnotȱonlyȱonȱtheȱsuccessfulȱenactmentȱofȱpoliticalȱgoals
inȱtheȱsphereȱofȱtheȱcourt,ȱbutȱalsoȱonȱtheȱunderstandingȱofȱhumanȱlifeȱwithinȱthe
naturalȱcontext.
16.ȱLoveȱ(?)ȱinȱtheȱMountains:ȱJuanȱRuiz’sȱLibroȱdeȱbuenȱamor
LateȬMedievalȱSpanishȱReflectionsȱonȱRuralȱSpace
LetȱusȱalsoȱconsiderȱoneȱofȱtheȱmostȱfamousȱlateȬmedievalȱSpanishȱexamples,ȱJuan
Ruiz’sȱLibroȱdeȱbuenȱamor,ȱaȱcertainlyȱodd,ȱdialectical,ȱdeliberatelyȱcontradictory
treatiseȱfromȱtheȱmiddleȱofȱtheȱfourteenthȱcenturyȱthatȱhasȱelicitedȱaȱplethoraȱof
scholarlyȱresponses.150ȱTheȱrichȱfabricȱofȱmoral,ȱethical,ȱreligious,ȱbutȱthenȱalso
humorous,ȱandȱsatiricalȱteachingsȱdoesȱnotȱneedȱtoȱbeȱdiscussedȱhere,ȱespecially
sinceȱthereȱisȱsoȱmuchȱ researchȱonȱthisȱwork.151ȱAsȱtoȱbeȱexpected,ȱRuizȱoffers
extensiveȱdiscussionsȱaboutȱtheȱSevenȱDeadlyȱSins,ȱmixesȱinȱnumerousȱdidactic
fables,ȱbutȱthenȱheȱalsoȱoffersȱcontradictoryȱcommentsȱaboutȱlove,ȱandȱsoȱforcesȱus
toȱ readȱ hisȱ treatiseȱ mostȱ carefully,ȱ whichȱ deliberatelyȱ blursȱ theȱ distinctions
betweenȱtheȱseriousȱandȱtheȱfacetious.152
Afterȱmanyȱdebatesȱaboutȱandȱexaminationsȱofȱallȱkindsȱofȱeroticȱsettingsȱand
conditions,ȱ theȱ narrativeȱ figureȱ alsoȱ turnsȱ towardȱ theȱ mountainsȱ toȱ findȱ love,
althoughȱ heȱ admitsȱ himselfȱ rightȱ atȱ theȱ beginningȱ thatȱ thisȱ wasȱ aȱ foolish
enterprise.ȱ Sinceȱ theȱ authorȱ wantsȱ toȱ situateȱ theȱ protagonistȱ inȱ aȱ miserable
situationȱfromȱwhichȱonlyȱaȱroughȱmountainȱwomanȱwouldȱbeȱcapableȱofȱrescuing
him,ȱheȱutilizes,ȱasȱtheȱtimeȱframework,ȱfallȱorȱevenȱwinter:ȱ“Iȱhadȱnowhereȱtoȱhide
fromȱtheȱhailȱandȱsnow”ȱ(951,ȱ3).153ȱOnceȱheȱhasȱcrossedȱtheȱmountainȱpass,ȱbarely
150
JuanȱRuiz,ȱTheȱBookȱofȱGoodȱLove,ȱtrans.ȱbyȱElizabethȱDraysonȱMacdonald,ȱconsultantȱed.ȱMelveena
McKendrick.ȱTheȱEverymanȱLibraryȱ(London:ȱJ.ȱM.ȱDent;ȱRutland,ȱVT:ȱCharlesȱE.ȱTuttle,ȱ1999);
seeȱalsoȱDayleȱSeidenspinnerȬNúñez,ȱTheȱAllegoryȱofȱGoodȱLove:ȱParodicȱPerspectivismȱinȱtheȱLibro
deȱbuenȱamor.ȱUniversityȱofȱCaliforniaȱPublicationsȱinȱModernȱPhilologyȱ112ȱ(Berkeley:ȱUniversity
ofȱCaliforniaȱPress,ȱ1981);ȱAȱCompanionȱtoȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱbuenȱamor,ȱed.ȱLouiseȱM.ȱHaywoodȱand
LouiseȱO.ȱVasvári.ȱColecciónȱTámesis.ȱSerieȱA,ȱMonografías,ȱ209ȱ(Rochester,ȱNY:ȱTamesis,ȱ2004);
Thomasȱ R.ȱ Hart,ȱ Allegoryȱ andȱ Otherȱ Mattersȱ inȱ theȱ Libroȱ deȱ buenȱ amor.ȱ Papersȱ ofȱ theȱ Medieval
HispanicȱResearchȱSeminar,ȱ58ȱ(London:ȱDept.ȱofȱHispanicȱStudies,ȱQueenȱMary,ȱUniversityȱof
London,ȱ2007);ȱJoséȱLuisȱPérezȱLópez,ȱTemasȱdelȱLibroȱdeȱbuenȱamorȱ(elȱentornoȱcatedralicioȱtoledano)
(Toledo:ȱD.ȱB.ȱComunicación,ȱ2007);ȱElȱ“libroȱdeȱbuenȱamor”:ȱtextoȱyȱcontextos,ȱed.ȱGuillermoȱSerés,
Danielȱ Ricoȱ yȱ Omarȱ Sanz,ȱ Federicaȱ Accorsi,ȱ etȱ al.ȱ (Bellaterra:ȱ Universidadȱ Autónomaȱ de
Barcelona,ȱCentroȱdeȱEstudiosȱeȱInvestigaciónȱdeȱHumanidades,ȱ2008).ȱForȱourȱpurposes,ȱsee,
aboveȱall,ȱGailȱPhillips,ȱTheȱImageryȱofȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱbuenȱamor.ȱSpanishȱSeriesȱ(HispanicȱSeminary
ofȱ Medievalȱ Studies,ȱ 9ȱ (Madison,ȱ WI:ȱ Hispanicȱ Seminaryȱ ofȱ Medievalȱ Studies,ȱ 1983);ȱ most
recently,ȱseeȱDevidȱPaolini,ȱ“Elȱlibroȱdeȱbuenȱamorȱyȱelȱamorȱdescortés,”ȱActasȱdelȱXVIȱCongreso
deȱlaȱAsociaciónȱInternacionalȱdeȱHispanistas:ȱNuevosȱcaminosȱdelȱhispanismoȱ.ȱ.ȱ.,ȱParís,ȱdelȱ9ȱalȱ13ȱde
julioȱdeȱ2007,ȱed.ȱPierreȱCivilȱandȱFrançoiseȱCrémouxȱ(Madrid:ȱIberoamericana;ȱFrankfurtȱa.ȱM.:
Vervuert;ȱ2010),ȱnoȱpagination.
151
Catherineȱ Brown,ȱ Contraryȱ Things:ȱ Exegesis,ȱ Dialectic,ȱ andȱ theȱ Poeticsȱ ofȱ Didacticism.ȱ Figurae.
ReadingȱMedievalȱCultureȱ(Stanford:ȱStanfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1998),ȱ116–17,ȱ122–29,ȱ135–40,ȱet
passim.
152
TheȱclassicalȱstudyȱonȱthisȱtopicȱcontinuesȱtoȱbeȱCurtius,ȱEuropeanȱLiteratureȱandȱtheȱLatinȱMiddle
Agesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ81),ȱ417–35.ȱSeeȱnowȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱLaughterȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱEarly
ModernȱTimes:ȱEpistemologyȱofȱaȱFundamentalȱHumanȱBehavior,ȱitsȱMeaning,ȱandȱConsequences,ȱed.
AlbrechtȱClassen.ȱFundamentalsȱofȱMedievalȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱCulture,ȱ5ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:
DeȱGruyter,ȱ2010).
153
AlbrechtȱClassen,ȱ“WinterȱasȱaȱPhenomenon”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ149).ȱAȱwonderfulȱexample,ȱveryȱunusual
forȱArthurianȱromances,ȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱtheȱromanceȱDiuȱCrôneȱbyȱtheȱAustrianȱpoetȱHeinrichȱvon
demȱTürlinȱ(middleȱofȱtheȱthirteenthȱcentury),ȱwhichȱIȱdiscussȱthereȱinȱgreaterȱdetail.ȱSeeȱalso
MilèneȱWegmann,ȱNaturwahrnehmungȱimȱMittelalterȱimȱSpiegelȱderȱlateinischenȱHistoriographieȱdes
12.ȱundȱ13.ȱJahrhunderts.ȱLateinischeȱSpracheȱundȱLiteraturȱdesȱMittelalters,ȱ40ȱ(BernȱandȱNew
York:ȱPeterȱLang,ȱ2005).
Introduction 63
alive,ȱheȱencountersȱtheȱcowgirl,ȱtheȱ“vaquerisa”ȱ(952,ȱ2),ȱwhoȱrescuesȱhimȱand
takesȱhimȱtoȱherȱabode,ȱcarryingȱhimȱonȱherȱownȱshoulders,ȱafterȱheȱhadȱpromised
herȱ“aȱpendantȱandȱaȱbrooch,ȱandȱaȱrabbitȬskinȱbag”ȱ(957,ȱ4).ȱOnlyȱinȱthisȱrough
terrainȱwouldȱitȱbeȱpossibleȱforȱaȱradicalȱreversalȱofȱgenderȱroles:ȱ“Iȱdidn’tȱmind
thatȱ sheȱ carriedȱ meȱ onȱ herȱ back;ȱ /ȱ sheȱ savedȱ meȱ fromȱ crossingȱ streamsȱ and
hillocks”ȱ(958,ȱ2–3).ȱButȱfirstȱsheȱtreatedȱhimȱalmostȱviolently,ȱsubduingȱallȱhis
resistance:ȱ“Sheȱthrewȱherȱcrookȱatȱme,ȱ/ȱtwirledȱaroundȱherȱslingȱ/ȱandȱfiredȱa
stoneȱatȱme”ȱ(965,ȱ3–5),ȱbeingȱaȱveritableȱBrünhildȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱHighȱGerman
Nibelungenliedȱ(ca.ȱ1200).154ȱInȱtheȱsubsequentȱsection,ȱwhichȱdetailsȱtheȱeventsȱof
theirȱexchange,ȱweȱareȱtoldȱtheȱfollowing:ȱ
TomomeȱResioȱporȱlaȱmano,ȱenȱsuȱpescueçoȱpuso
commoȱaȱçuronȱlyuianoȱeȱleuonȱlaȱcuestaȱayusso:
‘hadreȱduro,ȱnonȱteȱespantes,ȱqueȱbyenȱteȱdareȱqueȱyantes,
commoȱesȱdeȱlaȱsierraȱvso.’ (967)
[Sheȱgrabbedȱmeȱquicklyȱbyȱtheȱhand,
flungȱmeȱroundȱherȱneck
asȱifȱIȱwereȱaȱlittleȱshepherd’sȱpouch
andȱcarriedȱmeȱdownȱtheȱhillȱonȱherȱshoulders.
‘Don’tȱbeȱalarmed,ȱyouȱwally,
I’llȱsatisfyȱyourȱappetite,
asȱweȱdoȱupȱinȱtheȱmountains.’]
Afterȱsheȱhasȱnourishedȱhimȱinȱherȱhut,ȱfinallyȱaȱplaceȱofȱwarmȱshelter,ȱsheȱbegins
aȱsexualȱaffairȱwithȱhim,ȱalthoughȱitȱisȱnotȱclearȱatȱallȱwhetherȱheȱtrulyȱagreedȱto
itȱorȱnot.ȱWouldȱweȱperhapsȱevenȱhaveȱtoȱassumeȱthatȱsheȱmightȱrapeȱhim,ȱandȱnot
theȱotherȱwayȱaround?ȱSubsequentlyȱtheȱnarrativeȱincludesȱfurtherȱencounters
withȱsomeȱofȱtheseȱmountainȱgirls,ȱorȱserranas,ȱandȱeachȱtimeȱthereȱisȱaȱsexual
element,ȱinsofarȱasȱtheȱprotagonistȱisȱonȱaȱsearchȱforȱloveȱinȱtheȱtraditionalȱsense
ofȱ theȱ termȱ andȱ nowȱ undergoesȱ aȱ transgressiveȱ experience,ȱ vulgarȱ andȱ raw,
especiallyȱbecauseȱitȱtakesȱplaceȱinȱtheȱmountainsȱwithȱaȱrepresentativeȱofȱtheȱrural
population.ȱSometimesȱtheȱwildȱwomanȱisȱtheȱactiveȱpartner,ȱbutȱsometimesȱthe
manȱseducesȱher,ȱpretendingȱtoȱbeȱanȱattractiveȱpartnerȱwhoȱwouldȱknowȱwell
154
ConnieȱL.ȱScarborough,ȱ“TheȱRapeȱofȱMenȱandȱOtherȱ‘Lessons’ȱaboutȱSexȱinȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱbuen
amor,”ȱSexualityȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱEarlyȱModernȱAge:ȱNewȱApproachesȱtoȱaȱFundamental
CulturalȬHistoricalȱ andȱ LiteraryȬAnthropologicalȱ Theme,ȱ ed.ȱ Albrechtȱ Classen.ȱ Fundamentalsȱ of
MedievalȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱCulture,ȱ3ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱWalterȱdeȱGruyter,ȱ2008),ȱ565Ȭ77;
forȱ theȱ Germanȱ traditionȱ ofȱ theȱ ‘wildȱ woman,’ȱ seeȱ Christaȱ HabigerȬTuczay,ȱ “Wildeȱ Frau,”
Dämonen,ȱMonster,ȱFabelwesen,ȱed.ȱUlrichȱMüllerȱandȱWernerȱWunderlich.ȱMittelalterȱMythen,ȱ2
(St.ȱ Gallen:ȱ UVK,ȱ Fachverlagȱ fürȱ Wissenschaftȱ undȱ Stiduum,ȱ 1999),ȱ 603–15;ȱ Justinȱ Vollmann,
“Wolfdietrichȱ undȱ dieȱ Wildenȱ Frauen,”ȱ Jahrbuchȱ derȱ Oswaldȱ vonȱ WolkensteinȬGesellschaftȱ 14
(2003–2004):ȱ243–54.
howȱtoȱdoȱallȱtheȱvariousȱlaborsȱthatȱareȱnecessaryȱonȱaȱfarmȱandȱinȱtheȱwoods:
“I’mȱanȱexpertȱatȱdrivingȱcowsȱ/ȱandȱcanȱtameȱaȱfierceȱyoungȱbull.ȱ/ȱIȱknowȱhow
toȱchurnȱmilkȱandȱmakeȱcream,ȱ/ȱandȱhowȱtoȱmakeȱaȱgoatskinȱchurningȱbag.ȱ/ȱIȱcan
makeȱaȱpairȱofȱtwineȱsandals,ȱ/ȱplayȱtheȱshepherd’sȱpipes,ȱ/ȱandȱrideȱaȱlivelyȱcolt”
(1000).ȱ
Quiteȱnaturally,ȱhereȱweȱrecognizeȱtheȱtraditionȱofȱtheȱpastourelle,ȱdrastically
satirized,ȱ butȱ surprisinglyȱ contrastedȱ withȱ thisȱ new,ȱ completelyȱ uncourtly
situation,ȱhighȱupȱinȱtheȱinhospitableȱwilderness,ȱthatȱis,ȱnotȱevenȱonȱaȱfarm,ȱonȱa
pasture,ȱ orȱ atȱ theȱ edgeȱ ofȱ theȱ wood.ȱ Whileȱ inȱ medievalȱ courtlyȱ poetryȱ we
commonlyȱdiscoverȱreferencesȱtoȱaȱpeasantȱwoman,ȱaȱshepherdess,ȱorȱaȱfarmȱmaid,
theyȱnormallyȱoperateȱinȱaȱfriendly,ȱshy,ȱorȱaccommodatingȱfashion.ȱByȱcontrast,
hereȱ inȱ Ruiz’sȱ satiricalȱ treatiseȱ onȱ love,ȱ sheȱ assumesȱ monstrousȱ featuresȱ and
assumesȱcompleteȱcontrolȱinȱtheirȱtryst.ȱMoreover,ȱweȱfindȱtheȱprotagonistȱnotȱon
anȱordinaryȱfarm,ȱorȱinȱtheȱfields,ȱbutȱinȱaȱlifeȬthreateningȱcontext,ȱtheȱmountains
whereȱhailȱandȱstormȱpummelȱtheȱpoorȱmanȱmercilessly.ȱOnlyȱtheȱwoman’sȱrobust
treatment,ȱwarmingȱhimȱup,ȱfeedingȱhim,ȱmakeȱitȱpossibleȱforȱhimȱtoȱrevive,ȱwhich
thenȱmakesȱpossibleȱtheirȱsexualȱexchanges.ȱ
AsȱConnieȱL.ȱScarboroughȱhasȱaccuratelyȱobservedȱbehindȱtheȱsatiricalȱscreen,
“Theȱserranasȱthusȱmanifestȱnotȱonlyȱmaleȱfearsȱaboutȱtheȱsexualȱaggressivenessȱof
womenȱbutȱalsoȱserveȱasȱwhatȱDagenaisȱcallsȱlessonsȱinȱ‘practicalȱwisdom.’ȱForȱa
societyȱwhichȱperceivedȱmaleȱsexualȱaggressionȱandȱimpositionȱasȱaȱnorm,ȱthe
Libroȱ deȱ buenȱ amorȱ remindsȱ menȱ thatȱ theyȱ areȱ vulnerableȱ too.ȱ Theȱ serranas
constituteȱanȱalternative,ȱmatriarchalȱsocietyȱinȱwhichȱwomenȱnotȱonlyȱcontrolȱthe
choiceȱofȱsexualȱpartnerȱbutȱmayȱevenȱforceȱtheirȱsexualȱattentionsȱonȱunwilling
maleȱvictims.”155
Inȱaddition,ȱtheȱ‘wildȱwoman’ȱwasȱcommonlyȱmatchedȱbyȱtheȱ‘wildȱman,’ȱan
iconographicȱimageȱthatȱwasȱactuallyȱevenȱmoreȱpopularȱthroughoutȱtheȱearly
modernȱage,ȱifȱweȱconsiderȱtheȱwealthȱofȱsculptures,ȱcarvings,ȱandȱpaintedȱimages.
AsȱRogerȱBartraȱcomments,ȱ
Theȱidentityȱofȱtheȱ“civilized”ȱhasȱalwaysȱbeenȱflankedȱbyȱtheȱimageȱofȱtheȱOther,ȱyet
theȱcommonȱimageȱofȱtheȱOtherȱasȱaȱwildȱandȱbarbaricȱfigure,ȱasȱopposedȱtoȱWestern
man,ȱhasȱbeenȱconsideredȱaȱreflection—albeitȱdistorted—ofȱnonȬWesternȱpeoples,ȱa
eurocentricȱexpressionȱofȱcolonialȱexpansionȱfromȱwhichȱevolvedȱanȱexoticȱandȱracist
versionȱofȱthoseȱwhomȱtheȱconquistadorsȱandȱcolonizersȱhadȱdiscoveredȱandȱsubdued.
.ȱ.ȱ.ȱwildȱmenȱwereȱaȱEuropeanȱinvention,ȱessentiallyȱconformingȱtoȱtheȱinnerȱnature
ofȱWesternȱculture.ȱMoreȱtoȱtheȱpoint,ȱtheȱwildȱmanȱandȱtheȱEuropeanȱareȱoneȱandȱthe
same,ȱ andȱ theȱ notionȱ ofȱ barbarismȱ wasȱ appliedȱ toȱ nonȬEuropeanȱ peoplesȱ asȱ the
transpositionȱ ofȱ aȱ perfectlyȱ structuredȱ mythȱ withȱ aȱ characterȱ thatȱ canȱ onlyȱ be
155
Scarborough,ȱ“TheȱRapeȱofȱMen”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ154),ȱ576.
Introduction 65
understoodȱwithinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱWesternȱculturalȱevolution.ȱTheȱmythȱofȱtheȱwild
manȱisȱanȱoriginalȱandȱbasicȱingredientȱofȱEuropeanȱculture.156
Theȱhighlyȱpopularȱmythȱofȱtheȱ‘wildȱman/woman,’ȱtogetherȱwithȱtheȱfolkloric
motifȱofȱtheȱ‘greenȱman’ȱandȱotherȱfiguresȱdepictedȱinȱsculpturesȱandȱimagesȱall
overȱEuropeȱduringȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱbeyond,ȱreflectȱtheȱdeepȱfascinationȱwith
theȱquestionȱwhatȱconstitutesȱhumanȱnature,ȱandȱwhereȱtheȱboundariesȱlieȱthat
demarcateȱcivilizationȱfromȱwilderness.ȱAsȱplayfulȱasȱthoseȱimagesȱorȱmotifsȱin
specificȱ literaryȱ textsȱ mightȱ be,ȱ theyȱ powerfullyȱ underscoreȱ theȱ greatȱ needȱ for
peopleȱtoȱunderstandȱtheȱdistinctivenessȱofȱhumanȱidentityȱinȱcontrastȱtoȱanimals
orȱplants.ȱAsȱTimothyȱHusbandȱemphasizes,ȱ“Sublimatedȱinȱtheȱwildȱmanȱwere
theȱpreeminentȱphobiasȱofȱmedievalȱsociety—chaos,ȱinsanity,ȱandȱungodliness.”157ȱ
Atȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱasȱStephanieȱLeitchȱnowȱargues,ȱinȱtheȱearlyȱmodernȱageȱthe
wildȱ manȱ iconographyȱ couldȱ serveȱ surprisinglyȱ wellȱ toȱ propagateȱ aȱ formȱ of
primitivismȱ underlying,ȱ orȱ promoting,ȱ aȱ burgeoningȱ Germanȱ nationalism,ȱ for
instance:ȱ“theȱrediscoveryȱinȱGermanyȱ(c.ȱ173)ȱofȱTacitus’ȱfirstȬcenturyȱGermania
transformedȱtheȱwildȱmanȱofȱloreȱintoȱtheȱhistoricalȱurȬGerman,ȱdescribedȱinȱthe
ancientȱLatinȱtextsȱandȱgaveȱhimȱaȱnationalȱidentity.”158ȱButȱLeitchȱhastensȱtoȱadd:
“Asȱsoonȱasȱtheȱmoldȱforȱthisȱnationalȱcharacterȱwasȱset,ȱitsȱshapeȱwasȱthreatened
byȱaȱnewȱwildȱman,ȱtheȱAmerindian.ȱNevertheless,ȱtheȱHumanistsȱinȱGermany
madeȱgreatȱeffortsȱtoȱidealizeȱtheȱrusticȱfigureȱofȱtheȱ‘wildȱman’ȱwhoȱusedȱtoȱbe
unspoiledȱbyȱcivilizationȱandȱstillȱembodiedȱtheȱnatural,ȱoriginal,ȱhenceȱpowerful
andȱtenaciousȱstrengthsȱofȱtheȱGermanicȱraceȱinȱancientȱtimes.”159
Ruralȱspace,ȱincludingȱtheȱforest,ȱtheȱmountain,ȱandȱtheȱisolatedȱisland,ȱprovesȱto
be,ȱhereȱinȱRuiz’sȱfacetious,ȱaporic,ȱandȱdeliberatelyȱconfoundingȱtreatiseȱonȱlove,
andȱequallyȱinȱmanyȱotherȱcontexts,ȱtheȱunexpectedȱrealmȱofȱfreedomȱfromȱsocial
156
RogerȱBartra,ȱWildȱMenȱinȱtheȱLookingȱGlass:ȱTheȱMythicȱOriginsȱofȱEuropeanȱOtherness,ȱtrans.ȱbyȱCarl
T.ȱBerrisfordȱ(AnnȱArbor:ȱTheȱUniversityȱofȱMichiganȱPress,ȱ1994),ȱ3–5.
157
TimothyȱHusband,ȱWildȱMan:ȱMedievalȱMythȱandȱSymbolismȱ(NewȱYork:ȱMetropolitanȱMuseum
ofȱArt,ȱ1980),ȱȱ5.
158
StephanieȱLeitch,ȱMappingȱEthnographyȱinȱEarlyȱModernȱGermany:ȱNewȱWorldsȱinȱPrintȱCulture.
HistoryȱofȱTextȱTechnologiesȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱHoundmills,ȱBasingstoke,ȱHampshire:ȱPalgrave
Macmillan,ȱ2010),ȱ37.
159
Leitch,ȱMappingȱEthnographyȱ(seeȱnoteȱ158),ȱ45–46.ȱSeeȱalsoȱherȱconcludingȱremarks,ȱ62:ȱ“Humanist
engagementȱwithȱtheȱculturalȱprofileȱofȱtheȱwildȱmanȱledȱsixteenthȬcenturyȱGerman,ȱwithȱtheȱhelp
ofȱTacitus,ȱtoȱseeȱtheȱwildȱmanȱfirstȱinȱthemselves,ȱandȱthen,ȱinȱtheȱIndian.ȱIndependentȱfromȱthe
textsȱtheyȱaccompanied,ȱtheȱvisualȱtraditionȱofȱtheȱwildȱmanȱinformedȱtheȱinterpretationȱofȱnewly
discoveredȱraces.ȱRecognizingȱthemselvesȱasȱwildȱthingsȱawaitingȱrehabilitationȱpromptedȱthe
needȱtoȱtakeȱaȱcloserȱandȱmoreȱcriticalȱlookȱatȱnewlyȱdiscoveredȱinhabitantsȱofȱforeignȱlands.”ȱȱWe
canȱ drawȱ theȱ consequenceȱ fromȱ herȱ observationsȱ thatȱ ruralȱ spaceȱ consistentlyȱ servedȱ asȱ a
topographicalȱterrainȱwhereȱideologizedȱimagesȱofȱorigin,ȱidentity,ȱandȱcultureȱcouldȱbeȱdrawn
from.
constraintsȱandȱstandards,ȱandȱitȱmightȱevenȱemergeȱasȱaȱworldȱofȱtopsyȬturvydom
whereȱ traditionalȱ genderȱ rolesȱ noȱ longerȱ canȱ beȱ maintainedȱ orȱ areȱ atȱ least
threatened.ȱAlternatively,ȱasȱthisȱtextȱandȱaȱmultitudeȱofȱothersȱindicate,ȱnarrative
locationsȱinȱtheȱcountryside,ȱfarȱawayȱfromȱcourt,ȱorȱtheȱcity,ȱopenedȱnumerous
perspectivesȱforȱinnovativeȱstrategiesȱandȱreflections.ȱRuralȱspaceȱcouldȱthusȱbe
bothȱappealingȱandȱthreatening,ȱfascinatingȱandȱinimical.ȱWeȱcanȱbeȱcertainȱthat
medievalȱpoetsȱandȱartistsȱhappilyȱexploredȱthisȱuncontrollableȱorȱuncontrolled
spaceȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ developȱ newȱ socialȱ relationshipsȱ andȱ opportunitiesȱ forȱ their
protagonists.160ȱ
Moreover,ȱresortingȱtoȱtheȱmountainȱsettingȱwithȱtheȱwildȱserranasȱfreedȱtheȱpoet
fromȱengagingȱwithȱpeasants,ȱwhoseȱappearanceȱonȱtheȱliteraryȱstageȱhadȱalways
createdȱanȱawkwardȱsituation,ȱsinceȱthenȱaȱnobleȱcharacterȱhadȱsignificantȱand
meaningfulȱinteractionsȱwithȱaȱmemberȱofȱtheȱclassȱofȱfarmers.161
17.ȱRuralȱSpaceȱinȱLateȬMedievalȱShortȱVerseȱNarratives
Ruralȱ figuresȱ appearȱ quiteȱ prominentlyȱ inȱ lateȬmedievalȱ verseȱ narrativesȱ only
whenȱsatireȱwasȱtheȱmodusȱoperandi,ȱasȱweȱcommonlyȱnoticeȱinȱtheȱmanyȱimportant
collectionsȱofȱverseȱnarrativesȱandȱsubsequentlyȱproseȱjestȱnarratives,ȱaȱgenreȱthat
experienced,ȱsinceȱitsȱbeginningȱinȱtheȱtwelfthȱandȱthirteenthȱcenturiesȱ(fabliaux),
anȱȱeverȱgrowingȱpopularityȱinȱtheȱfifteenthȱandȱsixteenthȱcenturiesȱ(tales,ȱmæren,
novelle,ȱ fascetiae,ȱ Schwänke,ȱ cuentos,ȱ etc.).162ȱ Geoffreyȱ Chaucerȱ takesȱ hisȱ readers
160
ThisȱisȱbeautifullyȱarguedȱbyȱChristopherȱR.ȱClasonȱinȱhisȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolume.
161
SeeȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱAlbrechtȱClassenȱ(“UtopianȱSpaceȱinȱtheȱCountryside”).ȱIf
anȱaristocratȱentersȱaȱcloseȱorȱevenȱintimateȱrelationshipȱwithȱaȱfemaleȱpeasant,ȱtheȱnarrative
commonlyȱ requiresȱ extensiveȱ explanationsȱ andȱ thenȱ dependȱ onȱ highlyȱ usualȱ circumstances,
probablyȱtoȱovercomeȱcriticismȱbyȱtheȱaristocraticȱaudiences.ȱTheȱsongsȱbyȱtheȱthirteenthȬcentury
AustrianȬBavarianȱpoetȱNeidhartȱillustrateȱtheȱdifficultiesȱthatȱtheȱthemeȱengendered,ȱsinceȱhis
Summerȱsongsȱreflectȱmostlyȱaȱpompousȱandȱarrogantȱknightlyȱlover,ȱwhoseȱsexualȱpotencyȱeven
attractsȱoldȱmothers,ȱwhileȱhisȱWinterȱsongsȱpresentȱtheȱsameȱknight’sȱeconomicȱpovertyȱand
inabilityȱtoȱmaintainȱtheȱtraditionalȱpowerȱrelationship,ȱsinceȱheȱisȱobviouslyȱlosingȱoutȱagainst
theȱrichȱvillageȱlads.ȱSeeȱAlbrechtȱClassen,ȱ“TheȱUltimateȱTransgressionȱofȱtheȱCourtlyȱWorld”
(seeȱnoteȱ117);ȱGertrudȱBlaschitz,ȱ“LebenȱimȱländlichenȱRaumȱimȱLichteȱösterreichischerȱspätmitȬ
telalterlicherȱ Literatur:ȱ Infrastruckturȱ imȱ NeidhartȬOeuvre,ȱ imȱ Helmbrechtȱ desȱ Wernherȱ der
Gärtner,ȱimȱPfaffenȱvonȱKahlenbergȱundȱinȱStrickermären,”ȱBeiträgeȱzurȱMittelalterarchäologieȱin
Österreichȱ25ȱ(2009):ȱ213–14.
162
Theȱ numberȱ ofȱ criticalȱ studiesȱ onȱ theseȱ genresȱ isȱ legionȱ byȱ now;ȱ see,ȱ forȱ instance,ȱ Comic
Provocations:ȱExposingȱtheȱCorpusȱofȱOldȱFrenchȱFabliaux,ȱed.ȱHollyȱA.ȱCrocker.ȱForewordȱbyȱR.
HowardȱBloch.ȱStudiesȱinȱArthurianȱandȱCourtlyȱCultureȱ(Houndmills,ȱBasingstoke,ȱHampshire,
andȱNewȱYork:ȱPalgraveȱMacMillan,ȱ2006);ȱKlausȱGrubmüller,ȱDieȱOrdnung,ȱderȱWitzȱundȱdas
Chaos:ȱEineȱGeschichteȱderȱeuropäischenȱNovellistikȱimȱMittelalter:ȱFabliauȱ–ȱMäreȱ–ȱNovelleȱ(Tübingen:
MaxȱNiemeyer,ȱ2006);ȱMittelalterlicheȱNovellistikȱimȱeuropäischenȱKontext:ȱKulturwissenschaftliche
Perspektiven,ȱed.ȱMarkȱChinca,ȱTimoȱReuvekampȬFelber,ȱandȱChrstiopherȱYoung.ȱBeihefteȱzur
Introduction 67
severalȱ timesȱ outȱ ofȱ theȱ cityȱ orȱ theȱ courtȱ intoȱ theȱ countrysideȱ whereȱ hilarious
situationsȱofȱdeceptionȱandȱcounterȬdeceptionȱoccur,ȱsuchȱasȱinȱTheȱReeve’sȱTale
(containedȱinȱhisȱCanterburyȱTales,ȱca.ȱ1400),ȱwhereȱtheȱcrucialȱeventsȱtakeȱplace
southȱofȱCambridgeȱinȱtheȱlittleȱvillageȱofȱTrumpington,ȱwhichȱstillȱexistsȱtoday.
Althoughȱoneȱofȱtheȱmainȱprotagonists,ȱtheȱmiller,ȱbelongsȱtoȱtheȱprosperousȱclass
withinȱtheȱvillageȱcommunity,ȱtheȱnarrativeȱisȱstillȱsituatedȱsquarelyȱinȱtheȱrural
space:ȱ“AtȱTrumpyngton,ȱnatȱferȱfroȱCantebrigge,ȱ/ȱTherȱgoothȱaȱbrookȱandȱover
thatȱaȱbrigge,ȱ/ȱUponȱtheȱwhichȱbrookȱthereȱstantȱaȱmelle.ȱ/ȱAntȱhisȱisȱverrayȱsooth
thatȱIȱyowȱtelle.ȱ/ȱAȱmillerȱwasȱtherȱdwellyngeȱmanyȱaȱday”ȱ(3921–25).163ȱHowever,
althoughȱChaucerȱturnsȱhisȱattentionȱmostlyȱtoȱtheȱworldȱofȱtheȱmiddleȱclass,ȱto
theȱclergy,ȱtheȱrichȱmerchants,ȱheȱnormallyȱavoidedȱdealingȱwithȱruralȱspaceȱmore
explicitly.ȱToȱbeȱsure,ȱamongȱhisȱpilgrimsȱthereȱareȱnoȱpeasantsȱorȱotherȱmembers
ofȱtheȱvillageȱcommunityȱtellingȱtales.ȱNevertheless,ȱȱtheȱYemanȱandȱtheȱPlowman
ZeitschriftȱfürȱDeutscheȱPhilologie,ȱ13ȱ(Berlin:ȱErichȱSchmidt,ȱ2006).ȱIȱleaveȱasideȱolderȱresearch
onȱ theȱ mæreȱ becauseȱ itȱ doesȱ notȱ criticallyȱ pertainȱ toȱ theȱ issueȱ discussedȱ here;ȱ butȱ seeȱ the
fundamentalȱworkȱbyȱIngridȱStrasser,ȱVornovellistischesȱErzählen:ȱMittelhochdeutscheȱMärenȱbisȱzur
Mitteȱ desȱ 14.ȱ Jahrhundertsȱ undȱ altfranzösischeȱ Fabliaux.ȱ ȱ Philologicaȱ Germanica,ȱ 10ȱ (Vienna:
Fassbaender,ȱ 1989);ȱ Hannsȱ Fischer,ȱ Studienȱ zurȱ deutschenȱ Märendichtung.ȱ ȱ 2nd,ȱ revisedȱ and
expandedȱ ed.ȱ preparedȱ byȱ Johannesȱ Janotaȱ (1968;ȱ Tübingen:ȱ Niemeyer,ȱ 1983);ȱ KarlȬHeinz
Schirmer,ȱ StilȬȱ undȱ Motivuntersuchungenȱ zurȱ mittelhochdeutschenȱ Versnovelle.ȱ ȱ Hermaea.ȱ
GermanistischeȱForschungen,ȱNeueȱFolge,ȱ26ȱ(Tübingen:ȱNiemeyer,ȱ1969);ȱHansȬJoachimȱZiegeler,
ErzählenȱimȱSpätmittelalter:ȱMärenȱimȱKontextȱvonȱMinnereden,ȱBispelnȱundȱRomanen.ȱȱMünchener
TexteȱundȱUntersuchungenȱzurȱdeutschenȱLiteraturȱdesȱMittelalters,ȱ87ȱ(MunichȱandȱZurich:
Artemis,ȱ 1985).ȱ Forȱ theȱ disseminationȱ andȱ manuscriptȱ traditionsȱ ofȱ mæren,ȱ seeȱ Arendȱ Mihm,
Überlieferungȱ undȱ Verbreitungȱ derȱ Märendichtungȱ imȱ Spätmittelalter.ȱ Germanistischeȱ Bibliothek:
UntersuchungenȱundȱEinzeldarstellungenȱ(Heidelberg:ȱCarlȱWinter,ȱ1967).ȱTheȱOldȱFrenchȱFabliaux:
EssaysȱonȱComedyȱandȱContext,ȱed.ȱKristinȱL.ȱBurr,ȱJohnȱF.ȱMoran,ȱandȱNorrisȱJ.ȱLacyȱ(Jefferson,ȱNC,
andȱ London:ȱ McFarlandȱ &ȱ Company,ȱ 2007);ȱ seeȱ alsoȱ theȱ anthologyȱ Eroticȱ Talesȱ ofȱ Medieval
Germany.ȱSelectedȱandȱtrans.ȱbyȱAlbrechtȱClassen.ȱMedievalȱandȱRenaissanceȱTextsȱandȱStudies,
328ȱ(Tempe,ȱAZ:ȱArizonaȱCenterȱforȱMedievalȱandȱRenaissanceȱStudies,ȱ2009).ȱTheȱmajorȱnew
contributionȱ byȱ Johannesȱ Klausȱ Kipf,ȱ cluogeȱ geschichten:ȱ Humanistischeȱ Fazetienliteraturȱ im
deutschenȱ Sprachraum.ȱ Literaturenȱ undȱ Künsteȱ derȱ Vormoderne,ȱ 2ȱ (Stuttgart:ȱ Hirzel,ȱ 2010),
promisesȱtoȱbeȱtheȱdecisiveȱreferenceȱworkȱforȱthisȱgenreȱinȱtheȱlateȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱinȱtheȱtime
ofȱHumanism.ȱSeeȱalsoȱRobertȱJ.ȱClementsȱandȱJosephȱGibaldi,ȱAnatomyȱofȱtheȱNovella:ȱTheȱEuropean
TaleȱCollectionȱfromȱBoccaccioȱandȱChaucerȱtoȱCervantesȱ(NewȱYork:ȱNewȱYorkȱUniversityȱPress,
1977);ȱPhilippeȱMénard,ȱLesȱfabliaux:ȱContesȱàȱrireȱduȱMoyenȱAgeȱ(Paris:ȱPressesȱUniversitairesȱde
France,ȱ1983);ȱTheȱItalianȱNovella:ȱAȱBookȱofȱEssays,ȱed.ȱGloriaȱAllaireȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱLondon:
Routledge,ȱ2003).ȱForȱtheȱspecificityȱofȱruralȱspaceȱinȱtheȱfabliaux,ȱseeȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthis
volumeȱbyȱSarahȱGordon.
163
GeoffreyȱChaucer,ȱTheȱCanterburyȱTales,ȱed.ȱRobertȱBoenigȱandȱAndrewȱTaylorȱ(Peterborough,
Ontario,ȱCanada;ȱBuffalo,ȱNY:ȱBroadviewȱPress,ȱ2008).ȱForȱtheȱbackgroundȱandȱliteraryȬhistorical
references,ȱseeȱSourcesȱandȱAnaloguesȱofȱtheȱCanterburyȱTales,ȱ2ȱvols.,ȱed.ȱRobertȱM.ȱCorrealȱand
MaryȱHamel.ȱChaucerȱStudies,ȱ28,ȱ35ȱ(CambridgeȱandȱRochester,ȱNY:ȱD.ȱS.ȱBrewer,ȱ2002–2005).
SeeȱalsoȱJ.ȱA.ȱW.ȱBennett,ȱChaucerȱatȱOxfordȱandȱatȱCambridgeȱ(Oxford:ȱClarendonȱPress,ȱ1974).
Again,ȱthisȱisȱsuchȱaȱwellȬknownȱtext,ȱoftenȱstudiedȱandȱinterpreted,ȱthatȱweȱdoȱnotȱneedȱtoȱlist
allȱtheȱmajorȱstudies.
areȱfullyȱdescribedȱinȱtheȱGeneralȱPrologue.ȱTheȱYemanȱisȱsaidȱtoȱbeȱaȱ“forster”
(117)ȱ andȱ canȱ beȱ identifiedȱ asȱ aȱ smallȱ landholderȱ orȱ tenantȱ farmer.ȱ Whileȱ the
Parsonȱisȱsaidȱtoȱliveȱinȱaȱtownȱbutȱheȱtravelsȱwidelyȱinȱtheȱcountryȱtoȱhelpȱhis
parishioners,ȱchoosingȱnotȱtoȱgoȱtoȱLondonȱtoȱmakeȱmoney,ȱandȱhisȱbrother,ȱthe
Plowman,ȱisȱidealizedȱasȱtheȱgoodȱpeasant.ȱTheȱrelevantȱpassageȱaboutȱtheȱpeasant
deservesȱtoȱbeȱquotedȱinȱfull:
WithȱhymȱtherȱwasȱaȱPlowman,ȱwasȱhisȱbrother,
Thatȱhaddyȱyladȱofȱdongȱfolȱmanyȱaȱfother.
Aȱtreweȱswynkereȱandȱaȱgoodȱwasȱhe.
Lyvyngeȱinȱpeesȱandȱparfitȱcharitee.
Godȱlovedȱheȱbestȱwithȱalȱhisȱhooleȱherte
Atȱalleȱtymes,ȱthoghȱheȱgamedȱorȱsmerte.
Andȱthanneȱhisȱneigheboreȱrightȱasȱhymselve.
Heȱwoldeȱthressheȱandȱthertoȱdykeȱandȱdelve
ForȱChristesȱsakeȱforȱeveryȱpovreȱight
Withoutenȱhireȱifȱitȱlayȱinȱhisȱmyght.
Hisȱtithesȱpaydeȱheȱfulȱfaireȱandȱwel,
Botheȱofȱhisȱpropreȱswynkȱandȱhisȱcatel (529–40)ȱ
AsȱweȱwillȱobserveȱatȱtheȱendȱofȱthisȱIntroduction,ȱthisȱconformsȱtoȱaȱgenerally
growingȱrespectȱforȱtheȱfarmerȱaroundȱtheȱturnȱofȱtheȱcentury,ȱbothȱinȱEngland
andȱ onȱ theȱ continent,ȱ ifȱ weȱ considerȱ aȱ varietyȱ ofȱ literaryȱ witnesses,ȱ without
disregardingȱtheȱgeneralȱsarcasmȱregardingȱtheȱlowerȱclassesȱatȱtheȱsameȱtime.
18.ȱTheȱCourt,ȱtheȱCity,ȱandȱtheȱRuralȱSpaceȱ
inȱBoccaccio’sȱDecameron
Notȱ similarȱ toȱ whatȱ wasȱ saidȱ aboutȱ Chaucer,ȱ Giovanniȱ Boccaccioȱ wasȱ notȱ shy
aboutȱturningȱhisȱnarrativeȱattentionȱtoȱruralȱsettings,ȱatȱtimesȱevenȱtoȱrichȱfarmers,
asȱinȱtheȱeighthȱtaleȱofȱtheȱthirdȱday,ȱwhereȱweȱareȱsupposedȱtoȱlaughȱaboutȱthe
foolishȱbehaviorȱofȱtheȱrichȱfarmerȱFerondo,ȱwhomȱanȱabbotȱcanȱdeceiveȱbadlyȱand
thusȱblindȱhimȱtoȱtheȱfactȱthatȱheȱisȱsleepingȱwithȱhisȱwife.164ȱTheȱtenthȱtaleȱofȱthe
fifthȱdayȱincorporatesȱsomeȱfeaturesȱofȱaȱruralȱexistenceȱ(chickenȱcoop),ȱbutȱitȱis
otherwiseȱsituatedȱinȱtheȱcity.ȱInȱtheȱtenthȱtaleȱofȱtheȱsixthȱdayȱweȱencounterȱthe
FriarȱCipollaȱwhoȱsuccessfullyȱmanipulatesȱtheȱpeasantsȱinȱhisȱchurch,ȱmaking
themȱbelieveȱanyȱmiracleȱstoryȱthatȱheȱmightȱtellȱthem.ȱInȱtheȱsixthȱtaleȱofȱthe
164
ForȱaȱmoreȱinȬdepthȱanalysisȱofȱruralȱspaceȱinȱBoccaccio’sȱDecameron,ȱseeȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthis
volumeȱ byȱ Nicolinoȱ Applauso.ȱ Heȱ alsoȱ observesȱ thatȱ theȱ figureȱ ofȱ Griseldaȱ representsȱ the
traditionȱofȱapproachingȱruralȱspaceȱandȱrusticsȱinȱmedievalȱliteratureȱfromȱaȱpositiveȱperspective.
Introduction 69
eighthȱdayȱaȱsimpletonȱinȱFlorence,ȱCalandrino,ȱwhoȱalsoȱownsȱaȱfarmȱoutsideȱof
theȱcityȱwhichȱhisȱwifeȱhadȱbroughtȱintoȱtheirȱmarriageȱasȱherȱdowry,ȱisȱbadly
fooledȱbyȱhisȱfriends.ȱ
Butȱtheȱonlyȱtimeȱweȱencounterȱaȱtrulyȱpositive,ȱifȱnotȱideal,ȱimageȱofȱtheȱpeasant
worldȱ occursȱ inȱ theȱ veryȱ lastȱ story,ȱ theȱ tenthȱ onȱ theȱ tenthȱ day,ȱ inȱ whichȱ most
famouslyȱ theȱ Marquessȱ ofȱ Saluzzo,ȱ Gualtieri,ȱ marriesȱ theȱ humbleȱ butȱ most
virtuousȱdaughterȱofȱaȱpoorȱfarmer,ȱGriselda.ȱThroughoutȱmanyȱyearsȱofȱtheir
marriageȱheȱterriblyȱabusesȱher,ȱalwaysȱinȱtheȱnameȱofȱtestingȱherȱtrustworthiness
andȱvirtuosity,ȱatȱtheȱendȱevenȱpretendingȱtoȱexpelȱherȱasȱhisȱwifeȱandȱtoȱmarry
anotherȱwoman.ȱButȱthenȱheȱrevealsȱinȱtheȱlastȱmomentȱthatȱthisȱnewȱwomanȱis
theirȱ mutualȱ daughter,ȱ andȱ thatȱ Griseldaȱ hasȱ provenȱ toȱ beȱ hisȱ worthyȱ and
honorableȱwife,ȱhavingȱdemonstratedȱendlessȱpatienceȱandȱsubmissiveness.ȱ
Asȱ muchȱ asȱ scholarsȱ haveȱ debatedȱ theȱ properȱ interpretationȱ ofȱ thisȱ most
complexȱfigure,ȱwhoseȱmistreatmentȱarousedȱdeepȱconflictsȱalreadyȱinȱtheȱlate
MiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱRenaissance,ȱweȱonlyȱneedȱtoȱpayȱattentionȱtoȱtheȱfactȱthat
sheȱoriginatesȱfromȱtheȱpeasantȱclass,ȱrepresentsȱruralȱspace,ȱthatȱis,ȱtheȱsimpleȱand
pureȱworldȱoutsideȱofȱtheȱcityȱandȱtheȱcourt,ȱandȱmostȱimpressivelyȱemergesȱasȱthe
highlyȱ admirableȱ counterȬfigureȱ whoȱ putsȱ toȱ shameȱ herȱ brutalȱ andȱ highly
unsympatheticȱhusband.165ȱInȱmanyȱwaysȱweȱrecognizeȱinȱherȱaȱparallelȱfigureȱto
theȱpeasantȱmaidȱinȱHartmannȱvonȱAue’sȱDerȱarmeȱHeinrichȱandȱinȱtheȱanonymous
taleȱDisȱistȱvonȱdemȱheslin,ȱnotȱtoȱforgetȱtheȱaccountȱofȱGriseldaȱinȱChaucer’sȱThe
Clark’sȱTale.166ȱThisȱcomparison,ȱhowever,ȱalsoȱdemonstratesȱthatȱnoneȱofȱthese
threeȱwomenȱrepresentsȱaȱcompletelyȱperfectȱfigure,ȱstandingȱinȱforȱtheȱidyllic
natureȱofȱtheȱruralȱpeasantry.ȱNaivité,ȱignorance,ȱandȱexcessiveȱsubmissiveness,
henceȱlackȱofȱindividualityȱandȱstrengthȱofȱcharacterȱcanȱalsoȱbeȱobserved,ȱcausing
usȱtoȱbeȱaȱbitȱwaryȱaboutȱhowȱtoȱinterpretȱtheseȱpeasantȱwomen.167ȱ
165
Decameron,ȱaȱcuraȱdiȱVittoreȱBranca.ȱNuovaȱed.ȱconȱxilografieȱtratteȱdallaȱprimaȱstampaȱillustrata
(1492)ȱ(Florence:ȱLeȱMonnier,ȱ1965);ȱMarilynȱMigiel,ȱAȱRhetoricȱofȱtheȱDecameronȱ(Toronto,ȱBuffalo,
NY,ȱandȱLondon:ȱUniversityȱofȱTorontoȱPress,ȱ2003),ȱ116,ȱ138,ȱ141–46.ȱForȱaȱmostȱfascinating
philosophicalȱinterpretation,ȱseeȱKurtȱFlasch,ȱVernunftȱundȱVergnügen:ȱLiebesgeschichtenȱausȱdem
Decameronȱ(Munich:ȱC.ȱH.ȱBeck,ȱ2002),ȱ207–68;ȱseeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱLaȱstoriaȱdiȱGriseldaȱin
Europa:ȱ(attiȱdelȱConvegno:ȱModiȱdellȇintertestualitá:ȱlaȱstoriaȱdiȱGriseldaȱinȱEuropa,ȱLȇAquila,ȱ12Ȭ14
maggioȱ1988),ȱaȱcuraȱdiȱRaffaeleȱMorabitoȱ(L’Aquila:ȱJapadre,ȱ1990).ȱForȱaȱgoodȱsummaryȱofȱthe
complexȱhistoryȱofȱGriseldaȱresearch,ȱseeȱJudithȱBronfman,ȱ“Griselda,”ȱWomenȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges:
AnȱEncyclopedia,ȱed.ȱKatharinaȱM.ȱWilsonȱandȱNadiaȱMargolis.ȱVol.ȱ1ȱ(Westport,ȱCT,ȱandȱLondon:
GreenwoodȱPress,ȱ2004),ȱ376–82.
166
SeeȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱAlbrechtȱClassenȱ(“UtopianȱSpaceȱinȱtheȱCountryside”).
167
ThomasȱKlinkert,ȱ“DieȱitalienischeȱGriseldaȬRezeptionȱimȱ14.ȱundȱ15.ȱJahrhundert,”ȱDieȱdeutsche
Griselda:ȱTransformationenȱeinerȱliterarischenȱFigurationȱvonȱBoccaccioȱbisȱzurȱModerne,ȱed.ȱAchim
AurnhammerȱandȱHansȬJochenȱSchiewerȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱDeȱGruyter,ȱ2010),ȱ55–72.
19.ȱWilliamȱLangland’sȱPiersȱtheȱPlowman:
LateȬMedievalȱEnglishȱReligiousȱandȱSocialȱReflections
Oneȱofȱtheȱmostȱimpressiveȱexamplesȱofȱallegoricalȱliteratureȱinȱwhichȱtheȱpeasant
worldȱsurfacesȱduringȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱWilliamȱLangland’sȱfamous
PiersȱtheȱPlowman,ȱcomposedȱsometimeȱinȱtheȱlateȱfourteenthȱcentury.168ȱInȱessence,
Langlandȱintendsȱtoȱwriteȱaȱcritiqueȱofȱhisȱtime,ȱprimarilyȱinȱmoral,ȱethical,ȱand
religiousȱ terms,ȱ whichȱ conformsȱ toȱ aȱ largeȱ extentȱ toȱ parallelȱ didacticȱ texts
composedȱduringȱtheȱfourteenthȱandȱfifteenthȱcenturies.169ȱIntriguingly,ȱhowever,
Langlandȱ fleshesȱ outȱ theȱ allegoricalȱ dimensionȱ withȱ numerousȱ historicalȱ and
culturalȱreferences,ȱwhichȱallowȱusȱtoȱgleanȱmuchȱinformation,ȱindeed,ȱaboutȱhow
theȱruralȱpopulationȱwasȱgenerallyȱviewedȱinȱfourteenthȬcenturyȱEngland.170ȱ
Particularlyȱ becauseȱ Langlandȱ doesȱ notȱ seemȱ toȱ haveȱ embracedȱ theȱ poor
populationȱinȱparticular,ȱandȱdoesȱnotȱnecessarilyȱserveȱasȱtheirȱspokesperson,ȱbut
insteadȱaimsȱatȱglobalȱmoralȱandȱethicalȱeducationȱwithȱhisȱtext,ȱtheȱevidenceȱthat
weȱcanȱgleanȱfromȱhisȱworkȱregardingȱtheȱrelevanceȱofȱruralȱspace,ȱhenceȱofȱthe
ruralȱpopulation,ȱcarriesȱgreatȱweight.ȱBeforeȱweȱturnȱtoȱtheȱrelevantȱpassages
importantȱ forȱ us,ȱ letȱ usȱ firstȱ gainȱ aȱ quickȱ understandingȱ ofȱ theȱ specialȱ topics
pursued.171ȱ
168
WilliamȱLangland,ȱPiersȱtheȱPloughman,ȱtrans.ȱintoȱmodernȱEnglishȱwithȱanȱintroductionȱbyȱJ.ȱF.
Goodridgeȱ(1959;ȱBaltimore,ȱMD:ȱPenguinȱBooks,ȱ1968).ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱveryȱuserȬfriendlyȱedition:
WilliamȱLangland,ȱPiersȱPlowman,ȱaȱnewȱannotatedȱeditionȱofȱtheȱCȬtextȱbyȱDerekȱPearsall.ȱExeter
MedievalȱTextsȱandȱStudiesȱ(1978;ȱExeter,ȱUK:ȱUniversityȱofȱExeterȱPress,ȱ2007).ȱSeeȱalsoȱWilliam
Langland,ȱPiersȱPlowman:ȱAȱParallelȬTextȱEditionȱofȱtheȱA,ȱB,ȱCȱandȱZȱVersions,ȱed.ȱA.ȱV.ȱC.ȱSchmidt
(vol.ȱ 1:ȱ Londonȱ andȱ Newȱ York:ȱ Longman,ȱ 1995;ȱ vol.ȱ 2:ȱ Kalamazoo,ȱ MI:ȱ Medievalȱ Institute
Publications,ȱ2008).ȱForȱconsistency’sȱsake,ȱIȱwillȱalwaysȱreferȱtoȱPlowman.
169
Russellȱ Poole,ȱ “Didacticȱ andȱ Gnomicȱ Literature,”ȱ Handbookȱ ofȱ Medievalȱ Studies,ȱ ed.ȱ Albrecht
Classen,ȱvol.ȱ2ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱDeȱGruyter,ȱ2010),ȱ1750–55.
170
Attemptsȱtoȱidentifyȱthisȱtextsȱasȱaȱmirrorȱofȱsocialȱandȱeconomicȱissuesȱinȱtheȱlateȱfourteenth
centuryȱare,ȱtoȱsayȱtheȱleast,ȱaȱbitȱproblematic;ȱsee,ȱforȱinstance,ȱRobinȱLister,ȱ“TheȱPeasantsȱof
PiersȱPlowmanȱandȱItsȱAudience,”ȱPeasantsȱandȱCountrymenȱinȱLiterature,ȱed.ȱKathleenȱParkinson
andȱ Martinȱ Priestmanȱ (London:ȱ Roehamptonȱ Institute,ȱ 1982),ȱ 71–90;ȱ Anneȱ Hudson,ȱ “Piers
Plowmanȱ andȱ theȱ Peasants’ȱ Revolt:ȱ Aȱ Problemȱ Revisited,”ȱ Theȱ Yearbookȱ ofȱ Langlandȱ Studiesȱ 8
(1995):ȱ 85Ȭ106;ȱ Andrewȱ Galloway,ȱ “Makingȱ Historyȱ Legal:ȱ Piersȱ Plowmanȱ andȱ theȱ Rebelsȱ of
FourteenthȬCenturyȱEngland,”ȱWilliamȱLanglandȇsȱPiersȱPlowman:ȱAȱBookȱofȱEssays,ȱed.ȱKathleenȱM.
HewettȬSmitȱ(ȱNewȱYork:ȱRoutledge,ȱ2001),ȱ7–39;ȱJamesȱSimpson,ȱPiersȱPlowman:ȱAnȱIntroduction
toȱtheȱBȬText.ȱ2ndȱed.ȱ(1990;ȱExeter:ȱUniversityȱofȱExeterȱPress,ȱ2007).
171
Forȱaȱniceȱsummaryȱandȱconciseȱintroduction,ȱseeȱJayȱRuud,ȱ“Langland,ȱWilliam,”ȱEncyclopedia
ofȱMedievalȱLiterature,ȱed.ȱid.ȱ(NewȱYork:ȱFactsȱonȱFile,ȱ2006),ȱ387–88.ȱSeeȱalsoȱAȱCompanionȱtoȱPiers
Plowman,ȱ ed.ȱ Johnȱ A.ȱ Alfordȱ (Berkeley:ȱ Universityȱ ofȱ Californiaȱ Press,ȱ 1988);ȱ Jamesȱ Francis
Rhodes,ȱPoetryȱDoesȱTheology:ȱChaucer,ȱGrosseteste,ȱandȱtheȱPearlȬPoetȱ(NotreȱDame,ȱIN:ȱUniversity
ofȱNotreȱDameȱPress,ȱ2001);ȱWilliamȱElfordȱRogers,ȱInterpretationȱinȱPiersȱPlowmanȱ(Washington,
DC:ȱCatholicȱUniversityȱofȱAmericaȱPress,ȱ2002);ȱC.ȱDavidȱBenson,ȱPublicȱPiersȱPlowman:ȱModern
ScholarshipȱandȱLateȱMedievalȱEnglishȱCultureȱ(UniversityȱPark,ȱPA:ȱPensylvaniaȱStateȱUniversity
Introduction 71
Langlandȱ utilizesȱ theȱ allegoricalȱ modeȱ toȱ criticizeȱ peopleȱ inȱ theirȱ moralȱ and
ethicalȱ failures.ȱ Theȱ workingsȱ ofȱ theȱ Sevenȱ Deadlyȱ Sinsȱ areȱ toȱ beȱ witnessed
everywhere,ȱ bothȱ withinȱ andȱ outsideȱ ofȱ theȱ church.172ȱ Neitherȱ clericsȱ norȱ lay
peopleȱcanȱanyȱlongerȱbeȱtrustedȱtoȱmaintainȱstandardsȱofȱbehavior,ȱwhichȱhe
expressesȱwithȱtheȱilluminatingȱmetaphorȱofȱtheȱfakeȱmetal,ȱorȱtheȱcoinȱofȱpoor
alloy,ȱwhichȱseemsȱtoȱbeȱshinyȱandȱvaluableȱonȱtheȱoutside,ȱinȱreality,ȱhowever,
revealsȱitselfȱtoȱbeȱaȱpoorȱmixtureȱandȱactuallyȱaȱdeception:ȱ“Butȱtodayȱthereȱisȱa
greatȱflawȱinȱthoseȱwhoȱguardȱtheȱChurch,ȱsoȱtheȱlayfolkȱwaverȱandȱareȱfeebleȱin
faith.ȱForȱcoinsȱthatȱareȱfalseȱmayȱlookȱlikeȱsterlingȱandȱbeȱstampedȱwithȱtheȱking’s
stamp,ȱyetȱtheyȱcontainȱaȱbaseȱalloyȱandȱtheirȱmetalȱisȱdefective.ȱAndȱmanyȱmen
areȱlikeȱthatȱnowadays—theyȱareȱwellȬspoken,ȱtheyȱwearȱtheȱtonsureȱandȱhave
receivedȱtheȱsignȱofȱtheȱKingȱofȱHeavenȱinȱBaptism,ȱyetȱtheȱmetalȱofȱtheirȱsoulsȱis
foullyȱdebasedȱbyȱsin.ȱAndȱthisȱfalseȱalloyȱisȱfoundȱinȱclergyȱandȱlayȱmenȱalike,ȱfor
itȱseemsȱthatȱnoȱmanȱlovesȱeitherȱGodȱorȱhisȱneighbour”ȱ(189).ȱ
Similarly,ȱLanglandȱbitterlyȱcomplainsȱaboutȱtheȱfailingsȱinȱallȱeducationȱbecause
notȱ evenȱ theȱ schoolȱ mastersȱ andȱ professorsȱ ofȱ divinityȱ liveȱ upȱ toȱ theȱ general
expectationsȱ (190).ȱ Heȱ isȱ alsoȱ deeplyȱ concernedȱ withȱ recoveringȱ theȱ virtueȱ of
charityȱandȱfaith,ȱheȱfightsȱagainstȱcorruptionȱandȱbribery,ȱpromotesȱreasonȱand
conscience,ȱandȱinsistsȱonȱtheȱsupremeȱimportanceȱofȱhopeȱinȱtheȱChristainȱsense.
Ultimately,ȱLanglandȱwritesȱaȱkindȱofȱsermon,ȱendingȱwithȱtheȱwarningsȱaboutȱthe
comingȱ ofȱ theȱ Apocalypse,ȱ acceleratedȱ byȱ people’sȱ massiveȱ shortcomingsȱ and
failures.
Then,ȱ however,ȱ inȱ theȱ autobiographicalȱ passageȱ fromȱ theȱ CȬText,ȱ whereȱ the
allegoricalȱfigureȱofȱReasonȱchastisesȱhimȱforȱnotȱworkingȱandȱmakingȱhisȱown
living,ȱtheȱpoetȱincludesȱmanyȱreferencesȱtoȱtheȱworldȱofȱtheȱfarmersȱandȱtheir
manyȱdifferentȱlabors.ȱFirstȱReasonȱadmonishesȱhimȱthatȱatȱleastȱheȱcouldȱserveȱat
MassȱorȱjoinȱtheȱchoirȱtoȱbeȱusefulȱinȱtheȱadministrativeȱpartȱofȱtheȱChurch.ȱThen
sheȱturnsȱtoȱtheȱdutiesȱofȱtheȱfarmers:ȱ“‘orȱrakeȱtheȱcornȱforȱtheȱharvesters,ȱorȱhelp
themȱtoȱmowȱandȱstackȱit,ȱorȱbindȱupȱtheȱsheaves?ȱOrȱwhyȱdon’tȱyouȱgetȱupȱearly
andȱjoinȱtheȱreapersȱorȱfindȱyourselfȱaȱjobȱasȱaȱheadȬreaperȱorȱaȱhayward,ȱand
standȱwithȱaȱhornȱinȱyourȱhand,ȱandȱsleepȱoutȱatȱnightȱtoȱguardȱtheȱcornȱinȱmy
fieldsȱfromȱthievesȱandȱpilferers?ȱOrȱwhyȱcouldn’tȱyouȱcobbleȱshoes,ȱorȱwatchȱthe
sheepȱorȱtheȱpigs,ȱorȱgetȱsomeȱhedgingȱorȱharrowingȱdone,ȱorȱdriveȱtheȱhogsȱand
Press,ȱ2004);ȱJamesȱSimpson,ȱPiersȱPlowman:ȱAnȱIntroduction.ȱ2ndȱrev.ȱed.ȱExeterȱMedievalȱTexts
andȱStudiesȱ(1990;ȱExeter,ȱUK:ȱUniversityȱofȱExeterȱPress,ȱ2007).
172
Seeȱ theȱ contributionsȱ toȱ Theȱ Sevenȱ Deadlyȱ Sins:ȱ Fromȱ Communitiesȱ toȱ Individuals,ȱ ed.ȱ Richard
Newhauser.ȱStudiesȱinȱMedievalȱandȱReformationȱTraditions,ȱ123ȱ(LeidenȱandȱBoston:ȱBrill,ȱ2007).
geeseȱ toȱ market.ȱ Atȱ allȱ eventsȱ youȱ oughtȱ toȱ doȱ somethingȱ that’sȱ usefulȱ toȱ the
community,ȱandȱplayȱyourȱpartȱinȱfeedingȱtheȱoldȱandȱinfirm’”ȱ(257).173ȱ
Inȱ orderȱ toȱ illustrateȱ howȱ theȱ ordinary,ȱ lowerȱ classȱ peopleȱ earnȱ theirȱ living,
Reasonȱmentionsȱaȱwholeȱlitanyȱofȱactivitiesȱthatȱhaveȱtoȱbeȱcarriedȱoutȱonȱaȱfarm,
andȱtherebyȱprovidesȱaȱgoodȱmirrorȱofȱtheȱactualȱconditionsȱpoorȱpeopleȱwere
sufferingȱfrom.174ȱSheȱregardsȱthoseȱactivitiesȱasȱworthyȱandȱnobleȱbyȱthemselves
becauseȱtheyȱpreventȱtheȱpeopleȱfromȱturningȱtoȱbeggingȱorȱstealing.ȱThereȱisȱno
shameȱorȱlackȱofȱdignityȱinȱguardingȱfarmȱanimals,ȱorȱregardingȱworkingȱinȱthe
fieldsȱeitherȱinȱSpringȱhelpingȱwithȱtheȱsowing,ȱorȱinȱFall,ȱjoiningȱinȱtheȱharvesting.
Langlandȱcertainlyȱevokesȱtheȱtypologyȱofȱimagesȱusedȱinȱmedievalȱcalendars,
especiallyȱthoseȱformingȱanȱessentialȱpartȱofȱBooksȱofȱHours.ȱForȱhim,ȱfarmȱwork
provesȱtoȱbeȱasȱnobleȱandȱdignifyingȱasȱanyȱotherȱactivityȱinȱhumanȱsociety,ȱand
inȱtheȱfaceȱofȱGodȱnoȱoneȱwouldȱbeȱableȱtoȱrelyȱonȱhis/herȱsocialȱstatusȱhereȱinȱthis
lifeȱallȱbyȱhimȬȱorȱherself.175ȱ
TheȱnarrativeȱfigureȱLanglandȱdefendsȱhimselfȱagainstȱReason,ȱpointingȱoutȱthat
heȱhadȱreceivedȱtheȱfinancialȱmeansȱinȱhisȱyouthȱtoȱattendȱschoolȱandȱtoȱacquire
thoseȱskillsȱnecessaryȱtoȱserveȱasȱaȱclericȱinȱtheȱChurchȱ(258).ȱForȱhimȱitȱwouldȱnot
beȱ rightȱ toȱ beȱ forcedȱ toȱ doȱ manualȱ laborȱ afterȱ suchȱ aȱ longȱ timeȱ ofȱ studying.
Replicatingȱ theȱ traditionalȱ medievalȱ perceptionȱ ofȱ theȱ socialȱ classes,ȱ Langland
arguesȱagainstȱReason,ȱquietingȱherȱvoiceȱaltogetherȱbyȱemphasizing:ȱ“‘Soȱaȱcleric’s
dutyȱisȱtoȱserveȱChrist,ȱandȱleaveȱcartingȱandȱlabouringȱtoȱignorantȱserfs.ȱAndȱno
oneȱshouldȱtakeȱHolyȱOrdersȱunlessȱheȱcomesȱfromȱaȱfamilyȱofȱfreemen,ȱandȱhis
parentsȱareȱmarriedȱinȱchurch.ȱSerfsȱandȱbeggar’sȱchildrenȱandȱbastardsȱshouldȱtoil
withȱtheirȱhands,ȱwhileȱmenȱofȱnobleȱbloodȱshouldȱserveȱGodȱandȱtheirȱfellowmen
asȱbefitsȱtheirȱrank—someȱbyȱsingingȱMasses,ȱandȱothersȱbyȱbookȬkeepingȱand
advisingȱmenȱhowȱtoȱspendȱtheirȱmoney”ȱ(258).ȱ
173
Thereȱisȱaȱhugeȱdebateȱthatȱhasȱcontinuedȱforȱmanyȱdecadesȱasȱtoȱtheȱproperȱevaluationȱofȱthe
manuscriptȱtransmission;ȱseeȱnowȱLawrenceȱWarner,ȱTheȱLostȱHistoryȱofȱ“PiersȱPlowman”:ȱThe
Earliestȱ Transmissionȱ ofȱ Langland’sȱ Work.ȱ Middleȱ Agesȱ Seriesȱ (Philadelphia:ȱ Universityȱ of
PennsylvaniaȱPress,ȱ2011).ȱSeeȱalsoȱJustineȱRydzeski,ȱRadicalȱNostalgiaȱinȱtheȱAgeȱofȱPiersȱPlowman:
Economics,ȱApocalypticism,ȱandȱDiscontent.ȱStudiesȱinȱtheȱHumanities:ȱLiterature—ȱPolitics—Society,
48ȱ(NewȱYork,ȱWashington,ȱDC,ȱetȱal.:ȱPeterȱLang,ȱ1999);ȱWilliamȱElfordȱRogers,ȱInterpretationȱin
PiersȱPlowmanȱ(Washington,ȱDC:ȱTheȱCatholicȱUniversityȱofȱAmericaȱPress,ȱ2002).
174
AnneȱM.ȱScott,ȱPiersȱPlowmanȱandȱtheȱPoorȱ(Dublin:ȱFourȱCourtsȱPress,ȱ2004);ȱsheȱoutlinesȱthe
variousȱtypesȱofȱeconomicȱandȱthenȱalsoȱspiritualȱpovertyȱasȱreflectedȱinȱLangland’sȱromance.ȱShe
emphasizesȱthatȱtheȱ“poemȱisȱanȱexpressionȱofȱlateȱmedievalȱpoliticalȱandȱsocialȱorder;ȱitȱdoesȱnot
proposeȱaȱlevellingȱofȱtheȱestates,ȱforȱsuchȱaȱlackȱofȱorder,ȱtoȱtheȱmedievalȱmind,ȱisȱaȱcharacteristic
ofȱhellȱwhereȱthereȱisȱnoȱorder.ȱWhatȱitȱdoesȱpromoteȱisȱtheȱjustȱorganizationȱofȱpoliticalȱandȱsocial
order,ȱinȱwhichȱ‘mesure’ȱisȱtheȱprincipleȱandȱwasteȱisȱeliminated”ȱ(231).
175
ChristinaȱvanȱNolcken,ȱ“PiersȱPlowman,ȱtheȱWycliffites,ȱandȱPierceȱtheȱPlowman’sȱCreed,”ȱYearbook
ofȱLanglandȱStudiesȱ2ȱ(1988):ȱ71–102.
Introduction 73
Unfortunately,ȱhowever,ȱthingsȱareȱnoȱlongerȱtheȱwayȱtheyȱusedȱtoȱbe,ȱwhich
givesȱhimȱreasonȱtoȱcomplainȱbitterlyȱaboutȱtheȱmanyȱexamplesȱofȱsimonyȱand
corruptionȱdestroyingȱtheȱbasisȱofȱtheȱmedievalȱsocialȱorder,ȱsinceȱnobilityȱandȱthe
clergyȱareȱnoȱlongerȱregardedȱasȱsignificantȱandȱareȱhenceȱnotȱtreatedȱwithȱthe
expectedȱorȱdesiredȱrespect.ȱHeȱconcludesȱwithȱaȱfinalȱdreamȱinȱwhichȱheȱsees
Reasonȱ servingȱ asȱ popeȱ andȱ Conscienceȱ asȱ theȱ pope’sȱ crosierȬbearer.ȱ Inȱ other
words,ȱLanglandȱdoesȱnotȱwantȱtoȱrevolutionizeȱhisȱworld,ȱtheȱveryȱoppositeȱisȱthe
case.ȱHisȱconservativismȱisȱdirectedȱagainstȱtheȱcollapseȱofȱmorality,ȱethics,ȱand
conscience.ȱ Forȱ himȱ neitherȱ theȱ clergyȱ norȱ theȱ noblesȱ haveȱ preservedȱ their
traditionalȱ ideals,ȱ andȱ newȱ peopleȱ fromȱ belowȱ haveȱ risenȱ toȱ higherȱ rank,
destabilizingȱtheȱentireȱsystem—anȱapproachȱpursuedȱbyȱaȱsocialȱcriticȱveryȱtypical
ofȱtheȱlateȱMiddleȱAges.176ȱ
Nevertheless,ȱ hereȱ againȱ weȱ observeȱ hisȱ greatȱ attentionȱ toȱ realisticȱ aspects
reflectingȱtheȱlivesȱofȱtheȱruralȱpopulation.ȱLanglandȱneverȱhesitatesȱtoȱdepictȱin
concreteȱtermsȱwhatȱkindȱofȱworkȱtheyȱareȱdoing,ȱwhatȱjobsȱareȱnecessaryȱonȱa
farm,ȱandȱsoȱheȱindirectlyȱpraisesȱtheȱfarmȱhandsȱandȱmaids,ȱandȱthenȱalsoȱtheir
masters,ȱforȱabidingȱbyȱtheirȱtraditionalȱrolesȱasȱprescribedȱbyȱGod.ȱOfȱcourse,ȱthis
doesȱnotȱmeanȱthatȱtheȱpoetȱwouldȱhaveȱidealizedȱtheȱfarmersȱatȱlarge;ȱheȱonly
demonstratedȱthatȱheȱcaredȱenoughȱaboutȱthemȱtoȱincorporateȱaspectsȱfromȱtheir
existenceȱ toȱ illustrateȱ specialȱ conditionsȱ whichȱ aȱ clericȱ faced.ȱ Butȱ heȱ clearly
demarcatedȱ theȱ threeȱ socialȱ classesȱ andȱ outlinedȱ unmistakablyȱ whatȱ their
assignmentsȱ andȱ responsibilitiesȱ wereȱ forȱ feudalȱ societyȱ toȱ functionȱ asȱ inȱ the
past.177ȱLangland,ȱlikeȱmanyȱotherȱdidacticȱwritersȱofȱhisȱtime,ȱemphasizedȱthe
greatȱneedȱtoȱrejectȱindolenceȱandȱtoȱputȱallȱeffortsȱinȱtoȱdoȱtheȱnecessaryȱworkȱthat
wouldȱ helpȱ societyȱ toȱ achieveȱ itsȱ ultimateȱ goals,ȱ asȱ outlinedȱ byȱ God’sȱ own
designs.178
Afterȱ all,ȱ noneȱ ofȱ hisȱ idealsȱ wouldȱ functionȱ properlyȱ ifȱ theȱ king,ȱ orȱ Reason,
wouldȱ notȱ stepȱ inȱ whenȱ aȱ transgressionȱ occurredȱ orȱ ifȱ individualsȱ startedȱ to
behaveȱcriminallyȱagainstȱtheȱpeopleȱonȱtheȱlowerȱsocialȱlevels.ȱLangland’sȱPiers
theȱPlowmanȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱsoȱvaluableȱforȱourȱpurposesȱparticularlyȱbecauseȱitȱdoes
notȱ intendȱ toȱ portrayȱ aȱ realisticȱ scenario;ȱ insteadȱ itȱ isȱ undoubtedlyȱ aȱ strongly
allegoricalȱtextȱaboutȱtheȱChristianȱworldȬview,ȱhereȱportrayedȱthroughȱtheȱlens
176
Forȱfurtherȱcommentsȱonȱthisȱimportantȱaspect,ȱseeȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱDanielȱF.
Pigg.Cf.ȱalsoȱGregoryȱM.ȱSadlek,ȱIdlenessȱWorking:ȱTheȱDiscourseȱofȱLove’sȱLaborȱfromȱOvidȱThrough
ChaucerȱandȱGowerȱ(Washington,ȱDC:ȱTheȱCatholicȱUniversityȱofȱAmericaȱPress,ȱ2004),ȱ185–86,ȱ212,
257–58.
177
GeraldȱR.ȱOwst,ȱLiteratureȱandȱPulpitȱinȱMedievalȱEngland:ȱAȱNeglectedȱChapterȱinȱtheȱHistoryȱof
EnglishȱLettersȱ&ȱofȱtheȱEnglishȱPeople.ȱ2ndȱed.ȱ(1933;ȱOxford:ȱBlackwell,ȱ1961),ȱ568–69.
178
Sadlek,ȱIdlenessȱWorkingȱ(seeȱnoteȱ176),ȱ186,ȱrefers,ȱforȱexample,ȱtoȱtheȱanonymousȱauthorȱofȱJacob’s
Well,ȱtoȱaȱsermonȱbyȱBishopȱThomasȱBrintonȱ(no.ȱ59),ȱandȱtoȱJohnȱGower’sȱMirourȱdeȱl’Ommeȱ(ca.
1376–1379).
ofȱreligiousȱallegory.ȱForȱthisȱreason,ȱhowever,ȱheȱisȱrequiredȱtoȱreflectȱ onȱ the

socialȱconditionsȱofȱhisȱtime,ȱbothȱinȱtheirȱconcreteȱmanifestationsȱandȱinȱidealistic
terms.ȱ
Inȱtheȱnineteenthȱchapter,ȱdealingȱwithȱ“TheȱFoundingȱofȱHolyȱChurch,”ȱPiers
himselfȱmakesȱaȱmostȱimportantȱappearance,ȱrepresentingȱbothȱmankindȱatȱlarge
andȱtheȱChurchȱitself.ȱAfterȱConscienceȱhasȱinstructedȱhimȱthoroughlyȱaboutȱthe
lifeȱofȱChrist,ȱtheȱvirtueȱofȱGraceȱjoinsȱthem,ȱcallsȱtogetherȱallȱpeopleȱandȱoutlines
theȱ wayȱ societyȱ isȱ toȱ beȱ structuredȱ accordingȱ theȱ giftsȱ thatȱ sheȱ handsȱ outȱ to
everyone.ȱ Someȱ peopleȱ receiveȱ intelligenceȱ andȱ theȱ privilegeȱ ofȱ words,ȱ which
entitlesȱthemȱtoȱassumeȱtheȱprofessionȱofȱpreachersȱandȱpriests.ȱSomeȱpeopleȱare
empoweredȱtoȱturnȱtoȱtradingȱandȱmerchandizing,ȱwhileȱothersȱareȱassignedȱthe
jobȱofȱservingȱasȱpeasantsȱtoȱproduceȱtheȱnecessaryȱfoodstuff.ȱButȱtheȱnarrator
hastensȱtoȱaddȱthatȱthereȱisȱnothingȱwrongȱwithȱdoingȱmanualȱlaborȱsinceȱitȱisȱ“an
honestȱandȱfineȱwayȱofȱlife”ȱ(237).ȱGraceȱteachesȱeachȱpersonȱsomeȱspecialȱskills,
andȱtheseȱdetermineȱtheirȱpositionȱinȱlife:ȱ“some,ȱtoȱtillȱtheȱsoil,ȱtoȱditchȱandȱto
thatch,ȱandȱsoȱtoȱearnȱtheirȱliving”ȱ(237).ȱ
Significantly,ȱ indirectlyȱ reflectingȱ onȱ bitterȱ socialȱ strifeȱ andȱ contemptȱ ofȱ the
lowerȱclassesȱbyȱtheȱupperȱclass,ȱtheȱnobility,ȱGraceȱurgesȱeveryoneȱtoȱrecognize
thatȱeachȱpersonȱholdsȱtheȱoneȱjobȱassignedȱbyȱGod,ȱwhichȱmakesȱallȱpeople,ȱinȱa
way,ȱratherȱequal.ȱButȱonlyȱifȱthereȱisȱnoȱcontemptȱandȱridicule,ȱwillȱthereȱbeȱa
kindȱofȱsocialȱutopia:ȱ“‘eachȱcraftȱmustȱloveȱtheȱother,ȱandȱforbiddingȱallȱstrife
betweenȱthem.ȱ‘Someȱoccupationsȱareȱcleanerȱthanȱothers,’ȱsaidȱGrace,ȱ‘butȱyou
canȱbeȱsureȱthatȱtheȱmanȱwhoȱworksȱatȱtheȱpleasantestȱjobȱcouldȱjustȱasȱeasilyȱhave
beenȱputȱtoȱtheȱfoulest.ȱSoȱyouȱmustȱallȱrememberȱthatȱyourȱtalentsȱareȱgiftsȱfrom
me.ȱLetȱnoȱprofessionȱdespiseȱanother,ȱbutȱloveȱoneȱanotherȱasȱbrothers’”ȱ(238).
PiersȱtheȱPlowman,ȱhowever,ȱisȱappointedȱasȱaȱmanager,ȱbailiff,ȱandȱtreasurer.ȱThe
plowman,ȱorȱfarmer,ȱisȱthusȱelevatedȱtoȱtheȱhighestȱpositionȱinȱthisȱworld:ȱ“‘Piers,
then,ȱshallȱbeȱmyȱpurveyorȱasȱwellȱasȱmyȱploughmanȱonȱearth;ȱandȱIȱshallȱgiveȱhim
aȱteamȱofȱoxenȱtoȱploughȱtheȱfieldȱofȱTruth’”ȱ(238).ȱ
Theȱfollowingȱsectionsȱoutlineȱtheȱfundamentalȱteachingsȱandȱtheȱhistoryȱofȱthe
ChurchȱinsofarȱasȱtheȱfourȱoxenȱthatȱPiersȱreceivesȱfromȱGraceȱareȱidentifiedȱasȱthe
fourȱFathersȱofȱtheȱChurchȱ(238)ȱandȱtheȱseedsȱofȱcornȱasȱtheȱCardinalȱVirtues.
OnceȱPiersȱhasȱcompletedȱtheȱplowingȱandȱsowing,ȱheȱisȱrequiredȱtoȱdoȱharrowing,
whichȱheȱdoesȱbyȱmeansȱofȱtheȱOldȱandȱtheȱNewȱLawȱ“soȱthatȱLoveȱmightȱgrow
upȱ amongȱ theȱ fourȱ virtues,ȱ andȱ destroyȱ theȱ vices”ȱ (239).ȱ Subsequentlyȱ Grace
enjoinsȱPiersȱtoȱbuildȱaȱbarnȱtoȱstoreȱtheȱgrainȱheȱhopesȱtoȱharvest.ȱHeȱcanȱdoȱthat,
however,ȱonlyȱifȱheȱreceivesȱbuildingȱmaterialȱfromȱGrace,ȱwhichȱisȱtheȱCrossȱon
whichȱChristȱwasȱkilled.ȱ
Theȱemploymentȱofȱculturalȱmetaphorsȱdoesȱnotȱstopȱthere,ȱhowever.ȱInstead,
onceȱPiersȱhasȱgoneȱtoȱtheȱplow,ȱheȱisȱattackedȱbyȱvariousȱvices,ȱsuchȱasȱPride,
Arrogance,ȱ andȱ “SpeakȬevilȬbehindȬyourȬback”ȱ (240).ȱ Butȱ theȱ Virtuesȱ defend
Introduction 75
themselves,ȱ againȱ asȱ peopleȱ inȱ theȱ farmingȱ communityȱ wouldȱ do,ȱ following
Conscience’sȱadvice:ȱ“‘IȱthinkȱweȱshouldȱgetȱinsideȱUnityȱasȱfastȱasȱweȱcan,ȱand
stayȱ thereȱ together,ȱ andȱ prayȱ thatȱ thereȱ mayȱ beȱ peaceȱ inȱ theȱ barnȱ ofȱ Piersȱ the
Ploughman’”ȱ (241).ȱ Theȱ restȱ ofȱ theȱ chapterȱ concernsȱ itselfȱ withȱ practicesȱ of
penanceȱandȱtheȱpreparationȱforȱtheȱApocalypse,ȱbutȱthenȱalsoȱincludesȱsevere
criticismȱofȱtheȱChurchȱinȱitsȱworldlyȱmannersȱandȱfinancialȱwrongdoingsȱaffecting
theȱmassesȱofȱpeople.ȱAlmostȱasȱexpected,ȱtheȱPopeȱaboveȱallȱbecomesȱtheȱtarget
ofȱtheȱpoet’sȱbitingȱcriticism:ȱ“ButȱasȱlongȱasȱtheȱPopeȱgetsȱhisȱownȱway,ȱitȱseems
heȱcaresȱnothingȱaboutȱtheȱrestȱofȱtheȱworld”ȱ(245).ȱ
Inȱotherȱwords,ȱforȱLanglandȱtheȱsphereȱofȱtheȱpeasantȱclassȱwasȱasȱrelevantȱas
anyȱotherȱduringȱhisȱlifetime.ȱHeȱintegratedȱallȱtheȱessentialȱkindsȱofȱlaborȱtypical
forȱ aȱ farmȱ intoȱ hisȱ moralȱ andȱ religiousȱ teachings,ȱ metamorphosingȱ plowing,
seeding,ȱandȱharrowingȱasȱtheȱcriticalȱtasksȱwhichȱanyȱgoodȱChristianȱhasȱtoȱdoȱto
pleaseȱGod.ȱInȱfact,ȱbasicallyȱdrawingȱfromȱtheȱoriginalȱstoryȱaboutȱAdamȱbeing
forcedȱtoȱturnȱtoȱplowingȱafterȱhisȱexpulsionȱfromȱParadise,ȱLanglandȱprojectsȱthe
peasantȱasȱtheȱidealȱrepresentativeȱofȱallȱpeopleȱhereȱonȱearth.179ȱ
AsȱPaulȱFreedmanȱobserves,ȱ“Allegoricalȱandȱshiftingȱinȱhisȱsymbolicȱmeaning
thoughȱheȱmayȱbe,ȱPiersȱdoesȱincorporateȱtheȱdignityȱofȱlaborȱandȱitsȱsymbolic
associationȱwithȱreligiousȱdutiesȱandȱwithȱChrist.ȱTheȱlateȱMiddleȱAgesȱwould
produceȱaȱnumberȱofȱotherȱexamplesȱofȱtheȱpiousȱplowman.”180ȱInȱfact,ȱdidactic
writersȱhadȱlittleȱhesitationȱtoȱemphasizeȱhowȱmuchȱallȱofȱsocietyȱdependedȱonȱthe
hardȱ laborȱ byȱ theȱ peasant,ȱ andȱ thatȱ henceȱ allȱ goodȱ virtuesȱ resultedȱ fromȱ a
profoundȱrespectȱforȱtheȱ‘thirdȱestate.’
WilliamȱLanglandȱdivergesȱconsiderablyȱfromȱtheȱapproachȱbyȱcontemporary
writers,ȱsuchȱasȱJohannȱvonȱTeplȱ(seeȱmyȱdiscussionȱbelow),ȱbyȱallegorizingȱall
aspectsȱofȱaȱfarmer’sȱlaborȱinȱreligiousȱterms.ȱYet,ȱheȱreflectsȱinȱmoreȱrealisticȱterms
onȱtheȱfarmerȱthanȱweȱwouldȱhaveȱexpectedȱforȱaȱlateȬmedievalȱauthor.ȱNotȱonly
doesȱheȱallegorizeȱtheȱpeasantȱandȱhisȱdifferentȱtypesȱofȱlabor,ȱheȱalsoȱexpresses
greatȱ sympathyȱ andȱ pityȱ withȱ theȱ lowerȱ socialȱ classȱ atȱ large,ȱ suffering,ȱ asȱ he
emphasizes,ȱfromȱcriminalȱtreatmentsȱbyȱtheȱupperȱclass.ȱTheȱessentialȱconflict
concernsȱtheȱallegoricalȱfigureȱofȱPeaceȱwhichȱisȱattackedȱbyȱCrime.ȱInȱhisȱappeal
toȱParliament,ȱPeaceȱbitterlyȱlamentsȱaboutȱhisȱsuffering,ȱwhichȱdidȱnotȱevenȱstop
withȱCrimeȱhavingȱrunȱawayȱwithȱhisȱownȱwife:ȱ“hisȱruffiansȱhaveȱseizedȱmyȱpigs
andȱgeese,ȱandȱI’mȱtooȱscaredȱofȱhimȱtoȱargueȱorȱputȱupȱaȱfight.ȱHeȱhasȱborrowed
myȱhorseȱandȱneverȱbroughtȱitȱback,ȱandȱrefusedȱtoȱpayȱaȱfarthingȱforȱitȱthoughȱI
179
KathrynȱKerbyȬFulton,ȱ“PiersȱPlowman,”ȱTheȱCambridgeȱHistoryȱofȱMedievalȱEnglishȱLiterature,ȱed.
DavidȱWallaceȱ(Cambridge:ȱCambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1999),ȱ513–38,ȱdiscussesȱprimarilyȱthe
textualȱversions,ȱtheȱauthor’sȱlearnedȱandȱclericalȱbackground,ȱhisȱreflectionsȱonȱtheȱmiserable
historyȱofȱhisȱtime,ȱhisȱsourceȱmaterials,ȱhisȱliteraryȱmethods,ȱandȱinfluenceȱonȱhisȱcontemporaries
andȱposterity.
180
PaulȱFreedman,ȱImagesȱofȱtheȱMedievalȱPeasantȱ(seeȱnoteȱ120),ȱ228.
beggedȱhimȱforȱtheȱmoney”ȱ(56).ȱPeace,ȱservingȱasȱaȱspokespersonȱforȱtheȱrural
population,ȱisȱhelplessȱagainstȱtheȱendlessȱcriminalȱactionsȱbroughtȱuponȱhimȱby
Crime:ȱ“Heȱbreaksȱdownȱmyȱbarnȱdoorsȱandȱcarriesȱoffȱmyȱcorn,ȱandȱallȱIȱgetȱisȱa
tallyȬstickȱforȱtwoȱhundredȱweightȱorȱmoreȱofȱoats.ȱAndȱonȱtopȱofȱallȱthis,ȱheȱbeats
meȱupȱandȱgoesȱtoȱbedȱwithȱmyȱdaughter,ȱandȱIȱliveȱinȱsuchȱterrorȱofȱhim,ȱIȱdaren’t
liftȱaȱfinger”ȱ(57).ȱ
Fortunately,ȱallȱsubsequentȱeffortsȱbyȱCrimeȱtoȱutilizeȱWisdomȱ(orȱCleverness),
Cunning,ȱandȱFeeȱtoȱbribeȱtheȱkingȱandȱtoȱgetȱhimselfȱoffȱtheȱhook,ȱhisȱrelianceȱon
theȱking’sȱcorruptionȱcomesȱtoȱnought.ȱAfterȱall,ȱtheȱking’sȱConscienceȱentersȱthe
stageȱandȱpreventsȱtheȱkingȱfromȱacceptingȱtheȱbribery:ȱ“ThenȱConscienceȱsaidȱto
theȱking,ȱ‘Unlessȱyouȱwinȱtheȱsupportȱofȱtheȱcommonȱpeople,ȱyouȱwillȱfindȱitȱvery
hardȱtoȱbringȱthisȱabout,ȱandȱgovernȱyourȱsubjectsȱstrictlyȱaccordingȱtoȱjustice”
(60).ȱ Weȱ areȱ notȱ toldȱ inȱ specificȱ termsȱ whatȱ thisȱ fullyȱ entailsȱ forȱ theȱ rural
population,ȱ orȱ inȱ whatȱ wayȱ theȱ peasantsȱ reallyȱ receiveȱ theȱ king’sȱ unqualified
support.ȱWhatȱmattersȱforȱusȱpertainsȱonlyȱtoȱtheȱpresentationȱofȱtheȱpoorȱpeople’s
suffering,ȱ theirȱ outcryȱ toȱ theȱ king,ȱ andȱ theȱ majorȱ roleȱ whichȱ Conscienceȱ and
ReasonȱplayȱtoȱfendȱoffȱallȱattemptsȱbyȱCrimeȱ(weȱcouldȱalsoȱsayȱPower,ȱorȱMoney)
toȱinfluenceȱtheȱking’sȱopinionȱandȱtoȱgetȱoffȱtheȱchargeȱscotȬfree.ȱ
Narrowlyȱregarded,ȱLanglandȱdoesȱnotȱsayȱmuch,ȱifȱanythingȱatȱall,ȱaboutȱthe
worldȱofȱtheȱpeasantsȱatȱhisȱtime.ȱHisȱPiersȱPlowmanȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱanȱallegorical
romanceȱ inȱ whichȱ theȱ basicȱ humanȱ virtuesȱ andȱ vicesȱ fightȱ againstȱ eachȱ other,
whereȱfundamentalȱtheologicalȱteachingsȱareȱexpressedȱinȱmetaphoricalȱterms,ȱand
whereȱ theȱ centralȱ Christianȱ teachingsȱ findȱ mostȱ vividȱ andȱ literarilyȱ stylized
expressions.ȱNevertheless,ȱbehindȱallȱtheseȱmoralȱandȱethicalȱteachingsȱweȱclearly
perceiveȱaȱdimensionȱofȱsocialȱreality,ȱofȱtheȱpoorȱpeople’sȱsufferingȱandȱconstant
lamentsȱaboutȱtheirȱmistreatmentȱbyȱtheȱrichȱandȱpowerful.ȱHowever,ȱLangland
doesȱnotȱdevelopȱanyȱkindȱofȱrevolutionaryȱcritiqueȱandȱonlyȱoutlinesȱtheȱbasic
boundariesȱofȱtheȱmedievalȱclassȱsystem.ȱInsofarȱasȱheȱgrantsȱPiersȱPlowmanȱa
centralȱroleȱtoȱbringȱtoȱlightȱtheȱmajorȱcriticalȱissuesȱinȱtheȱreligiousȱandȱethical
debateȱofȱhisȱpoem,ȱheȱalsoȱpaysȱaȱmajorȱtributeȱtoȱtheȱclassȱofȱpeasants.ȱTheȱrural
populationȱdeserved,ȱasȱheȱsawȱit,ȱconsiderableȱrecognition,ȱatȱleastȱasȱmuchȱasȱthe
clergyȱandȱtheȱnobility.
Manyȱmedievalȱauthors,ȱespeciallyȱifȱdidacticallyȱoriented,ȱincludedȱextensive
informationȱaboutȱhowȱtheyȱviewedȱtheȱstatusȱandȱstandingȱofȱeachȱsocialȱclass;
henceȱalsoȱofȱtheȱpeasantry.ȱNormally,ȱthereȱareȱnoȱsurprisesȱsinceȱtheȱpeasants’
subordinatedȱ roleȱ wasȱ standardȱ andȱ regardedȱ asȱ theȱ normȱ inȱ mostȱ western
Europeanȱ countries,ȱ hereȱ disregardingȱ theȱ fascinatingȱ testimonyȱ ofȱ the
Scandinavianȱcountries,ȱespeciallyȱIceland,ȱwhereȱtheȱsocietyȱconsistedȱvirtually
Introduction 77
onlyȱofȱfarmers.181ȱHowever,ȱthroughoutȱtheȱcenturies,ȱcountlessȱeconomic,ȱsocial,
climatic,ȱ political,ȱ andȱ religiousȱ changesȱ hadȱ aȱ tremendousȱ impactȱ onȱ the
relationshipsȱ betweenȱ theȱ peasantsȱ andȱ theȱ twoȱ otherȱ upperȱ classes,ȱ andȱ then
betweenȱtheȱruralȱpopulationȱandȱtheȱurbanȱdwellers.ȱ
Nextȱ Iȱ willȱ examineȱ whatȱ someȱ didacticȱ writersȱ hadȱ toȱ say,ȱ andȱ thenȱ also
considerȱ severalȱ lateȬmedievalȱ literaryȱ examplesȱ inȱ whichȱ theȱ peasantȱ figure
suddenlyȱ assumedȱ aȱ criticalȱ function,ȱ supporting,ȱ rescuing,ȱ orȱ protectingȱ the
protagonist.ȱ Thereȱ areȱ evenȱ aȱ numberȱ ofȱ literaryȱ reportsȱ aboutȱ farmersȱ being
involvedȱinȱchivalricȱduels,ȱwhichȱtheyȱcouldȱdecideȱforȱthemselves.182
20.ȱJohannesȱvonȱTepl’sȱAckermann:ȱAȱGermanȬCzechȱWriter’s
ReferenceȱtoȱtheȱMetaphoricalȱPeasant
Forȱcomparison’sȱsake,ȱletȱusȱquicklyȱdivertȱourȱattentionȱtoȱaȱparallelȱtextȱalso
dealingȱwithȱtheȱplowman.ȱSignificantly,ȱafterȱall,ȱaȱfairlyȱsimilarȱapproachȱwas
pursuedȱbyȱaȱnearȱcontemporaryȱinȱtheȱGermanȱspeakingȱpartsȱofȱBohemia,ȱthe
presentȬdayȱCzechȱRepublic,ȱJohannȱvonȱTepl,ȱwhoȱcomposedȱhisȱfamousȱdialogue
text,ȱ theȱ Ackermannȱ ausȱ Böhmenȱ aroundȱ 1400/1401.ȱ Again,ȱ weȱ encounterȱ the
Plowman,ȱbutȱthisȱtimeȱheȱisȱnotȱreallyȱdoingȱtheȱjobȱofȱaȱfarmer,ȱplowing,ȱbut
insteadȱ heȱ drawsȱ hisȱ nameȱ fromȱ thatȱ activity,ȱ thoughȱ nowȱ transferredȱ toȱ the
metaphoricalȱplowing,ȱutilizingȱaȱquillȱtoȱwrite.ȱJohann’sȱtextȱisȱalsoȱreligiousȱin
itsȱundertones,ȱbutȱmostlyȱconcernedȱwithȱfundamentalȱquestionsȱpertainingȱtoȱthe
meaningȱofȱlifeȱinȱtheȱfaceȱofȱeverȬpresentȱdeath.ȱ
DebatingȱwithȱDeathȱaboutȱtheȱreasonsȱwhyȱheȱtookȱhisȱwifeȱawayȱfromȱhim,
andȱthisȱmuchȱtooȱearlyȱandȱinjustly,ȱtheȱAckermann/Plowmanȱforȱaȱlongȱtime
seemsȱtoȱbeȱinȱutterȱdespairȱandȱfilledȱwithȱenormousȱgriefȱwhichȱpreventsȱhim
fromȱarguingȱrationally.ȱTheȱpoetȱspecificallyȱresortedȱtoȱtheȱpeasantȱfigure,ȱthe
plowman,ȱbecauseȱthisȱmadeȱitȱpossibleȱforȱhimȱtoȱdiscussȱhumanȱsufferingȱat
large,ȱrelatingȱallȱpeople,ȱonceȱagain,ȱtoȱtheȱurȬfather,ȱAdam.ȱTheȱillustratorsȱof
someȱofȱtheȱmanuscripts—hereȱIȱreferȱtoȱtheȱoneȱheldȱinȱtheȱUniversityȱLibraryȱof
Heidelberg—pickedȱupȱthatȱcueȱandȱexplicitlyȱdepictedȱtheȱplowmanȱasȱaȱfarmer,
holdingȱ aȱ hoeȱ overȱ hisȱ shoulderȱ andȱ wearingȱ typicalȱ peasantȱ clothing.ȱ The
Plowman’sȱextendedȱrightȱhand,ȱalmostȱtouchingȱDeath’sȱleftȱhandȱrestingȱonȱa
staff,ȱsignalsȱhowȱmuchȱtheyȱareȱengagedȱinȱaȱheatedȱdebate.ȱNothingȱdistractsȱus
asȱ viewersȱ fromȱ thisȱ pair,ȱ locatedȱ inȱ aȱ meadowȱ notȱ populatedȱ withȱ anyȱ trees,
181
MagnusȱStefansson,ȱ“Iceland,”ȱMedievalȱScandinavia:ȱAnȱEncyclopedia,ȱed.ȱPhillipȱPulsianoȱand
KirstenȱWolfȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱLondon:ȱGarland,ȱ1993),ȱ311–19.
182
Sarahȱ Neumann,ȱ Derȱ gerichtlicheȱ Zweikampf:ȱ Gottesurteilȱ –ȱ Wettstreitȱ –ȱ Ehrensache.ȱ MittelalterȬ
Forschungen,ȱ31ȱ(Sigmaringen:ȱThorbecke,ȱ2010),ȱ178–83.
animals,ȱorȱotherȱpeople.ȱUltimately,ȱthen,ȱasȱtheȱillustratorȱtriedȱtoȱconveyȱtoȱus,
theȱ fundamentalȱ questionsȱ ofȱ allȱ humanȱ lifeȱ can,ȱ orȱ mustȱ evenȱ beȱ raisedȱ and
probedȱinȱplainȱnatureȱ(seeȱFig.ȱ2).ȱ
Onlyȱ inȱ theȱ courseȱ ofȱ theirȱ highlyȱ stylizedȱ rhetoricalȱ exchangesȱ doesȱ the
Plowmanȱslowlyȱcomeȱoutȱofȱhisȱmourning,ȱturnsȱmoreȱcriticallyȱtowardȱDeath,
wondersȱ aboutȱ hisȱ natureȱ andȱ meaning,ȱ andȱ atȱ theȱ endȱ successfullyȱ defends
humanȱlifeȱasȱGod’sȱcrowningȱachievementȱduringȱHisȱcreation.ȱGod,ȱofȱcourse,
stillȱawardsȱvictoryȱtoȱdeathȱbecauseȱallȱpeople,ȱallȱexistence,ȱhasȱtoȱpassȱawayȱand
mustȱmakeȱroomȱforȱnewȱlife.ȱNevertheless,ȱGodȱatȱtheȱendȱgrantsȱtheȱAckerman
atȱleastȱhonorȱbecauseȱheȱhasȱworthilyȱandȱproudlyȱdefendedȱlife,ȱhisȱmarriage,
andȱ hisȱ belovedȱ wife,ȱ andȱ inȱ thisȱ senseȱ hasȱ defendedȱ God’sȱ creationȱ most
worthily.183ȱInsofarȱasȱtheȱpoetȱhasȱinvestedȱhimȱwithȱtheȱattributesȱofȱaȱfarmer,
andȱsoȱhasȱintimatelyȱassociatedȱhimȱwithȱAdam,ȱtheȱurȬfatherȱofȱallȱpeople,ȱheȱhas
paidȱconsiderableȱtributeȱtoȱtheȱworldȱofȱfarmers,ȱalthoughȱheȱdoesȱnotȱdiscussȱthe
specificȱaspectsȱofȱagriculturalȱactivitiesȱatȱall.
21.ȱHugoȱvonȱTrimberg’sȱRenner:
AȱThirteenthȬCenturyȱDidacticȱPerspectiveȱTowardȱPeasants
Letȱusȱbacktrackȱjustȱaȱlittleȱsoȱthatȱweȱcanȱletȱanotherȱvoiceȱinȱthisȱbroadȱdiscourse
onȱnature,ȱanimals,ȱandȱtheȱfarmȱworldȱcomeȱtoȱtheȱfore.ȱWithȱhisȱRennerȱ(1300;
TheȱRunner),ȱtheȱBambergȱschoolȱmasterȱHugoȱvonȱTrimbergȱcomposedȱoneȱofȱthe
largestȱdidacticȱtreatisesȱinȱMiddleȱHighȱGerman,ȱconsistingȱofȱca.ȱ25,000ȱverses.
HeȱstructuredȱitȱaccordingȱtoȱtheȱSevenȱDeadlyȱSins,ȱbutȱaddressedȱaȱwideȱrange
ofȱaspectsȱrelevantȱforȱhumanȱlife,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱseptemȱartes,ȱastronomy,ȱmedicine,
psychology,ȱ pedagogy,ȱ thenȱ alsoȱ money,ȱ theȱ foolishnessȱ ofȱ tournaments,
contemporaryȱpoets,ȱandȱtheȱvariousȱsocialȱclasses.ȱInȱthisȱregardȱhisȱtreatiseȱwas
183
Thereȱareȱmanyȱeditionsȱavailableȱnow,ȱsee,ȱforȱinstance,ȱJohannesȱvonȱTepl,ȱderȱackerman.ȱAuf
GrundȱderȱdeutschenȱÜberlieferungȱundȱderȱtschechischenȱBearbeitungȱherausgegebenȱvonȱWilly
Krogmann.ȱ Deutscheȱ Klassikerȱ desȱ Mittelalters,ȱ Neueȱ Folge,ȱ 1ȱ (1954;ȱ Wiesbaden:ȱ Brockhaus,
1978);ȱ seeȱ nowȱ Johannesȱ deȱ Teplaȱ Civisȱ Zacensis,ȱ Epistolaȱ cumȱ Libelloȱ ackermanȱ undȱ Das
büchleinackerman.ȱNachȱderȱFreiburgerȱHs.ȱ163ȱundȱderȱStuttgarterȱHs.ȱHBȱXȱ23.ȱVol.ȱ1:ȱTextȱund
Übersetzung,ȱed.ȱKarlȱBertau.ȱVol.ȱ2:ȱUntersuchungenȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱWalterȱdeȱGruyter,
1994);ȱseeȱalsoȱtheȱEnglishȱtranslation,ȱJohannesȱvonȱSaaz,ȱDeathȱandȱtheȱPlowman;ȱOr,ȱTheȱBohemian
Plowman:ȱAȱDisputatiousȱandȱConsolatoryȱDialogueȱAboutȱDeathȱfromȱtheȱYearȱ1400,ȱtrans.ȱErnestȱN
Kirrmann.ȱUniversityȱofȱNorthȱCarolinaȱStudiesȱinȱtheȱGermanicȱLanguagesȱandȱLiteratures,ȱ22
(ChapelȱHill,ȱNC:ȱUniversityȱofȱNorthȱCarolinaȱPress,ȱ1958).ȱCf.ȱGerhardȱHahn,ȱDerȱAckermann
ausȱ Böhmenȱ desȱ Johannesȱ vonȱ Tepl.ȱ Erträgeȱ derȱ Forschung,ȱ 215ȱ (Darmstadt:ȱ Wissenschaftliche
Buchgesellschaf,ȱ1984);ȱChristianȱKiening,ȱSchwierigeȱModernität:ȱDerȱ‘Ackermann’ȱdesȱJohannesȱvon
TeplȱundȱdieȱAmbiguitätȱhistorischenȱWandels.ȱMünchenerȱTexteȱundȱUntersuchungenȱzurȱdeutschen
LiteraturȱdesȱMittelalters,ȱ113ȱ(Tübingen:ȱNiemeyer,ȱ1998).ȱ
Introduction 79
veryȱ similarȱ toȱ contemporaryȱ orȱ laterȱ sermonsȱ (see,ȱ forȱ instance,ȱ theȱ early
thirteenthȬcenturyȱ Fasciculusȱ morumȱ toȱ whichȱ Iȱ willȱ referȱ atȱ theȱ veryȱ end)ȱ and
allegoricalȱ poemsȱ suchȱ asȱ Williamȱ Langland’sȱ Piersȱ Plowman.ȱ Hugoȱ enjoyed
enormousȱsuccessȱwithȱhisȱwork,ȱasȱdocumentedȱbyȱseventyȬfourȱmanuscripts,
threeȱfragments,ȱandȱevenȱoneȱearlyȬmodernȱprintȱfromȱ1549ȱ(Frankfurtȱa.ȱM.:
CyriacusȱJacobȱzumȱBock).184ȱUndoubtedly,ȱviewingȱhumanȱsocietyȱthroughȱthe
lensȱofȱtheseȱsevenȱdeadlyȱsins,ȱcombinedȱwithȱimagesȱofȱruralȱlife,ȱwasȱalmostȱa
guaranteeȱforȱ‘literary’ȱsuccessȱinȱpremodernȱsociety.
Hugoȱdedicatesȱaȱwholeȱchapterȱtoȱtheȱworldȱofȱtheȱfarmers,ȱwhomȱheȱcalls
“gebûrvolc”ȱ(1310;ȱpeasantȱpeople)ȱandȱofȱwhomȱheȱdoesȱnotȱhaveȱaȱhighȱopinion,
regardingȱmanyȱofȱthemȱasȱrecalcitrantsȱandȱobstructionists.ȱInȱfact,ȱtheȱlordsȱare
necessaryȱ toȱ keepȱ theȱ peasantsȱ underȱ control,ȱ whoȱ wouldȱ otherwiseȱ tendȱ to
becomeȱarrogantȱandȱcouldȱbreakȱoutȱofȱtheirȱsocialȱclass,ȱtransgressingȱtheirȱGodȬ
givenȱstatus.ȱ
Inȱ orderȱ toȱ illustrateȱ theȱ basicȱ conditions,ȱ theȱ authorȱ presentsȱ himselfȱ asȱ a
horsemanȱarrivingȱinȱaȱvillageȱwhereȱheȱobservesȱtheȱpeasantsȱjustȱlyingȱaround,
whileȱ theirȱ formerȱ wetȬnursesȱ seekȱ theȱ liceȱ inȱ theirȱ hair.ȱ Oneȱ ofȱ theȱ peasants
approachesȱHugoȱandȱinquiresȱaboutȱtheȱreasonsȱforȱtheȱsocialȱinjustice,ȱsinceȱthey
areȱ lackingȱ freedom,ȱ whileȱ theȱ noblesȱ enjoyȱ theirȱ freedom.ȱ Atȱ firstȱ Hugoȱ is
throngedȱbyȱaȱgroupȱofȱpeasantsȱbecauseȱheȱaffirmsȱtheȱjustificationȱforȱdifferent
socialȱranks,ȱbutȱthenȱtheyȱaskȱhimȱforȱtheȱreasons,ȱwhichȱallowsȱtheȱauthorȱto
initiateȱhisȱdidacticȱdiscourse.ȱMockingȱtheȱpeasantsȱfurther,ȱHugoȱexplainsȱthat
heȱhadȱtoȱgetȱoffȱhisȱhorseȱandȱofferȱtheȱrequestedȱanswerȱsinceȱitȱwouldȱnotȱbe
wiseȱtoȱirritateȱdrunkardsȱ(1350–51).ȱ
184
HugoȱvonȱTrimberg,ȱDerȱRenner,ȱed.ȱGustavȱEhrismann.ȱMitȱeinemȱNachwortȱundȱErgänzungen
vonȱGüntherȱSchweikle.ȱ4ȱvols.ȱDeutscheȱNeudrucke.ȱReihe:ȱTexteȱdesȱMittelaltersȱ(1908;ȱBerlin:
WalterȱdeȱGruyter,ȱ1970);ȱhereȱIȱwillȱonlyȱconsultȱvol.ȱ1.ȱForȱsomeȱcriticalȱdiscussions,ȱseeȱFranz
Götting,ȱDerȱRennerȱHugosȱvonȱTrimberg:ȱStudienȱzurȱmittelalterlichenȱEthikȱinȱnachhöfischerȱZeit.
ForschungenȱzurȱdeutschenȱSpracheȱundȱDichtung,ȱ1ȱ(Münster:ȱVerlagȱderȱAschendorffschen
Verlagsbuchhandlung,ȱ1932);ȱInésȱdeȱlaȱCuadra,ȱDerȱ‘Renner’ȱHugosȱvonȱTrimberg:ȱAllegorische
DenkformenȱundȱliterarischeȱTraditionen.ȱGermanistischeȱTexteȱundȱStudien,ȱ63ȱ(Hildesheim,ȱZürich,
andȱ Newȱ York:ȱ OlmsȬWeidmann,ȱ 1999);ȱ Rudolfȱ Kilianȱ Weigand,ȱ Derȱ ‘Renner’ȱ desȱ Hugoȱ von
Trimberg:ȱÜberlieferung,ȱQuellenabhängigkeitȱundȱ StrukturȱeinerȱspätmittelalterlichenȱLehrdichtung.
WissensliteraturȱimȱMittelalter,ȱ35ȱ(Wiesbaden:ȱDr.ȱLudwigȱReichertȱVerlag,ȱ2000),ȱ41–136ȱ(precise
descriptionȱofȱallȱmanuscriptsȱandȱtheȱprint).ȱThreeȱmanuscriptsȱseemȱtoȱbeȱlostȱtoday.ȱTheȱtotal
numberȱofȱmanuscriptsȱmightȱalsoȱbeȱonlyȱsixtyȬsix,ȱdependingȱonȱhowȱweȱmightȱcountȱduplicates
andȱ fragments;ȱ seeȱ theȱ regularlyȱ updatedȱ andȱ highlyȱ reliableȱ Marburgerȱ Repertorium,
http://www.handschriftencensus.de/werke/653ȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱOct.ȱ1,ȱ2011).ȱSeeȱalsoȱAlbrecht
Classen,ȱ“ThomasinȱvonȱZerclaere’sȱDerȱWelscheȱGastȱandȱHugoȱvonȱTrimberg’sȱDerȱRenner:ȱTwo
MiddleȱHighȱGermanȱDidacticȱWritersȱFocusȱonȱGenderȱRelations,”ȱWhatȱNatureȱDoesȱNotȱTeach:
DidacticȱLiteratureȱinȱtheȱMedievalȱandȱEarlyȬModernȱPeriods,ȱed.ȱJuanitaȱFerosȱRuys.ȱDisputatio,ȱ15
(Turnhout:ȱBrepols,ȱ2008),ȱ205–29.
HugoȱdiscussesȱtheȱdifferentiationȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱtheȱbiblicalȱaccountȱofȱNoah’s
threeȱsons,ȱoneȱofȱwhom,ȱHam,ȱhadȱnotȱcaredȱtoȱcoverȱhisȱfather’sȱshameȱwhenȱhe
observedȱhimȱlyingȱdrunkȱinȱhisȱtentȱ(Genesisȱ9:22).ȱSinceȱthen,ȱaccordingȱtoȱHugo,
theȱpeasantsȱwereȱHam’sȱdescendantsȱandȱthusȱcouldȱnotȱavoidȱtheirȱdestinyȱof
beingȱunfree.ȱButȱheȱthenȱexpandsȱhisȱownȱdefinitionȱandȱcategorizesȱeveryone
elseȱwhoȱdoesȱnotȱbehaveȱproperlyȱasȱaȱChristianȱshould,ȱthatȱis,ȱheathens,ȱJews,
heretics,ȱandȱanyȱChristianȱcriminalsȱandȱsinners,ȱasȱHam’sȱpeopleȱsufferingȱfrom
Noah’sȱcurseȱ(1401–05).ȱInȱfact,ȱHugoȱdoesȱnotȱidealizeȱtheȱaristocratsȱeither,ȱsince
manyȱofȱthemȱhaveȱactedȱagainstȱGod’sȱwillȱandȱbehavedȱsinfully.ȱConsequently,
heȱ identifiesȱ onlyȱ thoseȱ peopleȱ asȱ nobleȱ whoȱ commandȱ aȱ nobleȱ spirit,ȱ while
materialȱwealthȱwouldȱnotȱcutȱmusterȱinȱthatȱregardȱ(1417–18).ȱ
Theȱhighestȱgoalȱinȱlifeȱwouldȱbeȱtoȱacquireȱvirtuesȱandȱtoȱliveȱaȱvirtuousȱlife,
irrespectiveȱofȱone’sȱeconomicȱstatus,ȱincome,ȱorȱwealthȱ(1428–29).ȱOfȱcourse,ȱthis
wasȱaȱveryȱcommonȱapproachȱpursuedȱbyȱmedievalȱdidacticȱwriters,ȱwhoȱtended
toȱcriticizeȱvirtuallyȱeveryoneȱinȱsociety,ȱwhileȱonlyȱveryȱfewȱpeopleȱactuallyȱmet
allȱ expectations.185ȱ Emphasizingȱ basicȱ moralityȱ andȱ ethicsȱ asȱ theȱ essential
conditionsȱthatȱwouldȱmakeȱsomeoneȱtoȱaȱnobleȱperson,ȱHugoȱcanȱquietȱdownȱthe
peasantsȱbecauseȱitȱsoundsȱlikeȱaȱjustȱconcept:ȱ“Niemanȱistȱschœne,ȱedelȱundȱrîch
/ȱDennȱderȱdâȱkumtȱzeȱhimelrîch”ȱ(1453–54;ȱNoȱoneȱisȱbeautiful,ȱnoble,ȱandȱrich
unlessȱheȱisȱqualifiedȱtoȱenterȱtheȱheavenlyȱrealm).ȱInȱfact,ȱheȱinstillsȱhopeȱinȱthe
peasantsȱthatȱtheyȱmightȱbeȱratherȱprivilegedȱtoȱbeȱwelcomedȱbyȱGodȱthanȱtheir
earthlyȱ lordsȱ ifȱ theȱ latterȱ doȱ notȱ displayȱ theȱ requiredȱ virtuosityȱ andȱ Christian
idealsȱ(1455–58).ȱ
Inȱgeneral,ȱhowever,ȱpeasantsȱareȱobligatedȱtoȱworkȱforȱtheirȱlordsȱandȱmust
acceptȱtheirȱownȱdestiny,ȱalthoughȱthenȱHugoȱdoesȱnotȱshyȱawayȱfromȱcriticizing
theȱvillageȱadministratorsȱandȱlowȬlevelȱaristocratsȱwhoȱabuseȱtheirȱsubjectsȱand
theirȱ mediocreȱ rankȱ (1927–30).ȱ Summarizingȱ hisȱ socialȱ viewpoints,ȱ Hugo
emphasizesȱ thatȱ theȱ aristocratsȱ areȱ requiredȱ toȱ provideȱ militaryȱ protectionȱ for
everyone,ȱ whileȱ theȱ clergyȱ isȱ supposedȱ toȱ prayȱ andȱ toȱ speakȱ onȱ behalfȱ ofȱ all
Christians.ȱ Theȱ peasants,ȱ inȱ turn,ȱ areȱ requiredȱ toȱ produceȱ foodȱ andȱ shareȱ it
appropriatelyȱ withȱ theȱ otherȱ classes.ȱ Anythingȱ elseȱ wouldȱ constituteȱ criminal,
sinfulȱbehavior:ȱ“Swerȱüberȱrehtȱarmeȱliuteȱtwingetȱ/ȱUndȱsiȱzeȱgrôzenȱschaden
bringetȱ/ȱMitȱbete,ȱmitȱungelteȱundȱmitȱstiure,ȱ/ȱDesȱsêleȱgâhetȱzeȱdemȱhellischen
fiure”ȱ(2221–24;ȱHeȱwhoȱimposesȱhisȱpowerȱonȱtheȱpoorȱpeopleȱandȱcausesȱthem
185
See,ȱforȱinstance,ȱVolkerȱHonemann,ȱ“Aspekteȱdesȱ‘Tugendadels’ȱimȱeuropäischenȱSpätmittelalȬ
ter,”ȱLiteraturȱundȱLaienbildungȱimȱSpätmittelalterȱundȱinȱderȱReformationszeit,ȱed.ȱLudgerȱGrenzmann
andȱ Karlȱ Stackmann.ȱ Germanistischeȱ SymposienȬBerichtsbände,ȱ 5ȱ (Stuttgart:ȱ Metzler,ȱ 1984),
274–88.ȱJamesȱA.ȱSchultz,ȱCourtlyȱLove,ȱtheȱLoveȱofȱCourtliness,ȱandȱtheȱHistoryȱofȱSexualityȱ(Chicago
andȱLondon:ȱTheȱUniversityȱofȱChicagoȱPress,ȱ2006),ȱcoinedȱtheȱwonderfullyȱappropriateȱterm
“aristophilia”ȱforȱthisȱ‘loveȱofȱcourtliness’ȱ(79–98).
Introduction 81
greatȱlossesȱbyȱwayȱofȱrequests,ȱfalseȱcharges,ȱandȱtaxes,ȱwillȱseeȱhisȱsoulȱgoȱinto
theȱhellishȱfire).ȱ
ForȱHugo,ȱlikeȱmanyȱotherȱdidacticȱwriters,ȱtheȱpreservationȱofȱtheȱtraditional
socialȱ structuresȱ representsȱ theȱ highestȱ goal,ȱ andȱ soȱ heȱ doesȱ notȱ hesitateȱ to
reprimandȱbothȱriotousȱpeasantsȱandȱoffensiveȱlords,ȱwhomȱheȱseriouslyȱwarnsȱto
abstainȱ fromȱ theirȱ unȬChristianȱ andȱ abusiveȱ behavior.ȱ Apparently,ȱ theȱ writer
perceivedȱhisȱownȱtimeȱasȱoneȱofȱethicalȱdecline,ȱwithȱaȱmajorityȱofȱprincesȱno
longerȱ upholdingȱ theȱ oldȱ valuesȱ andȱ deliberatelyȱ underminingȱ theȱ idealsȱ of
loyalty,ȱselfȬcontrol,ȱservice,ȱandȱeducationȱ(2230–58).186ȱAȱveryȱsimilarȱperspective
canȱalsoȱbeȱdetectedȱinȱtheȱdidacticȱpoemȱDesȱTeufelsȱNetzȱ(earlyȱfifteenthȱcentury).
Thereȱ theȱ majorȱ criticismȱ isȱ focusedȱ onȱ theȱ peasants’ȱ sufferingȱ fromȱ feudal
obligations,ȱ regularlyȱ forcingȱ themȱ toȱ abandonȱ theirȱ ownȱ fieldsȱ andȱ pastures
becauseȱtheirȱlordsȱrequireȱtheirȱserviceȱasȱpartȱofȱtheirȱfeudalȱbonds.187
InsofarȱasȱHugoȱcarefullyȱexaminesȱtheȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱpeasantsȱandȱtheir
lords,ȱandȱcriticallyȱevaluatesȱwrongȱbehaviorȱandȱattitudesȱonȱbothȱsidesȱofȱthe
equation,ȱheȱforcesȱhisȱreadersȱtoȱkeepȱanȱopenȱmindȱasȱtoȱtheȱruralȱspaceȱinȱsocial
terms.ȱWeȱalsoȱrealizeȱhowȱlittleȱtheȱsocialȱclassesȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱwereȱreally
separatedȱfromȱeachȱother,ȱinsofarȱasȱtheȱpeasantsȱregularlyȱfeltȱtheȱattractionȱto
accumulateȱmoreȱwealthȱinȱorderȱtoȱriseȱonȱtheȱsocialȱladder,ȱwhileȱtheȱaristocrats
wereȱeasilyȱsubjectȱtoȱgreedȱandȱtendedȱtoȱabuseȱtheirȱsubjects.
22.ȱWernherȱderȱGartenære’sȱHelmbrecht:
TheȱAttemptedȱBreakȱOutȱofȱtheȱSocialȱOrder
Again,ȱasȱlongȱasȱpeasantsȱcomplyȱwithȱtheȱsocialȱroleȱassignedȱtoȱthemȱaccording
toȱ aȱ divineȱ plan,ȱ peaceȱ andȱ justiceȱ seemȱ toȱ functionȱ well.ȱ Theȱ foodȬproducing
farmerȱisȱhighlyȱregarded,ȱvirtuallyȱtheȱdescendentȱofȱAdamȱsinceȱhisȱexpulsion
fromȱ Paradise.ȱ Foodȱ isȱ essential,ȱ soȱ theȱ farmersȱ areȱ crucialȱ forȱ theȱ survivalȱ of
society.ȱHowever,ȱthereȱisȱtheȱconstantȱdangerȱthatȱindividualsȱcouldȱbeȱinstilled
186
Goheen,ȱMenschȱundȱMoralȱimȱMittelalter:ȱGeschichteȱundȱFiktionȱinȱHugoȱvonȱTrimbergsȱ[sic]ȱ“Der
Renner”ȱ(Darmstadt:ȱWissenschaftlicheȱBuchgesellschaft,ȱ1990),ȱ126–28.
187
Schubert,ȱEinführungȱ(seeȱnote),ȱ65–66;ȱforȱanȱold,ȱbutȱsoȱfarȱonlyȱtextȱedition,ȱseeȱDesȱteufelsȱNetz:
satirischȬdidaktischesȱ Gedichtȱ ausȱ derȱ erstenȱ Hälfteȱ desȱ fünfzehntenȱ Jahrhunderts,ȱ ed.ȱ Karlȱ August
Barack.ȱBibliothekȱdesȱLitterarischenȱVereinsȱ inȱ Stuttgart,ȱ70ȱ(Stuttgart:ȱLitterarischerȱVerein,
1863);ȱaȱnewȱeditionȱisȱcurrentlyȱinȱpreparation.ȱForȱsomeȱrecentȱstudies,ȱseeȱAnkeȱEhlers,ȱDes
TeufelsȱNetz;ȱUntersuchungȱzumȱGattungsproblem.ȱStudienȱzurȱPoetikȱundȱGeschichteȱderȱLiteratur,
35ȱ(Stuttgart:ȱW.ȱKohlhammer,ȱ1973);ȱFranzȬJosefȱSchweitzer,ȱTugendȱundȱLasterȱinȱillustrierten
didaktischenȱDichtungenȱdesȱspätenȱMittelalters:ȱStudienȱzuȱHansȱVintlersȱBlumenȱderȱTugendȱundȱzu
Desȱ Teufelsȱ Netz.ȱ Germanistischeȱ Texteȱ undȱ Studien,ȱ 41ȱ (Hildesheimȱ andȱ Newȱ York:
OlmsȬWeidmann,ȱ1993ȱ).
withȱprideȱandȱarroganceȱandȱaspireȱforȱmoreȱsocialȱrecognitionȱthanȱtheirȱdue.
Thisȱ findsȱ aȱ powerfulȱ expressionȱ inȱ Wernherȱ derȱ Gartenære’sȱ Helmbrechtȱ (ca.
1250/1280),ȱinȱwhichȱtheȱyoungȱprotagonist,ȱagainstȱhisȱfatherȱdesperateȱpleadings,
departsȱfromȱhomeȱandȱjoinsȱaȱgangȱofȱrobberȱknights,ȱorȱratherȱservesȱasȱoneȱof
theȱcriminalȱbandȱmembersȱofȱaȱruthlessȱlord.ȱHisȱmotherȱandȱsisterȱhaveȱalready
preparedȱ himȱ withȱ manyȱ ofȱ theȱ necessaryȱ trappings,ȱ onlyȱ aȱ horseȱ isȱ missing,
whichȱ hisȱ fatherȱ finallyȱ handsȱ overȱ toȱ him,ȱ althoughȱ heȱ hasȱ greatȱ misgivings
resultingȱfromȱseveralȱpropheticȱdreams.ȱ
YoungȱHelmbrechtȱdespisesȱtheȱentireȱclassȱofȱpeasantsȱandȱridiculesȱevenȱhis
ownȱfather,ȱthenȱturnsȱtoȱaȱlifeȱofȱbrutality,ȱrobbery,ȱandȱthievery,ȱreturnsȱhome
once,ȱdisplaysȱmanyȱofȱhisȱnewȬfoundȱriches,ȱtakesȱhisȱsisterȱwithȱhimȱtoȱmarry
oneȱ ofȱ hisȱ fellowȱ robbers,ȱ butȱ theyȱ areȱ thenȱ suddenlyȱ allȱ apprehendedȱ byȱ the
authoritiesȱandȱexecuted,ȱexceptȱforȱourȱprotagonist.ȱHeȱ‘only’ȱlosesȱhisȱeyes,ȱhis
leftȱleg,ȱandȱhisȱrightȱarm,ȱmakingȱhimȱintoȱaȱmiserableȱcrippleȱwhoȱisȱcompletely
ostracizedȱandȱcannotȱevenȱaskȱhisȱownȱparentsȱforȱhelp.ȱAȱyearȱlaterȱpeasants
apprehendȱhimȱandȱtakeȱtheirȱrevengeȱonȱhimȱforȱhisȱcountlessȱcrimesȱagainstȱhis
ownȱpeople,ȱandȱlynchȱhimȱwithoutȱanyȱmercy.188
Apartȱfromȱtheȱsocialȱcriticismȱvoicedȱinȱthisȱtext,ȱweȱalsoȱobserveȱimportant
aspectsȱcharacteristicȱofȱlateȬmedievalȱpeasantry.ȱThisȱfarmer,ȱoldȱHelmbrecht,ȱis
aȱrichȱman,ȱandȱthisȱunfortunatelyȱresultsȱinȱhisȱson’sȱtremendousȱambitionsȱtoȱrise
aboveȱtheȱtraditionalȱclassȱboundaries.ȱWeȱobserve,ȱforȱinstance,ȱthatȱtheȱfatherȱhas
employedȱfarmȱhandsȱandȱmaids,ȱandȱheȱcanȱeasilyȱaffordȱenoughȱhorsesȱtoȱgive
oneȱtoȱhisȱsonȱwithoutȱsufferingȱanyȱeconomicȱconsequences.ȱHeȱalsoȱownsȱfour
strongȱoxenȱforȱplowingȱtheȱfields,ȱwhoȱallȱhaveȱpersonalȱnames,ȱwhichȱyoung
Helmbrechtȱhasȱtoȱidentifyȱuponȱhisȱreturnȱfromȱcourtȱ(814–34),ȱlikeȱaȱshibboleth,
afterȱheȱhadȱpretendedȱtoȱbeȱfromȱaȱmuchȱhigherȱsocialȱclassȱthanȱhisȱoldȱfamily
byȱmeansȱofȱfoolishlyȱutteredȱforeignȱterms.189
Twoȱ modelsȱ ofȱ theȱ stereotypicalȱ peasantȱ areȱ presentedȱ here,ȱ withȱ theȱ old
Helmbrechtȱ representingȱ theȱ idealȱ person,ȱ livingȱ upȱ toȱ theȱ social,ȱ ethical,ȱ and
188
WernherȱderȱGartenære,ȱHelmbrecht,ȱed.ȱFriedrichȱPanzerȱandȱKurtȱRuh.ȱ10thȱed.ȱbyȱHansȬJoachim
Ziegeler.ȱ Altdeutscheȱ Textbibliothek,ȱ 11ȱ (1902;ȱ Tübingen:ȱ Niemeyer,ȱ 1995).ȱ Forȱ critical
perspectives,ȱseeȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱWernherȱderȱGärtner:ȱ‘Helmbrecht’.ȱDieȱBeiträgeȱdesȱHelmbrechtȬ
SymposionsȱinȱBurghausenȱ2001,ȱed.ȱTheodorȱNolteȱandȱTobiasȱSchneiderȱ(Stuttgart:ȱS.ȱHirzel,ȱ2001);
PetraȱMenke,ȱRechtȱundȱOrdoȬGedankeȱimȱHelmbrecht.ȱGermanistischeȱArbeitenȱzuȱSpracheȱund
Kulturgeschichte,ȱ24ȱ(Frankfurtȱa.ȱM.ȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱPeterȱLang,ȱ2001);ȱGünterȱLange,ȱZeitkritik
imȱȈHelmbrechtȈȱvonȱWernherȱdemȱGärtnerȱundȱihreȱsozialgeschichtlichenȱHintergründeȱ(BaltmannsȬ
weiler:ȱSchneiderȬVerlagȱHohengehren,ȱ2009).
189
AlbrechtȱClassen,ȱ“DialogicsȱandȱLossȱofȱIdentity:ȱLinguisticȱCommunityȱandȱSelfȬDestructive
IndividuationȱinȱWernherȱtheȱGardenerȇsȱHelmbrecht,”ȱAmsterdamerȱBeiträgeȱzurȱälterenȱGermanistik
41ȱ (1995):ȱ 143–60;ȱ id.,ȱ “Polyglotsȱ inȱ Medievalȱ Germanȱ Literature:ȱ Outsiders,ȱ Critics,ȱ or
Revolutionaries?ȱ Gottfriedȱ vonȱ Straßburg’sȱ Tristan,ȱ Wernherȱ theȱ Gardener’sȱ Helmbrecht,ȱ and
OswaldȱvonȱWolkenstein,”ȱNeophilologusȱ91.1ȱ(2007):ȱ101–15.ȱ
Introduction 83
religiousȱ expectationsȱ inȱ aȱ farmer,ȱ whileȱ hisȱ sonȱ triesȱ toȱ breakȱ freeȱ andȱ rebels
againstȱtheȱtraditionalȱordo.ȱThis,ȱhowever,ȱresultsȱinȱaȱterribleȱfiascoȱandȱtragedy
forȱhim,ȱespeciallyȱbecauseȱheȱdoesȱnotȱturnȱintoȱaȱkindȱofȱRobinȱHood,ȱandȱonly
robsȱ fromȱ hisȱ ownȱ kinȱ andȱ socialȱ community,ȱ neverȱ understandingȱ theȱ true
implicationsȱofȱhisȱownȱactions,ȱwhichȱonlyȱhurtȱhisȱfamilyȱandȱneighbors,ȱand
doesȱnothingȱtoȱundermineȱtheȱsocialȱstatusȱofȱtheȱupperȱclasses.190ȱ
Asȱ revolutionaryȱ asȱ Wernher’sȱ verseȱ narrativeȱ seemsȱ toȱ beȱ atȱ firstȱ sight,ȱ it
quicklyȱ turnsȱ towardȱ highlyȱ conservativeȱ valuesȱ andȱ isȱ predicatedȱ onȱ severe
criticismȱofȱtheȱsocialȱchangesȱthatȱhaveȱaffectedȱcourtlyȱsociety,ȱaboveȱall,ȱasȱthe
exchangeȱbetweenȱfatherȱandȱsonȱindicate,ȱwhenȱyoungȱHelmbrechtȱhasȱreturned
homeȱandȱreportsȱaboutȱhisȱexperiences.ȱHowever,ȱasȱhisȱgiftsȱtheȱyoungȱmanȱhas
chosenȱ objectsȱ thatȱ areȱ usefulȱ forȱ theȱ peasantȱ existence,ȱ meetingȱ veryȱ specific
needs,ȱsuchȱasȱaȱwhettingȱstone,ȱaȱscythe,ȱandȱaȱhoeȱ(1057–66).ȱButȱthenȱheȱalso
pullsȱoutȱmoreȱluxuriousȱobjectsȱasȱgiftsȱforȱhisȱmotherȱandȱhisȱsister,ȱallȱrobbed
fromȱrichȱpeopleȱbelongingȱtoȱtheȱclergyȱorȱtheȱmerchantȱclassȱ(1067–80).ȱAlthough
Helmbrechtȱ isȱ explicitlyȱ situatedȱ inȱ theȱ peasantȱ world,ȱ theȱ ultimateȱ messageȱ is
directedȱatȱtheȱnobilityȱandȱtheȱurbanȱclass,ȱwarningȱthemȱallȱaboutȱtheȱdangers
ofȱaȱdisruptureȱofȱtraditionalȱsocietyȱandȱtheȱtransgressionȱofȱethical,ȱmoral,ȱand
religiousȱnorms.ȱ
23.ȱTheȱTestimonyȱofȱMedievalȱandȱLateȬMedievalȱArt
Surprisingly,ȱatȱleastȱatȱfirstȱsight,ȱwhileȱmedievalȱpoetsȱhappilyȱturnedȱtoȱthe
peasantȱfigureȱandȱexploredȱtheȱcountlessȱfeaturesȱcharacterizingȱthatȱsocialȱclass,
medievalȱ artȱ displayedȱ veryȱ littleȱ interestȱ inȱ theȱ farmerȱ andȱ ruralȱ space.ȱ We
observeȱfromȱtimeȱtoȱtimeȱsomeȱreferencesȱtoȱAdamȱplowingȱtheȱfield,ȱsuchȱasȱin
oneȱofȱtheȱstainedȱglassȱwindowsȱinȱtheȱwestȱfacadeȱofȱtheȱCanterburyȱcathedral
(Fig.ȱ1),191ȱbutȱmostlyȱtheȱreligiousȱinterestȱdominatedȱvirtuallyȱeverythingȱartists
couldȱproduceȱorȱwereȱcommissionedȱtoȱdo.ȱInȱoneȱofȱmyȱownȱcontributionsȱIȱwill
turnȱ theȱ attentionȱ toȱ theȱ famousȱ Booksȱ ofȱ Hours,ȱ butȱ hereȱ itȱ isȱ worthwhileȱ to
considerȱtheȱdearthȱofȱevidenceȱinȱRomanesqueȱandȱGothicȱartȱatȱlarge.ȱFrescoȱart
inȱmedievalȱchurches,ȱchapels,ȱandȱcathedralsȱwasȱdominatedȱbyȱbiblicalȱscenes,
andȱapartȱfromȱsomeȱacanthusȱleavesȱhereȱandȱthere,ȱandȱsometimesȱaȱfleeting
190
JuttaȱGoheen,ȱMenschȱundȱMoralȱ(seeȱnoteȱ186),ȱ121–28.
191
JonathanȱKeates,ȱCanterburyȱCathedral.ȱPhotosȱbyȱAngeloȱHornakȱ(England:ȱScalaȱPublications,
1988);ȱM.ȱA.ȱMichael,ȱwithȱaȱchapterȱbyȱSebastianȱStrobl,ȱStainedȱGlassȱofȱCanterburyȱCathedral
(London:ȱScala,ȱ2004);ȱMarieȬPierreȱGelin,ȱLumenȱadȱrevelationemȱgentium:ȱIconographieȱetȱliturgieȱà
Christȱ Church,ȱ Canterbury,ȱ 1175–1220.ȱ Cultureȱ etȱ sociétésȱ médiévales,ȱ 12ȱ (Turnhout,ȱ Belgium:
Brepols,ȱ2006).
perspectiveȱintoȱaȱnaturalȱbackground,ȱuntilȱtheȱ1400sȱweȱdoȱnotȱreallyȱfindȱany
significanceȱreflectionȱofȱruralȱspaceȱthere.192
WhileȱinȱtheȱearlyȱMiddleȱAgesȱtheȱinterestȱinȱvisualȱrepresentationȱofȱrural
space,ȱandȱhenceȱalsoȱofȱtheȱpeasantȱworld,ȱwasȱhardlyȱdeveloped,ȱifȱweȱdisregard
presentationsȱofȱflowers,ȱanimals,ȱtreesȱsuchȱasȱinȱtheȱGospelȱBookȱbyȱtheȱmonk
Godescalcusȱfromȱ781ȱandȱ783,193ȱinȱtheȱGothicȱera,ȱorȱatȱleastȱsinceȱtheȱtwelfth
century,ȱsomeȱnativityȱscenesȱorȱotherȱepisodesȱinȱtheȱNewȱTestamentȱearnedȱthe
artists’ȱ respect.ȱ Theȱ storyȱ ofȱ theȱ divineȱ creationȱ foundȱ entranceȱ inȱ numerous
illustrationsȱofȱbiblicalȱtextsȱandȱinȱstoneȱsculpturesȱatȱtheȱwestȱfacadeȱofȱchurches
andȱcathedralsȱorȱinȱfloorȱmosaics,ȱsuchȱasȱinȱtheȱCapellaȱPalatinaȱinȱPalermoȱ(ca.
1150).ȱ
Aȱ remarkableȱ exampleȱ provesȱ toȱ beȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ illustrationsȱ ofȱ theȱ Munich
manuscriptȱofȱtheȱCarminaȱ Buranaȱdepictingȱaȱfantasyȱlandscapeȱpopulatedȱby
variousȱanimalsȱroamingȱinȱaȱforestȱ(lowerȱregister),ȱandȱfilledȱwithȱaȱwealthȱof
plantsȱofȱallȱkinds,ȱrealȱorȱunreal.ȱWhileȱinȱtheȱtopȱregisterȱtheȱplantsȱandȱtreesȱturn
towardȱaȱdivineȱcreatorȱsomewhereȱaboveȱthem,ȱwhileȱinȱtheȱbottomȱregisterȱthey
turnȱtowardȱeachȱotherȱandȱthusȱhave,ȱasȱpartȱofȱtheȱuniversal,ȱGodȬgivenȱworld,
theȱchanceȱofȱperfectingȱeachȱotherȱandȱtoȱgrowȱintoȱtheirȱfullȱpotential,ȱaȱdivinely
inspiredȱconceptȱofȱloveȱinȱphysicalȱandȱspiritualȱterms.194ȱMostȱmonasticȱart,ȱinȱthe
formȱofȱtapestry,ȱaltarȱcloths,ȱwallȱpaintings,ȱandȱmanuscriptȱilluminations,ȱleftȱout
theȱruralȱelements,ȱandȱallowedȱonlyȱsuchȱanimalsȱorȱplantsȱtoȱappearȱthatȱwere
alreadyȱ mentionedȱ inȱ theȱ Bible.ȱ Shepherdsȱ andȱ theirȱ herdȱ animals,ȱ solitary
donkeys,ȱandȱveryȱsimpleȱhintsȱofȱgrass,ȱplants,ȱorȱmaybeȱbushesȱrepresentȱthe
onlyȱ exceptions,ȱ whenȱ weȱ referȱ toȱ theȱ artȱ worksȱ producedȱ inȱ lateȬmedieval
northernȱGermanȱwomen’sȱconvents.195
Nevertheless,ȱweȱreallyȱhaveȱtoȱwaitȱuntilȱsuchȱpiecesȱasȱAmbrogioȱLorenzetti’s
TheȱGoodȱCityȱRepublicȱfromȱ1338–1340ȱinȱtheȱSalaȱdeiȱNove,ȱPalazzoȱPubblico,
192
Seeȱtheȱstellar,ȱhighlyȱillustratedȱvolumeȱDieȱmittelalterlicheȱWandmalereienȱzwischenȱRhein,ȱNeckar
undȱ Enz,ȱ ed.ȱ Klausȱ Gereonȱ Beuckers.ȱ Heimatvereinȱ Kraichgau,ȱ Sonderveröffentlichungen,ȱ 35
(UbstadtȬWeiher,ȱHeidelberg,ȱetȱal.:ȱverlagȱregionalkultur,ȱ2011)ȱasȱaȱconfirmationȱtoȱtheȱnegative.
193
WolframȱvonȱdenȱSteinen,ȱHomoȱCaelestis:ȱDasȱWortȱderȱKunstȱimȱMittelalterȱ(BernȱandȱMunich:
Francke:ȱ 1965),ȱ vol.ȱ 1,ȱ 113,ȱ 2,ȱ ill.ȱ no.ȱ 65a;ȱ Johannesȱ Zahlten,ȱ “Dieȱ Naturdarstellungenȱ inȱ der
mittelalterlichenȱ Kunst,”ȱ Geschichteȱ desȱ Mittelaltersȱ fürȱ unsereȱ Zeit:ȱ Erträgeȱ desȱ Kongressesȱ des
Verbandesȱ derȱ Geschichtslehrerȱ Deutschlandsȱ “Geschichteȱ desȱ Mittelaltersȱ imȱ Geschichtsunterricht”
Quedlinburgȱ20.–23.ȱOktoberȱ1999,ȱed.ȱRolfȱBallofȱ(Wiesbaden:ȱFranzȱSteiner,ȱ2003),ȱ109–24;ȱhere
110–11.
194
Zahlten,ȱ“DieȱNaturdarstellungen”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ193),ȱ114–15.
195
Ulrikeȱ Volkhardt,ȱ HansȬWalterȱ Stork,ȱ andȱ Wolfgangȱ Brandis,ȱ Nonnen,ȱ Engel,ȱ Fabelwesen:
MusikdarstellungenȱinȱdenȱLüneburgerȱKlösternȱ(Hildesheim,ȱZürich,ȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱGeorgȱOlms
Verlag,ȱ2011).ȱSee,ȱforȱexample,ȱtheȱaltarȱclothȱfromȱtheȱmonasteryȱWienhausen,ȱWieȱHbȱ5,ȱ2nd
halfȱofȱtheȱfourteenthȱcentury,ȱp.ȱ133.ȱTheȱtopȱborderȱofȱms.ȱHs.ȱ29,ȱfol.ȱ6r,ȱshows,ȱevenȱifȱonlyȱin
smallestȱdetail,ȱaȱrabbitȱblowingȱaȱtubaȱandȱaȱmonkeyȱhittingȱaȱdrum,ȱp.ȱ145.
Introduction 85
Siena,ȱ orȱ theȱ famousȱ collectionȱ ofȱ Cantigasȱ deȱ Santaȱ Maria,ȱ ca.ȱ 1280,ȱ aȱ vast
compendiumȱofȱca.ȱ1,800ȱillustrationsȱaccompanyingȱtheȱMarianȱsongsȱbyȱKing
Alfonsoȱ Xȱ ofȱ Castileȱ andȱ Leonȱ (r.ȱ 1252–1284),ȱ wereȱ created.ȱ Inȱ zodiacȱ images,
modelȱbooksȱwithȱanimals,ȱbestiaries,ȱilluminationsȱforȱallȱkindsȱofȱtreatisesȱand
collectionsȱ ofȱ loveȱ songs,ȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ Manesseȱ manuscriptȱ (ca.ȱ 1330–1340),ȱ inȱ a
Genoeseȱtreatiseȱonȱtheȱsevenȱvicesȱfromȱca.ȱ1370ȱ(BritishȱLibrary,ȱLondon,ȱMS
Egertonȱ3127,ȱfol.ȱ1v),ȱorȱinȱtheȱfamousȱ“FiveȱSensesȱTapestries”ȱinȱtheȱMuséȱde
Cluny,ȱ Paris,ȱ fromȱ ca.ȱ 1500,ȱ tentativeȱ attemptsȱ wereȱ realizedȱ toȱ incorporate
elementsȱborrowedȱfromȱruralȱspace.196
Thereȱwouldȱnotȱbeȱanyȱneedȱtoȱqualifyȱtheȱfundamentalȱchangesȱoccurringȱin
lateȬmedievalȱart,ȱtheȱdefiniteȱsteppingȱstoneȱtoȱtheȱRenaissance,ȱalthoughȱboth
culturalȱ periodsȱ existedȱ aȱ longȱ timeȱ rightȱ nextȱ toȱ eachȱ other,ȱ parallel,ȱ orȱ even
overlapping.ȱTheȱnumberȱofȱartȱobjectsȱincreased,ȱandȱsoȱtheirȱdiversity.ȱArtists
exploredȱ moreȱ andȱ moreȱ motifsȱ andȱ themesȱ toȱ embellishȱ theirȱ works,ȱ which
automaticallyȱledȱtoȱtheȱintegrationȱofȱruralȱspace,ȱwhetherȱtheȱwildȱforestȱorȱthe
domesticatedȱgarden,ȱtheȱhuntingȱgroundȱorȱtheȱagriculturalȱsphere.ȱFifteenthȬ
centuryȱtapestriesȱandȱbookȱillustrations,ȱbiblicalȱscenesȱ onȱaltarȱpiecesȱandȱin
stainedȱ glassȱ windows,ȱ frescoesȱ inȱ ecclesiasticalȱ (Wienhausen)ȱ andȱ secular
interiorsȱ (Runkelsteinȱ nearȱ Bozen),ȱ woodenȱ carvings,ȱ andȱ also,ȱ perhapsȱ most
importantly,ȱoilȱpaintings,ȱsuchȱasȱConradȱWitz’sȱ“TheȱMiraculousȱDraughtȱof
Fishes”ȱ(1444;ȱMuséeȱd’Artȱetȱd’Histoire,ȱGeneva),ȱconfirmȱthisȱobservation.197ȱ
Howȱmuchȱtheȱartistsȱstylized,ȱandȱtoȱwhatȱextentȱtheyȱdrewȱfromȱmodelȱbooks,
insteadȱofȱstudyingȱnature,ȱorȱruralȱspaceȱasȱsuch,ȱcannotȱbeȱdecidedȱhere.ȱWhat
matters,ȱbyȱcontrast,ȱseemsȱtoȱbeȱtheȱchangingȱfocusȱtowardȱtheȱnaturalȱworld
whichȱ increasinglyȱ gainedȱ inȱ importanceȱ inȱ lateȱ medievalȱ artȱ atȱ anyȱ rate.198ȱ In
countlessȱillustrationsȱweȱseeȱpoppingȱupȱlittleȱforests,ȱmeadows,ȱpastures,ȱlakes
andȱponds,ȱfarmers,ȱroads,ȱmountains,ȱshrubbery,ȱflowers,ȱanimals,ȱandȱtheȱlike.
SomeȱparticularlyȱinterestingȱexamplesȱmightȱbeȱLukasȱMoser’sȱMagdalenȱaltarȱin
theȱparishȱchurchȱofȱTiefenbronnȱfromȱ1432,199ȱtheȱaltarȱpieceȱbyȱtheȱmasterȱofȱthe
BenediktbeurenȱCrucifixionȱfromȱca.ȱ1455,ȱMunich,ȱAlteȱPinakothekȱ(137),ȱorȱLucas
196
See,ȱforȱinstance,ȱMichaelȱCamille,ȱGothicȱArt:ȱVisionsȱandȱRevelationsȱofȱtheȱMedievalȱWorldȱ(London:
GeorgeȱWeidenfeldȱ&ȱNicolson,ȱ1996);ȱSandraȱBatagli,ȱEuropeanȱArtȱofȱtheȱFourteenthȱCentury,ȱtrans.
byȱ BrianȱD.ȱPhilipsȱ(LosȱAngeles:ȱTheȱJ.ȱPaulȱGettyȱMuseum,ȱ2007).ȱForȱaȱniceȱchronological
survey,ȱseeȱMedievalȱMastery:ȱBookȱIlluminationȱfromȱCharlemagneȱtoȱCharlesȱtheȱBold,ȱ800–1475,ȱed.
LeeȱPreedyȱandȱWilliamȱNoëlȱ(DavidsfondsȱandȱLeuven:ȱBrepols,ȱ2002).ȱTheȱnumberȱofȱrelevant
studies,ȱcatalogues,ȱandȱanthologiesȱdealingȱwithȱGothicȱartȱis,ȱofȱcourse,ȱlegion.
197
MartinȱWarnke,ȱSpätmittelalterȱundȱFrüheȱNeuzeitȱ1400–1750.ȱGeschichteȱderȱdeutschenȱKunst,ȱ2
(Munich:ȱC.ȱH.ȱBeck,ȱ1999).ȱ98–100;ȱseeȱalsoȱGeorgȱSchmidt,ȱKonradȱWitz.ȱLangewiescheȱBücherei
(Freiburg:ȱRombach,ȱ1962)
198
WimȱSwaan,ȱTheȱLateȱMiddleȱAges:ȱArtȱandȱArchitectureȱfromȱ1350ȱtoȱtheȱAdventȱofȱtheȱRenaissance
(Ithaca,ȱNY,ȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱCornellȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1977).
199
Warnke,ȱSpätmittelalterȱundȱFrüheȱNeuzeitȱ(seeȱnoteȱ197),ȱ78–82,ȱ137,ȱ157,ȱ164,ȱetȱpassim.
Cranachȱ theȱ Elder’sȱ portraitȱ ofȱ Doctorȱ Johannesȱ Cuspinianȱ fromȱ ca.ȱ 1502,
Winterthur,ȱCollectionȱOskarȱReinhartȱ(157).
Theȱexclusiveȱfocusȱonȱtheȱspiritualȱdimensionȱisȱexpanded,ȱnotȱabandonedȱat
all;ȱ insteadȱ itȱ isȱ considerablyȱ widenedȱ byȱ wayȱ ofȱ incorporatingȱ theȱ natural
background,ȱ ruralȱ context,ȱ andȱ theȱ socialȱ conditionsȱ determiningȱ theȱ painted
object,ȱtheme,ȱorȱfigure.ȱAlbrechtȱDürer’sȱfamousȱselfȬportraitȱfromȱ1498,ȱMadrid,
Pradoȱconfirmsȱthisȱobservationȱmostȱimpressively.200ȱWhileȱtheȱartist’sȱeyesȱare
intentlyȱfocusedȱonȱtheȱviewerȱ(perhapsȱhimself,ȱlikeȱinȱaȱmirrorȱimage),ȱheȱstill
madeȱsureȱthatȱaȱwindowȱopensȱupȱonȱhisȱright,ȱallowingȱusȱtoȱperceiveȱtheȱwideȬ
open,ȱsoonȱmountainousȱbackground,ȱthoughȱitȱhasȱhardlyȱanyȱvegetationȱandȱat
firstȱsightȱseemsȱtoȱbeȱjustȱaȱkindȱofȱartisticȱafterthought.201
Ofȱcourse,ȱthisȱdidȱnotȱmeanȱthatȱweȱareȱsuddenlyȱfacingȱnaturalistȱpaintersȱor
artists.ȱ Instead,ȱ theyȱ realizedȱ primarilyȱ theȱ importanceȱ ofȱ naturalȱ orȱ realistic
referenceȱpointsȱthatȱcouldȱassistȱinȱleadingȱtheȱdevoutȱtoȱaȱbetterȱunderstanding
ofȱtheȱspiritualȱdimensionȱbecauseȱtheȱfamiliarȱcity,ȱforȱinstance,ȱorȱaȱwellȬknown
hillȱorȱmountainȱcouldȱbeȱassociatedȱwithȱtheȱsameȱobjectsȱinȱtheȱbiblicalȱcontext.202
Theȱcorpusȱofȱevidenceȱforȱthisȱrealizationȱisȱsimplyȱoverwhelming,ȱbutȱweȱcan
alsoȱreferȱtoȱtheȱwonderfulȱworkȱbyȱJörgȱRatgeb,ȱsuchȱasȱhisȱHerrenbergȱaltarȱpiece
fromȱ1519,ȱStuttgart,ȱStaatsgalerie,ȱwhereȱtheȱnaturalȱbackgroundȱconstitutesȱa
veritablyȱconstitutiveȱelementȱinȱhisȱwork.203ȱ
Onceȱ theȱ floodgatesȱ hadȱ beenȱ opened,ȱ theȱ spiritualȱ approachȱ toȱ theȱ arts,ȱ as
representativeȱofȱGothicȱart,ȱwasȱnoȱlongerȱsustainable,ȱandȱruralȱspace,ȱifȱyouȱwill,
hadȱconqueredȱitsȱplace,ȱneverȱtoȱdisappearȱagain.ȱThisȱparadigmȱshiftȱaffectedȱall
200
Warnke,ȱSpätmittelalterȱundȱFrüheȱNeuzeitȱ(seeȱnoteȱ197),ȱ164.
201
Significantly,ȱ thisȱ kindȱ ofȱ backgroundȱ orȱ theȱ naturalȱ contextȱ areȱ completelyȱ missingȱ inȱ his
hauntingȱselfȬportraitȱfromȱ1500,ȱMunich,ȱAlteȱPinakothekȱ(Warnke,ȱSpätmittelalterȱundȱ Frühe
Neuzeitȱ[seeȱnoteȱ197],ȱ169).ȱ
202
MichaelȱBaxandall,ȱPaintingȱandȱExperienceȱinȱFifteenthȱCenturyȱItaly:ȱAȱPrimerȱinȱtheȱSocialȱHistory
ofȱPictorialȱStyleȱ(Oxford:ȱClarendonȱPress,ȱ1972);ȱAlastairȱFowler,ȱRenaissanceȱRealism:ȱNarrative
Imagesȱ inȱ Literatureȱ andȱ Artȱ (Oxfordȱ andȱ Newȱ York:ȱ Oxfordȱ Universityȱ Press,ȱ 2003);ȱ Martin
Büchsel,ȱ Realitätȱ undȱ Projektion:ȱ wirklichkeitsnaheȱ Darstellungȱ inȱ Antikeȱ undȱ Mittelalter.ȱ Neue
FrankfurterȱForschungenȱzurȱKunst,ȱ1ȱ(Berlin:ȱMann,ȱ2005);ȱJamesȱH.ȱMarrow,ȱPictorialȱInvention
inȱtheȱNetherlandishȱManuscriptȱIlluminationȱofȱtheȱLateȱMiddleȱAges:ȱTheȱPlayȱofȱIllusionȱandȱMeaning,
ed.ȱBrigitteȱDekeyzerȱandȱJanȱvanȱderȱStock.ȱCorpusȱofȱIlluminatedȱManuscriptsȱ=ȱCorpusȱvan
verluchteȱ handschriften,ȱ 16ȱ (Parisȱ andȱ Dudley,ȱ MA:ȱ Uitgeverijȱ Peeters,ȱ 2005);ȱ Susanȱ Bratton,
EnvironmentalȱValuesȱinȱChristianȱArt.ȱSUNYȱSeriesȱonȱReligionȱandȱtheȱEnvironmentȱ(Albany,ȱNY:
StateȱUniversityȱofȱNewȱYorkȱPress,ȱ2008).
203
Arthurȱ Burkhard,ȱ Theȱ Herrenbergȱ Altarȱ ofȱ Jörgȱ Ratgeb.ȱ Hisȱ Sevenȱ Germanȱ Altarsȱ (Munich:
Bruckmann,ȱ1965);ȱWilhelmȱFraenger,ȱJörgȱRatgeb:ȱeinȱMalerȱundȱMärtyrerȱausȱdemȱBauernkrieg,ȱed.
Gustelȱ Fraengerȱ andȱ Ingeborgȱ BaierȬFraenger.ȱ 2ndȱ ed.ȱ (1972;ȱ Munich:ȱ C.ȱ H.ȱ Beck,ȱ 1981);ȱ Jerg
Ratgeb,ȱSpurensicherung:ȱAusstellungȱKarmeliterkloster,ȱFrankfurt,ȱMünzgasseȱ6.ȱJuniȱbisȱ18.ȱJuliȱ1985;
ReuchlinȬHaus,ȱPforzheimȱ21.ȱJuliȱbisȱ1.ȱSeptemberȱ1985,ȱed.ȱUteȬNortrudȱKaiserȱ(Frankfurtȱa.ȱM.:
HistorischesȱMuseum,ȱ1985).
Introduction 87
ofȱEurope,ȱthoughȱtheȱdevelopmentȱtookȱplaceȱatȱdifferentȱpaceȱinȱeachȱindividual
country.ȱLeadingȱinȱthisȱregardȱcertainlyȱprovedȱtoȱbeȱtheȱartistsȱandȱtheirȱpatrons
inȱFlandersȱwhereȱtheȱFlemishȱminiaturists,ȱaboveȱall,ȱwereȱatȱtheȱvanguardȱofȱthat
paradigmȱshift.204ȱTheȱdelightȱwithȱwhichȱtheseȱlateȬmedievalȱartistsȱturnedȱtheir
attentionȱ toȱ theȱ naturalȱ worldȱ isȱ almostȱ incomparableȱ andȱ canȱ beȱ detectedȱ in
countlessȱ examples,ȱ thoughȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ mostȱ beautifulȱ onesȱ mightȱ beȱ thoseȱ for
PetrusȱdeȱCrescentisȱLivreȱdesȱprofitsȱruraux,ȱMasterȱofȱMargaretȱofȱYork,ȱca.ȱ1470,
Paris,ȱBibliothèqueȱdel’ȱArsenal,ȱms.ȱ5064,ȱfol.ȱ265ȱ(Smeyers,ȱ402,ȱplateȱ64).ȱ
Bothȱtheȱcentralȱminiature,ȱshowingȱmanyȱhuntersȱpursuingȱanimalsȱandȱbirds,
andȱ theȱ fabulousȱ frameȱ withȱ flowersȱ andȱ fruitȱ underscoreȱ theȱ enormous
fascinationȱwithȱtheȱnaturalȱenvironment,ȱthoughȱitȱstillȱcarriedȱaȱstrongȱreligious
connotation.ȱAnotherȱoneȱisȱanȱillustrationȱpageȱforȱVirgil’sȱAgricola,ȱcreatedȱin
Brugesȱinȱ1475,ȱtodayȱhousedȱinȱWellsȬNextȬTheȱSea,ȱHolklamȱHall,ȱLibraryȱofȱthe
EarlȱofȱLeicester,ȱMs.ȱ311,ȱfol.ȱ41v,ȱwhichȱshowsȱtheȱwideȱrangeȱofȱruralȱactivities,
fromȱbeeȱkeepingȱtoȱplowingȱtheȱfieldȱtoȱtendingȱtoȱtheȱfarmȱanimals,ȱcuttingȱand
pruningȱtreesȱ(Smeyers,ȱ457,ȱplateȱ58).ȱ
IȱwillȱcontinueȱmyȱdiscussionȱofȱruralȱspaceȱinȱlateȬmedievalȱartȱfurtherȱbelow,
outliningȱtheȱfurtherȱdevelopmentsȱintoȱtheȱearlyȬmodernȱage,ȱbutȱletȱusȱfirstȱgain
aȱbetterȱunderstandingȱofȱtheȱsocialȱandȱeconomicȱaspectsȱrelevantȱforȱourȱtopic
inȱtheȱfifteenthȱandȱsixteenthȱcenturies.
24.ȱPeasants,ȱRuralȱExistence,ȱtheȱProtestantȱReformation
andȱFarmer’sȱSelfȬExpressionȱUntilȱtheȱSeventeenthȱCentury
However,ȱitȱwouldȱbeȱcompletelyȱerroneousȱtoȱassumeȱthatȱtheȱpainters/artistsȱand
theirȱpatronsȱharboredȱaȱparticularȱlikingȱofȱtheȱpeasantȱclass,ȱorȱadvocatedȱany
kindȱofȱsocialȱrevolution,ȱgivingȱpreferenceȱtoȱruralȱexistenceȱoverȱtheirȱownȱsocial
statusȱandȱlifeȱstyle.ȱWhatȱweȱcanȱundoubtedlyȱaffirmȱconcernsȱtheȱwideningȱof
theȱinterestȱandȱawarenessȱofȱtheȱbroadȱcontext,ȱnot,ȱhowever,ȱanyȱsofteningȱofȱthe
socialȱclassȱboundaries.ȱOfȱcourse,ȱinȱtheȱcourseȱofȱtime,ȱduringȱtheȱlateȱMiddle
Agesȱandȱbeyond,ȱtheȱsocialȱandȱeconomicȱconditionsȱofȱtheȱpeasantȱclassȱinȱmany
areasȱofȱEuropeȱimprovedȱconsiderably,ȱorȱatȱleastȱexperiencedȱextensiveȱchanges,
oftenȱ toȱ theȱ betterȱ forȱ them.ȱ Asȱ Fritzȱ Martiniȱ hadȱ pointedȱ outȱ alreadyȱ many
decadesȱago,ȱthroughoutȱtimeȱtheȱpeasantȱhadȱtoȱserveȱasȱtheȱarchetypalȱfoolish
andȱignorantȱfigureȱaboutȱwhomȱtheȱdifferentȱkindsȱofȱcourtlyȱorȱurbanȱaudiences
wereȱinvitedȱtoȱlaugh.ȱOfȱcourse,ȱmanyȱtimesȱweȱrecognizeȱinȱtheȱstagedȱpeasant
204
MauritsȱSmeyers,ȱFlemishȱMiniaturesȱFromȱtheȱ8thȱtoȱtheȱMidȬ16thȱCentury:ȱTheȱMedievalȱWorldȱon
Parchmentȱ(Turnhout:ȱBrepols,ȱ1999).ȱ
aȱrepresentativeȱofȱallȱpeople,ȱsuchȱasȱinȱtheȱShrovetideȱplays205;ȱhenceȱtheȱsatire
isȱthenȱreallyȱdirectedȱagainstȱtheȱaudience,ȱwhetherȱaristocraticȱorȱbourgeois.ȱBut
heȱalsoȱbelieved,ȱwhichȱwouldȱhaveȱtoȱbeȱdifferentiatedȱconsiderablyȱtoday,ȱthat
theȱ separationȱ ofȱ theȱ socialȱ classesȱ increasedȱ duringȱ theȱ earlyȱ modernȱ time,
allowingȱeverȱmoreȱsarcasmȱandȱmockeryȱaboutȱtheȱ‘stupid’ȱpeasantsȱtoȱenterȱthe
literaryȱscene.206ȱMartiniȱoffersȱtheȱfascinatingȱcumulativeȱobservation:
DochȱistȱdasȱSchwankbildȱnurȱeineȱSeiteȱimȱvielgesichtigenȱBildeȱderȱsichȱjetztȱbreit
strömendȱdurchsetzendenȱVolksliteratur.ȱDasȱspäteȱMittelalterȱundȱdasȱZeitalterȱder
ReformationȱsindȱwahreȱVolkszeitalterȱimȱBereichȱdesȱSchrifttumsȱundȱinȱallenȱihren
literarischenȱ Kundgebungenȱ volksmäßigȱ gerichtet.ȱ Wohlȱ wurdeȱ derȱ Bauerȱ selbst,
soweitȱwirȱanȱunsereȱschriftlichenȱÜberlieferungenȱgebundenȱsind,ȱnichtȱliterarisch
produktiv,ȱaberȱvolkstümlicheȱStoffeȱundȱAusdrucksformen,ȱanȱdenenȱerȱteilhatte,
setztenȱsichȱinȱallenȱGattungskreisenȱdesȱSchrifttumsȱdurch.ȱDasȱVolkȱwarȱzuȱeinem
Selbstbewußtseinȱ erwacht,ȱ esȱ nahmȱ immerȱ lebhafterȱ anȱ derȱ Fülleȱ derȱ AuseinanȬ
dersetzungenȱdesȱZeitaltersȱteilȱundȱwandteȱsichȱsoȱbesondersȱauchȱdemȱdringenden,
esȱselbstȱbeständigȱtreffendenȱständischenȱProblemenȱzu.207
[TheȱimpressionȱconveyedȱbyȱtheȱjestȱnarrativeȱisȱonlyȱoneȱsideȱofȱtheȱmultiȬfaceted
pictureȱofȱtheȱbroadlyȱflowingȱpopularȱliteratureȱthatȱcomesȱtoȱtheȱforeȱnow.ȱTheȱlate
205
MariaȱE.ȱMüller,ȱ“Fastnachtspiel,”ȱLexikonȱdesȱMittelalters.ȱVol.ȱ4ȱ(MunichȱandȱZurich:ȱArtemis,
1987),ȱ 314–16;ȱ Eckehardȱ Simon,ȱ Dieȱ Anfängeȱ desȱ weltlichenȱ deutschenȱ Schauspielsȱ 1370–1530:
UntersuchungȱundȱDokumentation.ȱMünchenerȱTexteȱundȱUntersuchungenȱzurȱdeutschenȱLiteratur
desȱMittelalters,ȱ124ȱ(Tübingen:ȱNiemeyer,ȱ2003);ȱKlausȱAmannȱandȱMaxȱSiller,ȱ“UrbanȱLiterary
EntertainmentȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱEarlyȱModernȱAge:ȱTheȱExampleȱofȱTyrol,”ȱUrbanȱSpace
inȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱEarlyȱModernȱAge,ȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassen.ȱFundamentalsȱofȱMedievalȱand
EarlyȱModernȱCulture,ȱ4ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱWalterȱdeȱGruyter,ȱ2009),ȱ505–35.
206
FritzȱMartini,ȱDasȱBauerntumȱimȱdeutschenȱSchrifttumȱvonȱdenȱAnfängenȱbisȱzumȱ16.ȱJahrhundert.
BuchreiheȱderȱDeutschenȱVierteljahresschriftȱfürȱLiteraturwissenschaftȱundȱGeistesgeschichte,ȱ27
(Halleȱa.ȱd.ȱS.:ȱMaxȱNiemeyer,ȱ1944),ȱ389–95.ȱAsȱwellȱinformedȱasȱMartiniȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱaboutȱthe
literaryȬhistoricalȱevidenceȱandȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱruralȱmotifsȱinȱthirteenthȬcenturyȱMiddleȱHigh
Germanȱ loveȱ poetryȱ (Tannhäuser,ȱ Neiffen,ȱ etȱ al.),ȱ especiallyȱ inȱ theȱ useȱ ofȱ hisȱ favoriteȱ term
“volkstümlich,”ȱasȱmuchȱdoesȱheȱalsoȱechoȱtheȱcontemporaryȱideologizedȱvocabularyȱandȱreveals
aȱcertainȱleaningȱtowardȱtheȱ‘brown’ȱideologyȱofȱBlutȱundȱBoden,ȱasȱdevelopedȱbyȱtheȱNazis.ȱHe
hadȱjoinedȱtheȱNSDAPȱalreadyȱinȱ1933,ȱbutȱheȱdevelopedȱaȱgloriousȱcareerȱalreadyȱinȱ1948;ȱsee
DetlevȱSchöttker,ȱ“Martini,ȱFritz,”ȱInternationalesȱGermanistenlexikonȱ1800–1950,ȱed.ȱandȱintrod.ȱby
ChristophȱKönig.ȱVol.ȱ2ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱWalterȱdeȱGruyter,ȱ2003),ȱ1164–66.ȱInȱmyȱsurvey
ofȱfifteenthȬȱandȱsixteenthȬcenturyȱGermanȱsongbooksȱIȱcouldȱidentifyȱaȱgoodȱnumberȱofȱbiting
peasantȱsatires,ȱbutȱthenȱalsoȱaȱhandfulȱofȱsongsȱfilledȱwithȱpraiseȱonȱtheȱfarmer,ȱAlbrechtȱClassen,
DeutscheȱLiederbücherȱdesȱ15.ȱundȱ16.ȱJahrhunderts.ȱVolksliedstudien,ȱ1ȱ(Münster,ȱNewȱYork,ȱetȱal.:
Waxmann,ȱ2001),ȱ325ȱ(index:ȱ“Bauernlob”ȱandȱ“Bauernspott”).ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthis
volumeȱbyȱAlbrechtȱClassenȱ(“UtopianȱSpaceȱinȱtheȱCountryside”).ȱForȱtheȱfigureȱofȱtheȱpeasant
inȱMiddleȱEnglishȱandȱRenaissanceȱliterature,ȱseeȱOrdelleȱG.ȱHill,ȱTheȱManor,ȱtheȱPlowman,ȱandȱthe
Shepherd:ȱAgrarianȱThemesȱandȱImageryȱinȱLateȱMedievalȱandȱEarlyȱRenaissanceȱ EnglishȱLiterature
(Selinsgrove,ȱ PA:ȱ Susquehannaȱ Universityȱ Press;ȱ Londonȱ andȱ Cranbury,ȱ NJ:ȱ Associated
UniversityȱPresses,ȱ1993).
207
Martini,ȱDasȱBauerntumȱ(seeȱnoteȱ206),ȱ393.
Introduction 89
Middleȱ Agesȱ andȱ theȱ timeȱ ofȱ theȱ Reformationȱ areȱ trueȱ epochsȱ ofȱ theȱ peopleȱ with
respectȱtoȱwritingȱandȱinȱallȱitsȱliteraryȱmanifestations.ȱTheȱpeasantsȱprobablyȱdidȱnot
becomeȱactiveȱinȱliteraryȱterms,ȱbutȱpopularȱthemesȱandȱformsȱofȱexpressionsȱinȱwhich
theyȱ participatedȱ madeȱ theirȱ wayȱ intoȱ allȱ genresȱ ofȱ contemporaryȱ literature.ȱ The
peopleȱhadȱbecomeȱselfȬconscious,ȱandȱtheyȱparticipatedȱeverȱmoreȱactivelyȱinȱthe
multitudeȱofȱconflictsȱofȱthatȱera,ȱandȱsoȱespeciallyȱtoȱtheȱpressingȱissuesȱofȱ(theirȱown)
class,ȱwhichȱwereȱconstantlyȱofȱconcernȱtoȱthem.]
ȱ
LukasȱRichterȱmostlyȱagrees,ȱthoughȱwithoutȱreferenceȱtoȱMartini,ȱthatȱtheȱbody
ofȱpoemsȱcomposedȱbyȱpeasantsȱinȱtheȱlateȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱinȱtheȱtimeȱofȱthe
ProtestantȱReformation,ȱincludingȱtheȱperiodȱofȱtheȱThirtyȱYears’ȱWarȱ(1618–1648),
wasȱ veryȱ limited,ȱ especiallyȱ sinceȱ theȱ genreȱ ofȱ soȬcalledȱ ‘popularȱ songs’ȱ was
dominatedȱ byȱ composingȱ journeymen,ȱ craftsmen,ȱ lansquenets,ȱ andȱ then,
especiallyȱ atȱ theȱ nobleȱ courts,ȱ professionalȱ composers.ȱ Certainly,ȱ wellȱ intoȱ the
seventeenȱcenturyȱpopularȱsongsȱaddressingȱissuesȱrelevantȱforȱagrarianȱsociety
circulated,ȱespeciallyȱinȱtheȱfarȱnorthȱofȱGermany,ȱinȱtheȱDithmarschenȱregion,ȱand
farȱsouthȱinȱtheȱAlpineȱterritory.ȱButȱinȱmanyȱcasesȱthoseȱsongsȱreflectingȱonȱthe
worldȱofȱtheȱfarmersȱwereȱnotȱevenȱcomposedȱbyȱoneȱofȱtheirȱown,ȱalthoughȱwe
knowȱ ofȱ aȱ goodȱ handfulȱ ofȱ songsȱ thatȱ explicitlyȱ lamentȱ aboutȱ theȱ peasants’
miserableȱsocialȱconditions.208ȱ
Inȱaȱnumberȱofȱcasesȱspecialȱlawȱbooksȱaddressedȱtheȱworldȱofȱfarmersȱwho
couldȱenjoyȱaȱcertainȱdegreeȱofȱfreedom,ȱwhetherȱinȱSwitzerlandȱorȱinȱnorthern
Germany,ȱ inȱ Iceland,ȱ orȱ inȱ otherȱ partsȱ ofȱ Scandinavia.ȱ However,ȱ notȱ untilȱ the
FrenchȱRevolutionȱinȱ1789ȱandȱtheȱRussianȱRevolutionȱinȱ1918ȱdidȱpeasantsȱall
overȱtheȱEuropeanȱlandscapeȱshakeȱoffȱtheȱtraditionalȱyokeȱofȱoppression.ȱThat,
however,ȱisȱnotȱtheȱtopicȱofȱourȱinvestigations.209ȱ
Theȱ peasantȱ revoltȱ inȱ Englandȱ inȱ 1381,ȱ organizedȱ byȱ aȱ manȱ calledȱ Tyler,
seriouslyȱchallengedȱtraditionalȱserfdom,ȱbutȱdidȱnot,ȱinȱtheȱlongȱrun,ȱimproveȱthe
situationȱofȱtheȱruralȱpopulation.210ȱInȱGermany,ȱtheȱPeasants’ȱWarȱfromȱ1524ȱto
208
LukasȱRichter,ȱ“DasȱVolksliedȱimȱ17.ȱJahrhundert,”ȱAlbrechtȱClassenȱandȱid.,ȱLiedȱundȱLiederbuch
inȱderȱFrühenȱNeuzeit.ȱVolksliedstudien,ȱ10ȱ(Münster,ȱNewȱYork,ȱetȱal.:ȱWaxmann,ȱ2010),ȱ15–17;
HelgaȱSchüppert,ȱ“DerȱBauerȱinȱderȱdeutschenȱLiteraturȱdesȱSpätmittelaltersȱ–ȱTopikȱundȱRealiȬ
tätsbezug,”ȱBäuerlicheȱSachkulturȱdesȱSpätmittelalters:ȱinternationalerȱKongreß,ȱKremsȱanȱderȱDonau,
21.ȱbisȱ24.ȱSeptember,ȱed.ȱHeinrichȱAppelt.ȱVeröffentlichungenȱdesȱInstitutsȱfürȱmittelalterliche
RealienkundeȱÖsterreichs,ȱ7ȱ(Vienna:ȱVerlagȱderȱÖsterreichischenȱAkademieȱderȱWissenschaften,
1984),ȱ125–76.
209
Hermannȱ Strobach,ȱ Bauernklagen:ȱ Untersuchungenȱ zumȱ sozialkritischenȱ deutschenȱ Volkslied.
VeröffentlichungenȱdesȱInstitutsȱfürȱdeutscheȱVolkskunde,ȱ33ȱ(Berlin:ȱAkademieȬVerlag,ȱ1964).
210
CliffordȱLindseyȱAlderman,ȱFlameȱofȱFreedom:ȱTheȱPeasant’sȱRevoltȱofȱ1381ȱ(Folkestone:ȱBaileyȱand
Swinfen,ȱ1974);ȱRonaldȱWebber,ȱTheȱPeasant’sȱRevolt:ȱTheȱUprisingȱinȱKent,ȱEssex,ȱEastȱAngliaȱand
Londonȱinȱ1381ȱDuringȱtheȱReignȱofȱKingȱRichardȱIIȱ(Lavenham:ȱDalton,ȱ1980);ȱAlastairȱDunn,ȱThe
GreatȱRisingȱofȱ1381:ȱTheȱPeasantȇsȱRevoltȱandȱEngland’sȱFailedȱRevolutionȱ(Stroud,ȱGloucestershire;
Charleston,ȱSC:ȱTempus,,ȱ2002);ȱG.ȱL.ȱHarriss,ȱShapingȱtheȱNation:ȱEngland,ȱ1360Ȭ1461.ȱNewȱOxford
HistoryȱofȱEnglandȱ(Oxford:ȱClarendonȱPress;ȱNewȱYork:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2005);ȱforȱa
1525—inȱrealityȱtheȱcrucialȱeventsȱbeganȱonlyȱearlyȱinȱ1525—causedȱaȱmajorȱsocial
andȱmilitaryȱuproar,ȱbutȱultimatelyȱtheȱaristocracyȱcouldȱsquashȱthatȱattemptȱatȱa
massiveȱuprising,ȱusingȱbrutalȱandȱsweepingȱforces.211ȱOfȱcourse,ȱpeasantsȱwere
normallyȱilliterateȱandȱdidȱnotȱcreateȱaccountsȱaboutȱtheirȱeffortsȱtoȱaddressȱlegal
andȱpoliticalȱinjustices.ȱTheyȱhadȱleaders,ȱandȱtheyȱfoughtȱwars,ȱbutȱtheirȱsideȱin
theȱ centuriesȬoldȱ conflictsȱ withȱ theȱ upperȱ classesȱ wasȱ neverȱ appropriately
addressedȱinȱwrittenȱdocuments.212
HansȱNabholzȱhasȱconvenientlyȱsummarizedȱforȱusȱhowȱtheȱprofoundȱparadigm
shiftȱinȱagriculturalȱsocietyȱaffected,ȱmoreȱorȱless,ȱallȱofȱmedievalȱsociety,ȱlayingȱthe
foundationȱforȱtheȱriseȱofȱtheȱearlyȱmodernȱworld:
Theȱpenetrationȱofȱaȱmoneyȱeconomyȱintoȱagrarianȱlifeȱproducedȱprofoundȱchanges
inȱallȱCentralȱandȱWesternȱEurope.ȱTheseȱchangesȱoccurredȱbetweenȱ1300ȱandȱ1500.
detailedȱstudyȱofȱpeasantȱrevoltsȱinȱlightȱofȱlegalȱhistory,ȱthatȱis,ȱchangeȱinȱtheȱlegalȱconditions,
seeȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱScottȱL.ȱTaylor;ȱcf.ȱalsoȱtheȱquiteȱusefulȱandȱdetailedȱarticle
inȱWikipedia,ȱhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peasants%27_Revoltȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱOct.ȱ11,ȱ2011).ȱ
211
ThomasȱRobischeaux,ȱ“TheȱPeasantriesȱofȱWesternȱGermany,ȱ1300–1750,”ȱTheȱPeasantriesȱofȱEurope
fromȱtheȱFourteenthȱtoȱtheȱEighteenthȱCenturies,ȱed.ȱTomȱScottȱ(LondonȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱLongman,
1998),ȱ111–42;ȱTomȱScott,ȱ“TheȱPeasants’ȱWar,”ȱAȱCompanionȱtoȱtheȱReformationȱWorld,ȱed.ȱR.ȱPoȬ
chiaȱHsia.ȱBlackwellȱCompanionsȱtoȱEuropeanȱHistoryȱ(2004;ȱMalden,ȱMA,ȱOxford,ȱandȱVictoria,
Australia:ȱ Blackwell,ȱ 2006),ȱ 56–69;ȱ Peterȱ Blickle,ȱ Dieȱ Revolutionȱ vonȱ 1525.ȱ 4thȱ rev.ȱ ed.ȱ withȱ an
expandedȱbibliographyȱ(1989;ȱMunich:ȱR.ȱOldenbourg,ȱ2005);ȱWilhelmȱZimmermann,ȱDerȱgrosse
deutscheȱBauernkriegȱ(NeuȬIsenburg:ȱMelzerȱVerlag,ȱ2006);ȱHorstȱKratzmann,ȱDerȱgroßeȱBauernkrieg:
Ursachen,ȱGeschichteȱundȱTragödieȱeinerȱgescheitertenȱRevolutionȱ(GroßȬGerau:ȱAncientȬȱMailȬVerlag
Betz,ȱ2007).ȱSinceȱtheȱmiddleȱofȱtheȱnineteenthȱcentury,ȱwhenȱFriedrichȱEngelsȱhadȱpublishedȱhis
monumentalȱ andȱ highlyȱ influentialȱ studyȱ onȱ theȱ Germanȱ Peasants’ȱ Warȱ (1850ȱ inȱ theȱ Neue
RheinischeȱZeitung;ȱ2ndȱrepublicationȱinȱ1870),ȱscholarsȱhaveȱalwaysȱreferredȱbackȱtoȱhim,ȱdespite
theȱheavyȱideologicalȱthrustȱofȱhisȱstudy,ȱwithȱinȱmanyȱwaysȱhelpedȱtoȱlayȱofȱfoundationsȱof
Marxismȱ(http://www.mlwerke.de/me/me07/me07_327.htm;ȱlastȱaccessedȱonȱSept.ȱ28,ȱ2011).ȱFor
aȱratherȱdifferentȱapproach,ȱbasedȱonȱlegalȱhistory,ȱseeȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱScott
L.ȱTaylor.
212
SamuelȱK.ȱCohn,ȱJr.,ȱLustȱforȱLiberty:ȱTheȱPoliticsȱofȱSocialȱRevoltȱinȱMedievalȱEuropeȱ1200–1425:ȱItaly,
France,ȱ Flandersȱ (Cambridge,ȱ MA,ȱ andȱ London:ȱ Harvardȱ Universityȱ Press,ȱ 1984);ȱ seeȱ alsoȱ the
seminalȱstudyȱonȱtheȱGermanȱPeasantȱWar,ȱGüntherȱFranz,ȱDerȱdeutscheȱBauernkrieg,ȱ12thȱed.ȱ(1933
andȱ1935;ȱDarmstadt:ȱWissenschafticheȱBuchgesellschaft,ȱ1984).ȱForȱrelevantȱdocumentsȱaboutȱthe
Germanȱ Peasants’ȱ War,ȱ seeȱ Derȱ deutscheȱ Bauernkriegȱ 1525:ȱ Herausgegebenȱ inȱ zeitgenössischen
Zeugnissen,ȱ ed.ȱ Güntherȱ Franzȱ (Berlin:ȱ Deutscheȱ Buchgemeinschaft,ȱ 1926).ȱ Seeȱ alsoȱ the
contributionsȱtoȱTheȱGermanȱPeasantȱWarȱofȱ1525:ȱNewȱViewpoints,ȱed.ȱBobȱScribnerȱandȱGerhard
Beneckeȱ(LondonȱamdȱBoston:ȱAllenȱ&ȱUnwin,ȱ1979).ȱSignificantly,ȱpeasantȱuprisingsȱcontinue
toȱhappenȱthroughoutȱtheȱcenturiesȱandȱinȱaȱvarietyȱofȱcountries,ȱwhichȱsignalsȱtheȱperennial
struggleȱamongȱtheȱsocialȱclasses;ȱsee,ȱforȱinstance,ȱOrlandoȱFiges,ȱPeasantȱRussia,ȱCivilȱWar:ȱThe
Volgaȱ Countrysideȱ inȱ Revolution,ȱ 1917–1921ȱ (Oxford:ȱ Clarendonȱ Press;ȱ Oxfordȱ andȱ Newȱ York:
Oxfordȱ Universityȱ Press,ȱ 1989);ȱ Terenceȱ Ranger,ȱ Peasantȱ Consciousnessȱ andȱ Guerillaȱ Warȱ in
Zimbabwe:ȱAȱComparativeȱStudy.ȱPerspectivesȱonȱSouthernȱAfrica,ȱ37ȱ(London:ȱJ.ȱCurrey;ȱBerkeley:
UniversityȱofȱCaliforniaȱPress,ȱ1985);ȱRalphȱA.ȱThaxton,ȱJr.,ȱCatastropheȱandȱContentionȱinȱRural
China:ȱMao’sȱGreatȱLeapȱFamineȱandȱtheȱOriginsȱofȱRighteousȱResistanceȱinȱDaȱFoȱVillage.ȱCambridge
StudiesȱinȱContentiousȱPoliticsȱ(CambridgeȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱCambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2008).
Introduction 91
Existingȱinstitutionsȱdidȱnotȱbeginȱtoȱdecayȱatȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱnorȱwasȱtheȱnatureȱofȱthe
changeȱtheȱsame,ȱinȱallȱcountries,ȱorȱevenȱinȱallȱpartsȱofȱanyȱoneȱcountry.ȱAȱvarietyȱof
specialȱlocalȱcircumstancesȱproducedȱconspicuousȱvariations;ȱandȱeverywhereȱthere
wasȱmoreȱtenaciousȱconservationȱonȱmonasticȱthanȱonȱlayȱestates.
Nearȱ greatȱ townsȱ theȱ transitionȱ beganȱ inȱ theȱ twelfthȱ centuryȱ andȱ evenȱ inȱ the
eleventh.ȱ Districtsȱ farȱ fromȱ tradeȱ routesȱ mightȱ firstȱ feelȱ theȱ effectsȱ ofȱ theȱ money
economyȱinȱtheȱfifteenthȱcentury,ȱorȱevenȱlater.ȱOneȱpoint,ȱhowever,ȱisȱclear:ȱtheȱmoney
economyȱ onlyȱ partiallyȱ supersededȱ theȱ naturalȱ economyȱ onȱ theȱ land,ȱ andȱ its
consequencesȱwereȱnotȱdisplayedȱtoȱtheȱsameȱdegreeȱinȱallȱpartsȱofȱanyȱgivenȱarea.
Remnantsȱ ofȱ oldȱ institutionsȱ survivedȱ sideȱ byȱ sideȱ withȱ newȱ onesȱ downȱ toȱ the
eighteenthȱcentury.ȱHere,ȱhowever,ȱweȱcanȱreferȱonlyȱtoȱwhatȱwasȱtypical,ȱtoȱthoseȱnew
institutionsȱwhichȱwereȱdecisiveȱandȱdirectiveȱofȱtheȱfurtherȱevolution.213
Historiographyȱhasȱbeenȱintensivelyȱfocusingȱonȱthisȱwarȱandȱitsȱconsequences,
studyingȱaȱplethoraȱofȱlocalȱregionsȱandȱparticularȱconditionsȱandȱcommunities,
andȱthereȱisȱaȱlegionȱofȱcriticalȱstudyȱonȱtheȱearlyȬmodernȱhistoryȱofȱpeasantsȱin
Germany,ȱparticularlyȱbecauseȱMartinȱLutherȱvehementlyȱcondemnedȱtheȱriotous
peasantsȱandȱstronglyȱtookȱtheȱsideȱofȱtheȱprincesȱwithȱhisȱpamphletȱ“Widerȱdie
mörderischenȱRottenȱderȱBauern”ȱ(1525).214
25.ȱEconomicȱAspectsȱPertainingȱtoȱRuralȱSpace
TheȱoldȱthesisȱbyȱHenriȱPirenneȱwhoȱclaimedȱthatȱtheȱriseȱofȱtheȱmerchantȱclass
fundamentallyȱsupportedȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱlateȬmedievalȱcitiesȱmightȱholdȱtrue
forȱmanyȱdifferentȱareasȱinȱEurope,ȱsuchȱasȱinȱTuscany,ȱnorthȱofȱtheȱAlps,ȱorȱin
northernȱFrance,ȱbutȱcertainlyȱnotȱforȱtheȱPoȱvalley.ȱ Inȱ thatȱ regionȱpowerȱwas
controlled,ȱasȱAreliȱMarinaȱnowȱemphasizes,ȱ“byȱaȱsmallȱbandȱofȱaristocratsȱwhose
authorityȱ derivedȱ fromȱ militaryȱ mightȱ andȱ whoseȱ revenuesȱ originatedȱ inȱ the
region’sȱabundantȱagriculturalȱresources.”215ȱThisȱdoesȱnotȱmeanȱthatȱtheȱfarmers
213
HansȱNabholz,ȱ“MedievalȱAgrarianȱSocietyȱinȱTransition,”ȱTheȱCambridgeȱEconomicȱHistoryȱ(see
noteȱ16)ȱ493–61;ȱhereȱ554.
214
Forȱconvenienceȱsake,ȱseeȱtheȱonlineȱversionsȱofȱhisȱtextȱat:
http://www.zeno.org/Literatur/M/Luther,+Martin/Traktate/Wider+die+r%C3%A4uberischen+
und+m%C3%B6rderischen+Rotten+der+Bauern.ȱ
Seeȱ alsoȱ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Against_the_Murderous,_Thieving_Hordes_of_Peasants
(bothȱlastȱaccessedȱonȱSept.ȱ28,ȱ2011).ȱOfȱcourse,ȱseeȱalsoȱtheȱcriticalȱeditionȱofȱLuther’sȱworks,ȱD.
MartinȱLuthersȱWerke:ȱkritischeȱGesamtausgabȱ(1883–;ȱWeimar,ȱH.ȱBöhlau,ȱ2007);ȱseeȱalsoȱJames
M.ȱStayer,ȱ“TheȱGermanȱPeasants’ȱWarȱandȱtheȱRuralȱReformation,”ȱTheȱReformationȱWorld,ȱed.
AndrewȱPettegreeȱ(LondonȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱRoutldege,ȱ2000),ȱ127–45.
215
AreliȱMarina,ȱ“MagnificentȱArchitectureȱinȱLateȱMedievalȱItaly”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ7),ȱ200.ȱSeeȱalsoȱPhilip
Jones,ȱ“Economiaȱeȱsocietàȱnell’ȱItaliaȱmedievale:ȱlaȱlegendaȱdellaȱborghesia,”ȱStoriaȱd’Italia:ȱDal
feudalismoȱ alȱ capitalismo,ȱ aȱ curaȱ diȱ Ruggieroȱ Romano.ȱ Storiaȱ d’Italia,ȱ 1ȱ (Turin:ȱ Einaudi,ȱ 1978),
187–372;ȱid.,ȱTheȱItalianȱCityȬState:ȱFromȱCommuneȱtoȱSignoriaȱ(Oxford:ȱClarendonȱPress,ȱ1997).
inȱ thatȱ regionȱ necessarilyȱ exertedȱ anyȱ particularȱ influence,ȱ butȱ thisȱ particular
phenomenonȱforcesȱusȱtoȱquestionȱtheȱgeneralȱsocialȬeconomicȱperspectives.ȱ
Theȱ livingȱ conditionsȱ ofȱ medievalȱ andȱ earlyȬmodernȱ peasantsȱ differed
considerablyȱfromȱcountryȱtoȱcountry,ȱandȱfromȱperiodȱtoȱperiod,ȱandȱyetȱtheir
socialȱstatusȱwasȱneverȱlikeȱtheȱoneȱwhichȱtheyȱenjoyȱtoday.ȱHowever,ȱinȱtheȱearly
modernȱ ageȱ capitalisticȱ formsȱ ofȱ agribusinessȱ emergedȱ thatȱ certainlyȱ changed
manyȱ ofȱ theȱ traditionalȱ featuresȱ characteristicȱ ofȱ medievalȱ peasantry,ȱ andȱ this
especiallyȱ inȱ England,ȱ thoughȱ theyȱ alsoȱ deeplyȱ affectedȱ manyȱ otherȱ partsȱ of
Europe.ȱAlreadyȱsinceȱtheȱtwelfthȱcentury,ȱifȱnotȱearlier,ȱtraditionalȱserfdomȱhad
disappearedȱandȱgivenȱriseȱtoȱconsiderablyȱmoreȱindependentȱfarmers,ȱbutȱthis
didȱnotȱmeanȱtheirȱcompleteȱliberation,ȱwhichȱsocialȬeconomicȱresearchersȱhave
studiedȱatȱgreatȱlength,ȱpursuingȱtheȱhistoryȱofȱlongueȱdurée.216ȱ
Afterȱall,ȱtheȱeconomicȱandȱsocialȱconditionsȱinȱtheȱruralȱcommunitiesȱbothȱinȱthe
MiddleȱAgesȱandȱinȱtheȱEarlyȱModernȱAgeȱhadȱaȱdeepȱimpactȱonȱcityȱlife,ȱthe
nobleȱ courts,ȱ andȱ theȱ church,ȱ andȱ viceȱ versa,ȱ whetherȱ thereȱ wereȱ conflictsȱ or
peacefulȱcoexistence.ȱWeȱcanȱrelyȱbyȱnowȱonȱaȱveryȱsolidȱbodyȱofȱresearch,ȱwhich
isȱinȱtheȱmeantimeȱalsoȱnicelyȱcomplementedȱbyȱarcheological,ȱtextile,ȱfinancial,
216
Again,ȱseeȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱTheȱPeasantriesȱofȱEuropeȱ(seeȱnoteȱ211);ȱRobertȱFossier,ȱPeasantȱLife
inȱ theȱ Medievalȱ West,ȱ trans.ȱ byȱ Julietȱ Valeȱ (1984;ȱ Oxford:ȱ Basilȱ Blackwell,ȱ 1988);ȱ Familyȱ and
Inheritance:ȱRuralȱSocietyȱinȱWesternȱEurope,ȱ1200Ȭ1800,ȱed.ȱJackȱGoodyȱandȱJoanȱThirskȱ(Cambridge
andȱNewȱYork:ȱCambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1976);ȱWernerȱRösener,ȱPeasantsȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,
trans.ȱandȱwithȱforewordȱandȱglossaryȱbyȱAlexanderȱStützerȱ(1985;ȱCambridge:ȱPolityȱPress,ȱ1992);
FrancesȱGiesȱandȱJosephȱGies,ȱLifeȱinȱaȱMedievalȱVillageȱ(NewȱYork:ȱHarperȱ&ȱRow,ȱ1990);ȱNicholas
Wright,ȱKnightsȱandȱPeasants:ȱTheȱHundredȱYearsȱWarȱinȱtheȱFrenchȱCountryside.ȱWarefareȱinȱHistory,
4ȱ(Woodbridge:ȱBoydellȱPress,ȱ1998);ȱasȱtoȱtheȱEnglishȱriotsȱinȱ1381,ȱseeȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱThe
Peasants’ȱRevoltȱofȱ1381,ȱed.ȱR.ȱB.ȱDobson.ȱHistoryȱinȱDepthȱ(London:ȱMacmillan,ȱ1997).ȱForȱa
fascinatingȱcaseȱstudy,ȱseeȱGovindȱP.ȱSreenivasan,ȱTheȱPeasantsȱofȱOttobeuren,ȱ1487Ȭ1726:ȱAȱRural
SocietyȱinȱEarlyȱModernȱEurope.ȱPastȱandȱPresentȱPublicationsȱ(Cambridge,ȱUK,ȱandȱNewȱYork:
CambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2004);ȱMarkȱO’Brien,ȱWhenȱAdamȱdelvedȱandȱEveȱspan:ȱAȱHistoryȱofȱthe
PeasantsȇȱRevoltȱofȱ1381ȱ(Cheltenham:ȱNewȱClarion,ȱ2004).ȱForȱsocialȱ unrestȱ amongȱtheȱearlyȬ
modernȱFrenchȱruralȱpopulation,ȱseeȱYvesȬMarieȱBercé,ȱHistoryȱofȱPeasantȱRevolts:ȱTheȱSocialȱOrigins
ofȱRebellionȱinȱEarlyȱModernȱFranceȱ(Cambridge:ȱPolity,ȱ1990).ȱForȱEngland,ȱseeȱRichardȱLȱRudolph,
Theȱ Europeanȱ Peasantȱ Familyȱ andȱ Society:ȱ Historicalȱ Studies.ȱ Liverpoolȱ Studiesȱ inȱ European
Population,ȱ 4ȱ (Liverpool:ȱ Liverpoolȱ Universityȱ Press,ȱ 1994).ȱ Forȱ insightsȱ intoȱ Scandinavian
conditions,ȱseeȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱLand,ȱLordsȱandȱPeasants:ȱPeasants’ȱRightȱtoȱControlȱLandȱinȱthe
MiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱEarlyȱModernȱPeriod—Norway,ȱScandinaviaȱandȱtheȱAlpineȱRegion:ȱReportȱfromȱa
SeminarȱinȱTrondheim,ȱNovemberȱ2004,ȱed.ȱToreȱIversenȱandȱJohnȱandȱRegnarȱMyking.ȱTrondheim
Studiesȱ inȱ History,ȱ 52ȱ (Trondheim:ȱ Departmentȱ ofȱ Historyȱ andȱ Classicalȱ Studies,ȱ Norwegian
UniversityȱofȱScienceȱandȱTechnology,ȱ2005).ȱForȱperspectivesȱonȱGermanȱconditionsȱinȱtheȱlate
Middleȱ Ages,ȱ seeȱ Ernstȱ Schubert,ȱ Einführungȱ inȱ dieȱ Grundproblemeȱ derȱ deutschenȱ Geschichteȱ im
Spätmittelalter.ȱ Grundproblemeȱ derȱ deutschenȱ Geschichteȱ (Darmstadt:ȱ Wissenschaftliche
Buchgesellschaft,ȱ1992),ȱ93–96;ȱandȱWernerȱRösener,ȱAgrarwirtschaft,ȱAgrarverfassungȱundȱländliche
GesellschaftȱimȱMittelalter.ȱEnzyklopädieȱdeutscherȱGeschichte,ȱ13ȱ(Munich:ȱOldenbourg,ȱ2010).
Introduction 93
andȱarchitecturalȱstudiesȱfocusedȱonȱvillages,ȱfarmȱhouses,ȱtheȱfarmȱitself,ȱandȱthe
people.217ȱ
AsȱRenéȱNoëlȱnowȱconfirms,ȱreflectingȱonȱdecadesȱofȱresearchȱonȱtheȱruralȱspace,
theȱvillage,ȱandȱruralȱarchitecture,
Desȱ villagesȱ lesȱ poignéesȱ ouȱ lesȱ paquetsȱ deȱ maisonsȱ etȱ d’édiculesȱ annexesȱ mal
enracinés,ȱ vaguementȱ groupésȱ ouȱ jetésȱ enȱ désordreȱ qu’onȱ rencontreȱ dansȱ les
campagnesȱ avantȱ 900–950?ȱ Nullement.ȱ “Ceȱ sontȱ desȱ ‘habitats’ȱ sansȱ plus”.ȱ Ilȱ leur
manqueȱ l’essentiel:ȱ unȱ lieuȱ d’ancrageȱ séculairs,ȱ uneȱ implantationȱ fermeȱ autourȱ de
pôlesȱ deȱ regroupement,ȱ unȱ finageȱ organiséȱ àȱ l’intérieurȱ deȱ limitesȱ reconnuesȱ et,
surtout,ȱuneȱconscienceȱcollectiveȱetȱuneȱpersonnalitéȱjuridique.ȱIlȱenȱvaȱautrementȱen
1100.ȱAlors,ȱenȱmaintesȱrégions,ȱlesȱpaysansȱnaissent,ȱviventȱetȱmeurentȱauȱseinȱde
localitésȱstables,ȱenchâsséesȱdansȱunȱfinageȱdeȱplusȱenȱplusȱcohérent.ȱIlsȱtissentȱentre
euxȱdesȱliensȱdeȱsolidaritéȱetȱprennentȱconscienceȱdeȱleurȱcommunautéȱd’intérêtȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.218
[Whatȱ aboutȱ theȱ handfulȱ ofȱ villages,ȱ theȱ hamlets,ȱ orȱ theȱ attachedȱ housesȱ poorly
grounded,ȱlooselyȱsituated,ȱorȱspreadȱrandomlyȱasȱtheyȱexistedȱinȱtheȱcountryside
beforeȱ900–950?ȱNothing.ȱ“Theseȱareȱtheȱhabitationsȱthatȱdon’tȱexistȱanymore.”ȱTheir
essentialȱ componentȱ isȱ missing,ȱ thatȱ is,ȱ aȱ placeȱ withȱ aȱ worldlyȱ foundation,ȱ aȱ firm
implantationȱsurroundedȱbyȱpolesȱthatȱstakeȱoutȱtheȱsettlement,ȱaȱlegalȱbaseȱorganized
forȱ theȱ inclosedȱ communityȱ orȱ withȱ recognizedȱ limitsȱ and,ȱ aboveȱ all,ȱ aȱ collective
conscienceȱandȱaȱjuridicalȱidentity.ȱAroundȱ1100ȱallȱthisȱchanges.ȱInȱmostȱregionsȱthe
peasantsȱareȱborn,ȱlive,ȱandȱdieȱatȱstableȱlocations,ȱsurroundedȱbyȱaȱlegalȱframework
increasinglyȱgainingȱcoherence.ȱTheyȱdevelopȱamongȱthemselvesȱbondsȱofȱsolidarity
andȱforgeȱaȱconscienceȱofȱtheirȱcommunityȱofȱsharedȱinterestsȱ.ȱ.ȱ.]
Thereȱwasȱnoȱandȱcontinuesȱnotȱtoȱbeȱanyȱbasicȱmodelȱofȱvillageȱstructures,ȱthough
certainȱbasicȱpatternsȱstillȱexistedȱatȱmostȱplaces.ȱTheȱconditionsȱofȱtheȱruralȱspace
matteredȱ greatlyȱ inȱ thatȱ regard,ȱ andȱ itȱ wasȱ alsoȱ definedȱ byȱ genderȬspecific
criteria.219ȱWeȱalsoȱwouldȱhaveȱtoȱconsiderȱtheȱextentȱtoȱwhichȱtheȱruralȱpopulation
wasȱ notȱ reallyȱ homogenous,ȱ asȱ weȱ haveȱ alreadyȱ observedȱ withȱ regardȱ toȱ the
217
ȱJeanȬPierreȱLeguay,ȱPauvresȱetȱmarginauxȱauȱMoyenȱAge.ȱGisserotȬhistoireȱ([Paris]:ȱJ.ȬP.ȱGisserot,
2009);ȱJeanȱChapelotȱandȱRobertȱFossier,ȱTheȱVillageȱ&ȱHouseȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱtrans.ȱHenryȱCleere
(1980;ȱBerkeley,ȱCA:ȱUniversityȱofȱCaliforniaȱPress,ȱ1985);ȱseeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱVillagesȱet
villageoisȱ auȱ Moyenȱ âge:ȱ Sociétéȱ desȱ historiensȱ médiévistesȱ deȱ l’enseignementȱ supérieurȱ publicȱ [21e
Congrès,ȱCaen,ȱjuinȱ1990].ȱPublicationsȱdeȱlaȱSorbonne.ȱSérieȱHistoireȱancienneȱetȱmédiévale,ȱ26
(Paris:ȱPublicationsȱdeȱlaȱSorbonne,ȱImpr.ȱgraphiqueȱdeȱl’Ouest,ȱ1992);ȱL’espaceȱruralȱauȱMoyenȱAge:
Portugal,ȱEspagne,ȱFrance,ȱXIIe–XIVeȱsiècle:ȱmélangesȱenȱl’honneurȱdeȱRobertȱDurand,ȱed.ȱMonique
BourinȱandȱStéphaneȱBoissellieȱ(Rennes:ȱPressesȱuniversitairesȱdeȱRennes,ȱ2002).
218
Renéȱ Noël,ȱ “Àȱ laȱ rechercheȱ duȱ villageȱ médiévaleȱ hierȱ etȱ aujourd’hui,”ȱ Autourȱ duȱ “village”:
Établissementsȱhumains,ȱfinagesȱetȱcommunautésȱruralesȱentreȱSeineȱetȱRhinȱ(IVe–XIIIeȱsiècles):ȱActesȱdu
colloqueȱinternationalȱdeȱLouvainȬlaȬNeuve,ȱ16–17ȱmaiȱ2003,ȱéd.ȱJeanȬMarieȱYanteȱetȱAnneȬMarie
BultotȬVerleysen.ȱ Universitéȱ catholiqueȱ deȱ Louvain.ȱ Publicationsȱ deȱ l’Institutȱ d’Études
Médiévales.ȱTextes,ȱÉtudes,ȱCongrès,ȱ25ȱ(LouvainȬlaȬNeuve:ȱUniversitéȱcatholiqueȱdeȱLouvain,
2010),ȱ3–75;ȱhereȱ23.ȱTheȱsubsequentȱtranslationȱisȱmyȱown.
219
SeeȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱSherriȱOlson.
treatmentȱofȱtheȱfarmerȱinȱWernherȱderȱGartenære’sȱHelmbrechtȱ(seeȱabove),ȱorȱas
weȱcanȱalsoȱperceiveȱinȱHartmannȱvonȱAue’sȱDerȱarmeȱHeinrichȱfromȱca.ȱ1200,
whereȱtheȱleprousȱlordȱHeinrichȱretiresȱtoȱtheȱoneȱfarmȱwhereȱheȱknowsȱthatȱhe
isȱwelcomeȱdespiteȱhisȱterribleȱappearance.ȱAfterȱall,ȱheȱhadȱendowedȱthatȱfarmer
withȱmanyȱprivilegesȱandȱlands,ȱgrantingȱhimȱevenȱtheȱstatusȱofȱaȱ“vrîerȱbûman”
(269;ȱ freeȱ farmer),ȱ elevatingȱ himȱ aboveȱ mostȱ otherȱ peasantsȱ atȱ thatȱ timeȱ who
continueȱtoȱsufferȱmanyȱhardships,ȱespeciallyȱbecauseȱtheyȱliveȱunderȱtheȱruleȱof
harshȱandȱmeanȬspiritedȱlordsȱ(273).ȱ
Aboveȱall,ȱtheȱnoblemanȱHeinrichȱhasȱfreedȱhimȱfromȱanyȱobligationsȱtoȱwork
forȱotherȱlords,ȱaȱcommonȱexperienceȱforȱfarmersȱinȱtheirȱdifficultȱexistenceȱbeing
subjectȱtoȱmanyȱdifferentȱmastersȱinȱtheȱcomplexȱfeudalȱsystemȱ(279–80).ȱAtȱthe
endȱofȱthisȱutopianȱverseȱnarrative,ȱonceȱHeinrichȱhasȱbeenȱmiraculouslyȱhealed
becauseȱofȱhisȱinnerȱconversionȱafterȱheȱhadȱrealizedȱtheȱtrueȱbeautyȱofȱlifeȱasȱaȱgift
givenȱbyȱGod,ȱasȱrepresentedȱbyȱtheȱpeasant’sȱdaughter,ȱwhoȱactuallyȱhadȱbeen
willingȱtoȱdieȱforȱHeinrich’sȱsakeȱtoȱhealȱhimȱfromȱleprosy,ȱtheȱfarmerȱexperiences
evenȱmoreȱprivileges.ȱHeinrichȱisȱsoȱgratefulȱwhatȱhasȱhappenedȱtoȱhimȱthatȱhe
finallyȱturnsȱoverȱallȱtheȱlandȱwhichȱtheȱfarmerȱmanagesȱasȱhisȱownȱproperty,
makingȱhimȱtoȱaȱtrulyȱfreeȱman,ȱalmostȱequalȱtoȱanȱaristocratȱ(1442–49).ȱThat,ȱin
turn,ȱmakesȱitȱpossibleȱforȱHeinrichȱtoȱmarryȱtheȱyoungȱwomanȱbecauseȱsheȱisȱa
freeȱwoman,ȱjustȱasȱherȱparentsȱwereȱ(1497).220
Weȱareȱcertainlyȱdealingȱwithȱanȱeroticȱscandal,ȱsinceȱitȱwouldȱhaveȱbeenȱentirely
unlikelyȱandȱuncalledȱforȱthatȱaȱhighȬrankingȱprinceȱwouldȱchooseȱaȱpeasant’s
daughterȱ asȱ hisȱ bride,ȱ disregardingȱ theȱ wideȱ rangeȱ ofȱ otherȱ nobleȱ candidates.
However,ȱsinceȱthisȱgirlȱhadȱprovenȱtoȱbeȱaȱChristȬlikeȱfigure,ȱwillingȱtoȱsacrifice
herselfȱforȱherȱlord’sȱrecovery,ȱandȱsinceȱweȱareȱhereȱdealingȱwithȱaȱmetaphorical
narrativeȱinȱwhichȱtheȱyoungȱwomanȱmightȱwellȱbeȱsimplyȱanȱiconȱofȱHeinrich’s
neglectedȱorȱwoundedȱsoul,ȱtheȱnarrativeȱreachesȱaȱhappyȱend.ȱ
LaterȱweȱwillȱalsoȱencounterȱtheȱmostȱproblematicȱcaseȱofȱGriseldaȱinȱBoccaccio’s
Decameron,ȱ butȱ hereȱ Iȱ wouldȱ likeȱ toȱ establishȱ quicklyȱ aȱ hugeȱ yetȱ meaningful
connectionȱtoȱtheȱearlyȱtwentiethȱcenturyȱwhenȱD.ȱH.ȱLawrenceȱpublishedȱhis
famousȱnovel,ȱLadyȱChatterly’sȱLoverȱ(1928),ȱalthoughȱpublicationȱwasȱsuppressed
inȱtheȱUnitedȱKingdomȱuntilȱ1960.ȱHereȱweȱfaceȱaȱmostȱscandalousȱcontent,ȱthe
eroticȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱaȱwomanȱfromȱtheȱaristocracy,ȱLadyȱChatterlyȱ(inȱreal
life:ȱ Ottolineȱ Morrell),ȱ andȱ aȱ manȱ fromȱ theȱ lowerȱ class,ȱ aȱ gamekeeper,ȱ Oliver
Mellor.ȱThisȱnovelȱbecameȱnotȱonlyȱaȱkeyȱworkȱduringȱtheȱsexualȱrevolutionȱofȱthe
1960s,ȱ butȱ itȱ alsoȱ servedȱ asȱ landmarkȱ literaryȱ masterpieceȱ toȱ challengeȱ most
220
HartmannȱvonȱAue,ȱDerȱarmeȱHeinrich,ȱed.ȱHermannȱPaul.ȱ16th,ȱnewlyȱrev.ȱed.ȱbyȱKurtȱGärtner.
AltdeutscheȱTextbibliothek,ȱ3ȱ(Tübingen:ȱNiemeyer,ȱ1996);ȱseeȱalsoȱmyȱcontributionȱtoȱtheȱpresent
volume.ȱ Forȱ aȱ goodȱ Englishȱ trans.,ȱ seeȱ Theȱ Completeȱ Worksȱ ofȱ Hartmannȱ vonȱ Aue,ȱ trans.ȱ with
commentaryȱbyȱFrankȱTobin,ȱKimȱVivian,ȱandȱRichardȱH.ȱLawson.ȱArthurianȱRomances,ȱTales,
andȱLyricȱPoetryȱ(UniversityȱPark:ȱTheȱPennsylvaniaȱStateȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2001).
Introduction 95
seriouslyȱtheȱtraditionalȱsocialȱstructure.221ȱRuralȱspace,ȱeroticism,ȱsocialȱcriticism,
andȱtheȱliberatingȱforceȱofȱsexualityȱmergeȱpowerfullyȱinȱLawerence’sȱnovel,ȱbut
itȱobviouslyȱhadȱsignificantȱmedievalȱandȱearlyȬmodernȱforerunners.
Butȱletȱusȱnotȱleaveȱbehindȱthisȱparticularȱaspectȱwithoutȱconfirmingȱthatȱthe
caseȱofȱaȱprinceȱmarryingȱaȱpeasantȱdaughterȱactuallyȱhappenedȱatȱleastȱonceȱin
theȱMiddleȱAges.ȱTheȱlegendaryȱCzechȱchroniclerȱDalimil—theȱauthorȱcannotȱbe
verified—reportsȱinȱhisȱworkȱfromȱtheȱearlyȱfourteenthȱcenturyȱ(ca.ȱ1308–1311)
thatȱtheȱBohemianȱDukeȱUdalrichȱ(966–1034),ȱorȱUlrich,ȱmarriedȱaȱlocalȱpeasant
woman,ȱBozena,ȱinsteadȱofȱaȱGermanȱ princessȱbecause,ȱasȱheȱexplainedȱtoȱhis
irritatedȱ courtiers,ȱ anȱ aristocraticȱ womanȱ speakingȱ theȱ Germanȱ tongueȱ would
teachȱthatȱlanguageȱtoȱherȱchildren,ȱinsteadȱofȱCzech,ȱwhichȱthusȱcouldȱendanger
theȱrealmȱaltogether.222
Thisȱpassageȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱsoȱexceptionalȱandȱmeaningfulȱforȱourȱdiscussionȱthat
itȱseemsȱcertainlyȱimportantȱenoughȱtoȱexamineȱitȱaȱbitȱmoreȱcloselyȱthroughȱa
closeȱ readingȱ ofȱ theȱ originalȱ Middleȱ Highȱ Germanȱ text—theȱ Czechȱ versionȱ is
printedȱonȱtheȱfacingȱpagesȱinȱtheȱmodernȱedition.ȱTheȱaccountȱtellsȱusȱthatȱwhile
DukeȱUlrichȱwasȱhuntingȱnearȱtheȱmonasteryȱofȱPostolopirtenses,ȱheȱcameȱacross
221
SeeȱtheȱarticlesȱinȱCriticalȱEssaysȱonȱD.ȱH.ȱLawrence,ȱed.ȱDennisȱJacksonȱandȱFledaȱBrownȱJackson.
CriticalȱEssaysȱonȱBritishȱLiteratureȱ(Boston,ȱMA:ȱG.ȱK.ȱHall,ȱ1988).ȱForȱanȱexcellentȱoverview,ȱsee
theȱarticleȱinȱWikipediaȱonlineȱat:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Chatterley%27s_Loverȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱOct.ȱ4,ȱ2011).
222
Ryýmovanáȱkronikaȱ²eska:ȱdiȱtutschȱkronikȱvonȱBehemlant,ȱed.ȱJ.ȱJire²ek.ȱFontesȱrerumȱBohemicarum,
3ȱ(Prague:ȱNáklademȱnadáaníȱFrantiškaȱPalackého,ȱ1882),ȱ82–84.ȱSeeȱalsoȱDalimilsȱChronikȱvon
Böhmen,ȱed.ȱVenceslavȱHanka.ȱBibliothekȱdesȱLitterarischenȱVereinsȱinȱStuttgart,ȱXLVIIIȱ(Stuttgart:
Literarischerȱ Verein,ȱ 1859),ȱ 96–97ȱ (chapterȱ 41).ȱ Thereȱ areȱ aȱ numberȱ ofȱ smallerȱ differencesȱ in
spelling,ȱhowever.ȱThisȱeditionȱcanȱnowȱbeȱfoundȱonlineȱinȱWikisourceȱat:
http://de.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=Seite:1859_Dalimils_Chronik_von_B%C3%B6hme
n.djvu/1&action=edit&redlink=1ȱ(lastȱacccessedȱonȱNov.ȱ1,ȱ2011).ȱAsȱtoȱthisȱchronicle,ȱwhichȱis
veryȱhardȱtoȱtraceȱinȱourȱlibraries,ȱseeȱMarieȱBláhová,ȱ“DiȱtutschȱkronikȱvonȱBhemȱlant,”ȱThe
EncyclopediaȱofȱtheȱMedievalȱChronicle,ȱed.ȱGraemeȱDunphyȱ(LeidenȱandȱBoston:ȱBrill,ȱ2010),ȱvol.ȱ1,
521–22.ȱIȱdiscoveredȱthisȱreferenceȱinȱtheȱbookȱmanuscriptȱbyȱLenȱScales,ȱTheȱShapingȱofȱGerman
Identity:ȱAuthorityȱandȱCrisis,ȱ1245–1414ȱ(Cambridge:ȱCambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱforthcoming),
whileȱevaluatingȱthisȱnewȱstudy.ȱIȱamȱgratefulȱtoȱtheȱpublisherȱforȱȱprovidingȱmeȱwithȱaȱcopyȱof
theȱmanuscript.ȱForȱfurtherȱinformationȱonȱthisȱCzechȱPrinceȱUdalrich,ȱorȱUlrich,ȱsee
http://www.scottsloan.net/webȬcontent/Report%20009,%20Web%20Cards/ps04_323.htmlȱ (last
accessedȱonȱOct.ȱ22,ȱ2011).ȱTheȱCzechȱversionȱhasȱsurvivedȱinȱthreeȱdifferentȱversions,ȱfollowed
byȱtwoȱGermanȱverseȱtranslationsȱ(betweenȱ1342ȱandȱ1346)ȱandȱoneȱversionȱinȱproseȱ(beforeȱ1444).
Vlastimilȱ Brom,ȱ Derȱ deutscheȱ Dalimil:ȱ Untersuchungenȱ zurȱ gereimtenȱ deutschenȱ Übersetzungȱ der
alttschechischenȱDalimilȬChronikȱ(Brno:ȱMasarykovaȱuniverzita,ȱ2006).ȱForȱtheȱliteraryȬhistorical
reception,ȱseeȱWalterȱSchamschula,ȱGeschichteȱderȱtschechischenȱLiteratur.ȱVol.ȱI:ȱVonȱdenȱAnfängen
bisȱzurȱAufklärungszeit.ȱBausteineȱzurȱGeschichteȱderȱLiteraturȱbeiȱdenȱSlaven,ȱ36.1ȱ(Cologneȱand
Vienna:ȱBöhlauȱVerlag,ȱ1990),ȱ83–86.ȱNowȱseeȱalsoȱJanaȱNechutová,ȱDieȱlateinischeȱLiteraturȱdes
MittelaltersȱinȱBöhmen,ȱtrans.ȱfromȱtheȱCzechȱ[intoȱGerman]ȱbyȱHildegardȱBokováȱandȱVáclavȱBok.
BausteineȱzurȱSlavischenȱPhilologieȱundȱKulturgeschichte,ȱNeueȱFolge,ȱReiheȱA,ȱ59ȱ(Cologne,
Weimar,ȱandȱVienna:ȱBöhlauȱVerlag,ȱ2007),ȱ160–61.ȱMoreȱliteratureȱcanȱbeȱfoundȱthere,ȱn.ȱ255.
aȱ beautifulȱ youngȱ woman,ȱ calledȱ Bosenaȱ (Bozena)ȱ whoȱ wasȱ barefootȱ and
sleeveless—perhapsȱtheȱchroniclerȱintendedȱtoȱalludeȱtoȱtheȱpastourelleȱtradition
whenȱ heȱ introducedȱ thisȱ symbolicȱ figure,ȱ symbolicȱ especiallyȱ forȱ theȱ Czech
nationalismȱ whichȱ theȱ chroniclerȱ isȱ preachingȱ hereȱ forȱ specificȱ politicalȱ and
economicȱreasons.223ȱUlrichȱisȱimmediatelyȱsmittenȱbyȱherȱandȱdoesȱnotȱhesitate
oneȱ momentȱ toȱ marryȱ her.ȱ Asȱ theȱ narratorȱ emphasizes,ȱ sheȱ struckȱ himȱ both
throughȱherȱphysicalȱattractivenessȱand,ȱatȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱherȱmodesty,ȱi.e.,ȱher
nobleȱbehavior:ȱ“Seȱwazȱeinȱgarȱschonȱpurinȱgnant,ȱ/ȱsieȱhetȱdobyȱschemlicheȱsit”
(6–7;ȱsheȱwasȱaȱtrulyȱbeautifulȱpeasantȱwoman,ȱandȱyetȱsheȱdisplayedȱaȱmodest
behavior).ȱMoreover,ȱasȱweȱalsoȱlearn,ȱBosenaȱdemonstratedȱgreatȱvirtues,ȱwhich
remindsȱusȱaltogetherȱofȱBoccaccio’sȱGriseldaȱfigure.ȱ
DukeȱUlrich’sȱprincesȱgrumbled,ȱhowever,ȱ aboutȱhisȱstrangeȱdecisionȱnotȱto
chooseȱaȱGermanȱnobleȱlady,ȱorȱatȱleastȱaȱwomanȱofȱaristocraticȱdescent.ȱButȱtheir
lordȱthenȱteachesȱthemȱaȱpowerfulȱlesson.ȱHisȱcommentsȱareȱsoȱnoteworthyȱand
unusualȱinȱtheȱmedievalȱcontextȱthatȱtheyȱdeserveȱtoȱbeȱquotedȱatȱlength:
Erȱsprach:ȱ“Erȱherrin,ȱirȱsullitȱhorin!
Garȱansichtigȱvrownȱvzȱdenȱpauwerinnȱwern.
Dyȱgeburenȱnemenȱderȱvirnemerȱtochtir,
dyȱmachtentȱvorȱaltenȱrichtumȱedelȱdrotir,
vndȱoftȱstraftȱdyȱarmutȱdyȱgeburscheȱedelkeit.
Wirȱsinȱalȱkomenȱvonȱeinemȱvatirȱher;
derȱnennetȱsichȱedil,ȱderȱvilȱsilbirsȱhat.
Dyȱedelȱmitȱderȱgeburistheitȱgemiszchitȱstat.
SechtȱdarvmȱminȱwibȱBosena!
Vilȱmerȱwilȱichȱlachinȱda
mitȱeinerȱbemischinȱpuorin,
wenȱeinesȱfremdenȱkönigesȱtochtirȱgewin.
Einemȱiclichinȱistȱdazȱherczeȱczuȱsinerȱzcunginȱgruz,
darvmbȱwirtȱeinȱvremdeȱnummerȱminȱgenoz,
nochȱminenȱlutinȱwirtȱsiȱnitȱgetrwe.
Fremdesȱgesindeȱwirtȱhabinȱeinȱfromdein,
minȱkinderȱwirtȱsyȱdeutschȱlerin
vndȱirȱgewonheitȱvirkerin.
Dovonȱanȱderȱzcunge
wirtȱeinȱgrozȱzcweiunge,
vndȱdemȱlandeȱczuȱhant
einȱrechtȱvirderbuizeȱbekant.
Irȱherin,ȱirȱwiszitȱnitȱeuwirȱwegirs,
erȱhabitȱmirȱminȱheiratȱvirȱwegir.
223
Alfredȱ Thomas,ȱ Anne’sȱ Bohemia:ȱ Czechȱ Literatureȱ andȱ Society,ȱ 1310–1240.ȱ Forewordȱ byȱ David
Wallace.ȱMedievalȱCultures,ȱ13ȱ(MinneapolisȱandȱLondon:ȱUniversityȱofȱMinnesotaȱPress,ȱ1998),
50–54.
Introduction 97
Woȱwoltȱerȱnemenȱtulmetschin.
wanȱerȱstetȱvorȱminirȱfrowenȱdeutschin?” (13–38)
[Heȱsaid:ȱ“Lords,ȱlistenȱtoȱme!
Peasantȱwomenȱturnȱintoȱreallyȱbeautifulȱladies.
Theȱpeasantsȱmarryȱtheȱnobles’ȱdaughters,
theyȱcreatedȱnobleȱrulersȱinȱcontrastȱtoȱancientȱnobles,
andȱoftenȱpovertyȱshamesȱtheȱboorishȱaristocracy.
Weȱallȱdescendȱfromȱoneȱfather;
heȱwhoȱhasȱmuchȱsilverȱcallsȱhimselfȱnoble.
Theȱnoblesȱdisplayȱmanyȱboorishȱcharacterȱtraits.
Iȱratherȱpreferȱtoȱlaugh
togetherȱwithȱaȱCzechȱpeasantȱwoman
thanȱwithȱtheȱdaughterȱofȱaȱforeignȱkingȱ(whomȱIȱmightȱhaveȱwon).
Everyoneȱenjoysȱspeakingȱfromȱhisȱheartȱinȱhisȱownȱtongue,
whereforeȱaȱforeignȱwomanȱwillȱneverȱbecomeȱmyȱwife,
norȱwillȱsheȱ[ever]ȱgainȱmyȱpeople’sȱlove.
Aȱforeignȱwomanȱwillȱhaveȱforeignȱservants,
sheȱwillȱteachȱmyȱchildrenȱtheȱGermanȱlanguage
andȱchangeȱtheirȱ[natural]ȱbehavior.
Becauseȱofȱtheȱdifferenceȱinȱlanguages
wouldȱdevelopȱaȱgreatȱconflict,
andȱtheȱcountryȱwouldȱthen
soonȱexperienceȱdamage.
Myȱlords,ȱyouȱdoȱnotȱknowȱwhatȱyouȱareȱrequesting,
acceptȱmyȱweddingȱasȱaȱgoodȱblessing.
Whereȱwouldȱyouȱfindȱaȱtranslator,
ifȱyouȱwereȱtoȱstandȱbeforeȱmyȱGermanȱwife?”]
Subsequentlyȱ theȱ chroniclerȱ simplyȱ continuesȱ withȱ hisȱ genealogicalȱ overview,

withoutȱreturningȱtoȱtheȱcriticalȱissueȱofȱaȱpeasant’sȱdaughterȱsittingȱonȱtheȱthrone
withȱherȱhusband,ȱtheȱCzechȱduke.ȱWhetherȱlegendaryȱorȱnot,ȱhereȱweȱconfront
aȱmostȱcuriousȱcaseȱwhereȱnationalȱidentityȱandȱtheȱabilityȱtoȱspeakȱtheȱnative
tongueȱoverruleȱanyȱconcernsȱtoȱfindȱaȱbrideȱwhichȱmightȱfitȱtheȱprince’sȱsocial
rank.ȱ Itȱ mightȱ beȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ earliestȱ examplesȱ inȱ Czechȱ historiographyȱ ofȱ a
burgeoningȱnationalismȱwhichȱfavorsȱnativeȱpeasantȱwomenȱoverȱforeignȱGerman
princesses.
Occasionallyȱweȱalsoȱhearȱofȱcriticalȱcommentsȱaboutȱtheȱarroganceȱdominatingȱthe
upperȱsocialȱclassesȱwhoȱinappropriatelyȱdespiseȱandȱridiculeȱtheȱruralȱpopulation,
asȱweȱhaveȱalreadyȱobservedȱinȱtheȱcommentsȱbyȱHugoȱvonȱTrimberg.ȱTheȱmonk
BartholomewȱofȱSaintȱFucien,ȱalsoȱknownȱasȱReclusȱdeȱMolliens,ȱwhoȱlivedȱinȱthe
regionȱofȱAmiensȱduringȱtheȱfirstȱhalfȱofȱtheȱthirteenthȱcenturyȱandȱcomposedȱthe
treatiseȱMiserereȱandȱtheȱRomanȱdeȱCarité,ȱchastisedȱtheȱaristocratsȱinȱtheirȱbehavior
andȱprejudiceȱasȱtoȱtheirȱownȱpublicȱesteem,ȱwarningȱthemȱtherebyȱthatȱbeingȱa
freeȱmanȱwouldȱnotȱbeȱaȱprioriȱanȱaristocraticȱprivilege.224
Inȱgeneral,ȱhowever,ȱitȱwillȱremainȱaȱdifficultȱtaskȱforȱhistorians,ȱanthropologists,
andȱarcheologistsȱtoȱdetermineȱpreciselyȱhowȱtheȱruralȱpopulationȱlivedȱdueȱtoȱa
definiteȱlackȱofȱsourcesȱandȱevidence.225ȱAfterȱall,ȱweȱcannotȱevenȱclaimȱthatȱthe
peasantsȱlivedȱallȱunderȱfairlyȱsimilarȱeconomicȱconditions.ȱFarȱfromȱit;ȱthereȱwere
alwaysȱremarkableȱsocialȬeconomicȱdifferences,ȱleadingȱtoȱaȱconsiderableȱclass
demarcationȱevenȱwithinȱvillages,ȱespeciallyȱ whenȱweȱcanȱclearlyȱdetectȱthose
meliores,ȱ toȱ whomȱ obviouslyȱ oldȱ Helmbrechtȱ inȱ Wernher’sȱ didacticȱ narrative
belonged.226ȱHowȱtoȱapproachȱtheȱtaskȱofȱlearningȱmoreȱaboutȱtheȱpeasantȱclass
dependsȱveryȱmuchȱonȱone’sȱownȱscholarlyȱdiscipline,ȱandȱthereȱare,ȱindeed,ȱmany
unusualȱbutȱeffectiveȱpaths,ȱsuchȱasȱbyȱmeansȱofȱstudyingȱsermonȱliterature,ȱin
whichȱmanyȱconcernsȱbyȱtheȱparishȱpriestsȱaboutȱtheȱbadȱbehavior,ȱsinfulness,ȱand
lackȱofȱpietyȱofȱtheirȱflockȱwereȱexpressed.227ȱButȱthenȱweȱalsoȱknowȱmuchȱabout
medievalȱpeasantsȱthroughȱlawȱbooks,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱSaxon’sȱMirror,228ȱorȱthrough
historicalȱdocumentsȱspecifyingȱpricesȱforȱagrarianȱproducts,ȱarcheologicalȱdata,
chronicles,ȱandȱindirectȱsources,ȱincludingȱliteraryȱtextsȱandȱartȱworks.229
Muchȱworkȱstillȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱdoneȱinȱthatȱarea,ȱandȱmanyȱnewȱperspectivesȱdeserve
toȱ beȱ consideredȱ inȱ futureȱ research,ȱ insofarȱ asȱ technology,ȱ plantingȱ rhythms,
resources,ȱmilitaryȱprotection,ȱandȱclimateȱalsoȱplayedȱmajorȱroles.230ȱAndȱweȱalso
willȱhaveȱtoȱpayȱmuchȱcloserȱattentionȱtoȱtheȱinteractionsȱbetweenȱtheȱpeasants
224
PeterȱDinzelbacher,ȱEuropaȱimȱHochmittelalterȱ1050–1250:ȱEineȱKulturȬȱundȱMentalitätsgeschichte.
KulturȱundȱMentalitätȱ(Darmstadt:ȱPrimusȱVerlag,ȱ2003),ȱ141–42;ȱcf.ȱEvelyneȱMarieȱGabrielle
Maupas,ȱEtudeȱsurȱlesȱoeuvresȱduȱRenclusȱdeȱMoliensȱ(romansȱdeȱ“Carité”ȱetȱdeȱ“Miserere”)ȱ(Fribourg,
Switzerland:ȱn.ȱp.,ȱ1972).
225
RobertȱDeliège,ȱ“Laȱnotionȱdeȱvillageȱenȱethnologieȱetȱsesȱrapportsȱàȱl’histoire,”ȱAutourȱduȱ“village”
(seeȱnoteȱ218),ȱ77–83;ȱhereȱ81.ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱotherȱcontributionsȱtoȱthisȱvaluableȱvolume.
226
W(erner)ȱRösener,ȱ“Bauer,ȱBauerntum,”ȱLexikonȱdesȱMittelalters,ȱvol.ȱ1,ȱfasc.ȱ8ȱ(MunichȱandȱZurich:
Artemis,ȱ1980),ȱcols.ȱ1563–76;ȱesp.ȱcols.ȱ1567–58.
227
AaronȱJ.ȱGurjewitsch,ȱMittelalterlicheȱVolkskultur,ȱtrans.ȱfromȱtheȱRussianȱtoȱGermanȱbyȱMatthias
Springerȱ(1981;ȱMunich:ȱC.ȱH.ȱBeck,ȱ1987),ȱ125–66.
228
TheȱSaxonȱMirror:ȱAȱSachsenspiegelȱofȱtheȱFourteenthȱCentury,ȱtrans.ȱMariaȱDobozy.ȱTheȱMiddleȱAges
Seriesȱ(Philadelphia:ȱUniversityȱofȱPennsylvaniaȱPress,ȱ1999).ȱSheȱemphasizesȱtheȱenormousȱvalue
ofȱthisȱlawȱbookȱasȱaȱ“sensitiveȱbarometerȱofȱsocialȱvalues.ȱTheȱcustomsȱwereȱgroundedȱinȱthe
daily,ȱmaterialȱaffairsȱofȱSaxonȱagrarianȱcommunities,ȱandȱbecauseȱtheyȱregulatedȱlandȱrights,
communityȱcooperation,ȱandȱneighborlyȱrelations,ȱtheyȱrevealȱaȱgreatȱdealȱaboutȱsocialȱpriorities”
(24).ȱ
229
Seeȱtheȱvariousȱarticlesȱonȱspecificȱaspectsȱpertainingȱtoȱmedievalȱpeasantryȱinȱvol.ȱ1ȱofȱtheȱLexikon
desȱMittelaltersȱ(seeȱnoteȱ226),ȱfollowingȱRösener’sȱarticle.
230
DelȱSweeney,ȱAgricultureȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges:ȱTechnology,ȱPractice,ȱandȱRepresentation.ȱMiddleȱAges
Seriesȱ (Philadelphia:ȱ Universityȱ ofȱ Pennsylvaniaȱ Press,ȱ 1995).ȱ Seeȱ alsoȱ Marcelȱ Mazoyerȱ and
LaurenceȱRoudart,ȱAȱHistoryȱofȱWorldȱAgriculture:ȱFromȱtheȱNeolithicȱAgeȱtoȱtheȱCurrentȱCrisis,ȱtrans.
JamesȱH.ȱMembrezȱ(1997;ȱNewȱYork:ȱMonthlyȱReviewȱPress,ȱ2006).
Introduction 99
andȱ theȱ representativesȱ ofȱ allȱ otherȱ socialȱ classes.ȱ Weȱ knowȱ forȱ sureȱ thatȱ the
relationshipsȱ wereȱ neverȱ restfulȱ orȱ harmonious,ȱ andȱ ultimatelyȱ theȱ oldȱ world
collapsedȱandȱgaveȱwayȱtoȱaȱnewȱoneȱbecauseȱofȱmassiveȱprotestsȱandȱrevolutions,
suchȱasȱinȱFranceȱinȱ1789ȱandȱinȱRussiaȱinȱ1918.231
Surprisingly,ȱweȱcanȱfindȱoutȱmuchȱmoreȱaboutȱtheȱpeasantȱworldȱinȱtheȱMiddle
Agesȱthanȱisȱcommonlyȱassumedȱbecauseȱspecializedȱresearchȱhasȱuncoveredȱa
plethoraȱofȱsourcesȱthatȱyieldȱextensiveȱinformation,ȱwhetherȱdirectlyȱorȱindirectly.
Weȱcanȱsayȱmuchȱaboutȱpatternsȱofȱpeasantȱsettlementsȱandȱdwellings,ȱclothing,
food,ȱandȱwork,ȱsocialȱstructuresȱevenȱwithinȱpeasantȱvillages,ȱtheȱlawsȱthatȱruled
theȱpeasantȱsociety,ȱandȱaboutȱprofoundȱtensionsȱandȱconflictsȱemergingȱamong
theȱpeasantsȱduringȱtheȱlateȱMiddleȱAges.ȱAsȱWernerȱRösenerȱalertsȱus,ȱ
Theȱmedievalȱvillageȱcommunity,ȱoftenȱregardedȱasȱaȱstrongholdȱofȱequality,ȱharmony
andȱpeacefulȱsocialȱlife,ȱwasȱnot,ȱinȱreality,ȱaȱmonolithicȱsocietyȱofȱequalsȱwhoȱvalued
theȱ aimsȱ andȱ goalsȱ ofȱ theȱ communityȱ aboveȱ theirȱ personalȱ interests.ȱ Theȱ social
compositionȱofȱtheȱpeasantryȱinȱgeneralȱandȱtheȱvillageȱcommunityȱinȱparticularȱwere
highlyȱdiversifiedȱandȱconsistedȱofȱaȱvarietyȱofȱdifferentȱlayersȱandȱlevels.232
AsȱtoȱtheȱsituationȱinȱtheȱlateȱMiddleȱAges,ȱweȱcanȱobserveȱthatȱtwoȱdevelopments
joinedȱhands.ȱOneȱdevelopmentȱledȱtoȱaȱdeepȱsenseȱofȱcrisisȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱtheȱBlack
Death,ȱmanyȱwars,ȱreligiousȱconflicts,ȱandȱchangesȱinȱtheȱpopulationȱatȱlarge.ȱThe
numerousȱrevoltsȱandȱuprisingsȱamongȱtheȱpeasantsȱandȱtheȱlowerȱsocialȱclasses
inȱ theȱ urbanȱ centersȱ powerfullyȱ reflectedȱ thisȱ profoundȱ feelingȱ ofȱ anxietyȱ and
insecurity.ȱ Theȱ otherȱ developmentȱ pertainsȱ toȱ aȱ generalȱ growthȱ inȱ economic
wealthȱevenȱamongȱtheȱpeasantry.ȱInȱRösener’sȱwords:ȱ“thereȱisȱgoodȱreasonȱto
believeȱ that,ȱ onȱ theȱ whole,ȱ theirȱ standardȱ ofȱ livingȱ improved,ȱ ratherȱ than
worsened,ȱduringȱtheȱlateȱMiddleȱAgesȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱmostȱpeasantsȱprobablyȱsufferedȱless
thanȱtheirȱancestors.ȱInȱanyȱcase,ȱtheyȱheldȱmoreȱlandȱthanȱbefore,ȱandȱtheyȱhad
largerȱpasturesȱforȱtheirȱcattleȱandȱsheepȱthanȱatȱtheȱbeginningȱofȱtheȱfourteenth
centuryȱwhenȱlandȱwasȱinȱmuchȱshorterȱsupply”ȱ(274).ȱ
231
JohnȱMarkoff,ȱTheȱAbolitionȱofȱFeudalism:ȱPeasants,ȱLords,ȱandȱLegislatorsȱinȱtheȱFrenchȱRevolution
(UniversityȱPark,ȱPA:ȱPennsylvaniaȱStateȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1996);ȱCorinneȱGaudin,ȱRulingȱPeasants:
RulingȱPeasants:ȱVillageȱandȱEstateȱinȱLateȱImperialȱRussiaȱ(DeKalb,ȱIL:ȱNorthernȱIllinoisȱUniversity
Press,ȱ2007).ȱThisȱtopicȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱhuge,ȱofȱcourse,ȱandȱIȱcannotȱdoȱjusticeȱtoȱitȱhereȱwithout
runningȱtheȱriskȱofȱlosingȱanyȱfocusȱinȱtheȱfurtherȱexaminationȱofȱtheȱlargerȱtopic.
232
Rösener,ȱPeasantsȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ216),ȱ191.
26.ȱHeinrichȱWittenwiler’sȱRing
Inȱ manyȱ respectsȱ thisȱ ratherȱ amorphous,ȱ ifȱ notȱ dialecticalȱ impressionȱ canȱ be
powerfullyȱconfirmedȱifȱweȱconsultȱtheȱfamousȱallegoricalȱandȱsatiricalȱromance,
DerȱRing,ȱbyȱtheȱConstanceȱpublicȱnotaryȱHeinrichȱWittenwilerȱfromȱca.ȱ1400.233
Sinceȱthereȱisȱsoȱmuchȱresearchȱonȱthisȱworkȱalready,ȱfocusingȱonȱtheȱpoet’sȱclaim
onȱveracity,ȱtheȱallegoricalȱinterpretationȱofȱtheȱworld,ȱethicalȱandȱmoralȱissues,
sexualȱviolence,ȱandȱtheȱlackȱofȱcommunicationȱevenȱinȱsmallȬknitȱcommunities,
itȱmightȱbeȱenoughȱhereȱtoȱreflectȱonlyȱbrieflyȱonȱthisȱtextȱandȱitsȱelaborationȱon
theȱfunctionȱ ofȱ ruralȱspace.ȱTheȱsatireȱisȱcertainlyȱdirectedȱagainstȱtheȱpeasant
population,ȱbutȱultimatelyȱWittenwilerȱreallyȱintendedȱDerȱRingȱasȱanȱallegorical
mirrorȱofȱhisȱworldȱinȱitsȱencyclopedicȱexpanse.ȱStupidity,ȱignorance,ȱlustfulness,
wrath,ȱenvy,ȱetc.ȱdominateȱtheȱlivesȱofȱtheȱpeasantȱfigures,ȱandȱweȱcouldȱcertainly
readȱtheȱromanceȱasȱanotherȱmirrorȱofȱtheȱSevenȱDeadlyȱSins.234ȱ
Theȱbasicȱplotȱlineȱaddressesȱtheȱloveȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱtheȱyoungȱpeasant
BertschiȱTriefnasȱ(BertȱwithȱtheȱDrippingȱNose)ȱandȱtheȱmaidȱMätzliȱRüerenzumpf
(MätzliȱTouchȱtheȱPenis).ȱUltimatelyȱtheyȱcanȱmarry,ȱandȱaȱmajorȱsectionȱofȱthe
textȱisȱdominatedȱbyȱgeneralȱteachingsȱimportantȱforȱyoungȱpeopleȱwhoȱareȱabout
toȱestablishȱaȱfamilyȱonȱtheirȱown.ȱButȱthenȱaȱconflictȱeruptsȱduringȱtheȱwedding
festivities,ȱandȱsinceȱtheseȱcannotȱbeȱcontrolledȱandȱmaintained,ȱviolenceȱfollows
suit,ȱ andȱ soonȱ enoughȱ theȱ villageȱ isȱ involvedȱ inȱ aȱ veritableȱ warȱ againstȱ their
neighbors,ȱwhoȱhadȱcausedȱtheȱdisruption.ȱAgain,ȱweȱhearȱofȱlengthyȱinstructions,
thisȱtimeȱaboutȱhowȱtoȱwageȱaȱwar,ȱbutȱtheyȱdoȱnotȱhelpȱtheȱvillagersȱsinceȱthey
areȱatȱtheȱendȱcompletelyȱdefeatedȱandȱkilledȱdownȱtoȱtheȱlastȱperson,ȱexceptȱfor
theȱmaleȱprotagonist,ȱwhoȱcanȱpretendȱtoȱhaveȱlostȱhisȱmind,ȱwhileȱtheȱopponents
besiegeȱ himȱ inȱ anȱ attic.ȱ Onceȱ heȱ hasȱ witnessedȱ theȱ horribleȱ Armageddon,
includingȱhisȱdeadȱwife,ȱheȱwithdrawsȱintoȱtheȱBlackȱForestȱtoȱleadȱtheȱlifeȱofȱan
hermit,ȱyetȱwithoutȱhavingȱreallyȱlearnedȱanyȱlesson.235
233
Heinrichȱ Wittenwiler,ȱ “Derȱ Ring”,ȱ herausgegeben,ȱ übersetztȱ undȱ kommentiertȱ vonȱ Bernhard
Sowinski.ȱHelfantȱTexte,ȱTȱ9ȱ(Stuttgart:ȱhelfantȱedition,ȱ1988);ȱseeȱalsoȱHeinrichȱWittenwiler,ȱDer
Ring.ȱ Frühneuhochdeutscheȱ /ȱ Neuhochdeutsch.ȱ Nachȱ demȱ Textȱ vonȱ Edmundȱ Wießnerȱ ins
NeuhochdeutscheȱübersetztȱundȱherausgegebenȱvonȱHorstȱBrunnerȱ(Stuttgart:ȱReclam,ȱ1991);ȱsee
alsoȱEckhartȱConradȱLutz,ȱSpiritualisȱfornicatio:ȱHeinrichȱWittenwiler,ȱseineȱWeltȱundȱseinȱ‘Ring’.
Konstanzerȱ GeschichtsȬȱ undȱ Rechtsquellen,ȱ XXXIIȱ (Sigmaringen:ȱ Thorbecke,ȱ 1990);ȱ Albrecht
Classen,ȱ“HeinrichȱWittenwiler,”ȱGermanȱWritersȱofȱtheȱRenaissanceȱandȱReformation,ȱ1280–1580,ȱed.
JamesȱHardinȱandȱMaxȱReinhart.ȱDictionaryȱofȱLiteraryȱBiography,ȱ179ȱ(Detroit,ȱWashington,ȱDC,
andȱLondon:ȱGaleȱResearch,ȱ1997),ȱ326–31.
234
TheȱSevenȱDeadlyȱSins,ȱed.ȱRichardȱNewhauserȱ(seeȱnoteȱ172).
235
See,ȱforȱexample,ȱUlrichȱGaier,ȱSatire.ȱStudienȱzuȱNeidhart,ȱWittenwiler,ȱBrantȱundȱzurȱsatirischen
Schreibartȱ(Tübingen:ȱNiemeyer,ȱ1967);ȱWinfriedȱSchlaffke,ȱHeinrichȱWittenweilersȱRing:ȱKomposition
undȱ Gehalt.ȱ Philologischeȱ Studienȱ undȱ Quellen,ȱ 50ȱ (Berlin:ȱ Erichȱ Schmidt,ȱ 1969);ȱ Christoph
Gruchot,ȱ Heinrichȱ Wittenwilersȱ “Ring”:ȱ Konzeptȱ undȱ Konstruktionȱ einesȱ Lehrbuches.ȱ Göppinger
Introduction 101
Theȱreaderȱisȱconfrontedȱwithȱaȱdenseȱandȱdetailedȱlookȱintoȱtheȱruralȱspaceȱof
aȱpeasantȱpopulation,ȱthoughȱcertainlyȱrefractedȱthroughȱtheȱironicȱandȱsatirical
perspectiveȱwhichȱtheȱauthorȱconsistentlyȱpursues.ȱWeȱfollowȱeventsȱinsideȱand
outsideȱofȱtheȱvillage,ȱweȱobserveȱtheȱyoungȱloverȱpursuingȱhisȱbelovedȱbyȱday
andȱ night,ȱ whenȱ heȱ evenȱ climbsȱ onȱ theȱ roofȱ ofȱ herȱ parents’ȱ house.ȱ Aȱ village
medicalȱdoctorȱfiguresȱquiteȱprominently,ȱandȱalsoȱaȱmeanȬspiritedȱneighboring
knight,ȱNeidhart,ȱwhoȱfightsȱinȱtheȱfirstȱsectionȱofȱtheȱromanceȱagainstȱBertschi
andȱhisȱcompanions,ȱthoughȱheȱresortsȱtoȱdeceptiveȱstrategiesȱtoȱhurt,ȱifȱnotȱkill,
hisȱ peasantȱ opponents.ȱ Atȱ theȱ endȱ whenȱ theȱ warȱ isȱ aboutȱ toȱ begin,ȱ the
Lappenhausenȱ peasantsȱ requestȱ helpȱ fromȱ allȱ kindsȱ ofȱ parties,ȱ butȱ theȱ cities
assembleȱandȱdecideȱinȱunisonȱtoȱrefrainȱfromȱthisȱconflictȱwhichȱtheyȱregardȱas
foolishȱandȱdangerousȱatȱtheȱsameȱtime.ȱConsideringȱtheȱdevastatingȱoutcome,ȱthis
provesȱtoȱbeȱaȱwiseȱmove,ȱandȱitȱunderscores,ȱonceȱagain,ȱtheȱsignificantȱdistance
betweenȱtheȱurbanȱandȱtheȱruralȱworld.ȱAfterȱall,ȱlateȬmedievalȱliteratureȱisȱfilled
withȱexamplesȱofȱurbanȱwritersȱridiculingȱpeasantsȱinȱeveryȱpossibleȱfashion,ȱwhile
positiveȱdepictionsȱareȱrare,ȱthoughȱtheyȱalsoȱexist.236ȱ
Wittenwilerȱ presentsȱ allȱ hisȱ peasantȱ figuresȱ asȱ vulgar,ȱ uninhibited,ȱ crude,
violent,ȱandȱignorant.ȱButȱconsideringȱhowȱmuchȱweȱreallyȱhaveȱtoȱunderstandȱhis
romanceȱasȱaȱmetaphorȱofȱthisȱworldȱatȱlarge,ȱweȱrecognizeȱtheȱimportanceȱof
havingȱtheȱruralȱspaceȱavailableȱforȱfundamentalȱdiscussionsȱofȱethical,ȱmoral,
political,ȱemotional,ȱandȱevenȱreligiousȱissues.ȱInȱthisȱregardȱtheȱvillageȱandȱthe
rusticsȱfunctionedȱasȱrepresentativesȱofȱsocietyȱatȱlarge,ȱallowingȱtheȱaudienceȱto
laughȱatȱthem,ȱwhenȱinȱrealityȱtheȱtrueȱobjectȱofȱmockeryȱwereȱtheȱnobilityȱandȱthe
urbanȱpopulation.ȱThisȱfindsȱintriguingȱparallelsȱinȱlateȬmedievalȱShrovetideȱplays
andȱsimilarȱgenres,ȱsuchȱasȱbyȱHansȱSachsȱ(1494–1576).237
ArbeitenȱzurȱGermanistik,ȱ475ȱ(Göppingen:ȱKümmerle,ȱ1988);ȱCorinnaȱLaude,ȱ“Dazȱinȱswindeltȱin
denȱ sinnenȱ .ȱ .ȱ .”:ȱ Dieȱ Poetikȱ derȱ Perspektiveȱ beiȱ Heinrichȱ Wittenwilerȱ undȱ Giovanniȱ Boccaccio.
PhilologischeȱStudienȱundȱQuellen,ȱ173ȱ(Berlin:ȱErichȱSchmidt,ȱ2002);ȱHansȬJürgenȱBachorski,
IrrsinnȱundȱKolportage:ȱStudienȱzumȱ“Ring”,ȱzumȱ“Lalebuch”ȱundȱzurȱ“Geschichtsklitterung”.ȱLiteratur,
Imagination,ȱRealität,ȱ39ȱ(Trier:ȱWissenschaftlicherȱVerlag,ȱ2006).
236
AlbrechtȱClassen,ȱDeutscheȱSchwankliteraturȱdesȱ16.ȱJahrhunderts:ȱStudienȱzuȱMartinȱMontanus,ȱHans
Wilhelmȱ Kirchhofȱ undȱ Michaelȱ Lindener.ȱ KoblenzȬLandauerȱ Studienȱ zuȱ Geistes–,ȱ KulturȬȱ und
Bildungswissenschaften,ȱ4ȱ(Trier:ȱWissenschaftlicherȱVerlag,ȱ2009),ȱ97–98.
237
Horstȱ Brunner,ȱ Hansȱ Sachs.ȱ Aufȱ denȱ Spurenȱ derȱ Dichterȱ undȱ Denkerȱ durchȱ Franken,ȱ 10
(Gunzenhausen:ȱSchrenkȬVerlag,ȱ2009);ȱAlbrechtȱClassen,ȱ“Women,ȱWives,ȱandȱMarriageȱinȱthe
WorldȱofȱHansȱSachs,”ȱDaphnisȱ32,ȱ3–4ȱ(2003):ȱ491–521.
27.ȱRuralȱSpaceȱandȱtheȱSupportiveȱPeasantȱFigureȱin
QueenȱSibilleȱ(ElisabethȱvonȱNassauȬSaarbrücken)ȱ
Whileȱ manyȱ courtlyȱ textsȱ presentȱ ratherȱ sarcasticȱ andȱ satiricalȱ viewsȱ ofȱ the
peasant,ȱandȱinteractȱwithȱtheȱruralȱspaceȱonlyȱfleetingly,ȱoneȱlateȬmedievalȱprose
novel,ȱextantȱinȱSpanish,ȱFrench,ȱandȱGerman,ȱoffersȱquiteȱdifferentȱperspectives.
InȱtheȱfirstȱhalfȱofȱtheȱthirteenthȱcenturyȱtheȱCistercianȱMonkȱAlbericȱofȱTroisȬ
Fontainesȱ(d.ȱafterȱ1252)ȱincludedȱanȱaccountȱaboutȱCharlemagne’sȱwivesȱinȱhis
Chronica,ȱwhichȱheȱbasedȱonȱEinhard’sȱ(d.ȱ840)ȱninthȬcenturyȱVitaȱKaroliȱMagni
(chapterȱ 18).ȱ Thisȱ includedȱ especiallyȱ theȱ reportȱ aboutȱ Sibille,ȱ whomȱ theȱ king
expelledȱfromȱhisȱcourt.ȱSheȱhadȱbeenȱtheȱdaughterȱofȱtheȱKingȱofȱtheȱLangobards,
Desiderius.238ȱ
Nevertheless,ȱinȱtheȱlateȬmedievalȱproseȱversions,ȱweȱareȱcertainlyȱfarȱremoved
fromȱhistoricalȱconditionsȱandȱfaceȱanȱintriguingȱfictionalȱaccountȱofȱtheȱsuffering
wifeȱviciouslyȱpursuedȱbyȱherȱirrationalȱhusband,ȱveryȱmuchȱinȱtheȱveinȱofȱthe
literaryȱ traditionsȱ dealingȱ withȱ Bertha,ȱ Crescentia,ȱ andȱ Genoveva.ȱ Numerous
versionsȱevolvedȱoutȱofȱtheȱtextȱcreatedȱbyȱAlberic,ȱbeginningȱwithȱtheȱGoliard
poetȱSchondoch’sȱDiuȱKüniginȱvonȱFrankreichȱundȱderȱungetriuweȱmarschalkȱ(early
fourteenthȱcentury).ȱInȱItalyȱtheȱcomposersȱofȱtheȱStorieȱNerbonensiȱincorporated
referencesȱ toȱ thisȱ Queenȱ Sibille.ȱ Atȱ theȱ endȱ ofȱ theȱ fourteenthȱ orȱ inȱ theȱ early
fifteenthȱcenturyȱaȱSpanishȱproseȱversionȱappeared,ȱaȱCuento.ȱInȱ1437ȱtheȱCountess
ElisabethȱvonȱNassauȬSaarbrückenȱrenderedȱaȱFrenchȱversion,ȱaȱchansonȱdeȱgeste,
probablyȱMacaireȱouȱlaȱReineȱSebile,ȱintoȱGerman.ȱSheȱwasȱfollowedȱbyȱaȱFrench
compilatorȱwhoȱcreatedȱaȱcycleȱofȱproseȱversionsȱfocusingȱonȱGarinȱdeȱMonglane
aroundȱ 1450.ȱ Weȱ knowȱ ofȱ yetȱ anotherȱ Frenchȱ writer,ȱ Jeanȱ desȱ Preisȱ dit
d’Outremeuseȱ(1338–1400)ȱfromȱLiègeȱwhoȱworkedȱwithȱthisȱmaterial.239ȱ
238
Forȱ aȱ parallelȱ case,ȱ dealingȱ withȱ Charlemagne’sȱ mother,ȱ Berthe,ȱ seeȱ theȱ contributionȱ toȱ this
volumeȱbyȱRosaȱA.ȱPerez,ȱdealingȱwithȱBerteȱausȱgransȱpies.
239
DerȱRomanȱvonȱderȱKöniginȱSibilleȱinȱdreiȱProsafassungenȱdesȱ14.ȱundȱ15.ȱJahrhunderts.ȱMitȱBenutzung
derȱnachgelassenenȱMaterialienȱvonȱFritzȱBurg,ȱed.ȱHermannȱTiemann.ȱVeröffentlichungenȱaus
derȱStaatsȬȱundȱUniversitätsbibliothekȱHamburg,ȱ10ȱ(Hamburg:ȱDr.ȱErnstȱHauswedell,ȱ1977),ȱ9–20;
forȱcriticalȱapproaches,ȱseeȱUteȱvonȱBloh,ȱAusgerenkteȱOrdnung:ȱVierȱProsaepenȱausȱdemȱUmkreisȱder
GräfinȱElisabethȱvonȱNassauȬSaarbrücken:ȱ“HerzogȱHerpin”,ȱ“LoherȱundȱMaller”,ȱ“HugeȱScheppel”,
“KöniginȱSibille”.ȱMünchenerȱTexteȱundȱUntersuchungenȱzurȱdeutschenȱLiteraturȱdesȱMittelalters,
119ȱ(Tübingen:ȱNiemeyer,ȱ2002).ȱMuchȱvaluableȱmaterialȱrelevantȱforȱourȱtopicȱcanȱbeȱfoundȱin
ZwischenȱDeutschlandȱundȱFrankreich:ȱElisabethȱvonȱLothringen,ȱGräfinȱvonȱNassauȬSaarbrücken,ȱed.
Wolfgangȱ Haubrichsȱ andȱ HansȬWalterȱ Herrman,ȱ togetherȱ withȱ Gerhardȱ Sauder.ȱ VeröffentȬ
lichungenȱderȱKommissionȱfürȱSaarländischeȱLandesgeschichteȱundȱVolksforschungȱe.ȱV.,ȱ34ȱ(St.
Ingbert:ȱ Röhrigȱ Universitätsverlag,ȱ 2002).ȱ Forȱ lateȬmedievalȱ andȱ earlyȬmodernȱ German
adaptationsȱofȱthisȱtext,ȱseeȱSibylleȱJefferis,ȱ“TheȱCronicaȱvonȱderȱKöniginȱvonȱFrankreich:ȱTheȱProse
AdaptationȱofȱSchondoch’sȱNovella,”Nuȱlôn’ȱichȱiuȱderȱgâbe:ȱFestschriftȱforȱFrancisȱG.ȱGentry,ȱed.
ErnstȱRalfȱHintz.ȱGöppingerȱArbeitenȱzurȱGermanistik,ȱ693ȱ(Göppingen:ȱKümmerle,ȱ2003),ȱ159Ȭ72;
Introduction 103
AfterȱCharlemagneȱhasȱexpelledȱhisȱwifeȱfromȱcourt,ȱfirmlyȱconvincedȱthatȱshe
hadȱcommittedȱadulteryȱwithȱanȱuglyȱblackȱdwarf—aȱridiculousȱassumption,ȱbut
crucialȱforȱtheȱplotȱdevelopmentȱpredicatedȱonȱthisȱpoorȱwoman’sȱlongȱsuffering,
consideringȱ thatȱ itȱ willȱ takeȱ herȱ manyȱ yearsȱ toȱ findȱ justice,ȱ toȱ convinceȱ her
husbandȱ thatȱ sheȱ wasȱ completelyȱ innocent,ȱ andȱ toȱ beȱ acceptedȱ againȱ asȱ his
wife—Sibilleȱ ridesȱ off,ȱ onlyȱ accompaniedȱ byȱ theȱ loyalȱ knightȱ Abryeȱ von
Mondidire,ȱreachingȱanȱidyllicȱforestȱsettingȱwhereȱsheȱtakesȱaȱrest.ȱThisȱhappens
onlyȱinȱtheȱGermanȱversion,ȱwhereasȱinȱtheȱSpanishȱtheȱtravelersȱstopȱonlyȱin
variousȱcitiesȱonȱtheirȱjourney.ȱInȱtheȱFrenchȱversionȱweȱareȱnotȱgivenȱanyȱdetails
pertainingȱtoȱtheȱspatialȱfeatures,ȱwhileȱElisabethȱpaidȱgreatȱattentionȱtoȱthose.
Havingȱspentȱtheȱwholeȱdayȱinȱtheȱsaddle,ȱSibilleȱandȱherȱprotectorȱreachȱanȱopen
spaceȱinȱtheȱforestȱwhereȱaȱfountainȱprovidesȱfreshȱwater.ȱ
Theȱentireȱsettingȱclearlyȱreflectsȱtheȱlocusȱamoenus,ȱthough,ȱasȱweȱhaveȱtoȱrealize
soonȱafter,ȱtheȱillusionȱdoesȱnotȱlastȱlong:ȱ“Alsȱsyeȱeinȱwileȱinȱdemȱgeweldeȱridden
/ȱdaȱersahenȱsyeȱgarȱeynenȱschonenȱlustlichenȱbornen”ȱ(127;ȱAfterȱtheyȱhadȱridden
forȱaȱwhileȱinȱtheȱforest,ȱtheyȱespiedȱaȱbeautifulȱandȱdelightfulȱfountain).ȱTheȱshort
restȱthereȱisȱsoonȱinterruptedȱbecauseȱoneȱofȱtheȱevilȱcourtiersȱunderȱCharlemagne,
Marckair,ȱhasȱarrivedȱandȱtriesȱtoȱrapeȱtheȱqueen,ȱbutȱheȱhasȱtoȱfightȱAbryeȱfirst,
whomȱ heȱ soonȱ canȱ killȱ becauseȱ heȱ lacksȱ properȱ armorȱ (129).ȱ Inȱ theȱ meantime
Sibilleȱhasȱescapedȱandȱrushesȱthroughȱtheȱforest,ȱdisregardingȱwhetherȱthereȱis
freeȱpassageȱthroughȱtheȱshrubberyȱandȱbushesȱorȱnot.ȱTheȱbranchesȱhitȱherȱso
hardȱ thatȱ herȱ faceȱ isȱ quicklyȱ coveredȱ withȱ blood,ȱ perhapsȱ aȱ directȱ allusionȱ to
Christ’sȱPassion?ȱHerȱsufferingȱatȱtheȱhandȱofȱherȱhusbandȱandȱtheȱevilȱmenȱatȱthe
courtȱmakeȱherȱtoȱanȱinnocentȱvictim,ȱwhichȱtheȱwildȱforestȱwrites,ȱsoȱtoȱspeak,
intoȱherȱface.
28.ȱCollaborationȱofȱtheȱGoodȱPeasantȱwithȱtheȱNobleȱLady
ElisabethȱrevisitsȱtheȱsameȱissueȱasȱformulatedȱinȱWolfram’sȱTiturel,ȱalthoughȱnow
itȱisȱtheȱQueenȱwhoseȱfaceȱisȱcoveredȱwithȱbloodyȱmarksȱreflectingȱherȱattemptȱto
escapeȱfromȱtheȱrapists.ȱHerȱwoundsȱalsoȱsignalȱherȱinnocentȱsuffering,ȱjustȱasȱin
theȱcaseȱofȱChrist’sȱPassion.240ȱInȱtheȱmeantimeȱMarkairȱmanagesȱtoȱkillȱAbrye,ȱbut
heȱisȱthenȱattackedȱbyȱtheȱlatter’sȱloyalȱdog,ȱwhoȱwillȱeventuallyȱexactȱtheȱjust
eadem,ȱ“DasȱMeisterliedȱvonȱderȱKöniginȱvonȱFrankreich:ȱIhreȱGeschichteȱinȱTextȱundȱBildern,”
CurrentȱTopicsȱinȱMedievalȱGermanȱLiterature:ȱTextsȱandȱAnalysesȱ(KalamazooȱPapersȱ2000–2006),ȱed.
eadem.ȱGöppingerȱArbeitenȱzurȱGermanistik,ȱ748ȱ(Göppingen:ȱKümmerle,ȱ2008),ȱ117–50.
240
BettinaȱBildhauer,ȱMedievalȱBlood.ȱReligionȱ&ȱCultureȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(Cardiff:ȱUniversityȱof
WalesȱPress,ȱ2006),ȱ16–22,ȱ46–48,ȱetȱpassim.ȱSeeȱalsoȱCarolineȱWalkerȱBynum,ȱWonderfulȱBlood:
TheologyȱandȱPracticeȱinȱLateȱMedievalȱNorthernȱGermanyȱandȱBeyondȱ(Philadelphia:ȱUniversityȱof
PennsylvaniaȱPress,ȱ2007).
revenge,ȱforcingȱtheȱevilȱknightȱintoȱaȱkindȱofȱduelȱinȱwhichȱGodȱhelpsȱtheȱdog
win,ȱwhichȱleadsȱtoȱMarkair’sȱexecution.241
Inȱtheȱforestȱscene,ȱhowever,ȱtheȱevilȱcourtierȱfirstȱcutsȱoffȱtheȱheadȱofȱAbrye’s
horse,ȱbutȱfailsȱtoȱkillȱtheȱdog,ȱaȱmostȱloyalȱanimalȱthatȱdisplaysȱincrediblyȱhuman
characteristics.242ȱ Subsequentlyȱ heȱ searchesȱ theȱ entireȱ forestȱ forȱ theȱ queenȱ but
cannotȱ detectȱ her,ȱ whichȱ preventsȱ himȱ fromȱ rapingȱ her.243ȱ Sibilleȱ fleesȱ from
Markairȱforȱtheȱwholeȱnightȱandȱeventually,ȱinȱtheȱearlyȱmorning,ȱreachesȱthe
forest’sȱlimit.ȱAlthoughȱsheȱhasȱbeenȱsavedȱfromȱbeingȱrapedȱandȱmurdered,ȱshe
isȱstillȱdesperate,ȱnotȱknowingȱwhatȱtoȱdo,ȱnotȱhavingȱeatenȱforȱtwoȱdays.ȱInȱthat
momentȱsheȱencountersȱtheȱpeasantȱWarakirȱwhoȱatȱfirstȱ treatsȱherȱsomewhat
roughly,ȱbutȱsoonȱenoughȱturnsȱintoȱherȱmostȱardentȱandȱloyalȱsupporterȱforȱthe
restȱ ofȱ theȱ entireȱ story.ȱ Heȱ evenȱ temporallyȱ abandonsȱ hisȱ ownȱ familyȱ because
Sibilleȱisȱinȱgreaterȱneed.ȱWarakirȱsendsȱhisȱassȱloadedȱwithȱfirewoodȱonȱhisȱway
backȱhomeȱwithoutȱguidingȱhim,ȱandȱthusȱmakesȱhisȱwifeȱbelieveȱthatȱheȱhasȱbeen
killedȱorȱimprisonedȱ(131).ȱ
Theȱpoetȱdoesȱnotȱelaborateȱonȱthisȱconflictualȱsituationȱatȱthisȱpointȱandȱsolves
itȱonlyȱmuchȱlaterȱinȱtheȱcourseȱofȱevents,ȱbutȱthisȱshouldȱnotȱconcernȱus,ȱhowever,
here.ȱMoreȱinterestingȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱtheȱsubsequentȱproblemȱwhichȱWarakirȱruns
intoȱ whenȱ theyȱ enterȱ aȱ city,ȱ whereȱ theȱ cityȱ dwellersȱ ridiculeȱ andȱ mockȱ him,
challengingȱhimȱseriouslyȱasȱtoȱhisȱpresumptionȱtoȱleadȱthisȱbeautifulȱandȱnoble
lookingȱ lady.ȱ Inȱ orderȱ toȱ protectȱ theȱ peasant,ȱ Sibilleȱ pretendsȱ thatȱ heȱ isȱ her
husband,ȱbutȱlater,ȱwhenȱtheȱinnȬkeeperȱtalksȱwithȱWarakirȱinȱprivate,ȱheȱadmits
thatȱheȱisȱonlyȱherȱservantȱandȱsheȱisȱaȱladyȱonȱherȱwayȱtoȱaȱpilgrimageȱsite.ȱSince
theyȱhaveȱrunȱoutȱofȱmoney,ȱsoȱheȱpretends,ȱtheyȱlookȱsoȱpoor,ȱbut,ȱasȱheȱinsists,
sheȱisȱofȱaȱnobleȱfamily.ȱ
Sibilleȱknowsȱthatȱsheȱmustȱreturnȱtoȱherȱfather,ȱtheȱEmperorȱofȱConstantinople,
soȱ theyȱ doȱ notȱ stayȱ inȱ theȱ cityȱ forȱ long.ȱ Theyȱ sellȱ herȱ muleȱ andȱ herȱ valuable
clothing,ȱandȱsoȱcanȱcontinueȱtheirȱjourneyȱtowardȱCologne,ȱgettingȱreadyȱforȱher
deliveryȱofȱaȱchild,ȱtheȱfutureȱsuccessorȱofȱCharlemagne,ȱhisȱsonȱLouisȱtheȱPious
(132–33).ȱ Subsequently,ȱ Warakirȱ emergesȱ asȱ aȱ trueȱ hero,ȱ helpingȱ hisȱ queenȱ in
manyȱdifferentȱandȱdifficultȱsituations,ȱwhileȱmostȱmembersȱofȱtheȱnobleȱworld,
apartȱfromȱaȱfewȱsubduedȱsupporters,ȱmakeȱeveryȱeffortȱtoȱundermineȱtheȱking’s
authority.ȱTheȱauthorȱElisabethȱprojects,ȱinȱanȱamazingȱdevelopmentȱofȱevents,ȱthe
intimateȱcollaborationȱofȱqueenȱandȱpeasantȱandȱpresentsȱalsoȱaȱnumberȱofȱother
241
Neumann,ȱ Derȱ gerichtlicheȱ Zweikampfȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 182),ȱ 191–98;ȱ Albrechtȱ Classen,ȱ “Theȱ Dogȱ in
GermanȱCourtlyȱLiterature:ȱTheȱMystical,ȱtheȱMagical,ȱandȱtheȱLoyalȱAnimal,”ȱFaunaȱandȱFloraȱin
theȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ127),ȱ67–86.ȱ
242
TiereȱalsȱFreundeȱ(seeȱnoteȱ129),ȱ261–72;ȱAlbrechtȱClassen,ȱ“TheȱDogȱinȱGermanȱCourtlyȱLiterature”
(seeȱnoteȱ241).
243
Classen,ȱSexualȱViolenceȱandȱRapeȱ(seeȱnoteȱ137),ȱ188–94.
Introduction 105
peopleȱ fromȱ theȱ lowestȱ socialȱ class,ȱ includingȱ aȱ thief,ȱ asȱ someȱ ofȱ theȱ most
importantȱhelpersȱinȱSibille’sȱcase.ȱ
ButȱevenȱatȱKingȱCharlemagne’sȱcourtȱweȱnoticeȱsomeȱimportantȱfiguresȱwho
helpȱ solveȱ theȱ criminalȱ conflictȱ involvingȱ theȱ entireȱ partyȱ ofȱ jealousȱ and
obstructionistȱcourtiers,ȱthatȱis,ȱtraitorsȱwhoȱseriouslyȱoperateȱagainstȱtheȱking,
resortingȱtoȱlying,ȱdeception,ȱspreadingȱofȱrumors,ȱandȱtheȱlike.ȱAtȱtheȱendȱofȱthe
duelȱbetweenȱMarkairȱandȱtheȱdog,ȱoneȱofȱhisȱrelatives,ȱGalleran,ȱrushesȱontoȱthe
ring,ȱtryingȱtoȱkillȱtheȱdog,ȱagainstȱallȱrules.ȱWhenȱCharlemagneȱobservesȱthat,ȱhe
yellsȱ outȱ thatȱ anyoneȱ whoȱ wouldȱ catchȱ Galleranȱ andȱ bringȱ himȱ asȱ aȱ prisoner
wouldȱreceiveȱhundredȱmarksȱofȱsilver.ȱThisȱattractsȱaȱthrongȱofȱyoungȱmenȱwho
allȱthrowȱthemselvesȱuponȱtheȱknight,ȱwhoȱdefendsȱhimselfȱquiteȱenergetically,
untilȱfinallyȱ“einȱgroßȱgebüre”ȱ(141;ȱaȱhugeȱpeasant)ȱarrivesȱandȱbeatsȱhimȱdown
withȱhisȱclubȱandȱdragsȱtheȱunconsciousȱbodyȱtoȱtheȱkingȱwhoȱimmediatelyȱgrants
himȱtheȱreward.ȱ
Weȱareȱnotȱinformedȱwhereȱtheȱpeasantȱcameȱfrom,ȱorȱwhatȱhappensȱwithȱhim
afterwards.ȱButȱheȱisȱoneȱofȱthoseȱwhoȱattendedȱtheȱgreatȱeventȱofȱtheȱduel,ȱand
hisȱ deedȱ helpsȱ justiceȱ toȱ beȱ restored,ȱ althoughȱ heȱ fightsȱ onlyȱ withȱ aȱ club,ȱ the
typicalȱweaponȱnormallyȱattributedȱtoȱgiants.ȱButȱinsofarȱasȱGalleran,ȱlikeȱMarkair,
hadȱalreadyȱbrokenȱallȱrulesȱofȱcourtliness,ȱthisȱcrudeȱandȱviolentȱactȱsolvesȱthe
issueȱandȱdestroysȱtheȱpowerȱofȱtheȱentireȱgangȱofȱtraitors,ȱespeciallyȱbecauseȱthe
dogȱsubsequentlyȱjumpsȱbackȱintoȱtheȱringȱandȱfinallyȱovercomesȱhisȱownȱenemy,
whoȱthenȱconfessesȱallȱhisȱsins.ȱAsȱaȱpunishmentȱbothȱheȱandȱGalleranȱareȱhanged,
butȱtheȱpoorȱdogȱsubsequentlyȱalsoȱdies,ȱalbeitȱforȱtrulyȱnobleȱreasons,ȱsinceȱhe
starvesȱhimselfȱtoȱdeathȱgrievingȱoverȱtheȱlossȱofȱhisȱlord.ȱSignificantly,ȱtheȱdog
doesȱnotȱsimplyȱpassȱhisȱlastȱdaysȱatȱtheȱcourt;ȱinsteadȱheȱreturnsȱtoȱAbrye’sȱgrave
andȱmournsȱsoȱlongȱuntilȱheȱsuccumbsȱtoȱhisȱpainȱandȱisȱthenȱburiedȱnearȱthe
graveyard.
Elisabethȱ repeatedlyȱ returnsȱ toȱ theȱ worldȱ ofȱ theȱ peasantsȱ andȱ exploresȱ the
significanceȱofȱruralȱspaceȱbecauseȱbothȱservedȱherȱexceedinglyȱwellȱasȱcritical
counterpostsȱtoȱtheȱcorruptȱandȱunworthyȱcourtȱofȱnobles.ȱWarakir,ȱforȱinstance,
tenȱyearsȱafterȱSibille’sȱsonȱhasȱbeenȱbornȱ(Ludewig,ȱorȱtheȱlaterȱLouisȱtheȱPious),
finallyȱrequestsȱpermissionȱtoȱreturnȱhomeȱandȱtoȱvisitȱhisȱfamily.ȱOnceȱheȱhas
arrivedȱ there,ȱ noȱ oneȱ recognizesȱ him,ȱ soȱ heȱ canȱ observeȱ hisȱ wife’sȱ andȱ his
children’sȱbehavior.ȱTheyȱareȱallȱterriblyȱimpoverishedȱandȱhaveȱtoȱgoȱbeggingȱto
survive.ȱNevertheless,ȱwhenȱWarakir,ȱpretendingȱtoȱbeȱaȱpoorȱstranger,ȱrequests
hisȱwifeȱtoȱletȱhimȱsleepȱwithȱher,ȱsheȱvehementlyȱprotestsȱandȱthreatensȱtoȱalarm
herȱneighborȱbecauseȱsheȱisȱmarriedȱandȱwantsȱtoȱupholdȱherȱhonor,ȱirrespective
ofȱherȱlowȱstatusȱandȱmiserableȱlivingȱconditions.ȱ
WhenȱWarakirȱobservesȱhisȱwife’sȱadamantȱpostureȱandȱresoluteȱdefensiveness,
heȱlaughsȱoutȱloud,ȱnotȱinȱcontempt,ȱbutȱratherȱwithȱprideȱandȱjoyfulnessȱbecause
heȱrealizesȱtheȱhighȱethicalȱprinciplesȱbyȱwhichȱsheȱlivesȱ(159).ȱAsȱproofȱthatȱheȱis
reallyȱherȱhusband,ȱheȱrefersȱtoȱtheȱassȱthatȱhadȱstartedȱtoȱmakeȱloudȱnoiseȱonce
itȱhadȱreturnedȱhomeȱandȱhadȱrealizedȱthatȱitsȱtrueȱmasterȱwasȱfinallyȱthereȱagain
(159).ȱ
Atȱtheȱveryȱend,ȱwhenȱCharlemagneȱhasȱfinallyȱrecognizedȱhowȱwrongȱheȱhad
been,ȱhowȱmuchȱheȱhadȱbeenȱdeceivedȱbyȱtheȱtraitorsȱatȱtheȱcourt,ȱthatȱheȱhadȱbeen
misledȱbyȱdeeplyȬseatedȱjealousyȱandȱmaleȱinsecurity,ȱandȱthatȱheȱhenceȱreally
oughtȱtoȱwelcomeȱSibilleȱbackȱasȱhisȱwife,ȱhisȱsonȱLudewigȱspeaksȱupȱonȱbehalfȱof
Warakirȱandȱemphasizesȱtheȱlongȱselflessȱserviceȱthatȱtheȱlatterȱhadȱrenderedȱto
theȱqueen:ȱ“Erȱhatȱmynerȱmutterȱalczuȱwolȱgewartetȱ/ȱbisȱvffȱdiesenȱhütigenȱdag
/ȱLieberȱherreȱdarȱvmbȱbiddenȱichȱüchȱ/ȱdasȱirȱymeȱverzyhentȱwasȱerȱwiderȱuch
gedannȱhat”ȱ(172;ȱHeȱhasȱalwaysȱtakenȱcareȱofȱmyȱmotherȱuntilȱtheȱpresentȱday.
DearȱLord,ȱIȱaskȱyouȱthatȱyouȱforgiveȱhimȱwhatȱheȱhasȱdoneȱagainstȱyou).ȱThis
happens,ȱofȱcourse,ȱandȱweȱcanȱonlyȱassumeȱthatȱWarakirȱenjoysȱaȱpleasantȱlife
fromȱthenȱon,ȱalthoughȱtheȱnarratorȱnoȱlongerȱcommentsȱonȱhim,ȱconcludingȱonly
withȱaȱfewȱobservationsȱonȱtheȱhappinessȱwhichȱtheȱroyalȱcoupleȱthenȱenjoyed.ȱ
ElisabethȱindicatesȱwithȱherȱKöniginȱSibilleȱhowȱinfluentialȱaȱgoodȱpersonȱcanȱbe,
irrespectiveȱofȱhisȱorȱherȱsocialȱbackground.ȱWarakir,ȱalthoughȱonlyȱaȱpeasant,
putsȱaȱvastȱnumberȱofȱtheȱcourtiersȱunderȱCharlemagneȱtoȱshame,ȱandȱemergesȱas
anȱadmirable,ȱcentralȱfigureȱwhoȱisȱcriticallyȱinvolvedȱinȱtheȱrescueȱofȱtheȱqueen
andȱinȱhelpingȱherȱforȱtheȱnextȱdecadeȱtoȱovercomeȱallȱofȱherȱopponentsȱandȱto
establishȱtheȱreunificationȱofȱtheȱroyalȱcouple.ȱ
Whereasȱmostȱpreviousȱauthorsȱviewedȱtheȱruralȱworldȱmoreȱwithȱcontemptȱand
ridiculeȱthanȱwithȱrespectȱandȱadmiration,ȱhereȱdisregardingȱHartmannȱvonȱAue
withȱhisȱDerȱarmeȱHeinrich,ȱElisabethȱarguedȱstronglyȱinȱfavorȱofȱdiscriminating
amongȱpeopleȱnotȱaccordingȱtoȱtheirȱsocialȱstatus,ȱbutȱaccordingȱtoȱtheirȱcharacter
andȱinnerȱnobility,ȱwhichȱmightȱalsoȱbeȱaȱsignificantȱreflectionȱofȱextensiveȱsocioȬ
economicȱimprovementsȱamongȱtheȱruralȱpopulation,ȱatȱleastȱinȱtheȱlateȱMiddle
Ages.244ȱ
29.ȱExplorationȱofȱRuralȱSpaceȱinȱSixteenthȬCenturyȱLiterature:
TillȱEulenspiegelȱandȱMargueriteȱdeȱNavarre’sȱHeptaméron
AsȱGeorgeȱHuppertȱcomments,ȱthoughȱmostlyȱfromȱtheȱperspectiveȱofȱtheȱearlyȬ
modernȱ age,ȱ “Propertyȱ becameȱ theȱ measureȱ ofȱ allȱ thingsȱ asȱ soonȱ asȱ servitude
vanished.ȱOneȱofȱtheȱmostȱstrikingȱcharacteristicsȱofȱearlyȱmodernȱruralȱsociety
wasȱtheȱarrangementȱofȱhouseholdsȱinȱaȱhierarchyȱdominatedȱbyȱaȱsmallȱgroupȱof
244
JohannesȱGrabmayer,ȱEuropaȱimȱspätenȱMittelalterȱ1250–1500:ȱEineȱKulturȬȱundȱMentalitätsgeschichte.
KulturȱundȱMentalitätȱ(Darmstadt:ȱPrimusȱVerlag,ȱ2004),ȱ18–23.
Introduction 107
farmers.”245ȱ However,ȱ thereȱ wasȱ alsoȱ aȱ strongȱ trendȱ towardȱ impoverishment

becauseȱtheȱfarmersȱwereȱincreasinglyȱdependentȱonȱurbanȱcreditors,ȱlandȱowners,
andȱtaxȱcollectors,ȱalthoughȱtheȱagriculturalȱdevelopmentȱallȱoverȱEuropeȱwas
quiteȱnoticeable—thisȱatȱleastȱinȱLanguedocȱandȱinȱLombardy.246ȱ
FifteenthȬȱ andȱ sixteenthȬcenturyȱ Germanȱ verseȱ narrativesȱ (mæren)ȱ andȱ jest
accountsȱ(Schwänke)ȱcontainȱanȱeverȱgrowingȱnumberȱofȱspecificȱscenesȱinvolving
peasants,ȱ oftenȱ beingȱ ridiculed,ȱ butȱ commonlyȱ alsoȱ presentedȱ asȱ richȱ and
independentȱmembersȱofȱtheirȱruralȱcommunities,ȱhenceȱemerging,ȱinȱaȱvarietyȱof
ways,ȱasȱeconomicȱandȱsocialȱrisersȱandȱchallengersȱtoȱtheȱwealthyȱurbanȱclass.
Perhapsȱespeciallyȱforȱthatȱreasonȱweȱhearȱquiteȱcommonlyȱofȱtheȱfoolishȱorȱthe
smartȱactionsȱbyȱtheȱvillageȱleadersȱ(“Schultheiß”),ȱandȱweȱareȱregularlyȱinvited
toȱ laughȱ aboutȱ greedy,ȱ stupid,ȱ andȱ ignorantȱ peasants,ȱ thoughȱ opposite
characterizationsȱalsoȱoccurȱquiteȱoften.247ȱInȱfact,ȱthisȱlaughterȱeasilyȱprovesȱtoȱbe
aȱsubstituteȱforȱlaughterȱaboutȱmembersȱofȱallȱtheȱotherȱsocialȱclassesȱasȱwell.
Weȱ discoverȱ thisȱ (re)newedȱ interestȱ inȱ theȱ peasantȱ population,ȱ theȱ village
community,ȱandȱhenceȱinȱruralȱspaceȱremarkablyȱalsoȱinȱtheȱfamousȱcollectionȱof
jestȱnarrativesȱfocusingȱonȱtheȱmostȱuniqueȱandȱdareȬdevilishȱTillȱEulenspiegel,
probablyȱcomposedȱbyȱtheȱBrunswickȱHermenȱBoteȱ(printedȱinȱ1515).248ȱFirstȱofȱall,
thisȱcunningȱandȱamazinglyȱunabashedȱjesterȱisȱbornȱinȱaȱvillage;ȱthroughoutȱhis
lifeȱheȱinteractsȱwithȱpeopleȱfromȱallȱsocialȱclassesȱandȱbackgrounds,ȱhenceȱalso,
andȱsurprisinglyȱoften,ȱwithȱpeasants,ȱbutȱtheseȱdoȱnotȱnecessarilyȱfareȱbetterȱor
worseȱ thanȱ craftsmen,ȱ princes,ȱ priests,ȱ innȬkeepers,ȱ universityȱ professors,ȱ and
othersȱinȱtheȱwayȱthatȱtheȱjesterȱmakesȱfunȱofȱthemȱandȱlaughsȱaboutȱtheirȱown
ridiculousȱlifeȱstyles,ȱvalues,ȱandȱideas.ȱ
Mostȱ significantly,ȱ Tillȱ Eulenspiegelȱ operatesȱ successfullyȱ inȱ foolingȱ his
contemporariesȱbothȱinȱtheȱvillageȱandȱatȱcourt,ȱbothȱatȱtheȱuniversityȱandȱinȱthe
craftsman’sȱ workshop,ȱ andȱ noȱ oneȱ canȱ everȱ defendȱ himȬȱ orȱ herselfȱ effectively
againstȱhisȱjokesȱandȱdeceptions,ȱsoȱthatȱtheȱaudienceȱisȱsimplyȱforcedȱtoȱlaugh
245
Georgeȱ Huppert,ȱ Afterȱ theȱ Blackȱ Death:ȱ Aȱ Socialȱ Historyȱ ofȱ Earlyȱ Modernȱ Europe.ȱ 2ndȱ ed.
InterdisciplinaryȱStudiesȱinȱHistoryȱ(1986;ȱBloomingtonȱandȱIndianapolis:ȱIndianaȱUniversity
Press,ȱ1998),ȱ70.
246
Huppert,ȱAfterȱtheȱBlackȱDeathȱ(seeȱnoteȱ245),ȱ74–75.
247
See,ȱforȱexample,ȱtheȱlargeȱnumberȱofȱSchwänkeȱinȱHansȱWilhelmȱKirchhof,ȱWendunmuth,ȱvol.ȱ1,
ed.ȱHermannȱOesterley.ȱBibliothekȱdesȱLitterarischenȱVereinsȱinȱStuttgart,ȱXCVȱ(1869;ȱHildesheim
andȱNewȱYork:ȱGeorgȱOlmsȱVerlag,ȱ1980),ȱnos.ȱ93,ȱ94,ȱ95,ȱ109,ȱ136,ȱ141,ȱ145–47,ȱ164,ȱ168,ȱetȱpassim.
SeeȱalsoȱGeorgȱWickram,ȱDasȱRollwagenbüchlein,ȱed.ȱHansȬGertȱRoloff.ȱGeorgȱWickram:ȱSämtliche
Werke,ȱ7ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱWalterȱdeȱGruyter,ȱ1973),ȱnos.ȱ9–10,ȱ22,ȱ28,ȱ39,ȱ45,ȱ50,ȱ62,ȱ64,ȱ100,
etȱ passim.ȱ Cf.ȱ Albrechtȱ Classen,ȱ Deutscheȱ Schwankliteraturȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 236),ȱ 97–98.ȱ Asȱ toȱ the
epistemologicalȱfunctionȱofȱlaughterȱatȱlargeȱandȱinȱaȱvarietyȱofȱcases,ȱseeȱtheȱcontributionsȱto
LaughterȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱTimes,ȱed.ȱA.ȱClassenȱ(seeȱnoteȱ152).
248
EinȱkurtzweiligȱLesenȱvonȱDilȱUlenspiegel.ȱNachȱdemȱDruckȱvonȱ1515ȱmitȱ87ȱHolzschnitten,ȱed.
WolfgangȱLindow.ȱRev.ȱandȱbibliographicallyȱexpandedȱed.ȱ(1966;ȱStuttgart:ȱReclam,ȱ1978).
bothȱ aboutȱ hisȱ actionsȱ andȱ wordsȱ andȱ aboutȱ hisȱ poor,ȱ mostlyȱ notȱ really
sympatheticȱvictims.ȱButȱwhenȱtheyȱlaughȱtheyȱreallyȱlaughȱaboutȱthemselves,
evenȱ ifȱ theyȱ mightȱ notȱ wantȱ toȱ admitȱ thatȱ inȱ theȱ concreteȱ situation.ȱ When
Eulenspiegelȱfindsȱemploymentȱasȱaȱsacristanȱwithȱaȱpriest,ȱtheȱlatterȱholdsȱhis
positionȱinȱaȱvillageȱchurchȱ(twelfthȱnarrative,ȱorȱhistori).ȱButȱthenȱweȱfindȱthe
protagonistȱoperatingȱequallyȱcomfortablyȱatȱtheȱuniversity,ȱinȱaȱcityȱmarket,ȱat
court,ȱandȱatȱotherȱlocations,ȱwhichȱsignalsȱhowȱmuchȱhumanȱfollyȱisȱnotȱlimited
toȱanyȱparticularȱspaceȱorȱsocialȱclass—oneȱofȱtheȱessentialȱinsightsȱweȱcanȱalways
learnȱfromȱsatiricalȱliterature.249ȱ
InȱtheȱtwentyȬsixthȱhistori,ȱEulenspiegelȱbuysȱsomeȱsoilȱfromȱaȱfarmerȱsoȱasȱto
defyȱtheȱdeathȬthreatȱbyȱtheȱDukeȱofȱLüneburg.ȱHeȱdigsȱhimselfȱintoȱtheȱpileȱof
dirtȱandȱthusȱdefendsȱhimselfȱsuccessfullyȱagainstȱtheȱlatterȱbecauseȱheȱcanȱclaim
freedomȱ andȱ independenceȱ whileȱ sittingȱ onȱ hisȱ cartȱ withȱ thatȱ freeȱ soil—a
remarkableȱreflectionȱonȱtheȱoriginȱofȱindividualȱfreedomȱevenȱbyȱfarmersȱagainst
allȱclaimsȱbyȱtheirȱlords.ȱInȱfact,ȱtheȱdukeȱknowsȱnoȱvalidȱcounterȬargumentȱand
onlyȱthreatensȱEulenspiegelȱthatȱheȱwillȱhaveȱhimȱexecutedȱtheȱnextȱtimeȱifȱheȱdoes
notȱimmediatelyȱleaveȱhisȱcountryȱwithȱhisȱhorseȱandȱcart.ȱ
Theȱprotagonistȱmakesȱfunȱofȱtheȱvillageȱpopulationȱasȱmuchȱasȱofȱtheȱmembers
ofȱtheȱuniversitiesȱorȱtheȱurbanȱcommunities.ȱInȱtheȱthirtiethȱhistori,ȱforȱinstance,
heȱclaimsȱtoȱbeȱaȱmanȱwhoȱonlyȱsaysȱtheȱtruth,ȱandȱthenȱpretendsȱthatȱheȱcanȱwash
furs.ȱHeȱdoesȱnotȱclaimȱanythingȱelse,ȱandȱdoesȱnotȱoutlineȱhowȱwellȱthoseȱfurs
wouldȱbeȱwashed.ȱButȱallȱwomenȱinȱtheȱvillageȱbelieveȱthatȱheȱwouldȱbeȱableȱto
accomplishȱ whatȱ theyȱ imagine,ȱ andȱ notȱ whatȱ heȱ hasȱ stated.ȱ Soȱ Eulenspiegel
receivesȱallȱtheirȱoldȱfurs,ȱboilsȱthemȱinȱhotȱwater,ȱandȱthenȱsendsȱtheȱwomenȱand
childrenȱtoȱtheȱwoodsȱtoȱfetchȱsomeȱwoodȱfromȱlindenȱtreesȱtoȱaccomplishȱhisȱtask.
Asȱ soonȱ asȱ heȱ isȱ alone,ȱ however,ȱ heȱ tossesȱ theȱ boilingȱ potsȱ intoȱ theȱ fireȱ and
escapes,ȱ andȱ thusȱ pokesȱ hisȱ usualȱ funȱ atȱ theseȱ credulousȱ peasantȱ women.
However,ȱtheȱwomenȱdoȱnotȱproveȱtoȱbeȱmoreȱignorantȱorȱcredulousȱthanȱanyone
elseȱwhomȱEulenspiegelȱeverȱmightȱencounter.ȱRuralȱspace,ȱinȱotherȱwords,ȱgains
justȱasȱmuchȱimportanceȱasȱurbanȱspaceȱbecauseȱstupidity,ȱignorance,ȱgullibility,
andȱsimpleȬmindednessȱknowȱnoȱboundsȱandȱaffectȱallȱpeopleȱofȱallȱsocialȱclasses,
genders,ȱages,ȱandȱraces.
249
Barbaraȱ Könneker,ȱ Satireȱ imȱ 16.ȱ Jahrhundert:ȱ Epocheȱ –ȱ Werkeȱ –ȱ Wirkung.ȱ Arbeitsbücherȱ zur
Literaturgeschichteȱ (Munich:ȱ Beck,ȱ 1991);ȱ forȱ theȱ historyȱ ofȱ researchȱ onȱ Ulenspiegel,ȱ orȱ Till
Eulenspiegel,ȱseeȱAlbrechtȱClassen,ȱTheȱGermanȱVolksbuch:ȱAȱCriticalȱHistoryȱofȱaȱLateȬMedievalȱGenre.
StudiesȱinȱGermanȱLanguageȱandȱLiterature,ȱ15ȱ(Lewiston,ȱNY,ȱPeterborough,ȱON,ȱandȱLampeter,
Wales:ȱEdwinȱMellenȱPress,ȱ1995),ȱ185–212;ȱforȱtheȱidentificationȱofȱHermannȱBoteȱasȱtheȱauthor
ofȱDilȱUlenspiegel,ȱseeȱHerbertȱBlume,ȱ“HermannȱBoteȱ–ȱAutorȱdesȱEulenspiegelbuches?:ȱZum
Standȱ derȱ Forschung,”ȱ id.,ȱ Hermannȱ Bote:ȱ Braunschweigerȱ Stadtschreiberȱ undȱ Literat:ȱ Studienȱ zu
seinemȱ Lebenȱ undȱ Werk.ȱ Braunschweigerȱ Beiträgeȱ zurȱ deutschenȱ Spracheȱ undȱ Literatur,ȱ 15
(Bielefeld:ȱVerlagȱfürȱRegionalgeschichte,ȱ2009),ȱ211–35.
Introduction 109
RuralȱspaceȱalsoȱfiguresȱprominentlyȱinȱtheȱnarrativeȱframeworkȱofȱMargueriteȱde
Navarre’sȱ(1492–1549)ȱHeptaméron,ȱfirstȱprintedȱinȱ1558ȱunderȱaȱdifferentȱtitle,ȱand
then,ȱforȱaȱsecondȱtime,ȱinȱ1559ȱwithȱtheȱtitleȱasȱweȱknowȱitȱtoday.250ȱTheȱdevisants
orȱintratextualȱstorytellersȱareȱfirstȱdepictedȱasȱvisitorsȱfleeingȱfromȱaȱspaȱinȱthe
townȱofȱCauteretsȱinȱtheȱPyrenees,ȱaȱshortȱdistanceȱsouthwestȱofȱLourdes.ȱBecause
ofȱaȱmightyȱthunderstormȱandȱresultingȱfloodingȱeverywhere,ȱallȱtheȱtouristsȱand
patientsȱtryȱtoȱescapeȱandȱfindȱaȱwayȱhome.ȱHowever,ȱmanyȱactuallyȱdieȱinȱthe
desperateȱ effort,ȱ whereasȱ aȱ smallȱ groupȱ ofȱ tenȱ people—theȱ futureȱ storyȬ
tellers—findȱrefugeȱinȱaȱmonastery.ȱThereȱtheyȱhaveȱtoȱwaitȱforȱtenȱdaysȱuntilȱa
bridgeȱhasȱbeenȱreconstructed,ȱsoȱtheyȱspendȱtheirȱtimeȱtellingȱeachȱotherȱstories.251ȱ
Theȱ extradiegeticȱ narratorȱ offersȱ aȱ mostȱ impressiveȱ accountȱ ofȱ theȱ natural
catastrophe,ȱwithȱtheȱtorrentialȱfloodingȱinȱwhichȱsomeȱpeopleȱdrown,ȱwithȱwild
animalsȱthatȱattackȱothers,ȱandȱwithȱtheȱroughȱterrainȱwhichȱtheyȱallȱhaveȱtoȱcross.
TheȱaccountȱaboutȱhowȱtheȱoldȱandȱveryȱreligiousȱladyȱOisille,ȱaȱwidow,ȱmanages
toȱ surviveȱ theȱ enormousȱ hardship,ȱ mightȱ sufficeȱ toȱ illustrateȱ howȱ much
Margueriteȱdelightedȱinȱgivingȱaȱveryȱdetailedȱandȱimpressionisticȱimageȱofȱthe
wildȱsurroundingsȱofȱtheȱruralȱlandscapeȱinȱtheȱPyrenees:ȱ
Sheȱresolvedȱnotȱtoȱletȱtheȱtreacherousȱroadsȱfrightenȱher,ȱandȱmadeȱherȱwayȱtoȱthe
abbeyȱofȱOurȱLadyȱatȱSarranceȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱEventually,ȱsheȱreachedȱherȱdestination,ȱbutȱonly
afterȱ strugglingȱ throughȱ ruggedȱ andȱ hostileȱ terrain.ȱ Indeed,ȱ soȱ arduousȱ wereȱ the
climbsȱwithȱwhichȱsheȱwasȱconfronted,ȱthatȱinȱspiteȱofȱherȱageȱandȱweight,ȱsheȱwas
obligedȱforȱtheȱmostȱpartȱtoȱgoȱonȱfoot.ȱButȱtheȱmostȱtragicȱthingȱwasȱthatȱmostȱofȱher
horsesȱandȱservantsȱdiedȱonȱtheȱway,ȱsoȱthatȱbyȱtheȱtimeȱsheȱarrivedȱatȱSarranceȱshe
wasȱaccompaniedȱonlyȱbyȱoneȱmanȱandȱoneȱwoman.252
TheȱotherȱmembersȱofȱtheȱfutureȱstoryȬtellingȱpartyȱalsoȱgoȱthroughȱhairȬraising
experiences,ȱ eitherȱ havingȱ toȱ fendȱ offȱ robbersȱ andȱ bandits,ȱ orȱ havingȱ barely
250
L’Heptaméron,ȱed.ȱMichelȱFrançoisȱ(Paris:ȱGarnierȱClassiques,ȱ1964).ȱUnlessȱotherwiseȱnoted,ȱthe
EnglishȱtranslationsȱusedȱhereȱareȱfromȱTheȱHeptameron,ȱtrans.ȱPaulȱA.ȱChiltonȱ(Harmondsworth
andȱNewȱYork:ȱPenguin,ȱ1984).ȱForȱaȱrecentȱcriticalȱinvestigation,ȱseeȱElizabethȱChesneyȱZegura,
“LaughingȱOutȱLoudȱinȱtheȱHeptaméron:ȱAȱReassessmentȱofȱMargueriteȱdeȱNavarre’sȱAmbivalent
Humor,”ȱLaughterȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱTimes,ȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassenȱ(seeȱnoteȱ152),
603–19.
251
Thereȱis,ȱofȱcourse,ȱmuchȱresearchȱonȱtheȱHeptaméron;ȱsee,ȱforȱinstance,ȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱCritical
Tales:ȱNewȱStudiesȱofȱtheȱHeptameronȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱCulture,ȱed.ȱJohnȱD.ȱLyonsȱandȱMaryȱB.
McKinleyȱ(Philadelphia:ȱUniversityȱofȱPennsylvaniaȱPress,ȱ1993),ȱbutȱtheȱspecificȱtreatmentȱof
natureȱandȱroughȱwildernessȱinȱtheȱmountainsȱhasȱnotȱyetȱattractedȱenoughȱsignificantȱattention.
252
MargueriteȱdeȱNavarre,ȱTheȱHeptameronȱ(seeȱnoteȱ250),ȱ61.ȱForȱaȱdiscussionȱofȱnaturalȱcatastrophes
inȱ theȱ Middleȱ Ages,ȱ especiallyȱ asȱ describedȱ inȱ Marguerite’sȱ work,ȱ seeȱ Albrechtȱ Classen,
“ConsequencesȱofȱBadȱWeatherȱinȱMedievalȱLiterature:ȱFromȱApolloniusȱofȱTyreȱtoȱMargueriteȱde
Navarre’sȱ Heptaméron,”ȱ arcadiaȱ 45.1ȱ (2010):ȱ 3–20.ȱ Moreȱ broadly,ȱ seeȱ JeanȬPierreȱ Leguay,ȱ Les
catastrophesȱauȱMoyenȱÂge.ȱLesȱclassiquesȱGisserotȱdeȱl’histoireȱ([Paris]:ȱÉditionsȱJeanȬPaulȱGisserot,
2005).
survivedȱ aȱ failedȱ attemptȱ toȱ crossȱ aȱ river’sȱ torrentȱ (Simontaut,ȱ 64).ȱ Notably,
servingȱasȱtheȱstrongȱoppositeȱofȱtheȱcriminals,ȱaȱgoodȱshepherdȱemergesȱasȱthe
rescuerȱofȱoneȱofȱtheȱfutureȱstoryȬtellers.ȱ
Inȱanotherȱcaseȱaȱwildȱbeastȱhadȱsprungȱonȱtheȱscene,ȱhereȱaȱbearȱwhoȱkillsȱall
theȱ maleȱ servants,ȱ whichȱ givesȱ theȱ twoȱ ladiesȱ enoughȱ timeȱ toȱ escapeȱ toȱ the
monasteryȱ (62–63).ȱ Althoughȱ allȱ ofȱ theȱ membersȱ ofȱ thisȱ uniqueȱ partyȱ hadȱ to
endureȱterribleȱsufferingȱinȱtheȱuproarȱofȱnature,ȱtheyȱsoonȱenoughȱfindȱpeaceȱand
tranquilityȱinȱtheȱmonasticȱsettingȱandȱcanȱturnȱtheirȱmindsȱtoȱGodȱandȱalsoȱtoȱthe
aestheticȱappealȱofȱnature.ȱMadameȱOisilleȱencouragesȱthem,therefore,ȱtoȱadopt
aȱreligiousȱattitude:
‘ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱIȱbelieveȱthatȱif,ȱeachȱmorning,ȱyouȱgiveȱoneȱhourȱtoȱreading,ȱandȱthen,ȱduring
mass,ȱsayȱyourȱprayersȱdevoutly,ȱyouȱwillȱfindȱevenȱinȱthisȱwildernessȱallȱtheȱbeauty
aȱcityȱcouldȱafford.ȱFor,ȱaȱpersonȱwhoȱknowsȱGodȱwillȱfindȱallȱthingsȱbeautifulȱinȱHim,
andȱ withoutȱ Himȱ allȱ thingsȱ willȱ seemȱ ugly.ȱ Soȱ Iȱ sayȱ toȱ you,ȱ ifȱ youȱ wouldȱ liveȱ in
happiness,ȱheedȱmyȱadvice.’253 ȱ(67)ȱ
Thisȱ provesȱ toȱ be,ȱ ofȱ course,ȱ aȱ directȱ parallelȱ toȱ theȱ settingȱ inȱ Boccaccio’s
Decameron,ȱwhichȱisȱtheȱobviousȱfoilȱforȱMarguerite’sȱHeptaméron,254ȱbutȱforȱus
whatȱmattersȱisȱtheȱstrongȱemphasisȱonȱnatureȱbeingȱbothȱlifeȬthreateningȱandȱlifeȬ
giving,ȱinȱourȱcaseȱleadingȱtoȱtheȱcreationȱofȱtheȱcollectionȱofȱtheseȱshortȱnarratives.
Butȱ letȱ usȱ notȱ ignoreȱ theȱ strongȱ differencesȱ asȱ well.ȱ Whileȱ theȱ storytellersȱ in
Boccaccio’sȱ textȱfleeȱfromȱtheȱpestilenceȱstrickenȱcityȱandȱfindȱrefugeȱȱonȱtheir
pleasantȱestatesȱinȱtheȱcountryside,ȱthoseȱinȱMarguerite’sȱcollectionȱofȱtalesȱ“take
upȱtheȱpastimeȱofȱstorytelling,ȱ[and]ȱtheyȱdoȱsoȱspecificallyȱtoȱremindȱthemselves
ofȱ theirȱ friendsȱ atȱ courtȱ andȱ ofȱ theȱ societyȱ fromȱ whichȱ theyȱ areȱ separated.”255
Nevertheless,ȱbothȱauthorsȱindicateȱtheȱtransparencyȱofȱspace,ȱthatȱis,ȱrural,ȱurban,
andȱ courtly,ȱ andȱ consideringȱ bothȱ ofȱ theirȱ greatȱ interestȱ inȱ offeringȱ aȱ highly
253
Cf.ȱCarolȱThysell,ȱTheȱPleasureȱofȱDiscernment:ȱMargueriteȱdeȱNavarreȱasȱTheologian.ȱOxfordȱStudies
inȱHistoricalȱTheologyȱ(Oxford:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2000).
254
MichaelȱRandall,ȱ“TeachingȱtheȱRhetoricȱofȱtheȱBattleȱofȱtheȱSexes:ȱDialoguesȱinȱandȱbetweenȱthe
HeptameronȱandȱtheȱDecameron,”ȱApproachesȱtoȱTeachingȱMargueriteȱdeȱNavarreȇsȱHeptameron,ȱed.
Coletteȱ Hȱ Winn.ȱ Approachesȱ toȱ Teachingȱ Worldȱ Literatureȱ (Newȱ York:ȱ Modernȱ Language
AssociationȱofȱAmerica,ȱ2007),ȱ181–85.
255
Thysell,ȱTheȱPleasureȱofȱDiscernmentȱ(seeȱnoteȱ253),ȱ63.ȱSheȱcontinues:ȱ“InȱtheȱHeptaméronȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱthe
floodȱthatȱtrapsȱtheȱtravelersȱhasȱprovedȱunpleasant,ȱbutȱit,ȱlikeȱotherȱnaturalȱdisasters,ȱisȱtoȱbe
expectedȱandȱenduredȱratherȱthanȱescaped.ȱThisȱisȱpossibleȱforȱMargueriteȱdeȱNavarre’sȱdevisants
becauseȱtheyȱclearlyȱunderstandȱthemselvesȱtoȱbeȱinȱtheȱhandsȱofȱaȱgoodȱandȱgraciousȱGodȱwho
hasȱactivelyȱbroughtȱthemȱthroughȱsuchȱdisastersȱinȱtheȱpastȱandȱcanȱbeȱtrustedȱtoȱdoȱsoȱagain”
(64).ȱIȱwouldȱdisagreeȱwithȱtheȱfirstȱpartȱofȱherȱreflectionsȱbecauseȱtheȱdisasterȱinȱtheȱmountains
isȱ exactlyȱ whatȱ itȱ is,ȱ aȱ catastrophe,ȱ andȱ manyȱ ofȱ theȱ travelersȱ dieȱ inȱ itsȱ wake.ȱ Butȱ Thysellȱ is
certainlyȱcorrectȱthatȱtheȱdevisantsȱonlyȱneedȱtoȱspendȱtheirȱwaitingȱperiodȱpatiently,ȱfilledȱwith
narration,ȱuntilȱtheyȱcanȱsafelyȱreturnȱhome.ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱcommentsȱbyȱNicolinoȱApplausoȱonȱthe
worldȱofȱruralȱspaceȱinȱBoccaccio’sȱDecameronȱinȱhisȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolume.
Introduction 111
diverse,ȱifȱnotȱcosmopolitanȱorȱpanoramicȱviewȱofȱtheirȱsocietyȱandȱworld,ȱrural
spaceȱ provesȱ toȱ beȱ importantȱ forȱ themȱ asȱ well,ȱ justȱ asȱ inȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ Geoffrey
Chaucerȱ(CanterburyȱTales)ȱorȱPoggioȱBraccioliniȱ(Fascetiae),ȱorȱanyȱotherȱmajorȱlateȬ
medievalȱandȱearlyȬmodernȱcompilerȱandȱauthorȱofȱtalesȱ(JohannesȱPauli,ȱJörg
Wickram,ȱHansȱWilhelmȱKirchhof,ȱMartinȱMontanus,ȱetȱal.).256
However,ȱinȱonlyȱveryȱfewȱofȱtheȱstoriesȱbyȱMargueriteȱdoȱweȱencounterȱrural
scenesȱorȱsettings,ȱandȱevenȱpeasantȱfiguresȱrarelyȱemerge,ȱwithȱtheȱexceptionȱof
aȱmuleȬdriverȱinȱdayȱ1,ȱstoryȱtwentyȬseven,ȱorȱaȱferryȬwomanȱinȱstoryȱfiveȱalsoȱof
theȱfirstȱday.ȱOtherwise,ȱtheȱvastȱmajorityȱofȱaccountsȱtakeȱplaceȱatȱcourt,ȱinȱthe
city,ȱ orȱ inȱ aȱ monastery.257ȱ Onlyȱ onceȱ doȱ weȱ hearȱ ofȱ aȱ villageȱ setting,ȱ inȱ story
twentyȬnine,ȱduringȱtheȱthirdȱday,ȱwhereȱtheȱwifeȱofȱaȱrichȱfarmerȱhasȱanȱaffair
withȱtheȱlocalȱvillageȱpriest.ȱWeȱcanȱonlyȱpresumeȱthatȱthereȱareȱsignificantȱmarital
problemsȱforȱherȱsinceȱtheȱfarmerȱisȱdescribedȱasȱold,ȱandȱapparentlyȱcannotȱcreate
childrenȱwithȱherȱ(perhapsȱbecauseȱofȱhisȱimpotence).ȱ
Theȱhusbandȱisȱdescribedȱasȱ“dull”ȱandȱ“old,”ȱhenceȱ“neverȱsuspectedȱaȱthing”
(314).ȱNevertheless,ȱoneȱdayȱheȱalmostȱcatchesȱtheȱcoupleȱinȱflagrante,ȱthoughȱthe
priestȱmanagesȱtoȱhideȱjustȱinȱtimeȱinȱtheȱloftȱbeforeȱtheȱfarmer’sȱarrival.ȱTheȱwife
takesȱcareȱofȱherȱhusband,ȱandȱmakesȱhimȱdrunkȱsoȱthatȱheȱfallsȱasleepȱbyȱtheȱfire.
Accidentally,ȱwhileȱtheȱloverȱisȱpeekingȱbelowȱinȱtheȱroomȱtoȱseeȱwhetherȱheȱmight
beȱableȱtoȱescape,ȱheȱsuddenlyȱfallsȱdownȱbyȱaccidentȱandȱsoȱwakesȱupȱtheȱfarmer.
QuickȬwitted,ȱtheȱpriestȱimmediatelyȱcomesȱupȱwithȱaȱgoodȱexplanation,ȱ“‘Ah,
here’ȱsȱyourȱwinnowingȱbasket,ȱneighbour’”ȱ(314),ȱandȱthusȱdepartsȱwithoutȱdelay.
Theȱfarmerȱdoesȱnotȱseeȱthroughȱtheȱruse,ȱbutȱangrilyȱcomplains:ȱ“‘Veryȱrough
wayȱofȱreturningȱsomethingȱyou’veȱborrowed,’ȱheȱgrowled.ȱ‘Iȱthoughtȱtheȱhouse
wasȱfallingȱdown’”ȱ(315).ȱ
Upȱ toȱ thatȱ pointȱ theȱ traditionalȱ perceptionȱ ofȱ theȱ dullȱ andȱ coarseȱ farmerȱ is
repeated,ȱandȱtheȱstoryȱwouldȱelicitȱonlyȱsomeȱpoliteȱlaughterȱfromȱtheȱaudience
sinceȱtheȱthemeȱandȱconceptȱisȱsoȱfamiliarȱinȱlateȬmedievalȱliterature.258ȱAfterȱall,
256
Grubmüller,ȱDieȱOrdnung,ȱderȱWitzȱundȱdasȱChaosȱ(seeȱnoteȱ162);ȱRobertȱJ.ȱClementsȱandȱJoseph
Gibaldi,ȱAnatomyȱofȱtheȱNovella:ȱTheȱEuropeanȱTaleȱCollectionȱfromȱBoccaccioȱandȱChaucerȱtoȱCervantes
(NewȱYork:ȱNewȱYorkȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1977).
257
AsȱfarȱasȱIȱcanȱtell,ȱscholarshipȱhasȱhardlyȱpaidȱattentionȱtoȱtheȱimportantȱconceptȱofȱspaceȱinȱthe
Heptaméron.ȱSeeȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱApproachesȱtoȱTeachingȱMargueriteȱdeȱNavarre’sȱHeptaméron.ȱ
Approachesȱ toȱ TeachingȱWorldȱLiteratureȱ(NewȱYork:ȱTheȱModernȱLanguageȱAssociationȱof
America,ȱ2007).ȱ
258
BirgitȱBeine,ȱDerȱWolfȱinȱderȱKutte:ȱGeistlicheȱinȱdenȱMärenȱdesȱdeutschenȱMittelalters.ȱBraunschweiger
BeiträgeȱzurȱdeutschenȱSpracheȱundȱLiteratur,ȱ2ȱ(Bielefeld:ȱVerlagȱfürȱRegionalgeschichte,ȱ1999);
seeȱ alsoȱ Jenniferȱ D.ȱ Thibodeaux,ȱ ”Theȱ Sexualȱ Livesȱ ofȱ Medievalȱ Normanȱ Clerics:ȱ Aȱ New
Perspectiveȱ onȱ Clericalȱ Sexuality,”ȱ Sexualityȱ inȱ theȱ Middleȱ Agesȱ andȱ Earlyȱ Modernȱ Times:ȱ New
ApproachesȱtoȱaȱFundamentalȱCulturalȬHistoricalȱandȱLiteraryȬAnthropologicalȱTheme,ȱed.ȱAlbrecht
Classen.ȱ Fundamentalsȱ ofȱ Medievalȱ andȱ Earlyȱ Modernȱ Culture,ȱ 3ȱ (Berlinȱ andȱ Newȱ York:ȱ de
Gruyter,ȱ2008),ȱ471–83.
thereȱisȱtheȱoldȱhusband,ȱtheȱyoungȱandȱdiscontentedȱwife,ȱandȱtheȱsexȬstarved
priest.ȱHowever,ȱweȱmustȱnotȱignoreȱtheȱotherȱdiscourseȱpertainingȱtoȱtheȱpositive
aspectsȱ ofȱ ruralȱ lifeȱ whichȱ emergesȱ subsequently.259Finally,ȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ major
featuresȱofȱtheȱHeptaméronȱconsistsȱofȱtheȱcomplexȱdebatesȱaboutȱtheȱindividual
storiesȱ thatȱ alwaysȱ followȱ afterȱ eachȱ one,ȱ whereȱ majorȱ pointsȱ aboutȱ gender,
religion,ȱandȱsocialȱclassesȱareȱraised,ȱandȱsoȱhereȱasȱwell.260ȱGeburonȱ(supposed
toȱbeȱCharlesȱdeȱCoucy)ȱopines,ȱforȱinstance,ȱthatȱsimpleȱfolksȱcanȱbeȱasȱmuch
drivenȱbyȱevilȱintentȱasȱeducatedȱandȱupperȬclassȱpeople.ȱInȱfact,ȱheȱgoesȱoneȱstep
further:ȱ “Onȱ theȱ contrary,ȱ they’reȱ aȱ goodȱ dealȱ worse.ȱ Justȱ lookȱ atȱ theȱ thieves,
murderers,ȱsorcerers,ȱcounterfeitersȱandȱpeopleȱofȱthatȱkind”ȱ(315).ȱ
Parlamenteȱ expressesȱ herȱ surpriseȱ thatȱ farmersȱ canȱ evenȱ experienceȱ suchȱ a
subtleȱ emotionȱ asȱ love,ȱ anȱ attitudeȱ whichȱ Andreasȱ Capellanusȱ hadȱ similarly
formulatedȱ hundredsȱ ofȱ yearsȱ beforeȱ thatȱ inȱ hisȱ treatiseȱ Deȱ amoreȱ (ca.ȱ 1190).261
However,ȱ Saffredent,ȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ men,ȱ correctsȱ herȱ byȱ sayingȱ thatȱ theȱ storyȱ in
questionȱdidȱnotȱaddressȱloveȱinȱitsȱesotericȱandȱspiritualȱdimensions,ȱbutȱcentered
onȱphysicalȱsexualȱpleasures,ȱpureȱandȱsimple.ȱNevertheless,ȱheȱthenȱembarksȱon
aȱdifferentȱdiscourseȱthatȱweȱcouldȱidentifyȱasȱbasedȱonȱtheȱconceptȱofȱtheȱnoble
savage,ȱorȱatȱleastȱonȱtheȱidealȱofȱrusticicity:
‘.ȱ.ȱ.ȱTrue,ȱpoorȱfolkȱdon’tȱhaveȱtheȱwealthȱorȱtheȱsameȱmarksȱofȱdistinctionȱthatȱweȱdo,
butȱtheyȱdoȱhaveȱfreerȱaccessȱtoȱtheȱcommoditiesȱofȱNature.ȱTheirȱfoodȱmayȱnotȱbe
quiteȱsoȱdelicate,ȱbutȱtheyȱhaveȱbetterȱappetites,ȱandȱtheyȱgetȱmoreȱnourishmentȱon
coarseȱbreadȱthanȱweȱdoȱonȱourȱdelicateȱdiets.ȱTheyȱdon’tȱhaveȱfineȱbedsȱandȱlinenȱlike
weȱdo,ȱbutȱtheyȱhaveȱbetterȱsleepȱandȱdeeperȱrestȱthanȱwe.ȱTheyȱdon’tȱhaveȱfineȱladies
withȱtheirȱmakeȬupȱandȱelegantȱclothesȱlikeȱtheȱonesȱweȱidolize,ȱbutȱtheyȱhaveȱtheir
pleasureȱmoreȱoftenȱthanȱweȱdo,ȱandȱtheyȱdon’tȱneedȱtoȱworryȱaboutȱwaggingȱtongues,
exceptȱ perhapsȱ forȱ theȱ birdsȱ andȱ animalsȱ whoȱ happenȱ toȱ seeȱ them.ȱ [Inȱ short],
everythingȱthatȱweȱhave,ȱtheyȱlack,ȱandȱeverythingȱweȱlack,ȱtheyȱhaveȱinȱabundance’
(315–16).
Itȱ mightȱ beȱ difficultȱ toȱ graspȱ theȱ specificȱ connectionȱ betweenȱ thisȱ exchangeȱ of
opinionsȱandȱtheȱactualȱstoryȱbecauseȱthereȱtheȱyoungȱwomanȱsimplyȱlooksȱfor
waysȱtoȱgainȱsexualȱgratification,ȱwhereasȱsheȱdoesȱnotȱpursueȱanyȱamatoryȱgoals.
Theȱexchangeȱamongȱtheȱstorytellers,ȱbyȱcontrast,ȱexaminesȱsocialȱvalues,ȱlove,
ethicalȱissues,ȱandȱtheȱdifferencesȱinȱlifeȱstylesȱbetweenȱaristocratsȱandȱfarmers.ȱ
259
SeeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱNicolinoȱApplauso.
260
ElizabethȱC.ȱZegura,ȱ“TrueȱStoriesȱandȱAlternativeȱDiscourses:ȱTheȱGameȱofȱLoveȱinȱMarguerite
deȱNavarre’sȱHeptaméron,”ȱDiscoursesȱonȱLove,ȱMarriage,ȱandȱTransgressionȱinȱMedievalȱandȱEarly
ModernȱLiterature,ȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassen.ȱMedievalȱandȱRenaissanceȱTextsȱandȱStudies,ȱ278ȱ(Tempe,
AZ:ȱArizonaȱCenterȱforȱMedievalȱandȱRenaissanceȱStudies,ȱ2004),ȱ351–68;ȱesp.ȱ357–59.
261
Andreasȱaulaeȱregiaeȱcapellanus,ȱDeȱamore:ȱLibriȱtres.ȱTextȱbasedȱonȱtheȱeditionȱbyȱE.ȱTrojel.ȱTrans.
withȱnotesȱandȱanȱepilogueȱbyȱFritzȱPeterȱKnappȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱWalterȱdeȱGruyter,ȱ2006),
BookȱI,ȱch.ȱXI,ȱp.ȱ370–72:ȱ“Deȱamoreȱrusticorum.”
Introduction 113
SaffredentȱdoesȱnotȱgoȱasȱfarȱasȱJeanȬJacquesȱRousseauȱ(1712–1778)ȱwouldȱgo
withȱ hisȱ Émile,ȱ ouȱ Deȱ l’éducationȱ (1762)ȱ orȱ hisȱ earlierȱ Discoursȱ surȱ l’origineȱ etȱ les
fondementsȱ deȱ l’inégalitéȱ parmiȱ lesȱ hommesȱ (1755).262ȱ However,ȱ heȱ clearlyȱ voices
criticismȱ ofȱ theȱ degenerateȱ cultureȱ ofȱ theȱ aristocracyȱ andȱ indicatesȱ howȱ much
simpleȱfolkȱcanȱenjoyȱaȱmuchȱbetterȱlifeȱthanȱtheȱrichȱandȱpowerfulȱbecauseȱthey
areȱcloserȱtoȱnatureȱandȱcanȱtakeȱadvantageȱofȱaȱnaturalȱlifestyle.ȱDoȱweȱperceive
hereȱaȱkindȱofȱ‘naturalism’ȱavantȱlaȱlettre?ȱEvenȱifȱthisȱmightȱgoȱtooȱfar,ȱweȱcan
certainlyȱemphasizeȱhowȱmuchȱalreadyȱinȱtheȱpremodernȱworldȱtheȱideaȱofȱnature
asȱbeingȱaȱsaveȱhavenȱfromȱtheȱmoralȱdeclineȱinȱandȱbyȱ(courtlyȱorȱurban)ȱsociety
wasȱ ofȱ relevance.ȱ Asȱ toȱ theȱ purityȱ ofȱ fulfilledȱ loveȱ possibleȱ onlyȱ inȱ unspoiled
nature,ȱweȱonlyȱwouldȱhaveȱtoȱreferȱbackȱtoȱtheȱfamousȱpoemȱbyȱWaltherȱvonȱder
Vogelweide,ȱ “Underȱ derȱ linden,”ȱ toȱ discoverȱ significantȱ thematicȱ connections,
althoughȱMargueriteȱwasȱcertainlyȱnotȱfamiliarȱwithȱthisȱMiddleȱHighȱGerman
poet.
Insofarȱasȱthisȱvolumeȱisȱnotȱspecificallyȱtargetingȱ‘theȱpeasant’ȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges
andȱtheȱearlyȱmodernȱage,ȱweȱcannotȱpursueȱthisȱsocialȬeconomicȱaspectȱmuch
furtherȱatȱthisȱpoint.263ȱInstead,ȱweȱhaveȱtoȱkeepȱinȱmindȱhowȱmuchȱruralȱspace
andȱhumanȱlifeȱasȱitȱtakesȱplaceȱthereȱintimatelyȱinteractȱwithȱeachȱother.264ȱOur
focusȱhasȱmostlyȱrestedȱthereforeȱonȱtheȱlivesȱofȱpeasants,ȱonȱtheirȱpresentationȱin
literatureȱandȱtheȱarts,ȱbutȱthenȱalso,ȱandȱthisȱperhapsȱmostȱintensively,ȱonȱnature
itselfȱandȱitsȱperceptionȱinȱtheȱpremodernȱage.ȱTheȱcriticalȱquestionsȱalwaysȱprove
toȱbe,ȱandȱthisȱcertainlyȱwellȱuntilȱtoday,ȱwhereȱtheȱborderȱbetweenȱhumanȱand
naturalȱspaceȱruns,ȱandȱwhetherȱweȱcanȱreallyȱdrawȱaȱveryȱspecificȱlineȱseparating
bothȱspheres.ȱWhenȱdoesȱaȱgardenȬlikeȱlandscapeȱturnȱintoȱwilderness?ȱWhatȱdoes
theȱtransgression,ȱorȱmoveȱfromȱtheȱdomesticatedȱgardenȱintoȱtheȱwildȱforest,ȱfor
instance,ȱorȱtheȱascentȱtoȱaȱmountain,ȱindicateȱaboutȱtheȱhistoryȱofȱmentalityȱat
large?265ȱRuralȱspaceȱthusȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱaȱcriticalȱareaȱofȱhumanȱhistoryȱasȱwell,ȱa
262
Laurenceȱ D.ȱ Cooper,ȱ Rousseau,ȱ Nature,ȱ andȱ theȱ Problemȱ ofȱ theȱ Goodȱ Lifeȱ (Universityȱ Park:
PennsylvaniaȱStateȱUniversity,ȱ1999);ȱJoelȱJ.ȱKupperman,ȱTheoriesȱofȱHumanȱNatureȱ(Indianapolis,
IN:ȱHackettȱPublishing,ȱ2010).
263
See,ȱhowever,ȱPaulȱFreedman,ȱImagesȱofȱtheȱMedievalȱPeasantȱ(seeȱnoteȱ120).
264
ButȱseeȱPaulȱFreedman,ȱImagesȱofȱtheȱMedievalȱPeasantȱ(seeȱnoteȱ120),ȱ204–23.ȱAsȱvaluableȱasȱhis
compilationȱofȱspecificȱexamplesȱofȱgood,ȱnoble,ȱandȱvirtuousȱpeasantsȱinȱmedievalȱliterature
mightȱbe,ȱthereȱareȱaȱnumberȱofȱratherȱproblematicȱreadings,ȱsuchȱasȱofȱHartmannȱvonȱAue’sȱ“Der
armeȱHeinrich.”ȱForȱfurtherȱdiscussionsȱofȱthatȱtale,ȱseeȱabove.
265
Güntherȱ E.ȱ Thiery,ȱ “Natur/Umwelt:ȱ Antike”ȱ (641–48);ȱ Harryȱ Kühnel,ȱ togetherȱ withȱ Peter
Dinzelbacher,ȱ“ȱNatur/Umwelt:ȱMittelalter”ȱ(648–68);ȱRolfȱP.ȱSieferle,”ȱ“Natur/Umwelt:ȱNeuzeit”
(668–80),ȱEuropäischeȱMentalitätsgeschichteȱ(seeȱnoteȱ6);ȱforȱBoccaccio,ȱseeȱSebastianȱNeumeister,
“Annäherungȱ anȱ dieȱ Natur:ȱ Bilderȱ derȱ Landschaftȱ beiȱ Boccaccio”ȱ (131–48);ȱ forȱ Eneaȱ Silvio
Piccolomini,ȱseeȱArnoldȱEsch,ȱ“DasȱErlebnisȱderȱLandschaftȱbeiȱEneaȱSilvioȱPiccolomini/PiusȱII.”
(149–60),ȱ‘LandschaftȱimȱMittelalter?ȱ–ȱAugenscheinȱundȱLiteratur,ȱed.ȱJensȱPfeffer.ȱDasȱMittelalter:
kindȱofȱsociety’sȱextension,ȱorȱaȱborderȱwhereȱcolonizingȱeffortsȱalwaysȱknockȱon
theȱ door.ȱ Thatȱ spaceȱ hasȱ alwaysȱ provenȱ toȱ beȱ theȱ criticalȱ testingȱ ground,ȱ a
profoundȱchallenge,ȱwhichȱweȱnowȱbeginȱtoȱexploreȱmoreȱinȱdetail.ȱ
Weȱcanȱandȱmustȱwriteȱhumanȱhistoryȱbyȱwayȱofȱalwaysȱkeepingȱanȱeyeȱonȱthe
interrelationshipȱbetweenȱhumanȱsocietyȱandȱtheȱnaturalȱenvironment,ȱwhether
thisȱinvolvesȱonlyȱphysicalȱorȱalsoȱmetaphysicalȱdimensions.266ȱAfterȱall,ȱhuman
lifeȱdependsȱonȱallȱtheȱnaturalȱresources,ȱonȱappropriateȱclimaticȱconditions,ȱand
henceȱalsoȱonȱprotectionsȱfromȱexcessiveȱnaturalȱforcesȱandȱdangerousȱcreatures
(animals,ȱreptiles,ȱbacteria,ȱviruses,ȱetc.).267ȱActually,ȱweȱcontinueȱtoȱstruggleȱwith
theseȱissuesȱuntilȱtoday,ȱandȱevenȱourȱbestȱpreparationsȱandȱdefenseȱconstructions
canȱfailȱorȱbreakȱdown,ȱnotȱtoȱspeakȱofȱourȱbeingȱveryȱsubjectȱtoȱattacksȱbyȱillness,
normallyȱ theȱ resultȱ ofȱ bacterialȱ orȱ viralȱ infections.ȱ Naturalȱ catastrophesȱ have
deeplyȱaffectedȱhumanȱlifeȱthroughoutȱtime,ȱsoȱfocusingȱonȱearthquakes,ȱmassive
forestȱfires,ȱdroughts,ȱflooding,ȱetc.,ȱallȱthreateningȱtoȱdestroyȱtheȱcountrysideȱand
toȱwipeȱoutȱcitiesȱandȱvillages,ȱoffersȱpowerfulȱanalyticalȱlensesȱtoȱcomprehendȱthe
closeȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱallȱpeopleȱandȱruralȱspace.268
Theȱdegreeȱtoȱwhichȱmanȱhasȱbeenȱableȱtoȱcontrolȱnature,ȱorȱatȱleastȱtoȱstemȱits
massiveȱforcesȱinȱorderȱtoȱcarveȱoutȱaȱlittleȱnicheȱofȱhumanȱlife,ȱcanȱbeȱregarded
asȱanȱexcellentȱgaugeȱofȱhumanȱhistoryȱatȱlarge.ȱOfȱcourse,ȱasȱaȱconsequenceȱof
ecocriticismȱweȱhaveȱalsoȱlearnedȱtoȱquestionȱtheȱconceptȱofȱ‘control’ȱbecauseȱonly
theȱ harmonious,ȱ thatȱ is,ȱ respectfulȱ interactionȱ betweenȱ peopleȱ andȱ nature
promises,ȱ asȱ countlessȱ examplesȱ haveȱ indicated,ȱ bothȱ inȱ pastȱ andȱ present,ȱ the
survivalȱofȱtheȱhumanȱrace.ȱThisȱstruggleȱtoȱfindȱaȱconstructiveȱapproachȱtoȱrural
spaceȱbeganȱonȱdayȱoneȱofȱhumanȱexistence,ȱandȱitȱdeeplyȱdeterminedȱallȱcultural
andȱeconomicȱhistoryȱeverȱsince.
30.ȱTheȱTestimonyȱofȱLateȬMedievalȱArtȱOnceȱAgain
Theȱextentȱtoȱwhichȱtheȱapproachȱtoȱruralȱspaceȱhasȱalwaysȱreflectedȱanȱongoing
andȱchangingȱprocessȱfindsȱmostȱvividȱexpressionȱinȱtheȱhistoryȱofȱart.ȱToȱconclude
ourȱreflections,ȱIȱwouldȱlikeȱtoȱturnȱfirstȱtoȱtheȱfamousȱLivreȱdeȱlaȱchasseȱ(Hunting
PerspektivenȱmediävistischerȱForschungȱ16.1ȱ(2011).ȱ
266
RobertȱBartlett,ȱTheȱNaturalȱandȱtheȱSupernaturalȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges.ȱTheȱWilesȱLecturesȱGivenȱatȱthe
queen’sȱUniversityȱofȱBelfast,ȱ2006ȱ(Cambridge:ȱCambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2008).
267
Jacquesȱ Berlioz,ȱ Catastrophesȱ naturellesȱ etȱ calamitésȱ auȱ Moyenȱ Ageȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 198).ȱ Heȱ includes
chaptersȱbothȱonȱnaturalȱcatastrophes,ȱsuchȱasȱepidemics,ȱfloods,ȱearthquakes,ȱcoldȱweather,ȱetc.),
andȱonȱattacksȱbyȱwolves,ȱflooding,ȱandȱfearȱofȱunknownȱterrains;ȱseeȱalsoȱJeanȬPierreȱLeguay,ȱLes
catastrophesȱauȱMoyenȱÂgeȱ(seeȱnoteȱ252).ȱ
268
ChristianȱRohr,ȱExtremeȱNaturereignisseȱimȱOstalpenraum:ȱNaturerfahrungȱimȱSpätmittelalterȱundȱam
BeginnȱderȱNeuzeit.ȱUmwelthistorischeȱForschungen,ȱ4ȱ(Cologne:ȱBöhlau,ȱ2007).
Introduction 115
Book)ȱofȱGastonȱPhébus,ȱCountȱofȱFoixȱ(Bibliothèqueȱnationale,ȱMfr.ȱ616),ȱbegun
onȱMayȱ1,ȱ1387,ȱandȱfinishedȱinȱ1389.269ȱItȱisȱoneȱofȱtheȱmostȱfamousȱhuntingȱbooks
fromȱtheȱentireȱMiddleȱAges,ȱandȱbears,ȱinȱmanyȱways,ȱfascinatingȱparallelsȱwith
FrederickȱII’sȱequallyȱfamousȱFalconȱBookȱinȱitsȱinterestȱinȱandȱknowledgeȱabout
animalsȱorȱbirds,ȱrespectively.270ȱEspeciallyȱhuntingȱwithȱfalconsȱandȱotherȱbirds
ofȱpreyȱwasȱoneȱofȱtheȱmostȱhighlyȱregardedȱaristocraticȱsports;ȱnotȱsurprisingly,
courtlyȱloveȱpoetsȱthereforeȱreferredȱtoȱtheȱfalconȱasȱaȱsymbolȱofȱloveȱinȱmany
differentȱforms.271ȱAsȱmuchȱasȱtheȱillustratorsȱofȱGaston’sȱbookȱreliedȱonȱtraditional
elementsȱborrowedȱfromȱmodelȱbooks,ȱasȱfarȱasȱtheȱshapeȱandȱdesignȱofȱplants,
trees,ȱmeadows,ȱbushes,ȱfences,ȱetc.ȱmightȱbeȱconcerned,ȱhereȱweȱareȱwitnessesȱto
anȱ amazingȱ explorationȱ ofȱ naturalȱ details,ȱ especiallyȱ withȱ aȱ focusȱ onȱ hunting
animalsȱ andȱ huntingȱ prey.ȱ Theȱ settingsȱ areȱ staged,ȱ ofȱ course,ȱ andȱ thereȱ isȱ no
realisticȱ background,ȱ butȱ weȱ areȱ givenȱ theȱ fullȱ privilegeȱ ofȱ partakingȱ inȱ the
understandingȱandȱperceptionȱofȱruralȱspaceȱfromȱtheȱpointȱofȱviewȱofȱaȱnoble
hunter.ȱAsȱmuchȱasȱGaston’sȱillustratorsȱmadeȱtheirȱbestȱeffortȱtoȱprovideȱasȱmuch
specificȱdetailȱaboutȱtheȱanimalsȱinȱtheirȱminiatures,ȱasȱmuchȱtheyȱalsoȱmadeȱsure
toȱbeȱasȱconcreteȱandȱmeticulousȱregardingȱweapons,ȱhuntingȱstrategies,ȱtraps,
fences,ȱandȱaȱvarietyȱofȱruralȱsettingsȱinȱtheȱforest,ȱonȱtheȱopenȱmeadow,ȱandȱinȱthe
fields.ȱ
Asȱaȱsideȱnoteȱhere,ȱhuntingȱwasȱoftenȱdiscussedȱbyȱotherȱauthors,ȱsuchȱasȱthe
SpanishȱDukeȱJuanȱManuelȱ(1282–1348),ȱsinceȱitȱwasȱoneȱofȱtheȱcentralȱpastimes
ofȱmedievalȱandȱearlyȬmodernȱnobility,ȱandȱhisȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱ(ca.ȱ1325)ȱwould
lendȱitselfȱwellȱhereȱforȱaȱcomparativeȱstudy.272ȱInȱthisȱcontextȱweȱthenȱshouldȱalso
considerȱtheȱfamousȱbookȱonȱhuntingȱwithȱbirdsȱofȱpreyȱbyȱEmperorȱFrederickȱII,
hisȱ Deȱ arteȱ venandiȱ cumȱ avibusȱ (ca.ȱ 1241–1248).ȱ Theȱ accuracyȱ withȱ whichȱ the
269
Jacquelineȱ A.ȱ Stuhmiller,ȱ inȱ herȱ contributionȱ toȱ thisȱ volume,ȱ addressesȱ anotherȱ significant
manuscriptȱofȱtheȱsameȱtextȱbyȱGastonȱPhébus.ȱHerȱstudyȱconfirms,ȱhowever,ȱhowȱmuchȱlateȬ
medievalȱartistsȱandȱwriters,ȱnotȱtoȱforgetȱscientists,ȱeagerlyȱintegratedȱnatural,ȱorȱrural,ȱspaceȱfor
theirȱ criticalȱ investigationsȱ ofȱ epistemology,ȱ economicȱ andȱ politicalȱ aspects,ȱ and,ȱ aboveȱ all,
philosophicalȱandȱtheologicalȱapproaches.
270
TheȱHuntingȱBookȱofȱGastonȱPhébus:ȱManuscritȱfrançaisȱ616,ȱParis,ȱBibliothèqueȱnationale.ȱIntroduction
byȱ Marcelȱ Thomasȱ andȱ Françoisȱ Avril.ȱ Commentaryȱ byȱ Wilhelmȱ Schlag.ȱ Manuscriptsȱ in
Miniature,ȱ3ȱ(London:ȱHarveyȱMillerȱPublishers,ȱ1998);ȱDorotheaȱWalz,ȱDasȱFalkenbuchȱFriedrichs
II.ȱ(Graz:ȱAkademischeȱDruckȬȱundȱVerlagsanstalt,ȱ1994);ȱeadem,ȱDasȱFalkenbuchȱFriedrichsȱII.:ȱDe
arteȱvenandiȱcumȱavibus.ȱCod.ȱPal.ȱLat.ȱ1071ȱderȱBibliotecaȱApostolicaȱVaticanaȱ(Darmstadt:ȱWissenȬ
schaftlicheȱBuchgesellschaft,ȱ2003).
271
Nicolaȱ Zotz,ȱ “Aufȱ demȱ Wegȱ zumȱ Quodlibet:ȱ Dasȱ Falkenliedȱ desȱ ‘Königsteinerȱ Liederbuchs,’
nebenȱanderenȱmittelalterlichenȱFalkenliedern,”ȱ“Ieglicherȱsangȱseinȱeigenȱticht”:ȱGermanistischeȱund
musikwissenschaftlicheȱBeiträgeȱzumȱdeutschenȱLiedȱimȱMittelalter,ȱed.ȱChristophȱMärzȱ(†),ȱLorenz
Welker,ȱandȱeadem.ȱElementaȱMusicae,ȱ4ȱ(Wiesbaden:ȱReichertȱVerlag,ȱ2011),ȱ149–61.
272
SeeȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱtheȱpresentȱvolumeȱbyȱMariaȱCeciliaȱRuizȱandȱJacquelineȱStuhmiller.ȱCf.
alsoȱtheȱlatter’sȱPh.D.ȱdissertation,ȱȱ“TheȱHuntȱinȱRomanceȱandȱtheȱHuntȱasȱRomance,”ȱCornell
University,ȱIthaca,ȱNY,ȱ2005.
individualȱ birdsȱ areȱ depictedȱ inȱ theȱ illustrationsȱ confirmsȱ thatȱ huntingȱ was
consideredȱbothȱaȱformȱofȱaristocraticȱentertainmentȱandȱaȱscience.273
Theȱ fabulouslyȱ illustratedȱ manuscriptȱ ofȱ theȱ Historyȱ ofȱ Alexanderȱ theȱ Great,
producedȱinȱtheȱsouthernȱNetherlandsȱduringȱtheȱtimeȱofȱCharlesȱtheȱBold,ȱDuke
ofȱBurgundy,ȱallowsȱusȱtoȱpursueȱthisȱartȬhistoricalȱapproachȱfurther.ȱTheȱancient
textȱbyȱQuintusȱCurtiusȱRufusȱwasȱtranslatedȱbyȱtheȱPortugueseȱandȱBurgundian
humanistȱVascoȱdaȱLucenaȱinȱ1468ȱasȱLesȱfaisȱd’Alexandreȱleȱgrant.ȱTheȱillustrations
accompanyingȱtheȱworkȱareȱofȱfinestȱqualityȱandȱrepresent,ȱinȱmanyȱways,ȱthe
highpointȱofȱlateȱGothicȱminiatureȱart,ȱsoȱtoȱspeakȱhoveringȱatȱtheȱthresholdȱtoȱthe
Renaissance.ȱ Vascoȱ daȱ Lucena’sȱ translationȱ hasȱ survivedȱ inȱ thirtyȬfour
manuscriptsȱcreatedȱforȱmembersȱofȱFrenchȬspeakingȱnoblesȱinȱnorthernȱEurope.ȱ
AsȱScotȱMcKendrickȱobservesȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱtheȱillustrations,ȱ“Asȱelsewhereȱin
theȱbestȱofȱNorthernȱEuropeanȱartȱofȱtheȱfifteenthȱcentury,ȱmuchȱemphasisȱisȱgiven
toȱtheȱgeometryȱofȱeachȱcomposition.ȱArchitectureȱisȱemployedȱtoȱframe,ȱshape,
andȱdistinguishȱnonȬcontemporaryȱorȱconsecutiveȱscenes,ȱparticularlyȱthroughȱthe
deviceȱofȱisolatingȱaȱlargerȱareaȱonȱtheȱleftȬhandȱsideȱforȱtheȱprincipalȱscene.”274ȱHe
isȱ certainlyȱ rightȱ inȱ theȱ largerȱ schemaȱ ofȱ things,ȱ soȱ whenȱ heȱ comments,ȱ “The
depictionȱofȱthreeȬdimensionalȱspaceȱandȱtheȱmirroringȱofȱnatureȱareȱsecondary
toȱnarrativeȱconcerns”ȱ(36).ȱHowever,ȱpursuingȱourȱparticularȱinterest,ȱweȱcan
observe,ȱ firstȱ ofȱ all,ȱ aȱ greatȱ interestȱ inȱ theȱ marginalȱ drawingsȱ whereȱ countless
detailsȱfromȱnatureȱandȱhumanȱsocietyȱembellishȱtheȱpage.ȱInȱfact,ȱtheȱmarginsȱat
timesȱseemȱtoȱbeȱasȱimportantȱasȱtheȱcentralȱimage,ȱconsideringȱtheȱloveȱforȱdetails
andȱtheȱdelightȱinȱpresentingȱflowers,ȱbirds,ȱfruit,ȱanimals,ȱandȱstrangeȱcreatures.ȱ
Theȱparallels,ȱhowever,ȱtoȱmostȱotherȱmanuscriptȱillustrationsȱfromȱthatȱtime
period,ȱareȱveryȱstrongȱandȱnotȱreallyȱsurprising.ȱNevertheless,ȱthereȱisȱaȱnovel
depthȱperception,ȱanȱintriguingȱawarenessȱaboutȱhowȱtoȱdepictȱspaceȱinȱgeometric
terms.ȱEventsȱareȱpresentedȱinȱaȱsimultaneousȱfashion,ȱandȱeachȱtimeȱweȱfaceȱboth
interiorȱ andȱ exteriorȱ space,ȱ bothȱ architecturalȱ elementsȱ andȱ natureȱ scenes,ȱ all
intimatelyȱ collaboratingȱ withȱ eachȱ otherȱ toȱ giveȱ theȱ imageȱ theȱ maximumȱ of
narrativeȱmeaningȱwithȱregardȱtoȱtheȱaccompanyingȱtext.ȱOnȱfol.ȱ41r,ȱforȱinstance,
hereȱplateȱ3,ȱtheȱissueȱrestsȱonȱAlexander’sȱillnessȱatȱtheȱCydnusȱRiverȱandȱthe
deathȱofȱSisinnes.ȱThereȱareȱmanyȱeventsȱtoȱrelate,ȱandȱtheȱartistsȱmadeȱtheȱbest
possibleȱ effortȱ toȱ developȱ aȱ highlyȱ diversifiedȱ landscapeȱ outsideȱ ofȱ aȱ heavily
fortifiedȱcityȱaroundȱwhichȱaȱriverȱrunsȱsmoothly.ȱ
Onȱaȱslightȱelevationȱinȱtheȱbackgroundȱaȱrowȱofȱtreesȱisȱstanding,ȱeachȱcovered
withȱleavesȱinȱdifferentȱshadesȱofȱgreen.ȱInȱtheȱfarȱbackgroundȱaȱmountainȱrange
273
Doroethaȱ Walz,ȱ Dasȱ Falkenbuchȱ Friedrichsȱ II.ȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 270).ȱ Forȱ Juanȱ Manuel’sȱ workȱ andȱ the
illustrations,ȱseeȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱtheȱpresentȱvolumeȱbyȱMariaȱCeciliaȱRuiz.
274
ScotȱMcKendrick,ȱTheȱHistoryȱofȱAlexanderȱtheȱGreat.ȱGettyȱMuseumȱMonographsȱonȱIlluminated
Manuscriptsȱ(LosȱAngeles:ȱTheȱJ.ȱPaulȱGettyȱMuseum,ȱ1996),ȱ35.
Introduction 117
becomesȱvisible,ȱpaintedȱinȱlightȱblueȱtoȱindicateȱtheȱfarȱdistance.ȱTheȱforeground
isȱoccupiedȱwithȱaȱlargeȱgroupȱofȱsoldiersȱandȱAlexander’sȱtentȱtoȱtheȱleft.ȱThe
artistȱmadeȱgreatestȱeffortsȱtoȱpresentȱaȱvarietyȱofȱlandscapes,ȱwithȱaȱplainȱareaȱin
theȱforeground,ȱsomeȱelevationsȱinȱtheȱbackground,ȱsmallȱcliffsȱnearȱtheȱriver,ȱand
shrubberyȱandȱgrassȱgrowingȱeverywhere.ȱWeȱdiscoverȱevenȱaȱbushȱofȱreedȱgrass
nearȱtheȱriver.ȱThereȱis,ȱinȱotherȱwords,ȱnoȱdoubtȱaboutȱtheȱartist’sȱincredibleȱskill
inȱ organizingȱ theȱ ruralȱ spaceȱ toȱ theȱ greatestȱ advantageȱ forȱ theȱ narrative
development.ȱ
Inȱ theȱ sceneȱ showingȱ theȱ competitionȱ inȱ Sittaceneȱ andȱ theȱ placatingȱ of
Sisigambisȱ(fol.ȱ99,ȱplateȱ5),ȱweȱwitnessȱbothȱaȱsimpleȱpastureȱoutsideȱofȱtheȱcity
gates,ȱandȱnumerousȱelevationsȱinȱtheȱbackground,ȱonȱwhichȱtreesȱareȱgrowing.
Evenȱwithinȱtheȱurbanȱspaceȱweȱobserveȱtreesȱrisingȱup,ȱasȱifȱnatureȱcannotȱbeȱheld
back,ȱ orȱ resisted,ȱ sinceȱ itȱ looksȱ likeȱ anȱ enclosedȱ garden.ȱ Ofȱ course,ȱ cityscapes
dominate,ȱandȱwhenȱweȱareȱconfrontedȱwithȱruralȱspaces,ȱthenȱtheȱgardenȱsetting
orȱtheȱvistaȱintoȱtheȱfarȱdistanceȱproveȱtoȱbeȱtheȱdominantȱfeatures.ȱ
Nevertheless,ȱ asȱ weȱ easilyȱ recognize,ȱ withoutȱ someȱ hintsȱ ofȱ ruralȱ spaceȱ the
artist/sȱ virtuallyȱ neverȱ completesȱ hisȱ pictures.ȱ Evenȱ whenȱ weȱ lookȱ atȱ aȱ highly
energeticȱimageȱrepresentingȱaȱsiege,ȱsuchȱasȱAlexander’sȱconquestȱofȱtheȱtownȱof
Sudracaeȱ(fol.ȱ204,ȱplateȱ13),ȱwhereȱtheȱprotagonistȱisȱshownȱhavingȱjumpedȱdown
intoȱ theȱ cityȱ squareȱ withoutȱ havingȱ enoughȱ supportȱ fromȱ hisȱ troops,ȱ rural
elementsȱareȱneverȱcompletelyȱmissing.ȱAȱtallȱtreeȱprovidesȱhimȱatȱleastȱwithȱa
backȱ cover,ȱ whichȱ thenȱ allowsȱ himȱ toȱ driveȱ awayȱ hisȱ enemiesȱ untilȱ hisȱ own
soldiersȱhaveȱbreachedȱtheȱdefenseȱwallsȱandȱhaveȱcomeȱtoȱhisȱrescue.ȱTheȱartist
skillfullyȱdividesȱtheȱscene,ȱallowingȱusȱaȱclearȱviewȱintoȱtheȱcityȱwhereȱAlexander
isȱengagedȱinȱaȱmostȱdangerousȱfight,ȱandȱaȱviewȱofȱtheȱareaȱoutside,ȱdottedȱwith
bushesȱandȱtrees.ȱ
Space,ȱwhetherȱurbanȱorȱrural,ȱgainsȱcentralȱattentionȱsinceȱitȱbecomesȱtheȱstage
forȱmanyȱofȱtheȱcriticalȱeventsȱinȱAlexander’sȱmilitaryȱcampaign.ȱItȱisȱalsoȱworth
notingȱ thatȱ despiteȱ theȱ mostȱ violentȱ natureȱ ofȱ theȱ miniature,ȱ theȱ frameȱ is
beautifullyȱandȱpeacefullyȱdecoratedȱwithȱmanyȱdifferentȱfruitȱandȱflowers,ȱleaves,
andȱacorns,ȱaȱcharacteristicȱfeatureȱofȱthisȱmanuscript,ȱandȱparallelȱtoȱmanyȱother
lateȬmedievalȱmanuscripts.ȱAlthoughȱMcKendrickȱviewsȱtheȱpresentationȱofȱrural
spaceȱprimarilyȱasȱdeceptiveȱandȱunrealisticȱbecauseȱtheyȱ“failȱtoȱmirrorȱreality”
(36),ȱweȱclearlyȱsenseȱtheȱdegreeȱtoȱwhichȱruralȱspaceȱhasȱgainedȱinȱrespectȱand
importanceȱbothȱforȱtheȱlateȬmedievalȱartistsȱandȱtheirȱpatrons.ȱ
Evenȱwoodȱsculptors,ȱsuchȱasȱTilmanȱRiemenschneiderȱ(ca.ȱ1460–1531)ȱturned
theirȱattentionȱtoȱnaturalȱdetailsȱandȱincludedȱtreesȱandȱbushesȱinȱtheirȱpanelsȱof
altarȱtriptychs,ȱsuchȱasȱhisȱHolyȱBloodȱAltarȱinȱSt.ȱJacob,ȱRothenburgȱobȱderȱTauber
(1499–1505),ȱifȱweȱconsiderȱtheȱtrees,ȱhills,ȱandȱrocks.275ȱAfterȱall,ȱevenȱtheȱholiest
scenesȱinȱtheȱNewȱTestamentȱcouldȱnoȱlongerȱbeȱpresentedȱwithoutȱsomeȱdetails
borrowedȱfromȱruralȱspace.276ȱ
Aȱfinal,ȱandȱmostȱsplendidȱexampleȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱtheȱextraordinaryȱpanelsȱofȱthe
byȱ nowȱ famousȱ retabloȱ (altarȱ piece)ȱ fromȱ theȱ Ciudadȱ Rodrigo,ȱ createdȱ by
Ferdandoȱ Gallegoȱ (ca.ȱ 1440–afterȱ 1507)ȱ andȱ Maestroȱ Bartoloméȱ (specificȱ dates
unknown,ȱbutȱcontemporaryȱtoȱGallego),ȱobviouslyȱunderȱtheȱinfluenceȱofȱthe
Flemishȱschoolȱtoȱtheȱnorth,ȱreplacingȱtheȱinfluenceȱofȱtheȱInternationalȱGothic,
sometimeȱbetweenȱ1480ȱandȱ1488.277ȱVeryȱmuchȱinȱtheȱveinȱofȱtheȱillustrationsȱto
theȱHistoryȱofȱAlexanderȱtheȱGreatȱ(seeȱabove),ȱtheȱinterestȱinȱruralȱspaceȱisȱgaining
newȱdimension,ȱasȱreflectedȱbyȱtheȱcountlessȱdetailsȱthatȱattractȱtheȱviewer’sȱeyes.
InȱFernando’sȱpaintingȱofȱ“ChristȱandȱtheȱSamaritanȱWoman”ȱ(plateȱ8ȱinȱFernando
Gallego,ȱ2008),ȱweȱbecomeȱwitnessesȱofȱaȱmostȱdelightfulȱlandscape,ȱwithȱhills,
bushes,ȱtrees,ȱaȱmeanderingȱriver,ȱgrassyȱlandscape,ȱrockyȱareas,ȱandȱaȱwideȱopen
landscapeȱextendingȱintoȱtheȱdistanceȱofȱtheȱbackground.ȱWeȱalsoȱrecognizeȱparts
ofȱaȱcityȱinȱtheȱtopȱrightȱcorner,ȱbutȱtheȱartistsȱmadeȱgreatestȱeffortsȱtoȱsituateȱthe
sceneȱ asȱ muchȱ asȱ possibleȱ inȱ aȱ ruralȱ setting.ȱ Certainly,ȱ asȱ isȱ oftenȱ theȱ caseȱ in
contemporaryȱart,ȱmostȱofȱtheȱartisticȱelementsȱareȱclearlyȱborrowedȱfromȱmodel
books,ȱandȱmightȱnotȱhaveȱbeenȱcopiedȱfromȱnature.ȱNevertheless,ȱweȱrecognize
theȱinnovativeȱapproachȱpursuedȱbyȱFernandoȱtoȱallowȱtheȱnaturalȱworldȱitsȱown
right,ȱespeciallyȱinȱthisȱpowerfulȱreligiousȱscene.ȱOfȱcourse,ȱthisȱisȱnotȱnecessarily
Fernando’sȱnativeȱSpain,ȱasȱweȱcanȱreadȱinȱtheȱnewȱcatalogue:ȱ
Theȱcarefullyȱmodeled,ȱirregularlyȱshaped,ȱandȱlightȱbrownishȱgreenȱrocksȱscattered
inȱtheȱimmediateȱforegroundȱappearȱinȱmanyȱofȱtheȱartist’sȱoutdoorȱscenesȱandȱare
imitatedȱbyȱhisȱfollowersȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱTheȱpuffyȱgreenȱtreesȱaccentedȱbyȱflecksȱofȱyellowȱpaint
onȱ theȱ surfaceȱ areȱ characteristicȱ ofȱ Fernandoȱ Gallego’sȱ landscapes.ȱ Althoughȱ the
muted,ȱ earthy,ȱ slightlyȱ pinkishȱ brownsȱ andȱ greensȱ dominateȱ andȱ mayȱ reflectȱ the
275
TilmanȱRiemenschneider:ȱMasterȱSculptorȱofȱtheȱLateȱMiddleȱAges,ȱed.ȱJulienȱChapuisȱ(Washington,
DC:ȱNationalȱGalleryȱofȱArt,ȱWashington;ȱNewȱHaven:ȱDistributedȱbyȱYaleȱUniversityȱPress,
1990);ȱTilmanȱRiemenschneider,ȱc.ȱ1460Ȭ1531,ȱed.ȱJulienȱChapuisȱ(Washington,ȱDC:ȱNationalȱGallery
ofȱArt,ȱWashington;ȱNewȱHaven:ȱDistributedȱbyȱYaleȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2004).
276
RainerȱKahsnitz,ȱCarvedȱSplendor:ȱLateȱGothicȱAltarpiecesȱinȱSouthernȱGermany,ȱAustria,ȱandȱSouth
Tirol,ȱwithȱphotosȱbyȱAchimȱBunz,ȱtrans.ȱbyȱRussellȱStockmanȱ(2005;ȱLosȱAngeles:ȱTheȱJ.ȱPaul
GettyȱMuseum,ȱ2006).
277
R.ȱM.ȱQuinn,ȱFernandoȱGallegoȱandȱtheȱRetabloȱofȱCiudadȱRodrigo.ȱSpanishȱversionȱbyȱRenatoȱRosaldo
(Tucson:ȱTheȱUniversityȱofȱArizonaȱPress,ȱ1961);ȱnowȱseeȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱFernandoȱGallegoȱand
HisȱWorkshop:ȱTheȱAltarpieceȱfromȱCiudadȱRodrigo.ȱPaintingsȱfromȱtheȱCollectionȱofȱtheȱUniversityȱof
ArizonaȱMuseumȱofȱArt,ȱed.ȱAmandaȱW.ȱDotseth,ȱBarbaraȱC.ȱAnderson,ȱandȱMarkȱA.ȱRoglánȱ(New
York:ȱPalgraveȱMacmillan,ȱ2008),ȱwhichȱhighlightȱtheȱresultsȱofȱmostȱrecentȱinȬdepthȱresearchȱon
thoseȱ paintingsȱ afterȱ theyȱ hadȱ goneȱ throughȱ anȱ extensiveȱ cleaningȱ processȱ andȱ artȬhistorical
analysis.
Introduction 119
landscapeȱ ofȱ theȱ artist’sȱ nativeȱ Castile,ȱ theȱ architectureȱ ofȱ theȱ cityȱ inȱ theȱ distance,
whoseȱcombinationȱofȱpinkȱandȱgrayȱtowersȱwithȱblueȱroofsȱisȱalsoȱcharacteristicȱof
Fernandoȱ andȱ recallsȱ theȱ pitchedȱ roofsȱ reminiscentȱ ofȱ contemporaryȱ northern
EuropeanȱratherȱthanȱCastilianȱarchitecture.278
Predominantly,ȱhowever,ȱtheȱfocusȱhasȱshiftedȱhere,ȱandȱurbanȱspace,ȱwhichȱhad
attractedȱmanyȱcontemporaryȱlateȬGothicȱartists,ȱisȱincreasinglyȱpushedȱintoȱthe
background,ȱwhileȱruralȱspaceȱassumesȱcentral,ȱorȱatȱleastȱaȱsignificantlyȱgreater
relevanceȱthanȱbefore.ȱOfȱcourse,ȱthisȱhasȱalsoȱmuchȱtoȱdoȱwithȱtheȱspecificȱbiblical
scenesȱofȱthisȱaltarpiece,ȱandȱthereȱareȱalsoȱepisodesȱclearlyȱsituatedȱinȱaȱcity,ȱsuch
asȱ“ChangingȱtheȱWaterȱintoȱWine”ȱduringȱtheȱWeddingȱofȱKanaȱ(plateȱ13).ȱAndȱthe
youngȱ Jesusȱ inȱ theȱ Templeȱ (plateȱ 18)ȱ hasȱ toȱ beȱ situated,ȱ ofȱ course,ȱ within
architecturalȱspace.ȱ
ButȱwheneverȱGallegoȱhadȱanȱopportunity,ȱheȱdedicatedȱallȱhisȱeffortsȱtoȱthe
developmentȱofȱruralȱscenes,ȱdelightingȱinȱpaintingȱhills,ȱpastures,ȱrivers,ȱlakes,
trees,ȱbushes,ȱandȱflowers,ȱrocks,ȱandȱforests,ȱyetȱignoredȱanimalsȱaltogether.ȱIn
“TheȱRaisingȱofȱLazarus,”ȱforȱinstance,ȱtheȱartistȱassumedȱanȱelevatedȱvantage
point,ȱallowingȱusȱnotȱonlyȱtoȱlookȱonȱtheȱopenȱcoffin,ȱfromȱwhichȱLazarusȱrises,
but,ȱ moreȱ importantly,ȱ toȱ lookȱ downȱ aȱ hillȱ intoȱ aȱ valleyȱ traversedȱ byȱ aȱ river.
Typicalȱrockȱformationsȱdotȱtheȱlandscape,ȱasȱdoȱaȱvarietyȱofȱstylizedȱtrees,ȱwhile
aȱcastleȱisȱperchedȱonȱaȱhillȱinȱtheȱdistance.ȱTheȱcityȱinȱtheȱtopȱleftȱcornerȱalmost
disappearsȱ fromȱ ourȱ view,ȱ whileȱ theȱ overallȱ ruralȱ spaceȱ trulyȱ dominatesȱ this
painting.279ȱ
VeryȱsimilarȱtoȱtheȱlandscapesȱinȱHartmannȱSchedel’sȱNurembergȱChronicleȱand
otherȱartisticȱrepresentationsȱofȱtheȱworld,280ȱtheȱartistȱvariesȱhisȱscenes,ȱeachȱtime
combiningȱ hillsȱ withȱ riversȱ andȱ creeks,ȱ allowingȱ treesȱ andȱ bushesȱ toȱ propȱ up,
givingȱusȱeverywhereȱaȱclearȱsenseȱofȱanȱalmostȱrealȱsetting.ȱHeȱdemonstrates,ȱfor
instance,ȱaȱgreatȱinterestȱinȱtheȱsky,ȱexperimentingȱwithȱvariesȱshadesȱofȱblueȱto
reflectȱtheȱcomingȱofȱdawnȱ(“TheȱAgonyȱinȱtheȱGarden”),ȱorȱlaterȱtimesȱduringȱthe
dayȱ(“TheȱEntryȱintoȱJerusalem”).ȱ
Mostȱremarkably,ȱinȱ“TheȱDepositionȱofȱChrist”ȱweȱdiscoverȱaȱtypicalȱelement
fromȱ theȱ genreȱ ofȱ Theȱ Booksȱ ofȱ Hours,ȱ thatȱ is,ȱ aȱ farmerȱ bringingȱ inȱ hisȱ harvest,
havingȱhisȱoxenȱpullingȱtheȱcart,ȱwhileȱwhiteȱgoatsȱgrazeȱinȱtheȱbackground.ȱQuite
obviously,ȱ hereȱ weȱ areȱ dealingȱ withȱ stylizedȱ elementsȱ borrowedȱ fromȱ model
278
FernandoȱGallegoȱandȱHisȱWorkshopȱ(seeȱnoteȱ277),ȱ274.
279
HereȱIȱreflectȱonȱmyȱownȱanalysisȱinȱtheȱMuseumȱofȱArt,ȱTheȱUniversityȱofȱArizona,ȱwhereȱall
theseȱpanelsȱareȱonȱdisplay,ȱasȱpartȱofȱtheȱSamuelȱKressȱFoundation.
280
AlbrechtȱClassen,ȱ“AfterȱtheȱDiscoveryȱofȱtheȱNewȱWorldȱ–ȱtheȱRediscoveryȱofȱHistory:ȱHartmann
Schedel’sȱ Liberȱ chronicarum.ȱ Aȱ Masterpieceȱ ofȱ theȱ Incunabulaȱ Time,”Futharkȱ 5ȱ (2010):ȱ 95–109;
HartmannȱSchedel,ȱChronicleȱofȱtheȱWorld:ȱTheȱCompleteȱandȱAnnotatedȱNurembergȱChronicleȱofȱ1493,
trans.ȱbyȱGeorgȱAlt,ȱintrod.ȱandȱappendixȱbyȱStephanȱFüsselȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱCologne:ȱTaschen,
2001).
books,ȱandȱyetȱweȱhaveȱtoȱadmitȱthatȱtheȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱtheȱreligiousȱmotifs
andȱtheȱmaterialȱbackground,ȱnowȱincreasinglyȱruralȱspace,ȱchangedȱbyȱtheȱend
ofȱ theȱ Middleȱ Ages.ȱ Thereȱ wouldȱ notȱ beȱ anyȱ needȱ toȱ confirmȱ thisȱ through
extensiveȱstudiesȱofȱsixteenthȬȱorȱseventeenthȬcenturyȱart.281
Nevertheless,ȱ letȱ usȱ repeatȱ thisȱ conclusion,ȱ becauseȱ itȱ hasȱ suchȱ tremendous
implicationsȱforȱourȱentireȱproject.ȱIfȱweȱpayȱcloseȱattentionȱtoȱlateȬmedievalȱand
earlyȬmodernȱart,ȱespeciallyȱBooksȱofȱHours,ȱaltarȱpieces,ȱandȱevenȱwoodȱandȱstone
sculptures,ȱweȱcanȱfindȱnumerousȱconfirmationsȱforȱthisȱobservation,ȱasȱillustrated
byȱaȱ(fifteenthȬȱorȱsixteenthȬcentury?)ȱstoneȱsculptureȱinȱBruges,ȱBelgiumȱ(Fig.ȱ3),
andȱoneȱinȱGlastonbury,ȱsouthwestȱEnglandȱ(Fig.ȱ4),282ȱwhereȱweȱobserveȱeachȱtime
atȱfirstȱsightȱratherȱsimple,ȱbutȱthenȱtrulyȱintriguingȱscenesȱofȱordinaryȱpeasants,
commonlyȱmilkingȱtheirȱcows.ȱAfterȱall,ȱneitherȱtheȱcityȱdwellersȱnorȱmembersȱof
theȱcourtȱcouldȱaffordȱtoȱignoreȱtheȱpeasantȱclassȱsinceȱtheseȱfarmersȱwereȱentirely
inȱcontrolȱofȱfoodȱproduction.ȱWeȱcannotȱpursue,ȱofȱcourse,ȱaȱnaiveȱperspective
andȱ simplyȱ claimȱ thatȱ inȱ theȱ earlyȱ modernȱ ageȱ (Renaissanceȱ andȱ Baroque,ȱ for
instance)ȱnatureȱgainedȱinȱstatus,ȱandȱsoȱtheȱpeasantȱclass.ȱTheȱsameȱcouldȱbe
arguedȱforȱtheȱmerchantȱorȱtheȱcourtier,ȱtheȱmedicalȱdoctorȱorȱtheȱengineer.ȱ
Inȱspecificȱterms,ȱbeginningȱinȱtheȱlaterȱpartȱofȱtheȱsixteenthȱcenturyȱweȱobserve
theȱemergenceȱofȱtheȱnewȱgenreȱofȱLandschaftsmalerei,ȱpaintingsȱofȱlandscape,ȱoften
onȱlargeȱcanvas,283ȱasȱbestȱrepresented,ȱifȱnotȱinitiatedȱby,ȱPieterȱBrueghelȱtheȱElder
(ca.ȱ1526/1530–1569),ȱandȱsubsequentlyȱbyȱhisȱsons,ȱPieterȱBrueghelȱtheȱYounger
281
Claudiaȱ Lazzaro.ȱ Theȱ Italianȱ Renaissanceȱ Garden:ȱ Fromȱ theȱ Conventionsȱ ofȱ Planting,ȱ Design,ȱ and
OrnamentȱtoȱtheȱGrandȱGardensȱofȱSixteenthȬCenturyȱCentralȱItalyȱ(NewȱHaven:ȱYaleȱUniversity
Press,ȱ1990);ȱMalcolmȱAndrews,ȱLandscapeȱandȱWesternȱArt.ȱOxfordȱHistoryȱofȱArtȱ(Oxfordȱand
NewȱYork:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1999).ȱItȱgoesȱwithoutȱsayingȱthatȱtheȱartȱofȱgardeningȱand
ofȱ designingȱ parksȱ grewȱ inȱ leapsȱ andȱ boundsȱ throughoutȱ theȱ seventeenthȱ andȱ eighteenth
centuries;ȱseeȱforȱinstance,ȱThomasȱHill,ȱTheȱGardenersȱLabyrinth,ȱor,ȱAȱNewȱArtȱofȱGardningȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ
(London:ȱPrintedȱbyȱJaneȱBell,ȱandȱareȱtoȱbeȱsoldȱatȱtheȱeastȬendȱofȱChristȬChurch,ȱ[1652ȱ[i.e.,
1651]);ȱLouisȱLiger,ȱLeȱjardinierȱfleuristeȱetȱhistoriographe:ȱouȱlaȱcultureȱuniverselleȱdesȱfleurs,ȱarbres,
arbustesȱ&ȱarbrisseaux,ȱservansȱàȱlȇembellissementȱdesȱjardinsȱ(1706;ȱHildesheimȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱGeorg
OlmsȱVerlag,ȱ1999);ȱChristianȱCayȱLorenzȱHirschfeld,ȱTheorieȱderȱGartenkunst.ȱ5ȱvols.ȱinȱ2ȱvols.
WithȱaȱforewordȱbyȱHansȱForamittiȱ(1779–1785.ȱHildesheimȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱGeorgȱOlmsȱVerlag,
2011).
282
EdithȱMargaretȱRobertsonȱ Ditmas,ȱGlastonburyȱTor:ȱFactȱandȱLegendȱ(St.ȱPeterȱPort,ȱGuernsey:
ToucanȱPress,ȱ1981);ȱseeȱalsoȱtheȱusefulȱandȱpleasantlyȱdetailedȱarticleȱinȱWikipedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glastonbury_Torȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱOct.ȱ5,ȱ2011).
283
Peterȱ C.ȱ Sutton,ȱ Albertȱ Blankert,ȱ Josuaȱ Bruyn,ȱ Alanȱ Chong,ȱ andȱ Simonȱ Schama,ȱ Mastersȱ of
SeventeenthȬCenturyȱDutchȱLandscapeȱPaintingȱ(Amsterdam:ȱRijksmuseum,ȱ1987);ȱWalterȱS.ȱGibson,
MirrorȱofȱtheȱEarth:ȱTheȱWorldȱLandscapeȱInȱSixteenthȬCenturyȱFlemishȱPaintingȱ(Princeton,ȱNJ:
PrincetonȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1989);ȱid.,ȱPleasantȱPlaces:ȱTheȱRusticȱLandscapeȱfromȱBruegelȱtoȱRuisdael.
Anȱ Ahmansoȱ –ȱ Murphyȱ Fineȱ Artsȱ Bookȱ (Berkeley:ȱ Universityȱ ofȱ Californiaȱ Press,ȱ 2000).ȱ The
scholarlyȱdiscourseȱonȱthisȱtopicȱisȱhuge,ȱbutȱsufficeȱtoȱreferȱtoȱtheseȱfewȱpublicationsȱforȱour
purposesȱhere.
Introduction 121
(1564–1636/1637)ȱandȱJanȱBrueghelȱtheȱElderȱ(1568–1625).ȱBrueghelȱtheȱElderȱdid
notȱ belongȱ toȱ theȱ peasantȱ class;ȱ insteadȱ heȱ wasȱ obviouslyȱ wellȱ educatedȱ and
enjoyedȱ closeȱ contactsȱ withȱ highȱ rankingȱ individualsȱ inȱ theȱ Churchȱ andȱ the
government.ȱ Weȱ wouldȱ notȱ beȱ tooȱ farȱ offȱ theȱ markȱ ifȱ weȱ identifiedȱ himȱ asȱ a
humanistȱinȱhisȱownȱrights.ȱForȱourȱpurposesȱhisȱfive,ȱoriginallyȱsixȱlandscape
pictures,ȱreflectingȱtheȱsixȱmajorȱseasonsȱinȱaȱyear,ȱattractȱmostȱofȱourȱattention
becauseȱtheyȱconstituteȱtheȱbeginningȱofȱanȱautonomousȱinterestȱinȱruralȱscenesȱin
theȱhistoryȱofȱart.284ȱ
WeȱcanȱcertainlyȱobserveȱconnectionsȱwithȱtheȱillustrationsȱofȱtheȱfamousȱBooks
ofȱHoursȱ(seeȱabove),ȱandȱheȱalsoȱlearnedȱmuchȱfromȱJoachimȱPatinir,ȱalsoȱcalled
deȱPatinerȱ(ca.ȱ1480–ȱ1524ȱ),285ȱwhoȱcreatedȱmonumentalȱruralȱvistasȱdeeplyȱfilled
withȱChristianȱsymbolismȱinȱtheȱstyleȱofȱlateȱGothicȱart,ȱbutȱBrueghelȱtookȱaȱnew
stepȱinȱtheȱdramatic,ȱrealistic,ȱandȱlargeȬscaleȱpresentationȱofȱspecificȱepisodesȱin
theȱcountrysideȱatȱdifferentȱstagesȱinȱtheȱcourseȱofȱaȱyear.286ȱAllȱhisȱpaintings,ȱhere
disregardingȱtheȱlargeȱnumberȱofȱsketchesȱandȱsmallȬsizeȱpicturesȱfromȱ1552ȱto
1556,ȱareȱcharacterizedȱbyȱanȱepic,ȱencyclopedic,ȱoftenȱalsoȱsatiricalȱapproach,ȱand
aȱmaximumȱofȱempiricalȱdepictionȱofȱobjects,ȱpeople,ȱanimals,ȱplants,ȱmountains,
andȱbodiesȱofȱwater.287ȱ
Whetherȱweȱcanȱdiscoverȱhereȱaȱpantheisticȱworldȱview,ȱasȱolderȱresearchȱbased
onȱtheȱthesesȱbyȱKarlȱTolnaiȱ(1925)ȱhadȱargued,288ȱorȱwhetherȱBrueghelȱpursuedȱa
stoic,ȱaestheticizingȱperspective,ȱasȱMüllerȱHofstedeȱsuggests,ȱdoesȱnotȱhaveȱtoȱbe
decidedȱinȱourȱcontext,ȱandȱdependsȱatȱanyȱrateȱonȱmuchȱcircumstantialȱevidence.
Weȱcanȱbeȱsure,ȱhowever,ȱthatȱBrueghel’sȱmasterpiecesȱsignalȱtheȱbeginningȱofȱa
newȱattitudeȱaboutȱruralȱspace,ȱwhich,ȱinȱaȱtrulyȱstartlingȱandȱstrikingȱmanner,ȱ
emergesȱasȱaȱworldȱthatȱappearsȱtoȱbeȱfamiliarȱandȱalsoȱaestheticallyȱpleasingȱfor
theȱ viewer,ȱ notȱ determinedȱ byȱ apocalypticȱ visions,ȱ byȱ primarilyȱ religious
284
IngeȱHerold,ȱPieterȱBruegelȱderȱÄltere:ȱDieȱJahreszeitenȱ(Munich,ȱLondon,ȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱPrestel,
2002),ȱ94–95.ȱ
285
Reindertȱ Falkenburg,ȱ Joachimȱ Patinir:ȱ Landscapeȱ asȱ anȱ Imageȱ ofȱ theȱ Pilgrimageȱ ofȱ Life.ȱ Oculi,ȱ 2
(AmsterdamȱandȱPhiladelphia:ȱJohnȱBenjaminsȱPublishingȱCompany,ȱ1988);ȱPatinir:ȱEssaysȱand
CriticalȱCatalogue,ȱed.ȱAlexanderȱVergaraȱ(Madrid:ȱMuseoȱNacionalȱdelȱPrado,ȱ2007).
286
Herold,ȱPieterȱBruegelȱderȱÄltereȱ(seeȱnoteȱ284),ȱ7–15,ȱetȱpassim;ȱPieterȱBruegelȱtheȱElder,ȱcomp.
NadineȱM.ȱOrenstein,ȱed.ȱManfredȱSellink.ȱNewȱHollsteinȱDutchȱ&ȱFlemishȱEtchings,ȱEngravings
andȱ Woodcuts,ȱ 1450–1700,ȱ 16ȱ (Rotterdam:ȱ Soundȱ &ȱ Visionȱ Publisher,ȱ 2006);ȱ Leopoldine
Prosperetti,ȱLandscapeȱandȱPhilosophyȱinȱtheȱArtȱofȱJanȱBrueghelȱtheȱElderȱ(1568–1625)ȱ(Farnham,
Surrey,ȱEngland,ȱandȱBurlington,ȱVT:ȱAshgate,ȱ2009).
287
Justusȱ Müllerȱ Hofstede,ȱ “Zurȱ Interpretationȱ vonȱ Pieterȱ Bruegelsȱ Landschaft:ȱ Ästhetischer
LandschaftsbegriffȱundȱStoischeȱWeltbetrachtung,”ȱPieterȱBruegelȱundȱseineȱWelt,ȱed.ȱOttoȱvon
SimsonȱandȱMatthiasȱWinnerȱ(Berlin:ȱGebr.ȱMannȱVerlag,ȱ1979),ȱ73–142;ȱhereȱ77.
288
(Charlesȱde)ȱKarlȱTolnai,ȱDieȱZeichnungenȱPieterȱBruegelsȱ(Munich:ȱR.ȱPiper,ȱ1925);ȱseeȱalsoȱhis
monographȱDieȱZeichnungenȱPieterȱBruegels:ȱmitȱeinemȱkritischenȱKatalogȱundȱ188ȱAbbildungen,ȱ2nd
ed.ȱ(1952;ȱZürich:ȱRascher,ȱ1952).
intentionsȱ(asȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱPartinir),ȱorȱpatternedȱbyȱtraditionalȱmodelsȱ(asȱwas
stillȱoftenȱtheȱcaseȱwithȱtheȱminiaturesȱinȱtheȱBooksȱofȱHours).ȱ
Theȱ famousȱ paintingȱ “Huntersȱ inȱ theȱ Snow,”ȱ forȱ instance,ȱ confirmsȱ this
impressionȱ mostȱ poignantly,ȱ withȱ theȱ viewer’sȱ gazeȱ glidingȱ fromȱ anȱ elevated
platformȱwhereȱtheȱhuntersȱareȱshownȱreturningȱfromȱtheȱforestȱdownȱtoȱseveral
frozenȱpondsȱinȱtheȱvalleyȱwhereȱpeopleȱgoȱiceȱskating.ȱTheȱwheelȱofȱtheȱmillȱis
totallyȱfrozenȱoverȱwithȱice,ȱandȱallȱroofsȱareȱcoveredȱwithȱsnow.ȱTheȱvillageȱitself
isȱnestledȱinȱtheȱcenterȱofȱtheȱvalley,ȱandȱfieldsȱandȱthenȱcraggyȱmountainsȱform
theȱbackground.ȱTheȱskyȱisȱgrey,ȱasȱitȱoftenȱwouldȱbeȱinȱwinterȱtimeȱinȱnorthern
Europe.ȱTheȱamountȱofȱdetailsȱisȱincredible,ȱsinceȱBrueghelȱpainstakinglyȱpaid
attentionȱtoȱeveryȱelementȱofȱhisȱlargeȱlandscape.ȱInȱfact,ȱtheȱphotographicȱquality
ofȱthisȱpaintingȱcouldȱnotȱbeȱgreater,ȱpresentingȱaȱlargeȱsectionȱofȱruralȱspaceȱasȱthe
artistȱ hadȱ probablyȱ observedȱ inȱ situ.ȱ Thereȱ isȱ noȱ doubtȱ aboutȱ theȱ reallyȱ cold
temperature,ȱ butȱ thisȱ appearsȱ simplyȱ asȱ aȱ factȱ ofȱ lifeȱ andȱ notȱ asȱ anȱ existential
threat.ȱPeopleȱstillȱpursueȱtheirȱordinaryȱactivities,ȱworking,ȱenjoyingȱtheirȱleisure
time,ȱandȱmakingȱfire.ȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱbothȱallegoryȱandȱemotiveȱstrategiesȱare
absentȱinȱthisȱpaintingsȱofȱtheȱwinterȱseason,ȱsinceȱBrueghelȱapparentlyȱintended
toȱgiveȱusȱanȱimpressionȱofȱthatȱunremarkableȱsceneȱasȱcompletelyȱasȱpossible
withoutȱevaluating,ȱsymbolizing,ȱorȱallegorizingȱtheȱsetting.ȱ
Whileȱ manyȱ otherȱ artistsȱ ofȱ genreȱ paintings,ȱ suchȱ asȱ Pieterȱ vanȱ derȱ Borcht
(1545–1608),ȱ Davidȱ Teniersȱ theȱ Youngerȱ (1610–1690),ȱ Adriaenȱ vanȱ Ostade
(1610–1685),ȱandȱAdriaenȱBrouwerȱ(ca.ȱ1605–1638)ȱportrayedȱpeasantsȱexclusively
inȱ satirical,ȱ negativeȱ terms,ȱ Brueghelȱ theȱ Elderȱ pursuedȱ mostlyȱ theȱ opposite
strategyȱ ofȱ presentingȱ ruralȱ lifeȱ inȱ neutralȱ terms,ȱ presentingȱ farmersȱ asȱ hardȬ
workingȱindividualsȱwhoȱalsoȱknewȱhowȱtoȱenjoyȱlife.ȱConsideringȱthatȱBrueghel
wasȱfamiliarȱwithȱVirgil’sȱGeorgicaȱandȱOvid’sȱMetamorphosis,ȱwhereȱtheȱexistence
inȱ theȱ countrysideȱ isȱ describedȱ inȱ idyllicȱ terms,ȱ andȱ keepingȱ inȱ mindȱ thatȱ the
economicȱ andȱ militaryȱ situationȱ inȱ theȱ Lowȱ Countriesȱ experiencedȱ aȱ dramatic
declineȱjustȱatȱtheȱtimeȱwhenȱBrueghelȱcreatedȱhisȱfamousȱpieces,ȱweȱmayȱconclude
thatȱheȱcertainlyȱintendedȱtoȱprojectȱinȱthemȱtheȱdreamȱofȱaȱpeaceful,ȱharmonious
worldȱfromȱtheȱpast.ȱ
Notȱsurprisingly,ȱtheseȱmotifsȱfoundȱaȱgreatȱreception,ȱsoȱhisȱworksȱwereȱcopied
manyȱtimesȱbyȱhisȱsonȱPieterȱBrueghelȱtheȱYounger,ȱJacobȱGrimmerȱ(1525–1590),
andȱtheȱlatter’sȱson,ȱAbelȱGrimmerȱ(1575–1619),ȱamongȱmanyȱothers.289ȱInȱaȱway
289
Herold,ȱ Pieterȱ Bruegelȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 284),ȱ 57–63.ȱ Forȱ aȱ goodȱ collectionȱ ofȱ imagesȱ online,ȱ see
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder;ȱand
http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/bruegel/.ȱ Seeȱ alsoȱ theȱ YouTubeȱ videoȱ ofȱ Brueghel’s
paintingȱ “Theȱ Harvesters”ȱ atȱ theȱ Metropolitanȱ Museumȱ ofȱ Art,ȱ Newȱ Yorkȱ at
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/brue/hd_brue.htmȱ(allȱlastȱaccessedȱonȱDec.ȱ10,ȱ2011).
Introduction 123
weȱmightȱsayȱthatȱBrueghelȱwasȱreallyȱtheȱfounderȱofȱtheȱearlyȱmodernȱlandscape
motifȱandȱsceneȱinȱtheȱhistoryȱofȱWesternȱart.290ȱ
Despiteȱtheȱhighlyȱdetailedȱfocusȱonȱspecificȱagriculturalȱscenesȱorȱaspectsȱinȱthe
livesȱ ofȱ peasants,ȱ theȱ parallelsȱ toȱ globalȱ cartography,ȱ asȱ richlyȱ developedȱ by
Brueghel’sȱfriend,ȱtheȱmapȱengraverȱAbrahamȱOrteliusȱ(1527–1598)ȱareȱcriticalȱfor
ourȱunderstandingȱofȱhisȱlandscapes.ȱWhereverȱweȱlook,ȱweȱonlyȱfindȱharmonious,
meaningful,ȱselfȬcontainedȱandȱsatisfactoryȱconditionsȱwhereȱpeopleȱworkȱand
live,ȱpursueȱtheirȱbusiness,ȱandȱenjoyȱtheȱoutdoors.ȱThisȱisȱaȱstoic,ȱrational,ȱand
intelligibleȱworld,ȱwhileȱBrueghelȱthenȱalsoȱpaintedȱtheȱveryȱopposite,ȱscenesȱfilled
withȱfools,ȱblindȱpeople,ȱandȱirrationalȱconditions.
ȱItȱwouldȱnotȱbeȱtooȱfarȬfetchedȱtoȱagreeȱwithȱMüllerȱHofstedeȱthatȱoneȱofȱthe
mottosȱwhichȱOrteliusȱusedȱinȱhisȱfamousȱTheatrumȱOrbisȱTerrarumȱfromȱ1570ȱand
borrowedȱfromȱCiceroȱ(Tusculanaeȱdisputationes,ȱlib.ȱIV,ȱcap.ȱ17,ȱ§37),ȱmightȱhave
influencedȱBrueghelȱasȱwell:ȱ“Quidȱeiȱpotestȱvideriȱmagnumȱinȱrebusȱhumanis,ȱcui
aeternitasȱ omnis,ȱ totiusqueȱ mundiȱ notaȱ sitȱ magnitudo”ȱ (Whatȱ wouldȱ [really]
appearȱtoȱbeȱbigȱinȱhumanȱaffairsȱforȱtheȱoneȱwhoȱknowsȱallȱofȱeternityȱandȱthe
entireȱworld).291ȱ
Asȱ muchȱ asȱ theȱ painterȱ presentedȱ trulyȱ impressiveȱ andȱ realisticȱ landscapes,
theseȱwouldȱhaveȱtoȱbeȱconsideredȱonlyȱasȱsmallȱreflectionsȱofȱtheȱmuchȱlarger
worldȱwhereȱGodȱresides.ȱThisȱreligiousȱepistemologyȱmightȱnotȱcomeȱthrough
directlyȱ inȱ theȱ paintings,ȱ butȱ theȱ Ciceronianȱ philosophyȱ requiredȱ theȱ full
comprehensionȱ ofȱ thisȱ world,ȱ theȱ microcosm,ȱ forȱ theȱ comprehensionȱ ofȱ the
macrocosm.ȱPerhapsȱparticularlyȱbecauseȱofȱtheȱdramaticȱpolitical,ȱeconomic,ȱand
militaryȱchanges,ȱcrises,ȱandȱnaturalȱcatastrophesȱthatȱshookȱtheȱLowȱCountries
heavilyȱ duringȱ Brueghel’sȱ lifeȱ time,ȱ theȱ artistȱ madeȱ aȱ strongȱ effortȱ toȱ present
natureȱ asȱ aȱ harmoniousȱ refugeȱ byȱ wayȱ ofȱ theseȱ “Überschaulandschaften”
(overviewȱlandscapes).292ȱQuotingȱMüllerȱHofstede,ȱweȱcanȱconclude:ȱ
Inȱ denȱ Monatsbildernȱ istȱ dieȱ sichȱ wandelndeȱ Landschaftȱ derȱ große
Naturzusammenhang,ȱ inȱ demȱ sichȱ eineȱ rationaleȱ Weltȱ entfaltenȱ kann;ȱ Ernte,
290
SliveȱSeymourȱandȱJakobȱRosenberg,ȱDutchȱpaintingȱ1600–1800.ȱYaleȱUniversityȱPressȱPelican
HistoryȱofȱArtȱ(NewȱHaven,ȱCT:ȱYaleȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1995);ȱMalcolmȱAndrews,ȱLandscapeȱand
WesternȱArt.ȱOxfordȱHistoryȱofȱArtȱ(OxfordȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1999).
291
MüllerȱHofstede,ȱ“ZurȱInterpretation”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ287),ȱ131.ȱSeeȱnowȱalsoȱBertramȱKaschek,ȱWeltzeit
undȱEndzeit:ȱStudienȱzuȱdenȱMonatsbildernȱPieterȱBruegelsȱd.ȱÄ.ȱ(Paderborn:ȱFink,ȱWilhelm,ȱ2011).
292
Herold,ȱ Pieterȱ Bruegelȱ derȱ Ältereȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 284),ȱ 30–31.ȱ Forȱ aȱ carefulȱ analysisȱ ofȱ allȱ pictorial
elements,ȱseeȱFritzȱNovotny,ȱDieȱMontasbilderȱPieterȱBruegelsȱd.ȱÄ.ȱKunstdenkmäler,ȱ4ȱ(Vienna:ȱF.
Deuticke,ȱ1948).ȱForȱaȱcomprehensiveȱcollectionȱofȱhisȱpaintings,ȱseeȱF.ȱGrossmann,ȱBruegel:ȱThe
Paintings.ȱCompleteȱEdition,ȱsec.ȱed.ȱ(1955;ȱLondon:ȱPhaidonȱPress,ȱ1966);ȱRogerȱH.ȱMarijnissen,
Bruegelȱ:ȱdasȱvollständigeȱWerkȱ(Cologne:ȱParklandȱVerlag,ȱ2003);ȱseeȱalsoȱRobertȱL.ȱBonn,ȱPainting
Life:ȱTheȱArtȱofȱPieterȱBruegel,ȱtheȱElderȱ(NewȱYork:ȱChaucerȱPressȱBooks,ȱ2006);ȱLarryȱSilver,ȱPieter
Bruegelȱ(NewȱYork:ȱAbbevilleȱPressȱPublishers,ȱ2011).
Mittagsrast,ȱHeimtriebȱdesȱViehs,ȱRückkehrȱinsȱDorfȱmitȱkargerȱJagdbeuteȱoderȱdas
BeschneidenȱderȱBäumeȱnehmenȱihrenȱselbstverständlichenȱLauf.293
[Theȱeverȱchangingȱlandscapeȱinȱtheȱpicturesȱofȱtheȱmonthsȱisȱtheȱlargeȱframeworkȱof
natureȱinȱwhichȱaȱrationalȱworldȱcanȱunfold;ȱharvest,ȱlunchȱrest,ȱdrivingȱanimalsȱhome,
returnȱtoȱtheȱvillageȱwithȱaȱmeagerȱpreyȱfromȱtheȱhunt,ȱorȱtheȱpruningȱofȱtreesȱareȱall
elementsȱthatȱpursueȱtheirȱnaturalȱcourse.]
Ifȱweȱconsider,ȱforȱinstance,ȱhisȱpaintingȱofȱ“TheȱHarvest,”ȱweȱobserveȱaȱcalmȱand
wellȬarrangedȱ world.ȱ Peopleȱ doȱ theirȱ jobȱ asȱ required,ȱ withoutȱ protestȱ or
complaint,ȱandȱtheyȱalsoȱenjoyȱtheirȱrest,ȱeating,ȱdrinking,ȱsleeping,ȱandȱtalking
withȱ eachȱ other.ȱ Theȱ fieldȱ ofȱ grainȱ isȱ readyȱ toȱ beȱ harvested,ȱ andȱ thereȱ areȱ no
concernsȱaboutȱlowȱyield,ȱthreateningȱweather,ȱorȱtheȱlike.ȱAsȱweȱcanȱtellȱfromȱthe
movementȱofȱindividualsȱwalkingȱthroughȱtheȱfield,ȱworkingȱinȱtheȱbackground,
bindingȱtheȱgrainȱsheavesȱtogether,ȱorȱcuttingȱtheȱgrainȱwithȱtheȱscythe,ȱthereȱisȱno
rush,ȱnoȱȱworry,ȱnoȱstress.ȱInstead,ȱweȱbecomeȱwitnessesȱofȱaȱharmoniousȱgroup
ofȱ villagersȱ happily,ȱ agreeablyȱ performingȱ theirȱ necessaryȱ task,ȱ andȱ nature
rewardsȱthemȱforȱtheirȱefforts,ȱasȱtheȱrichȱfieldȱofȱgrainȱindicates.ȱMoreover,ȱa
churchȱ spireȱ risesȱ inȱ theȱ background,ȱ providingȱ reliefȱ regardingȱ theȱ religious
supportȱ systemȱ wellȱ inȱ place.ȱ Inȱ theȱ distanceȱ theȱ viewȱ opensȱ upȱ towardȱ a
beautifullyȱbalancedȱlandscape,ȱwithȱhills,ȱmeadows,ȱgroves,ȱpastures,ȱthenȱalso
aȱharborȱwhereȱsomeȱtallȱshipsȱareȱanchored.ȱAllȱtheȱfarmersȱappearȱwellȬfed,
relaxed,ȱandȱcontentȱwithȱtheirȱlives,ȱandȱhenceȱweȱmightȱcallȱthisȱpaintingȱalmost
idyllic,ȱsignalingȱhowȱmuchȱforȱBrueghelȱruralȱspaceȱservedȱasȱaȱsaveȱhavenȱforȱall
humanȱexistenceȱ(Fig.ȱ5).294
WhetherȱBrueghelȱtheȱElderȱwasȱinfluencedȱbyȱtheȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱsoȱpopularȱinȱthe
lateȱ Middleȱ Ages,ȱ orȱ whetherȱ heȱ wasȱ inspiredȱ byȱ countlessȱ woodȱ carvings
underneathȱtheȱmisericordsȱinȱtheȱchoirȱstallsȱofȱchurchesȱandȱcathedrals,ȱwillȱalso
remainȱindeterminable,ȱthoughȱconnectionsȱareȱveryȱclearȱtoȱobserve.ȱTheȱnumber
ofȱdifferentȱscenesȱonȱtheseȱmisericordsȱisȱlarge,ȱandȱtheyȱareȱsurprisinglyȱoften
dominatedȱbyȱruralȱscenesȱinȱorderȱtoȱillustrate,ȱsoȱitȱseems,ȱcommonȱproverbsȱas
teachingȱ toolsȱ forȱ everyman.ȱ Manyȱ ofȱ theȱ motifsȱ directlyȱ alludeȱ toȱ theȱ Seven
DeadlyȱSins,ȱbutȱthenȱtheyȱalsoȱreflectȱtheȱvariousȱseasonsȱthroughoutȱtheȱyear,
andȱfeastsȱofȱfools,ȱwhichȱunderscores,ȱonceȱmore,ȱhowȱmuchȱtheȱruralȱframework
wasȱcommonlyȱutilizedȱforȱmoral,ȱethical,ȱandȱreligiousȱteachings.ȱItȱwouldȱbe
intriguingȱ toȱ learnȱ toȱ whatȱ extentȱ Brueghelȱ andȱ otherȱ contemporaryȱ painters
exchangedȱideasȱwithȱtheȱwoodȱcarversȱandȱsculptors.ȱButȱinȱtheȱabsenceȱofȱany
suchȱevidenceȱweȱcanȱonlyȱargueȱthatȱallȱthoseȱartistsȱwereȱkeenlyȱawareȱofȱthe
293
MüllerȱHofstede,ȱ“ZurȱInterpretation”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ287),ȱ141.
294
NilsȱJockel,ȱMitȱPieterȱBruegelȱdurchȱdasȱJahr:ȱFrühling,ȱSommer,ȱHerbstȱundȱWinter.ȱAbenteuerȱKunst
(Munich,ȱLondon,ȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱPrestel,ȱ2002).
Introduction 125
considerableȱ usefulnessȱ ofȱ ruralȱ scenesȱ asȱ powerfulȱ mirrorsȱ forȱ allȱ peopleȱ to
perceiveȱthemselvesȱinȱtheirȱownȱshortcomingsȱandȱfrailties.295
Atȱlarge,ȱthen,ȱtheȱsymbolism,ȱtheȱmetaphoricalȱuse,ȱtheȱallegoricalȱintentions,ȱthe
satiricalȱ andȱ ironicȱ strategiesȱ hiddenȱ behindȱ theȱ scenesȱ andȱ images,ȱ orȱ the
philosophicalȱ andȱ ethicalȱ operationsȱ carriedȱ outȱ toȱ conveyȱ specificȱ universal
teachingsȱbyȱwayȱofȱincorporatingȱheretoforeȱignoredȱorȱneglectedȱruralȱspace
cannotȱbeȱoverlooked.ȱIȱwillȱrefrain,ȱhowever,ȱfromȱdiscussingȱanȱendlessȱstream
ofȱfurtherȱevidenceȱregardingȱthisȱissue,ȱwhichȱcouldȱimpermissiblyȱwaterȱdown
theȱ entireȱ notionȱ ofȱ ‘ruralȱ space’ȱ andȱ ofȱ ‘nature,’ȱ bothȱ ofȱ whichȱ haveȱ been
employedȱforȱaȱwideȱrangeȱofȱquiteȱunrelatedȱconceptsȱwithinȱtheȱepistemological
andȱtheologicalȱdiscourse,ȱandȱinsteadȱnowȱturnȱtoȱtheȱindividualȱcontributionsȱto
thisȱvolume.ȱButȱIȱwouldȱnotȱwantȱtoȱconcludeȱthisȱsectionȱwithoutȱreferringȱtoȱthe
fascinatingȱandȱhighlyȱnoteworthyȱcorpusȱofȱtravelogues,ȱespeciallyȱbyȱpilgrims,
whoȱ tendedȱ toȱ includeȱ numerousȱ commentsȱ onȱ theȱ exoticȱ animalsȱ andȱ plants
whichȱtheyȱencounteredȱonȱtheirȱvoyagesȱandȱtravels.ȱKonradȱGrünemberg,ȱfor
instance,ȱ droppedȱ numerousȱ remarksȱ onȱ camels,ȱ elephants,ȱ dromedaries,
monkeys,ȱandȱgiraffesȱinȱhisȱreportȱaboutȱhisȱpilgrimageȱinȱ1486,ȱsinceȱtheyȱall
struckȱhimȱasȱexoticȱandȱexcitingȱatȱtheȱsameȱtime.ȱAsȱmuchȱasȱheȱwasȱconcerned
withȱ givingȱ aȱ detailedȱ accountȱ ofȱ hisȱ pilgrimageȱ itself,ȱ emphasizingȱ churches,
chapels,ȱmonasteries,ȱandȱrelicsȱeverywhere,ȱheȱcouldȱnot,ȱsimilarlyȱasȱmanyȱofȱhis
contemporaryȱ travelers,ȱ blindȱ himselfȱ toȱ theȱ naturalȱ environmentȱ thatȱ he
encounteredȱinȱtheȱArabicȱworld,ȱforȱinstance.ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱGrünemberg,ȱlike
FelixȱFabri,ȱArnoldȱvonȱHarff,ȱorȱBernhardȱvonȱBreidenbachȱdemonstratedȱgreat
interestȱinȱanthropological,ȱarchitectural,ȱandȱagriculturalȱaspects,ȱwhichȱconfirms
theȱgreatȱimportanceȱofȱsuchȱpilgrimageȱreportsȱforȱmanyȱdifferentȱperspectives.
Toȱ beȱ sure,ȱ consideringȱ ourȱ contextȱ inȱ mind,ȱ theȱ religiousȱ andȱ theȱ biological
interestȱareȱcuriouslyȱandȱrevealinglyȱheldȱinȱaȱsignificantȱbalanceȱhere.296
295
ElaineȱC.ȱBlock,ȱ“MisericordsȱandȱtheȱWorldȱofȱBruegel,”ȱProfaneȱImagesȱinȱMarginalȱArtsȱofȱthe
MiddleȱAges,ȱed.ȱeademȱwithȱtheȱassistanceȱofȱFrédéricȱBilliet,ȱSylvieȱBethmontȬGallerand,ȱand
PaulȱHardwick.ȱProfaneȱArtsȱofȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(Turnhout:ȱBrepols,ȱ2009),ȱ21–45.
296
AndreaȱDenke,ȱKonradȱGrünembergsȱPilgerreiseȱinsȱHeiligeȱLandȱ1486:ȱUntersuchung,ȱEditionȱund
Kommentar.ȱStuttgarterȱHistorischeȱForschungen,ȱ11ȱ(Cologne,ȱWeimar,ȱandȱVienna:ȱBöhlau,ȱ2011),ȱ
216–21;ȱinȱtheȱedition,ȱ354,ȱ383,ȱetȱpassim.ȱAsȱmuchȱasȱtheȱentireȱhistoryȱofȱmedievalȱpilgrimage
hasȱbeenȱtheȱobjectȱofȱintenseȱresearch,ȱmuchȱstillȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱdoneȱtoȱgainȱaȱfullȱcomprehension
ofȱwhatȱinformationȱisȱcontainedȱinȱthoseȱmanyȱpilgrimageȱaccounts.ȱEspeciallyȱtheȱdimension
ofȱruralȱspace,ȱincludingȱanimals,ȱfarming,ȱforests,ȱmountains,ȱshores,ȱandȱrivers,ȱhasȱnotȱattracted
anyȱ noteworthyȱ interest.ȱ See,ȱ forȱ instance,ȱ theȱ excellent,ȱ inȱ thisȱ regard,ȱ however,ȱ insufficient
Encyclopediaȱ ofȱ Medievalȱ Pilgrimage,ȱ ed.ȱ Larissaȱ J.ȱ Taylor,ȱ Leighȱ Annȱ Craig,ȱ etȱ al.ȱ (Leidenȱ and
Boston:ȱBrill,ȱ2010).
31.ȱAcknowledgmentȱandȱSummariesȱofȱallȱContributionsȱ
inȱthisȱVolume
Inȱ orderȱ toȱ facilitateȱ theȱ criticalȱ approachȱ toȱ thisȱ volume,ȱ andȱ followingȱ the
traditionȱ ofȱ thisȱ bookȱ series,ȱ Iȱ willȱ subsequentlyȱ offerȱ detailedȱ summariesȱ and
commentariesȱ onȱ theȱ individualȱ contributions,ȱ occasionallyȱ addingȱ further
researchȱandȱraisingȱcomplementaryȱquestionsȱtoȱcontextualizeȱtheȱmanyȱdifferent
studiesȱonȱruralȱspaceȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱAge.ȱMostȱofȱthese
papersȱ wereȱ firstȱ presentedȱ inȱ shortȱ formȱ andȱ orallyȱ atȱ theȱ 9thȱ International
SymposiumȱatȱtheȱUniversityȱofȱArizonaȱ(Tucson):ȱFundamentalsȱofȱMedievalȱand
EarlyȱModernȱCulture,ȱMayȱ5–8,ȱ2011.ȱWeȱcontinuedȱwithȱourȱscholarlyȱexchanges
duringȱaȱoneȬdayȱconferenceȱatȱSt.ȱCatharine’sȱCollege,ȱCambridge,ȱonȱJulyȱ16,
2011.ȱ Iȱ amȱ veryȱ gratefulȱ toȱ allȱ contributorsȱ forȱ theirȱ greatȱ research,ȱ forȱ their
impressiveȱ effortȱ toȱ submitȱ theirȱ piecesȱ onȱ time,ȱ andȱ theirȱ patienceȱ withȱ the
intensiveȱeditingȱprocess.ȱIȱamȱalsoȱveryȱthankfulȱforȱsomeȱfinancialȱsupportȱthat
IȱreceivedȱfromȱtheȱDepartmentȱofȱGermanȱStudies,ȱandȱtheȱDeanȱofȱtheȱCollege
ofȱHumanities,ȱTheȱUniversityȱofȱArizona.ȱMyȱgreatȱgratitudeȱalsoȱextendsȱtoȱthe
editorialȱstaffȱatȱDeȱGruyterȱinȱBerlinȱforȱtheirȱhelpȱtoȱsteerȱthisȱbookȱthroughȱthe
finalȱstagesȱreadyingȱtheȱmanuscriptȱforȱpublication.ȱLastȱbutȱbyȱfarȱnotȱtheȱleast,
myȱdearȱcolleagueȱChristopherȱR.ȱClasonȱwasȱaȱwonderfulȱcollaboratorȱinȱthis
project.ȱMyȱcoȬeditorȱofȱthisȱseries,ȱ“FundamentalsȱofȱMedievalȱandȱEarlyȱModern
Culture,”ȱ Marilynȱ Sandidge,ȱ providedȱ importantȱ supportȱ inȱ variousȱ ways,ȱ for
whichȱIȱamȱalsoȱveryȱgrateful.ȱSheȱalsoȱreadȱtheȱentireȱIntroductionȱandȱmade
excellentȱ suggestions.ȱ Moreover,ȱ Iȱ amȱ gratefulȱ toȱ Jeanȱ E.ȱ Jostȱ andȱ other
contributorsȱforȱtheirȱhelpfulȱfeedback.
Whileȱ medievalistsȱ andȱ Renaissanceȱ researchersȱ haveȱ focusedȱ mostlyȱ onȱ the
developmentȱofȱurbanȱspace,ȱi.e.,ȱtheȱriseȱofȱtheȱcityȱasȱoneȱofȱtheȱmostȱimportant
culturalȱ sitesȱ inȱ theȱ premodernȱ world,ȱ itȱ isȱ noȱ longerȱ possible,ȱ asȱ thisȱ volume
wantsȱ toȱ demonstrate,ȱ toȱ treatȱ ruralȱ spaceȱ asȱ marginalȱ andȱ negligible.ȱ Most
remarkably,ȱasȱKathrynȱL.ȱJasperȱuncoversȱinȱherȱcontribution,ȱduringȱtheȱeleventh
centuryȱmajorȱmonasticȱdevelopmentsȱestablishedȱthemselvesȱinȱtheȱruralȱspace
ofȱItaly,ȱespeciallyȱtheȱCamaldolesiȱandȱtheȱVallombrosanȱorders.ȱTheȱsameȱcould
beȱarguedȱalsoȱforȱtheȱCistercians,ȱfirstȱinȱnortheasternȱFrance,ȱbutȱthenȱspreading
allȱoverȱmedievalȱEurope.297ȱTheȱEuropeanȱmonasticȱsystemsȱwereȱfarȱremoved
fromȱ theȱ Egyptianȱ hermitsȱ andȱ earlyȱ Churchȱ Fathersȱ inȱ theirȱ turnȱ awayȱ from
297
Davidȱ H.ȱ Williams,ȱ Theȱ Cisterciansȱ inȱ theȱ Earlyȱ Middleȱ Ages:ȱ Writtenȱ toȱ Commemorateȱ theȱ Nine
HundredthȱAnniversaryȱofȱFoundationȱofȱtheȱOrderȱatȱCîteauxȱinȱ1098ȱ(Leominster:ȱGracewing,ȱ1998);
Immoȱ Eberl,ȱ Dieȱ Zisterzienser:ȱ Geschichteȱ einesȱ europäischenȱ Ordensȱ (Ostfildern:ȱ Janȱ Thorbecke
Verlag,ȱ2007).
Introduction 127
civilizationȱ towardȱ theȱ ruralȱ isolation.ȱ Nevertheless,ȱ theyȱ equallyȱ embraced

lonelinessȱandȱrusticityȱasȱreligiousȱidealsȱwithȱmanyȱpotentialsȱforȱtheirȱnewȱand
individualizedȱspiritualȱdevelopment.ȱ
Jasperȱfocuses,ȱaboveȱall,ȱonȱtheȱhighlyȱproductiveȱworkȱofȱPeterȱDamian,ȱwho,
despiteȱ enjoyingȱ aȱ brilliantȱ careerȱ inȱ theȱ Church,ȱ neverȱ ignoredȱ hisȱ own
foundationsȱinȱtheȱMarchesȱinȱnortheasternȱItaly,ȱespeciallyȱtheȱmonasteryȱofȱSaint
JohnȱtheȱBaptistȱatȱAceretaȱandȱhermitageȱofȱSaintȱBarnabasȱatȱGamogna.ȱThereȱit
wasȱpossible,ȱasȱheȱemphasizedȱinȱhisȱwriting,ȱtoȱtransitionȱfromȱmonkȱtoȱhermit,
aȱmostȱimportantȱtransformationȱinȱtheȱindividual’sȱquestȱforȱGod’sȱgraceȱhereȱon
earth—andȱthisȱinȱdirectȱcontradictionȱtoȱtheȱprotestsȱbyȱabbotsȱwhoȱinsistedȱon
theȱglobalȱvalidityȱofȱSt.ȱBenedict’sȱRules.ȱDamian,ȱhowever,ȱarguedȱthatȱthese
Rulesȱneverȱhadȱbeenȱintendedȱforȱpeopleȱwhoȱdesiredȱforȱaȱlifeȱinȱanȱhermitage.ȱ
Althoughȱ hermitsȱ wereȱ usuallyȱ livingȱ byȱ themselves,ȱ inȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ Damian’s
foundations,ȱbutȱalsoȱelsewhereȱandȱevenȱmuchȱearlier,ȱnumerousȱhermitsȱjoined
inȱ aȱ community,ȱ sometimesȱ evenȱ surroundedȱ byȱ aȱ wall.ȱ Eachȱ headȱ ofȱ suchȱ a
communityȱwasȱindependentȱfromȱanyȱhigherȱauthority.ȱButȱbothȱmonasteryȱand
hermitageȱ wereȱ foundedȱ inȱ theȱ wilderness,ȱ andȱ establishedȱ newȱ religious
settlementsȱfarȱawayȱfromȱurbanȱcenters.ȱ
Toȱ makeȱ itȱ possibleȱ forȱ theȱ hermitsȱ toȱ achieveȱ theirȱ spiritualȱ goal,ȱ Damian
encouragedȱtheȱmonasteryȱtoȱprovideȱtheȱnecessaryȱhelp,ȱwherebyȱheȱestablished
aȱ sortȱ ofȱ hierarchyȱ evenȱ withinȱ theȱ ecclesiasticalȱ domain.ȱ Theȱ hermitageȱ was
responsibleȱforȱtheȱsanctityȱofȱtheȱmonastery,ȱandȱtheȱlatterȱwasȱresponsibleȱforȱthe
economicȱandȱadministrativeȱsupportȱforȱtheȱformer.ȱ
Theȱmonksȱandȱhermitsȱwereȱrequired,ȱfollowingȱDamian’sȱrulesȱandȱprinciples,
toȱturnȱtoȱmanualȱlabor,ȱthroughȱwhichȱtheyȱsteadilyȱtransformedȱtheȱemptyȱrural
spaceȱ intoȱ flourishingȱ agriculturalȱ entities.ȱ Again,ȱ thisȱ wasȱ veryȱ similarȱ toȱ the
effortsȱ andȱ strategiesȱ byȱ theȱ Cistercians,ȱ butȱ Jasperȱ examinesȱ particularlyȱ the
Italianȱ worldȱ andȱ illustratesȱ howȱ eremiticȱ lifeȱ couldȱ powerfullyȱ transform
wildernessȱintoȱmostȱimportantȱlocationsȱforȱmonasticȱandȱeremiticȱactivities.ȱAfter
all,ȱtheȱcommunitiesȱwereȱnotȱthatȱfarȱawayȱfromȱmajorȱroads,ȱsinceȱtheȱmonks,ȱfor
instance,ȱwereȱregularlyȱinȱneedȱofȱtransportingȱgoods,ȱofȱvisitingȱneighboring
monasteries,ȱorȱofȱcarryingȱoutȱbusinessȱinȱaȱnearbyȱcity.ȱTheȱhermits,ȱonȱtheȱother
hand,ȱturnedȱawayȱfromȱhumanȱsocietyȱinȱaȱmuchȱmoreȱradicalȱway,ȱseekingȱout
isolationȱandȱsilenceȱinȱorderȱtoȱpracticeȱmoreȱeffectivelyȱmeditation,ȱprayer,ȱand
livingȱaȱsanctifyingȱlifeȱ(devotion),ȱbutȱtheyȱcouldȱaffordȱthatȱmoveȱbecauseȱofȱthe
supportȱprovidedȱbyȱtheȱmonastery.ȱMoreover,ȱdueȱtoȱtheȱheightenedȱneedȱfor
helpȱinȱthatȱisolatedȱlocation/s,ȱDamianȱurgedȱtheȱhermitsȱtoȱpracticeȱfraternal
cooperationȱbothȱduringȱtheirȱlifetimeȱandȱespeciallyȱafterȱtheirȱdeath,ȱprayingȱfor
theȱsoulȱofȱtheȱdeceased,ȱforȱinstance.ȱ
Jasperȱconcludesȱbyȱemphasizingȱthatȱtheȱconceptȱofȱruralȱspaceȱprovesȱtoȱbe
particularlyȱ valuableȱ withȱ respectȱ toȱ theȱ developmentȱ ofȱ eleventhȬcentury
Christianȱspirituality,ȱwhichȱrequiredȱtheseȱnaturalȱlociȱofȱisolation.ȱInȱfact,ȱthe
examplesȱdrawnȱfromȱeleventhȬcenturyȱItalyȱallowȱusȱtoȱgraspȱinȱgreaterȱdetailȱthe
particularȱmotivationsȱandȱstrategiesȱpursuedȱbyȱtwelfthȬcenturyȱCistercians.ȱThis
confirms,ȱ onceȱ again,ȱ howȱ muchȱ theȱ traditionalȱ focusȱ primarilyȱ onȱ urbanȱ or
courtlyȱcultureȱduringȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱcouldȱthreatenȱtoȱblindȱusȱtoȱmanyȱother
facets,ȱsuchȱasȱmonasticȱandȱeremiticȱlifeȱinȱnortheasternȱItalyȱandȱelsewhere.298
Spaceȱinȱtheȱcityȱwasȱdifferentȱfromȱspaceȱatȱcourt,ȱandȱsoȱalsoȱfromȱspaceȱinȱthe
village,ȱ notȱ toȱ mentionȱ wildȱ nature,ȱ theȱ mountains,ȱ orȱ theȱ shore.ȱ Sherriȱ Olson
probesȱinȱherȱcontributionȱhowȱwomenȱcouldȱcarveȱoutȱaȱnicheȱinȱtheȱpublicȱspace
ofȱ theȱ medievalȱ village,ȱ whichȱ provesȱ toȱ beȱ aȱ niceȱ complementationȱ inȱ the
discussionȱofȱfemaleȱrolesȱandȱfunctionsȱinȱurbanȱspaceȱbyȱShennanȱHuttonȱinȱher
contributionȱtoȱtheȱpreviousȱvolumeȱonȱUrbanȱSpace.299ȱOlsonȱbasesȱherȱanalysisȱon
theȱfindingsȱfromȱarcheologicalȱexcavationsȱatȱEllingtonȱ(modernȱCambridgeshire)
andȱtheȱmostȱinvaluableȱestateȱrollsȱwhichȱshedȱmuchȱlightȱonȱtheȱsocialȱconditions
atȱthatȱlocation.ȱEspeciallyȱcourtȱrollsȱforȱvillagesȱhaveȱsurvivedȱinȱtheȱhundreds,
beginningȱtoȱrecordȱcourtȱproceedingsȱsinceȱtheȱthirteenthȱcentury.ȱOlsonȱsuggests
thatȱtheȱdataȱcontainedȱinȱthoseȱdocumentsȱallowȱusȱtoȱgraspȱinȱsurprisinglyȱgreat
detailȱhowȱwomenȱcouldȱoperateȱinȱtheirȱruralȱspace,ȱwhatȱmovementsȱtheyȱcould
make,ȱandȱhowȱmuchȱpowerȱtheyȱcouldȱholdȱwithinȱtheȱframeworkȱofȱaȱvillage.
ComparedȱtoȱtheȱearlyȱMiddleȱAges,ȱvillageȱlifeȱbecameȱmoreȱcrowdedȱbyȱthe
highȱandȱlateȱMiddleȱAges,ȱwithȱtheȱruralȱpopulationȱhavingȱgrownȱconsiderably
andȱbeingȱforcedȱtoȱliveȱinȱtheȱsame,ȱbyȱthenȱdenselyȱpackedȱspaces.ȱThisȱhad
tremendousȱinfluenceȱonȱwomen’sȱmovementȱinȱthatȱrestrictedȱspace,ȱasȱOlsonȱcan
reapȱfromȱherȱcarefulȱanalysisȱofȱtheȱrolls.ȱComparativeȱapproachesȱcanȱhelpȱin
thisȱregardȱprofoundlyȱbecauseȱsimilarȱconditionsȱprobablyȱexistȱinȱAfricanȱvillage
structuresȱtodayȱandȱexistedȱinȱantebellumȱAmericanȱruralȱsocietyȱsinceȱweȱcan
consistentlyȱassumeȱthatȱanȱintensiveȱkinshipȱnetworkȱexistedȱandȱdeterminedȱall
socialȱrelationships.ȱAlthoughȱinȱmedievalȱvillagesȱ(bothȱinȱEnglandȱandȱonȱthe
continent)ȱ theȱ famousȱ circumambulationȱ involvedȱ mostlyȱ menȱ andȱ boys,300ȱ it
wouldȱ beȱ erroneousȱ toȱ assumeȱ thatȱ womenȱ wereȱ simplyȱ housebound.ȱ Social
activities,ȱincludingȱbirthdays,ȱweddings,ȱandȱotherȱholidayȱeventsȱwereȱofȱgreat
298
AlbericoȱPagnani,ȱStoriaȱdeiȱbenedettiniȱcamaldolesi.ȱCenobiti,ȱeremiti,ȱmonacheȱedȱoblatiȱ(Sassoferrato:
Garofoli,ȱ1949);ȱPaoloȱBossiȱandȱAlessandroȱCeratti,ȱEremiȱcamaldolesiȱinȱItalia:ȱluoghi,ȱarchitettura,
spiritualitàȱ(Milano:ȱVitaȱeȱpensiero,ȱ1993).
299
ShennanȱHutton,ȱ“Women,ȱMen,ȱandȱMarkets:ȱTheȱGenderingȱofȱMarketȱSpaceȱinȱLateȱMedieval
Ghent,”ȱ Urbanȱ Spaceȱ inȱ theȱ Middleȱ Agesȱ andȱ theȱ Earlyȱ Modernȱ Time,ȱ ed.ȱ Albrechtȱ Classen.
Fundamentalsȱ ofȱ Medievalȱ andȱ Earlyȱ Modernȱ Culture,ȱ 4ȱ (Berlinȱ andȱ Newȱ York:ȱ Walterȱ de
Gruyter,ȱ2009),ȱ409–31.ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱtheȱpresentȱvolumeȱbyȱMarthaȱMoffittȱPeacock.
300
CharlesȱCooper,ȱAȱVillageȱinȱSussex:ȱTheȱHistoryȱofȱKingstonȬNearȬLewesȱ(London:ȱI.ȱB.ȱTaurisȱ&ȱCo.,
2006).ȱ
Introduction 129
significance—andȱcontinueȱtoȱbeȱforȱmodernȬdayȱvillagers—andȱallowedȱwomen
freeȱ range,ȱ evenȱ thoughȱ theȱ documentsȱ doȱ notȱ necessarilyȱ reflectȱ thoseȱ social,
personalȱactivities,ȱespeciallyȱnotȱforȱwomen.301ȱ
Butȱtheȱvillageȱcenterȱwas,ȱafterȱall,ȱnextȱtoȱtheȱhome,ȱstillȱtheȱmostȱimportant
spaceȱwhereȱwomenȱcouldȱoperateȱinȱmedievalȱvillages.ȱItȱwouldȱbeȱerroneous,
however,ȱtoȱassumeȱthatȱmedievalȱpeasantȱwomenȱhadȱaȱlimited,ȱwellȬdefined
workȱregimen.ȱProbablyȱveryȱsimilarȱtoȱconditionsȱevenȱtoday,ȱtheyȱoperatedȱin
aȱveryȱfluidȱenvironmentȱandȱcollaboratedȱwithȱtheirȱhusbandsȱinȱaȱmostȱflexible
wayȱasȱdemandȱrequiredȱfromȱthem.ȱIfȱweȱturnedȱtoȱtheȱillustrationsȱinȱtheȱBooks
ofȱ Hours,ȱ weȱ wouldȱ beȱ ableȱ toȱ confirmȱ atȱ leastȱ toȱ someȱ extentȱ thatȱ specific
observation,ȱsinceȱweȱrecognizeȱinȱthoseȱillustrationsȱaȱpanoplyȱofȱruralȱscenes
whereȱmenȱandȱwomenȱfreelyȱshareȱinȱtheȱactivitiesȱdemandedȱfromȱfarmȱwork.
Moreover,ȱtheȱcriticalȱsocialȱcomponentȱprovedȱtoȱbeȱtheȱneighborhood,ȱsmall
socialȱunitsȱwhereȱgenderȱidentitiesȱmatteredȱlessȱthanȱpragmaticȱneeds,ȱpurposes,
andȱfunctions.ȱ
Inȱfact,ȱasȱOlsonȱcomments,ȱtheȱrollsȱrevealȱtheȱtrueȱextentȱtoȱwhichȱwomenȱwere
veryȱactivelyȱinvolvedȱinȱpublicȱlife,ȱwhetherȱdefendingȱtheirȱownȱlegalȱstatus,
fightingȱ backȱ rapists,ȱ insistingȱ onȱ theirȱ individualȱ statusȱ withinȱ theȱ social
community,ȱ orȱ raisingȱ complaintsȱ aboutȱ economicȱ injusticeȱ orȱ disadvantage.
Whateverȱtheȱreasonȱorȱcauseȱmightȱhaveȱbeen,ȱtheȱrollsȱregisterȱanȱincreasing
numberȱofȱwomenȱinvolvedȱinȱlegalȱcomplaintsȱorȱsuits,ȱwhichȱsuggestsȱthatȱthe
genderȱrelationshipsȱinȱlateȬmedievalȱEnglandȱexperiencedȱaȱsteadyȱchangeȱin
favorȱofȱwomen.302ȱTheyȱincreasinglyȱgotȱinvolvedȱinȱsmallȱbusinesses,ȱincluding
brewingȱandȱmoneyȬlending,ȱasȱdocumentedȱbyȱtheȱfamous,ȱorȱratherȱnotorious
mysticȱMargeryȱKempeȱ(ca.ȱ1375–ca.ȱ1440),ȱalthoughȱsheȱwasȱtheȱdaughterȱofȱthe
mayorȱofȱLynne,ȱaȱratherȱsignificantȱHanseaticȱcityȱonȱtheȱcoastȱofȱtheȱNorthȱSea.
AsȱOlsonȱobserves,ȱwomenȱoverȱtimeȱgainedȱmoreȱandȱmoreȱlegalȱprominenceȱand
assumedȱtheȱroleȱofȱspokespersonsȱforȱtheirȱfamilies,ȱasȱreflectedȱinȱtheȱrollȱbooks.ȱ
Evenȱifȱwomenȱhadȱaȱhardȱtime,ȱasȱOlsonȱconcludes,ȱtoȱmakeȱtheirȱvoicesȱheard
inȱtheȱvillageȱrolls,ȱtheyȱwereȱcertainlyȱpresentȱinȱmultipleȱfashionsȱandȱassumed,
virtuallyȱbyȱdefault,ȱaȱsignificantȱfunctionȱbecauseȱtheyȱwereȱinfluential,ȱifȱnot
centralȱagentsȱinȱtheirȱsocialȱcommunities.ȱTheyȱmadeȱtheirȱvoicesȱheard,ȱraising
hueȱ andȱ cryȱ wheneverȱ important,ȱ andȱ theyȱ struggledȱ hardȱ andȱ oftenȱ quite
301
AȱgoodȱliteraryȱexampleȱwouldȱbeȱtheȱGermanȱallegoricalȱromance,ȱHeinrichȱWittenwiler’sȱRing
fromȱca.ȱ1400;ȱseeȱmyȱdiscussionȱabove.
302
SeeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱMedievalȱWomenȱinȱTheirȱCommunities,ȱed.ȱDianeȱWattȱ(Torontoȱand
Buffalo:ȱUniversityȱofȱTorontoȱPress,ȱ1997).ȱHowever,ȱnotȱevenȱhereȱtheȱvillageȱwomanȱsurfaces
asȱprominentlyȱasȱinȱOlson’sȱstudy.ȱForȱrepresentativeȱstudiesȱfocusingȱonȱmedievalȱFrance,ȱsee
theȱarticlesȱinȱUrbanȱandȱRuralȱCommunitiesȱinȱMedievalȱFrance:ȱProvenceȱandȱLanguedoc,ȱ1000–1500,
ed.ȱKathrynȱReyersonȱandȱJohnȱVictorȱDrendel.ȱTheȱMedievalȱMediterranean,ȱ18ȱ(Leidenȱand
Boston:ȱBrill,ȱ1998).
successfullyȱinȱmaintainingȱtheirȱpositionȱwithinȱtheȱvillageȱcontextȱofȱfarmȱlife.
Olson’sȱcloseȱreadingȱofȱtheȱrollsȱandȱotherȱdocumentsȱindicatesȱthatȱruralȱspace
wasȱ certainlyȱ aȱ terrainȱ whereȱ medievalȱ womenȱ couldȱ claimȱ considerable
independenceȱandȱinfluence,ȱevenȱthoughȱtheyȱthenȱdidȱnotȱnecessarilyȱappearȱall
thatȱfrequentlyȱinȱtheȱsources.303
ScholarsȱhaveȱtendedȱtoȱidentifyȱspecificȱboundariesȱbetweenȱtheȱMiddleȱAges
andȱ theȱ earlyȱ modernȱ ageȱ asȱ determinedȱ byȱ theȱ characteristicȱ andȱ almostȱ allȬ
pervasiveȱreceptionȱofȱclassicalȱliteratureȱandȱtheȱarts,ȱbutȱalsoȱbyȱtheȱintroduction
ofȱ theȱ centralȱ perspectiveȱ inȱ ȱ theȱ visualȱ arts.304ȱ However,ȱ medievalȱ literature
contains,ȱfromȱearlyȱon,ȱcountlessȱexamplesȱofȱtheȱgreatȱinterestȱinȱtheȱnatural
environment,ȱwhichȱinvitesȱusȱtoȱdiscussȱmuchȱmoreȱcarefullyȱthanȱbeforeȱthe
perceptionȱofȱruralȱspaceȱandȱnature,ȱwhichȱenjoyed,ȱunderȱcertainȱcircumstances,
someȱ popularityȱ alreadyȱ atȱ thoseȱ times,ȱ althoughȱ theȱ Renaissance,ȱ whereȱ that
phenomenonȱbecameȱmoreȱnoticeable,ȱwasȱstillȱfarȱaway.305ȱ
Ecocriticalȱapproachesȱtoȱmedievalȱpoetryȱareȱjustȱaboutȱtoȱinvestigateȱwhatȱwe
canȱlearnȱfromȱthoseȱtextsȱthatȱhaveȱtraditionallyȱidentifiedȱcourtlyȱcultureȱand
wereȱdeterminedȱbyȱthatȱveryȱculture.ȱChristopherȱR.ȱClasonȱoffersȱaȱreadingȱof
Waltherȱ vonȱ derȱ Vogelweide’sȱ earlyȱ thirteenthȬcenturyȱ poetryȱ inȱ lightȱ ofȱ his
reflectionsȱonȱruralȱspace,ȱandȱthisȱevenȱwithinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱcourtlyȱloveȱpoetry.
AsȱmuchȱasȱWaltherȱisȱregardedȱbyȱmostȱmedievalȱGermanȱphilologistsȱasȱoneȱof
theȱfinestȱpoetsȱofȱhisȱtime,ȱweȱhaveȱnotȱyetȱattemptedȱtoȱreadȱhisȱworkȱinȱlightȱof
ecocriticism.ȱEvenȱwithinȱ theȱmostȱtropologicalȱcontext,ȱWaltherȱ engagesȱwith
naturalȱelementsȱthatȱheȱisȱobviouslyȱpersonallyȱfamiliarȱwith.ȱAsȱmuchȱasȱwe
wouldȱhaveȱtoȱagreeȱwithȱCurtius’sȱreadingȱatȱlargeȱconcerningȱtheȱadaptationȱof
303
SeeȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱKönigin,ȱKlosterfrau,ȱBäuerin:ȱFrauenȱimȱFrühmittelalter.ȱBerichtȱzurȱdritten
TagungȱdesȱNetzwerksȱarchäologischȱarbeitenderȱFrauen,ȱ19.ȱ–ȱ22.ȱOktoberȱ1995ȱinȱKiel,ȱed.ȱHelgaȱBrandt
andȱ Juliaȱ K.ȱ Koch.ȱ Agendaȱ Frauen:ȱ Frauenȱ –ȱ Forschungȱ –ȱ Archäologie,ȱ 8,ȱ 2ȱ (Münster:
AgendaȬVerlag,ȱ1996).ȱForȱaȱhelpfulȱcollectionȱofȱrelevantȱprimaryȱdocumentsȱfromȱacrossȱEurope,
seeȱ Women’sȱ Livesȱ inȱ Medievalȱ Europe:ȱ Aȱ Sourcebook,ȱ ed.ȱ Emilieȱ Amtȱ (Newȱ Yorkȱ andȱ London:
Routledge,1993),ȱ 179–93.ȱ Theseȱ documentsȱ addressȱ social,ȱ ethical,ȱ economical,ȱ andȱ religious
aspectȱrelevantȱinȱtheȱlivesȱofȱruralȱwomen.
304
Thereȱ areȱ countlessȱ studiesȱ thatȱ couldȱ beȱ citedȱ here;ȱ see,ȱ forȱ instance,ȱ Williamȱ Kerriganȱ and
GordonȱBraden,ȱTheȱIdeaȱofȱtheȱRenaissanceȱ(BaltimoreȱandȱLondon:ȱTheȱJohnsȱHopkinsȱUniversity
Press,ȱ1989);ȱKarlheinzȱStierle,ȱ“Spectaculum:ȱDerȱBlickȱaufȱdieȱWeltȱbeiȱPetrarcaȱundȱJanȱvan
Eyck,”ȱ Derȱ stummeȱ Diskursȱ derȱ Bilder:ȱ Reflexionsformenȱ desȱ Ästhetischenȱ inȱ derȱ Kunstȱ derȱ frühen
Neuzeit,ȱ ed.ȱ Valeskaȱ vonȱ Rosen,ȱ Klausȱ Krüger,ȱ andȱ Rudolfȱ Preimesbergerȱ (Berlin:ȱ Deutscher
Kunstverlag,ȱ2003),ȱ119–38;ȱseeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱLandschaftenȱimȱMittelalter,ȱed.ȱKarlȬHeinz
Spießȱ (Stuttgart:ȱ Steiner,ȱ 2007);ȱ Manuelȱ Schramm,ȱ “Dieȱ Entstehungȱ derȱ modernen
Landschaftswahrnehmungȱ(1580–1730),”ȱHistorischeȱZeitschriftȱ287ȱ(2008):ȱ37–59.
305
Helmutȱ BrallȬTuchel,ȱ “Frömmigkeitȱ undȱ Herrschaft,ȱ Wonneȱ undȱ Weg:ȱ Landschaftenȱ inȱ der
LiteraturȱdesȱMittelalters,”ȱ‘LandschaftȱimȱMittelalter?ȱ–ȱAugenscheinȱundȱLiteratur,ȱed.ȱJensȱPfeffer.
DasȱMittelaltler:ȱPerspektivenȱmediävistischerȱForschungȱ16.1ȱ(2011):ȱ104–30.
Introduction 131
classicalȱtropesȱandȱtopoiȱinȱmedievalȱliterature,ȱasȱmuchȱweȱalsoȱmustȱagreeȱthat
poetsȱthroughoutȱtimesȱhadȱtoȱplayȱandȱexperimentȱwithȱstylisticȱelementsȱthat
theyȱhadȱborrowedȱfromȱaȱvarietyȱofȱsources,ȱwithoutȱabandoningȱaltogetherȱa
realisticȱstrainȱtoȱtheirȱpresentations.ȱ
Evenȱ ifȱ Walther’sȱ poemsȱ proveȱ toȱ beȱ mostlyȱ formulaic,ȱ drawingȱ fromȱ the
traditionȱofȱcourtlyȱandȱclassicalȱpoetry,ȱClasonȱstillȱbelievesȱthatȱweȱcanȱrecognize
inȱhisȱsongsȱstrongȱreflectionsȱofȱhumanȱlifeȱasȱmirroredȱinȱnaturalȱenvironment.ȱ
Asȱpastoralȱandȱbucolicȱmanyȱofȱhisȱloveȱandȱgnomicȱsongsȱproveȱtoȱbe,ȱaȱgood
numberȱofȱthemȱisȱstillȱpredicatedȱonȱaȱstrongȱsenseȱofȱtheȱbeautyȱandȱsignificance
ofȱ nature.ȱ Walther’sȱ poeticȱ qualityȱ restsȱ notȱ onlyȱ inȱ hisȱ sensitivityȱ regarding
authenticȱ amorousȱ feelings,ȱ orȱ regardingȱ politicalȱ andȱ socialȱ injustice.ȱ Heȱ also
madeȱ seriousȱ attemptsȱ inȱ aȱ goodȱ handfulȱ ofȱ hisȱ songsȱ toȱ allowȱ theȱ essential
featuresȱofȱnatureȱtoȱenterȱtheȱstageȱofȱhisȱliteraryȱdiscourse.ȱOnlyȱinȱnatureȱtrue
loveȱcanȱdevelop,ȱasȱhisȱfemaleȱvoiceȱinȱ“Underȱderȱlinden”ȱconfirms,ȱwhereȱa
utopianȱsocietyȱofȱloversȱisȱinvitedȱtoȱshareȱtheȱjoyȱwhichȱheȱhadȱwithȱherȱmale
friend.ȱ Inȱ fact,ȱ theȱ poetȱ impliesȱ aȱ certainȱ degreeȱ ofȱ criticismȱ ofȱ theȱ lackȱ of
naturalnessȱatȱcourt,ȱwhichȱpreventsȱtheȱemergenceȱofȱaȱtrueȱandȱjoyfulȱloveȱaffair.ȱ
Waltherȱsearches,ȱbyȱcontrast,ȱforȱtheȱharmonyȱbetweenȱhumanȱsocietyȱandȱnature,
butȱthisȱrequiresȱtheȱloversȱtoȱmeetȱinȱaȱdistance,ȱinȱaȱlonelyȱlocation,ȱwhereȱall
partsȱofȱnatureȱchimeȱinȱtoȱsupportȱtheȱorgiasticȱexperienceȱofȱlove.ȱ
Asȱ muchȱ asȱ theȱ poetȱ constantlyȱ evokesȱ traditionalȱ genres,ȱ especiallyȱ the
pastourelle,ȱheȱunderminesȱtheȱliteraryȱframeworkȱandȱtriesȱtoȱbringȱhisȱfictional
figures,ȱorȱhisȱownȱpoeticȱ‘I’ȱcloserȱtoȱtheȱnaturalȱenvironment,ȱasȱClasonȱobserves
withȱregardȱtoȱseveralȱotherȱloveȱsongs.ȱButȱevenȱinȱsomeȱofȱWalther’sȱpolitical,
didacticȱsongsȱweȱcanȱdiscoverȱimportantȱreferencesȱtoȱnatureȱwhereȱthingsȱare
considerablyȱbetterȱorganizedȱthanȱinȱhumanȱsociety.ȱTheȱpoetȱusesȱnatureȱasȱan
importantȱ foilȱ toȱ profileȱ commonȱ failuresȱ andȱ shortcomingsȱ amongȱ people.
WaltherȱundoubtedlyȱidealizesȱtheȱnaturalȱworldȱandȱrecognizesȱinȱitȱGod’sȱown
creation.ȱ Presentingȱ himselfȱ asȱ aȱ witnessȱ ofȱ theȱ entireȱ naturalȱ world,ȱ theȱ poet
drawsȱconsiderableȱauthorityȱfromȱthisȱstrategyȱandȱalsoȱpaysȱgreatȱrespectȱtoȱthe
naturalȱenvironment.ȱ
Theȱinclusionȱofȱreferencesȱtoȱwinterȱandȱitsȱbitterȱtemperatures,ȱsuchȱasȱinȱ“Diu
werltȱ wasȱ gelf,ȱ rôtȱ undeȱ blâ,”ȱ makingȱ theȱ poetȱ andȱ othersȱ sufferȱ badly,
underscoresȱhowȱmuchȱWaltherȱwasȱinterestedȱinȱoperatingȱwithȱaȱmultitudeȱof
naturalȱsceneries,ȱutilizingȱthemȱforȱaȱwideȱvarietyȱofȱpoliticalȱandȱethicalȱconcerns
andȱideals.ȱResortingȱtoȱtheȱwinterȱimageȱdestroysȱallȱjoysȱwhichȱtheȱpoetȱhad
projectedȱinȱhisȱpastoralȱsongs,ȱwhichȱaȱnearȱcontemporary,ȱNeidhartȱ(activeȱuntil
ca.ȱ1240)ȱdevelopedȱevenȱfurther,ȱbutȱthenȱwithȱaȱstrongȱemphasisȱonȱpeasant
satire.ȱAsȱClasonȱcomments,ȱhowever,ȱWaltherȱdeliberatelyȱexaminesȱtheȱimpact
ofȱtheȱwinterȱweatherȱonȱallȱlivingȱcreaturesȱinȱorderȱtoȱconcretizeȱhisȱpoetryȱand
toȱcreateȱasȱmuchȱauthenticityȱasȱpossible.ȱThisȱfindsȱitsȱmostȱdramaticȱandȱvivid
expressionȱinȱhisȱ‘elegy,’ȱ“Owê,ȱwarȱsintȱverswundenȱalliuȱmîniuȱjâr,”ȱwhereȱthe
lossȱofȱyouthȱisȱpowerfullyȱequatedȱwithȱtheȱlossȱofȱvirginalȱforestsȱandȱverdant
pastures.ȱAsȱClason’sȱecocriticalȱapproachȱreveals,ȱWaltherȱskillfullyȱinterwoveȱthe
personalȱsufferingȱwithȱnature’sȱsuffering,ȱandȱviceȱversa.ȱTheȱbiblicalȱundertones
areȱ clearlyȱ noticeable,ȱ andȱ yetȱ evenȱ theȱ mostȱ allegoricalȱ orȱ symbolicȱ imageȱ is
rootedȱinȱaȱnaturalȱsetting,ȱwhichȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱoneȱofȱtheȱhallmarksȱofȱWalther’s
remarkableȱ poetry,ȱ hailedȱ forȱ centuries,ȱ andȱ nowȱ revealingȱ evenȱ aȱ strong
ecocriticalȱperspective.306ȱ
Asȱlittleȱasȱtheȱpeasantȱfigureȱenteredȱtheȱstageȱofȱcourtlyȱliterature,ȱsoȱitȱseems,ȱas
littleȱ haveȱ weȱ paidȱ closeȱ enoughȱ attentionȱ toȱ thoseȱ situationsȱ whereȱ theȱ rural
worldȱ actuallyȱ assumesȱ moreȱ weightȱ evenȱ withinȱ courtlyȱ romancesȱ andȱ lyric
poetry.ȱAsȱIȱhaveȱoutlinedȱalreadyȱasȱcloselyȱasȱpossibleȱinȱtheȱIntroductionȱabove,
medievalȱartistsȱandȱwritersȱwereȱnotȱsimplyȱblindȱtoȱtheȱlowerȱsocialȱclass.ȱInȱfact,
weȱcouldȱevenȱgoȱoneȱstepȱfurtherȱdownȱandȱaskȱourselvesȱwhatȱweȱknowȱabout
poorȱpeopleȱandȱtheȱhomelessȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱearlyȱmodernȱage.ȱAs
Michelȱ Mollat’sȱ researchȱ hasȱ amplyȱ demonstrated,ȱ simplyȱ utilizingȱ aȱ different
telescopeȱmakesȱitȱcertainlyȱpossibleȱtoȱunderstandȱmuchȱmoreȱaboutȱtheȱordinary
lifeȱofȱtheȱmiserableȱandȱdowntroddenȱthanȱweȱhaveȱheretoforeȱassumed.307ȱBut
evenȱthoseȱepithetsȱdoȱnotȱnecessarilyȱaddressȱtheȱsocialȱrealityȱinȱtheȱcountryside
appropriately,ȱsinceȱeveryȱvillageȱconsistedȱofȱmanyȱlayersȱofȱdifferentȱeconomic
classes.308ȱ Feudalismȱ didȱ notȱ simplyȱ createȱ hardȱ andȱ insurmountableȱ barriers
amongȱtheȱsocialȱclasses,ȱandȱtheȱawarenessȱandȱenjoymentȱofȱtheȱruralȱworldȱwas
certainlyȱnotȱanȱinventionȱofȱmodernity.309ȱItȱwouldȱbeȱprobablyȱcorrectȱtoȱassume
thatȱ tensionsȱ grewȱ overȱ timeȱ betweenȱ theȱ nobilityȱ andȱ theȱ peasantȱ class,ȱ as
reflectedȱbyȱtheȱvariousȱrevoltsȱinȱEnglandȱ(1381)ȱandȱGermanyȱ(1524–1525),ȱfor
instance,ȱ butȱ byȱ thatȱ timeȱ weȱ alsoȱ observeȱ manyȱ individualsȱ livingȱ inȱ rural
306
BrallȬTucher,ȱ“FrömmigkeitȱundȱHerrschaft”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ305),ȱ121–22,ȱreachesȱsimilarȱconclusions,
thoughȱhisȱemphasisȱrestsȱonȱWalther’sȱgnomic,ȱorȱpoliticalȱsongs.
307
MichelȱMollat,ȱLesȱpauvresȱauȱMoyenȱAge:ȱEtudeȱsocialeȱ(Paris:ȱHachette,ȱ1978).ȱSeeȱnowȱalsoȱJames
WilliamȱBrodman,ȱCharityȱandȱWelfare:ȱHospitalsȱandȱtheȱPoorȱinȱMedievalȱCatalonia.ȱMiddleȱAges
Seriesȱ(Philadelphia:ȱUniversityȱofȱPennsylvaniaȱPress,ȱ1998);ȱcf.ȱTheȱVoiceȱofȱtheȱPoorȱinȱtheȱMiddle
Ages:ȱAnȱAnthologyȱofȱDocumentsȱfromȱtheȱCairoȱGeniza,ȱed.ȱMarkȱR.ȱCohenȱ(Princeton:ȱPrinceton
UniversityȱPress,ȱ2005).
308
Seeȱ theȱ contributionsȱ toȱ Autourȱ duȱ “village”ȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 218).ȱ Forȱ earlyȬmodernȱ conditions,ȱ see
BetweenȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱModernity:ȱIndividualȱandȱCommunityȱinȱtheȱEarlyȱModernȱWorld,
ed.ȱCharlesȱH.ȱParkerȱandȱJerryȱH.ȱBentleyȱ(Lanham:ȱRowmanȱ&ȱLittlefield,ȱ2007).ȱForȱaȱrecent,
localȱorientedȱstudy,ȱseeȱGovindȱP.ȱSreenivasan,ȱTheȱPeasantsȱofȱOttobeuren,ȱ1487–1726:ȱAȱRural
SocietyȱinȱEarlyȱModernȱEurope.ȱPastȱandȱPresentȱPublicationsȱ(Cambridge,ȱUK,ȱandȱNewȱYork:
CambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2004).
309
Sebastianȱ Neumeister,ȱ “Annäherungȱ anȱ dieȱ Natur:ȱ Bilderȱ derȱ Landschaftȱ beiȱ Boccaccio,”
‘LandschaftȱimȱMittelalter?ȱ–ȱAugenscheinȱundȱLiteratur,ȱed.ȱJensȱPfeffer.ȱDasȱMittelalter:ȱPerspektiven
mediävistischerȱForschungȱ16.1ȱ(2011):ȱ131–48.
Introduction 133
communitiesȱwhoȱhadȱgainedȱconsiderableȱinfluenceȱandȱwealth.310ȱLetȱusȱnotȱeven
mentionȱ theȱ mostlyȱ erroneousȱ assumptionsȱ aboutȱ thoseȱ peasantsȱ whichȱ have
transpiredȱintoȱmodernȱmythȬmaking,ȱmostlyȱpromotedȱbyȱMarxistȱhistoriansȱwho
tendedȱ toȱ ignoreȱ theȱ motifsȱ ofȱ theȱ riotersȱ andȱ misunderstoodȱ theȱ social
backgroundȱofȱmostȱparticipants,ȱwhoȱinȱmajorityȱseemȱtoȱhaveȱoriginatedȱfrom
urbanȱcenters.311
Contraryȱtoȱallȱexpectationsȱweȱencounterȱseveralȱcasesȱofȱaȱpeasantȱwoman
fallingȱinȱloveȱwithȱandȱmarryingȱaȱnoblemanȱinȱmedievalȱliterature.ȱInȱmyȱfirst
contributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱIȱexamineȱtheȱcaseȱofȱHartmannȱvonȱAue’sȱ“Derȱarme
Heinrich”ȱ(ca.ȱ1200)ȱandȱthenȱtheȱanonymousȱverseȱnarrativeȱ“Disȱistȱvonȱdem
Heselin”ȱ (lateȱ thirteenthȱ century).ȱ Inȱ bothȱ casesȱ theȱ youngȱ peasantȱ woman
ultimatelyȱ provesȱ toȱ beȱ theȱ mostȱ virtuousȱ personȱ inȱ theȱ maleȱ protagonist’s
presence,ȱandȱtheirȱnaive,ȱsimple,ȱpure,ȱandȱchasteȱbehaviorȱstronglyȱappealsȱto
theirȱfutureȱhusbands.ȱWhileȱtheȱaudienceȱwouldȱcertainlyȱhaveȱexpectedȱthatȱthe
marriageȱwouldȱhaveȱbroughtȱtwoȱrepresentativesȱofȱtheȱaristocraticȱclassȱtogether,
reconfirmingȱtheȱtraditionalȱsocialȱandȱeconomicȱstructure,ȱhereȱweȱfaceȱaȱvery
differentȱsituation.ȱInȱHartmann’sȱcaseȱtheȱman’sȱhealingȱprocess,ȱwhichȱrescues
himȱfromȱcertainȱdeathȱresultingȱfromȱhisȱleprosy,ȱsetsȱonlyȱinȱwhenȱheȱhasȱfinally
foundȱaȱyoungȱwomanȱwillingȱtoȱdieȱforȱhim.ȱ
Thereȱ areȱ subtleȱ cuesȱ asȱ toȱ aȱ buddingȱ loveȱ relationship,ȱ butȱ bothȱ Heinrich’s
sicknessȱandȱtheirȱvastȱsocialȱdifferencesȱblindȱusȱforȱaȱlongȱtimeȱtoȱtheȱemotional
bondsȱwhichȱhaveȱalreadyȱdevelopedȱbetweenȱbothȱfigures.ȱHeinrich,ȱhowever,
recognizesȱherȱtrueȱvalue,ȱbeauty,ȱandȱinnocenceȱonlyȱonceȱheȱhasȱpeekedȱthrough
aȱ holeȱ inȱ theȱ wallȱ andȱ hasȱ discoveredȱ andȱ thenȱ understoodȱ herȱ extraordinary
physicalȱappeal.ȱThisȱmeansȱforȱhimȱthatȱheȱcanȱnoȱlongerȱacceptȱherȱsacrifice.
Whatȱheȱhasȱwitnessedȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱmoreȱthanȱjustȱanȱattractiveȱyoungȱfemale
body,ȱlyingȱnakedȱonȱtheȱoperationȱtable.ȱWeȱareȱnotȱdealingȱwithȱanȱeroticized
scene,ȱdespiteȱtheȱappearanceȱofȱtheȱentireȱsetting,ȱdeterminedȱbyȱtheȱmanȱwho
cannotȱcontrolȱhimselfȱandȱmustȱlearnȱwhatȱisȱhappeningȱbehindȱtheȱsurgeon’s
walls.ȱHeinrichȱisȱgazing,ȱforȱsure,ȱbutȱnotȱforȱsexualȱreasons.ȱAndȱheȱdoesȱnotȱstop
theȱoperationȱbecauseȱhisȱlustfulnessȱoverpowersȱhim.ȱ
Instead,ȱtheȱprotagonistȱexperiencesȱanȱepiphanyȱandȱrealizesȱthatȱtrueȱbeauty,
bothȱ physicalȱ andȱ spiritual,ȱ restsȱ inside,ȱ whileȱ theȱ externalȱ body,ȱ whether
attractiveȱorȱnot,ȱstaysȱoutsideȱandȱisȱnotȱworthȱfightingȱfor,ȱespeciallyȱnotȱinȱsuch
310
GeorgeȱCasparȱHomans,ȱEnglishȱVillagersȱofȱ theȱ ThirteenthȱCenturyȱ(Cambridge,ȱMA:ȱHarvard
UniversityȱPress,ȱ1941),ȱesp.ȱ328–38,ȱfocusingȱonȱselfȬgovernmentȱandȱpublicȱrepresentationȱofȱthe
villageȱ beforeȱ theȱ court.ȱ Seeȱ alsoȱ H.ȱ E.ȱ Hallam,ȱ Ruralȱ Englandȱ 1066–1348.ȱ Fontanaȱ Historyȱ of
Englandȱ(Brighton,ȱSussex:ȱTheȱHarvesterȱPress;ȱAtlanticȱHighlands,ȱNJ:ȱHumanitiesȱPress,ȱ1981).
311
PaulȱStrohm,ȱ“Aȱ‘Peasants’ȱRevolt’?,”ȱMisconceptionsȱAboutȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱed.ȱStephenȱJ.ȱHarris
andȱ Bryonȱ L.ȱ Grigsby.ȱ Routledgeȱ Studiesȱ inȱ Medievalȱ Religionȱ andȱ Cultureȱ (Newȱ Yorkȱ and
London:ȱRoutledge,ȱ2008),ȱ197–203;ȱseeȱalsoȱDinahȱHazell,ȱ“TheȱMedievalȱPeasant,”ȱibid.,ȱ213–17.
aȱdesperateȱsituation.312ȱSubsequently,ȱHeinrichȱmarriesȱtheȱpeasantȱgirl,ȱafterȱhe
hasȱ madeȱ herȱ parentsȱ andȱ herȱ toȱ freeȱ farmers,ȱ whichȱ elevatesȱ them,ȱ atȱ least
theoretically,ȱ toȱ theȱ sameȱ socialȱ levelsȱ asȱ hisȱ own.ȱ Inȱ myȱ studyȱ Iȱ argueȱ that
Hartmannȱhereȱprojectsȱaȱliteraryȱutopiaȱthatȱcombinesȱtheȱspiritualȱdimension
withȱhighlyȱunusualȱsocialȬeconomicȱaspects,ȱsignalingȱthatȱforȱhimȱtheȱtraditional
feudalȱstructureȱdidȱnotȱguaranteeȱtheȱindividual’sȱspiritualȱexistence.ȱ
Inȱ theȱ laterȱ verseȱ narrativeȱ aȱ similarȱ processȱ takesȱ place,ȱ butȱ thereȱ theȱ male
protagonistȱdoesȱnotȱhaveȱtoȱstruggleȱwithȱvirtuallyȱcertainȱdeathȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱhim
sufferingȱfromȱleprosy.ȱInsteadȱheȱseducesȱaȱyoungȱpeasantȱwomanȱtwice,ȱwithout
herȱunderstandingȱfullyȱtheȱmeaningȱandȱconsequencesȱofȱtheirȱsexualȱtryst.ȱBut
whenȱheȱlaterȱinvitesȱherȱtoȱhisȱweddingȱandȱbreaksȱoutȱinȱloudȱlaughterȱwhenȱhe
espiesȱher,ȱcarryingȱtheȱhighlyȱsymbolicȱbunnyȱrabbit,ȱheȱquicklyȱlearnsȱthatȱhis
nobleȱfiancéeȱhasȱnoȱmoralȱconsciousnessȱandȱwouldȱlaterȱcertainlyȱmakeȱtheir
marriedȱ lifeȱ toȱ sheerȱ horrorȱ andȱ miseryȱ forȱ him.ȱ Quicklyȱ correctingȱ hisȱ own
previousȱtransgressions,ȱandȱalsoȱreachingȱoutȱtoȱtheȱstillȱchasteȱyoungȱwoman,ȱhe
bridgesȱtheȱdeepȱgulfȱbetweenȱnobilityȱandȱpeasantryȱandȱacceptsȱherȱasȱhisȱwife,
theȱonlyȱtrulyȱworthyȱpersonȱforȱthatȱproposition.ȱ
Onceȱagain,ȱweȱcomeȱacrossȱanȱimpressiveȱliteraryȱexampleȱthatȱshedsȱpowerful
lightȱonȱtheȱtensionsȱbetweenȱtheȱinteriorȱandȱtheȱexteriorȱdimensionȱofȱhumanȱlife
andȱarguesȱinȱstrongestȱtermsȱthatȱarrangedȱmarriagesȱtendȱtoȱbeȱpredicatedȱon
purelyȱmaterialisticȱandȱpoliticalȱcriteriaȱandȱdoȱnotȱtakeȱintoȱconsiderationȱtrue
emotions,ȱorȱlove.ȱMoreover,ȱtheȱprotagonist’sȱreachingȱoutȱtoȱtheȱpeasantȱworld
servesȱasȱaȱmasterfulȱstrategyȱtoȱilluminateȱtheȱperennialȱdichotomyȱbetweenȱbody
andȱmind,ȱorȱtheȱmaterialȱexistenceȱandȱtheȱspirit.ȱTheȱanonymousȱpoetȱofȱthisȱtale
alsoȱprojectedȱaȱliteraryȱutopiaȱwhichȱbecomesȱrealityȱonlyȱonceȱtheȱsocialȱclass
differencesȱareȱpushedȱasideȱasȱirrelevantȱinȱethicalȱandȱmoralȱconsiderations.ȱ
Iȱconcludeȱtheȱdiscussionȱwithȱaȱbriefȱexaminationȱofȱsomeȱofȱtheȱmaritalȱsongs
byȱtheȱTyroleanȱpoetȱOswaldȱvonȱWolkensteinȱ(1376/77–1445)ȱinȱwhichȱeroticȱbliss
andȱ individualȱ orȱ ratherȱ groupȱ happinessȱ isȱ projectedȱ asȱ possibleȱ inȱ theȱ rural
setting.ȱ Theȱ emergenceȱ ofȱ theȱ topicalȱ ‘brownȱ girl’ȱ inȱ lateȬmedievalȱ andȱ earlyȬ
modernȱpopularȱsongsȱconfirmsȱtheȱrelevanceȱofȱtheȱutopianȱdreamȱdevelopedȱby
aȱvarietyȱofȱpoetsȱwhoȱendeavoredȱtoȱovercome,ȱatȱleastȱinȱtheirȱfantasy,ȱtheȱsocial
classȱbarriersȱandȱsoȱdreamtȱofȱhappyȱandȱuntroubledȱeroticȱandȱmaritalȱunionsȱ
ofȱaȱnobleȱmanȱandȱaȱpeasantȱwoman.ȱ
312
Joachimȱ Bumke,ȱ Dieȱ Blutstropfenȱ imȱ Schnee:ȱ Überȱ Wahrnehmungȱ undȱ Erkenntnisȱ imȱ “Parzival”
WolframsȱvonȱEschenbach.ȱHermaea:ȱGermanistischeȱForschungen,ȱNeueȱFolge,ȱ94ȱ(Tübingen:ȱMax
Niemeyer,ȱ 2001),ȱ hasȱ uncoveredȱ veryȱ similarȱ narrativeȱ strategiesȱ inȱ contemporaryȱ textsȱ and
supportedȱhisȱclaimsȱwithȱnumerousȱreferencesȱtoȱtheȱrelevantȱtheologicalȱandȱphilosophical
literature.
Introduction 135
Howȱweȱcanȱfullyȱunderstandȱtheȱmeaningȱofȱruralȱspaceȱinȱtheȱpremodernȱworld
mightȱofȱcourseȱalwaysȱescapeȱourȱanalyticȱgrasp,ȱbutȱindirectlyȱliteraryȱgenres
suchȱasȱtheȱOldȱFrenchȱfabliauxȱofferȱmanyȱintriguingȱwindowsȱallowingȱusȱto
examineȱtheȱsocialȱrealitiesȱoutsideȱofȱtheȱcityȱwalls,ȱtheȱcourts,ȱandȱtheȱchurches.
Theȱcomicȱlens,ȱwhichȱcharacterizesȱallȱfabliauxȱandȱparallelȱgenresȱinȱtheȱEuropean
contextȱ(mæren,ȱnovelli,ȱtales,ȱfacetiae),ȱquiteȱnaturallyȱfracturesȱourȱperspectivesȱand
forcesȱusȱtoȱreadȱtheseȱhilarious,ȱoftenȱalmostȱpornographicȱverseȱnarrativesȱas
complexȱfictionalȱmirrorsȱofȱfactualȱconditionsȱpredominantlyȱinvolvingȱtheȱrural
population,ȱ includingȱ theȱ parishȱ priests,ȱ butȱ sometimesȱ alsoȱ merchants,ȱ and
others.ȱ Inȱ herȱ contributionȱ toȱ thisȱ volume,ȱ Sarahȱ Gordonȱ offersȱ anȱ inȬdepth
analysisȱofȱruralȱspaceȱasȱitȱappearsȱinȱtheȱfabliaux.ȱNeitherȱtheȱurbanȱpopulation
inȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱnorȱtheȱruralȱpopulationȱwereȱonȱequalȱfootingȱamongȱeach
other,ȱ justȱ asȱ isȱ theȱ caseȱ today.ȱ Theȱ fabliauxȱ authorsȱ commonlyȱ relyȱ onȱ this
importantȱ socioȬeconomicȱ factorȱ whileȱ developingȱ theirȱ facetious,ȱ satirical,ȱ or
sarcasticȱmotifsȱandȱthemesȱresortingȱtoȱsignificantȱdifferencesȱinȱwealth,ȱrank,ȱand
publicȱesteemȱwithinȱtheȱvillageȱcommunity.ȱ
Whenȱtheȱauthorsȱvoiceȱsocialȱcriticism,ȱthenȱitȱisȱdirectedȱatȱtheȱinjusticeȱand
inequalityȱevenȱamongȱtheȱpeasantȱpopulation,ȱandȱatȱtheȱfailureȱofȱtheȱleading
familiesȱtoȱsupportȱtheȱpoorȱandȱneedy.ȱGordonȱalsoȱconsidersȱtheȱexampleȱofȱthe
RomanȱdeȱRenart,ȱwhereȱtheȱanimals—typicalȱofȱtheȱfableȱtradition—standȱinȱfor
humansȱandȱreflectȱonȱtheirȱfoolishness,ȱsmartness,ȱorȱotherȱcharacterȱfeatures.
Bothȱ hereȱ andȱ inȱ theȱ fabliauxȱ weȱ areȱ confrontedȱ byȱ ruralȱ scenesȱ whereȱ some
individualsȱsufferȱfromȱhungerȱorȱsimplyȱgreed,ȱbutȱwhereȱothersȱcommandȱvast
suppliesȱandȱeconomicȱresources,ȱdependingȱonȱtheirȱpersonalȱstanding.ȱInȱfact,
itȱwouldȱnotȱbeȱtooȱfarȱoffȱtheȱbeamȱtoȱtalkȱaboutȱaȱ‘bucolicȱpasture’ȱwithinȱthe
frameworkȱofȱtheseȱruralȬorientedȱhumorousȱnarratives.ȱ
However,ȱasȱGordonȱalertsȱus,ȱtheȱ‘bucolic’ȱelementȱdoesȱnotȱblindȱusȱtoȱthe
rusticȱatmosphere,ȱsinceȱtheȱnarrativesȱareȱconsistentlyȱlocatedȱinȱtheȱvillageȱand
onȱtheȱfarm,ȱwhereȱpeopleȱareȱsurroundedȱbyȱtheirȱanimals,ȱwhereȱtensionsȱeasily
flareȱupȱoverȱproperty,ȱresources,ȱandȱsimplyȱfood.ȱTheȱpoorȱareȱneverȱfarȱaway,
andȱ theȱ wealthyȱ makeȱ everyȱ effortȱ toȱ controlȱ theirȱ ownȱ goodsȱ againstȱ the
outsiders.ȱȱ
Interestingly,ȱhowever,ȱaȱnumberȱofȱfabliauxȱandȱfableȱnarrativesȱalsoȱindicate
thatȱ theȱ peasantsȱ areȱ notȱ simplyȱ limitedȱ toȱ theirȱ ruralȱ space,ȱ andȱ insteadȱ also
commuteȱtoȱtheȱurbanȱmarkets,ȱwhileȱmembersȱofȱtheȱcityȱdwellersȱregularlyȱpay
visitsȱtoȱtheȱcountrysideȱtoȱpurchaseȱfood,ȱfeed,ȱcloth,ȱandȱotherȱitems,ȱorȱtendȱto
theirȱownȱfields,ȱland,ȱorȱestates.313ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱasȱmanyȱnarrativesȱindicate,
theȱproblemȱofȱtheft,ȱrobbery,ȱandȱevenȱmurderȱwasȱsignificantȱandȱconstitutedȱa
313
ȱ ThisȱisȱparticularlyȱwellȱillustratedȱbyȱChaucerȱinȱhisȱCanterburyȱTales,ȱespeciallyȱ“TheȱMiller’s
Tale,”ȱseeȱmyȱcommentsȱabove.
seriousȱchallengeȱforȱtheȱruralȱpopulation,ȱespeciallyȱwhenȱtheȱvillageȱpriest,ȱfor
instance,ȱ wasȱ personallyȱ involved,ȱ eitherȱ abusingȱ hisȱ clericalȱ powerȱ toȱ extract
monetaryȱvalueȱfromȱhisȱparishioners,ȱorȱtryingȱtoȱcommitȱadulteryȱwithȱoneȱof
theȱpeasantȱwives.ȱApartȱfromȱtheȱexamplesȱdiscussedȱbyȱGordon,ȱweȱcouldȱalso
considerȱ theȱ intriguingȱ mæreȱ “Derȱ fünfmalȱ getöteteȱ Pfarrer”ȱ byȱ aȱ poetȱ who
assumedȱtheȱnameȱofȱtheȱfamousȱfifteenthȬcenturyȱNurembergȱcraftsmanȱHans
Rosenplüt.ȱThereȱtheȱvillageȱpriestȱisȱaccidentallyȱkilledȱbyȱaȱshoemaker,ȱandȱthen,
becauseȱ heȱ triesȱ toȱ coverȱ upȱ forȱ hisȱ deed,ȱ byȱ fourȱ otherȱ peasants.ȱ Everyone
demonstrateȱsomeȱrespectȱforȱtheȱpriest,ȱbutȱtheyȱallȱfeelȱdeeplyȱupsetȱaboutȱhis
allegedȱattemptȱtoȱstealȱsomethingȱfromȱthem.314
Undoubtedly,ȱweȱhaveȱtoȱbeȱveryȱcarefulȱ inȱ readingȱtooȱmuchȱintoȱthisȱrich
corpusȱofȱfacetious,ȱribald,ȱandȱprovocativeȱverseȱnarratives,ȱbutȱbehindȱeveryȱjoke
thereȱ isȱ someȱ socialȱ reality,ȱ andȱ Gordon’sȱ discussionȱ bringsȱ toȱ lightȱ aȱ hostȱ of
relevantȱthemes,ȱconcerns,ȱandȱissuesȱrelevantȱforȱandȱofȱtheȱpremodernȱrural
society.315ȱ
Curiously,ȱrecentȱscholarshipȱwantsȱtoȱidentifyȱlocalȱreferencesȱandȱallusionsȱto
(rural)ȱspaceȱinȱmedievalȱnarrativesȱasȱnothingȱbutȱfunctionsȱofȱtheȱmovingȱsubject
whoȱ traversesȱ locations,ȱ leavingȱ themȱ behindȱ asȱ completelyȱ irrelevantȱ forȱ the
subsequentȱ actionsȱ andȱ events.ȱ Forȱ Utaȱ StörmerȬCaysaȱ thisȱ meansȱ thatȱ spatial
continuityȱarisesȱonlyȱtemporarily,ȱinȱtheȱmomentȱofȱtheȱnarrativeȱmovement.316
Sheȱ goesȱ soȱ farȱ asȱ toȱ identifyȱ aȱ ‘flexibleȱ geography’ȱ inȱ courtlyȱ romancesȱ (74)
becauseȱtheȱnarrativeȱfocusȱrestsȱentirelyȱonȱtheȱsubject,ȱandȱhenceȱonȱhisȱorȱher
spaceȱperceptionȱ(76).ȱThatȱmightȱbeȱtrueȱtoȱsomeȱextent,ȱconsideringȱtheȱspecific
examplesȱ quotedȱ byȱ her,ȱ i.e.,ȱ courtlyȱ romances,ȱ whereȱ theȱ fictionalȱ character
dominates.ȱButȱ(rural)ȱspaceȱwasȱnot,ȱasȱweȱhaveȱalreadyȱobservedȱmanyȱtimes,
anȱarbitraryȱdomainȱfreelyȱavailableȱtoȱmedievalȱpoetsȱandȱwriters.ȱIfȱweȱconsider,
forȱ instance,ȱ theȱ laisȱ byȱ Marieȱ deȱ Franceȱ orȱ theȱ anonymousȱ heroicȱ epics
314
Novellistikȱ desȱ Mittelalters:ȱ Märendichtung,ȱ ed.,ȱ trans.,ȱ andȱ commentaryȱ byȱ Klausȱ Grubmüller.
BibliothekȱdesȱMittelalters,ȱ23ȱ(Frankfurtȱa.ȱM.:ȱDeutscherȱKlassikerȱVerlag,ȱ1996),ȱ898–914;ȱforȱa
commentary,ȱ1307–12.
315
SeeȱtheȱcontributionsȱbyȱJeanȱE.ȱJostȱ(“HumorousȱTransgressinȱinȱtheȱNonȬConformistȱfabliaux:ȱA
BakhtinianȱAnalysisȱofȱThreeȱComicȱTale,”ȱ429–55)ȱandȱSarahȱGordonȱ(“LaughingȱandȱEatingȱin
theȱOldȱFrenchȱFabliaux,”ȱ481–97)ȱtoȱLaughterȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges
316
UtaȱStörmerȬCaya,ȱGrundstrukturenȱmittelalterlicherȱErzählungen:ȱRaumȱundȱZeitȱimȱhöfischenȱRoman.
deȱGruyterȱStudienbuchȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱWalterȱdeȱGruyter,ȱ2007),ȱ70.ȱSheȱalsoȱemphasizes:
“WieȱunterȱeinemȱVergrößerungsglasȱwachsenȱbeiȱderȱSchilderungȱvonȱgroßenȱRäumenȱundȱvon
LandschaftenȱauchȱdieȱLizenzenȱgegenüberȱderȱStimmigkeitȱproportionalȱmit.ȱDasȱführtȱdazu,ȱdaß
dieselbeȱLandschaftȱinȱeinerȱEpisodeȱandersȱaussehenȱkannȱalsȱinȱeinerȱanderen”ȱ(73;ȱLikeȱunder
aȱmagnifyingȱglassȱtheȱlicenceȱregardingȱtheȱcorrectnessȱofȱtheȱdescribedȱspacesȱandȱlandscapes
growsȱproportionately.ȱThisȱhasȱtheȱconsequenceȱthatȱtheȱsameȱlandscapeȱcanȱlookȱdifferentlyȱin
oneȱepisodeȱcomparedȱtoȱanother).
Introduction 137
NibelungenliedȱandȱElȱPoemaȱdeȱMïoȱCid,ȱweȱcanȱgainȱquiteȱdifferentȱperspectivesȱin
clearȱcontrastȱtoȱStörmerȬCaysa’sȱarguments.ȱ
Andrewȱ Breezeȱ confirmsȱ thisȱ observationȱ withȱ hisȱ carefulȱ readingȱ ofȱ space
referencesȱinȱTheȱFourȱBranchesȱofȱtheȱMabinogi,ȱwhichȱareȱriddledȱwithȱallusionsȱto
specificȱlocations,ȱhills,ȱrivers,ȱforests,ȱdales,ȱetc.ȱAlthoughȱmanyȱscholarsȱhave
debated,ȱoftenȱratherȱspeculativelyȱandȱcontradictingȱeachȱother,ȱtheȱidentification
ofȱconcreteȱareasȱmentionedȱinȱtheseȱmedievalȱWelshȱtexts,ȱBreezeȱcanȱnowȱaffirm
thatȱtheȱauthorȱ(perhapsȱaȱwoman)ȱwasȱveryȱclearȱaboutȱhisȱ(her?)ȱownȱlandscape
andȱenvironment,ȱandȱdidȱnotȱhesitateȱatȱallȱtoȱbuildȱtheȱnarrativesȱonȱaȱdetailed
geographicȱmapȱbasedȱonȱspecificȱknowledge.ȱItȱmightȱbeȱatȱtimesȱdifficultȱforȱus
todayȱtoȱretraceȱthoseȱlocations,ȱbutȱthisȱisȱnotȱimpossible,ȱevenȱwhenȱweȱmight
notȱbeȱableȱtoȱdecideȱonȱalternatives.ȱWeȱcannotȱexpectȱthatȱTheȱFourȱBranchesȱofȱthe
Mabinogiȱoutlineȱaȱbroad,ȱperhapsȱevenȱuniversalȱgeographicalȱawareness,ȱsuch
asȱinȱMatthewȱParis’sȱworldȱchronicle,ȱbut,ȱasȱBreezeȱunderscores,ȱallȱbranchesȱare
clearlyȱanchoredȱinȱconcreteȱgeographicȱcontexts.
Inȱ fact,ȱ ruralȱ spaceȱ emergesȱ asȱ extremelyȱ importantȱ bothȱ forȱ politicalȱ and
militaryȱhistory,ȱwhichȱisȱoftenȱalsoȱtheȱcaseȱinȱheroicȱpoetryȱorȱinȱEddicȱsagas.
Olderȱ narratives,ȱ suchȱ asȱ Theȱ Voyageȱ ofȱ Saintȱ Brendan,ȱ confirmȱ thisȱ important
aspect,ȱ evenȱ thoughȱ thereȱ weȱ observeȱ aȱ strongȱ trendȱ toȱ spiritualizeȱ theȱ exotic
worldȱ toȱ theȱ west.ȱ Breezeȱ convincinglyȱ pointsȱ outȱ theȱ impressiveȱ topography
indicatedȱinȱtheseȱWelshȱnarrativesȱwhereȱruralȱspaceȱmattersȱmuch,ȱbothȱforȱthe
protagonists’ȱ identityȱ andȱ theirȱ politicalȱ andȱ militaryȱ maneuvers.ȱ Inȱ concrete
terms,ȱtheȱpoetȱwasȱmostȱfamiliarȱwithȱtheȱnorthwestȱandȱsouthwestȱofȱWales,ȱless
soȱwithȱotherȱregionsȱofȱthatȱterritoryȱandȱofȱIrelandȱandȱEngland.ȱButȱallȱthis
shouldȱ notȱ reallyȱ comeȱ asȱ aȱ surpriseȱ sinceȱ Theȱ Fourȱ Branchesȱ ofȱ theȱ Mabinogi
definitelyȱreflectȱroyalȱandȱaristocraticȱpower,ȱwhichȱwasȱbasedȱonȱlandȱproperty.ȱ
Thereȱmightȱnotȱbeȱaȱ‘Romantic’ȱidealizationȱofȱparticularlyȱfertileȱvalleysȱorȱopen
fields,ȱofȱbeautifulȱandȱcharmingȱforests,ȱbutȱweȱcanȱclearlyȱperceiveȱhowȱmuch
thisȱpoetȱidentifiedȱwithȱtheȱlandȱandȱpresentedȱitȱinȱimpressiveȱdetails.317
Asȱ theȱ vastȱ corpusȱ ofȱ fabliaux,ȱ thenȱ alsoȱ ofȱ novelle,ȱ mæren,ȱ andȱ talesȱ indicates,
alreadyȱinȱtheȱhighȱMiddleȱAges,ȱandȱespeciallyȱinȱtheȱfourteenthȱandȱfifteenth
317
GertrudȱBlaschitz,ȱ“UnterwegsȱinȱderȱmittelhochdeutschenȱEpikȱdesȱ12.ȱundȱ13.ȱJahrhunderts:ȱDas
sprachlicheȱundȱliterarischeȱErscheinungsbildȱvonȱWegȱundȱStraßeȱinȱderȱHeldenepik,ȱimȱFrauenȬ
dienstȱdesȱUlrichȱvonȱLiechtensteinȱundȱimȱHelmbrechtȱvonȱWernherȱdemȱGärtner,”ȱDieȱWeltȱder
europäischenȱStraßen:ȱVonȱderȱAntikeȱbisȱinȱdieȱFrüheȱNeuzeit,ȱed.ȱThomasȱSzabóȱ(Cologne,ȱWeimar,
andȱViennaȱ2009),ȱ185Ȭ214,ȱhasȱmadeȱveryȱsimilarȱobservationsȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱheroicȱepicsȱand
courtlyȱromances,ȱpointingȱoutȱnumerousȱspecificȱelementsȱrelatingȱtoȱhistoricalȱroads,ȱstreets,
bridges,ȱcities,ȱetc.,ȱasȱmentionedȱinȱmanyȱmedievalȱliteraryȱtexts.ȱFollowingȱherȱconclusions,ȱit
seemsȱtooȱextremeȱtoȱinsistȱonȱtheȱtotalȱfictionalityȱofȱmedievalȱnarratives.ȱThisȱapplies,ȱaboveȱall,
toȱ theȱ countlessȱ referencesȱ toȱ specificȱ locationsȱ inȱ ruralȱ spaceȱ whichȱ theȱ literaryȱ characters
traverse.
centuriesȱ poetsȱ throughoutȱ Europeȱ enjoyedȱ entertainingȱ theirȱ audiencesȱ with

storiesȱaboutȱeventsȱthatȱhappenedȱinȱtheȱcountryside,ȱaȱspaceȱwhereȱtheȱtopsyȬ
turvydomȱofȱthisȱworldȱcouldȱeasilyȱbeȱexpressed,ȱandȱwhereȱtheȱsocialȱnorms
proveȱtoȱbeȱpermeableȱandȱalmostȱinviteȱtransgression.ȱPennyȱSimonsȱconsiders
theȱfabliauȱ“Bérengerȱauȱloncȱcul”ȱasȱoneȱsuchȱcase,ȱcomposedȱbyȱoneȱGuerin.ȱThe
maleȱprotagonist,ȱactuallyȱaȱrichȱvilain,ȱorȱfarmer,ȱhasȱmarriedȱaȱnobleȱladyȱwho
demonstratesȱ herȱ socialȱ statusȱ notȱ onlyȱ throughȱ herȱ publicȱ performanceȱ asȱ a
memberȱofȱherȱoriginalȱclass,ȱbutȱalsoȱthroughȱherȱdisplayȱofȱnobleȱcharacteristics,
throughȱ whichȱ sheȱ putsȱ herȱ connivingȱ andȱ incompetentȱ husbandȱ toȱ shame.
Simonsȱ illustratesȱ throughȱ herȱ closeȱ readingȱ theȱ significanceȱ ofȱ theȱ constant
contrastingȱofȱcourtlyȱwithȱruralȱspace,ȱorȱnobleȱpersonȱversusȱtheȱcrudeȱfarmer.
Theȱwitȱandȱcomedyȱofȱthisȱfabliauȱisȱskillfullyȱpredicatedȱonȱtheȱcontrastȱbetween
bothȱspheresȱandȱidealizes,ȱofȱcourse,ȱtheȱcourt,ȱthoughȱthereȱisȱalsoȱaȱsenseȱof
betrayalȱbecauseȱtheȱladyȱhadȱtoȱmarryȱsoȱfarȱbelowȱherȱsocialȱstatusȱforȱmaterial
reasons.ȱ
However,ȱ theȱ narrativeȱ doesȱ notȱ criticizeȱ theȱ courtȱ itself,ȱ asȱ theȱ female
protagonistȱ isȱ primarilyȱ presentedȱ asȱ aȱ victimȱ ofȱ theȱ socialȱ andȱ economic
conditionsȱofȱherȱpersonalȱlifeȱandȱthatȱofȱherȱfamily.ȱYet,ȱonceȱsheȱhasȱfoundȱout
theȱsecretȱofȱherȱhusband,ȱwhoȱonlyȱpretendsȱtoȱbeȱ aȱ worthyȱknightȱallegedly
havingȱjoinedȱmanyȱjoustsȱatȱaȱtournament,ȱsheȱshamesȱhimȱintoȱsubmissiveness
andȱ putsȱ onȱ theȱ proverbialȱ trousers,ȱ assumingȱ completeȱ controlȱ ofȱ their
household—forȱanȱinteresting,ȱthoughȱultimatelyȱdifferentlyȱstructuredȱcase,ȱsee
DietrichȱvonȱderȱGletze’sȱDiuȱborteȱ(TheȱBelt)ȱfromȱtheȱlateȱthirteenthȱcentury.318
Butȱ theȱ fabliauȱ functionsȱ soȱ well,ȱ asȱ Simonsȱ emphasizes,ȱ becauseȱ theȱ author
successfullyȱutilizesȱvariousȱliteraryȱgenres,ȱincludingȱtheȱpastourelleȱandȱtheȱheroic
epic,ȱasȱspecificȱbackdropsȱtoȱtheȱeventsȱthatȱtakeȱplaceȱinȱtheȱforeground.ȱMost
importantȱseemsȱtoȱbe,ȱasȱweȱlearnȱfromȱSimons’sȱanalysis,ȱtheȱsocialȱfreedom
whichȱtheȱwifeȱcanȱenjoyȱinȱtheȱruralȱspaceȱbecauseȱalthoughȱsheȱisȱforcedȱtoȱlive
thereȱwithȱherȱboorishȱhusband,ȱsheȱknowsȱhowȱtoȱutilizeȱtheȱlackȱofȱpatriarchal
controlȱandȱcanȱthusȱrevertȱtheȱgenderȱrolesȱtoȱherȱgreatȱadvantage.ȱAtȱtheȱsame
time,ȱasȱSimonsȱalertsȱus,ȱthisȱvictoryȱisȱpredicatedȱonȱtheȱwife’sȱresortingȱtoȱthe
traditionalȱ misogynistȱ prejudiceȱ ofȱ women’sȱ nymphomaniacȱ tendencies,
identifyingȱtheȱladyȱprimarilyȱonlyȱthroughȱherȱnetherȱbodyȱpartsȱandȱorifices.
318
SeeȱmyȱtranslationȱinȱEroticȱTalesȱofȱMedievalȱGermany.ȱSec.ȱed.ȱrev.ȱandȱexpanded.ȱSelectedȱand
trans.ȱbyȱAlbrechtȱClassen,ȱwithȱaȱcontributionȱbyȱMauriceȱSprague.ȱMedievalȱandȱRenaissance
TextsȱandȱStudies,ȱ328ȱ(2007;ȱTempe:ȱArizonaȱCenterȱforȱMedievalȱandȱRenaissanceȱStudies,ȱ2009),
19–28.ȱ Certainly,ȱ Dietrichȱ doesȱ notȱ playȱ withȱ theȱ socialȱ classȱ difference,ȱ butȱ heȱ intriguingly
operatesȱ withȱ theȱ figureȱ ofȱ theȱ weak,ȱ perhapsȱ impotent,ȱ husband,ȱ whoseȱ strongȱ and
independentlyȱmindedȱwifeȱlaterȱhasȱtoȱteachȱhimȱaȱmostȱembarrassingȱlesson.ȱSeeȱalsoȱmyȱarticle
“Disguises,ȱGenderȬBending,ȱandȱClothingȱSymbolismȱinȱDietrichȱvonȱderȱGletze’sȱDerȱBorte,”
SeminarȱXLV.2ȱ(2009):ȱ95–110.
Introduction 139
Consideringȱ theȱ vilain’sȱ futileȱ attemptsȱ toȱ proveȱ hisȱ manlinessȱ andȱ chivalric
qualities,ȱ weȱ canȱ certainlyȱ agreeȱ withȱ Simonsȱ thatȱ thisȱ fabliauȱ reflectsȱ his
emasculation,ȱifȱitȱdoesȱnotȱevenȱrevealȱaȱhiddenȱleaningȱtowardȱhomosexuality.
Toȱ beȱ sure,ȱ theȱ narrativeȱ isȱ mostȱ centrallyȱ locatedȱ inȱ ruralȱ spaceȱ whereȱ the
genderȱroleȱreversalȱtakesȱplace,ȱespeciallyȱtheȱhusband’sȱenormousȱhumiliation.
Althoughȱtheȱladyȱwasȱincorrectlyȱmarriedȱtoȱaȱwealthyȱpeasant,ȱaȱtragicȱinversion
ofȱtheȱtraditionalȱsocialȱstructure—theȱoppositeȱcanȱbeȱtheȱcase,ȱasȱIȱhaveȱargued
inȱ myȱ ownȱ contribution,ȱ butȱ thereȱ itȱ isȱ alwaysȱ theȱ nobleȱ maleȱ whoȱ acceptsȱ a
peasantȱ womanȱ asȱ hisȱ wife319—sheȱ reassertsȱ herȱ positionȱ atȱ leastȱ asȱ aȱ strong
womanȱwhoȱcanȱfreelyȱchooseȱherȱlover,ȱandȱthisȱevenȱinȱtheȱpresenceȱofȱherȱown
husbandȱbecauseȱsheȱscaresȱhimȱwithȱaȱreferenceȱtoȱtheȱominousȱknightȱwhoȱhad
defeatedȱhimȱinȱtheȱwoods.
Mostȱsurprisingly,ȱasȱSimonsȱpointsȱout,ȱwhileȱtheȱhusbandȱhangsȱhisȱshieldȱof
anȱoakȱtreeȱinȱversionȱI,ȱitȱisȱaȱpearȱtreeȱinȱversionȱII,ȱwhichȱcarriesȱstrongȱsexual
symbolismȱandȱsignalsȱevenȱclearerȱtheȱreversalȱofȱgenderȱrolesȱinȱthisȱfabliau.ȱThe
ironicȱ playȱ onȱ theȱ hagiographicȱ crusadingȱ narrativeȱ Pèlerinageȱ deȱ Charlemagne,
whereȱevenȱtheȱsameȱname,ȱBérenger,ȱappears,ȱoffersȱadditionalȱsatiricalȱfeatures
toȱtheȱfabliau,ȱespeciallyȱbecauseȱofȱfalseȱboasts,ȱwhichȱareȱsupportedȱbyȱGodȱinȱthe
olderȱtext,ȱbutȱnotȱinȱtheȱlatter,ȱwhereȱtheȱmaleȱprotagonistȱisȱmiserablyȱshamed
byȱhisȱwife.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱfailureȱtoȱliveȱupȱtoȱsexualȱboastsȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱparallel
inȱ bothȱ narratives,ȱ althoughȱ theȱ fabliauȱ figureȱ doesȱ notȱ haveȱ anyȱ chanceȱ of
redeemingȱhimself.ȱ
Atȱ anyȱ rate,ȱ asȱ Simonsȱ suggests,ȱ bothȱ versionsȱ Iȱ andȱ IIȱ proveȱ toȱ beȱ highly
attractiveȱ andȱ aimȱ forȱ somewhatȱ differentȱ poetologicalȱ ends,ȱ gainingȱ an
independentȱ statusȱ inȱ theirȱ treatmentȱ ofȱ ruralȱ spaceȱ whereȱ sexualȱ failureȱ and
genderȱroleȱreversalȱhappenȱinȱaȱmostȱstartlingȱmanner,ȱbothȱservingȱasȱaȱmedium
toȱcritiqueȱtheȱriseȱofȱtheȱpeasantȱclassȱonȱtheȱsocialȱladderȱandȱtheirȱfalseȱclaimȱto
haveȱ gainedȱ aȱ higherȱ rankȱ becauseȱ ofȱ theirȱ incomeȱ andȱ wealth.ȱ Sexuality
determinesȱsocialȱconditions,ȱand,ȱmostȱimportantly,ȱgenderȱrelationships.320
WhileȱIȱhaveȱdiscussedȱWilliamȱLangland’sȱPiersȱPlowmanȱinȱmoreȱgeneralȱterms
above,ȱprobingȱtheȱmetaphoricalȱmeaningȱofȱtheȱrusticȱandȱruralȱspaceȱinȱthat
319
ThisȱisȱoneȱofȱtheȱcentralȱissuesȱinȱAndreasȱCapellanus’sȱtreatiseȱ(ca.ȱ1190),ȱwhereȱheȱemphasizes
thatȱaȱmanȱwhoȱmarriesȱaȱwomanȱofȱaȱlowerȱsocialȱstatusȱkeepsȱhisȱrank,ȱwhileȱaȱwomanȱchanges
herȱstatusȱaccordingȱtoȱthatȱofȱherȱhusband.ȱAndreasȱaulaeȱregiaeȱcapellanus,ȱDeȱamore:ȱ(seeȱnote
261),ȱBookȱOne,ȱvi,ȱ17,ȱpp.ȱ28–30.
320
Classen,ȱSexȱimȱMittelalterȱ(seeȱnoteȱ124).ȱForȱfurtherȱdiscussion,ȱseeȱalsoȱLisaȱPerfetti,ȱ“TheȱLewd
andȱtheȱLudic:ȱFemaleȱPleasureȱinȱtheȱFabliaux,”ȱComicȱProvocations:ȱExposingȱtheȱCorpusȱofȱOld
FrenchȱFabliaux,ȱed.ȱHollyȱA.ȱCrocker.ȱForewordȱbyȱR.ȱHowardȱBloch.ȱStudiesȱinȱArthurianȱand
CourtlyȱCulturesȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱHoundmills,ȱBasingstoke,ȱHampshire:ȱPalgraveȱMacmillan,
2006),ȱ17–31;ȱhereȱ20–21.
allegoricalȱnarrative,ȱDanielȱF.ȱPiggȱturnsȱhisȱattentionȱtoȱspecificȱpointsȱinȱthatȱtext
dealingȱwithȱtheȱruralȱeconomyȱandȱsocialȱconditionsȱinȱtheȱcountrysideȱduringȱthe
lateȱfourteenthȱcentury.ȱMoreȱspecifically,ȱsinceȱLanglandȱdidȱnotȱcreateȱaȱpaean
onȱtheȱfarmerȱbyȱitself,ȱPiggȱprobesȱwhatȱtheȱruralȱethicsȱmightȱhaveȱbeenȱsince
societyȱwasȱinȱaȱdangerousȱstageȱofȱunstabilityȱatȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱfourteenthȱcentury.
Reformȱofȱsocietyȱwasȱonlyȱpossible,ȱasȱLanglandȱsuggested,ȱifȱallȱpeopleȱreturned
toȱtheȱfundamentalȱgoodȱwill,ȱwhichȱhadȱtoȱbeȱreconstitutedȱfromȱtheȱbottomȱup
throughoutȱallȱsocialȱclasses.ȱThisȱreform,ȱhowever,ȱwasȱonlyȱpossible,ȱasȱPigg
observes,ȱifȱtheȱtraditionalȱfeudalȱnormsȱwereȱreestablished,ȱcombinedȱwithȱtheȱold
moralȱ andȱ religiousȱ principles.ȱ Resortingȱ toȱ theȱ primordialȱ labor,ȱ plowing,
Langlandȱprojectedȱanȱidealȱofȱsocietyȱthatȱwasȱtoȱbeȱinformedȱbyȱruralȱideals.ȱAs
weȱwillȱseeȱatȱtheȱveryȱendȱofȱthisȱIntroduction,ȱtheȱMiddleȱHighȱGermanȱpoet
Rumelantȱ vonȱ Sachsenȱ (thirteenthȱ century)ȱ alreadyȱ workedȱ withȱ veryȱ similar
ideals,ȱthen,ȱhowever,ȱinȱaȱreligiousȱcontext.ȱ
Itȱ wouldȱ beȱ erroneousȱ toȱ readȱ inȱ Langland’sȱ Plowmanȱ aȱ glorificationȱ ofȱ the
peasantȱ figure.ȱ Instead,ȱ asȱ Piggȱ emphasizes,ȱ theȱ poetȱ arguedȱ forȱ theȱ needȱ to
embraceȱtheȱtraditionalȱvaluesȱthatȱmadeȱupȱtheȱpeasantryȱandȱtheȱruralȱworldȱat
large,ȱmostlyȱinȱaȱreligiousȱsenseȱofȱtheȱword,ȱwithȱanȱimpliedȱreferenceȱtoȱAdam
(seeȱFig.ȱ1),ȱinsofarȱasȱevenȱtheȱfirstȱPope,ȱSt.ȱPeter,ȱwasȱidentifiedȱasȱaȱplowman
inȱabstractȱterms.ȱȱTheȱreadersȱareȱremindedȱthatȱplowingȱtheȱmetaphoricalȱfield
ofȱlifeȱwasȱaȱgeneralȱexpressionȱforȱtheȱhumanȱpilgrimageȱtowardȱGod.ȱOnlyȱifȱthe
representativesȱofȱallȱsocialȱclassesȱwouldȱworkȱtogether,ȱthenȱthereȱwouldȱalsoȱbe
hopeȱforȱaȱsolidȱreformȱofȱsocietyȱatȱlarge.ȱ
Notȱ surprisingly,ȱ inȱ Piersȱ Plowmanȱ theȱ knightȱ voluntarilyȱ stepsȱ forwardȱ and
offersȱhisȱhelpȱinȱplowingȱtheȱfield.ȱAlthoughȱmedievalȱsocietyȱwasȱideallyȱbased
onȱ theȱ conceptȱ ofȱ aȱ contractȱ amongȱ theȱ threeȱ estates,ȱ inȱ reality,ȱ asȱ Langland
averred,ȱ theȱ socialȱ cohesionȱ hadȱ beenȱ lost;ȱ henceȱ hisȱ appealȱ toȱ returnȱ toȱ the
traditionalȱ valuesȱ andȱ socialȱ structuresȱ asȱ inȱ theȱ oldȱ daysȱ ofȱ medieval
society—certainlyȱaȱdreamȱprojection,ȱbutȱnotȱfarȱawayȱfromȱaȱutopianȱconcept.ȱ
Butȱ Langlandȱ wasȱ notȱ suchȱ anȱ idealistȱ andȱ dreamerȱ thatȱ heȱ wouldȱ have
consideredȱtheȱentireȱlotȱofȱpeasantsȱasȱvirtualȱ‘angels.’ȱHisȱcriticismȱisȱnotȱlimited
toȱrepresentativesȱofȱotherȱsocialȱclasses;ȱinȱfact,ȱLanglandȱdevelopsȱaȱlargeȬscale
andȱscathingȱcriticismȱofȱethicalȱshortcomingsȱinȱeveryȱcornerȱandȱonȱeveryȱlevel
ofȱhisȱsociety.ȱWorstȱofȱall,ȱtheȱ‘wasters’ȱthreatenedȱtoȱundermineȱallȱeffortsȱat
reform,ȱ andȱ otherȱ foolishȱ andȱ unethicalȱ peopleȱ areȱ alsoȱ targetedȱ byȱ theȱ poet’s
criticism.ȱGreed,ȱlikeȱallȱtheȱotherȱsevenȱdeadlyȱsins,ȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱcombatedȱbyȱa
solidȱplowing,ȱaȱpowerfulȱandȱrepeatedlyȱemployedȱmetaphorȱinȱPiersȱthatȱwasȱto
ringȱ throughoutȱ theȱ lateȱ Middleȱ Agesȱ inȱ aȱ numberȱ ofȱ literaryȱ representations.ȱ
SinceȱPiersȱseemsȱtoȱadoptȱsomeȱofȱtheȱsocialȱpracticesȱinȱtheȱformȱofȱaȱpostȬ
colonialȱmimicryȱofȱtheȱoppressionȱofȱtheȱwealthyȱonȱtheȱlaboringȱpoor,ȱasȱwe
wouldȱ formulateȱ itȱ today,ȱ hisȱ enterpriseȱ isȱ inȱ someȱ measureȱ caughtȱ inȱ the
Introduction 141
ambivalenceȱofȱhisȱveryȱactions.ȱAfterȱall,ȱLanglandȱseemsȱunableȱtoȱresolveȱthe
tensionȱbetweenȱtheȱworldsȱofȱidealȱandȱreal.ȱMovingȱforwardȱisȱcertainlyȱnotȱan
easyȱ task.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ sense,ȱ asȱ Piggȱ concludes,ȱ heȱ wasȱ certainlyȱ notȱ aȱ social
revolutionary;ȱrather,ȱheȱstronglyȱadvocatedȱanȱethicalȱreformȱgroundedȱinȱthe
ancientȱvalueȱsystemȱintimatelyȱassociatedȱwithȱtheȱworldȱofȱtheȱtrustworthyȱand
virtuousȱfarmers.ȱ
Interestingly,ȱintermediateȱspacesȱbetweenȱtheȱcourtȱandȱtheȱruralȱworldȱactually
existedȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱifȱweȱconsiderȱtheȱparkȱatȱ‘Hesdin’ȱenclosedȱonȱthe
orderȱofȱRobertȱII,ȱCountȱofȱArtoisȱ(1250–1302)ȱinȱ1295.ȱItȱwasȱneitherȱanȱestateȱas
describedȱinȱroughȱtermsȱbyȱCharlemagneȱorȱhisȱscribesȱinȱtheȱCapitulareȱdeȱvillis
(seeȱabove),ȱnorȱwasȱitȱoneȱofȱthoseȱparksȱthatȱaddedȱmostȱstunningȱsplendorȱto
Baroqueȱpalacesȱinȱtheȱsixteenthȱandȱespeciallyȱseventeenthȱcenturies.ȱAbigailȱP.
Dowlingȱoffersȱaȱdetailedȱanalysisȱofȱthisȱpark,ȱwhichȱwasȱconsiderablyȱmoreȱthan
justȱaȱsiteȱforȱaestheticȱpleasuresȱinȱaȱcourtlyȱcontext,ȱandȱalsoȱmoreȱthanȱjustȱan
estateȱwithȱgreatȱbenefitsȱforȱitsȱowner.ȱOnȱtheȱbasisȱofȱtheȱhighlyȱdetailedȱand
mostȱinsightfulȱArtesianȱaccountȱbooksȱofȱRobertȱIIȱandȱhisȱdaughter,ȱCountess
MahautȱofȱArtoisȱ(1302–1329),ȱDowlingȱhasȱaȱrichȱsourceȱavailableȱtoȱanalyzeȱthe
multifariousȱpurposesȱofȱtheȱpark,ȱwhichȱobviouslyȱservedȱbothȱforȱtheȱmembers
ofȱtheȱcourtȱtoȱentertainȱthemselvesȱandȱtoȱcreateȱanȱextensiveȱeconomicȱbenefit
fromȱitsȱresources.ȱMahautȱobviouslyȱfullyȱunderstoodȱtheȱgreatȱvalueȱofȱthisȱrural
space,ȱwhichȱwasȱtoȱbeȱcarefullyȱmanagedȱandȱtakenȱcareȱofȱtoȱyield,ȱforȱinstance,
venison,ȱwoodȱmaterial,ȱfish,ȱandȱotherȱvaluableȱfoodȱitemsȱandȱforestȱproducts.
‘Hesdin’ȱprovedȱtoȱbeȱaȱmajorȱobjectȱofȱrepresentationȱforȱtheȱducalȱfamily,ȱsince
theyȱreliedȱheavilyȱonȱtheȱmonetaryȱgainsȱresultingȱfromȱtheȱparkȱandȱalsoȱonȱthe
opportunitiesȱprovidedȱthereȱtoȱliveȱoutȱtheirȱaristocraticȱlifeȱstyle.321ȱ
Dowlingȱconcentratesȱonȱwood,ȱwater,ȱandȱplantȱharvestingȱinȱorderȱtoȱillustrate
howȱmuchȱevenȱmembersȱofȱtheȱupperȱaristocracyȱwereȱfullyȱawareȱofȱtheȱgreat
valueȱ ofȱ theirȱ landȱ propertiesȱ forȱ bothȱ theirȱ economicȱ wellȬbeingȱ andȱ their
aristocraticȱstatus.ȱHesdinȱprovided,ȱafterȱall,ȱaȱheftyȱincomeȱforȱtheȱCountess,ȱas
theȱdataȱinȱtheȱaccountȱbookȱreveal.ȱFirewood,ȱforȱinstance,ȱwasȱoneȱofȱtheȱstaple
productsȱwhichȱcustomersȱconstantlyȱpurchased,ȱandȱsinceȱtheȱforestsȱwereȱso
extensive,ȱ theȱ timberȱ harvestȱ wasȱ mostȱ significant.ȱ Fishpondsȱ wereȱ also
maintained,ȱbutȱtheȱpurposeȱwasȱnotȱsoȱmuchȱtheȱsaleȱofȱfish,ȱbutȱtoȱhaveȱfreshȱfish
availableȱ uponȱ theȱ Countess’sȱ visit.ȱ Theyȱ alsoȱ servedȱ asȱ breedingȱ groundsȱ for
herons,ȱnotȱtoȱmentionȱtheȱgrowthȱofȱwatercress.ȱ
321
FrançoisȱDuceppeȬLamarre,ȱ“Laȱrésidenceȱducaleȱd’Hesdinȱetȱsaȱplaceȱdansȱl’artȱcurialȱauȱtemps
desȱprincesȱdesȱfleursȱdeȱlysȱ(1384–419),”ȱL’artȱàȱlaȱcourȱdeȱBourgogne:ȱleȱmécénatȱdeȱPhilippeȱleȱHardi
etȱdeȱJeanȱsansȱPeurȱ(1364–19);ȱlesȱprincesȱdesȱfleursȱdeȱlis;ȱMuséeȱdesȱBeauxȬArtsȱdeȱDijon,ȱ28ȱmaiȱ–ȱ15
septembreȱ2004;ȱTheȱClevelandȱMuseumȱofȱArt,ȱ24ȱoctobreȱ2004ȱ–ȱ9ȱjanvierȱ2005,ȱed.ȱSophieȱLaporte
(Paris:ȱRéunionȱdesȱMuséesȱNationaux,ȱ2004),ȱ160–62.
Veryȱ similarȱ toȱ Charlemagne’sȱ Capitulareȱ deȱ villis,ȱ hereȱ weȱ observeȱ aȱ wellȬ
organized,ȱcentrallyȱplannedȱmanagementȱofȱaȱhugeȱparcelȱofȱlandȱwhereȱevery
featureȱorȱdomainȱwasȱsupposedȱtoȱcontributeȱtoȱtheȱeconomicȱuseȱandȱtoȱpersonal
consumption.ȱ Thereȱ wereȱ alsoȱ aviaries,ȱ andȱ soȱ peacocksȱ andȱ aȱ petȱ beaver.
Moreover,ȱ theȱ parkȱ allowedȱ theȱ membersȱ ofȱ theȱ aristocraticȱ householdȱ toȱ go
huntingȱbothȱforȱpleasureȱandȱtoȱprovideȱfoodstuffȱforȱtheirȱownȱneeds.ȱDeer,
aboveȱall,ȱwereȱregardedȱasȱaȱluxuryȱitemsȱandȱhenceȱintegralȱtoȱtheȱmasterȱplan
forȱthisȱaristocraticȱpark.ȱTheȱfocusȱonȱruralȱspaceȱwasȱhenceȱextremelyȱimportant
notȱonlyȱforȱtheȱpeasantȱpopulation,ȱbutȱforȱtheȱaristocraticȱownersȱofȱsuchȱhuge
parksȱasȱwell,ȱsinceȱtheyȱheavilyȱdependedȱonȱthoseȱestatesȱandȱmadeȱsureȱthatȱthe
entireȱspectrumȱofȱtheirȱnobleȱhouseholdȱneedsȱwereȱmetȱbyȱtheȱproducts,ȱanimals,
andȱotherȱresourcesȱthatȱcouldȱbeȱdrawnȱfromȱsuchȱaȱpark.322ȱRecentȱresearchȱhas
actuallyȱalertedȱusȱtoȱtheȱculturalȱsignificanceȱofȱdeerȱhuntȱinȱspecializedȱroyal
parksȱandȱforests.323
Inȱ fact,ȱ huntingȱ continuedȱ toȱ beȱ ofȱ centralȱ importanceȱ asȱ aȱ majorȱ pastime,
especiallyȱbyȱandȱforȱtheȱaristocracyȱthroughoutȱtheȱcenturies.ȱThisȱisȱillustrated
alsoȱbyȱtheȱhumorousȱtreatmentȱofȱthisȱtopicȱbyȱtheȱmostȱimportantȱNeoȬLatinȱpoet
ofȱtheȱGermanȱBaroque,ȱJakobȱBaldeȱ(1604–1668),ȱinȱhisȱverseȬcycleȱDeȱvenatione
(firstȱvolume,ȱSylvae,ȱ1643).ȱHereȱheȱpresentsȱinȱaȱjocoseȱmannerȱallȱtheȱarguments
forȱandȱagainstȱhunting,ȱdevelopingȱfifteenȱthesesȱandȱfifteenȱantiȬtheses,ȱwhich
finallyȱ culminateȱ inȱ theȱ synthesis,ȱ inȱ theȱ sixteenthȱ poem,ȱ andȱ whichȱ thenȱ are
crownedȱ withȱ aȱ reflectiveȱ hymnȱ onȱ huntingȱ inȱ theȱ seventeenthȱ poem.324ȱ Not
surprisingly,ȱtheȱinterestȱinȱtheȱsportȱofȱhuntingȱorȱinȱhuntingȱasȱaȱleisureȱactivity
hasȱnotȱabatedȱuntilȱtoday,ȱespeciallyȱifȱweȱthinkȱofȱlionȱhunting,ȱwhaleȱhunting,
andȱotherȱformsȱofȱexoticȱhuntingȱexclusivelyȱpreservedȱforȱtheȱsuperȬwealthy
tourists.325ȱWhileȱruralȱspace,ȱtheȱwildernessȱaboveȱall,ȱrepresentedȱaȱthreatening
322
ForȱfurtherȱresearchȱonȱthisȱparkȱatȱHesdin,ȱsee,ȱforȱexample,ȱBirgitȱFranke,ȱ“Gesellschaftsspiele
mitȱ Automaten:ȱ ‘Merveilles’ȱ inȱ Hesdin,”ȱ Kunstȱ alsȱ ästhetischesȱ Ereignis,ȱ ed.ȱ Ulrichȱ Schütte.
MarburgerȱJahrbuchȱfürȱKunstwissenschaft,ȱ24ȱ(Marburg:ȱKunstgeschichtlichesȱInstitut,ȱ1997),
135–58;ȱFrançoisȱDuceppeȬLamarre,ȱ“Uneȱéconomieȱdeȱl’imaginaireȱàȱl’oeuvre:ȱleȱcasȱdeȱlaȱréserve
cynégétiqueȱd’Hesdinȱ(Artois,ȱXIIIeȱ–ȱXVeȱsiècles),”ȱLesȱforêtsȱdȇOccidentȱduȱMoyenȱAgeȱàȱnosȱjours:
actesȱdesȱXXIVesȱJournéesȱInternationalesȱd’Histoireȱdeȱl’AbbayeȱdeȱFlaran,ȱ6,ȱ7,ȱ8ȱseptembreȱ2002,ȱed.
AndréeȱCorvolȬDessert.ȱFlaran,ȱ24ȱ(Toulouse:ȱPressesȱUniversitairesȱduȱMirail,ȱ2004),ȱ39–55ȱ
323
JohnȱFletcher,ȱGardensȱofȱEarthlyȱDelight:ȱTheȱHistoryȱofȱDeerȱParksȱ(Oxford:ȱWindgatherȱPress,
2011).ȱForȱfurtherȱcommentsȱonȱthisȱbook,ȱseeȱbelow.
324
DasȱJagdbuchȱDeȱvenationeȱ(Sylvaeȱ1)ȱdesȱBarockdichtersȱJakobȱBalde.ȱEinführung,ȱText,ȱÜbersetzung,
InterpretationȱbyȱEckardȱLefèvre.ȱSpudasmata,ȱ140ȱ(Hildesheim,ȱZürich,ȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱGeorg
Olms,ȱ2011).ȱForȱaȱbroaderȱsurveyȱofȱrelevantȱstudies,ȱtreatises,ȱandȱillustrations,ȱseeȱHunting,
Hawking,ȱShooting,ȱIllustratedȱinȱaȱCatalogueȱofȱBooks,ȱManuscripts,ȱPrintsȱandȱDrawings,ȱcollectedȱby
C.ȱF.ȱG.ȱR.ȱSchwerdtȱ(MansfieldȱCentre,ȱCT:ȱMartinoȱPublishing,ȱ2001).
325
RecreationalȱHunting,ȱConservation,ȱandȱRuralȱLivelihoods,ȱed.ȱBarneyȱDickson,ȱJonȱHutton,ȱ and
WilliamȱM.ȱAdamsȱ(Oxford,ȱUK,ȱandȱHoboken,ȱNJ:ȱBlackwell,ȱ2009).ȱSeeȱalsoȱTourismȱandȱthe
ConsumptionȱofȱWildlife:ȱHunting,ȱShootingȱandȱSportȱFishing,ȱed.ȱBrentȱLovelock.ȱRoutledgeȱȱStudies
Introduction 143
terrain,ȱ mankindȱ hasȱ increasinglyȱ conqueredȱ theȱ forestȱ orȱ theȱ prairieȱ and
colonizedȱthatȱnaturalȱspace,ȱtransformingȱitȱmoreȱandȱmoreȱintoȱaȱterrainȱforȱits
ownȱ entertainmentȱ andȱ asȱ theȱ locationȱ forȱ itsȱ necessaryȱ resources.ȱ Hunting
representsȱonlyȱoneȱofȱthoseȱactivitiesȱthroughȱwhichȱtheȱuntamed,ȱ‘free’ȱrural
spaceȱwasȱsystematically,ȱthough,ȱfortunately,ȱuntilȱtodayȱnotȱcomprehensively
andȱtotally,ȱcolonizedȱandȱ‘civilized.’ȱTheȱextentȱtoȱwhich,ȱhowever,ȱaristocratic
societyȱpursuedȱitsȱmostȱfavoredȱleisureȱactivity,ȱtheȱhunt,ȱthroughoutȱtheȱages,
indicatesȱtheȱtrueȱextentȱtoȱwhichȱsocietyȱhasȱconsistentlyȱviewedȱwildȱnatureȱas
itsȱGodȬgivenȱdomain.
WhileȱDowlingȱconcentratesȱonȱoneȱmajorȱpark,ȱ‘Hesdin,’ȱMarilynȱL.ȱSandidge
takesȱaȱbroaderȱapproach,ȱexaminingȱtheȱlongȬtermȱdevelopmentȱofȱroyalȱgardens
andȱparksȱinȱtheȱEnglishȱhistory,ȱbeginningȱinȱtheȱearly/highȱMiddleȱAgesȱand
takingȱusȱallȱtheȱwayȱtoȱtheȱStuartȱdynasty.ȱAsȱsheȱemphasizesȱimmediately,ȱand
rightlyȱ so,ȱ earlyȬmedievalȱ rulersȱ regularlyȱ seizedȱ completeȱ controlȱ overȱ large
swathsȱofȱlandȱwhichȱtheyȱthenȱtransformedȱintoȱroyalȱdomains,ȱorȱparks,ȱasȱthey
wouldȱbeȱregardedȱinȱlaterȱtimes.ȱTheseȱservedȱasȱhuntingȱgrounds,ȱbutȱalsoȱasȱan
economicȱbase.ȱByȱtheȱthirteenthȱcentury,ȱapproximatelyȱoneȱquarterȱofȱallȱlandȱin
Englandȱwasȱunderȱtheȱking’sȱcontrol,ȱwhichȱunderscoresȱtheȱsupremeȱimportance
ofȱruralȱspaceȱthroughoutȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱsinceȱitȱwasȱaȱcommodityȱofȱhighest
valueȱforȱwhichȱmanyȱpartiesȱcompetedȱasȱmuchȱasȱpossible.ȱ
Poachingȱ happened,ȱ ofȱ course,ȱ quiteȱ often,ȱ especiallyȱ becauseȱ someȱ hunters
pursuedȱtheirȱactivityȱoutȱofȱeconomicȱnecessity,ȱwhileȱothersȱdeliberatelyȱtriedȱto
transgressȱtheȱking’sȱrule,ȱandȱothersȱagainȱpursuedȱmonetaryȱgoalsȱoutȱofȱsheer
greed,ȱconsideringȱtheȱhighȱpriceȱforȱvenison;ȱnotȱtoȱforgetȱtheȱopportunityȱto
establishȱorȱreinforceȱone’sȱmasculineȱidentityȱthroughȱpoaching.ȱ
Throughoutȱ theȱ Middleȱ Agesȱ royaltyȱ enjoyedȱ settingȱ upȱ menageries,ȱ like
medievalȱ zoos,ȱ orȱ liveȱ cabinetsȱ ofȱ curiosities,ȱ inȱ Germanȱ laterȱ knownȱ as
Wunderkammern,ȱ whichȱ allowedȱ themȱ toȱ demonstrateȱ theirȱ resources,ȱ their
politicalȱpower,ȱandȱespeciallyȱtheirȱcontrolȱoverȱwildȱnatureȱinȱallȱofȱitsȱexotic
features.326ȱCharlemagneȱ(crownedȱemperorȱinȱ800),ȱhadȱthreeȱzoos,ȱoneȱinȱAachen,
inȱContemporaryȱGeographiesȱofȱLeisure,ȱ9ȱ(London:ȱRoutledge,ȱ2008).
326
VickiȱCroke,ȱTheȱModernȱArk:ȱTheȱStoryȱofȱZoos:ȱPast,ȱPresent,ȱandȱFutureȱ(NewȱYork:ȱScribner,ȱ1997);
AlbrechtȱClassen,ȱ“TiereȱalsȱSymboleȱderȱhöfischenȱWelt,”ȱTiereȱalsȱFreundeȱimȱMittelalterȱ(seeȱnote
129),ȱ20–31;ȱLotharȱDittrich,ȱDieȱKulturgeschichteȱdesȱZoosȱ(Berlin:ȱVWB,ȱVerlagȱfürȱWissenschaft
undȱ Bildung,ȱ 2001;ȱ Ericȱ Baratayȱ andȱ Elisabethȱ HardouinȬFugier,ȱ Zoo:ȱ Aȱ Historyȱ ofȱ Zoological
GardensȱinȱtheȱWestȱ(London:ȱReaktionȱBooks,ȱ2004).ȱForȱanȱexampleȱfromȱtheȱBaroqueȱperiod,ȱsee
SamuelȱWittwer,ȱDieȱGalerieȱderȱMeißenerȱTiere:ȱdieȱMenagerieȱAugustsȱdesȱStarkenȱfürȱdasȱJapanische
PalaisȱinȱDresden.ȱSchriftenreiheȱderȱGesellschaftȱderȱKeramikfreundeȱe.V.ȱDüsseldorf,ȱ1ȱ(Munich:
Hirmer,ȱ2004).ForȱaȱveryȱbroadȱintroductionȱtoȱanimalsȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱseeȱJanettaȱRebold
Benton,ȱTheȱMedievalȱMenagerieȱ(seeȱnoteȱ35);ȱforȱtheȱearlyȬmodernȱmenagerie,ȱseeȱJoanȱPieragnoli,
LaȱménagerieȱdeȱVersaillesȱ(Arles:ȱClair,ȱ2010).ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱusefulȱarticleȱonȱ“CabinetȱofȱCuriosities,”
oneȱ inȱ Nijmwegen,ȱ andȱ oneȱ inȱ Ingelheim,ȱ housingȱ elephants,ȱ monkeys,ȱ lions,
bears,ȱcamels,ȱandȱbirdsȱofȱprey.ȱAstonishingly,ȱ“[i]nȱ797,ȱtheȱcaliphȱofȱBaghdad,
Harunȱ alȬRashid,ȱ presentedȱ Charlemagneȱ withȱ anȱ Asianȱ elephantȱ named
AbulȬAbbas.ȱTheȱpachydermȱarrivedȱonȱJulyȱ1,ȱ802ȱtoȱtheȱEmperor’sȱresidenceȱin
Aachen.ȱHeȱdiedȱinȱJuneȱ810.”327ȱOneȱofȱtheȱsonsȱofȱWilliamȱtheȱConqueror,ȱHenry
I,ȱturnedȱhisȱhuntingȱlodgeȱatȱWoodstock,ȱwhichȱhadȱearlierȱbeenȱaȱroyalȱhunting
groundȱforȱAngloȬSaxonȱkings,ȱintoȱaȱpalace,ȱexpandingȱtheȱarea,ȱenclosingȱit,ȱand
bringingȱinȱaȱcollectionȱofȱanimalsȱwhichȱhadȱaȱlittleȱmenagerieȱatȱWoodstoock.ȱAt
aboutȱ 1100ȱ hisȱ sonȱ Henryȱ Iȱ expandedȱ theȱ area,ȱ enclosedȱ it,ȱ andȱ increasedȱ the
numberȱ ofȱ animals,ȱ theȱ collectionȱ ofȱ whichȱ wasȱ saidȱ toȱ haveȱ includedȱ lions,
leopards,ȱlynxes,ȱcamels,ȱowlsȱandȱaȱporcupine.328ȱManyȱotherȱkingsȱandȱprinces
allȱoverȱEuropeȱfollowedȱtheseȱmodelsȱsinceȱtheȱexoticȱnatureȱofȱthoseȱanimals
couldȱonlyȱimproveȱtheȱaristocraticȱauraȱofȱtheirȱowner.329ȱEmperorȱFrederickȱII
(1194–1250)ȱwasȱasȱproudȱaboutȱhisȱownȱelephantȱasȱKingȱHenryȱIIIȱofȱEngland
(1207–1272),ȱalthoughȱtheirȱpachydermsȱdidȱnotȱcarryȱaȱnameȱasȱCharlemagne’s
oneȱdid.ȱThisȱchangedȱonlyȱbyȱtheȱsixteenthȱcentury,ȱwhenȱPopeȱLeoȱXȱ(1475–1521)
gaveȱtheȱnameȱofȱ‘Hanno’ȱtoȱhisȱspecimen,ȱandȱEmperorȱMaximilianȱIȱ(1495–1519)
theȱnameȱofȱ‘Suleyman’ȱtoȱhisȱelephant.330
Littleȱwonder,ȱforȱinstance,ȱthatȱmedievalȱandȱearlyȬmodernȱcoatsȱofȱarmsȱare
stronglyȱ determinedȱ byȱ specificȱ animalȱ imagery,ȱ whichȱ alwaysȱ represent
particularȱ characteristics,ȱ values,ȱ andȱ idealsȱ typicalȱ ofȱ theȱ courtlyȱ world.331
Similarly,ȱnoȱwonderȱthatȱmanyȱlawsȱwereȱissuedȱthatȱregulatedȱtheȱcontrolȱofȱthe
wildȱanimals,ȱreservingȱthemȱforȱtheȱpleasureȱofȱkingsȱandȱotherȱmembersȱofȱthe
aristocracy,ȱtoȱtheȱgreatȱdisadvantageȱofȱtheȱruralȱpopulation.ȱ
Wikipedia,ȱ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiositiesȱ (lastȱ accessedȱ onȱ Dec.ȱ 12,ȱ 2011).ȱ The

focusȱrests,ȱnaturally,ȱonȱthoseȱcabinetsȱofȱcuriositiesȱasȱtheyȱdominatedȱinȱtheȱearlyȱmodernȱage,
suchȱasȱatȱCastleȱAmbras,ȱnearȱInnsbruck,ȱsinceȱweȱknowȱsoȱmuchȱmoreȱaboutȱthose,ȱbutȱthatȱidea
hadȱ certainlyȱ medievalȱ roots.ȱ Seeȱ Dirkȱ Steffens,ȱ Dasȱ tierischeȱ Kuriositätenkabinettȱ (Reinbekȱ bei
Hamburg:ȱRowohltȱTaschenbuchȱVerlag,ȱ2009).
327
Quotedȱ fromȱ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menagerieȱ (lastȱ accessedȱ onȱ Dec.ȱ 1,ȱ 2011);ȱ seeȱ also
James,ȱFisher,ȱZoosȱofȱtheȱWorld:ȱTheȱStoryȱofȱAnimalsȱinȱCaptivityȱ(London:ȱAldusȱBook,ȱ1966),ȱ40;
FrancoȱCardini,ȱEuropeȱandȱIslamȱ(Oxford:ȱBlackwellȱPublishing,ȱ2001),ȱ14–15.ȱThisȱelephantȱhas
nowȱfinallyȱbecomeȱtheȱobjectȱofȱmoreȱdetailedȱresearch;ȱseeȱAchimȱThomasȱHack,ȱAbulȱAbaz:ȱZur
Biographieȱ einesȱ Elefanten.ȱ Jenaerȱ mediävistischeȱ Vorträge,ȱ 1ȱ (Badenweiler:ȱ Wissenschaftlicher
VerlagȱBachmann,ȱ2011).
328
WilfridȱBlunt,ȱTheȱArkȱinȱtheȱPark:ȱTheȱZooȱinȱtheȱNineteenthȱCenturyȱ(London:ȱHamilton,ȱ1976),
15–17.
329
Bobȱ Mullanȱ andȱ Garryȱ Marvin,ȱ Zooȱ Culture:ȱ Theȱ Bookȱ aboutȱ Watchingȱ Peopleȱ Watchȱ Animals
(London:ȱWeidenfeldȱandȱNicolson,ȱ1987),ȱ109.
330
Hack,ȱAbulȱAbazȱ(seeȱnoteȱ327),ȱ31–32.
331
Václavȱ Vokȱ Filip,ȱ Einführungȱ inȱ dieȱ Heraldik.ȱ 2ndȱ ed.ȱ Historischeȱ Grundwissenschaftenȱ in
Einzeldarstellungen,ȱ3ȱ(Stuttgart;ȱFranzȱSteiner,ȱ2011),ȱ79–84.
Introduction 145
AsȱSandidgeȱemphasizes,ȱhuntingȱwas,ȱofȱcourse,ȱoneȱofȱtheȱmostȱimportant
nobleȱ pastimes,ȱ soȱ theȱ park,ȱ orȱ theȱ seeminglyȱ wildȱ forest—oftenȱ reallyȱ onlyȱ a
domesticatedȱzoneȱcutȱoutȱofȱnature—servedȱasȱaȱstrategicȱstagingȱgroundȱfor
aristocraticȱculture.ȱOneȱofȱtheȱexamplesȱtoȱwhichȱsheȱrefersȱinȱherȱcontributionȱto
thisȱvolumeȱwasȱtheȱEnglishȱKingȱHenryȱII,ȱwhoȱwasȱfamousȱforȱhisȱpassionȱfor
hunting,ȱ andȱ hadȱ consequentlyȱ hugeȱ forestȱ areasȱ reservedȱ forȱ hisȱ private
entertainment.ȱNotȱsurprisingly,ȱmanyȱcontemporaryȱchroniclersȱandȱwriters,ȱsuch
asȱMarieȱdeȱFrance,ȱincludedȱhuntingȱscenesȱfocusingȱonȱaȱkingȱwhoȱalmostȱseems
toȱbeȱobsessedȱalmostȱtooȱmuchȱwithȱhuntingȱandȱthusȱultimatelyȱmightȱloseȱhis
selfȬcontrol.332ȱ
Inȱtheȱearlyȱmodernȱtimeȱtheȱcircumstancesȱbecameȱmoreȱcomplicatedȱforȱthe
king,ȱsinceȱheȱcouldȱnoȱlongerȱsimplyȱoccupyȱorȱclaimȱforestsȱorȱotherȱruralȱspace
forȱhisȱownȱpersonalȱuse.ȱTheȱlegalȱconstraintsȱforcedȱhim,ȱasȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱKing
HenryȱVIII,ȱtoȱbuyȱorȱtoȱacquireȱthroughȱlegalȱseizureȱtheȱlandȱwhichȱwasȱlaterȱto
becomeȱHydeȱParkȱandȱSt.ȱJamesȱPark.ȱThoseȱparksȱquicklyȱtransformedȱfrom
simpleȱ woodsyȱ areasȱ whereȱ theȱ wildȱ animalsȱ couldȱ roamȱ freelyȱ toȱ aȱ staging
groundȱ ofȱ performativeȱ huntsȱ andȱ entertainmentȱ bothȱ forȱ theȱ royalȱ courtȱ and
foreignȱguests.333ȱHenryȱtriedȱhardȱtoȱcompeteȱwithȱtheȱFrenchȱKing,ȱFrancisȱI,ȱin
developingȱtheȱpublicȱsplendorȱofȱhisȱownȱroyalȱparks,ȱwhereȱheȱevenȱputȱup
someȱ woodenȱ sculpturesȱ ofȱ animalsȱ asȱ decorativeȱ elements.ȱ Ruralȱ spaceȱ was
increasinglyȱtransformedȱintoȱaȱtheatricalȱstageȱforȱtheȱroyalȱselfȬrepresentation.
KingȱJamesȱIȱseemsȱtoȱhaveȱbeenȱoneȱofȱtheȱmostȱavidȱhunters,ȱsinceȱthisȱactivity
occupiedȱ hisȱ mindȱ toȱ anȱ almostȱ excessiveȱ degree,ȱ asȱ weȱ canȱ tellȱ fromȱ many
complaintsȱfromȱhisȱcontemporaries,ȱsinceȱheȱevenȱneglectedȱsomeȱofȱhisȱroyal
dutiesȱinȱfavorȱofȱhunting.ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱJamesȱendeavoredȱtoȱtransformȱthe
St.ȱJamesȱGardenȱintoȱaȱmoreȱdomesticatedȱspace,ȱwithȱaȱzooȱpopulatedȱbyȱexotic
animals,ȱanȱaviary,ȱandȱponds.ȱWithȱthisȱoperationȱtheȱonceȱwildȱareaȱofȱrural
spaceȱhadȱbeenȱchangedȱnotȱonlyȱintoȱhuntingȱgrounds,ȱbutȱspecificallyȱintoȱa
royalȱgardenȱforȱspectacularȱartisticȱrepresentations.ȱJames’sȱson,ȱKingȱCharlesȱI,
332
Aȱsimilarȱconcernȱaboutȱhowȱtoȱhuntȱproperly,ȱandȱhowȱtoȱcutȱupȱtheȱpreyȱinȱanȱartisticȱway,ȱnot
likeȱbrutishȱbutchersȱwouldȱdo,ȱcomesȱtoȱtheȱforeȱinȱGottfriedȱvonȱStrassburg’sȱfamousȱTristanȱ(ca.
1210),ȱwhereȱtheȱprotagonistȱinterruptsȱKingȱMark’sȱhuntersȱwhenȱtheyȱareȱaboutȱtoȱcutȱapartȱa
deer,ȱ andȱ teachesȱ themȱ howȱ toȱ doȱ theȱ sameȱ processȱ inȱ aȱ mostȱ delicate,ȱ i.e.,ȱ artisticȱ fashion.
Gottfriedȱ vonȱ Strassburg,ȱ Tristan,ȱ trans.ȱ Rüdigerȱ Krohn.ȱ 3ȱ vols.ȱ (Stuttgart:ȱ Reclam,ȱ 1980),ȱ vv.
2759–3080;ȱcf.ȱHugoȱBekker,ȱGottfriedȱvonȱStrassburg’sȱTristan:ȱJourneyȱThroughȱtheȱRealmȱofȱEros.
StudiesȱinȱGermanȱLiterature,ȱLinguistics,ȱandȱCultureȱ(Columbia,ȱSC:ȱCamdenȱHouse,ȱ1987),
67–82.
333
Forȱanotherȱexample,ȱseeȱAmandaȱRichardson,ȱTheȱForest,ȱParkȱandȱPalaceȱofȱClarendon,ȱc.ȱ1200–c.
1650:ȱReconstructingȱanȱActual,ȱConceptualȱandȱDocumentedȱWiltshireȱLandscape.ȱBARȱBritishȱSeries,
387ȱ (Oxford:ȱ Archaeopress,ȱ 2005).ȱ Cf.ȱ alsoȱ Oxfordshireȱ Forestsȱ 1246–1609,ȱ ed.ȱ Berylȱ Schumer.
OxfordshireȱRecordȱSociety,ȱ64ȱ([Oxford]:ȱOxfordshireȱRecordȱSociety,ȱ2004).
extendedȱthisȱnewȱapproachȱandȱrealizedȱtheȱnextȱstageȱinȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱthe
park,ȱnowȱmakingȱitȱintoȱaȱmuseumȱforȱhisȱaestheticȱenjoyment.ȱ
Inȱfact,ȱeachȱgenerationȱworkedȱonȱthisȱandȱotherȱparks,ȱleavingȱstrongȱmarks
onȱthemȱreflectingȱtheirȱownȱpreferencesȱandȱculturalȱorientation.ȱRuralȱspaceȱis
malleableȱandȱcanȱeasilyȱbeȱmanipulatedȱbyȱpeople,ȱasȱSandidge’sȱcomprehensive
andȱdetailedȱsurveyȱreveals.ȱContemporaryȱliteratureȱconfirmsȱherȱobservations,
sinceȱ poetsȱ regularlyȱ commentedȱ onȱ theȱ publicȱ displayȱ ofȱ royalȱ splendor,
especiallyȱwithinȱtheȱparkȱsetting,ȱandȱonȱaȱhunt.ȱEspeciallyȱRestorationȱauthors
delightedȱ inȱ utilizingȱ theȱ parkȱ asȱ aȱ backdropȱ ofȱ theirȱ playsȱ andȱ otherȱ texts,
especiallyȱbecauseȱofȱtheirȱinterestȱtoȱpresentȱtheȱgentlemanȱandȱhisȱwomenȱinȱthe
properȱsocialȱenvironment.ȱTheȱstudyȱofȱruralȱspaceȱinȱthisȱregardȱallowsȱSandidge
toȱdevelopȱaȱnewȱperspectiveȱonȱtheȱhistoricalȱtransformationȱofȱEnglishȱmonarchy
fromȱtheȱearlyȱMiddleȱAgesȱtoȱtheȱtimeȱofȱtheȱHanoverianȱStuarts.ȱȱ
Despiteȱ theȱ commonȱ assumptionȱ regardingȱ courtlyȱ literature,ȱ focusingȱ onȱ the
adventuresȱofȱknightsȱandȱdamselsȱinȱdistress,ȱlimitingȱmostȱactionsȱtoȱtheȱsphere
ofȱtheȱcourtȱasȱtheȱpointȱofȱdepartureȱandȱreturn,ȱwithȱaȱfewȱglimpsesȱintoȱtheȱwild
forestȱ asȱ theȱ stageȱ forȱ theȱ knight’sȱ challengesȱ (robbersȱ andȱ giants,ȱ sometimes
magicalȱevents),ȱruralȱspaceȱclaimedȱaȱratherȱsignificantȱspaceȱevenȱinȱthisȱliterary
genre.ȱPennyȱSimonsȱfocusesȱonȱtheȱOldȱFrenchȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerneȱfromȱtheȱturn
ofȱtheȱtwelfthȱtoȱtheȱthirteenthȱcenturyȱinȱorderȱtoȱdemonstrateȱtheȱamorphous
natureȱofȱknightlyȱexistenceȱasȱdescribedȱinȱthoseȱtexts.ȱItȱisȱclearlyȱbuiltȱonȱthe
narrativeȱplotȱasȱoriginallyȱdevelopedȱbyȱMarieȱdeȱFranceȱinȱherȱlaiȱ“Bisclavret,”
workingȱwithȱaȱwerewolfȱwhoȱoperates,ȱsoȱtoȱspeak,ȱasȱtheȱgoodȱfairyȱhelpingȱthe
maleȱ protagonistȱ Guillaumeȱ toȱ beȱ rescuedȱ fromȱ hisȱ abductionȱ andȱ eventual
rediscoveryȱandȱrecognitionȱbyȱhisȱownȱfamily.ȱ
AsȱSimonsȱrecognizes,ȱtheȱanonymousȱpoetȱofȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerneȱoperatesȱwith
twoȱveryȱdistinctȱconceptsȱofȱspace,ȱtheȱfirstȱbeingȱtheȱcourt,ȱwhichȱprovesȱtoȱbe
mostlyȱstationary,ȱandȱtheȱsecondȱbeingȱtheȱforest,ȱtheȱcountryside,ȱbigȱbodiesȱof
water,ȱandȱtheȱlike.ȱTheȱmajorȱeventsȱtakeȱplaceȱonlyȱinȱtheȱsecondȱrealmȱofȱspaces,
thoughȱtheȱprotagonistsȱregularlyȱreturn,ȱinȱconformityȱwithȱtheȱtraditionalȱcourtly
romance,ȱtoȱtheȱcentralȱcourtsȱforȱrecognitionȱandȱsettlingȱproblematicȱsituations,
whichȱultimatelyȱhelpsȱtheȱnarratorȱtoȱtakeȱusȱtoȱaȱhappyȱend.ȱBeyondȱthoseȱtwo
spheres,ȱhowever,ȱtheȱromanceȱalsoȱworksȱwithȱanȱintermediateȱspace,ȱtheȱvergier,
thatȱ is,ȱ anȱ orchardȱ orȱ park,ȱ andȱ onceȱ evenȱ aȱ quarry,ȱ whichȱ areȱ allȱ both
domesticatedȱandȱwild,ȱwhereȱtheȱtwoȱloversȱcanȱsuccessfullyȱmeetȱorȱfleeȱto,ȱand
whereȱimportantȱeventsȱtakeȱplaceȱdeterminingȱtheirȱfutureȱdestiny,ȱespecially
becauseȱ theseȱ spacesȱ alsoȱ bringȱ aboutȱ theȱ protagonists’ȱ transformations.ȱ They
serve,ȱinȱotherȱwords,ȱasȱsignificantȱlaunchingȱpads,ȱsoȱtoȱspeak,ȱforȱfutureȱevents.ȱ
Atȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱasȱSimonsȱpointsȱout,ȱtheȱnarrativeȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱaȱrichȱtapestry
ofȱ narrativeȱ elementsȱ borrowedȱ fromȱ earlierȱ works,ȱ whichȱ underscoreȱ the
Introduction 147
importanceȱ ofȱ intermediate,ȱ thatȱ is,ȱ partlyȱ rural,ȱ partlyȱ courtlyȱ space,ȱ forȱ the
criticalȱdevelopmentȱofȱtheȱcourtlyȱhero.ȱHeȱrequiresȱtheȱexposureȱtoȱtheȱnatural
worldȱinȱorderȱtoȱfindȱhimself,ȱtoȱgrowȱintoȱaȱmatureȱadult,ȱandȱthenȱtoȱfaceȱthe
challengesȱofȱthisȱworldȱmostȱconstructivelyȱandȱefficiently.ȱTheȱopenȱattitude
towardȱtheȱruralȱspaceȱisȱalsoȱcharacterizedȱbyȱtheȱinterestȱinȱincludingȱfacetious
elements,ȱofferingȱaȱsenseȱofȱlightȬheartedness,ȱwhichȱbreaksȱopenȱtheȱtraditional
crystallineȱstructureȱofȱcourtlyȱromancesȱandȱallowsȱforȱperspectivesȱintoȱsocial
andȱnaturalȱrealityȱbehindȱtheȱliteraryȱscreen.
Theȱwerewolf’sȱbehaviorȱcarriesȱconsiderablyȱcomicȱfeatures,ȱandȱthereȱmight
alreadyȱbeȱaȱforeshadowingȱofȱtheȱtraditionȱofȱtheȱfabliauxȱinȱthisȱtext,ȱparticularly
consideringȱtheȱnumerousȱincongruities.ȱAtȱtimesȱtheȱanimalȱ(werewolf)ȱhelpsȱthe
humans,ȱatȱotherȱtimesȱtheyȱcomeȱtoȱhisȱassistance,ȱandȱweȱstronglyȱfeelȱamused
byȱ theȱ multipleȱ doublingȱ ofȱ eventsȱ andȱ charactersȱ sinceȱ evenȱ theȱ werewolfȱ is
nothingȱbutȱaȱhumanȱbeingȱturnedȱintoȱthatȱbeastȱbyȱmagic.ȱHybridityȱbothȱinȱthe
presentationȱofȱspaceȱandȱinȱtheȱcharacterizationȱofȱtheȱprotagonistsȱunderscore
theȱuniqueȱpropertiesȱofȱthisȱtext,ȱwhichȱmakesȱitȱ possibleȱforȱtheȱanonymous
poet—inȱthisȱspecificȱregardȱmuchȱmoreȱsoȱthanȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱMarieȱdeȱFrance’s
“Bisclavret”—toȱ projectȱ theȱ nonȬcourtlyȱ settingȱ asȱ highlyȱ instrumental,ȱ hence
essentialȱ forȱ theȱ plotȱ development.334ȱ Simonsȱ concludesȱ withȱ anȱ additional
observationȱregardingȱtheȱultimateȱpurposeȱofȱthoseȱintermediateȱspacesȱoutside
ofȱtheȱcourtȱandȱyetȱnotȱquiteȱinȱtheȱwildȱforest.ȱHereȱtheȱpoetȱcouldȱexperiment
andȱutilizeȱmanyȱdifferentȱliteraryȱgenres,ȱnarrativeȱstrategies,ȱandȱstylesȱfromȱthe
‘classical’ȱperiodȱofȱcourtlyȱliteratureȱandȱcreateȱaȱhybridȱromanceȱinȱwhichȱthe
ruralȱisȱfinallyȱintimatelyȱintertwinedȱwithȱtheȱcourtly.335
Theȱforest,ȱasȱthreateningȱandȱobscureȱasȱitȱalwaysȱseemsȱtoȱbeȱinȱtheȱpremodern
world,ȱemergesȱasȱaȱratherȱcomplexȱterritoryȱwhereȱtheȱrelationshipsȱbetweenȱman
andȱ natureȱ areȱ constantlyȱ renegotiatedȱ throughoutȱ time.ȱ Itȱ couldȱ beȱ aȱ siteȱ of
dangersȱ whereȱ robbers,ȱ murderers,ȱ andȱ wildȱ animalsȱ threatenȱ toȱ ambushȱ the
unassumingȱindividual,ȱorȱitȱcouldȱbeȱtheȱlocationȱwhereȱfarmersȱandȱothersȱfind
invaluableȱresourcesȱ(woodȱforȱbuildingȱandȱburning,ȱacornsȱforȱpigs,ȱanimalsȱfor
hunting,ȱ etc.).336ȱ Thisȱ findsȱ extraordinaryȱ andȱ highlyȱ vividȱ expressionȱ inȱ Li
334
SeeȱtheȱextensiveȱdiscussionsȱonȱthisȱphenomenonȱinȱDorothyȱYamamoto,ȱTheȱBoundariesȱofȱthe
Humanȱ(seeȱnoteȱ130),ȱ144–96.
335
ForȱparallelsȱinȱcontemporaryȱGermanȱliterature,ȱseeȱStephanȱFuchs,ȱHybrideȱHelden:ȱGwigaloisȱund
Willehalm:ȱBeiträgeȱzumȱHeldenbildȱundȱzurȱPoetikȱdesȱRomansȱimȱfrühenȱ13.ȱJahrhundert.ȱFrankfurter
BeiträgeȱzurȱGermanistik,ȱ31ȱ(Heidelberg:ȱUniversitätsverlagȱC.ȱWinter,ȱ1997).ȱAsȱtoȱMarieȱde
France’sȱ“Bisclavret,”ȱseeȱMatildeȱTomarynȱBruckner,ȱ“OfȱMenȱandȱBeastsȱinȱBisclavret,”ȱRomanic
Reviewȱ81.3ȱ(1991):ȱ251–69.
336
Iȱhaveȱdiscussedȱtheȱdiverseȱfunctionsȱofȱtheȱmedievalȱforestȱalreadyȱabove;ȱforȱtheȱappearance
ofȱtheȱforestȱasȱaȱsylvanȱidyllȱinȱtheȱearlyȬmodernȱhistory,ȱseeȱJeffreyȱS.ȱTheis,ȱWritingȱtheȱForest
inȱEarlyȱModernȱEngland:ȱAȱSylvanȱPastoralȱNation.ȱMedievalȱandȱRenaissanceȱLiteraryȱStudies
RoumansȱdeȱBerteȱausȱGransȱpiésȱcomposedȱinȱ1273ȱbyȱtheȱminstrelȱAdenetȱleȱRoi,
whichȱRosaȱA.ȱPerezȱstudiesȱinȱdetailȱinȱherȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolume.ȱAdenet
presentsȱ theȱ topicalȱ sceneȱ withȱ Berte,ȱ marriedȱ toȱ Pepinȱ theȱ Brief,ȱ fatherȱ ofȱ the
futureȱCharlemagne.ȱHavingȱbeenȱbetrayedȱbyȱaȱfemaleȱservantȱandȱherȱdaughter,
whoȱreplacesȱBerteȱduringȱtheȱfirstȱweddingȱnightȱbecauseȱBertheȱisȱtoldȱthatȱthe
initialȱsexualȱencounterȱwithȱherȱhusbandȱwouldȱbeȱveryȱpainful,ȱsheȱisȱaccused
ofȱfalselyȱposingȱasȱtheȱrealȱqueen,ȱisȱhenceȱexpelledȱfromȱtheȱcourt,ȱandȱthenȱfinds
refugeȱinȱtheȱforest.ȱThereȱsheȱmanagesȱtoȱgetȱenoughȱresourcesȱandȱsupportȱto
maintainȱherȱidentityȱandȱtoȱestablishȱenoughȱresiliencyȱtoȱopposeȱtheȱcourt’sȱand
herȱ husband’sȱ accusations.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ way,ȱ ultimately,ȱ theȱ forestȱ turnsȱ intoȱ a
springboardȱ forȱ herȱ returnȱ toȱ theȱ courtȱ asȱ theȱ esteemedȱ queen,ȱ theȱ innocently
persecutedȱwife,ȱvictimȱofȱherȱhusband’sȱwrathȱandȱslander.ȱ337
AlthoughȱtheȱoriginalȱlegendȱofȱthisȱtaleȱsituatesȱtheȱeventsȱatȱtheȱeighthȬcentury
Carolingianȱcourt,ȱAdenetȱplacesȱhisȱepicȱtaleȱinȱtheȱthirteenthȱcentury,ȱobviously
toȱappealȱtoȱhisȱaudienceȱandȱtoȱmakeȱtheȱstoryȱasȱtopicalȱasȱpossible.ȱTheȱforest
inȱwhichȱBertheȱhasȱtoȱsurviveȱamongȱsimpleȱfolksȱregularlyȱreflectsȱherȱownȱinner
turmoilȱandȱcrisis,ȱbutȱthenȱitȱalsoȱbeginsȱtoȱprovideȱherȱwithȱtheȱnecessaryȱshelter
andȱprotectionȱfromȱexternalȱthreats.ȱHowever,ȱasȱPerezȱalertsȱus,ȱallȱthisȱdoesȱnot
makeȱtheȱforestȱintoȱaȱsafeȱplaceȱforȱher,ȱonȱtheȱcontrary.ȱ TwiceȱBertheȱbarely
escapesȱtheȱdangerȱofȱbeingȱraped,ȱandȱcanȱprotectȱherȱvirginity,ȱtheȱcriticalȱaspect
ofȱallȱherȱhopesȱeverȱtoȱreturnȱtoȱtheȱcourtȱandȱtoȱregainȱherȱlegitimateȱpositionȱas
theȱking’sȱconsortȱandȱwife.ȱSheȱalsoȱmanagesȱtoȱgetȱawayȱfromȱaȱdangerousȱbear,
andȱsoȱcanȱsurvive,ȱalthoughȱtheȱmostȱegregiousȱthreatsȱforȱherȱrestȱoutsideȱofȱthe
forest,ȱatȱcourt.ȱ
Theȱnarrativeȱintriguinglyȱillustratesȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱtheȱedgeȱofȱtheȱforest
whereȱBertheȱfindsȱemploymentȱwithȱSymonȱandȱhisȱfamily,ȱtheȱlast,ȱorȱfirst,ȱsigns
ofȱcivilizationȱforȱtheȱqueen,ȱexceptȱforȱherȱencounterȱwithȱtheȱhermitȱinȱtheȱmidst
ofȱtheȱforestȱwhoȱhadȱhelpedȱherȱtoȱgetȱonȱtheȱrightȱpathȱoutȱofȱherȱdesperation
andȱhelplessness.338ȱMoreover,ȱtheȱforestȱsettingȱalsoȱallowsȱtheȱreunionȱwithȱher
husbandȱtoȱhappenȱwhoȱencountersȱhisȱtrueȱwifeȱinȱtheȱforest,ȱatȱaȱkindȱofȱlocus
amoenus.ȱAtȱfirstȱheȱalmostȱwouldȱhaveȱrapedȱher,ȱbutȱthenȱsheȱrevealsȱherȱtrue
identity,ȱwhichȱsolvesȱtheȱconflictȱandȱbringsȱtheȱtwoȱpeopleȱfinallyȱandȱhappily
(Pittsburgh,ȱPA:ȱDuquesneȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2009).
337
RudolfȱSchenda,ȱ“AdenetȱleȱRoi,”ȱEnzyklopädieȱdesȱMärchens:ȱHandwörterbuchȱzurȱhistorischenȱund
vergleichendenȱ Erzählforschung,ȱ ed.ȱ Kurtȱ Rankeȱ etȱ al.ȱ Vol.ȱ Iȱ (Berlinȱ andȱ Newȱ York:ȱ Walterȱ de
Gruyter,ȱ1975),ȱ103–06.
338
Inȱaȱnumberȱofȱdifferentȱcontexts,ȱtheȱedgeȱofȱtheȱforestȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱaȱcriticalȱsite,ȱmeaningfully
situatedȱbetweenȱtheȱwildȱandȱtheȱcivilized,ȱtheȱtamedȱandȱtheȱuntamed.ȱWeȱmightȱevenȱcallȱitȱthe
liminalȱ space,ȱ highlyȱ significantȱ inȱ epistemologicalȱ terms.ȱ Waltherȱ vonȱ derȱ Vogelweide,ȱ for
instance,ȱhasȱhisȱloversȱmeetȱatȱtheȱedgeȱofȱtheȱforestȱwhereȱtheȱlindenȱtreeȱguaranteesȱthemȱsave
distanceȱ fromȱ society,ȱ yetȱ stillȱ keepsȱ themȱ safelyȱ awayȱ fromȱ theȱ forestȱ dangers.ȱ Seeȱ the
contributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱChristopherȱR.ȱClason.ȱ
Introduction 149
togetherȱ again.ȱ Asȱ Perezȱ emphasizes,ȱ withoutȱ theȱ forestȱ theȱ servantȱ woman’s
treasonȱwouldȱhaveȱhadȱcatastrophicȱconsequences,ȱalthoughȱtheȱforestȱitselfȱalso
provesȱtoȱbeȱhighlyȱdangerousȱforȱtheȱprotagonist.ȱButȱinsofarȱasȱitȱisȱaȱkindȱof
exileȱlocationȱforȱher,ȱsheȱfindsȱenoughȱsafetyȱinȱorȱatȱtheȱedgeȱofȱtheȱforestȱwhere
sheȱ thenȱ canȱ developȱ herȱ trueȱ characterȱ andȱ ultimatelyȱ gainȱ theȱ criticalȱ inner
strengthȱandȱconfidence,ȱbasedȱonȱpietyȱandȱhumility,ȱwhichȱwillȱmakeȱitȱpossible
forȱherȱtoȱrecoverȱherȱlegitimateȱpositionȱwithinȱroyalȱsociety.ȱTheȱforestȱasȱthe
locationȱwhereȱtheȱexileȱspendsȱhis/herȱtimeȱwasȱofȱgreatȱimportanceȱinȱtheȱMiddle
Agesȱ(see,ȱforȱinstance,ȱtheȱmythicalȱfigureȱofȱRobinȱHood),ȱalthoughȱabsolute
safetyȱwasȱalsoȱnotȱtoȱbeȱhadȱthere.339ȱAsȱAdenet’sȱnarrativeȱillustrates,ȱneitherȱthe
courtȱ norȱ theȱ roughȱ andȱ wildȱ forestȱ couldȱ existȱ byȱ itself,ȱ or,ȱ moreȱ broadly
formulated,ȱ bothȱ civilizationȱ andȱ natureȱ dependedȱ onȱ eachȱ otherȱ inȱ material,
political,ȱ religious,ȱ andȱ evenȱ ethicalȱ andȱ moralȱ termsȱ insofarȱ asȱ theȱ female
protagonistȱreallyȱmaturesȱonlyȱinȱtheȱforestȱandȱthereȱlearnsȱhowȱtoȱsurviveȱeven
underȱ dangerousȱ conditions.ȱ Thisȱ learningȱ experienceȱ thenȱ readiesȱ herȱ for
precariousȱexistenceȱatȱcourt,ȱaȱsituationȱthatȱweȱwillȱencounter,ȱmostȱpoignantly,
inȱtheȱMiddleȱEnglishȱSirȱGawainȱandȱtheȱGreenȱKnightȱcomposedȱca.ȱhundredȱyears
laterȱ(seeȱabove).340
LateȬmedievalȱSpainȱwitnessedȱtheȱcreationȱofȱoneȱofȱtheȱmostȱimportantȱhunting
books,ȱJuanȱManuel’sȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱ(ca.ȱ1325).ȱWhileȱmostȱotherȱaristocratsȱwere
onlyȱinterestedȱinȱordinary,ȱplayfulȱentertainment,ȱthisȱdukeȱturnedȱhisȱattention
toȱ literature,ȱ especiallyȱ toȱ writingȱ orȱ contributingȱ toȱ theȱ creationȱ ofȱ booksȱ of
literary,ȱdidactic,ȱandȱmoralȬreligiousȱkind.ȱMariaȱCeciliaȱRuizȱpresentsȱaȱdetailed
studyȱofȱtheȱauthorȱandȱhisȱwork,ȱwhichȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱaȱworthyȱsuccessorȱtoȱthe
publicationsȱbyȱhisȱuncle,ȱAlfonsoȱXȱtheȱWise,ȱwhoȱhadȱdiedȱinȱ1284,ȱwhenȱJuan
Manuelȱwasȱonlyȱtwoȱyearsȱold.ȱImportantȱtoȱnote,ȱManuelȱexpressivelyȱvoicedȱhis
admirationȱforȱhisȱuncleȱinȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza,ȱevenȱthoughȱinȱtheȱlatterȱpartȱhe
339
SeeȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱExileȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges:ȱSelectedȱProceedingsȱfromȱtheȱInternationalȱMedieval
Congress,ȱUniversityȱofȱLeeds,ȱ8Ȭ11ȱJulyȱ2002,ȱed.ȱLauraȱNapranȱandȱElisabethȱvanȱHoutsȱ(Turnhout:
Brepols,ȱ2004);ȱBobȱBecking,ȱFromȱBabylonȱtoȱEternity:ȱTheȱExileȱRememberedȱandȱConstructedȱinȱText
andȱTraditionȱ(London:ȱEquinox,ȱ2009);ȱAlbrechtȱClassen,ȱ“TheȱExperienceȱofȱExileȱinȱMedieval
GermanȱHeroicȱPoetry,”ȱMedievalȱGermanȱTextrelations:ȱTranslations,ȱEditions,ȱandȱStudiesȱ(Kalamazoo
Papersȱ 2010–2011),ȱ ed.ȱ Sibylleȱ Jefferis.ȱ Göppingerȱ Arbeitenȱ zurȱ Germanistik,ȱ #ȱ (Göppingen:
Kümmerle,ȱforthcoming).
340
Saunders,ȱTheȱForestȱofȱMedievalȱRomanceȱ(seeȱnoteȱ143).ȱWeȱencounterȱaȱveryȱsimilarȱsituationȱwith
theȱheroineȱescapingȱintoȱtheȱforest,ȱpersecutedȱbyȱtheȱevilȱcourtiersȱandȱaȱwrathfulȱhusband,ȱin
ElisabethȱofȱNassauȬSaarbrücken’sȱKöniginȱSibilleȱ(seeȱmyȱdiscussionȱabove).ȱForȱaȱdiscussionȱof
youngȱwomen,ȱseeȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱYoungȱMedievalȱWomen,ȱed.ȱKatherineȱJ.ȱLewis,ȱNoëlȱJames
Menuge,ȱandȱKimȱM.ȱPhillipsȱ(NewȱYork:ȱSt.ȱMartin’sȱPress,ȱ1999).ȱForȱhistoricalȱandȱliteraryȬ
historicalȱbackgroundȱforȱactualȱfigureȱofȱBerthe,ȱsee
http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrade_de_Laonȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱDec.ȱ30,ȱ2011).
movedȱ awayȱ fromȱ theȱ earlyȱ emulationȱ andȱ gainedȱ aȱ moreȱ independentȱ and
matureȱ position.ȱ Despiteȱ itsȱ title,ȱ theȱ authorȱ predominantlyȱ isȱ concernedȱ with
huntingȱusingȱbirdsȱofȱprey,ȱcloselyȱ followingȱtheȱArabicȱtradition,ȱwhichȱhad
influencedȱ earlierȱ booksȱ inȱ Spanishȱ dealingȱ withȱ hunting,ȱ andȱ probablyȱ also
EmperorȱFrederickȱII’sȱfamousȱbookȱDeȱarteȱvenandiȱcumȱavibusȱfromȱca.ȱ1241–1248.ȱ
Inȱ manyȱ ways,ȱ huntingȱ wasȱ anȱ importantȱ artȱ whichȱ youngȱ noblesȱ were
supposedȱtoȱlearnȱfromȱearlyȱon.ȱReadingȱaboutȱhuntingȱhenceȱwasȱsupposedȱto
beȱaȱsignificantȱteachingȱtoolȱbecauseȱitȱhelpedȱtoȱrealizeȱstronglyȱdidacticȱgoals.341ȱ
AtȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱManuelȱadvocatedȱhuntingȱandȱreadingȱaboutȱitȱasȱcritically
importantȱ venuesȱ forȱ maleȱ bonding,ȱ somethingȱ weȱ willȱ hearȱ aboutȱ asȱ wellȱ in
JacquelineȱStuhmiller’sȱsubsequentȱarticleȱonȱGastonȱPhébus.ȱ
ThereȱareȱaȱnumberȱofȱpossibilitiesȱofȱhowȱManuel’sȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱmightȱhave
comeȱabout,ȱbut,ȱasȱRuizȱemphasizes,ȱtheȱscribeȱmustȱhaveȱcloselyȱcollaborated
withȱtheȱauthor.ȱItȱisȱwellȱpossibleȱthatȱheȱaccompaniedȱhisȱlordȱonȱtheȱhunt,ȱread
toȱhimȱfromȱhisȱownȱnotes,ȱandȱdiscussedȱsectionsȱwithȱhimȱwhileȱputtingȱdown
theȱ words.ȱ Mostȱ significantly,ȱ theȱ authorȱ highlightedȱ theȱ differenceȱ between
theoryȱandȱpractice,ȱarguingȱthatȱonlyȱaȱtrulyȱexperiencedȱfalconerȱwouldȱbeȱable
toȱacquireȱtheȱfullȱartȱofȱhuntingȱwithȱtheseȱbirdsȱfully.ȱCertainly,ȱhisȱownȱbook
representsȱaȱtheoreticalȱapproachȱasȱwell,ȱbutȱtheȱnextȱgenerationȱofȱreadersȱwould
thusȱbeȱableȱtoȱlearnȱfromȱaȱtrueȱmasterȱinȱthatȱfield.ȱ
Inȱreality,ȱhowever,ȱeverythingȱmightȱbeȱquiteȱdifferent,ȱsoȱeachȱpersonȱwould
haveȱtoȱworkȱveryȱcloselyȱandȱsensitivelyȱwithȱtheȱhuntingȱbirdsȱasȱtheȱsituation
demanded.ȱJuanȱManuelȱhimselfȱwasȱapparentlyȱdirectlyȱinvolvedȱwithȱtheȱraising
andȱtamingȱofȱfalcons,ȱasȱheȱregularlyȱinjectsȱhisȱspecificȱopinions,ȱbasedȱonȱhis
ownȱexperiences,ȱconcerningȱhowȱtoȱfeedȱtheȱbirds,ȱhowȱtoȱtreatȱthemȱinȱcaseȱof
sickness,ȱandȱtheȱlike.ȱ
AsȱRuizȱconcludes,ȱJuanȱManuel’sȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱemergesȱasȱanȱastonishingly
personalȱrecordȱofȱanȱalmostȱautobiographicalȱnature.ȱTheȱauthorȱappearsȱdirectly
presentȱ here,ȱ sinceȱ heȱ voicesȱ hisȱ opinion,ȱ debatesȱ withȱ hisȱ scribe,ȱ injects
observationsȱandȱcomments,ȱandȱallowsȱusȱtoȱperceiveȱinȱgreatȱdetailȱwhatȱhe
personallyȱthoughtȱaboutȱhunting,ȱespeciallyȱwithȱbirdsȱofȱprey.ȱManuelȱwasȱonly
tooȱawareȱofȱtheȱtrendȱamongȱhunters—asȱisȱstillȱtheȱcaseȱtoday—toȱbrag,ȱtoȱtell
miraculousȱaccounts,ȱandȱtoȱexaggerateȱasȱtoȱtheȱhuntedȱanimalsȱorȱtheȱamazing
skillsȱofȱtheȱhuntingȱanimals/birdsȱofȱprey.ȱHenceȱheȱconstantlyȱemphasizedȱhow
trueȱhisȱownȱaccountȱwasȱbecauseȱheȱspokeȱfromȱpersonalȱexperienceȱandȱhadȱhad
greatȱ successȱ inȱ falconry,ȱ whichȱ wasȱ onlyȱ supersededȱ byȱ hisȱ greatlyȱ admired
cousin,ȱDonȱJuan.ȱHuntingȱisȱdescribedȱasȱaȱsportȱandȱgeneralȱactivityȱthatȱcan
easilyȱproduceȱmarvelousȱresults,ȱevenȱifȱtheȱreaders/listenersȱmightȱnotȱwantȱto
believeȱit.ȱ
341
ThisȱisȱalsoȱconfirmedȱbyȱJacquelineȱStuhmillerȱinȱherȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolume.
Introduction 151
Highlyȱexcitedȱbyȱtheȱrealizationȱofȱhowȱmuchȱheȱwasȱanȱexpertȱinȱhunting,ȱJuan
ManuelȱclearlyȱfeltȱthatȱinȱwritingȱhisȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱheȱcouldȱaspireȱtoȱmatchȱthe
accomplishmentsȱofȱhisȱadmiredȱuncle,ȱAlfonsoȱXȱtheȱWise.ȱAsȱmuchȱasȱManuel
provedȱtoȱbeȱaȱlearnedȱwriter,ȱheȱalsoȱdrewȱheavilyȱfromȱhisȱpersonalȱexperience,
whichȱheȱwasȱobviouslyȱveryȱproudȱȱof.ȱItȱwouldȱbeȱtooȱfarȬfetched,ȱofȱcourse,ȱhere
toȱtalkȱaboutȱanȱearlyȱRenaissanceȱvoice,ȱbutȱthisȱhuntingȱmanualȱbringsȱtheȱauthor
soȱmuchȱtoȱlifeȱthatȱweȱalmostȱseeȱhimȱinȱfrontȱofȱourȱeyes.ȱAlthoughȱheȱmostly
talkedȱaboutȱhunting,ȱJuanȱManuelȱreallyȱpresentedȱhimselfȱasȱtheȱexpertȱhunter
thatȱ heȱ wasȱ inȱ highlyȱ individualizingȱ terms.ȱ Afterȱ all,ȱ followingȱ hisȱ teachers’
advice,ȱheȱbeganȱaȱnewȱeraȱofȱhuntingȱwithȱmuchȱbetterȱresults,ȱwhetherȱweȱwould
haveȱtoȱidentifyȱthisȱasȱmedievalȱorȱRenaissance.ȱThisȱhunterȬauthorȱandȱhunterȬ
teacherȱperceivedȱinȱthisȱpastimeȱanȱidealȱwayȱofȱgettingȱexcitement,ȱofȱapplying
one’sȱtechnicalȱskills,ȱandȱofȱestablishingȱcomraderyȱamongȱallȱmenȱinvolvedȱinȱthe
hunt.ȱ
Toȱ reiterateȱ theȱ previousȱ observationȱ andȱ toȱ includeȱ someȱ literaryȱ examples,
huntingȱwasȱoneȱofȱtheȱcentralȱpastimesȱofȱmedievalȱandȱearlyȱaristocracy,ȱand
poetsȱandȱartistsȱthroughoutȱtime,ȱsometimesȱevenȱmusicians,ȱhaveȱintensively
reflectedȱuponȱitȱinȱaȱmyriadȱofȱfashionsȱandȱinterpretedȱitȱinȱmanyȱdifferentȱways
asȱaȱmetaphorȱofȱlove,ȱofȱcourtliness,ȱand,ȱallegorically,ȱasȱanȱexpressionȱofȱhuman
vicesȱandȱvirtues.342ȱForȱinstance,ȱTristan,ȱinȱGottfriedȱvonȱStrassburg’sȱeponymous
romanceȱ (ca.ȱ 1210),ȱ makesȱ hisȱ significantȱ entryȱ toȱ theȱ courtȱ ofȱ Kingȱ Markȱ of
Cornwallȱafterȱheȱhasȱinstructedȱtheȱhuntersȱtoȱcutȱupȱtheȱcorpseȱofȱaȱslainȱdeerȱin
aȱmostȱartisticȱfashion,ȱwhichȱthenȱallowsȱhimȱtoȱarrangeȱtheȱtransportationȱofȱthe
carcass,ȱnowȱanȱartȱobject,ȱasȱaȱmostȱimpressiveȱpublicȱprocession.343ȱGuigemar’s
342
See,ȱforȱinstance,ȱMarcelleȱThièbaux,ȱTheȱStagȱofȱLove:ȱTheȱChaseȱinȱMedievalȱLiteratureȱ(Ithaca,ȱNY:ȱ
CornellȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1974);ȱseeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱJagdȱundȱhöfischeȱKulturȱimȱMittelalter,
ed.ȱWernerȱRösener.ȱVeröffentlichungenȱdesȱMaxȬPlanckȬInstitutsȱfürȱGeschichte,ȱ135ȱ(Göttingen:
Vandenhoeckȱ&ȱRuprecht,ȱ199),ȱandȱtoȱDieȱJagdȱderȱElitenȱinȱdenȱErinnerungskulturenȱvonȱderȱAntike
bisȱinȱdieȱFrüheȱNeuzeit,ȱed.ȱWolframȱMartini.ȱFormenȱderȱErinnerung,ȱ3ȱ(Göttingenȱ:ȱVandenhoeck
&ȱRuprecht,ȱ2000).ȱForȱanȱimpressiveȱexampleȱofȱtheȱpoeticȱstrategyȱtoȱallegorizeȱtheȱhunt,ȱseeȱthe
thirteenthȬcenturyȱpoetȱHadamarȱvonȱLaber,ȱJagdȱundȱdreiȱandereȱMinnegedichteȱseinerȱZeitȱund
Weise:ȱ Desȱ Minnersȱ Klage,ȱ Derȱ minnendenȱ Zwistȱ undȱ Versöhnung,ȱ Derȱ MinneȬFalkner,ȱ ed.ȱ J.ȱ A.
Schmeller.ȱBibliothekȱdesȱLiterarischenȱVereinsȱinȱStuttgart,ȱ20ȱ(1850;ȱAmsterdam:ȱRodopi,ȱ1968).
Theȱ poemȱ Jagdȱ hasȱ survivedȱ inȱ tenȱ completeȱ manuscriptsȱ andȱ eightȱ fragments.ȱ Seeȱ Sonja
Emmerling,ȱ Hadamarȱ vonȱ Laberȱ undȱ seineȱ Liebesdichtungȱ “Dieȱ Jagd”.ȱ Forumȱ Mittelalter,ȱ 2
(Regensburg:ȱSchnellȱundȱSteiner,ȱ2005);ȱRalfȱSchlechtwegȬJahn,ȱ“HadamarsȱvonȱLaberȱ‘Jagd’ȱals
serielleȱ Literatur,”ȱ Trivialeȱ Minne?ȱ Konventionalitätȱ undȱ Trivialisierungȱ inȱ spätmittelalterlichen
Minnereden,ȱed.ȱLudgerȱLiebȱandȱOttoȱNeudeck.ȱQuellenȱundȱForschungenȱzurȱLiteraturȬȱund
Kulturgeschichte,ȱ40ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱWalterȱdeȱGruyter,ȱ2006),ȱ241–58.
343
Bekker,ȱGottfriedȱvonȱStrassburg’sȱTristanȱ(seeȱnoteȱ332);ȱcf.ȱalsoȱElisabethȱSchmid,ȱ“Naturȱund
KulturȱinȱderȱJagdszeneȱvonȱGottfriedsȱ‘Tristan’,”ȱDerȱ“Tristan”ȱGottfriedsȱvonȱStraßburg:ȱSymposion
SantiagoȱdeȱCompostela,ȱ5.ȱbisȱ8.ȱAprilȱ2000,ȱed.ȱChristophȱHuberȱandȱVictorȱMilletȱ(Tübingen:ȱMax
destinyȱinȱMarieȱdeȱFrance’sȱeponymousȱlaiȱ(ca.ȱ1200)ȱtakesȱaȱdecisiveȱturnȱwhen
heȱgoesȱhunting,ȱkillsȱaȱdoe,ȱbutȱisȱbadlyȱhurtȱinȱhisȱthighȱfromȱtheȱricochetting
arrow—certainlyȱ aȱ highlyȱ unlikelyȱ result,ȱ butȱ essentialȱ forȱ theȱ narrative
development.ȱSeekingȱhelp,ȱheȱfindsȱaȱblackȱshipȱthatȱmagicallyȱtakesȱhimȱacross
theȱwaterȱwhereȱheȱfindsȱhisȱfutureȱlove.ȱSiegfriedȱinȱtheȱNibelungenliedȱ(ca.ȱ1200)
isȱinvitedȱtoȱaȱhuntȱasȱpartȱofȱHagen’sȱstrategyȱtoȱcatchȱhimȱunawareȱandȱthusȱto
murderȱhim.ȱSiegfriedȱdemonstrates,ȱforȱtheȱlastȱtime,ȱhisȱsuperior,ȱalmostȱgodȬlike
strengthȱandȱpowerȱbyȱhuntingȱdownȱsoȱmanyȱanimalsȱthatȱtheȱotherȱhunters
beginȱtoȱgruntleȱandȱcomplain,ȱaskingȱhimȱtoȱstopȱsoȱthatȱsomeȱanimalsȱremainȱfor
futureȱhunts.ȱSiegfriedȱdoesȱnotȱunderstand,ȱofȱcourse,ȱthatȱthisȱhunt,ȱinȱwhichȱhe
evenȱcapturesȱaȱbearȱalive,ȱanticipatesȱhisȱownȱvictimization.ȱHeȱwillȱbeȱHagen’s
prey,ȱbutȱthenȱinȱaȱdifferent,ȱmorallyȱdepravedȱhunt.ȱInȱSirȱGawainȱandȱtheȱGreen
KnightȱtheȱGreenȱKnight,ȱSirȱBercilak,ȱgoesȱhuntingȱasȱpartȱofȱhisȱwagerȱwithȱthe
protagonist.ȱBothȱhaveȱpledgedȱtoȱshareȱwithȱtheȱotherȱwhatȱtheyȱmightȱcatch
duringȱtheȱday.ȱWhileȱBercilakȱkillsȱespeciallyȱoneȱsymbolicȱanimalȱaȱday,ȱwhich
representȱoneȱofȱGawain’sȱcharacterȱtraitsȱandȱabilities,ȱtheȱlatterȱisȱactuallyȱhunted
byȱ Bercilak’sȱ wifeȱ whoȱ triesȱ toȱ seduceȱ himȱ whileȱ heȱ isȱ stillȱ inȱ bedȱ earlyȱ inȱ the
morning,ȱthoughȱsheȱcanȱonlyȱconvinceȱhimȱtoȱacceptȱherȱkiss.ȱ
Oneȱofȱtheȱmostȱfamousȱmedievalȱwritersȱdealingȱwithȱtheȱhunt,ȱapartȱfrom
FrederickȱIIȱandȱJuanȱManuel,ȱwasȱGastonȱPhébus,ȱCountȱofȱFoix,ȱwhoȱcomposedȱ
hisȱLivreȱdeȱlaȱchasseȱ(HuntingȱBook)ȱbetweenȱ1387ȱandȱ1389.ȱJacquelineȱStuhmiller
offersȱ hereȱ anȱ insightfulȱ analysisȱ ofȱ howȱ theȱ authorȱ viewedȱ theȱ relationship
betweenȱanimalsȱandȱmanȱfromȱaȱreligiousȱandȱethicalȱperspective.ȱAsȱaȱbaseȱof
herȱstudyȱsheȱreliesȱonȱtheȱmanuscriptȱBNȱmsȱfrȱ619,ȱlessȱfamousȱthanȱtheȱmuch
acclaimedȱmanuscriptȱBNȱmsȱfrȱ616,ȱwhichȱIȱhaveȱdiscussedȱabove.ȱHowever,ȱher
choiceȱisȱdeterminedȱbyȱtheȱspecificȱapproachȱtoȱhuntingȱwithȱallȱitsȱethicalȱand
moralȱimplications,ȱwhichȱareȱmuchȱmoreȱstronglyȱexpressedȱinȱthatȱversion.ȱ
Accordingȱtoȱtheȱbiblicalȱaccountȱ(Genesis),ȱtheȱanimalȱkingdomȱisȱsubjectȱto
man’sȱrule,ȱbutȱinȱtheȱpostlapsarianȱworldȱmanyȱanimalsȱremainȱdangerousȱto
manȱandȱcanȱeasilyȱkillȱhimȱifȱtheȱlatterȱisȱnotȱproperlyȱpreparedȱandȱdoesȱnotȱhave
theȱ necessaryȱ weapons.ȱ Inȱ theȱ Middleȱ Ages,ȱ ȱ theȱ humanȱ hegemonyȱ overȱ all
animalsȱ wasȱ notȱ stable,ȱ andȱ hadȱ toȱ beȱ reestablishedȱ overȱ andȱ overȱ again,
consideringȱhowȱmanyȱdangerousȱanimalsȱthreatenedȱhumanȱexistence.ȱHenceȱthe
generalȱjustificationȱforȱhunting,ȱalthoughȱthisȱwasȱreallyȱanȱaristocraticȱsport,ȱand
Niemeyer,ȱ 2002),ȱ 153–66.ȱ Sheȱ emphasizes,ȱ “dieseȱ Inszenierungȱ [stellt]ȱ dieȱ Simulationȱ des
lebendigenȱ Tiersȱ mitȱ Mittelnȱ derȱ Kunstȱ dar[ȱ ].ȱ Zugleichȱ trittȱ derȱ Aktȱ alsȱ Gesamtkunstwerkȱ –
garniertȱmitȱeinerȱMusikeinlageȱ–ȱinȱErscheinung”ȱ(165;ȱthisȱenactmentȱrepresentsȱtheȱsimulation
ofȱtheȱlivingȱanimalȱwithȱtheȱmeansȱofȱart.ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱtheȱactȱappears,ȱcombinedȱwith
musicalȱembellishment,ȱasȱaȱGesamtkunstwerk).ȱSeeȱalsoȱJohnȱG.ȱCummins,ȱTheȱHoundȱandȱthe
Hawk:ȱTheȱArtȱofȱMedievalȱHuntingȱ(NewȱYork:ȱSt.ȱMartin’sȱPress,ȱ1988).ȱResearchȱonȱthisȱtopicȱis
trulyȱlegion,ȱobviouslyȱbecauseȱofȱtheȱgreatȱmetaphoricalȱmeaningȱofȱthisȱscene.
Introduction 153
lessȱaȱdefenseȱmechanism.ȱAlthoughȱdogsȱwereȱtreatedȱwithȱgreatȱrespectȱeither
asȱlapȱdogsȱorȱservingȱforȱhunting,ȱtheyȱremainedȱbeastsȱthatȱcouldȱeasilyȱreveal
theirȱevilȱside,ȱasȱGastonȱsawȱit,344ȱandȱwhichȱweȱcouldȱeasilyȱconfirmȱevenȱtoday
withȱ respectȱ toȱ someȱ particularlyȱ aggressiveȱ breeds,ȱ suchȱ asȱ Pitbullsȱ or
Rottweilers.345ȱ
Asȱ Stuhmillerȱ emphasizes,ȱ forȱ Gastonȱ peopleȱ wereȱ surroundedȱ byȱ aȱ most
threateningȱnaturalȱenvironment,ȱwhetherȱweȱthinkȱofȱtheȱbearȱorȱtheȱequally,ȱif
notȱevenȱmoreȱfearȬinspiringȱwolf.ȱSimultaneously,ȱtheȱveryȱevilȱandȱbrutalȱnature
ofȱ thoseȱ animals—atȱ leastȱ asȱ perceivedȱ byȱ medievalȱ authors,ȱ suchȱ as
Gaston—madeȱthemȱintoȱidealȱhuntingȱobjectsȱbecauseȱtheȱknightȱwasȱthusȱable
toȱdemonstrateȱhisȱpersonalȱskillsȱinȱevadingȱtheȱthreatȱandȱinȱkillingȱtheȱbeasts.
Insofarȱasȱtheȱhunterȱmanagesȱtoȱovercomeȱtheȱlargeȱvarietyȱofȱdangerousȱanimals,
heȱcanȱalsoȱreconstituteȱtheȱprelapsarianȱconditionsȱwhenȱmanȱwasȱtheȱabsolute
rulerȱoverȱallȱanimals.ȱ
Oddly,ȱasȱaȱsideȱnote,ȱthisȱisȱtheȱveryȱconditionsȱcharacterizingȱtheȱwildȱmanȱin
ChrétienȱdeȱTroyes’sȱYvainȱ(ca.ȱ1177)ȱorȱHartmannȱ vonȱ Aue’sȱIweinȱ(ca.ȱ1203),
mostlyȱaȱtranslationȱofȱtheȱOldȱFrenchȱtext.ȱInȱtheȱMiddleȱHighȱGermanȱromance
theȱgiganticȱmanȱexplainsȱtoȱKalogrenant,ȱ“‘Myȱvoiceȱandȱmyȱhand,ȱmyȱcommand
andȱmyȱthreatsȱhaveȱbroughtȱthemȱtoȱtheȱpointȱwhereȱtheyȱstandȱtremblingȱbefore
andȱact—orȱdesistȱfromȱacting—inȱaccordanceȱwithȱmyȱwish.ȱIfȱanyoneȱelseȱwere
toȱbeȱamongȱthemȱasȱIȱam,ȱheȱwouldȱquicklyȱbeȱlostȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱWithȱmeȱhereȱtheyȱwill
doȱyouȱnoȱharm.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.’”346
Gastonȱunderscoredȱthatȱtheȱtrue,ȱmorallyȱandȱethicallyȱuprightȱhunterȱwould
notȱresortȱunnecessarilyȱtoȱcontraptionsȱandȱdeceptions;ȱinsteadȱheȱshouldȱhunt
inȱaȱvirtuous,ȱknightlyȱfashion,ȱdisplayingȱhisȱtrueȱmaistrise,ȱthatȱis,ȱmasteryȱover
theȱwildȱanimals.347ȱWhileȱGastonȱstronglyȱencouragedȱhisȱreadersȱtoȱchaseȱonly
344
ForȱpositiveȱimagesȱofȱtheȱdogȱinȱmedievalȱGermanȱcourtlyȱliterature,ȱseeȱAlbrechtȱClassen,ȱ“The
DogȱinȱGermanȱCourtlyȱLiterature”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ241).
345
Forȱ aȱ extensiveȱ listȱ ofȱ dangerousȱ dogs,ȱ seeȱ http://www.toptenmostdangerousdogs.com/ȱ (last
accessedȱonȱDec.ȱ30,ȱ2011).
346
Theȱ Completeȱ Worksȱ ofȱ Hartmannȱ vonȱ Aueȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 220),ȱ 242.ȱ Seeȱ alsoȱ theȱ newȱ editionȱ and
translation,ȱHartmannȱvonȱAue,ȱIwein:ȱMittelhochdeutschȱ/ȱNeuhochdeutsch,ȱed.ȱandȱtrans.ȱRüdiger
Krohn,ȱ commentaryȱ byȱ Mireilleȱ Schnyderȱ (Stuttgart:ȱ Reclam,ȱ 2011),ȱ v.ȱ 506–13.ȱ Someȱ artist
subsequentlyȱ createdȱ aȱ mostȱ impressiveȱ frescoȱ alȱ seccoȱ ofȱ thisȱ sceneȱ onȱ Castleȱ Rodeneggȱ in
SouthernȱTyrolȱ(northȱofȱBrixen/Bressanone);ȱseeȱVolkerȱSchuppȱandȱHansȱSzklenar,ȱYwainȱauf
Schloßȱ Rodenegg:ȱ Eineȱ Bildergeschichteȱ nachȱ demȱ ‘Iwein’ȱ Hartmannsȱ vonȱ Aueȱ (Sigmaringen:ȱ Jan
ThorbeckeȱVerlag,ȱ1996),ȱplatesȱ2ȱandȱ3.
347
ThisȱapproachȱseemsȱtoȱbeȱaȱfaintȱechoȱofȱtheȱearlyȬmedievalȱwarriorȱethics,ȱasȱexpressed,ȱfor
instance,ȱbyȱBeowulfȱinȱtheȱeponymousȱOldȱEnglishȱheroicȱepicȱ(ca.ȱ1000,ȱorȱearlier),ȱwhereȱthe
protagonistȱinsistsȱonȱfightingȱagainstȱGrendelȱwithoutȱweapons:ȱ“‘.ȱ.ȱ.ȱbutȱinȱtheȱnightȱweȱtwo
shallȱforgoȱswordsȱifȱheȱdaresȱtoȱlookȱforȱcombatȱwithoutȱweapons,ȱandȱafterwardȱletȱGodȱinȱhis
wisdom,ȱtheȱholyȱLordȱassignȱgloryȱonȱwhicheverȱhandȱheȱseesȱfit.’”ȱTheȱBeowulfȱManuscript:
CompleteȱTextsȱandȱtheȱFightȱatȱFinnsburg,ȱed.ȱandȱtrans.ȱR.ȱD.ȱFulk.ȱDumbartonȱOaksȱMedieval
thoseȱ animalsȱ thatȱ wereȱ aȱ trueȱ matchȱ forȱ theȱ hunter’sȱ skills,ȱ theȱ wolfȱ was
consideredȱsimplyȱaȱmenaceȱthatȱhadȱtoȱbeȱeliminatedȱatȱallȱcosts,ȱirrespectiveȱof
theȱbrutalȱslaughterȱthatȱwasȱimplied.ȱTheȱwolf,ȱsoȱGaston,ȱappearedȱveryȱsimilar
toȱ man,ȱandȱyetȱabsolutelyȱ refusedȱtoȱsubmitȱunderȱhisȱmaistrise,ȱwhichȱ hence
justifiedȱitsȱmercilessȱdestruction.ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱGastonȱexpressedȱdelightȱin
huntingȱalsoȱsmallȱanimals,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱhareȱandȱtheȱotter,ȱperhapsȱasȱaȱparticular
kindȱ ofȱ entertainment.ȱ Inȱ 1492,ȱ theȱ Dukeȱ ofȱ Pommeraniaȱ publiclyȱ encouraged
peopleȱofȱallȱsocialȱclassesȱtoȱgoȱhuntingȱandȱtoȱkillȱvirtuallyȱeveryȱanimalȱwhich
theyȱ couldȱ get.ȱ Forȱ eachȱ deadȱ wolf,ȱ lynx,ȱ andȱ bearȱ heȱ wasȱ willingȱ toȱ payȱ a
correspondinglyȱhigherȱamountȱofȱreward,ȱwhileȱtheȱhuntersȱcouldȱsimplyȱkeep
theȱdeadȱgeese,ȱducks,ȱorȱbirdsȱofȱpreyȱforȱthemselves.ȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱtheȱanimals
wereȱregardedȱasȱman’sȱenemiesȱandȱhadȱtoȱbeȱhuntedȱdownȱoutȱofȱaȱsenseȱofȱselfȬ
protection.348
TheȱLivreȱdeȱlaȱchasseȱstronglyȱencouragesȱtheȱreadersȱtoȱlearnȱtheȱartȱofȱhunting
wellȱbecauseȱaȱknowledgeableȱandȱskillfulȱhunterȱwouldȱnotȱhaveȱtoȱworryȱabout
gettingȱ woundedȱ orȱ hurtȱ sinceȱ heȱ is,ȱ withȱ allȱ hisȱ intellectȱ andȱ weapons,
strategizingȱabilitiesȱandȱsupportȱ(dogsȱandȱsubȬhunters)ȱtheȱtrueȱmasterȱofȱthe
forestȱandȱitsȱinhabitants.ȱTheȱillustrator/sȱofȱthisȱmanuscriptȱconfirmȱthisȱoverall
message,ȱshowingȱhowȱrapaciousȱandȱdangerousȱsomeȱofȱtheȱanimalsȱmightȱbe,
anxiousȱtoȱattackȱandȱtoȱdevourȱtheȱhunterȱorȱotherȱpeople,ȱbutȱallȱthisȱwithoutȱany
trueȱeffectȱbecauseȱtheȱhumanȱmasterȱhasȱeverythingȱunderȱhisȱcontrol,ȱatȱleast
onceȱ heȱ hasȱ learnedȱ hisȱ tradeȱ well.ȱ Aȱ goodȱ indicatorȱ ofȱ thisȱ generalȱ approach
proveȱtoȱbeȱtheȱpeacefulȱnaturalȱsettingsȱinȱtheȱminiaturesȱasȱifȱtheȱforestȱwere
nothingȱbutȱaȱlocusȱamoenus,ȱaȱpastoralȱplaceȱwhereȱtheȱknightsȱexerciseȱtheirȱright
asȱlordsȱofȱtheȱwildȱspaceȱandȱallȱtheȱwildȱanimals.ȱAsȱgruesomeȱasȱtheȱhuntȱitself
mightȱbe,ȱtheȱillustratorsȱprojectȱnothingȱbutȱtameȱnature,ȱsimilarȱtoȱtheȱscenesȱin
theȱcontemporaryȱBooksȱofȱHours.ȱThisȱruralȱspaceȱappearsȱasȱpredictableȱandȱtwoȬ
dimensional,ȱ whereȱ theȱ knightȱ performsȱ hisȱ privilegedȱ dutyȱ asȱ aȱ hunter,
dominatingȱallȱanimalsȱatȱwill.ȱ
Nevertheless,ȱ weȱ shouldȱ alsoȱ notȱ overlook,ȱ asȱ Stuhmillerȱ alertsȱ us,ȱ the
increasinglyȱreligiousȱundertonesȱofȱthisȱfamousȱhuntingȱbookȱbecauseȱforȱGaston
huntingȱeventuallyȱseemsȱtoȱturnȱintoȱaȱspiritualȱquest,ȱmakingȱallȱgoodȱhunters
predestinedȱforȱtheirȱownȱsalvationȱinȱheaven.ȱWhetherȱtheȱauthorȱwasȱheavily
torturedȱbyȱaȱsenseȱofȱsinfulnessȱresultingȱfromȱsomeȱunnamedȱcrimeȱorȱsin,ȱasȱthe
conclusionȱ seemsȱ toȱ indicate,ȱ cannotȱ beȱ fullyȱ confirmed.ȱ Inȱ manyȱ ways,ȱ as
Stuhmillerȱconcludes,ȱtheȱauthorȱattemptedȱtoȱrespondȱtoȱtheȱmessagesȱcontained
Libraryȱ(Cambridge,ȱMA,ȱandȱLondon:ȱHarvardȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2010),ȱ683–87,ȱp.ȱ131.
348
HelmutȱJäger,ȱEinführungȱinȱdieȱUmweltgeschichteȱ(Darmstadt:ȱWissenschaftlicheȱBuchgesellschaft,
1994),ȱ 134;ȱ Johannesȱ Grabmayer,ȱ Europaȱ imȱ spätenȱ Mittelalterȱ 1250–1500:ȱ Eineȱ KulturȬȱ und
Mentalitätsgeschichte.ȱKulturȱundȱMentalitätȱ(Darmstadt:ȱPrimusȱVerlag,ȱ2004),ȱ139–40.
Introduction 155
inȱ Genesisȱ andȱ identifiedȱ theȱ huntȱ asȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ mostȱ effectiveȱ mediumsȱ to
reconfirmȱman’sȱabsoluteȱcontrolȱoverȱallȱanimals.349ȱ
Sinceȱthereȱareȱvirtuallyȱnoȱwomenȱinvolvedȱinȱhunting,ȱatȱleastȱasȱfarȱasȱGaston
prescribesȱandȱdescribedȱit,350ȱtheȱancientȱthreatȱofȱEveȱasȱman’sȱseductressȱwasȱnot
present.ȱTheȱauthorȱidealizedȱmen’sȱhuntingȱasȱtheȱoneȱsafeȱareaȱinȱhisȱtimeȱwhere
traditionalȱvaluesȱofȱaȱmasculineȱsocietyȱwereȱstillȱatȱplaceȱinsofarȱasȱman,ȱasȱGod’s
representativeȱhereȱonȱearth,ȱwasȱcompletelyȱinȱchargeȱofȱhisȱlifeȱandȱwasȱfully
entitledȱ toȱ killȱ anyȱ animalȱ thatȱ heȱ couldȱ catch.ȱ Iȱ supposeȱ thatȱ thisȱ underlying
ideologyȱ continuesȱ toȱ determineȱ manyȱ modernȱ hunters’ȱ mindsȱ sinceȱ killing
animalsȱprovidesȱtheȱindividualȱwithȱaȱsupremeȱsenseȱofȱpower,ȱasȱruthlessȱor
brutalȱasȱthatȱkillingȱmightȱbe.351ȱ
AsȱIȱhaveȱalreadyȱmentionedȱinȱpassing,ȱlateȬmedievalȱartȱincreasinglyȱturnedȱits
attentionȱtoȱruralȱspaceȱandȱrecognizedȱhowȱvaluableȱtheȱnaturalȱenvironment
reallyȱcouldȱbeȱeitherȱforȱspiritualȱenlightenmentȱorȱforȱpracticalȱpurposes.ȱBoth
loveȱ andȱ religionȱ foundȱ bestȱ expressionȱ inȱ nature,ȱ eitherȱ asȱ aȱ threatȱ orȱ asȱ an
invitingȱlocation.ȱThisȱrenewedȱinterestȱinȱruralȱspaceȱinȱtheȱlateȱMiddleȱAgesȱcan
beȱbestȱobservedȱinȱtheȱfamousȱgenreȱofȱtheȱBooksȱofȱHours,ȱwhichȱIȱdiscussȱinȱa
separateȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolume.ȱInȱorderȱtoȱgraspȱbetterȱwhatȱtheȱfunctionȱof
theȱnaturalȱworldȱmightȱbeȱasȱitȱincreasinglyȱcropsȱupȱinȱthisȱmostlyȱprivateȱgenre
ofȱreligiousȱbooksȱservingȱpersonalȱdevotion,ȱIȱfirstȱoutlineȱtheȱbasicȱstructureȱof
mostȱBooksȱofȱHours,ȱandȱthenȱdiscussȱtheȱcentralȱfunctionsȱofȱtheȱmajorȱparts.ȱ
MostȱsignificantȱwouldȱbeȱthatȱtheȱlateȱMiddleȱAgesȱwitnessedȱaȱtremendous
growthȱinȱinterestȱinȱthisȱgenre,ȱwhichȱledȱtoȱaȱcertainȱstandardizationȱinȱtheȱbook
production.ȱ Theȱ artistsȱ followedȱ suit,ȱ whichȱ makesȱ ourȱ assessmentȱ ofȱ howȱ to
evaluateȱ theȱ trueȱ qualityȱ ofȱ natureȱ scenesȱ inȱ theseȱ Booksȱ ofȱ Hoursȱ somewhat
problematic.ȱButȱtheȱvarietyȱofȱscenesȱandȱdetailsȱdepictedȱhereȱstillȱconfirmsȱhow
muchȱ theȱ artistsȱ wereȱ consciousȱ ofȱ theȱ necessityȱ toȱ copyȱ notȱ onlyȱ fromȱ model
books,ȱ butȱ alsoȱ toȱ considerȱ characteristicȱ featuresȱ ofȱ theȱ agriculturalȱ worldȱ at
349
SeeȱalsoȱStuhmiller’sȱinsightfulȱarticle,ȱ“PoachingȱandȱCarnival,”ȱHumanityȱandȱtheȱNaturalȱWorld,
ed.ȱDavidȱHawkesȱ(Turnhout:ȱBrepols,ȱforthcoming),ȱwhereȱsheȱidentifiesȱpoachingȱasȱaȱformȱof
huntingȱ thatȱ couldȱ almostȱ beȱ equatedȱ withȱ warfare,ȱ pittingȱ peasantsȱ againstȱ theȱ nobles,ȱ or
aristocraticȱneighborsȱagainstȱeachȱother.ȱSheȱutilizesȱtheȱtermȱ‘Carnival’ȱinȱorderȱtoȱindicateȱhow
muchȱpoachingȱinvertedȱtraditionalȱsocialȱorder.ȱIȱlikeȱtoȱexpressȱmyȱgratitudeȱforȱherȱlettingȱme
seeȱtheȱmanuscriptȱbeforeȱitsȱpublication.
350
ForȱwomenȱasȱhuntersȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱseeȱKatharinaȱFietze,ȱImȱGefolgeȱDianas:ȱFrauenȱund
höfischeȱJagdȱimȱMittelalterȱ(1200–1500).ȱBeihefteȱzumȱArchivȱfürȱKulturgeschichte,ȱ59ȱ(Cologne,
Weimar,ȱandȱVienna:ȱBöhlau,ȱ2005);ȱforȱexamplesȱofȱwomenȱhuntersȱinȱtheȱearlyȱmodernȱperiod,
seeȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱtheȱpresentȱvolumeȱbyȱMarthaȱMoffittȱPeacock.
351
WayneȱPacelle,ȱTheȱBond:ȱOurȱKinshipȱWithȱAnimals,ȱOurȱCallȱtoȱDefendȱThemȱ(NewȱYork:ȱWilliam
Morrow,ȱ2011),ȱoffersȱaȱvarietyȱofȱperspectivesȱonȱhumanȬanimalȱrelations,ȱandȱoverallȱarguesȱin
favorȱofȱanimalȱrights,ȱcriticizingȱman’sȱhuntingȱcraze.
specificȱtimesȱofȱtheȱyear,ȱsoȱthatȱtheyȱcouldȱillustrateȱtheȱindividualȱmonthsȱas
recognizableȱasȱpossible.ȱWeȱfaceȱtwoȱcuriousȱphenomena;ȱonȱtheȱoneȱhandȱthe
artistsȱ copiedȱ fromȱ eachȱ other,ȱ andȱ yetȱ theyȱ oftenȱ madeȱ seriousȱ effortsȱ to
incorporateȱnewȱelements,ȱnewȱdetails,ȱandȱnewȱsettings.ȱTheȱcarefulȱcomparison
ofȱaȱlargeȱnumberȱofȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱallowsȱusȱtoȱrecognizeȱanȱincreasingȱopening
towardȱtheȱnaturalȱworldȱandȱtheȱrealizationȱofȱtheȱindependentȱimportanceȱand
beautyȱofȱruralȱspaceȱforȱallȱpeople,ȱirrespectiveȱofȱtheirȱsocialȱstanding.ȱ
Asȱmuchȱasȱtheseȱdevotionalȱtextsȱtargetedȱprimarilyȱ(female)ȱmembersȱofȱtheȱ
aristocracy,ȱasȱmuchȱdidȱtheȱartistsȱendeavorȱtoȱtraceȱalmostȱmeticulouslyȱallȱkinds
ofȱcharacteristicȱactivitiesȱonȱtheȱfarm,ȱonȱtheȱpasture,ȱandȱinȱtheȱforests.ȱWeȱcan
listȱcountlessȱexamplesȱofȱspecificȱsituationsȱandȱworkȱactivitiesȱasȱtheyȱoccurȱin
theȱcountryside.ȱTheȱartȱofȱJanȱvanȱEyckȱ(ca.ȱ1395ȱ–ȱbeforeȱ9ȱJulyȱ1441)ȱwouldȱbe
someȱofȱtheȱclosestȱtoȱtheȱimagesȱincludedȱinȱtheȱBooksȱofȱHours,ȱasȱformulaicȱthese
miniaturesȱmightȱbe.352ȱQuiteȱnaturallyȱweȱobserveȱtheȱextentȱtoȱwhichȱtheȱbiblical
scenesȱstandȱinȱtheȱforeground,ȱbutȱevenȱtheȱmostȱtriteȱandȱcommonlyȱknownȱone
ofȱ themȱ isȱ nowȱ increasinglyȱ projectedȱ inȱ aȱ naturalȱ environment.ȱ Itȱ mightȱ be
difficult,ȱ ifȱ notȱ impossible,ȱ toȱ determineȱ exactlyȱ whereȱ theȱ artistic,ȱ stylized
elementsȱ comeȱ toȱ anȱ endȱ andȱ naturalȱ representationȱ basedȱ onȱ eyeȬwitness
accountsȱcomesȱin.ȱTheȱBookȱofȱHoursȱhoverȱsomewhereȱinȬbetween,ȱsoȱtheyȱtruly
reflectȱtheȱpendingȱparadigmȱshiftȱbothȱinȱtheȱhistoryȱofȱartȱandȱinȱtheȱgeneric
approachȱtoȱruralȱspaceȱatȱlarge,ȱwithȱtheȱappearanceȱofȱ(stylized)ȱlateȬmedieval
realism.
Asȱweȱcanȱconclude,ȱtheȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱallowedȱtheȱfullȱintegrationȱofȱtheȱrural
world,ȱ i.e.,ȱ theȱ farmȱ life,ȱ intoȱ theȱ sphereȱ ofȱ aristocraticȱ art,ȱ asȱ religiously
determinedȱthatȱwas.ȱAtȱtimesȱweȱdetectȱchildrenȱplaying,ȱmanyȱotherȱtimesȱwe
seeȱ theȱ sweatyȱ andȱ exhaustedȱ plowman,ȱ andȱ everywhereȱ weȱ seeȱ aȱ constantly
growingȱdelightȱinȱtheȱspecificsȱofȱtheȱnaturalȱspaceȱwithȱitsȱplants,ȱanimals,ȱbirds,
trees,ȱ butȱ thenȱ alsoȱ ofȱ peopleȱ workingȱ inȱ theȱ fields,ȱ enjoyingȱ theirȱ pastime,ȱ or
traversingȱthatȱruralȱspaceȱforȱmanyȱdifferentȱpurposes.ȱTheȱiconographyȱstillȱcan,
orȱmust,ȱbeȱreadȱthroughȱtheȱlensȱofȱreligiousȱsymbolism,ȱyetȱtheȱcareȱandȱlove
withȱwhichȱtheseȱruralȱepisodesȱhaveȱbeenȱdesignedȱstronglyȱsuggestȱaȱsignificant
paradigmȱshiftȱinȱman’sȱattitudeȱtowardȱhisȱnaturalȱenvironmentȱbeginningȱinȱthe
lateȱfourteenthȱandȱfifteenthȱcenturies.ȱ
Althoughȱitȱwouldȱbe,ȱmostȱunfortunately,ȱfutileȱtoȱincludeȱanyȱofȱtheseȱimages,
simplyȱbecauseȱthereȱareȱjustȱtooȱmanyȱandȱtheirȱaestheticȱappealȱcannotȱbeȱeasily
352
SeeȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱDasȱleuchtendeȱMittelalter,ȱed.ȱJacquesȱDalarun.ȱAusȱdemȱFranzösischen
vonȱ Birgitȱ LamerzȬBeckschäfer.ȱ 3rdȱ ed.ȱ (2002;ȱ Darmstadt:ȱ Primusȱ Verlag,ȱ 2011).ȱ Manyȱ times
examplesȱdrawnȱfromȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱareȱdiscussedȱhereȱasȱillustrationsȱthatȱserveȱtoȱcontradictȱthe
oldȱ butȱ completelyȱ erroneousȱ mythȱ regardingȱ theȱ ‘darkȱ Middleȱ Ages.’ȱ Weȱ canȱ addȱ thatȱ our
modernȱmythȱaboutȱtheȱmedievalȱworldȱbeingȱentirelyȱdominatedȱbyȱtheȱaristocraticȱcourtȱand
theȱchurchȱisȱalsoȱentirelyȱwrong.ȱ
Introduction 157
reproducedȱwithoutȱmajorȱeffortsȱinappropriateȱforȱourȱpurposesȱinȱthisȱbook,ȱour
discussionȱ ofȱ manyȱ differentȱ Booksȱ ofȱ Hoursȱ laysȱ theȱ foundationȱ forȱ more
interdisciplinaryȱresearchȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱruralȱspace.
Oneȱofȱtheȱtantalizingȱquestionsȱinȱtheȱstudyȱofȱtheȱpremodernȱworldȱresultsȱfrom
theȱtensionsȱbetween,ȱonȱtheȱoneȱhand,ȱpublicȱartȱandȱliterature,ȱreflectingȱthe
officialȱpositionsȱbyȱtheȱChurchȱandȱtheȱaristocracyȱinȱitsȱpoliticalȱfunction,ȱandȱthe
greatȱlikelihoodȱonȱtheȱother,ȱthatȱtheȱaudienceȱfromȱthatȱtime,ȱbothȱnobleȱand
membersȱofȱtheȱlowerȱclasses,ȱcertainlyȱmustȱhaveȱfeltȱconsiderableȱenjoyment
aboutȱtheȱbeautyȱofȱnature.ȱAestheticsȱcannotȱbeȱsimplyȱdeniedȱjustȱbecauseȱthe
publicȱartȱatȱaȱcertainȱtimeȱfollowedȱspecificȱdirectives,ȱbeingȱcommissionedȱby
Churchȱpatrons,ȱaboveȱall.ȱ
Inȱ herȱ contributionȱ toȱ thisȱ volume,ȱ Liaȱ B.ȱ Ross,ȱ attemptsȱ toȱ overcomeȱ that
conflictȱ byȱ contrastingȱ theȱ attitudeȱ towardȱ natureȱ byȱ theȱ Romanticsȱ withȱ the
conceptȱofȱnatureȱasȱmanifestedȱbyȱlateȬmedievalȱart.ȱContemporaryȱliterature,ȱas
expressiveȱandȱsentimentalȱitȱmightȱhaveȱbeenȱatȱtimes,ȱcontinuedȱtoȱfollowȱmostly
standardȱ modelsȱ ofȱ howȱ toȱ describeȱ theȱ aestheticȱ aspectȱ ofȱ theȱ ruralȱ space,
replicatingȱtheȱtropesȱandȱtopoiȱasȱinheritedȱfromȱclassicalȱantiquity.ȱOfȱcourse,ȱwe
beginȱtoȱdiscoverȱremarkableȱexceptionsȱhereȱandȱthere,ȱespeciallyȱifȱweȱthinkȱof
theȱpoeticȱworksȱbyȱOswaldȱvonȱWolkensteinȱ(1376/77–1445)ȱorȱsomeȱfifteenthȬ
centuryȱpoemsȱinȱtheȱEnglishȱlanguage,ȱsuchȱasȱSirȱT.ȱClanvowe’sȱ“TheȱCuckoo
andȱ theȱ Nightingale”ȱ (ca.ȱ 1403)ȱ orȱ theȱ anonymousȱ “Theȱ Flowerȱ andȱ theȱ Leaf”
(secondȱ halfȱ ofȱ theȱ fifteenthȱ century).353ȱ Overall,ȱ however,ȱ lateȬmedievalȱ lyric,
despiteȱ aȱ hostȱ ofȱ rhetorical,ȱ stylistic,ȱ andȱ linguisticȱ innovations,ȱ continuedȱ the
variousȱ traditions.ȱ Nevertheless,ȱ lookingȱ atȱ lateȬmedievalȱ art,ȱ especiallyȱ book
illustrations,ȱ Rossȱ observesȱ aȱ remarkableȱ innovativeȱ trend,ȱ especiallyȱ ifȱ we
considerȱminiatureȱart,ȱthatȱis,ȱBookȱofȱHoursȱandȱotherȱgenres.ȱ
WhileȱIȱmyselfȱdiscussȱthisȱgenreȱatȱlengthȱwithȱaȱfocusȱonȱtheȱruralȱelements
containedȱinȱtheȱillustrations,ȱRossȱturnsȱtoȱtheseȱlittleȱbutȱhighlyȱvaluableȱbooks
ofȱ privateȱ devotionȱ becauseȱ theyȱ reflectedȱ inȱ manyȱ differentȱ waysȱ theȱ tastes,
interests,ȱandȱconcernsȱofȱtheirȱpatrons.ȱTheȱartistsȱhadȱtoȱpayȱcloseȱattentionȱto
theirȱ demands,ȱ althoughȱ theyȱ also,ȱ orȱ justȱ forȱ thatȱ reason,ȱ followedȱ standard
modelsȱofȱhowȱtoȱdepictȱruralȱscenesȱandȱsettings.ȱ
TheȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱwereȱcreatedȱprimarilyȱinȱnorthernȱFrance,ȱinȱFlanders,ȱin
northwesternȱGermany,ȱandȱinȱEngland,ȱandȱtheyȱfollowed,ȱinȱmajority,ȱsimilar
idealsȱandȱconceptsȱofȱhowȱnaturalȱspacesȱwereȱtoȱbeȱrepresented.ȱWhileȱIȱmyself
353
H.ȱ S.ȱ Bennett,ȱ Chaucerȱ theȱ theȱ Fifteenthȱ Century.ȱ Theȱ Oxfordȱ Historyȱ ofȱ Englishȱ Literature,ȱ II
(Oxford:ȱAtȱtheȱClarendonȱPress,ȱ1947/1948),ȱ124–37;ȱseeȱalsoȱMiddleȱEnglishȱLyrics:ȱAuthoritative
Texts,ȱCriticalȱandȱHistoricalȱBackgrounds,ȱPerspectivesȱonȱSixȱPoems,ȱselectedȱandȱed.ȱbyȱMaxwellȱS.
LuriaȱandȱRichardȱL.ȱHoffmanȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱLondon:ȱW.ȱW.ȱNorton,ȱ1974),ȱ147–69.
discussȱ theȱ significantȱ elementsȱ inȱ theȱ calendarȱ pictures,ȱ Rossȱ exploresȱ more
poignantlyȱtheȱbackgroundȱhistoryȱofȱmajorȱrepresentatives,ȱandȱonlyȱthenȱturns
toȱ theȱ criticalȱ analysisȱ ofȱ theȱ ruralȱ worldȱ asȱ depictedȱ inȱ theȱ miniaturesȱ forȱ the
calendarȱ sections.ȱ Sheȱ alsoȱ paysȱ extraordinaryȱ attentionȱ toȱ theȱ useȱ ofȱ colors,
shapes,ȱandȱmotifsȱdeterminingȱeachȱillumination.ȱ
ConsideringȱtheȱlargeȱnumberȱofȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱproducedȱduringȱtheȱlateȱMiddle
Ages,ȱitȱdoesȱnotȱcomeȱasȱaȱsurpriseȱthatȱrepetitionȱofȱspecificȱmodesȱofȱpainting
thoseȱnaturalȱbackgroundsȱandȱframeworksȱquicklyȱsetȱin.ȱHowever,ȱthisȱdidȱnot
diminishȱtheȱimpressiveȱdelightȱinȱglowingȱcolorsȱandȱinȱminuteȱdetailsȱborrowed
fromȱ dailyȱ lifeȱ onȱ aȱ farmȱ orȱ inȱ theȱ countryside.ȱ Irrespectiveȱ ofȱ theȱ quickly
developingȱtrendȱtoȱfollowȱtheȱmodelsȱcreatedȱbyȱtheȱearlyȱmasters,ȱespeciallyȱthe
BrothersȱofȱLimbourg,ȱRossȱemphasizesȱtheȱhighȱdegreeȱofȱsensitivityȱwhichȱthe
artistsȱ hadȱ developed,ȱ sinceȱ theyȱ consistentlyȱ succeededȱ inȱ combiningȱ biblical
scenesȱwithȱincreasinglyȱrealisticȱsettings,ȱasȱidyllicȱasȱtheyȱoftenȱseemȱtoȱbe—in
thisȱ senseȱ theȱ differenceȱ betweenȱ theȱ medievalȱ sensibilityȱ andȱ theȱ Romantic
enthusiasmȱaboutȱwild,ȱoftenȱferocious,ȱsometimesȱenigmaticȱandȱfearful,ȱifȱnot
ominousȱnatureȱcouldȱnotȱbeȱbigger.ȱ
TheȱdifferenceȱinȱRenaissanceȱpaintingsȱcommonlyȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱtheȱdifferent
structureȱofȱtheȱmanyȱnaturalȱelementsȱpackedȱintoȱthoseȱilluminationsȱwhereȱa
varietyȱofȱactivitiesȱcanȱtakeȱplaceȱatȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱwithȱlittleȱtoȱhelpȱtheȱviewer
toȱconcentrateȱonȱtheȱcentralȱbiblicalȱeventsȱinȱtheȱforeground,ȱorȱonȱtheȱspecific
messagesȱ concerningȱ typicalȱ occurrencesȱ duringȱ theȱ courseȱ ofȱ aȱ year,ȱ a
phenomenonȱwhichȱcouldȱbeȱcalledȱ‘enumeration.’ȱ
Theȱdelightȱinȱnaturalȱelementsȱandȱtheȱcompilationȱofȱnaturalisticȱelementsȱalso
comeȱtoȱtheȱforeȱinȱsoȬcalledȱ‘princelyȱbooks,’ȱsuchȱasȱRenéȱofȱAnjou’sȱȱLivreȱdu
Cœurȱd’amourȱéprisȱfromȱ1457,ȱwhichȱcontainȱanȱabundanceȱofȱoutdoorȱscenesȱwith
aȱwealthȱofȱrealisticȱelements,ȱandȱthisȱdespiteȱtheȱexplicitlyȱallegoricalȱnatureȱof
thisȱgenre.ȱBizarreȱelementsȱalsoȱoccupyȱtheȱscenes,ȱwhichȱreflectȱtheȱprofound
attemptȱtoȱintegrateȱasȱmuchȱofȱthisȱmaterialȱworldȱintoȱtheȱidealȱconceptsȱwhich
theȱnarrativesȱtryȱtoȱdevelop.ȱInȱtheȱhistoryȱofȱartȱHieronymusȱBosch’sȱfamous
“GardenȱofȱEarthlyȱDelights”ȱfromȱcaȱ1490ȱtoȱ1510ȱ(todayȱhousedȱinȱtheȱMuseoȱdel
PradoȱinȱMadridȱsinceȱ1939)ȱcontinuedȱthisȱtradition,ȱstronglyȱdeterminedȱbyȱa
realisticȱ framework,ȱ andȱ yetȱ deeplyȱ informedȱ byȱ extensiveȱ allegorization,
containingȱ extensiveȱ moralȱ warningsȱ andȱ alsoȱ reflectionsȱ aboutȱ paradiseȱ lost.
Boschȱprojectedȱruralȱspace,ȱandȱyetȱitȱseemsȱtoȱbeȱmoreȱanȱallegoricalȱgarden
settingȱthanȱanythingȱelse.354ȱ
354
Researchȱonȱthisȱfamousȱtriptychȱisȱlegion,ȱbutȱsee,ȱmostȱrecently,ȱPeterȱGlum,ȱTheȱKeyȱtoȱBosch’s
“Gardenȱ ofȱ Earthlyȱ Delights”ȱ Foundȱ inȱ Allegoricalȱ Bibleȱ Interpretation.ȱ Vol.ȱ 1ȱ (Tokyo:ȱ ChiȬkoron
BijutsuȱShuppan,ȱ2007).ȱ
Introduction 159
ManyȱotherȱnorthȱEuropeanȱartists,ȱsuchȱasȱfamousȱJanȱvanȱEyckȱ(ca.ȱ1395–ca.
1440),ȱalsoȱworkedȱinȱthatȱdirection,ȱrevealingȱaȱgreatȱdelightȱinȱruralȱspaceȱfor
theirȱpictorialȱbackgrounds,ȱwithoutȱabandoningȱtheirȱfundamentalȱconcernȱto
conveyȱ religiousȱ messagesȱ byȱ wayȱ ofȱ allegoricalȱ means.ȱ Anȱ excellentȱ example
provesȱtoȱbeȱhisȱGhentȱaltarpieceȱfromȱ1432,ȱ“TheȱAdorationȱofȱtheȱMagicȱLamb”
(inȱSaintȱBavoȱCathedral).ȱ
Whereverȱweȱturnȱourȱattention,ȱweȱnoticeȱtheȱgrowingȱinterestȱinȱtheȱnatural
environment,ȱalthoughȱtheȱartistsȱtendedȱtoȱdepictȱmostlyȱgardenȬlikeȱsettings,ȱand
leftȱoutȱtheȱwild,ȱunfamiliar,ȱdangerous,ȱorȱlifeȬthreateningȱforest.ȱAȱcontemporary
accountȱinȱtheȱChroniquesȱofȱGeorgesȱChastellainȱaboutȱanȱunfortunateȱadventure
byȱPhilipȱtheȱGoodȱ(r.1419–1467)ȱwhoȱoneȱnightȱgotȱlostȱinȱtheȱforestȱandȱbadly
sufferedȱinȱtheȱunderbrush,ȱtheȱrain,ȱandȱtheȱcold.ȱFinallyȱheȱfoundȱrefugeȱinȱa
peasant’sȱ cottage,ȱ andȱ theȱ nextȱ morningȱ heȱ managedȱ toȱ returnȱ home.ȱ The
chroniclerȱreflectedȱinȱmostȱdramaticȱtermsȱtheȱterrorȱandȱfearȱwhichȱtheȱlonely
dukeȱhadȱtoȱundergo,ȱandȱsubsequentlyȱemphasizedȱtheȱtremendousȱreliefȱforȱthe
dukeȱwhenȱheȱwasȱbackȱinȱhisȱfamiliarȱterritory,ȱtheȱgarden,ȱorȱparkȱsurrounding
hisȱresidence.ȱ
Theȱparallelsȱtoȱtheȱwildȱforestȱinȱcourtlyȱliteratureȱ(seeȱabove)ȱareȱevident,ȱbut
whereasȱtheȱArthurianȱknightȱvoluntarilyȱentersȱtheȱforestȱtoȱmeetȱhisȱchallenge,
fromȱwhereȱheȱthenȱhopefullyȱmanagesȱtoȱreturnȱtoȱtheȱcourtȱtriumphantlyȱ(seeȱSir
GawainȱandȱtheȱGreenȱKnightȱwithȱitsȱwonderfulȱdescriptionȱofȱtheȱGreenȱChapel),
Philipȱ presentedȱ himselfȱ asȱ completelyȱ lost,ȱ nearȱ desperation,ȱ ifȱ notȱ death.
Significantly,ȱ inȱ thisȱ accountȱ theȱ poorȱ peasantȱ emergesȱ asȱ theȱ duke’sȱ rescuer,
similarȱtoȱtheȱtraditionalȱmagicalȱguardianȱfiguresȱthatȱcommonlyȱkeepȱwatchȱover
medievalȱ protagonists,ȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ fairyȱ figureȱ Melusineȱ inȱ Thüringȱ von
Ringoltingen’sȱ eponymousȱ proseȱ novel,ȱ Melusineȱ (1456)ȱ orȱ inȱ hisȱ sourcesȱ by
CouldretteȱandȱJeanȱd’Arras.355ȱWeȱhaveȱalreadyȱobservedȱtheȱparallelȱcaseȱofȱa
guardianȱ peasantȱ helpingȱ aȱ nobleȱ ladyȱ inȱ Elisabethȱ vonȱ NassauȬSaarbrücken’s
KöniginȱSbille,ȱwhileȱinȱChastellain’sȱchronicleȱtheȱpeasantȱsimpleȱprovidesȱshelter
forȱoneȱnight.ȱ
Liaȱ Ross’sȱ criticalȱ conclusionȱ underscores,ȱ however,ȱ muchȱ moreȱ theȱ clear
demarcationȱlineȱbetweenȱtheȱuntamed,ȱdeeplyȱdislikedȱandȱferociousȱforestȱand
theȱpleasant,ȱdelightful,ȱtamed,ȱandȱcompletelyȱcontrolledȱgardenȱorȱparkȱsetȬup
andȱ managedȱ forȱ theȱ noblesȱ inȱ theȱ lateȱ Middleȱ Agesȱ andȱ beyond,ȱ asȱ weȱ have
learnedȱinȱtheȱcontributionsȱbyȱMarilynȱSandidgeȱandȱAbigailȱDowling.ȱFifteenthȬ
andȱsixteenthȬcenturiesȱaristocraticȱcultureȱbyȱfarȱpreferredȱtamedȱnature,ȱwhich
355
AlbrechtȱClassen,ȱTheȱGermanȱVolksbuchȱ(seeȱnoteȱ249),ȱ141–62;ȱcf.ȱnowȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionsȱto
Eulenspiegelȱ trifftȱ Melusine:ȱ derȱ frühneuhochdeutscheȱ Prosaromanȱ imȱ Lichtȱ neuerȱ Forschungenȱ und
Methodenȱ;ȱAktenȱderȱLausannerȱTagungȱvomȱ2.ȱbisȱ4.ȱOktoberȱ2008,ȱed.ȱCatherineȱDrittenbassȱand
AndréȱSchnyder,ȱwithȱAlexanderȱSchwarz.ȱChloe,ȱ42ȱ(AmsterdamȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱEditionȱRodopi,
2010).
wasȱ theȱ launchingȱ pad,ȱ soȱ toȱ speak,ȱ forȱ aȱ wholeȬsaleȱ developmentȱ ofȱ royalȱ or
aristocraticȱ palacesȱ withȱ largeȱ groundsȱ aroundȱ them.ȱ Onceȱ theȱ wildȱ was
controlled,ȱ itȱ gainedȱ inȱ aestheticȱ qualities.ȱ Wildȱ natureȱ forȱ itsȱ ownȱ sake,ȱ as
observedȱ byȱ theȱ Conquistadoresȱ inȱ theȱ Newȱ World,ȱ didȱ notȱ inhereȱ pleasing
characteristics.ȱNevertheless,ȱdespiteȱthisȱratherȱnegativeȱconclusion,ȱbothȱRoss’s
articleȱandȱmyȱownȱonȱtheȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱunderlineȱtheȱtremendousȱtransformation
inȱ theȱ attitudeȱ towardȱ ruralȱ spaceȱ atȱ theȱ latestȱ byȱ theȱ fourteenthȱ andȱ fifteenth
centuries.ȱEcocriticalȱapproachesȱproveȱtoȱbe,ȱandȱhereȱasȱwell,ȱhighlyȱproductive
inȱunravelingȱmanyȱofȱtheȱmysteriesȱofȱlateȬmedievalȱandȱearlyȬmodernȱart.356ȱ
However,ȱweȱwouldȱmisreadȱtheȱavailableȱevidenceȱifȱweȱdeterminedȱthatȱthe
focusȱonȱruralȱspaceȱbecameȱsharpenedȱandȱintensifiedȱonlyȱinȱtheȱlateȱMiddle
Ages.ȱAsȱweȱhaveȱseenȱabove,ȱalreadyȱinȱtheȱearlyȱMiddleȱAgesȱdidȱartistsȱand
writersȱ reflectȱ onȱ theȱ naturalȱ environmentȱ andȱ acceptedȱ theȱ impactȱ ofȱ natural
featuresȱ onȱ theȱ developmentȱ ofȱ individualsȱ inȱ fictionalȱ orȱ factualȱ terms.ȱ An
excellentȱexampleȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱtheȱMiddleȱEnglishȱromanceȱAwntyrsȱoffȱArthureȱat
theȱTerneȱWathelyne,ȱwhichȱJeanȱE.ȱJostȱdiscussesȱinȱherȱcontributionȱasȱaȱpowerful
illustrationȱofȱhowȱmuchȱmedievalȱprotagonistsȱmovedȱbetweenȱtheȱruralȱandȱthe
urban/courtlyȱspaceȱandȱneededȱbothȱdimensionsȱtoȱdoȱjusticeȱtoȱtheȱdemandsȱon
themȱinȱtheirȱmaturationȱprocess.ȱAsȱtheȱauthorȱsignalledȱthroughȱtheȱcomplex
arrangementȱofȱtheȱnarrative,ȱtheȱmoveȱfromȱcourtȱtoȱtheȱforest,ȱfromȱtheȱmarsh
toȱ theȱ city,ȱ etc.,ȱ allowedȱ himȱ (her?)ȱ toȱ exploreȱ theȱ contrastiveȱ elementsȱ ofȱ the
magicalȱandȱtheȱnatural,ȱofȱtheȱwildȱandȱtheȱcivilized,ȱallȱessentialȱcomponentsȱin
humanȱ existence,ȱ whetherȱ resultingȱ fromȱ imaginationȱ orȱ reflectingȱ historical
reality.ȱInȱAwntyrsȱoffȱArthureȱatȱtheȱTerneȱWathelyneȱweȱareȱquicklyȱconfrontedȱby
aȱmarshy,ȱbogȬlikeȱterrain,ȱTurnewathelane,ȱwhichȱalmostȱevokesȱtheȱdarkȱrural
spacesȱinȱtheȱheroicȱepicȱBeowulf.ȱ
AsȱJostȱobserves,ȱtheȱruralȱspaceȱisȱnotȱsimplyȱaȱuniformȱworld,ȱbutȱisȱpresented
inȱmultipleȱdegreesȱofȱrurality,ȱmoreȱorȱlessȱremovedȱfromȱtheȱworldȱofȱtheȱcourt.ȱ
Oftenȱcourtlyȱauthorsȱenjoyedȱexploringȱtheȱmeaningȱofȱfairies,ȱmagic,ȱandȱfantasy
creaturesȱwhoȱliveȱinȱaȱlandȱwhereȱtheȱstandardȱhumanȱconditionsȱnoȱlongerȱare
atȱwork.ȱThisȱisȱtheȱcaseȱinȱthisȱMiddleȱEnglishȱromanceȱasȱwell.ȱTheȱloversȱseek
aȱquietȱrestingȱplace,ȱbutȱsuddenlyȱfaceȱaȱradicalȱchangeȱofȱweatherȱandȱthenȱa
skeletonȱ ghost,ȱ challengingȱ themȱ inȱ multipleȱ fashions.ȱ Havingȱ beenȱ aȱ queen
herself,ȱȱGaynour’sȱmotherȱseeksȱhelpȱfromȱherȱdaughter,ȱbutȱsheȱcanȱonlyȱaskȱher
356
Fletcher,ȱGardensȱofȱEarthlyȱDelightȱ(seeȱnoteȱ323).ȱForȱaȱdetailedȱreview,ȱoverallȱpositive,ȱseeȱDavid
ScottȬMacnabȱinȱTheȱMedievalȱReviewȱ(online)ȱ12.1.02.ȱHeȱrightlyȱwarnsȱus,ȱhowever,ȱofȱaȱnumber
ofȱerrorsȱresultingȱfromȱFletcher’sȱheavyȱrelianceȱonȱsecondaryȱsources,ȱsoȱespeciallyȱwithȱrespect
toȱGastonȱPhébus’sȱhuntingȱbookȱandȱtheȱwayȱhowȱheȱdied.ȱButȱFletcherȱbringsȱmanyȱyearsȱof
personalȱexperienceȱtoȱthisȱbook,ȱwhichȱallowsȱhimȱtoȱdiscussȱanȱimpressiveȱrangeȱofȱbiological
aspectsȱmostȱmedievalistsȱwouldȱnotȱbeȱfamiliarȱwith.
Introduction 161
forȱ thisȱ supportȱ inȱ theȱ gloomyȱ spaceȱ farȱ awayȱ fromȱ civilization;ȱ itȱ isȱ almostȱ a
hellishȱscenarioȱprojectedȱhere.ȱForcedȱintoȱempathyȱandȱpity,ȱGaynourȱisȱgranted
theȱ opportunityȱ toȱ lookȱ intoȱ aȱ metaphysicalȱ mirrorȱ byȱ staringȱ atȱ herȱ ghostly
mother,ȱ ȱ andȱ therebyȱ learnsȱ howȱ toȱ leadȱ aȱ betterȱ lifeȱ determinedȱ byȱ religious
ideals.ȱSimilarly,ȱherȱcompanionȱSirȱGawayneȱisȱforewarnedȱofȱtheȱdoomȱofȱKing
Arthurȱandȱhisȱcourt,ȱandȱsoȱalsoȱprofitsȱfromȱtheȱapparitionȱinȱthisȱlonelyȱrural
space,ȱwhichȱteachesȱhimȱtoȱchangeȱhisȱlifeȱandȱtoȱkeepȱtheȱvagariesȱofȱfortuneȱin
mind.
Asȱinȱaȱveryȱsimilar,ȱominousȱandȱpropheticȱsceneȱinȱtheȱNibelungenlied,ȱwhere
theȱwaterȱnixiesȱtellȱHagenȱaboutȱtheȱfutureȱdestinyȱofȱtheȱentireȱBurgundianȱarmy
duringȱtheirȱvisitȱatȱKingȱEtzel’sȱcourtȱ(seeȱabove),ȱhereȱtheȱmacabreȱencounter
withȱtheȱghostȱcarriesȱpropheticȱimplications,ȱandȱhereȱasȱwellȱtheȱepistemological
frameworkȱisȱgivenȱbyȱwild,ȱuncannyȱruralȱspace,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱmarsh.
TheȱproblematicȱconfrontationsȱinȱAwntyrsȱoffȱArthureȱatȱtheȱTerneȱWathelyneȱdo
notȱcomeȱtoȱanȱend;ȱinstead,ȱasȱJostȱemphasizes,ȱtheyȱcontinueȱinȱtheȱfollowing
sectionsȱofȱtheȱnarrative,ȱalthoughȱthenȱinȱaȱreversedȱorder,ȱȱstrangelyȱemerging
fromȱ theȱ wildernessȱ andȱ enteringȱ Kingȱ Arthur’sȱ court.ȱ Theȱ civilizedȱ andȱ the
uncivilizedȱproveȱtoȱbeȱintimatelyȱintertwinedȱinsofarȱasȱbothȱhumanȱsocietyȱand
theȱwildȱrespondȱtoȱeachȱother,ȱchallengingȱtheȱrespectiveȱother,ȱandȱexposing
weaknessesȱandȱfear.ȱȱButȱtheȱmilitaryȱcontestȱbetweenȱGawayneȱandȱGaleron
avoidsȱlargeȬscaleȱviolenceȱandȱmilitaryȱoperationsȱbecause,ȱasȱweȱmightȱsay,ȱthe
distanceȱbetweenȱtheȱruralȱandȱtheȱcourtlyȱworldȱhasȱshrunkȱremarkably.ȱAtȱthe
end,ȱasȱJostȱemphasizes,ȱtheȱexternalȱandȱtheȱinternalȱdimensionsȱareȱreunited,ȱand
theȱ harmonyȱ atȱ courtȱ isȱ reestablishedȱ becauseȱ contrastiveȱ spacesȱ haveȱ been
mergedȱinȱmetaphoricalȱterms.ȱ
Bothȱonȱanȱabstractȱandȱonȱaȱliteralȱlevelȱdoȱweȱrecognizeȱtheȱgreatȱsignificance
ofȱ ruralȱ spaceȱ forȱ courtlyȱ audiences,ȱ whetherȱ itȱ constitutedȱ aȱ fundamental
challenge,ȱ suchȱ asȱ inȱ Theȱ Stricker’sȱ Middleȱ Highȱ Germanȱ Arthurianȱ romance,
DanielȱvonȱdemȱBlühendenȱTalȱ(ca.ȱ1210–1225),ȱwithȱitsȱgiants,ȱmonsters,ȱdevilish
figures,ȱmountainȱpasses,ȱandȱtheȱominousȱOldȱManȱofȱtheȱMountain,357ȱorȱinȱSir
GawainȱandȱtheȱGreenȱKnight,ȱnotȱtoȱmentionȱAwntyrsȱoffȱArthure.ȱ
357
DerȱStricker,ȱDanielȱvonȱdemȱBlühendenȱTal,ȱed.ȱMichaelȱResler.ȱAltdeutscheȱTextbibliothek,ȱ92
(Tübingen:ȱ Maxȱ Niemeyer,ȱ 1983);ȱ Derȱ Stricker,ȱ Danielȱ ofȱ theȱ Blossomingȱ Valley,ȱ trans.ȱ Michael
Resler.ȱGarlandȱLibraryȱofȱMedievalȱLiterature,ȱSeriesȱB,ȱ58ȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱLondon:ȱGarland,
1999);ȱ Albrechtȱ Classen,ȱ “‘DetailȬRealismus’ȱ imȱ deutschenȱ Spätmittelalter:ȱ Derȱ Fallȱ vonȱ des
Strickersȱ Danielȱ vonȱ demȱ blühenȱ Talȱ undȱ Konradsȱ vonȱ Würzburgȱ Turnierȱ vonȱ Nantes,”ȱ Studia
Neophilologicaȱ 64ȱ (1992):ȱ 195–220;ȱ Markusȱ Wennerhold,ȱ Späteȱ mittelhochdeutscheȱ Artusromane:
“LanzeletȈ,ȱȈWigaloisȈ,ȱȈDanielȱvonȱdemȱBlühendenȱTalȈ,ȱȈDiuȱCrôneȈ:ȱBilanzȱderȱForschungȱ1960–2000.
WürzburgerȱBeiträgeȱzurȱdeutschenȱPhilologie,ȱ27ȱ(Würzburg:ȱKönigshausenȱundȱNeumann,
2005),ȱ128–81.
Onceȱweȱacknowledgeȱtheȱrelevanceȱofȱspace,ȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱtheȱ‘spatialȱturn’ȱ(see
above),ȱweȱrecognizeȱincreasingly,ȱasȱJostȱdoesȱinȱherȱcontribution,ȱtheȱenormous
significanceȱ ofȱ contrastive,ȱ oftenȱ contradictoryȱ projectionsȱ ofȱ space,ȱ ruralȱ and
courtly,ȱurbanȱandȱecclesiastical.ȱSubsequentlyȱweȱcouldȱgoȱsoȱfarȱasȱtoȱdetermine
theȱcentralȱimportanceȱofȱruralȱspace,ȱaboveȱall,ȱinsofarȱasȱhereȱtheȱtransformation
ofȱ theȱ courtlyȱ protagonistsȱ tendȱ toȱ takeȱ place,ȱ whereuponȱ theyȱ areȱ enabledȱ to
returnȱtoȱtheirȱpreviousȱposition,ȱnowȱmaturedȱandȱenlightened,ȱifȱthisȱisȱnotȱtoo
bigȱofȱaȱwordȱinȱthisȱcontext,ȱthroughȱtheȱconfrontationȱwithȱtheȱruralȱatȱlarge.ȱ
ThroughoutȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱweȱdiscoverȱtwoȱmajorȱstrandsȱofȱdiscourse,ȱtheȱone
mockingȱandȱsatirizingȱpeasantsȱatȱlarge,ȱwhileȱtheȱother,ȱmuchȱlessȱcommon,ȱyet
stillȱpresent,ȱreflectsȱaȱcertainȱrespectȱforȱtheȱworthyȱandȱdeeplyȱgroundedȱpeasant,
theȱlastȱrepresentativeȱofȱtraditionalȱvaluesȱandȱhonors.358ȱButȱatȱtimesȱtheȱsituation
inȱ lateȬmedievalȱ literatureȱ isȱ notȱ asȱ straightforward,ȱ asȱ Nicolinoȱ Applauso
illustratesȱthroughȱaȱcarefulȱandȱdetailedȱreadingȱofȱaȱratherȱuniqueȱandȱheretofore
littleȱdiscussedȱpoem,ȱMatazoneȱdaȱCaligano’sȱ“Nativitasȱrusticorum”ȱfromȱthe
thirteenthȱorȱperhapsȱlateȱfourteenthȱcentury.ȱMatazoneȱpresentsȱhimselfȱasȱaȱkind
ofȱjesterȱwhoȱwasȱaȱpeasant,ȱandȱasȱsuchȱbornȱfromȱaȱdonkey’sȱfart—allȱhilarious
andȱ deeplyȱ satirical,ȱ andȱ asȱ inȱ manyȱ similarȱ casesȱ containingȱ aȱ reflectionȱ on
peasantsȱinȱtheȱlateȱMiddleȱAges,ȱespeciallyȱbecauseȱheȱdenouncesȱtheȱabuseȱfrom
whichȱtheȱpeasantsȱhaveȱtoȱsufferȱandȱridiculesȱtheȱpeasantsȱatȱtheȱsameȱtime.ȱThe
Italianȱphraseȱȱ‘satiraȱdelȱvillano’ȱcouldȱmeanȱbothȱ‘satireȱofȱtheȱpeasant’ȱandȱ‘satire
byȱtheȱpeasantȱaboutȱtheȱtraditionȱofȱliteraryȱmockeryȱofȱpeasants.’ȱ
Butȱtheȱnegativeȱapproachȱtoȱpeasantsȱdominatedȱthroughoutȱtheȱentireȱage,ȱas
evenȱ Danteȱ confirmedȱ withȱ aȱ sarcasticȱ commentȱ aboutȱ peasantsȱ inȱ hisȱ Divina
commedia.ȱAsȱApplausoȱpointsȱout,ȱhowever,ȱaȱmoreȱcarefulȱexaminationȱofȱthe
manuscriptȱ documentsȱ canȱ revealȱ theȱ otherȱ tradition,ȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ “Ritmo
Laurenziano”ȱ(ca.ȱ1188–1207)ȱwithȱitsȱratherȱmixedȱtreatmentȱofȱrusticsȱwhoȱare
suddenlyȱnotȱallȱthatȱbad,ȱignorant,ȱorȱsimplyȱboorish.ȱOtherȱtexts,ȱsuchȱasȱpoems
byȱ theȱ thirteenthȬcenturyȱ Guittoneȱ d’Arezzo,ȱ relyȱ onȱ peasantȱ imageriesȱ notȱ to
ridiculeȱ thoseȱ veryȱ persons,ȱ butȱ toȱ attackȱ inȱ aȱ mockingȱ fashionȱ highȱ ranking
358
ThisȱfindsȱitsȱprobablyȱbestȱexpressionȱinȱtheȱtensionsȱbetweenȱfatherȱandȱsonȱinȱWernherȱthe
Gardener’sȱMiddleȱHighȱGermanȱMeierȱHelmbrechtȱfromȱca.ȱ1250–1280.ȱSeeȱmyȱdiscussionȱofȱthis
remarkableȱdidacticȱverseȱnarrativeȱabove.ȱWeȱwouldȱalsoȱhaveȱtoȱconsiderȱtheȱtestimonyȱofȱPieter
BrueghelȱtheȱElder’sȱextraordinaryȱruralȱscenesȱinȱhisȱwonderfullyȱrealisticȱpaintings,ȱasȱIȱhave
discussedȱabove.ȱSharonȱKing,ȱinȱherȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolume,ȱreachesȱaȱsimilarȱconclusionȱin
herȱinvestigationȱofȱlateȬmedievalȱFrenchȱfarce,ȱwhereȱsheȱdiscoversȱaȱwideȱrangeȱofȱcharacter
portrayalsȱinvolvingȱbothȱnoblesȱandȱpeasants,ȱburghersȱandȱclerics.ȱLaughterȱevokedȱthrough
literaryȱtextsȱrevealsȱhowȱmuchȱhumanȱfollyȱisȱnotȱlimitedȱtoȱanyȱspecificȱclass,ȱgender,ȱage,ȱor
race,ȱalthoughȱmedievalȱandȱearlyȬmodernȱwritersȱandȱpoetsȱfoundȱitȱnormallyȱeasierȱtoȱproject
theȱfoolishȱpeasant,ȱtheȱstandardȱscapegoatȱforȱallȱkindsȱofȱshortcomings.ȱ
Introduction 163
individualsȱorȱotherȱcontemporaries.ȱTheȱsameȱobservationȱappliesȱtoȱsixteenthȬ
centuryȱShrovetideȱplaysȱbyȱHansȱSachsȱ(1494–1576),ȱasȱIȱhaveȱdiscussedȱabove.ȱ
SomeȱpoetsȱsuchȱasȱCeccoȱAngiolieriȱdeliberatelyȱresortedȱtoȱtermsȱevokingȱthe
ruralȱpopulationȱinȱorderȱtoȱcharacterizeȱtheirȱownȱpoetry,ȱrevealingȱtheȱextentȱto
whichȱtheȱpeasantȱclassȱwasȱnotȱnecessarilyȱcategorizedȱsimplyȱinȱoneȱwayȱorȱthe
other.ȱTheȱfourteenthȬcenturyȱjesterȬpoetȱCenneȱdellaȱChitarraȱsatiricallyȱportrayed
theȱ knightlyȱ worldȱ andȱ humorouslyȱ idealizedȱ peasantȱ culture,ȱ andȱ heȱ was
followedȱ byȱ numerousȱ others,ȱ whichȱ clearlyȱ underscores,ȱ asȱ Applauso
emphasizes,ȱtheȱstrongȱavailabilityȱofȱbothȱtraditionsȱofȱhatingȱandȱsupportingȱthe
peasantry.ȱThisȱprovidesȱthenȱtheȱidealȱframeworkȱforȱhisȱinȬdepthȱanalysisȱof
Matazone’sȱpoemȱatȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱwhichȱeasilyȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱaȱcomicȱcomposition
withȱ manyȱ typesȱ ofȱ criticismȱ againstȱ variousȱ socialȱ groupsȱ andȱ individuals
concomitantly.ȱInȱtheȱexchangeȱbetweenȱlordȱandȱpeasant,ȱtheȱformer’sȱhypocrisy
andȱ violentȱ handlingȱ ofȱ hisȱ subjectsȱ inȱ theȱ countrysideȱ becomesȱ quiteȱ clear,
especiallyȱ ifȱ weȱ considerȱ theȱ fundamentalȱ changesȱ inȱ theȱ socialȱ legislationȱ in
thirteenthȬcenturyȱ Italy,ȱ grantingȱ theȱ peasantȱ populationȱ considerablyȱ more
freedomȱandȱjustice.ȱ
Nevertheless,ȱ andȱ thisȱ makesȱ theȱ entireȱ conditionȱ ofȱ Matazone’sȱ workȱ so
fascinating,ȱtheȱcontradictionsȱinȱtheȱevaluationȱofȱtheȱpeasantȱclassȱareȱrather
obvious,ȱsinceȱtheȱpoetȱplaysȱbothȱwithȱtraditionsȱofȱmockeryȱandȱtheȱconceptȱof
supportingȱpeasants.ȱSatireȱandȱsarcasm,ȱhowever,ȱremainȱtheȱmainȱmodiȱoperandi.
SinceȱMatazoneȱfunctionsȱasȱaȱjester,ȱheȱdeliberatelyȱutilizesȱambivalenceȱinȱhis
approachȱtoȱtheȱpeasantȱandȱtoȱtheȱknight,ȱandȱmakesȱfunȱofȱbothȱsocialȱclasses,
aȱ phenomenonȱ whichȱ findsȱ fullȱ confirmationȱ notȱ muchȱ laterȱ inȱ earlyȬmodern
Germanȱsatiricalȱliterature,ȱespeciallyȱinȱtheȱanonymousȱTillȱEulenspiegelȱ(1515;ȱsee
above)ȱandȱinȱjestȱnarrativesȱ(Schwänke).ȱ
Theȱemploymentȱofȱhyperbole,ȱtheȱaddressȱofȱaȱratherȱmixedȱaudience,ȱandȱthe
excessiveȱsarcasmȱindicate,ȱasȱApplausoȱreadsȱit,ȱaȱnotȱtooȱsubtleȱunderminingȱof
theȱusualȱpeasantȱmockery,ȱexpandingȱtheȱpoem’sȱmajorȱthrustȱtoȱcriticizeȱinȱa
facetiousȱmannerȱallȱpeople,ȱalthoughȱtheȱpeasantsȱserveȱasȱstandȬinsȱtoȱbluntȱthe
criticismȱ andȱ toȱ allowȱ theȱ audienceȱ toȱ laughȱ actuallyȱ aboutȱ theirȱ own
shortcomings.ȱApplausoȱconcludesȱhisȱpaperȱbyȱreferringȱtoȱtheȱplayȱMisteroȱBuffo
(1969)ȱbyȱtheȱfamousȱwinnerȱofȱtheȱNobleȱprizeȱforȱliterature,ȱDarioȱFo,ȱwhereȱthis
specificȱ interpretation,ȱ highlightingȱ theȱ satiricalȱ natureȱ andȱ globalȱ purposeȱ of
Matazone’sȱpoemȱcomesȱtoȱtheȱforeȱinȱfullȱforce.359ȱ
359
Inȱ1996,ȱDarioȱFoȱdedicatedȱanȱentireȱplayȱtoȱtheȱtopicȱofȱpeasantsȱwithȱhisȱLaȱBibbiaȱdeiȱvillaniȱthat
wasȱinspiredȱbyȱtheȱbiblicalȱandȱmedievalȱculturalȱtraditions.ȱȱTheȱplayȱwasȱtranslatedȱintoȱEnglish
inȱ2004;ȱseeȱDarioȱFo,ȱTheȱPeasants’ȱBibleȱandȱtheȱStoryȱofȱtheȱTiger,ȱtrans.ȱRonȱJenkinsȱ(NewȱYork:
GroveȱPress,ȱ2004).ȱAȱrevisedȱandȱenlargedȱeditionȱofȱthisȱplayȱhasȱbeenȱrecentlyȱpublishedȱin
Italy;ȱseeȱDarioȱFoȱandȱFrancaȱRame,ȱLaȱBibbiaȱdeiȱvillani.ȱNarratoriȱdellaȱFeniceȱ(Parma:ȱGuanda,
2010).ȱIȱthankȱNicolinoȱApplausoȱforȱthisȱinformation.
InsofarȱasȱMatazoneȱcertainlyȱoperatedȱasȱaȱjester,ȱandȱaimedȱforȱsocialȱcriticism
veiledȱinȱalmostȱtooȱplumpȱandȱdirectȱcriticismȱofȱpeasants,ȱweȱmightȱbeȱableȱto
uncover,ȱasȱApplausoȱsuggests,ȱtheȱotherȱtraditionȱinȱwhichȱmembersȱofȱtheȱrustic
classȱwereȱsupportedȱandȱdefended,ȱevenȱwhenȱtheȱpoetsȱinvitedȱtheȱaudienceȱto
laughȱaboutȱthem.360
WhileȱSherriȱOlsonȱinȱherȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱexaminesȱtheȱconditionsȱin
medievalȱvillageȱlifeȱatȱlarge,ȱBirgitȱWiedlȱcontributesȱaȱdetailedȱstudyȱaboutȱwhat
weȱknowȱsoȱfarȱaboutȱmedievalȱJewsȱlivingȱinȱtheȱAustrianȱcountryside.ȱWhereas
weȱnormally,ȱandȱrightlyȱso,ȱassumeȱthatȱmostȱEuropeanȱJewsȱpreferredȱtoȱsettle
inȱurbanȱcentersȱbecauseȱthereȱtheyȱfoundȱallȱtheȱprotectionȱnormallyȱavailableȱto
themȱ(ifȱatȱall),ȱandȱcouldȱrelyȱonȱtheȱrequiredȱinstitutionsȱrelevantȱforȱJewishȱlife
andȱculture,ȱWiedlȱcanȱalsoȱreferȱtoȱaȱsurprisinglyȱlargeȱnumberȱofȱcasesȱwithȱJews
documentedȱinȱruralȱcommunities.ȱTheȱsources,ȱhowever,ȱtendȱtoȱbeȱproblematic
becauseȱtheyȱareȱoftenȱnotȱconclusiveȱenough.ȱSomeȱindividualsȱmightȱhaveȱbeen
travelersȱorȱmerchants,ȱothersȱmightȱhaveȱaȱruralȱandȱanȱurbanȱresidenceȱatȱthe
sameȱtime,ȱdependingȱonȱtheirȱbusinessȱdealings,ȱandȱsomeȱmightȱhaveȱlivedȱin
aȱvillageȱonlyȱtemporarily.ȱInȱwesternȱEuropeȱfromȱtheȱeighthȱcenturyȱon,ȱJewsȱare
reportedȱofȱasȱhavingȱbeenȱlandowners,ȱespeciallyȱinȱtheȱProvenceȱandȱinȱcentral
andȱeasternȱFrance,ȱwhileȱtheyȱhardlyȱeverȱemergeȱasȱlandownersȱinȱnorthern
FranceȱandȱinȱtheȱHolyȱRomanȱEmpire,ȱasȱMichaelȱTochȱnowȱinformsȱus,361ȱandȱas
WiedlȱunderscoresȱofȱAustriaȱasȱwell.
Nevertheless,ȱbyȱtheȱmidȬthirteenthȱcenturyȱweȱnoticeȱtheȱfirstȱdevelopmentȱof
permanentȱJewishȱsettlementsȱinȱruralȱcommunitiesȱinȱAustria,ȱasȱproblematicȱas
thoseȱmightȱhaveȱbeenȱforȱtheȱnewcomers.ȱAfterȱall,ȱasȱWiedlȱemphasizes,ȱinȱthe
villagesȱJewsȱoftenȱhadȱtoȱshareȱaȱhouseȱwithȱChristianȱneighbors;ȱtheyȱdidȱnot
haveȱavailableȱaȱJewishȱcemetery,ȱaȱsynagogue,ȱorȱaȱmikvah,ȱnotȱtoȱmentionȱkosher
meatȱwhichȱtheyȱthenȱhadȱtoȱcreateȱthemselvesȱbyȱdoingȱhomeȬbutchery.ȱAgain,
however,ȱ apartȱ fromȱ documentsȱ reflectingȱ businessȱ transactionsȱ between
Christiansȱ andȱ Jews,ȱ itȱ provesȱ toȱ beȱ veryȱ difficultȱ toȱ discoverȱ moreȱ explicit
commentsȱ aboutȱ Jewishȱ settlementsȱ inȱ ruralȱ areas,ȱ asȱ muchȱ asȱ theyȱ are
documentedȱquiteȱoften.ȱButȱweȱcanȱbeȱcertainȱthatȱthoseȱJewsȱwhoȱappearȱinȱthe
relevantȱ sourcesȱ wereȱ notȱ necessarilyȱ ofȱ aȱ lowerȱ socialȱ classȱ andȱ ofȱ reduced
financialȱmeans,ȱquiteȱonȱtheȱcontrary.ȱTheȱsourcesȱtellȱusȱmostlyȱaboutȱbusiness
transactionsȱwhenȱtheyȱinvolvedȱlargerȱamountsȱofȱmoneyȱgivenȱasȱcreditȱorȱas
360
SeeȱalsoȱYonaȱPinson,ȱTheȱFool’sȱJourney:ȱAȱMythȱofȱObsessionȱinȱNorthernȱRenaissanceȱArtȱ(Turnhout:
Brepols,ȱ2008).
361
MichaelȱToch,ȱ“EinȱungelöstesȱKapitelȱinȱderȱWirtschaftsgeschichteȱderȱJuden:ȱLandbesitzȱvom
8.ȱbisȱ11.ȱJahrhundert,”ȱChristlichesȱundȱjüdischesȱEuropaȱimȱMittelalter:ȱKolloquiumȱzuȱEhrenȱvon
Alfredȱ Haverkamp,ȱ ed.ȱ Lukasȱ Clemensȱ andȱ Sigridȱ Hirbodian,ȱ ed.ȱ staffȱ Miriamȱ Weissȱ (Trier:
Kliomedia,ȱ2011),ȱ189–96.
Introduction 165
paymentȱofȱtheȱloan,ȱinvolvingȱȱmostlyȱmonasteries,ȱhighȬrankingȱnobleȱfamilies,
andȱ theȱ territorialȱ dukeȱ himself.ȱ Local,ȱ henceȱ smallerȱ creditsȱ forȱ farmers,ȱ by
contrast,ȱwereȱprobablyȱdealtȱwithȱinȱanȱoralȱprocessȱandȱcommonlyȱdidȱnotȱleave
anyȱtracesȱinȱtheȱarchives.ȱ
WhenȱJewsȱsettledȱinȱruralȱcommunities,ȱtheyȱneverȱarrivedȱinȱlargeȱnumbers;
inȱ fact,ȱ weȱ areȱ normallyȱ presentedȱ withȱ justȱ oneȱ orȱ twoȱ families,ȱ ifȱ notȱ only
individuals.ȱContraryȱtoȱcommonȱassumptions,ȱJewsȱcouldȱfairlyȱeasilyȱbecome
landowners,ȱespeciallyȱofȱvineyards,ȱwhichȱtheyȱacquiredȱasȱaȱformȱofȱremission
ofȱdebt,ȱorȱownedȱinȱorderȱtoȱproduceȱkosherȱwineȱforȱtheirȱownȱconsumptionȱat
Jewishȱreligiousȱfestsȱandȱrituals.ȱOtherwise,ȱhowever,ȱweȱcanȱhardlyȱtraceȱany
agriculturalȱactivitiesȱbyȱJewsȱinȱlateȬmedievalȱAustria,ȱorȱatȱleastȱasȱfarȱasȱweȱcan
tellȱonȱtheȱbasisȱofȱcurrentȱdocumentationȱinȱtheȱarchives.362ȱ
Consequently,ȱ asȱ Wiedlȱ underscores,ȱ whereasȱ Jewishȱ pogromsȱ normally
originatedȱinȱcities,ȱinȱtheȱsoutheasternȱpartȱofȱEuropeȱtheȱsituationȱwasȱratherȱthe
opposite,ȱwithȱviolenceȱandȱpersecutionsȱdirectedȱagainstȱJewsȱstartingȱinȱthose
veryȱruralȱcommunitiesȱwhereȱonlyȱfewȱJewsȱwereȱliving.ȱCloseȱneighborhood
coexistenceȱ didȱ nothingȱ toȱ preventȱ stereotypesȱ andȱ largeȬscaleȱ brutalityȱ by
ChristiansȱagainstȱJews—aȱphenomenonȱwhichȱfindsȱsadȱparallelsȱinȱmodernȱtimes
asȱwell,ȱifȱweȱthinkȱofȱtheȱparallelȱcaseȱinȱmodernȬdayȱKosovoȱwhereȱtheȱwarȱbroke
outȱinȱ1998ȱandȱlastedȱuntilȱ1999,ȱbringingȱuncountableȱsufferingȱespeciallyȱforȱthe
civilianȱpopulationȱinȱtheȱruralȱareas.363ȱ
TheȱdocumentationȱforȱthisȱwideȬspreadȱviolenceȱagainstȱJewsȱhavingȱsettledȱin
theȱAustrianȱcountrysideȱconfirms,ȱatȱleastȱindirectly,ȱinȱhowȱmanyȱvillagesȱJews
actuallyȱlived,ȱandȱhowȱmuchȱpropagandaȱaboutȱtheȱallegedȱritualȱmurderȱorȱthe
hostȱ desecrationȱ couldȱ affectȱ theȱ Christianȱ ruralȱ population,ȱ incitingȱ themȱ to
murderousȱactionsȱagainstȱtheirȱownȱneighbors.ȱ
Inȱthisȱlightȱtheȱpresentationȱofȱtheȱvillageȱpopulationȱinȱtheȱfamousȱallegorical
verseȱnarrativeȱDerȱRingȱbyȱtheȱConstanceȱpublicȱnotaryȱHeinrichȱWittenwilerȱ(ca.
1400),ȱ whichȱ Iȱ haveȱ discussedȱ above,ȱ mightȱ illustrateȱ theȱ actualȱ conditionsȱ in
AustrianȱvillagesȱduringȱtheȱlateȱMiddleȱAgesȱmuchȱmoreȱinȱconcreteȱtermsȱthan
362
Toch,ȱ“EinȱungelöstesȱKapitel”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ361),ȱ195–96,ȱconfirmsȱthisȱobservationȱforȱmostȱofȱearlyȬ
medievalȱsouthernȱandȱwesternȱEurope.ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱWirtschaftsgeschichteȱder
mittelalterlichenȱJuden:ȱFragenȱundȱEinschätzungen,ȱed.ȱMichaelȱToch.ȱSchriftenȱdesȱHistorischen
Kollegs,ȱ71ȱ(Munich:ȱOldenbourg,ȱ2008).ȱHisȱnewȱmonograph,ȱWirtschaftsgeschichteȱderȱeuropäischen
JudenȱimȱMittelalter,ȱvol.ȱ1:ȱDasȱFrühmittelalter,ȱisȱforthcoming.
363
Forȱaȱdetailedȱsummaryȱofȱthatȱhorribleȱwar,ȱseeȱMarkȱWebber,ȱTheȱWarȱOverȱKosovoȱ:ȱTenȱYears
On.ȱInternationalȱAffaires,ȱ85,ȱ2009,ȱ3ȱ(Oxford:ȱBlackwell,ȱ2009);ȱArmendȱR.ȱBekaj,ȱTheȱKLAȱand
theȱ Kosovoȱ War:ȱ Fromȱ IntraȬStateȱ Conflictȱ toȱ Independentȱ Country.ȱ Berghofȱ Transitionsȱ Series,ȱ ȱ 8
(Berlin:ȱBerghofȬStiftungȱfürȱKonfliktforschung,ȱ2010);ȱasȱtoȱtheȱpoliticalȱmythsȱandȱideologiesȱas
rootȱcausesȱofȱtheȱwar,ȱseeȱJulieȱMertus,ȱKosovo:ȱHowȱMythsȱandȱTruthsȱStartedȱaȱWarȱ(Berkeley:
Universityȱ ofȱ Californiaȱ Press,ȱ 1999);ȱ cf.ȱ alsoȱ theȱ excellentȱ articleȱ inȱ Wikipedia,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosovo_Warȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱJan.ȱ11,ȱ2012).
weȱmightȱhaveȱthoughtȱpossible,ȱespeciallyȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱtheȱpeople’sȱsimple
willingnessȱtoȱunleashȱrawȱviolenceȱagainstȱanyoneȱwhomȱtheyȱsuddenlyȱdisliked
forȱnoȱrationalȱreasons,ȱsimplyȱoutȱofȱreligiousȱfanaticismȱorȱeconomicȱhardship.ȱ
TheȱcasesȱofȱpogromsȱagainstȱtheȱJewsȱinȱKorneuburgȱinȱ1305ȱandȱthenȱespecially
inȱPulkauȱinȱ1338ȱconfirmȱthisȱobservationȱveryȱtragically.ȱSubsequently,ȱJewish
settlementȱinȱmostȱruralȱcommunitiesȱdisappearedȱforȱaȱlongȱtime,ȱthoughȱthose
stillȱoccurredȱindeed,ȱasȱEvelineȱBruggerȱpointsȱoutȱinȱherȱcontributionȱtoȱthis
volumeȱ(seeȱmyȱsummaryȱbelow).ȱNevertheless,ȱJewsȱthenȱmostlyȱmovedȱtoȱcities
whereȱtheyȱfoundȱmoreȱprotectionȱandȱsupportȱamongȱtheȱJewishȱcommunities,
althoughȱ theyȱ wereȱ notȱ safeȱ thereȱ either,ȱ asȱ theȱ pogromȱ andȱ expulsionȱ in
1420–1421ȱindicateȱonlyȱtooȱdrastically,ȱespeciallyȱbecauseȱtheȱducalȱprotectionȱhad
alreadyȱbegunȱtoȱwaneȱnoticeablyȱbyȱtheȱtimeȱofȱRudolphȱIV’sȱruleȱ(1358–1365)ȱ.
Afterȱ all,ȱ heȱ andȱ hisȱ successorsȱ wereȱ basicallyȱ onlyȱ interestedȱ inȱ theȱ financial
exploitationȱofȱtheȱJewishȱpopulation,ȱurbanȱorȱrural.ȱWhenȱJewsȱreturnedȱtoȱthe
Austrianȱterritoriesȱinȱtheȱsixteenthȱcenturies,ȱtheȱconditionsȱthereȱhadȱchanged
considerably.ȱ
Toȱreturnȱtoȱtheȱsameȱissue,ȱbutȱfromȱaȱslightlyȱdifferentȱperspective,ȱthroughout
theȱMiddleȱAgesȱJewishȱcommunitiesȱwereȱcloselyȱlinkedȱwithȱeachȱotherȱallȱover
Europe.ȱ Inȱ fact,ȱ itȱ wouldȱ beȱ appropriateȱ toȱ talkȱ aboutȱ aȱ closeȬknitȱ networkȱ of
individualsȱoverȱaȱwideȱrangeȱofȱlands.ȱTheȱsituationȱinȱAustriaȱwasȱjustȱtheȱsame,
asȱEvelineȱBruggerȱobservesȱinȱherȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolume,ȱinȱwhich,ȱhowever,
sheȱ focusesȱ aboveȱ all,ȱ inȱ contrastȱ toȱ theȱ paperȱ byȱ Birgitȱ Wiedl,ȱ onȱ theȱ curious
phenomenonȱofȱoneȱofȱtheȱmostȱinfluentialȱandȱwealthiestȱJewishȱmoneylenders,
Hetschelȱ (Chaim)ȱ ofȱ Herzogenburg,ȱ livingȱ inȱ theȱ countryside,ȱ whileȱ normally
Jewishȱcommunitiesȱwereȱsettledȱinȱtheȱcities.ȱHeȱbelongedȱtoȱaȱveryȱsuccessful
familyȱwithȱmanyȱmembersȱhavingȱachievedȱhighȱreputationȱasȱrabbisȱandȱhaving
accumulatedȱconsiderableȱwealth.ȱ
Herzogenburgȱisȱlocatedȱca.ȱ60ȱkmȱwestȱofȱViennaȱandȱhasȱalwaysȱbeenȱaȱrather
ruralȱ location.ȱ Weȱ cannotȱ reallyȱ tellȱ whyȱ Hetschel,ȱ probablyȱ theȱ secondȱ most
influentialȱ Jewishȱ moneylenderȱ inȱ theȱ duchyȱ ofȱ Austriaȱ afterȱ Davidȱ Steussȱ of
Vienna,ȱmovedȱthereȱfromȱKrems,ȱbutȱtheȱreasonȱwasȱcertainlyȱnotȱthatȱheȱsimply
enjoyedȱtheȱpeacefulnessȱandȱtranquilityȱofȱtheȱcountryside,ȱalthoughȱthereȱwas
noȱestablishedȱJewishȱcommunityȱorȱsupportȱsystemȱforȱhim.ȱThisȱwouldȱbeȱan
anachronisticȱreadingȱandȱblindȱusȱtoȱtheȱconcreteȱfinancialȱandȱpoliticalȱpressures
exertedȱbyȱtheȱDukesȱAlbrechtȱIIIȱandȱLeopoldȱIIIȱonȱtheȱJewishȱpopulationȱat
large,ȱbutȱinȱtheȱcitiesȱespecially,ȱthatȱheȱwantedȱtoȱescapeȱfrom.ȱȱ
Sinceȱ heȱ soonȱ controlledȱ suchȱ aȱ strongȱ financialȱ businessȱ andȱ exertedȱ such
extensiveȱinfluenceȱeverywhere,ȱespeciallyȱamongȱtheȱhighestȱranksȱofȱsociety,
thoseȱwhoȱneededȱloansȱwouldȱcomeȱtoȱhimȱifȱnecessary,ȱalthoughȱheȱalsoȱtraveled
extensivelyȱtoȱconductȱhisȱbusinessȱdealings.ȱHeȱenjoyedȱcomparativelyȱsecure
Introduction 167
conditions,ȱ notȱ uncommonȱ forȱ Jewsȱ inȱ Austriaȱ duringȱ theȱ thirdȱ quarterȱ ofȱ the
fourteenthȱ century,ȱ thatȱ is,ȱ betweenȱ ca.ȱ 1369ȱ andȱ 1392.ȱ Hetschelȱ regularly
maintainedȱcloseȱconnectionsȱwithȱtheȱlargerȱJewishȱcommunityȱinȱKrems,ȱonlyȱca.
20ȱkmȱdistanceȱtoȱHerzogenburg,ȱbutȱȱheȱneverȱindicatedȱanyȱinterestȱinȱjoining
themȱagain,ȱandȱpreferredȱtheȱratherȱisolatedȱlocationȱofȱhisȱownȱresidence.ȱAfter
all,ȱheȱmaintainedȱexcellentȱbusinessȱdealingsȱwithȱentireȱcommunitiesȱbothȱwithin
Austriaȱandȱoutside,ȱandȱalsoȱwithȱmembersȱofȱtheȱChristianȱnobility.ȱThisȱmight
haveȱ facilitatedȱ hisȱ personalȱ choiceȱ sinceȱ theȱ ruralȱ townȱ didȱ notȱ haveȱ any
noticeableȱimpactȱonȱhisȱbusiness,ȱwhileȱtheȱsocialȱconditionsȱwereȱrelaxedȱenough
atȱthatȱtimeȱforȱhimȱtoȱliveȱatȱleastȱtemporarilyȱatȱthatȱremoteȱlocation.ȱ
BruggerȱoutlinesȱaȱnumberȱofȱpossibleȱreasonsȱforȱHetschel’sȱmove,ȱeitherȱto
escapeȱincreasingȱducalȱeffortsȱtoȱextortȱhugeȱamountsȱofȱmoneyȱfromȱtheȱJews,ȱor
toȱfollowȱtheȱfootstepsȱofȱaȱrelative,ȱDavidȱofȱHerzogenburg.ȱSeveralȱotherȱJews
followedȱhimȱthere,ȱbutȱaȱreallyȱimportantȱJewishȱcommunityȱneverȱdevelopedȱin
thatȱlittleȱtown.ȱToȱbeȱsure,ȱHetschelȱcontinuedȱtoȱbeȱanȱextraordinaryȱexception,
livingȱsoȱfarȱawayȱandȱmostlyȱbyȱhimself,ȱbutȱheȱobviouslyȱhadȱunderstoodȱthat
thisȱruralȱcommunityȱprovidedȱhimȱwithȱmoreȱprotectionȱtoȱcarryȱoutȱhisȱbusiness
thanȱtheȱcitiesȱofȱKremsȱorȱVienna.364
Asȱweȱhaveȱnowȱseenȱaȱnumberȱofȱtimes,ȱtheȱruralȱworldȱwasȱnotȱalwaysȱinȱdirect
conflictȱwithȱtheȱaristocracyȱandȱtheȱurbanȱclass.ȱInȱfact,ȱweȱwouldȱsufferȱfromȱa
myopic,ȱideologicalȱviewpointȱifȱweȱconsideredȱtheȱcountlessȱsatiricalȱandȱsarcastic
commentsȱ aboutȱ peasantsȱ inȱ theȱ Middleȱ Agesȱ andȱ theȱ earlyȱ modernȱ ageȱ as
expressionsȱofȱutterȱcontemptȱandȱrejection.ȱAfterȱall,ȱtheȱfarmersȱcontinuedȱtoȱbe
thoseȱwhoȱproducedȱallȱessentialȱfood,ȱsoȱtheyȱwere,ȱaltogether,ȱmostȱcriticalȱfor
theȱsurvivalȱandȱwellȬbeingȱofȱsociety.ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱweȱhearȱofȱaȱnumberȱof
peasantȱuprisingsȱandȱwarȱfromȱtheȱfourteenthȱtoȱtheȱsixteenthȱcenturies.ȱScottȱL.
Taylorȱhereȱtakesȱthoseȱinȱcloserȱviewȱinȱorderȱtoȱreflectȱonȱtheȱimpactȱwhichȱlegal
changesȱhadȱonȱtheȱlivingȱconditionsȱofȱpremodernȱfarmers.ȱAsȱheȱobservesȱfrom
theȱstart,ȱmostȱofȱtheȱpeasantȱrevoltsȱwereȱtiedȱinȱwithȱsuddenlyȱraisedȱadditional
requirementsȱfromȱtheirȱlords,ȱsecularȱandȱclerical,ȱwhoȱhadȱinstitutedȱnewȱlaws
justifyingȱthoseȱextraȱburdensȱandȱfeesȱinȱorderȱtoȱmeetȱtheirȱownȱdemandsȱand
costsȱofȱchangedȱlifestylesȱatȱcourtȱandȱinȱtheȱlateȬmedievalȱeconomy.ȱ
Basically,ȱasȱTaylorȱemphasizes,ȱweȱobserveȱcriticalȱclashesȱbetweenȱusosȱrerum
rusticarumȱ andȱ malaeȱ consuetudinesȱ toȱ pay,ȱ forȱ instance,ȱ forȱ newlyȱ established
standingȱarmies,ȱgarrisons,ȱweapons,ȱandȱtheȱlike.ȱButȱaȱmoreȱcriticalȱaspectȱmight
beȱtheȱdramaticȱchangesȱresultingȱfromȱtheȱdrasticȱdeclineȱinȱpopulationȱsinceȱthe
364
Theȱ ruralȱ economyȱ inȱ theȱ Middleȱ Agesȱ isȱ currentlyȱ attractingȱ moreȱ attention,ȱ seeȱ Hannes
ObermairȱandȱVolkerȱStamm,ȱZurȱÖkonomieȱeinerȱländlichenȱPfarrgemeindeȱ(seeȱnoteȱ7).ȱButȱmuch
stillȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱdoneȱinȱthatȱarea.
BlackȱDeath,ȱwhichȱultimatelyȱthreatenedȱtheȱmanorialȱmanagementȱbecauseȱof
aȱlackȱofȱlaborersȱavailable.ȱTheȱnoblesȱallȱoverȱEuropeȱtriedȱvariousȱstrategiesȱto
compensateȱforȱtheȱdisappearanceȱofȱtheirȱtraditionalȱworkȱforceȱeitherȱbyȱgranting
moreȱ freedomsȱ toȱ theȱ farmersȱ onȱ theirȱ estatesȱ orȱ byȱ imposingȱ stricterȱ rules
demandingȱhigherȱamountsȱofȱfeudalȱcommitmentsȱinȱtheȱformȱofȱserviceȱandȱrent.
Surprisingly,ȱ atȱ leastȱ inȱ lateȱ fourteenthȬcenturyȱ England,ȱ theȱ courtsȱ becameȱ a
centralȱ battlegroundȱ forȱ bothȱ sidesȱ ofȱ thisȱ equation,ȱ insofarȱ asȱ evenȱ theȱ rural
tenantsȱandȱfreeȱfarmersȱresortedȱtoȱlegalȱmeans,ȱcollectingȱmoneyȱtoȱhireȱlawyers
forȱtheirȱcase,ȱandȱsuingȱtheirȱlords.ȱ
Ironically,ȱinȱtheȱsubsequentȱyearsȱlawyersȱbecameȱtheȱtargetȱofȱmuchȱpublic
criticism,ȱsinceȱtheyȱwereȱaccusedȱofȱservingȱasȱcatalystsȱforȱmajorȱsocialȱconflicts.
Anotherȱ disturbingȱ factorȱ wasȱ theȱ everȱ growingȱ pollȱ tax,ȱ whichȱ theȱ farmers
regardedȱ asȱ aȱ directȱ attackȱ againstȱ theirȱ wellȬbeing,ȱ especiallyȱ becauseȱ they
accusedȱ theȱ representativesȱ ofȱ theȱ shiresȱ ofȱ havingȱ failedȱ inȱ protectingȱ them
adequatelyȱfromȱanȱimbalancedȱandȱhighlyȱburdensomeȱtaxationȱsystem.ȱReligious
unrestȱfurtheredȱtheȱpoliticalȱturmoilȱandȱthenȱledȱtoȱactualȱriotsȱ(Lollardism).ȱ
Theȱ situationȱ inȱ lateȬmedievalȱ Germanyȱ wasȱ similarȱ andȱ yetȱ different,
consideringȱtheȱcausesȱofȱtheȱPeasants’ȱWarȱinȱ1524–1525.ȱOnȱtheȱoneȱhandȱaȱlongȬ
termȱagriculturalȱcrisisȱdeeplyȱaffectedȱtheȱruralȱconditionsȱforȱmanyȱdecades,
leadingȱtoȱtheȱdisintegrationȱofȱmanors,ȱtheȱdivvyingȱupȱofȱcommunalȱpropertyȱfor
farmȱuse,ȱandȱhenceȱtoȱanȱincreaseȱinȱlegalȱwranglingȱoverȱlandȱrights.ȱInȱ1495,
Emperorȱ Maximilianȱ Iȱ establishedȱ theȱ Reichskammergericht,ȱ anȱ imperialȱ court,
whichȱ wasȱ toȱ beȱ staffedȱ atȱ leastȱ toȱ fiftyȱ percentȱ byȱ universityȬtrainedȱ judges.
Consequently,ȱmanyȱlowerȬlevelȱcourtsȱsprangȱupȱallȱoverȱGermany,ȱwhichȱmeant
theȱsteadyȱreplacementȱofȱtheȱcustomaryȱGermanicȱlaw,ȱasȱexpressed,ȱforȱinstance,
byȱEikeȱvonȱRepgow’sȱSachsenspiegelȱ(a.ȱ1235),365ȱwithȱRomanȱlaw.ȱWhileȱEnglish
peasantsȱsoughtȱrefugeȱwithȱtheȱcourtsȱandȱutilizedȱtheȱlawsȱtoȱtheirȱadvantage,
theȱGermanȱpeasantsȱbitterlyȱcomplainedȱaboutȱtheȱnewȱlawsȱandȱnewȱcourtsȱthat
underminedȱtheirȱtraditionalȱlegalȱpositionsȱinsofarȱasȱtheyȱsupportedȱȱtheȱprinces’
effortsȱtoȱraiseȱhigherȱtaxes.ȱThisȱisȱnotȱtoȱdenyȱtheȱinfluenceȱwhichȱtheȱProtestant
Reformationȱmightȱhaveȱhadȱonȱtheȱpeasants’ȱuprising,ȱasȱisȱexplicitlyȱexpressed
byȱtheȱTwelveȱArticlesȱofȱMemmingen,ȱpublishedȱinȱMarchȱ1525.366
365
TheȱSaxonȱMirror:ȱAȱSachsenspiegelȱofȱtheȱFourteenthȱCentury,ȱtrans.ȱMariaȱDobozy.ȱTheȱMiddle
AgesȱSeriesȱ(Philadelphia:ȱUniversityȱofȱPennsylvaniaȱPress,ȱ1999).ȱAsȱsheȱemphasizes,ȱinȱclear
contrastȱ toȱ Romanȱ Law,ȱ “theȱ Sachsenspiegelȱ wasȱ builtȱ uponȱ theȱ interrelatednessȱ ofȱ language,
religion,ȱliterature,ȱmorality,ȱandȱaesthetics,ȱ[and]ȱforȱthisȱreason,ȱitȱreȬcreatedȱthenȱasȱitȱdoesȱnow
theȱveryȱstructureȱofȱsociety”ȱ(1).
366
Stayer,ȱ “Theȱ Germanȱ Peasants’ȱ War”ȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 214),ȱ 130–35;ȱ seeȱ alsoȱ theȱ contributionsȱ to
ReformationȱundȱBauernkrieg:ȱErinnerungskulturȱundȱGeschichtspolitikȱimȱgeteiltenȱDeutschland,ȱed.ȱJan
Scheunemann.ȱSchriftenȱderȱStiftungȱderȱLuthergedenkstättenȱinȱSachsenȬAnhalt,ȱ11ȱ(Leipzig:
EvangelischeȱVerlagsȬAnstalt,ȱ2010).ȱPeterȱBlickle,ȱDerȱBauernkrieg:ȱdieȱRevolutionȱdesȱGemeinen
Mannes.ȱ4thȱrev.ȱed.ȱBeckȇscheȱReihe,ȱ2103.ȱBeckȱWissenȱ(Munich:ȱBeck,ȱ2012).ȱ
Introduction 169
AsȱTaylorȱconcludes,ȱsocialȱconflictsȱhaveȱcommonlyȱmuchȱtoȱdoȱwithȱchanges
inȱtheȱlegalȱsystem,ȱwhich,ȱhowever,ȱsocialȱhistoriansȱtendȱtoȱoverlook,ȱarguing
onlyȱfromȱanȱeconomicȱandȱpoliticalȱperspective.ȱInȱthisȱregardȱtheȱuprisingȱofȱthe
Englishȱpeasantryȱinȱ1378ȱwasȱmostlyȱsolvedȱbyȱmeansȱofȱtheȱcourtsȱwhichȱinȱa
wayȱ supportedȱ theȱ ruralȱ claimants,ȱ whileȱ theȱ Germanȱ Peasants’ȱ Warȱ ca.ȱ one
hundredȬfiftyȱyearsȱlaterȱreflectedȱaȱdeepȱdivideȱbetweenȱtheȱruralȱpopulationȱand
theȱnewȱlegalȱsystemȱaidingȱmostlyȱtheȱaristocracyȱandȱtheȱroyalty.ȱTheȱconstant
deteriorationȱofȱtheȱpeasantȱclassȱinȱtheȱsubsequentȱcenturies,ȱespeciallyȱduringȱthe
ThirtyȱYears’ȱWarȱ(1618–1648),ȱreflectedȱtheȱincreasingȱpowerȱofȱtheȱcourtsȱandȱthe
modernȱlegalȱsystem.ȱ
AsȱisȱcommonlyȱtheȱcaseȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱearlyȱmodernȱage,ȱsocial
issues,ȱtensions,ȱconflicts,ȱandȱproblemsȱwereȱaddressedȱinȱtheȱformȱofȱcomedy.
Laughingȱ aboutȱ aȱ socialȱ opponent,ȱ orȱ aȱ memberȱ ofȱ aȱ lowerȱ socialȱ class,ȱ has
traditionallyȱbeenȱaȱstrategicȱoperationȱinȱliteratureȱandȱinȱpublic,ȱasȱweȱhaveȱseen
alreadyȱ numerousȱ timesȱ aboveȱ (fabliaux,ȱ mæren,ȱ novelle,ȱ andȱ numerousȱ visual
objects,ȱ suchȱ asȱ inȱ theȱ Booksȱ ofȱ Hours).ȱ Weȱ haveȱ alsoȱ learnedȱ especiallyȱ from
Nicolinoȱ Applauso’sȱ contributionȱ howȱ muchȱ theȱ discourseȱ onȱ peasantsȱ or
membersȱofȱtheȱruralȱpopulationȱregularlyȱdisplayedȱaȱstrongȱdichotomy,ȱeither
mostlyȱ ridiculingȱ orȱ rejectingȱ farmersȱ atȱ large,ȱ orȱ presentingȱ themȱ asȱ the
foundationȱofȱallȱofȱsocietyȱbecauseȱtheyȱproducedȱallȱfood.ȱ
InȱtheȱfifteenthȱandȱsixteenthȱcenturyȱnumerousȱFrenchȱauthorsȱofȱfarce,ȱaȱshort
dramaticȱpiece,ȱenjoyedȱworkingȱwithȱtheseȱtwoȱaspects,ȱpresentingȱhideousȱor
glorifyingȱimagesȱofȱtheȱpeasantȱonȱtheȱstage,ȱaȱstrategyȱthatȱweȱcanȱalsoȱobserve
withinȱtheȱworldȱofȱearlyȬmodernȱGermanȱShrovetideȱPlaysȱ(HansȱSachsȱetȱal.).
SharonȱKing,ȱinȱherȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolume,ȱturnsȱherȱattentionȱtoȱtheȱmany
ruralȱfiguresȱonȱtheȱstageȱwithinȱtheȱgenreȱofȱtheȱfarce,ȱandȱillustratesȱhowȱmuch
theyȱparadeȱinȱfrontȱofȱtheȱviewerȱasȱrepresentativesȱofȱtheȱwholeȱgamutȱofȱhuman
frailtiesȱandȱshortcomingsȱinȱmoral,ȱethical,ȱbutȱthenȱalsoȱinȱeconomic,ȱreligious,
andȱcriminalȱterms.ȱThereȱareȱhomelessȱindividuals,ȱvagrants,ȱthieves,ȱdeceivers,
hawkers,ȱbutȱmostlyȱtrueȱfarmersȱwhoȱareȱpresentedȱinȱtheirȱprofession,ȱwhether
theyȱareȱcuckoldedȱorȱnot,ȱcommitȱcrimesȱorȱnot.ȱGullibilityȱisȱoneȱofȱtheȱmajor
characterȱtraits,ȱcloselyȱfollowedȱbyȱignoranceȱandȱstupidity,ȱespeciallyȱwhenȱthe
eventsȱturnȱtoȱsmartȱpriestsȱwhoȱsucceedȱinȱsleepingȱwithȱtheȱfarmer’sȱwife.ȱ
Oneȱofȱtheȱmostȱdramaticȱexamplesȱofȱtheȱsocialȱandȱliteraryȱfunctionȱofȱtheȱfarce
andȱitsȱuseȱofȱtheȱpeasantȱfigureȱcanȱbeȱfoundȱinȱPierreȱGringoire’sȱ1512ȱcarnival
playȱRaoulletȱPloyartȱwhereȱtheȱtargetȱofȱmockingȱridiculeȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱtheȱfarmer’s
sexualȱimpotence,ȱwhichȱmakesȱhisȱwifeȱlookȱforȱanȱalternativeȱtoȱthisȱpredicament
inȱherȱlife.ȱSexualȱcomedyȱhasȱalwaysȱbeenȱoneȱofȱtheȱfavoriteȱthemesȱinȱworld
literature,ȱandȱsoȱalsoȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱearlyȱmodernȱage.367ȱStaging
sexualȱ travestyȱ onȱ theȱ stageȱ withȱ theȱ protagonistsȱ hailingȱ fromȱ theȱ urban
communityȱwasȱprobablyȱoneȱstrategy,ȱbutȱresortingȱtoȱcuckoldedȱorȱfoolishȱmale
peasantȱfiguresȱalwaysȱemergedȱasȱtheȱpreferredȱmodusȱoperandi,ȱalthoughȱthisȱdid
notȱessentiallyȱchangeȱtheȱactualȱtargetȱofȱtheȱsatire,ȱhumanȱfoolishness.ȱ
Duperyȱ andȱ skillfulȱ rhetoricalȱ strategiesȱ regularlyȱ functionȱ asȱ theȱ central
operativesȱtoȱentertainȱtheȱaudienceȱwithȱsexualȱallusionsȱtoȱtheȱruralȱworld.ȱBut
Kingȱ alsoȱ emphasizesȱ thatȱ manyȱ timesȱ theȱ peasantȱ figuresȱ demonstrateȱ a
considerableȱdegreeȱofȱcunning,ȱwit,ȱandȱcommunicativeȱskillsȱwhichȱhelpȱthem
toȱ getȱ outȱ ofȱ aȱ dilemmaȱ withȱ theirȱ lords,ȱ orȱ withȱ theȱ law.ȱ Inȱ addition,ȱ many
stereotypicalȱconflictsȱbetweenȱtheȱgendersȱareȱfoughtȱoutȱinȱtheseȱfarces,ȱsituating
them,ȱ onceȱ again,ȱ inȱ aȱ ruralȱ setting,ȱ probablyȱ becauseȱ itȱ wasȱ easierȱ toȱ doȱ so,
avoidingȱfeelingsȱofȱinsultȱandȱhurtȱamongȱtheȱurbanȱaudience,ȱalthoughȱthey
wereȱjustȱasȱguiltyȱofȱthoseȱfailings,ȱstupidȱacts,ȱignorance,ȱandȱimpotence.ȱ
Ofȱcourse,ȱmanyȱtimesȱtheȱvillageȱbumpkinsȱvisitȱtheȱcityȱtoȱsellȱtheirȱwaresȱon
theȱmarket,ȱandȱthenȱareȱeasilyȱdupedȱandȱdeceivedȱbyȱcityȱconȬmen,ȱyetȱthereȱare
alsoȱ occasionsȱ whereȱ theȱ poorȱ peasantȱ getsȱ evenȱ andȱ triumphsȱ overȱ hisȱ city
opponents,ȱwhichȱgivesȱriseȱtoȱmoreȱlaughter.ȱAsȱanȱaside,ȱthisȱisȱactuallyȱoften
expressedȱinȱfableȱliterature,ȱwhetherȱweȱthinkȱofȱAesopȱorȱMarieȱdeȱFrance,ȱJean
deȱLaȱFontaineȱorȱGottholdȱEphraimȱLessing,ȱespeciallyȱwithȱregardȱtoȱtheȱaccount
aboutȱ theȱ cityȱ mouseȱ andȱ theȱ countryȱ mouse.ȱ Asȱ muchȱ asȱ theȱ formerȱ triesȱ to
convinceȱtheȱlatterȱthatȱurbanȱexistenceȱtrumpsȱlifeȱinȱtheȱcountryside,ȱforȱtheȱlatter
thereȱareȱjustȱtooȱmanyȱdangersȱforȱher,ȱwhileȱtheȱcityȱmouseȱeasilyȱcopesȱwith
themȱandȱenjoysȱallȱtheȱadvantagesȱavailableȱtoȱherȱinȱtheȱburgher’sȱhouse.ȱAs
Marieȱconcludesȱherȱtale,ȱ“Thisȱfableȱteachesȱusȱaȱlesson:ȱ/ȱEachȱoneȱprefersȱhis
smallȱpossessions,ȱ/ȱWhichȱheȱenjoysȱinȱtranquilȱpleasure,ȱ/ȱToȱanxiousȱwoesȱof
others’ȱtreasure”ȱ(52–56).368
Asȱtheȱevidenceȱofȱtheȱfarceȱindicates,ȱtheȱboundariesȱbetweenȱcityȱandȱcountry
wereȱ notȱ asȱ clearȬcutȱ asȱ weȱ mightȱ think,ȱ notȱ evenȱ inȱ theȱ earlyȱ modernȱ age,
althoughȱtheȱfarmerȱvisitingȱtheȱcityȱwithinȱtheȱliteraryȱcontextȱcommonlyȱreacts
withȱgreatȱsurpriseȱandȱastonishmentȱaboutȱtheȱfancifulȱcityscapeȱandȱtheȱbuiltȬup
interior,ȱ notȱ toȱ mentionȱ theȱ marketȱ conditions.ȱ Innocentȱ villageȱ womenȱ are
stronglyȱ contrastedȱ withȱ lecherousȱ noblemenȱ andȱ burghers,ȱ whichȱ evokesȱ the
otherȱtraditionȱwhichȱIȱhaveȱdiscussedȱabove,ȱrepresentedȱbyȱtheȱfamousȱGriselda
367
AlbrechtȱClassen,ȱSexȱimȱMittelalterȱ(seeȱnoteȱ124).ȱAstoundingly,ȱtheȱmonographȱbyȱJeanȱVerdon,
IrdischeȱLust:ȱLiebe,ȱSexȱundȱSinnlichkeitȱimȱMittelalter,ȱtrans.ȱfromȱtheȱFrenchȱ[intoȱGerman]ȱbyȱGaby
Sonnabendȱ(2006;ȱDarmstadt:ȱWissenschaftlicheȱBuchgesellschaft,ȱ2011),ȱlacksȱmostlyȱinȱscholarly
rigorȱandȱbarelyȱmovesȱbeyondȱaȱpatchworkȱofȱquickȱreferencesȱandȱdiscussionsȱintendedȱonly
toȱentertainȱaȱgeneralȱaudience.
368
Marieȱ deȱ France,ȱ Fables,ȱ ed.ȱ andȱ trans.ȱ byȱ Harrietȱ Spiegel.ȱ Medievalȱ Academyȱ Reprintsȱ for
Teachingȱ(Toronto,ȱBuffalo,ȱandȱLondon:ȱUniversityȱofȱTorontoȱPress,ȱ1994),ȱ55.
Introduction 171
figure.ȱMostȱsignificantly,ȱtheȱfarceȱauthorsȱdidȱnotȱholdȱbackȱinȱcriticizingȱand
ridiculingȱeveryone,ȱincludingȱmembersȱofȱtheȱclergyȱandȱtheȱaristocracy,ȱthough
theyȱ obviouslyȱ preferredȱ toȱ targetȱ theȱ peasantsȱ asȱ theirȱ easiestȱ victims.
Nevertheless,ȱ asȱ Kingȱ alertsȱ usȱ repeatedly,ȱ weȱ alsoȱ findȱ farcesȱ whereȱ the
farmer/millerȱ getsȱ theȱ betterȱ endȱ inȱ theȱ clashȱ withȱ cattyȱ gentlemenȱ andȱ even
cuckoldȱ themȱ inȱ theirȱ ownȱ presenceȱ becauseȱ heȱ demonstratesȱ hisȱ intellectual
superiority.ȱ
Aȱgoodȱthirdȱofȱallȱknownȱfarcesȱareȱrootedȱinȱtheȱruralȱworldȱandȱallowȱusȱtoȱget
intriguingȱinsightȱintoȱtheȱlivingȱconditionsȱamongȱtheȱpeasantȱpopulation,ȱthough
theyȱdoȱhaveȱconstantȱcontactȱwithȱmembersȱofȱtheȱotherȱsocialȱclasses.ȱAlthough
theȱauthorsȱtendedȱtoȱportrayȱtheirȱpeasantȱcharactersȱasȱignorant,ȱfoolish,ȱifȱnot
asȱimbeciles,ȱtheyȱdoȱnotȱhesitateȱtoȱgoȱtheȱveryȱoppositeȱdirectionȱandȱpresent
ratherȱwily,ȱcunning,ȱintelligent,ȱandȱwittyȱfigures.ȱAfterȱall,ȱtheȱbasicȱintention
wasȱnotȱtoȱperpetuateȱspecificȱprejudice,ȱorȱtoȱembarkȱonȱaȱsocialȱcritiqueȱofȱthe
lowerȱclasses.ȱTheȱfarceȱauthorsȱwantedȱtoȱmakeȱtheirȱaudiencesȱlaugh,ȱandȱthey
resortedȱtoȱeveryȱpossibleȱtheme,ȱmotif,ȱStoff,ȱstrategy,ȱandȱcharacterȱportrayalȱto
achieveȱ thatȱ goal.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ senseȱ theȱ farcesȱ proveȱ toȱ beȱ highlyȱ valuableȱ source
materialȱtoȱcomprehendȱtheȱhighlyȱdiverseȱconditionsȱinȱtheȱruralȱworld,ȱatȱleast
inȱlateȬmedievalȱandȱearlyȬmodernȱFrance.369ȱ
Onȱaȱsideȱnote,ȱbutȱreconfirmingȱthisȱobservation,ȱearlyȱmodernȱplaywrightsȱin
Londonȱfrequentlyȱcontrastedȱruralȱspaceȱwithȱaȱsophisticatedȱurbanȱcityscape,
oftenȱmockingȱruralȱsocietyȱandȱitsȱdenizensȱbutȱoccasionallyȱpresentingȱaȱforest
orȱpastureȱinȱaȱfavorableȱlight.ȱInȱJacobeanȱandȱRestorationȱplays,ȱsuchȱasȱWilliam
Wycherley’sȱTheȱCountryȱWifeȱandȱWilliamȱCongreve’sȱTheȱWayȱofȱtheȱWorld,ȱȱrural
charactersȱwhoȱmakeȱtheirȱwayȱtoȱtheȱcityȱareȱmockedȱandȱdupedȱatȱeveryȱturn.ȱ
OftenȱinȱShakespeare’sȱcomediesȱandȱromances,ȱthough,ȱruralȱspaceȱinȱplaysȱsuch
asȱAȱMidsummerȱNight’sȱDream,ȱAsȱYouȱLikeȱIt,ȱTheȱWinter’sȱTale,ȱandȱTheȱTempest
offersȱcharactersȱaȱplaceȱtoȱregenerate,ȱexploreȱselfȬidentity,ȱandȱshedȱpretension.
Theȱtermȱ“country”ȱalso,ȱhowever,ȱtakesȱonȱsexualȱconnotationsȱinȱShakespeare
andȱelsewhereȱatȱthisȱtime.ȱHamlet,ȱforȱexample,ȱasksȱOpheliaȱifȱsheȱthinksȱhe
meantȱ“countryȱmatters,”ȱmeaningȱsexualȱrelations,ȱwhenȱheȱwantsȱtoȱputȱhisȱhead
inȱherȱlapȱ(3.2.1997).ȱAgain,ȱtheȱscholarshipȱonȱtheseȱtopicsȱisȱextensive.370
369
GeorgeȱHuppert,ȱAfterȱtheȱBlackȱDeathȱ(seeȱnoteȱ245),ȱ67–79;ȱseeȱalsoȱJamesȱRichardȱFarr,ȱTheȱWork
ofȱ France:ȱ Laborȱ andȱ Cultureȱ inȱ Earlyȱ Modernȱ Times,ȱ 1350ȱ Ȭȱ 1800.ȱ Criticalȱ Issuesȱ inȱ Worldȱ and
Iinternationalȱ Historyȱ (Lanham,ȱ MD:ȱ Rowmanȱ &ȱ Littlefield,ȱ 2008).ȱ Asȱ toȱ theȱ economic
developmentȱofȱtheȱruralȱworld,ȱseeȱPhilipȱT.ȱHoffman,ȱGrowthȱinȱaȱTraditionalȱSociety:ȱTheȱFrench
Countryside,ȱ1450–1815.ȱTheȱPrincetonȱEconomicȱHistoryȱofȱtheȱWesternȱWorldȱ(Princeton,ȱNJ:
PrincetonȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1996).ȱ
370
See,ȱforȱinstance,ȱDavidȱYoung,ȱTheȱHeart’sȱForest:ȱAȱStudyȱofȱShakespeare’sȱPastoralȱPlaysȱ(New
Haven,ȱCT:ȱYaleȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1972);ȱShakespeare’sȱHistoriesȱandȱCounterȬHistories,ȱed.ȱDermot
Cavanagh,ȱStuartȱHamptonȬReevesȱandȱStephenȱLongstaffeȱ(Manchester:ȱManchesterȱUniversity
Press,ȱ2006).ȱTheȱscholarshipȱonȱthisȱtopicȱisȱlegion.
Romanceȱwritersȱcontinuedȱtoȱworkȱonȱtheȱdialecticsȱofȱruralȱandȱcourtlyȱspace,
onȱtheȱtensionȱbetweenȱtheȱforestȱandȱtheȱcity,ȱandȱonȱtheȱprotagonist’sȱsuffering
inȱ theȱ wildȱ andȱ his/herȱ recoveryȱ throughȱ variousȱ meansȱ andȱ strategiesȱ which
allowsȱhim/herȱtoȱreturnȱtoȱtheȱcourt.ȱThisȱisȱbrilliantlyȱillustratedȱbyȱLudovico
Ariosto’sȱOrlandoȱfurioso,ȱanȱincrediblyȱsophisticatedȱandȱhilariousȱmockȱnarrative
aboutȱaȱcourtlyȱhero,ȱtheȱmadȱOrlando.ȱElizabethȱChesneyȱZeguraȱanalyzesȱthis
textȱ inȱ lightȱ ofȱ whatȱ ruralȱ spaceȱ meansȱ forȱ theȱ developmentȱ ofȱ theȱ main
protagonist.ȱAsȱmuchȱasȱAriostoȱprojectedȱasȱidealȱtheȱvariousȱurbanȱandȱcourtly
spaces,ȱ heȱ alsoȱ hasȱ theȱ protagonistȱ roamȱ theȱ wildernessȱ inȱ hisȱ extraordinary
madnessȱinȱwhichȱheȱravagesȱnatureȱandȱkillsȱpeasantsȱatȱwhim.ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtime,
leavingȱ asideȱ numerousȱ biblicalȱ allusions,ȱ theȱ novelȱ containsȱ mostȱ impressive
descriptionsȱofȱcityscapesȱinȱspecificȱcontrastȱtoȱtheȱwildȱnatureȱbeyondȱtheȱcity
walls.ȱ
AsȱZeguraȱobserves,ȱtheȱpoetȱvacillatesȱrepeatedlyȱandȱmostȱcuriouslyȱbetween
anȱidealizedȱprojectionȱofȱanȱarcadianȱpastȱandȱaȱrealisticȱreferenceȱtoȱlifeȱwithin
theȱcity,ȱsafelyȱremovedȱfromȱtheȱrural,ȱorȱagrarianȱworld.ȱHowever,ȱforȱOrlando
wildȱ natureȱ servesȱ particularlyȱ wellȱ toȱ ventilateȱ hisȱ profoundȱ passions,ȱ anger,
frustration,ȱandȱdesperationȱregardingȱhisȱseeminglyȱfailedȱloveȱrelationship.ȱVery
similarȱ toȱ Yvain/Iweinȱ inȱ theȱ eponymousȱ romanceȱ byȱ Chrétienȱ deȱ Troyesȱ and
HartmannȱvonȱAueȱrespectively,ȱtheȱrealizationȱthatȱhisȱloveȱwasȱspurnedȱforces
Orlandoȱ completelyȱ backȱ intoȱ theȱ bosomȱ ofȱ nature,ȱ sheddingȱ allȱ humanȱ and
civilizationalȱ vestiges,ȱ includingȱ hisȱ armorȱ andȱ clothing,ȱ andȱ roamingȱ the
wilderness,ȱexertingȱhisȱenormousȱstrengthȱviolentlyȱagainstȱtrees,ȱcaves,ȱpeasants,
andȱotherȱelementsȱorȱpeopleȱofȱtheȱruralȱworld,ȱvirtuallyȱreturningȱtoȱtheȱoriginal
stageȱofȱman,ȱinȱParadise,ȱalthoughȱthisȱallȱappearsȱtoȱbeȱaȱformȱofȱsatireȱofȱthe
biblicalȱtextȱbecauseȱofȱtheȱdestructiveȱapproach.ȱ
Inȱparticular,ȱthisȱnewȱ‘Adam’ȱturnsȱmostȱviolentlyȱagainstȱnatureȱandȱtheȱrural
population,ȱtakingȱoutȱhisȱfrustrationȱandȱdesperationȱonȱinnocentȱobjectsȱand
people.ȱZeguraȱemphasizesȱthatȱthisȱcouldȱbeȱreadȱasȱAriosto’sȱstrongestȱformȱof
criticismȱagainstȱwarȱatȱlarge,ȱandȱagainstȱviolentȱbehaviorȱinȱanyȱformȱasȱitȱmight
appear,ȱnotȱexemptingȱevenȱmembersȱofȱtheȱhigherȱaristocracy.ȱThereȱisȱlittleȱthat
wouldȱ preventȱ usȱ fromȱ readingȱ theseȱ scenesȱ orȱ characterȱ profilesȱ asȱ specific
expressionsȱcriticizingȱtheȱconsequencesȱofȱwarȱandȱofȱallȱmilitaryȱconflicts,ȱnot
uncommonȱ amongȱ earlyȬmodernȱ humanists,ȱ suchȱ asȱ Erasmusȱ ofȱ Rotterdam
(1466–1536).371ȱWeȱobserve,ȱespecially,ȱconcreteȱdisapprovalȱofȱtheȱwayȱaristocrats
371
Seeȱ nowȱ theȱ contributionsȱ toȱ Warȱ andȱ Peace:ȱ Criticalȱ Issuesȱ inȱ Europeanȱ Societiesȱ andȱ Literature
800–1800,ȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassenȱandȱNadiaȱMargolis.ȱFundamentalsȱofȱMedievalȱandȱEarlyȱModern
Culture,ȱ8ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱDeȱGruyter,ȱ2011).ȱZeguras’sȱcommentsȱonȱthisȱissueȱwould
haveȱbeenȱvaluableȱcontributionsȱtoȱthisȱvolume,ȱespeciallyȱbecauseȱnoneȱofȱtheȱauthorsȱthere
discussesȱAriosto.
Introduction 173
mistreatȱtheirȱpeasants,ȱwhichȱmightȱbeȱaȱdistantȱechoȱofȱtheȱrevolutionaryȱevents
inȱGermanyȱduringȱtheȱPeasants’ȱWarȱfromȱ1524–1525.ȱ
Althoughȱ theȱ narrativeȱ depictsȱ temporarilyȱ imagesȱ ofȱ peaceful,ȱ submissive
farmersȱwhoȱcarryȱoutȱtheirȱworkȱasȱorderedȱbyȱGod—almostȱevokingȱtheȱimages
createdȱ forȱ theȱ purposeȱ ofȱ illustratingȱ theȱ countlessȱ lateȬmedievalȱ Booksȱ of
Hours372—theȱappearanceȱofȱOrlando,ȱwhoȱrandomlyȱbeheadsȱpeople,ȱbutchers
animals,ȱandȱcausesȱgeneralȱmayhemȱunderminesȱtheȱshortȬlivedȱidyl.ȱHeȱis,ȱin
short,ȱ aȱ madȱ vandal,ȱ aȱ ravagerȱ ofȱ hisȱ entireȱ environment,ȱ socialȱ andȱ natural,
althoughȱ heȱ represents,ȱ atȱ leastȱ formallyȱ orȱ traditionally,ȱ theȱ highestȱ levelȱ of
civilizationȱ asȱ aȱ memberȱ ofȱ theȱ aristocracy.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ regard,ȱ followingȱ Zegura’s
analysis,ȱweȱcanȱconcludeȱthatȱtheȱnarratorȱvocalizesȱsevereȱcriticismȱagainstȱthe
entireȱ conceptȱ ofȱ heroism,ȱ knighthood,ȱ andȱ aristocracyȱ becauseȱ itsȱ supreme
representativeȱhasȱturnedȱmadȱandȱkillsȱwhoȬȱorȱwhateverȱcomesȱacrossȱhisȱway
andȱrandomlyȱdestroysȱobjects.ȱTheȱtraditionalȱvillainsȱareȱsuddenlyȱturnedȱinto
innocentȱ victimsȱ ofȱ theȱ aristocraticȱ villain,ȱ whoȱ hasȱ entirelyȱ abandonedȱ the
traditionalȱconceptȱofȱdefendingȱtheȱweakȱandȱhelplessȱasȱtheȱfoundationȱupon
whichȱtheȱlegitimacyȱofȱtheȱaristocracyȱrestedȱinȱtheȱfirstȱplace.ȱMostȱdramatically,
Orlandoȱturnsȱbrutallyȱagainstȱtheȱveryȱsymbolsȱofȱpeaceȱandȱinnocence,ȱsheep
andȱshepherds,ȱandȱinȱthisȱsenseȱmightȱalsoȱrageȱagainstȱGodȱHimself.ȱAsȱZegura
suggests,ȱAriostoȱmightȱhaveȱbeenȱfamiliarȱenoughȱonȱaȱpersonalȱlevelȱwithȱthe
poorȱ people’sȱ suffering,ȱ famine,ȱ andȱ misery,ȱ andȱ soȱ didȱ notȱ shyȱ awayȱ from
serving,ȱ inȱ someȱ sense,ȱ asȱ theirȱ spokespersonȱ amongȱ theȱ highȱ aristocracy,
presentingȱtoȱusȱaȱnearlyȱsuperȬhumanȱheroȱwhoȱhasȱturnedȱmadȱandȱattacksȱhis
ownȱpeople,ȱthoseȱwhomȱheȱisȱactuallyȱsupposedȱtoȱprotectȱandȱsupportȱasȱtheir
lord.ȱ
Althoughȱtheȱnarrativeȱatȱfirstȱseemsȱtoȱimplyȱtheȱprojectionȱofȱanȱarcadian,
bucolicȱscenery,ȱwithȱOrlandoȱhavingȱreturnedȱtoȱtheȱrootsȱofȱmankind,ȱofȱhaving
reenteredȱtheȱGoldenȱAge,ȱtheȱcloseȱreadingȱrevealsȱtheȱextentȱtoȱwhichȱheȱactually
underminesȱ allȱ livingȱ things,ȱ notȱ onlyȱ uprootingȱ trees,ȱ butȱ alsoȱ eatingȱ acorns,
makingȱtheȱreȬseedingȱimpossible.ȱInȱfact,ȱfromȱanȱecocriticalȱperspective,ȱOrlando
turnsȱintoȱtheȱveryȱforceȱthatȱdestroysȱallȱlife.ȱZeguraȱalsoȱunderscoresȱhowȱmuch
Ariosto’sȱ romanceȱ impliedȱ broaderȱ criticismȱ againstȱ theȱ deforestationȱ andȱ the
abuseȱofȱtheȱnaturalȱworldȱinȱnortheasternȱItalyȱforȱmilitaryȱandȱeconomicȱreasons.ȱ
Inȱfact,ȱinȱhisȱSatiresȱtheȱauthorȱpropoundedȱtheȱcarefulȱhandlingȱofȱallȱhuman
resources,ȱtheȱcappingȱofȱwastefulȱandȱunnecessaryȱconsumption,ȱandȱarguedȱfor
aȱstopȱofȱtheȱravagingȱofȱnatureȱoutȱofȱsimpleȱhumanȱgreed.ȱInȱthisȱregardȱwe
mightȱconsiderȱAriostoȱaȱnoteworthyȱandȱimportantȱavatarȱofȱecologicalȱthinking,
asȱ anȱ attentiveȱ andȱ criticalȱ observerȱ ofȱ theȱ humanȱ impactȱ onȱ theȱ natural
environment,ȱasȱmuchȱasȱheȱwasȱobligatedȱbyȱhisȱprincelyȱpatronsȱatȱtheȱcourtȱof
372
SeeȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱAlbrechtȱClassenȱandȱLiaȱB.ȱRoss.
Ferrara,ȱ theȱ Esteȱ family,ȱ toȱ projectȱ anȱ idealȱ conceptȱ ofȱ courtlinessȱ inȱ hisȱ text.
However,ȱtheȱromanceȱitselfȱdoesȱnotȱendȱwithȱanȱapocalypticȱprojection;ȱinstead
thereȱ isȱ hopeȱ forȱ aȱ constructiveȱ developmentȱ withinȱ humanȱ societyȱ andȱ its
interactionȱwithȱtheȱruralȱspaceȱthroughȱtheȱhappyȱmarriageȱofȱBradamanteȱand
Ruggiero,ȱancestorsȱofȱtheȱEsteȱdynasty.ȱ
Theȱideaȱofȱtheȱrural,ȱasȱexpressedȱbyȱtheȱplowman,ȱforȱinstance,ȱcouldȱalsoȱbe
utilizedȱinȱaȱrhetoricalȱsense,ȱpittingȱrepresentativesȱofȱpolarȱviewpointsȱaboutȱthe
conditionȱaȱsocietyȱwasȱinȱagainstȱeachȱother.ȱWilliamȱLangland,ȱwhomȱIȱhave
discussedȱabove,ȱwasȱanȱearlyȱrepresentativeȱofȱthisȱtrend,ȱwhenȱheȱcomposedȱhis
Piersȱ Plowman.ȱ Kyleȱ DiRobertoȱ identifiesȱ anȱ intriguing,ȱ thoughȱ muchȱ more
complexȱ continuationȱ ofȱ thatȱ traditionȱ inȱ sixteenthȬcenturyȱ Englishȱ literature
whereȱtheȱPuritansȱbitterlyȱfoughtȱagainstȱtheȱPopularists.ȱTheȱtermsȱ‘prostitute’
andȱ ‘plowman’ȱ becameȱ highlyȱ effectiveȱ rhetoricalȱ toolsȱ inȱ theirȱ campaignȱ to
malignȱtheȱotherȱsideȱofȱtheȱideologicalȱbattleȱcarriedȱoutȱbyȱmeansȱofȱpoemsȱand
otherȱ literaryȱ texts.ȱ Theȱ combatantsȱ includedȱ theȱ Puritansȱ Gabrielȱ Harvey,
Gabriel’sȱ brotherȱ Richard,ȱ andȱ hisȱ studentȱ Edmundȱ Spenser,ȱ andȱ theȱ popular
writersȱRobertȱGreene,ȱThomasȱNashe,ȱJohnȱLyly,ȱand,ȱlater,ȱBenȱJonsonȱonȱthe
other.ȱ Whenȱ theȱ Puritanȱ Martinȱ Marprelateȱ enteredȱ theȱ fray,ȱ theȱ exchanges
betweenȱbothȱsidesȱbecameȱevenȱmoreȱacrimonious,ȱfocusingȱonȱhowȱtoȱevaluate
theȱcarnivalesque,ȱasȱfeminineȱ(hereȱinȱexplicitlyȱnegativeȱterms)ȱorȱnaturalȱofȱthe
people’sȱculture.ȱHarvey,ȱaboveȱall,ȱclaimedȱthatȱtheȱplowmanȱfigureȱrepresented
theȱmasculine,ȱvirtuousȱvoiceȱofȱtheȱpeople,ȱwhileȱtheȱpopularȱartistsȱappearedȱto
himȱandȱhisȱgroupȱasȱeffeminizingȱwritersȱunderminingȱtheȱtraditionalȱvalueȱof
poetry.ȱȱHowever,ȱinȱcomparisonȱwithȱmanyȱmedievalȱauthors,ȱsuchȱasȱLangland
orȱJohannesȱTepl,ȱtheȱPuritansȱdidȱnotȱnecessarilyȱendeavorȱtoȱpropȱupȱtheȱpeasant
asȱtheȱtrulyȱidealȱfigureȱinȱcontrastȱtoȱtheȱcourtierȱorȱtheȱurbanȱdweller.ȱ
DiRobertoȱdemonstratesȱhowȱmuchȱtheȱfierceȱdebateȱcenteredȱonȱideological
positionsȱconcerningȱtheȱproperȱliteraryȱaestheticsȱandȱhadȱlittleȱifȱanyȱrealȱsocialȬ
politicalȱ implications.ȱ Theȱ Puritansȱ resortedȱ toȱ termsȱ suchȱ asȱ ‘prostitutes’ȱ and
‘whores’ȱ toȱ criticizeȱ theirȱ opponents,ȱ whileȱ theyȱ themselvesȱ metaphorically
paradedȱ inȱ theȱ costumeȱ ofȱ theȱ virileȱ andȱ virtuousȱ peasant.ȱ Byȱ contrast,ȱ the
Popularistsȱridiculedȱthatȱimageȱofȱ theȱplowmanȱandȱpresentedȱthemselvesȱas
closelyȱassociatedȱwithȱtheȱgrotesqueȱcarnivalesqueȱfigureȱasȱtheȱunbridledȱand
uninhibitedȱelementȱcloserȱtoȱsocialȱreality,ȱhenceȱaȱtrueȱexpressionȱofȱpopular
culture,ȱwhichȱtheyȱwantedȱtoȱdetermineȱthemselves.ȱ
However,ȱbothȱsidesȱinȱthatȱdebateȱonlyȱpretendedȱtoȱbeȱreallyȱconcernedȱwith
theȱpeople,ȱorȱtheȱpeasant,ȱwhileȱinȱreality,ȱasȱDiRobertoȱavers,ȱtheyȱallȱbattledȱfor
ascendancyȱatȱcourtȱandȱhenceȱtheȱimprovementȱofȱtheirȱownȱsocialȱstandingȱas
writersȱandȱdeterminantsȱinȱtheȱculturalȱbattle.ȱInȱaȱway,ȱweȱmightȱsayȱthatȱthe
representativesȱ ofȱ bothȱ sidesȱ reallyȱ colonizedȱ theȱ ruralȱ spaceȱ forȱ theirȱ own
Introduction 175
purposesȱandȱutilizedȱtheȱplowmanȱorȱtheȱprostituteȱasȱrhetoricalȱweaponsȱonly.
Nevertheless,ȱ theyȱ allȱ endeavoredȱ toȱ winȱ theȱ competitionȱ ofȱ creatingȱ theȱ true
pastoralȱgenre,ȱhenceȱviedȱforȱpublicȱrecognitionȱasȱauthorsȱallegedlyȱgivingȱa
voiceȱtoȱtheȱordinaryȱpeople,ȱwhichȱwas,ȱhowever,ȱfarȱfromȱtheȱtruth.ȱAtȱtheȱsame
time,ȱasȱDiRobertoȱemphasizes,ȱasȱliteratiȱtheyȱwereȱofȱcourseȱallȱconcernedȱwith
gainingȱpublicȱapprovalȱandȱrallyingȱtheȱmassesȱbehindȱthemselves.ȱ
Inȱ theȱ courseȱ ofȱ theirȱ cantankerousȱ bickeringȱ andȱ hostileȱ arguments,ȱ the
feminineȱenteredȱtheȱstageȱofȱtheirȱexchanges,ȱsinceȱtheȱPopularistsȱdidȱnotȱrefrain
fromȱopenlyȱpresentingȱtheȱfemaleȱbodyȱasȱaȱgoodȱrepresentativeȱofȱtheirȱown
values,ȱwhileȱtheȱPuritansȱidentifiedȱtheȱcarnivalȱwithȱtheȱdisorderlyȱwomanȱwho
hadȱtoȱbeȱrepressedȱ byȱ rationalȱmenȱlikeȱ themselves.ȱTheȱPopularists,ȱinȱturn,
advocatedȱtheȱliberationȱofȱwomen,ȱparticularlyȱinȱsexualȱterms,ȱbyȱwayȱofȱfully
embracingȱtheȱcarnivalesqueȱcultureȱofȱtheirȱtimeȱwhereȱtheȱlibidinousȱindividual
couldȱfindȱhis/herȱselfȬfulfillmentȱinȱfreeȱexpression.ȱForȱtheȱPuritans,ȱtheȱsolution
consistedȱofȱdevelopingȱaȱsimple,ȱmasculineȱstyleȱinȱspeechȱandȱthusȱtoȱresistȱthe
evilȱtemptationsȱofȱtheȱcarnival,ȱtheȱdomainȱofȱtheȱallegedlyȱfraudulentȱPopularists
andȱtheirȱconnivingȱstrategiesȱtoȱstealȱtheȱpeopleȱfromȱtheȱvirtuousȱPuritans.ȱIn
thisȱ regard,ȱ theȱ imageȱ ofȱ theȱ prostituteȱ servedȱ theȱ latterȱ exceedinglyȱ wellȱ to
criticizeȱtheirȱopponents,ȱwhileȱtheyȱhopedȱtoȱprojectȱtheȱpastoralȱasȱtheȱcritical
genreȱwhereȱtheyȱcouldȱreconstituteȱtrueȱculturalȱvalues.ȱ
Whenȱweȱturnȱtoȱtheȱseventeenthȱcentury,ȱtheȱtopicȱofȱruralȱspaceȱhasȱalready
acquiredȱmuchȱinȱesteem,ȱandȱmanyȱtimesȱpoetsȱindulgedȱinȱadulatingȱbeautiful
natureȱscenes,ȱsuchȱasȱRobertȱHerrickȱ(1591–1674).373ȱCuriously,ȱhowever,ȱwhile
heȱcomposedȱmanyȱpoemsȱdedicatedȱtoȱtheȱattractivenessȱofȱnature,ȱheȱalsoȱwrote
manyȱpoemsȱwithȱtheȱveryȱoppositeȱviewpoint,ȱrejectingȱtheȱruralȱasȱabominable
andȱdistasteful,ȱobviouslyȱresortingȱtoȱaȱdialecticalȱstrategyȱinȱhisȱtreatmentȱof
nature.ȱJessicaȱTvordiȱdiscussesȱHerrick’sȱperceptionȱofȱtheȱruralȱasȱaȱreflectionȱof
hisȱ intensiveȱ engagementȱ withȱ theȱ classicalȱ traditionȱ ofȱ theȱ pastoralȱ andȱ the
georgic,ȱwhichȱheȱdeliberatelyȱcontrastedȱwithȱtheȱidealizedȱimageȱofȱurbanȱspace
whereȱintellectȱandȱcultureȱprospered.ȱLivingȱinȱtheȱcountrysideȱwas,ȱasȱmanyȱof
Herrick’sȱpoemsȱreveal,ȱaȱformȱofȱexile,ȱbanishedȱfromȱtheȱcenterȱofȱallȱsocietyȱin
theȱ bigȱ cityȱ ofȱ London.ȱ Onlyȱ thereȱ wouldȱ heȱ haveȱ theȱ opportunityȱ toȱ enjoy
conviviality,ȱwit,ȱandȱpoeticȱcommunity.ȱByȱcontrast,ȱlifeȱinȱtheȱcountryȱexposed
himȱtoȱrudeȱtreatmentȱbyȱtheȱpeasantsȱandȱtheirȱhorrifyingȱignorance—allȱtropes
373
Recentȱresearchȱhasȱalsoȱemphasizedȱtheȱtopicȱofȱconvivialityȱinȱhisȱpoems;ȱseeȱtheȱcontributions
toȱ“Lordsȱofȱwineȱandȱoile”:ȱCommunityȱandȱConvivialityȱinȱtheȱPoetryȱofȱRobertȱHerrick,ȱed.ȱRuth
ConnollȱandȱTomȱCainȱ(Oxford:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2011).ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱtheȱreception
ofȱclassicalȱliteratureȱonȱHerrick’sȱworkȱalsoȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱofȱmajorȱimportance;ȱseeȱSyritheȱPugh,
Herrick,ȱ Fanshaweȱ andȱ theȱ Politicsȱ ofȱ Intertextuality:ȱ Classicalȱ Literatureȱ andȱ SeventeenthȬCentury
Royalismȱ(Farnham,ȱEngland,ȱandȱBurlington,ȱVT:ȱAshgate,ȱ2010).
thatȱcanȱbeȱeasilyȱtracedȱbackȱtoȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱantiquity,ȱespeciallyȱifȱwe
thinkȱofȱOvid’sȱpoemsȱaboutȱhisȱexileȱatȱtheȱBlackȱSea,ȱtheȱTristia,ȱandȱhisȱEpistulae
exȱPontoȱ(writtenȱbetweenȱ9ȱandȱ16ȱC.E.).ȱ
Atȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱtheȱtrendȱinȱpoetryȱandȱliteratureȱwentȱjustȱtheȱoppositeȱway,
toȱprojectȱpastoralȱimagesȱandȱtoȱactȱoutȱdreamsȱofȱaȱpeaceful,ȱidyllicȱlifeȱinȱthe
country.374ȱ Toȱ counteractȱ that,ȱ Herrickȱ turnedȱ toȱ theȱ georgicȱ modeȱ ofȱ poetry,
focusingȱonȱtheȱpragmaticȱaspectsȱofȱlifeȱinȱtheȱcountryside,ȱaimingȱforȱaȱutilitarian
engagementȱ withȱ theȱ landȱ andȱ theȱ animals.ȱ Itȱ allȱ depends,ȱ however,ȱ onȱ what
poemsȱoneȱlooksȱatȱbecauseȱHerrickȱdevelopedȱmanyȱinȱwhichȱheȱadulatesȱthe
ruralȱandȱportraysȱnatureȱasȱanȱidealȱthatȱcouldȱbeȱenjoyedȱandȱprofitedȱfrom,ȱafter
all.ȱYet,ȱasȱTvordiȱ recognizes,ȱheȱregularlyȱspeaksȱwithȱtheȱvoiceȱofȱtheȱruling
aristocratȱwhoȱallowsȱtheȱpeasantsȱtoȱrelaxȱinȱtheȱcountrysideȱonlyȱforȱtheȱduration
ofȱaȱshortȱbreak,ȱandȱthenȱordersȱthemȱbackȱtoȱtheȱplow.ȱ
Otherȱpoems,ȱagain,ȱexplicitlyȱrejectȱcityȱlifeȱandȱprojectȱtheȱruralȱworldȱasȱthe
safeguardȱfromȱtheȱhectic,ȱpolluted,ȱdangerous,ȱandȱsuperficialȱexistenceȱinȱthe
urbanȱ context.ȱ Inȱ theȱ countrysideȱ manȱ mightȱ finallyȱ beȱ ableȱ toȱ meditateȱ and
recoverȱhisȱhumanȱdignityȱinȱtheȱStoicȱtradition.ȱThenȱagain,ȱHerrickȱrailedȱagainst
theȱ dullnessȱ andȱ lackȱ ofȱ inspirationȱ fromȱ theȱ ruralȱ world,ȱ longingȱ forȱ the
intellectualȱallureȱexertedȱbyȱtheȱcity.ȱTvordiȱidentifiesȱthisȱapproachȱasȱequivocal,
andȱweȱcouldȱalsoȱresortȱtoȱtheȱtermȱdialectical,ȱnotȱunusualȱinȱtheȱhistoryȱofȱpoetic
approachesȱ toȱ nature,ȱ asȱ weȱ haveȱ observedȱ aboveȱ alreadyȱ withȱ regardȱ toȱ the
poemsȱ composedȱ byȱ Oswaldȱ vonȱ Wolkensteinȱ (1376/77–1445).ȱ Inȱ someȱ cases
Herrickȱidentifiedȱtheȱcountrysideȱasȱinspirationalȱforȱhisȱpoems,ȱandȱinȱothersȱhe
rejectedȱitȱoutright,ȱchargingȱthatȱitȱpreventedȱhimȱfromȱdevelopingȱideasȱand
fromȱwritingȱpoetryȱinȱtheȱfirstȱplace.ȱ
Whenȱ Herrickȱ formulatesȱ loathingȱ ofȱ theȱ rural,ȱ heȱ commonlyȱ abstainsȱ from
voicingȱ explicitȱ criticism,ȱ andȱ insteadȱ turnsȱ toȱ figurativeȱ languageȱ because,ȱ as
Tvordiȱobserves,ȱthisȱallowedȱhimȱtoȱreflectȱuponȱhisȱownȱpoeticȱdiscontentment,
sortȱofȱasȱaȱventilationȱforȱhisȱinnerȱfrustration.ȱLivingȱinȱtheȱcityȱwouldȱhelpȱhim
toȱreconnectȱwithȱhisȱpatronsȱandȱstrengthenȱhisȱpublicȱstanding,ȱwhileȱlivingȱin
theȱcountrysideȱservesȱ‘only’ȱtoȱreenergizeȱhimȱasȱaȱpoetȱandȱtoȱprovideȱhimȱwith
newȱpoeticȱinspiration.ȱInȱthisȱregard,ȱHerrick’sȱpoetryȱillustratesȱimpressivelyȱthe
fundamentalȱ tensionsȱ thatȱ permeateȱ theȱ entireȱ historyȱ ofȱ poeticȱ andȱ artistic
engagementȱwithȱnatureȱandȱtheȱruralȱworldȱinȱearlyȬmodernȱliterature.ȱOneȱcould
loveȱitȱandȱhateȱit,ȱorȱbothȱatȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱdependingȱonȱtheȱindividualȱsituation,
socialȱcondition,ȱandȱpersonalȱaspirations.
374
Theȱ sameȱ trendȱ toȱ exploreȱ theȱ genreȱ ofȱ pastoralȱ poetryȱ canȱ beȱ discoveredȱ inȱ contemporary
Germanȱ poetry;ȱ seeȱ Janeȱ O.ȱ Newman,ȱ Pastoralȱ Conventions:ȱ Poetry,ȱ Language,ȱ andȱ Thoughtȱ in
SeventeenthȬCenturyȱNurembergȱ(BaltimoreȱandȱLondon:ȱJohnsȱHopkinsȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1990).
Cf.ȱalsoȱJamesȱE.ȱCongleton,ȱTheoriesȱofȱPastoralȱPoetryȱinȱEngland,ȱ1684ȱ–ȱ1798ȱ(NewȱYork:ȱHaskell,
1968).
Introduction 177
Whileȱwesternȱsocietyȱhasȱalmostȱalwaysȱregardedȱtheȱforestȱandȱwildȱnatureȱas
anȱ outrightȱ giftȱ byȱ God,ȱ asȱ formulatedȱ inȱ Genesis,ȱ irrespectiveȱ ofȱ regular
experiencesȱ ofȱ naturalȱ catastrophesȱ (hurricanes,ȱ eruptionȱ ofȱ volcanoes,
earthquakes,ȱsandstorms,ȱflooding,ȱetc.),ȱitȱhasȱalsoȱprovenȱtoȱbeȱaȱcontestedȱarea
inȱ theȱ conflictsȱ betweenȱ theȱ socialȱ classes,ȱ forȱ instance,ȱ orȱ withȱ respectȱ toȱ the
tensionsȱ betweenȱ citiesȱ andȱ princes.ȱ Contestationȱ alsoȱ erupted,ȱ atȱ leastȱ inȱ one
specificȱ area,ȱ withȱ respectȱ toȱ theȱ privilegeȱ ofȱ hunting,ȱ aȱ privilegeȱ which
seventeenthȬcenturyȱ Dutchȱ womenȱ claimedȱ forȱ themselvesȱ forȱ aȱ numberȱ of
reasons,ȱasȱMarthaȱMoffittȱPeacockȱillustratesȱinȱherȱcontribution.375ȱMedievalȱart
knowsȱnumerousȱexamplesȱofȱnobleȱladiesȱinvolvedȱinȱaȱhunt,ȱbutȱtheyȱareȱrarely,
ifȱever,ȱdepictedȱinȱtheȱgruesome,ȱfinalȱkillȱofȱtheȱanimal,ȱandȱmostlyȱappearȱas
companionsȱandȱentertainers,ȱthoughȱtheyȱalsoȱseemȱtoȱhaveȱenjoyedȱhuntȱasȱa
sport,ȱespeciallyȱwithȱbirdsȱofȱprey.ȱInȱgeneral,ȱhowever,ȱtraditionallyȱmenȱwere
supposedȱtoȱbeȱinȱchargeȱandȱcontrolȱbothȱnature,ȱtheȱwild,ȱandȱwomen,ȱwhileȱthe
latterȱwereȱassociatedȱwithȱtheȱfecundityȱofȱtheȱforestȱandȱthusȱwereȱsupposedȱto
beȱbyȬstandersȱandȱobserversȱofȱtheȱhunt.ȱInȱmanyȱways,ȱmen’sȱhuntingȱpractices
wereȱparalleledȱwithȱtheirȱamatoryȱpursuitȱofȱwomen,ȱherȱbeingȱhisȱ‘prey’ȱinȱliteral
andȱmetaphoricalȱterms.ȱ
TurningȱtoȱseventeenthȬcenturyȱNetherlandishȱart,ȱhowever,ȱPeacockȱdiscovers
aȱradicalȱshiftȱinȱthatȱregard,ȱasȱtheȱpaintersȱfromȱthenȱonȱhesitatedȱveryȱlittleȱto
changeȱ theȱ traditionalȱ appearanceȱ ofȱ womenȱ inȱ hunt,ȱ givingȱ themȱ suddenlyȱ a
domineeringȱ role,ȱ presentingȱ themȱ cladȱ inȱ trousers,ȱ wieldingȱ theȱ weapons,
controllingȱtheȱentireȱhuntingȱscene,ȱleadingȱtheȱcharge,ȱandȱcommandeeringȱthe
entireȱhuntingȱcompany.ȱAbrahamȱHondiusȱ(1625–1691)ȱwentȱevenȱsoȱfarȱasȱto
depictȱaȱhuntressȱtakingȱonȱaȱferociousȱboar,ȱtraditionallyȱtheȱmostȱdangerousȱprey
inȱpremodernȱforests,ȱasȱperhapsȱbestȱillustratedȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱEnglishȱromance
Sirȱ Gawainȱ andȱ theȱ Greenȱ Knight.ȱ Weȱ couldȱ evenȱ goȱ soȱ farȱ asȱ toȱ identifyȱ a
remarkableȱgenderȱreversalȱpresentedȱinȱthoseȱimages,ȱifȱweȱthink,ȱforȱinstance,ȱof
theȱ worksȱ byȱ ȱ Janȱ Mielȱ (1599–1663).ȱ Theȱ artistȱ didȱ notȱ leaveȱ outȱ theȱ men,ȱ but
consistentlyȱ placedȱ themȱ inȱ theȱ background,ȱ inȱ theȱ shadow,ȱ orȱ sittingȱ onȱ the
ground,ȱsurroundingȱaȱstandingȱladyȱhuntress.ȱ
Thereȱ areȱ manyȱ reasonsȱ forȱ thisȱ uniqueȱ treatmentȱ ofȱ theȱ powerfulȱ andȱ selfȬ
containedȱ huntressȱ inȱ seventeenthȬcenturyȱ Netherlandishȱ art.ȱ Theȱ political
situationȱ thereȱ duringȱ theȱ ageȱ ofȱ Reformationȱ wasȱ heavilyȱ leaningȱ inȱ favorȱ of
femaleȱrulers,ȱhenceȱofȱwomenȱpatronsȱofȱtheȱartsȱandȱliterature.ȱMoreȱimportant,
375
InȱtheȱlateȱMiddleȱAgesȱweȱfindȱnumerousȱexamplesȱofȱstrongȱfemaleȱcharactersȱchallengingȱtheir
weakȱandȱoftenȱimbecileȱhusbands;ȱseeȱtheȱgenreȱofȱtheȱOldȱFrenchȱfabliauxȱofȱtheȱMiddleȱHigh
Germanȱmæren.ȱForȱaȱgoodȱexample,ȱseeȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱPennyȱSimons;ȱcf.ȱalso
KatharinaȱFietze,ȱImȱGefolgeȱDianasȱ(seeȱnoteȱ350),ȱ58–68.
DutchȱwomenȱplayedȱaȱmajorȱroleȱinȱtheȱfightȱagainstȱtheȱSpanishȱsuppressors
duringȱtheȱrevoltȱinȱtheȱ1580s,ȱuntilȱtheȱProtestantsȱfinallyȱwonȱandȱcouldȱexpelȱthe
Spanishȱtroopsȱinȱ1588.376ȱParticularlyȱbecauseȱtheȱforestȱrepresentedȱanȱalternative
space,ȱwhereȱcommonȱrulesȱandȱprinciplesȱofȱbehavior,ȱatȱleastȱaccordingȱtoȱtheȱ
normsȱ ofȱ aristocraticȱ society,ȱ couldȱ notȱ beȱ upheldȱ (seeȱ aboveȱ forȱ medieval
examples),ȱtheȱDutchȱartistsȱfeltȱfree,ȱorȱperhapsȱwereȱchargedȱtoȱdoȱsoȱbyȱtheir
femaleȱpatrons,ȱtoȱpresentȱtheȱliberated,ȱindependent,ȱpowerful,ȱandȱcontumacious
huntress.ȱThisȱgenderȱreversalȱwasȱpossibleȱbecauseȱofȱwomen’sȱextraordinary
successesȱinȱgoverningȱthoseȱprovincesȱduringȱtheȱsixteenthȱcenturyȱandȱinȱthe
DutchȱRevolt.ȱTheseȱfemaleȱfiguresȱdidȱnotȱmitigateȱtheȱtraditionallyȱchaoticȱand
ferociousȱnatureȱofȱtheȱforestȱandȱitsȱanimalȱoccupants,ȱbutȱtheyȱforcefullyȱstepped
intoȱthatȱforestȱspaceȱandȱstakedȱtheirȱownȱposition,ȱdemonstratingȱthatȱthey,ȱas
women,ȱfeltȱcompletelyȱempoweredȱtoȱstepȱupȱtoȱtheȱplateȱandȱassume,ȱwhen
possible,ȱaȱleadingȱroleȱwithinȱtheirȱsociety.ȱTheirȱpresentationȱasȱmastersȱofȱthe
wildȱspaceȱandȱtheȱanimalsȱofȱpreyȱconfirmedȱthatȱtheyȱwereȱalsoȱregardedȱas
beingȱinȱchargeȱofȱnature.
Talkingȱaboutȱruralȱspaceȱalsoȱimplies,ȱatȱleastȱinȱmanyȱcontexts,ȱsocialȱcriticism,
conflictsȱwithinȱanyȱgivenȱsocietyȱoverȱlandȱrights,ȱtheȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱthe
upperȱandȱlowerȱclasses,ȱtheȱconflictsȱbetweenȱtheȱruralȱandȱtheȱurbanȱpopulation,
theȱeconomicȱplightȱofȱtheȱpeasantȱclass,ȱandȱsometimesȱalsoȱmilitaryȱupheavals,
tensions,ȱandȱacrimoniousȱwars,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱpeasantȱrevoltȱinȱEnglandȱinȱ1381ȱand
theȱPeasantȱWarȱinȱGermanyȱinȱ1524ȱandȱ1525.377ȱInȱtheȱnineteenthȱcenturyȱsocial
injustice,ȱbothȱinȱtheȱindustryȱandȱinȱagriculture,ȱbecameȱsomeȱofȱtheȱmostȱhotly
debatedȱissuesȱinȱpublicȱdiscourse,ȱasȱreflectedȱmostȱpoignantlyȱbyȱtheȱtheoretical
treatises,ȱbroadsheets,ȱpamphlets,ȱandȱmanifestoesȱbyȱKarlȱMarxȱandȱFriedrich
Engels.ȱEspeciallyȱtheȱlatterȱdrewȱsomeȱofȱhisȱinspirationsȱnotȱonlyȱfromȱMarx’s
teachings,ȱ butȱ alsoȱ fromȱ earlier,ȱ stronglyȱ leftȬleaningȱ landȱ reformers,ȱ suchȱ as
Gerrardȱ Winstanleyȱ (1609–1676).ȱ Inȱ hisȱ contributionȱ toȱ thisȱ volume,ȱ Thomas
Willardȱturnsȱtheȱattentionȱtoȱthisȱhighlyȱintriguing,ȱyetȱalsoȱproblematicȱfigure
who,ȱafterȱtwoȱbankruptciesȱduringȱtheȱEnglishȱCivilȱWarsȱofȱtheȱ1640s,ȱretreated
376
MarthaȱMoffittȱPeacock,ȱ“OutȱofȱtheȱKitchenȱandȱintoȱtheȱFire:ȱTheȱDutchȱHeroineȱTradition,”ȱWar
andȱPeace:ȱCriticalȱIssuesȱinȱEuropeanȱSocietiesȱandȱLiteratureȱ800–1800,ȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassenȱand
NadiaȱMargolis.ȱFundamentalsȱofȱMedievalȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱCulture,ȱ8ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:
DeȱGruyter,ȱ2011),ȱ557–98.ȱSeeȱalsoȱTheȱOriginsȱandȱDevelopmentȱofȱtheȱDutchȱRevolt,ȱed.ȱGraham
Darbyȱ (Londonȱ andȱ Newȱ York:ȱ Routledge,ȱ 2001);ȱ Jamesȱ D.ȱ Tracy,ȱ Theȱ Foundingȱ ofȱ theȱ Dutch
Republic:ȱWar,ȱFinance,ȱandȱPoliticsȱinȱHolland,ȱ1572–1588ȱ(OxfordȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱOxfordȱUniversity
Press,ȱ 2008).ȱ Ofȱ course,ȱ forȱ theȱ Spaniardsȱ theȱ situationȱ lookedȱ veryȱ different;ȱ seeȱ Yolanda
RodríguezȱPérez,ȱTheȱDutchȱRevoltȱThroughȱSpanishȱEyes:ȱSelfȱandȱOtherȱinȱHistoricalȱandȱLiterary
TextsȱofȱGoldenȱAgeȱSpainȱ(c.ȱ1548–1673).ȱHispanicȱStudies:ȱCultureȱandȱIdeas,ȱ16ȱ(Oxford,ȱBern,ȱet
al.:ȱPeterȱLang,ȱ2008).
377
SeeȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱScottȱL.ȱTaylor.
Introduction 179
toȱprayerȱandȱBibleȱstudyȱanȱturnedȱtoȱreligion.ȱThoughȱlargelyȱselfȬeducated,ȱhe
startedȱ toȱ writeȱ religiousȱ tractsȱ withȱ anȱ increasinglyȱ politicalȱ message:ȱ The
Parliament’sȱ warȱ againstȱ theȱ Kingȱ wouldȱ notȱ beȱ completedȱ untilȱ theȱ common
landsȱofȱEnglandȱwereȱreturnedȱtoȱtheȱcommonȱpeople,ȱwhoȱcouldȱfarmȱthem
communallyȱandȱnoȱlongerȱliveȱinȱhungerȱandȱinȱdebtȱtoȱlargeȱlandȱowners.
AsȱWinstanleyȱsoonȱrealized,ȱoneȱofȱtheȱmajorȱproblemsȱofȱhisȱtimeȱwasȱtheȱever
growingȱ enclosureȱ ofȱ commonȱ landȱ claimedȱ byȱ theȱ aristocratsȱ toȱ theȱ great
disadvantageȱofȱtheȱpoor.ȱWinstanleyȱrecognizedȱthatȱthisȱwasȱtheȱultimateȱresult
ofȱtheȱfeudalȱsystemȱestablishedȱafterȱtheȱNormanȱconquestȱinȱ1066—aȱsystemȱthat
lostȱitsȱclaimsȱwithȱtheȱrecentȱdefeatȱofȱtheȱmonarchyȱandȱtheȱestablishmentȱofȱa
CommonwealthȱunderȱtheȱruleȱofȱParliament.ȱWinstanleyȱembracedȱtheȱideaȱof
squattingȱonȱpublicȱlands.ȱHeȱorganizedȱfarmȱworkersȱinȱSurreyȱintoȱwhatȱbecame
knownȱasȱtheȱDiggerȱmovementȱforȱwhichȱheȱwasȱtheȱchiefȱspokespersonȱand
apologist.ȱ Heȱ insistedȱ thatȱ theȱ landȱ whichȱ theyȱ workedȱ wasȱ trulyȱ commonȱ in
natureȱandȱcouldȱnotȱfallȱunderȱanyone’sȱownership.
Deeplyȱreligiousȱinȱhisȱconvictions,ȱWinstanleyȱprovedȱtoȱbeȱhighlyȱantiȬclerical,
insistingȱonȱtheȱpeople’sȱrightȱtoȱeconomicȱsecurityȱdirectlyȱderivedȱfromȱGod’s
love.ȱTheȱdiggingȱatȱSaintȱGeorge’sȱHillȱinȱSurreyȱbecameȱaȱrallyingȱcryȱforȱmany
protesters,ȱandȱtheȱQuakersȱregarded,ȱasȱWillardȱemphasizes,ȱthisȱpublicȱactionȱas
aȱsymbolȱofȱaȱpeacefulȱsettlementȱofȱmanyȱeconomicȱinjustices.ȱHowever,ȱasȱwe
alsoȱ haveȱ toȱ realize,ȱ Winstanley’sȱ attemptȱ hadȱ noȱ longȬtermȱ impact;ȱ onȱ the
contrary,ȱtheȱprocessȱofȱenclosuresȱcontinuedȱprogressively,ȱandȱoverȱtheȱnextȱtwo
hundredȱyearsȱorȱsoȱtheȱpauperizationȱofȱtheȱruralȱpopulationȱonlyȱincreased.ȱ
ȱAsȱweȱlearnȱfromȱWillard’sȱstudy,ȱWinstanley’sȱpleasȱfellȱonȱdeafȱears.ȱThe
Diggersȱlostȱtheirȱcasesȱinȱcourt,ȱandȱparliamentaryȱsoldiersȱranȱthemȱoffȱtheȱlands
theyȱhadȱworked.ȱSubsequentlyȱWinstanleyȱbecameȱaȱsmallȱlandȱholderȱand,ȱlater,
aȱsuccessfulȱLondonȱmerchantȱmarriedȱtoȱaȱwealthyȱQuakerȱwidow.ȱThoughȱthe
developmentȱofȱhisȱlastȱdaysȱmightȱseemȱironicȱtoȱsomeȱwhoȱreadȱhisȱstory,ȱhe
remainsȱaȱculturalȱiconȱforȱjusticeȱtoȱtheȱcommonȱpeople.ȱHowever,ȱSaintȱGeorge’s
Hill,ȱ althoughȱ todayȱ aȱ highlyȱ covetedȱ urbanȱ areaȱ ofȱ extraordinarilyȱ expensive
propertiesȱinȱtheȱprivateȱestateȱinȱWeybridge,ȱSurrey,ȱinȱtheȱUnitedȱ Kingdom,
continuesȱtoȱbeȱaȱsiteȱofȱprotesters,ȱevenȱthoughȱtheirȱeffortsȱcanȱonlyȱbeȱregarded
asȱsymbolic,ȱwithoutȱanyȱhopeȱofȱachievingȱaȱmajorȱbreakȬthroughȱinȱtheȱeconomic
andȱpoliticalȱstructuresȱofȱourȱwesternȱsocieties.ȱ
Nevertheless,ȱWinstanleyȱcanȱcertainlyȱbeȱconsideredȱasȱaȱsignificantȱancestor
ofȱmanyȱmodernȱprotestȱmovementsȱdirectedȱatȱorȱbasedȱonȱpublicȱland.ȱInȱfact,
evenȱtheȱ“OccupyȬWallȬStreet”ȱmovementȱinȱ2011ȱcouldȱturnȱtoȱthisȱseventeenthȬ
centuryȱvisionaryȱasȱaȱmajorȱsourceȱofȱinspiration.ȱTheȱbattleȱforȱlandȱcontinues
todayȱbecauseȱlandȱisȱtheȱbasisȱofȱallȱlife,ȱandȱtheȱattemptȱbyȱtheȱupperȱclassesȱto
stifleȱprotestsȱbyȱtheȱlowerȱonesȱforȱtheirȱownȱeconomicȱbenefitsȱwillȱultimately
leadȱtoȱaȱdevastatingȱbacklash,ȱmaybeȱevenȱtoȱaȱprotestȱbyȱnatureȱitself.378ȱ
Suchȱpoliticalȱandȱmaybeȱdystopianȱperspectives,ȱhowever,ȱareȱnotȱtheȱstuff
whichȱthisȱbookȱtriesȱtoȱaddress.ȱHowever,ȱweȱmustȱalwaysȱkeepȱinȱmindȱhow
muchȱ medievalȱ andȱ earlyȬmodernȱ experiencesȱ andȱ ideasȱ haveȱ influencedȱ the
modernȱ world,ȱ directlyȱ orȱ indirectly,ȱ andȱ haveȱ providedȱ theȱ foundationsȱ for
modernȱ ideas,ȱ movements,ȱ concepts,ȱ orȱ organizations.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ sense,ȱ the
explorationȱ ofȱ ruralȱ spaceȱ inȱ theȱ premodernȱ worldȱ allowsȱ usȱ toȱ recognize
importantȱ precedentsȱ andȱ harbingersȱ ofȱ thingsȱ toȱ come,ȱ andȱ weȱ continueȱ to
grappleȱ withȱ theȱ tensionsȱ betweenȱ ruralȱ andȱ urban,ȱ courtlyȱ andȱ ecclesiastical,
althoughȱtodayȱtheȱissueȱmightȱbeȱmuchȱmoreȱtheȱconflictȱbetweenȱindustrialȱand
environmental.
32.ȱConclusion
Iȱwouldȱlikeȱtoȱconcludeȱhereȱwithȱaȱbriefȱdiscussionȱofȱaȱremarkableȱsongȱwith
fourȱstanzasȱbyȱtheȱdidacticȱMiddleȱHighȱGermanȱpoetȱRumelantȱvonȱSachsen
(secondȱ halfȱ ofȱ theȱ thirteenthȱ century,ȱ probablyȱ activeȱ betweenȱ 1273ȱ and
1286/1287).ȱInȱ“Gotȱinȱvierȱelementen”ȱ(Jȱ1,ȱnowȱI,ȱ1)ȱtheȱpoetȱoffersȱanȱintriguingly
strikingȱexplanationȱofȱGod’sȱessence,ȱidentifyingȱHimȱfirstȱwithȱtheȱfourȱelements
andȱascribingȱtoȱHimȱtheȱpowerȱofȱhavingȱabsolvedȱpeopleȱfromȱallȱsinfulness.
Referringȱ toȱ Christ,ȱ Rumelantȱ makesȱ theȱ fascinatingȱ comparisonȱ betweenȱ the
tortureȱwhichȱChristȱhadȱtoȱsufferȱwithȱHisȱfleshȱhavingȱbeenȱstabbedȱthrough,
andȱtheȱsoilȱonȱtheȱfieldȱwhichȱisȱbrokenȱopenȱwithȱtheȱplow.ȱJustȱasȱtheȱearth
subsequentlyȱbearsȱgoodȱfruitȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱtheȱfarmer’sȱlabor,ȱsoȱChrist’sȱPassion
hasȱbroughtȱforthȱgoodȱfruit.ȱTheȱcrucifixionȱhenceȱemergesȱasȱGod’sȱgift,ȱasȱthe
seedling,ȱtoȱmankind,ȱwhichȱtheȱpoetȱidentifiesȱwithȱtheȱplowman.ȱOnceȱChrist
hadȱconsideredȱpeople’sȱweakness,ȱHeȱwasȱfilledȱwithȱcompassionȱandȱcameȱto
rescueȱmankindȱfromȱtheȱdevil’sȱclutches:
Gotȱinȱvierȱelementen
sichȱerscheinet.
obȱwirȱdenȱnichtȱrechtȱerkenten,
derȱunsȱhâtȱgereinet?
allerȱsündenȱsmitten
wuoschȱunsȱabeȱsînȱbluot.
378
Seeȱ alsoȱ Giovanniȱ Fiaschi,ȱ Potere,ȱ rivoluzioneȱ eȱ utopiaȱ nellȇȱ esperienzaȱ diȱ Gerrardȱ Winstanley.
PubblicazioniȱdellaȱFacoltàȱdiȱGiurisprudenzaȱdellȇUniversitàȱdiȱPadova,ȱ88ȱ(Padova:ȱCEDAM,
1982);ȱ Davidȱ Loewenstein,ȱ Representingȱ Revolutionȱ inȱ Miltonȱ andȱ Hisȱ Contemporaries:ȱ Religion,
Politics,ȱandȱPolemicsȱinȱRadicalȱPuritanismȱ(Cambridge:ȱCambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2001).
Introduction 181
sînȱvleischȱwartȱdurchstochen
samȱdiuȱerde,
dieȱmitȱphlüegenȱwirtȱzebrochen.
darȱnâchȱderȱvilȱwerde
anȱdemȱkrûtzeȱmitten
hienc;ȱsînȱvruchtȱistȱguot.
derȱunsȱsînȱvleischlichȱerdeȱinȱackerȱbrâchte,
zeȱsâteȱerȱwartȱgephlüegetȱinȱderȱmarter.
dôȱerȱmenschlîcheȱbrôdicheitȱbedâchte,
dôȱwartȱmenscheitȱimȱtrûterȱundeȱzarter.
nûȱkumptȱsînȱerbarmen
unsȱzeȱtrôste,
sîtȱdazȱerȱdieȱvreudenȱarmen
gnædichlîcheȱerlôste
vonȱdesȱtiuvelsȱkyten
ûzȱderȱhelleȱgluot.379
[GodȱmakesȱHimselfȱmanifest
inȱtheȱfourȱelements.
ShouldȱweȱnotȱacknowledgeȱHimȱproperly,
whoȱhasȱcleansedȱus?
Allȱtheȱsinfulȱdirt
HeȱwashedȱoffȱusȱwithȱHisȱBlood.
Hisȱfleshȱwasȱstabbedȱthrough
likeȱtheȱearth
thatȱisȱbrokenȱopenȱduringȱplowing.
Thereafterȱtheȱhighlyȱsublimeȱone
hungȱsquarelyȱonȱtheȱcross;
Heȱboreȱgoodȱfruit.
HeȱwhoȱplacedȱHisȱfleshlyȱsoilȱintoȱourȱfields,
wasȱplowedȱunderȱasȱseedlingȱthroughȱHisȱPassion.
WhenȱHeȱconsideredȱman’sȱweakness,
mankindȱbecameȱevenȱdearerȱandȱbelovedȱtoȱhim.
NowȱHisȱmercy
comesȱtoȱusȱinȱconsolation,
insofarȱasȱHeȱliberatesȱthoseȱwhoȱareȱvoidȱofȱjoyfulness
throughȱHisȱgrace
379
HolgerȱRunow,ȱRumelantȱvonȱSachsen:ȱEditionȱ–ȱÜbersetzungȱ–ȱKommentarȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:
DeȱGruyter,ȱ2011),ȱ43;ȱforȱaȱcommentary,ȱseeȱ191–92.
fromȱtheȱdevil’sȱclutches,
andȱrescuesȱusȱfromȱtheȱhellishȱheat.]380
Rumelantȱdeservesȱourȱgreatȱrespectȱforȱthisȱhighlyȱexpressiveȱreflectionȱonȱwhat
Christ’sȱPassionȱtrulyȱmeansȱforȱallȱofȱmankindȱwhichȱcannotȱsurviveȱwithoutȱHis
mercy.ȱ Forȱ ourȱ purposes,ȱ however,ȱ thisȱ songȱ aboveȱ allȱ demonstratesȱ most
convincinglyȱhowȱmuchȱagriculturalȱmetaphorsȱwereȱofȱgreatȱsignificanceȱforȱall
Christians,ȱsinceȱeveryoneȱwasȱsupposedȱtoȱidentifyȱhim/herselfȱwithȱtheȱfirstȱman,
Adam,ȱwhoseȱlifeȱhereȱonȱearthȱbeganȱasȱaȱplowmanȱ(seeȱFig.ȱ1).ȱRumelant’sȱpoem
providesȱ anȱ exceedinglyȱ wellȱ fittingȱ connectionȱ toȱ Williamȱ Langland’ȱ Piers
Plowmanȱ(seeȱDanielȱPigg’sȱcontribution),ȱJohannȱTepl’sȱPlowmanȱ(seeȱabove),ȱto
theȱ worldȱ ofȱ theȱ Booksȱ ofȱ Hoursȱ (seeȱ Albrechtȱ Classen’sȱ andȱ Liaȱ B.ȱ Ross’s
contributions),ȱtoȱPieterȱBrueghelȱtheȱElder’sȱpaintingsȱofȱtheȱfourȱseasonsȱ(see
above),ȱandȱtoȱtheȱpoeticȬpoliticalȱdiscourseȱinȱsixteenthȬcenturyȱEnglishȱliterature
whereȱ Puritansȱ andȱ Popularistsȱ battledȱ overȱ theȱ trueȱ meaningȱ ofȱ popularȱ art,
resortingȱtoȱtheȱimageȱofȱtheȱplowmanȱandȱtheȱprostituteȱ(seeȱKyleȱDiRoberto’s
contribution),ȱallȱrepresenting,ȱinȱtheirȱownȱways,ȱavatarsȱofȱtheȱoriginalȱconcept
thatȱmanȱis,ȱfundamentally,ȱnothingȱbutȱaȱplowmanȱhereȱonȱearth.ȱ
Notȱ surprisingly,ȱ then,ȱ weȱ canȱ easilyȱ detectȱ numerousȱ referencesȱ toȱ the
farmworkȱthroughoutȱtheȱyearȱasȱsymbolsȱofȱhumanȱvirtuesȱandȱvices,ȱorȱmorality
andȱ justice.ȱ Oneȱ convenientȱ andȱ trulyȱ strikingȱ exampleȱ wouldȱ beȱ theȱ early
fourteenthȬcenturyȱpreacher’sȱhandbook,ȱtheȱFasciculusȱmorum,ȱwhichȱhasȱsurvived
inȱtwentyȬeightȱmanuscripts,ȱwhichȱconfirmsȱitsȱgreatȱpopularity.381ȱConsidering
whatȱthingsȱmightȱhinderȱpeopleȱfromȱgivingȱalms,ȱforȱinstance,ȱtheȱanonymous
authorȱprovidesȱaȱwholeȱsequenceȱofȱagriculturalȱimagesȱinȱorderȱtoȱclarifyȱhis
theologicalȱarguments,ȱsuchȱas:ȱ“Inȱtheȱsameȱway,ȱalmsȱorȱtheȱgrainȱofȱaȱgoodȱdeed
isȱstuntedȱwhenȱitȱbecomesȱexposedȱtoȱtheȱwindȱofȱhumanȱpraiseȱandȱofȱprideȱand
isȱnotȱcoveredȱwithȱtheȱsoilȱofȱhumility”ȱ(V.XXV,ȱp.ȱ545).ȱToȱbeȱaȱgoodȱgardener,
orȱ planter,ȱ theȱ preacherȱ admonishesȱ hisȱ audienceȱ toȱ proceedȱ carefully:ȱ “The
secondȱobstacleȱoccursȱwhen,ȱinȱcontrast,ȱtheȱseedȱisȱlaidȱtooȱdeepȱ[sic]ȱinȱtheȱsoil,
soȱthatȱitsȱsproutȱcannotȱcomeȱup”ȱ(545).ȱNextȱheȱrefersȱtoȱtheȱdangerȱofȱfrostȱthat
couldȱhurtȱtheȱseedȱ(547),ȱthenȱtoȱtheȱthreatȱtoȱtheȱseedȱresultingȱfromȱweeds,
380
Theȱtranslationȱisȱmine,ȱandȱitȱmightȱwellȱbeȱtheȱfirstȱoneȱeverȱmade.ȱThereȱisȱveryȱlittleȱresearch
onȱRumelant,ȱbutȱseeȱFreimutȱLöser,ȱ“VonȱkleinenȱundȱgroßenȱMeistern:ȱBewertungskategorien
derȱSangspruchdichtung,”ȱSangspruchdichtung:ȱGattungskonstitutionenȱundȱGattungsinterferenzen
imȱeuropäischenȱKontext:ȱInternationalesȱSymposiumȱWürzburg,ȱ15.ȱ–ȱ18.ȱFebruarȱ2006,ȱed.ȱDorothea
Klein,ȱTrudeȱEhlert,ȱandȱElisabethȱSchmidȱ(Tübingen:ȱMaxȱNiemeyer,ȱ2007),ȱ371–96.
381
Fasciculusȱ Morum:ȱ Aȱ FourteenthȬCenturyȱ Preacher’sȱ Handbook,ȱ ed.ȱ andȱ trans.ȱ Siegfriedȱ Wenzel
(UniversityȱPark,ȱPA,ȱandȱLondon:ȱTheȱPennsylvaniaȱStateȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1989).ȱSeeȱalsoȱhis
monograph,ȱVersesȱinȱSermons:ȱFasciculusȱMorumȱandȱItsȱMiddleȱEnglishȱPoems.ȱTheȱMediaeval
AcademyȱofȱAmericaȱPublication,ȱ87ȱ(Cambridge,ȱMA:ȱMediaevalȱAcademyȱofȱAmerica,ȱ1978).
Introduction 183
brambles,ȱandȱrocksȱ(547),ȱfromȱdroughtȱorȱtooȱmuchȱfertilizerȱ(547),ȱandȱtheȱlike.
Finally,ȱheȱurgesȱhisȱaudience:ȱ
Primaȱestȱquodȱantequamȱiac(i)aturȱinȱterram,ȱnecessariaȱestȱdiligensȱpreparacioȱterre,
quiaȱsiȱsitȱinfructuosa,ȱdebetȱprimoȱcomburiȱigneȱcontricionisȱetȱposteaȱarariȱvomere
confessionionis.ȱ Etȱ nota:ȱ sicutȱ enimȱ terraȱ quandoȱ aratur,ȱ illaȱ queȱ profundiusȱ iacet
superiusȱevertitur,ȱsicȱreveraȱinȱconfessioneȱfaciendumȱest. ȱ(548)
[beforeȱtheȱseedȱisȱcastȱonȱtheȱsoil,ȱtheȱlatterȱmustȱbeȱcarefullyȱprepared;ȱifȱitȱisȱsterile,
itȱ mustȱ firstȱ beȱ burnedȱ withȱ theȱ fireȱ ofȱ contritionȱ andȱ thenȱ beȱ plowedȱ withȱ the
plowshareȱofȱconfession.ȱAndȱnotice:ȱwhenȱtheȱearthȱisȱplowed,ȱwhatȱliesȱdeeperȱis
thrownȱupȱonȱtop.ȱWeȱmustȱdoȱlikewiseȱinȱconfession,ȱforȱwhatȱisȱhiddenȱatȱtheȱbottom
ofȱone’sȱheartȱmustȱbeȱturnedȱupȱandȱcastȱoutȱthroughȱconfession.ȱ (549)]
Theȱplowȱitselfȱgainsȱsupremeȱrelevanceȱasȱaȱsymbolicȱobject,ȱfundamentalȱforȱall
life,ȱinȱallȱlikelihoodȱanotherȱechoȱofȱtheȱaccountȱofȱAdamȱafterȱhisȱexpulsionȱfrom
Paradise,ȱbeingȱforcedȱtoȱliveȱinȱtheȱpostȬlapsarianȱworldȱasȱaȱplowman:ȱ“Theȱplow
itselfȱwillȱbeȱyourȱgoodwillȱtoȱworkȱwellȱandȱtoȱpersevere.ȱItsȱblade,ȱthatȱis,ȱcoulter
andȱshare,ȱwillȱbeȱtheȱgriefȱandȱcontritionȱforȱyourȱsins.ȱTheȱsixȱoxenȱwillȱbeȱyour
fiveȱ sensesȱ plusȱ yourȱ memory,ȱ whichȱ areȱ toȱ plowȱ yourȱ soilȱ well,ȱ namelyȱ by
examiningȱallȱyourȱsensesȱandȱyourȱmemoryȱasȱtoȱwhat,ȱhowȱmuch,ȱinȱwhatȱway,
why,ȱwhere,ȱandȱwithȱwhatȱhelpȱyouȱhaveȱcommittedȱaȱsin”ȱ(549).ȱAsȱweȱreadȱin
Genesis:ȱ
“.ȱ.ȱ.ȱmaledictaȱterraȱinȱopereȱtuo;ȱinȱlaboribusȱcomedesȱexȱeaȱcunctisȱdiebusȱvitaeȱtuae.
Spinasȱ etȱ tribulosȱ germinabitȱ tibi,ȱ etȱ comedesȱ herbasȱ terrae.ȱ Inȱ sudoreȱ vultusȱ tui
vescerisȱ paneȱ donecȱ revertarisȱ inȱ terramȱ deȱ quaȱ sumptuisȱ es,ȱ quiaȱ pulvisȱ esȱ etȱ in
pulveremȱreverteris.” (3:17)
[cursedȱisȱtheȱearthȱinȱthyȱwork;ȱwithȱlabourȱandȱtoilȱshaltȱthoughȱeatȱthereofȱallȱthe
daysȱofȱtheyȱlife.ȱThornsȱandȱthistlesȱshallȱitȱbringȱforthȱtoȱthee,ȱandȱthouȱshaltȱeatȱthe
herbsȱofȱtheȱearth.ȱInȱtheȱsweatȱofȱthyȱfaceȱshaltȱthoughȱeatȱbreadȱtillȱthouȱreturnȱtoȱthe
earthȱ outȱ ofȱ whichȱ thouȱ wastȱ taken,ȱ forȱ dustȱ thouȱ artȱ andȱ intoȱ dustȱ thouȱ shalt
return).382ȱ
Moreover,ȱtheȱpreacherȱappealsȱtoȱtheȱsinnerȱtoȱtakeȱcareȱofȱtheȱseedling,ȱtoȱweed
theȱland,ȱandȱtoȱplaceȱgoodȱsoilȱonȱtheȱfield.ȱFinally,ȱtoȱprovideȱaȱsenseȱofȱwhatȱthe
particularȱresultȱofȱallȱtheseȱeffortsȱwillȱbe,ȱweȱareȱtold:ȱ“youȱwillȱreapȱtheȱharvest
andȱbindȱitȱinȱsheavesȱbyȱperseveringȱinȱgoodȱwork,ȱandȱyouȱwillȱtakeȱtheȱsheaves
toȱtheȱbarnȱofȱgoodȱconscienceȱwhereȱtheȱcropȱisȱthreshedȱinȱfrequentȱpenitential
exercises”ȱ(549).ȱIfȱweȱthinkȱofȱtheȱillustrationsȱinȱtheȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱagain,ȱwe
suddenlyȱbeginȱtoȱrealizeȱwhereȱtheȱgreatȱinterestȱinȱthoseȱelementsȱcameȱfrom
andȱhowȱtheyȱgainedȱaȱfullyȱrealisticȱdimensionȱonlyȱinȱdueȱcourse.
382
TheȱVulgateȱBible.ȱVol.ȱ1:ȱTheȱPentateuch,ȱDouayȬRheimsȱTranslation,ȱed.ȱSwiftȱEdgar.ȱDumbarton
OaksȱMedievalȱLibraryȱ(Cambridge,ȱMA,ȱandȱLondon:ȱHarvardȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2011),ȱ
Ruralȱspace,ȱasȱweȱmightȱsay,ȱoneȱmoreȱtime,ȱindeedȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱcentralȱand
criticalȱforȱmedievalȱandȱearlyȬmodernȱmentality,ȱliterature,ȱtheȱarts,ȱcultureȱat
large,ȱreligion,ȱimagology,ȱindividualȱandȱcollectiveȱperception,ȱandȱtheȱglobal
worldȱview.ȱThisȱwouldȱnotȱmeanȱthatȱweȱwouldȱhaveȱtoȱreinterpretȱeverything
weȱhaveȱknownȱsoȱfarȱaboutȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱearlyȱmodernȱage;ȱinstead
weȱ onlyȱ haveȱ toȱ recognizeȱ thatȱ theȱ ruralȱ worldȱ wasȱ justȱ asȱ importantȱ inȱ the
premodernȱperiodȱasȱtheȱcourt,ȱtheȱchurch,ȱandȱtheȱcity,ȱifȱweȱpayȱcloseȱenough
attentionȱtoȱallȱ thoseȱdetails,ȱobjects,ȱandȱvoicesȱwhichȱtheȱcontributorsȱtoȱthis
volumeȱwillȱturnȱtheirȱattentionȱto.ȱ
Ofȱcourse,ȱtheȱotherȱdimensionsȱoftenȱseemȱtoȱbeȱmuchȱmoreȱglamorousȱand
eloquent,ȱandȱtheȱfarmerȱregularlyȱappearsȱasȱtheȱbuttȱofȱtheȱjoke;ȱneverthelessȱthe
ruralȱdimensionȱinȱaȱwiderȱcontextȱwasȱfundamentallyȱimportantȱafterȱall,ȱasȱour
newȱecocriticalȱthinkingȱbeginsȱtoȱreveal,ȱonceȱagain.ȱForȱthatȱreasonȱpreachers
couldȱeasilyȱreferȱtoȱtheȱactivityȱofȱplowingȱandȱseedingȱinȱanȱallegoricalȱsenseȱto
conveyȱtheirȱmoralȱandȱreligiousȱlessons.
InȱtheȱpowerfulȱdialogueȱpoemȱbyȱtheȱAngloȬSaxonȱBenedictineȱmonkȱÆlfricȱ
(ca.ȱ 955–ca.ȱ 1012),ȱ Colloquy,ȱ aȱ conversationȱ betweenȱ teacherȱ andȱ hisȱ students
intendedȱforȱtheȱimprovementȱofȱtheȱlatter’sȱLatinȱskills,ȱweȱlearnȱmuchȱaboutȱthe
dailyȱlivesȱofȱordinaryȱpeople,ȱincludingȱtheȱplowman,ȱtheȱoxherd,ȱtheȱfisherman,
andȱ theȱ hunter.ȱ Thenȱ aȱ lawyerȱ appearsȱ whoȱ servesȱ asȱ intermediaryȱ and
consistentlyȱ andȱ stronglyȱ emphasizesȱ thatȱ allȱ lifeȱ dependsȱ onȱ theȱ workȱ byȱ the
plowman.ȱHeȱrejectsȱtheȱblacksmithȱandȱtheȱcarpenter,ȱwhoȱwouldȱhaveȱpreferred
toȱbeȱgivenȱpriority,ȱandȱemphasizesȱthatȱtheyȱareȱallȱimportant,ȱbutȱonlyȱafterȱthe
farmer:ȱ“letȱthereȱbeȱpeaceȱandȱconcordȱamongȱyouȱandȱletȱeachȱoneȱofȱusȱshow
yourȱskillȱtoȱtheȱotherȱandȱletȱusȱmeetȱtogetherȱatȱtheȱplowman’sȱhouseȱwhereȱwe
mayȱhaveȱfoodȱforȱourselvesȱandȱfodderȱforȱourȱhorses.ȱThisȱisȱtheȱadviceȱIȱgiveȱto
allȱworkersȱsoȱthatȱeachȱoneȱmayȱpractiseȱhisȱartȱmoreȱconscientiously,ȱsinceȱhe
whoȱneglectsȱhisȱskillȱwillȱhimselfȱbeȱseparateȱfromȱitȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.”383
Althoughȱ courtlyȱ loveȱ poetsȱ commonlyȱ idealizedȱ theȱ naturalȱ world,
transformingȱ itȱ intoȱ aȱ theatricalȱ stageȱ forȱ theirȱ eroticȱ projections,ȱ theyȱ still
recognizedȱ theȱ relevanceȱ andȱ meaningfulnessȱ ofȱ thatȱ ruralȱ environment.ȱ Our
volumeȱ represents,ȱ inȱ thisȱ regard,ȱ almostȱ somethingȱ likeȱ aȱ culturalȬhistorical
archaeology,ȱremovingȱlayersȱofȱaȱveilȱthatȱhasȱtendedȱtoȱblindȱusȱfarȱtooȱlongȱas
farȱasȱtheȱroleȱofȱtheȱwoods,ȱtheȱrivers,ȱtheȱlakes,ȱtheȱbirds,ȱtheȱanimals,ȱsnow,ȱthe
mountains,ȱplantsȱandȱtreesȱwasȱconcernedȱinȱrelationshipȱtoȱtheȱprotagonists,ȱthe
writers,ȱandȱtheȱartists.ȱ
383
Ælfric’sȱColloquy,ȱed.ȱG.ȱN.ȱGarmonskwayȱ(1939;ȱExter:ȱUniversityȱofȱExeterȱPress,ȱ1978);ȱhere
quotedȱfromȱtheȱonlineȱEnglishȱtranslationȱat:ȱhttp://www.kentarchaeology.ac/authors/016.pdf
(lastȱaccessedȱonȱJan.ȱ23,ȱ2012).
Introduction 185
Aȱ finalȱ example,ȱ completelyȱ unexpectedȱ maybe,ȱ canȱ beȱ foundȱ inȱ mystical
literature,ȱsuchȱasȱinȱJohannesȱvonȱMarienwerder’sȱLifeȱofȱDorotheaȱvonȱMontau,
whoȱlivedȱfromȱ 1347ȱ toȱ1394ȱandȱrelatedȱherȱmysticalȱvisionsȱtoȱherȱconfessor
Johannes.ȱHeȱfirstȱjottedȱthoseȱdownȱinȱLatin,ȱandȱlaterȱcomposedȱaȱMiddleȱHigh
Germanȱ versionȱ ofȱ themȱ betweenȱ 1404ȱ andȱ 1405,ȱ intendingȱ itȱ toȱ beȱ aȱ bookȱ of
spiritualȱupliftingȱforȱtheȱTeutonicȱKnightsȱandȱPrussia’sȱlayȱaudience.ȱUltimately
heȱ reallyȱ hopedȱ thatȱ theȱ Vitaȱ wouldȱ promoteȱ hisȱ effortsȱ toȱ haveȱ Dorothea
canonized,ȱinȱwhichȱheȱfailedȱpersonally.ȱThereȱ wereȱ severalȱattemptsȱinȱlater
centuries,ȱbutȱthatȱcanonizationȱdidȱnotȱoccurȱuntilȱ1976.ȱOneȱofȱtheȱhallmarksȱof
Dorothea’sȱmysticalȱvisionsȱwasȱtheȱdegreeȱofȱphysicalȱinjuriesȱsheȱinflictedȱonȱher
ownȱbodyȱasȱaȱmeansȱtoȱapproximateȱtheȱGodhead.ȱRepeatedlyȱDorotheaȱorȱher
confessorȱresortȱtoȱagriculturalȱimagery,ȱsuchȱasȱcryingȱsoȱmanyȱtearsȱthatȱthey
flowȱdownȱlikeȱrainȱwaterȱintoȱtheȱfurrowsȱofȱaȱplowedȱfield.ȱBeingȱgracedȱwith
theȱpowerȱtoȱoverlookȱtheȱwholeȱworldȱandȱthusȱtoȱperceiveȱhowȱsinfulȱpeopleȱare
everywhere,ȱDorotheaȱexpressesȱherȱdeepȱpity:ȱ“Doȱsyȱdazȱtat,ȱdoȱirscheynȱirȱdas
ertrichȱrechteȱapȱisȱwereȱwolȱbetowitȱundȱdazȱwasserȱstundeȱnochȱinȱdenȱvorchen,
alsȱ isȱ pflegitȱ zuȱ sein,ȱ wenȱ isȱ sereȱ gereynetȱ hot”384ȱ (Asȱ sheȱ didȱ so,ȱ theȱ world
appearedȱwellȬwatered,ȱasȱthoughȱwaterȱwereȱstillȱstandingȱinȱtheȱfurrowsȱasȱit
doesȱ afterȱ aȱ heavyȱ rain385).ȱ Moreȱ importantȱ provesȱ toȱ beȱ theȱ referenceȱ toȱ her
torturedȱbodyȱwhichȱsheȱhadȱwoundedȱherselfȱfromȱearlyȱon,ȱstartingȱatȱageȱseven,
soonȱhavingȱoneȱscarȱnextȱtoȱtheȱother,ȱsufferingȱbadlyȱandȱconsistently,ȱandȱall
thisȱoutȱofȱabsoluteȱdevotionȱtoȱtheȱGodhead:ȱ
undȱ machteȱ mitȱ denȱ vorgenantenȱ gezoyenȱ eyneȱ wundeȱ biȱ derȱ andirnȱ vonȱ den
scholdirnȱbisȱdaȱdiȱermilȱwantin,ȱundȱvonȱderȱhufȱufwert,ȱalsȱisȱdiȱkleyderȱbedackten,
eyneȱwundeȱbiȱderȱandirn,ȱundȱglichirȱwysȱtateȱsyȱdazȱvorneȱzcuȱanȱireȱbrust,ȱdasȱir
wundenȱsoȱdichteȱbiȱeinȱandirȱworin,ȱabȱisȱeyneȱwundeȱwer,ȱirȱlipmitȱȱcastyungeȱals
eynȱackirȱmitȱeymeȱpflugeȱdurchvarn.ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ(210;ȱBookȱOne,ȱXVȱ)
[Withȱsuchȱdevicesȱsheȱinflictedȱoneȱwoundȱbesideȱtheȱotherȱfromȱherȱshouldersȱdown
toȱtheȱhemsȱofȱherȱsleevesȱandȱfromȱtheȱhipsȱupwardȱasȱfarȱasȱherȱclothesȱcoveredȱher
body.ȱAndȱsheȱtreatedȱherȱbreastsȱinȱtheȱsameȱwayȱuntilȱallȱtheseȱindividualȱwounds
lockedȱlikeȱoneȱsingleȱbigȱwoundȱandȱherȱbodyȱresembledȱaȱplowedȱfieldȱ(46)]386
384
JohannesȱMarienwerder,ȱ“DasȱLebenȱderȱheiligenȱDorothea,”ȱed.ȱMaxȱToeppen.ȱScriptoresȱRerum
Prussicarum:ȱDieȱGeschichtsquellenȱderȱpreussischenȱVorzeitȱbisȱzumȱUntergangȱderȱOrdensherrschaft,
ed.ȱ Theodorȱ Hirsch,ȱ Maxȱ Töppenȱ [sic],ȱ andȱ Ernstȱ Strehlke.ȱ Vol.ȱ Twoȱ (1863;ȱ Frankfurtȱ a.ȱ M.:
Minerva,ȱ1965),ȱIII,ȱ179–391;ȱhereȱBookȱXV,ȱ298.
385
JohannesȱvonȱMarienwerder,ȱTheȱLifeȱofȱDorotheaȱvonȱMontau,ȱAȱFourteenthȬCenturyȱRecluse,ȱtrans.
UteȱStargardt.ȱStudiesȱinȱWomenȱandȱReligion,ȱ39ȱ(Lewiston,ȱQueenston,ȱandȱLampeter:ȱThe
EdwinȱMellenȱPress,ȱ1997),ȱ166.
386
SeeȱalsoȱUteȱStargardt,ȱ“MaleȱClericalȱAuthorityȱinȱtheȱSpiritualȱ(Auto)biographiesȱofȱMedieval
HolyȱWomen,”ȱWomenȱasȱProtagonistsȱandȱPoetsȱinȱtheȱGermanȱMiddleȱAges:ȱAnȱAnthologyȱofȱFeminist
Approachesȱ toȱ Middleȱ Highȱ Germanȱ Literature,ȱ ed.ȱ Albrechtȱ Classen.ȱ Göppingerȱ Arbeitenȱ zur
Undoubtedly,ȱ bothȱ forȱ theȱ mysticȱ andȱ herȱ audienceȱ theȱ employmentȱ ofȱ such
metaphoricalȱlanguageȱconstitutedȱnoȱdifficulties;ȱonȱtheȱcontrary,ȱtheȱagricultural
domainȱ asȱ aȱ ubiquitousȱ sphereȱ inȱ everydayȱ lifeȱ relevantȱ forȱ everyȱ memberȱ of
medievalȱ societyȱ servedȱ herȱ exceedinglyȱ wellȱ toȱ conveyȱ theȱ religiousȱ message
concerningȱherȱbodyȱasȱaȱparchmentȱforȱGodȱtoȱwriteȱHimselfȱontoȱher.ȱWeȱeven
recognizeȱ aȱ poeticȱ approachȱ inȱ thisȱ andȱ otherȱ passagesȱ basedȱ onȱ theseȱ rural
elementsȱsinceȱtheȱmysticȱprojectsȱherself,ȱinȱaȱway,ȱasȱmankind’sȱsaviorȱhereȱon
earth,ȱ asȱ theȱ mediumȱ connectingȱ allȱ peopleȱ withȱ theȱ Godhead.ȱ Plowingȱ and
irrigatingȱtheȱfieldsȱthusȱproveȱtoȱbeȱfundamentalȱactivitiesȱforȱeveryone,ȱeitherȱin
concreteȱorȱinȱsymbolicȱterms.ȱLittleȱwonderȱthatȱinȱtheȱlateȱMiddleȱAgesȱplowing
emergedȱalsoȱasȱaȱstrongȱsexualȱmetaphorȱbothȱinȱShrovetideȱandȱCarnivalȱplays,
suchȱasȱPierreȱGringoire’sȱ1512ȱplayȱRaoulletȱPloyart.387Andȱtheȱrichȱevidenceȱofȱart
history,ȱsuchȱasȱinȱtheȱfifteenthȬcenturyȱBooksȱofȱHours,ȱnicelyȱcomplimentsȱthis
observation.ȱ
AnȱintriguingȱexampleȱwouldȱbeȱtheȱGolfȱBookȱ(1540,ȱBritishȱLibrary,ȱAdditional
24098),ȱrichlyȱilluminatedȱbyȱSimonȱBening.ȱIȱprovideȱaȱcopyȱofȱoneȱimageȱatȱthe
veryȱendȱofȱthisȱvolume,ȱaȱminiatureȱshowingȱaȱpeacefulȱruralȱsceneȱwithȱaȱfarmer
andȱprobablyȱhisȱwifeȱatȱrest,ȱwhileȱanotherȱmanȱcontinuesȱcuttingȱtheȱwheat.ȱThe
artist’sȱloveȱforȱtheȱdetail,ȱhisȱfascinationȱwithȱtheȱmanyȱdifferentȱconcreteȱobjects
andȱtools,ȱwithȱclothing,ȱanimals,ȱplants,ȱandȱtheȱlakeȱinȱtheȱbackgroundȱclearly
confirmsȱhowȱmuchȱtheȱruralȱworldȱhadȱgainedȱinȱrespect,ȱevenȱatȱcourtȱandȱinȱthe
city,ȱwhereverȱtheȱpatronsȱresidedȱandȱcommissionedȱsuchȱwonderfulȱBooksȱof
Hours.388ȱ
Germanistik,ȱ528ȱ(Göppingen:ȱKümmerle,ȱ1991),ȱ209–38.ȱNowȱcf.ȱDavidȱWallace,ȱStrongȱWomen:
Life,ȱText,ȱandȱTerritoryȱ1347–1645ȱ(Oxford:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2011),ȱ28–30.
387
SeeȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱSharonȱKing.
388
Seeȱmyȱcontributionȱ(“RuralȱSpaceȱinȱLateȱMedievalȱBooksȱofȱHours”)ȱtoȱthisȱvolume.
Introduction 187
Fig.ȱ1:ȱStainedȱglassȱwindow,ȱwestȱfacade,ȱCanterburyȱcathedral
Adamȱworkingȱinȱtheȱfield
Fig.ȱ2:ȱJohannȱTepl,ȱDerȱAckermannȱ(Heidelberg,ȱUniversitätsbibliothek,
Cpgȱ76,ȱfol.ȱ7v)
ȱ
Introduction 189
Fig.ȱ3:ȱBruges:ȱaȱmanȱmilkingȱaȱcow,ȱaȱwomanȱcarryingȱaȱyokeȱforȱ
twoȱmilkȱbuckets
Fig.ȱ4:ȱTowerȱofȱTo[u]r,ȱGlastonbury:ȱWomanȱmilkingȱaȱcow
Introduction 191
Fig.ȱ5:ȱPieterȱBrueghelȱtheȱElder,ȱ“TheȱHarvesters,”ȱ1565ȱ(MetropolitanȱMuseum
ofȱArts,ȱNewȱYork)
Chapterȱ1
KathrynȱL.ȱJasper
(UniversityȱofȱCalifornia,ȱBerkeley)
ReformingȱtheȱMonasticȱLandscape:ȱPeterȱDamian’s
DesignȱforȱPersonalȱandȱCommunalȱDevotion
Theȱ traditionalȱ narrativeȱ ofȱ medievalȱ Italyȱ isȱ aȱ historyȱ ofȱ cities.ȱ Scholarsȱ have
privilegedȱurbanȱspace,ȱbutȱIȱwouldȱargueȱthatȱItaly’sȱruralȱspacesȱmeritȱequal
attention.ȱUncultivatedȱlandsȱandȱisolatedȱforestsȱplayedȱaȱsignificantȱroleȱinȱthe
religiousȱlifeȱofȱnorthernȱItalyȱinȱtheȱcentralȱMiddleȱAges.ȱDuringȱtheȱeleventh
century,ȱmonksȱandȱhermitsȱtransformedȱtheȱlandscapeȱbyȱtheirȱveryȱpresenceȱin
theȱ countrysideȱ andȱ theȱ rapidȱ proliferationȱ ofȱ theirȱ formalȱ foundations.ȱ This
centuryȱ sawȱ theȱ riseȱ ofȱ twoȱ ofȱ theȱ mostȱ prominentȱ andȱ influentialȱ monastic
congregationsȱofȱtheȱperiod,ȱtheȱCamaldolesiȱandȱtheȱVallombrosanȱordersȱwith
foundationsȱspanningȱTuscany,ȱUmbria,ȱandȱtheȱMarches.ȱOfȱnoȱlessȱimportance,
theȱcongregationȱofȱFonteȱAvellanaȱalsoȱemergedȱinȱtheȱeleventhȱcenturyȱunderȱthe
directionȱofȱSaintȱPeterȱDamain,ȱwhoȱdevelopedȱaȱdesignȱthatȱtwinnedȱeremitic
andȱcoenobiticȱcommunitiesȱandȱdependedȱonȱvaryingȱdegreesȱofȱexperienceȱin
theȱ“wilderness.”ȱ
Thisȱessayȱoffersȱaȱcaseȱstudyȱofȱtwoȱhousesȱinȱtheȱcongregation,ȱwhichȱreveals
thatȱPeterȱDamianȱvaluedȱ“wilderness”ȱinȱveryȱspecificȱterms.ȱ LikeȱtheȱDesert
Fathers,ȱ Damianȱ understoodȱ monksȱ andȱ hermitsȱ thrivedȱ unimpairedȱ byȱ the
temptationsȱ andȱ distractionsȱ ofȱ theȱ urbanȱ scene,ȱ butȱ Damianȱ movedȱ beyond
ancientȱeremiticȱandȱcoenobiticȱmodels.ȱHeȱdevelopedȱaȱuniqueȱformȱofȱreligious
lifeȱinȱwhichȱmonksȱandȱhermitsȱusedȱtheirȱrespectiveȱenvironmentsȱtoȱreconcile
personalȱandȱcommunalȱdevotion.ȱ
Theologian,ȱpapalȱpolemicist,ȱandȱselfȬproclaimedȱhumbleȱmonk,ȱPeterȱDamian
hadȱaȱhandȱinȱshapingȱtheȱoutcomeȱofȱmanyȱsalientȱeventsȱduringȱtheȱeleventh
194 KathrynȱL.ȱJasper
century.ȱHisȱpreeminenceȱinȱpapalȱreformȱtendsȱtoȱovershadowȱhisȱactivitiesȱon
theȱlocalȱlevel,ȱbutȱoverȱtheȱcourseȱofȱhisȱlifetimeȱheȱneverȱturnedȱawayȱfromȱhis
nativeȱregion,ȱtheȱMarchesȱofȱnortheasternȱItaly.ȱHeȱbeganȱhisȱcareerȱasȱaȱmodest
asceticȱatȱtheȱhermitageȱofȱFonteȱAvellanaȱnearȱGubbioȱandȱeventuallyȱbecame
priorȱinȱ1043.ȱEvenȱafterȱDamianȱansweredȱtheȱcallȱofȱRomeȱandȱbecameȱaȱcardinal
andȱmemberȱofȱtheȱpapalȱcuriaȱinȱ1057,ȱheȱcontinuedȱtoȱoverseeȱtheȱactivitiesȱofȱthe
congregationȱheȱcreatedȱaroundȱtheȱhermitage.ȱAsȱprior,ȱheȱpersonallyȱfounded
severalȱadditionalȱdaughterȱhouses.ȱTwoȱinȱparticular,ȱtheȱmonasteryȱofȱSaintȱJohn
theȱBaptistȱatȱAceretaȱ(foundedȱbetweenȱ1053ȱandȱ1057)ȱandȱtheȱhermitageȱofȱSaint
BarnabasȱatȱGamognaȱ(foundedȱc.ȱ1053),1ȱheȱsituatedȱinȱcloseȱproximity,ȱaȱdecision
thatȱreflectsȱtheȱsymbioticȱrelationshipȱheȱencouragedȱbetweenȱthem.ȱInȱaddition
Damianȱbelievedȱitȱshouldȱbeȱeveryȱmonk’sȱgoalȱtoȱgraduateȱfromȱaȱcoenobiticȱto
anȱeremiticȱexistence.ȱTheseȱtwoȱsitesȱrepresentedȱtheȱphysicalȱmanifestationȱofȱhis
plan.
Inȱaȱletterȱtoȱanȱunidentifiedȱabbotȱwrittenȱinȱ1067,ȱDamianȱdescribedȱtheȱtransition
fromȱmonasteryȱtoȱhermitageȱasȱtheȱdesiredȱgoalȱofȱallȱmonasticȱlifeȱaccordingȱto
1
TheȱeditorsȱofȱtheȱchartersȱofȱFonteȱAvellanaȱdateȱtheȱfirstȱdocumentȱpertainingȱtoȱtheȱmonastery
atȱ Aceretaȱ betweenȱ 1053ȱ andȱ 1057ȱ (Carteȱ diȱ Fonteȱ Avellana,ȱ iȱ Regestiȱ degliȱ anniȱ 975–1139,ȱ ed.
CelestinoȱPierucciȱandȱAlbertoȱPolverari.ȱThesaurusȱEcclesiarumȱItaliae,ȱIXȱ[Rome:ȱEdizioniȱdiȱstoria
eȱletteratura,ȱ1972],ȱvol.ȱI,ȱdocumentȱ13,ȱ31–32).ȱTheȱprominentȱhistorianȱofȱtheȱcongregation,
MansuetoȱDellaȱSanta,ȱalsoȱdeclaredȱinȱ1961ȱthatȱtheȱmonasteryȱmustȱhaveȱbeenȱfoundedȱafter
Gamogna,ȱaroundȱ1056ȱorȱ1057ȱ(Richercheȱsull’ideaȱmonasticaȱdiȱS.ȱPierȱDamianiȱ[Arezzo:ȱEdizioni
Camaldoli,ȱ 1961],ȱ 110).ȱ Theȱ foundationȱ dateȱ ofȱ Gamognaȱ isȱ generallyȱ acceptedȱ toȱ beȱ earlier,
betweenȱ 1053ȱ andȱ 1055ȱ (Annalesȱ Camaldulenses,ȱ ed.ȱ D.ȱ JohanneȬBenedictoȱ Mittarelliȱ andȱ D.
AnselmoȱCostadoni,ȱvol.ȱIIȱ[Venice:ȱJ.B.ȱPasquali,ȱ1756],ȱ233).ȱHowever,ȱDamianȱdescribedȱthe
originalȱdonationȱofȱlandȱbyȱtheȱGuidiȱcountȱTehtgrimusȱasȱintendedȱforȱtheȱmonasteryȱandȱnot
theȱhermitage,ȱwhichȱpresentsȱaȱstrongȱcaseȱthatȱDamianȱconstructedȱAceretaȱfirstȱ(DieȱBriefeȱdes
Petrusȱ Damiani,ȱ ed.ȱ Kurtȱ Reindel.ȱ Epistolae:ȱ 2,ȱ Dieȱ Briefeȱ derȱ deutschenȱ Kaiserzeit,ȱ IVȱ [Munich:
MonumentaȱGermaniaeȱHistorica,ȱ1988],ȱvol.ȱII,ȱno.ȱ63,ȱ221–25;ȱhereȱ223.ȱTheȱEnglishȱtranslationȱis
availableȱinȱTheȱLettersȱofȱPeterȱDamian,ȱed.ȱOwenȱJ.ȱBlum,ȱvol.ȱIIIȱ[Washington,ȱDC:ȱCatholic
Universityȱ Press,ȱ 1992],ȱ Letterȱ 63,ȱ 16–20;ȱ hereȱ 17).ȱ Seeȱ alsoȱ Ruggeroȱ Benericetti,ȱ L’eremoȱ eȱ la
cattedra:ȱVitaȱdiȱS.ȱPierȱDamianiȱ(Milan:ȱAncora,ȱ2007),ȱ52,ȱn.ȱ58;ȱJeanȱLeclercq,ȱSanȱPierȱDamiano
EremitaȱeȱUomoȱdiȱChiesaȱ(Brescia:ȱMorcelliana,ȱ1972),ȱ105,ȱn.ȱ61ȱ(originallyȱpublishedȱinȱFrenchȱas
S.ȱPierreȱDamien,ȱermiteȱetȱhommeȱd’égliseȱ[Rome:ȱEdizioneȱdiȱStoriaȱeȱLetteratura,ȱ1960]);ȱGiovanni
Lucchesi,ȱ“PerȱunaȱvitaȱdiȱsanȱPierȱDamiani.ȱComponentiȱcronologicheȱeȱtopografiche,”ȱSanȱPier
DamianoȱnelȱIXȱcentenarioȱdellaȱmorteȱ(1072–1972),ȱvol.ȱIȱ(Cesena:ȱCentroȱstudiȱeȱricercheȱsullaȱantica
provinciaȱecclesiasticaȱravennate,ȱ1972),ȱ13–179;ȱhereȱ139.ȱBothȱLeclercqȱandȱLuccesiȱagreeȱthat
Aceretaȱwasȱconstructedȱfirst.ȱInȱaddition,ȱAceretaȱcontrolledȱtheȱpatrimonyȱofȱtwoȱhousesȱinȱ1060,
thoughȱ thatȱ factȱ doesȱ notȱ presentȱ solidȱ proofȱ itȱ existedȱ beforeȱ Gamogna.ȱ Onȱ thisȱ pointȱ see
GiuseppeȱCacciamini,ȱ“LeȱfondazioniȱeremiticheȱeȱcenobiticheȱdiȱS.ȱPierȱDamiano.ȱIniziȱdella
congregazioneȱ diȱ S.ȱ Croceȱ diȱ Fonteȱ Avellana,”ȱ Ravennatensiaȱ V:ȱ Attiȱ deiȱ convegniȱ diȱ Ravennaȱ e
Rovigo,ȱ1972–1973ȱ(Cesena:ȱBadiaȱdiȱSantaȱMariaȱdelȱMonte,ȱ1976),ȱ5–33:ȱhereȱ10.ȱTheȱRomualdian
traditionȱwouldȱhaveȱtheȱmonasteryȱfoundedȱsecond.ȱTherefore,ȱtheȱdateȱremainsȱroughlyȱfixed
betweenȱ1053ȱandȱ1057.ȱ
PeterȱDamian’sȱDesignȱforȱPersonalȱandȱCommunalȱDevotion 195
theȱBenedictineȱRule.2ȱDamianȱhadȱprovokedȱtheȱabbot’sȱangerȱwhenȱheȱaccepted
someȱofȱhisȱmonksȱatȱFonteȱAvellana.ȱTheȱabbotȱarguedȱthatȱtheȱRuleȱprohibits
monksȱfromȱleavingȱtheirȱownȱcommunityȱinȱfavorȱofȱanother.3ȱDamianȱresponded
inȱturnȱthatȱwhenȱSaintȱBenedictȱcomposedȱhisȱRuleȱheȱsoughtȱnoȱjurisdictionȱover
hermits.ȱTherefore,ȱBenedictȱneverȱforbadeȱaȱmonkȱtoȱbeȱreceivedȱatȱaȱhermitage.
Inȱfactȱheȱencouragedȱmonksȱtoȱleaveȱtheȱmonasteryȱforȱtheȱeremiticȱlife.ȱInȱthe
Rule,ȱ Benedictȱ writesȱ thatȱ hermitsȱ undergoȱ aȱ “probationary”ȱ phaseȱ inȱ the
monasteryȱ andȱ afterȱ thisȱ periodȱ ofȱ spiritualȱ trainingȱ findȱ themselvesȱ ableȱ to
combatȱearthlyȱtemptationsȱindependentȱofȱtheirȱcommunityȱandȱtheȱsupportȱof
theirȱbrethren.4ȱ
Asȱ Damianȱ writes,ȱ “Forȱ oneȱ wishingȱ toȱ reachȱ theȱ heightsȱ ofȱ perfection,ȱ the
monasteryȱmustȱbeȱtransitional,ȱandȱnotȱaȱplaceȱtoȱstay;ȱnotȱaȱhome,ȱbutȱaȱhostel;
notȱtheȱdestinationȱweȱintendȱtoȱreach,ȱbutȱaȱquietȱstopȱalongȱtheȱway.”5ȱForȱthis
reasonȱitȱisȱconvenientȱtoȱspeakȱofȱthoseȱinȱtheȱmonasteryȱofȱAceretaȱasȱ“brothers,”
andȱ thoseȱ inȱ theȱ hermitageȱ ofȱ Gamognaȱ asȱ “hermits,”ȱ evenȱ thoughȱ Damian
conceivedȱ ofȱ hermitsȱ asȱ moreȱ advancedȱ brothers.6ȱ Althoughȱ theȱ distinctionȱ in
practiceȱwasȱnotȱabsolute,ȱunderstandingȱtheȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱbrothersȱand
hermitsȱwasȱaȱfundamentalȱcomponentȱofȱDamian’sȱplanȱforȱmonasticȱreform.
InȱtheȱcaseȱofȱAceretaȱandȱGamogna,ȱDamianȱintendedȱtheȱformerȱtoȱbeȱmoreȱthan
aȱtransitionalȱlocus.ȱHeȱwantedȱtheȱmonasteryȱtoȱsupportȱtheȱhermitageȱinȱevery
wayȱ possibleȱ toȱ preserveȱ itsȱ wayȱ ofȱ life.ȱ Originally,ȱ theȱ twoȱ housesȱ sharedȱ a
commonȱpatrimony,ȱwhichȱwouldȱhaveȱrelievedȱtheȱconcernsȱofȱitsȱadministration
fromȱtheȱhermitageȱandȱfreedȱtheȱhermitsȱfromȱsecularȱtasksȱthatȱcouldȱdistract
fromȱspiritualȱpursuits.ȱAlthoughȱinternalȱdisputesȱrequiredȱDamianȱtoȱputȱanȱend
toȱtheȱsharedȱpatrimonyȱinȱ1060,ȱtheȱmonasteryȱremainedȱobligatedȱtoȱreceiveȱsick
2
DieȱBriefeȱdesȱPetrusȱDamiani,ȱed.ȱKurtȱReindel.ȱEpistolae:ȱ2,ȱDieȱBriefeȱderȱdeutschenȱKaiserzeit,ȱIV
(Munich:ȱ Monumentaȱ Germaniaeȱ Historica,ȱ 1993),ȱ vol.ȱ IV,ȱ no.ȱ 152,ȱ 5–12;ȱ hereȱ 6.ȱ Theȱ English
translationȱ isȱ availableȱ inȱ Theȱ Lettersȱ ofȱ Peterȱ Damian,ȱ ed.ȱ andȱ trans.ȱ Owenȱ J.ȱ Blum,ȱ vol.ȱ VI
[Washington,ȱDC:ȱCatholicȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2005],ȱLetterȱ152,ȱ7–14;ȱhereȱ7–8.ȱ
3
SeeȱRBȱ1980,ȱTheȱRuleȱofȱSaintȱBenedictȱinȱLatinȱandȱEnglishȱwithȱNotes,ȱed.ȱTimothyȱFry,ȱTimothy
Horner,ȱandȱImogeneȱBakerȱ(Collegeville,ȱMN:ȱTheȱLiturgicalȱPress,ȱ1981),ȱch.ȱ61.
4
TheȱRuleȱofȱSaintȱBenedict,ȱed.ȱTimothyȱFry,ȱTimothyȱHorner,ȱandȱImogeneȱBaker,ȱch.1ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3).
5
“Adȱ perfectionisȱ igiturȱ summaȱ tendentiȱ monasteriumȱ transitusȱ debetȱ esse,ȱ nonȱ mansio,ȱ non
habitatioȱsedȱhospitium,ȱnonȱfinisȱintentionis,ȱsedȱquedamȱquiesȱitineris”ȱ(DieȱBriefeȱdesȱPetrus
Damiani,ȱed.ȱReindel,ȱvol.ȱIVȱ[1993],ȱno.ȱ152,ȱ5–12;ȱhereȱ8;ȱEnglishȱtranslationȱinȱLettersȱofȱPeter
Damian,ȱed.ȱBlum,ȱvol.ȱVIȱ[2005],ȱLetterȱ152,ȱ7–14;ȱhereȱ9).
6
Damianȱwritesȱthatȱtheȱbrothersȱuseȱtheȱnameȱ“hermit,”ȱforȱ“humility’sȱsake”ȱ(humilitatisȱcausa)
althoughȱtheyȱpreferȱtheȱtermȱ“penitents”ȱ(paenitentes)ȱ(DieȱBriefeȱdesȱPetrusȱDamiani,ȱed.ȱReindel,
vol.ȱIIȱ[1988],ȱno.ȱ50,ȱ77–131;ȱhereȱ83–84.ȱTheȱEnglishȱtranslationȱisȱavailableȱinȱLettersȱofȱPeter
Damian,ȱed.ȱBlum,ȱvol.ȱIIȱ[Washington,ȱDC:ȱCatholicȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1990],ȱLetterȱ50,ȱ289–334;
hereȱ293).
hermitsȱ fromȱ Gamognaȱ andȱ careȱ forȱ themȱ asȱ longȱ asȱ theirȱ infirmityȱ required.
Likewiseȱ theȱ hermitageȱ retainedȱ itsȱ soleȱ obligation;ȱ Gamognaȱ wouldȱ freely
welcomeȱanyȱmonksȱcomingȱfromȱtheȱmonastery.7ȱThoughȱtheȱcharterȱrecording
thisȱmediationȱdoesȱnotȱspecifyȱtheȱreasonȱforȱtheȱmonks’ȱvisit,ȱtheȱclauseȱprovides
forȱthoseȱbrothersȱ readyȱtoȱtakeȱtheȱnextȱstepȱandȱtransferȱpermanentlyȱtoȱthe
communityȱatȱGamogna.
Inȱthisȱrelationshipȱofȱmutualȱsupport,ȱtheȱhermitageȱwouldȱassureȱtheȱsanctityȱof
theȱmonasteryȱandȱtheȱmonasteryȱwouldȱmanageȱtheȱadministrativeȱburdensȱof
theȱhermitage.8ȱTheȱideaȱwasȱnotȱoriginalȱtoȱDamian;ȱ heȱborrowedȱitȱfromȱhis
championȱofȱeremiticȱlife,ȱSaintȱRomualdȱ(ca.ȱ950–1027).ȱRomualdȱofȱRavenna,
onetimeȱmonkȱatȱtheȱmonasteryȱofȱSaintȱApollinarisȱnearȱClasseȱandȱrenowned
ascetic,ȱtraveledȱthroughoutȱtheȱcountrysideȱofȱUmbriaȱandȱtheȱMarchesȱinȱthe
earlyȱeleventhȱcenturyȱwhereȱheȱfoundedȱandȱreformedȱseveralȱhermitagesȱand
monasteries.ȱHeȱhadȱpreviouslyȱspentȱtimeȱlivingȱasȱaȱhermitȱoutsideȱtheȱwallsȱof
monasteries,ȱ andȱ theȱ ideaȱ ofȱ aȱ dualȱ communityȱ followed.ȱ Heȱ foundedȱ the
hermitageȱofȱSanȱSalvatoreȱatȱCampusȱMalduliȱinȱ1012,9ȱwhichȱwouldȱbecomeȱthe
headȱofȱtheȱCamaldoliȱorder,ȱandȱtwoȱyearsȱlaterȱtheȱmonasteryȱofȱFonteȱBuono
joinedȱ theȱ complex,ȱ locatedȱ aroundȱ threeȱ kilometersȱ fromȱ theȱ hermitage.10
7
“Hacȱeciamȱnostraȱprecepcioneȱdecernimusȱutȱmonasteriumȱetȱheremusȱhocȱinterȱseȱinvicem
debeantȱ quatinus,ȱ cumȱ necessariumȱ fuerit,ȱ etȱ monasteriumȱ infirmosȱ fratresȱ heremiȱ ad
refocillandumȱ etȱ sustentandumȱ usqueȱ adȱ sanitatemȱ cumȱ licentiaȱ priorisȱ fraternaȱ benignitate
suscipiatȱetȱheremiteȱfratresȱheremiȱmonachusȱdeȱmonasterioȱvenientes,ȱcumȱlicentiaȱabbatis,
libenterȱadmittant”ȱ(CarteȱdiȱFonteȱAvellana,ȱed.ȱCelestinoȱPierucciȱandȱAlbertoȱPolverari,ȱvol.ȱI,
documentȱ15,ȱ36–39;ȱhereȱ38).ȱInȱaccordanceȱwithȱtheȱpreceptsȱofȱtheȱRule,ȱtheȱcharterȱspecifically
requiresȱtheȱmonksȱseekȱpermissionȱofȱtheȱabbotȱbeforeȱvisitingȱtheȱhermitage.ȱ
8
Pompeoȱ deȱ Angelis,ȱ “Iȱ Vescoviȱ Avellanitiȱ aȱ Gubbio,”ȱ Gubbioȱ eȱ Sanȱ Pierȱ Damiani:ȱ Attiȱ delȱ 13
Convegnoȱdelȱcentroȱdiȱstudiȱavellaniti,ȱFonteȱAvellanaȬGubbio,ȱ1991.ȱCentroȱdiȱstudiȱavellanitiȱ(Città
diȱCastello:ȱTibergraph,1991),ȱ29–39;ȱhereȱ32.
9
ThereȱisȱsomeȱdebateȱoverȱtheȱfoundationȱofȱCamaldoli.ȱAccordingȱtoȱtradition,ȱasȱdescribedȱin
theȱAnnalesȱCamaldulensesȱ(ed.ȱD.ȱJohanneȬBenedictoȱMittarelliȱandȱD.ȱAnselmoȱCostadoni,ȱvol.
Iȱ[Venice:ȱJ.B.ȱPasquali,ȱ1755],ȱ346–47)ȱaȱwealthyȱnobleman,ȱMaldolus,ȱgrantedȱtheȱoriginalȱpiece
ofȱlandȱuponȱwhichȱRomualdȱplacedȱtheȱhermits.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱcharterȱevidenceȱindicatesȱthat
Bishopȱ Theobaldusȱ ofȱ Arezzoȱ wasȱ theȱ hermitage’sȱ firstȱ patron.ȱ Heȱ grantedȱ theȱ brothersȱ a
substantialȱgiftȱofȱpropertiesȱtheirȱpertinencesȱinȱ1027ȱ(cf.ȱRegestoȱCamaldoli,ȱed.ȱL.ȱSchiaparelliȱand
F.ȱBaldasseroni.ȱȱRegistaȱChartarumȱItaliae,ȱIȱ[Rome:ȱErmannoȱLoescherȱ&ȱCo.,ȱ1907],ȱdocument
86;ȱ 36).ȱ Onȱ theȱ foundationȱ ofȱ Fonteȱ Buono,ȱ seeȱ Augustinusȱ Fortuniusȱ Florentinus,ȱ Historia
Camaldulensium,ȱpartȱI,ȱlib.ȱI,ȱch.ȱXXIXȱ(Florence:ȱBibliothaecaȱSermartelliana,ȱ1575).
10
Damian’sȱVitaȱofȱtheȱsaintȱdoesȱnotȱdescribeȱinȱanyȱdetailȱtheȱfoundingȱofȱCamaldoli,ȱbutȱthe
authorȱwasȱawareȱofȱRomuald’sȱearlierȱcohabitations,ȱandȱmostȱlikelyȱDamianȱconfusedȱtheȱsite
ofȱAquabella,ȱwhichȱheȱdoesȱdiscuss,ȱwithȱCampusȱMaldoliȱinȱtheȱtextȱ(PeterȱDamian,ȱVitaȱBeati
Romualdi,ȱed.ȱGiovanniȱTabaccoȱ[Rome:ȱnellaȱsedeȱdell’institutoȱPalazzoȱBorromini,ȱ1957],ȱch.
XLVI,ȱ87).ȱAquabellaȱtraditionallyȱequatesȱtoȱVallambrosa.ȱDamianȱwritesȱthatȱRomualdȱtraveled
fromȱ theȱ monasteryȱ ofȱ Sanȱ Salvatoreȱ Valȱ diȱ Castroȱ andȱ decidedȱ toȱ remainȱ notȱ farȱ fromȱ the
Damian’sȱVitaȱofȱtheȱsaintȱrevealsȱheȱbelievedȱRomualdȱsharedȱhisȱattitudeȱon
eremitismȱasȱtheȱapexȱofȱreligiousȱlife.11ȱButȱtheȱfirstȱdualȱcommunitiesȱofȱhermits
andȱmonksȱfarȱpredatedȱRomuald’sȱfoundations.ȱ
Althoughȱ theȱ notionȱ ofȱ aȱ communityȱ ofȱ hermitsȱ mayȱ strikeȱ ourȱ modern
sensibilitiesȱasȱironic,ȱgivenȱtheȱfearȱandȱinsecuritiesȱofȱanȱeremiticȱexistenceȱinȱthe
remoteȱdesertsȱofȱlateȬantiqueȱEgyptȱandȱSyria,ȱmanyȱwanderingȱasceticsȱfoundȱit
naturalȱandȱnecessaryȱtoȱbandȱtogether.ȱSaintȱAnthonyȱmayȱhaveȱstoodȱasȱthe
fourthȬcentury’sȱasceticȱparȱexcellence,ȱbutȱhisȱexampleȱofȱsolitaryȱlifeȱprovedȱhard
toȱfollowȱforȱsome.ȱInȱhisȱVitaȱofȱPachomiusȱ(d.ȱ348)ȱJeromeȱexplainsȱthatȱtheȱsaint
andȱ contemporaryȱ ofȱ Anthonyȱ enclosedȱ aȱ wallȱ aroundȱ theȱ hutsȱ ofȱ hisȱ hermit
brethren,ȱwhichȱprovidedȱthemȱaȱsanctuaryȱfromȱexternalȱthreats,ȱandȱsubjected
themȱtoȱaȱcommonȱrule.ȱAroundȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱcommunitiesȱofȱhermitsȱlivingȱin
cellsȱ aroundȱ theȱ cellȱ ofȱ aȱ reveredȱ asceticȱ appearedȱ inȱ theȱ Levant.ȱ Unlikeȱ their
Egyptianȱcounterpartsȱtheseȱcommunities,ȱorȱlaurae,ȱneverȱsubscribedȱtoȱruleȱbut
obtainedȱindividualȱspiritualȱinstructionȱfromȱtheirȱhead.ȱDualȱcommunitiesȱcame
intoȱvogueȱalsoȱinȱtheȱfourthȱcentury.ȱSaintȱBasilȱofȱCaesareaȱ(d.ȱ379),ȱforȱexample,
foundedȱmanyȱhermitagesȱnearȱmonasteriesȱsoȱthatȱoneȱcommunityȱcouldȱsupport
theȱ other.ȱ Basil,ȱ unlikeȱ Peterȱ Damian,ȱ consideredȱ coenobitismȱ theȱ heightȱ of
religiousȱlife.ȱInȱtheȱWestȱweȱfindȱechoesȱofȱBasil’sȱmodelȱinȱtheȱcommunitiesȱat
Vivarium,ȱfoundedȱCassiodorusȱ(ca.ȱ490–ca.ȱ583)ȱinȱSouthernȱItaly,ȱwhereȱboth
coenobiticȱandȱeremiticȱfoundationsȱexistedȱsideȱbyȱsideȱtoȱsupportȱoneȱanother.ȱ
PeterȱDamianȱwroteȱhisȱownȱhistoryȱofȱtheȱeremiticȱvocationȱinȱhisȱruleȱforȱFonte
AvellanaȱthatȱincludedȱtheȱOldȱTestamentȱexamplesȱofȱElijah,ȱElisha,ȱandȱMoses.
HeȱalsoȱmentionedȱSaintsȱPaul,ȱAnthony,ȱandȱJohnȱtheȱBaptist,ȱwhoȱallȱlivedȱinȱthe
wildernessȱ“withoutȱeatingȱfoodȱsuppliedȱbyȱmen.”12ȱDamianȱconcludedȱthatȱthe
institutionȱhadȱtwoȱbranches,ȱthoseȱwhoȱlivedȱinȱcellsȱandȱthoseȱwhoȱwanderedȱin
theȱ“desert”;ȱtheȱformerȱheȱcalledȱhermitsȱandȱtheȱlatter,ȱanchorites.ȱAccordingȱto
Damian,ȱ theȱ Bookȱ ofȱ Jeremiahȱ recountsȱ thatȱ theȱ firstȱ anchoritesȱ wereȱ the
descendantsȱofȱJonadab,ȱwhoȱdrankȱnoȱwineȱorȱanyȱotherȱspirit.13ȱTheyȱlivedȱin
ApenninesȱinȱaȱplaceȱcalledȱAquabella,ȱwhichȱweȱshouldȱunderstandȱasȱCamaldoliȱandȱnotȱas
Vallombrosaȱ (Annalesȱ Camaldulenses,ȱ ed.ȱ D.ȱ JohanneȬBenedictoȱ Mittarelliȱ andȱ D.ȱ Anselmo
Costadoni,ȱvol.ȱI,ȱ340ȱ[seeȱnoteȱ9]).
11
Romualdȱdidȱnotȱalwaysȱsucceedȱinȱconvincingȱmonasticȱcommunitiesȱofȱtheȱmeritsȱofȱthisȱidea
(PeterȱDamian,ȱVitaȱBeatiȱRomualdi,ȱed.ȱGiovanniȱTabacco,ȱch.ȱXXXIIII,ȱ73).ȱ
12
Dieȱ Briefeȱ desȱ Petrusȱ Damiani,ȱ ed.ȱ Reindel,ȱ vol.ȱ IIȱ (1988),ȱ no.ȱ 50,ȱ 77–131;ȱ hereȱ 83.ȱ Theȱ English
translationȱisȱavailableȱinȱLettersȱofȱPeterȱDamian,ȱed.ȱBlum,ȱvol.ȱIIȱ(1990),ȱLetterȱ50,ȱ289–334;ȱhere
293.
13
Jeremiahȱ35:6;ȱDieȱBriefeȱdesȱPetrusȱDamiani,ȱed.ȱReindel,ȱvol.ȱIIȱ(1988),ȱno.ȱ50,ȱ77–131;ȱhereȱ83.ȱThe
Englishȱ translationȱ isȱ availableȱ inȱ Lettersȱ ofȱ Peterȱ Damian,ȱ ed.ȱ Blum,ȱ vol.ȱ IIȱ (1990),ȱ Letterȱ 50,
tentsȱandȱstoppedȱtravelingȱonlyȱonceȱitȱbecameȱdark.ȱAsȱDamianȱexplained,ȱthe
Psalmsȱtellȱusȱthatȱtheseȱmenȱsufferedȱcaptivityȱduringȱtheȱpersecutionsȱwhenȱthe
ChaldeanȱarmyȱinvadedȱJudaeaȱandȱforcedȱthemȱintoȱtheȱcities,ȱandȱasȱaȱresult
theyȱdespisedȱtownsȱasȱprisonsȱandȱregardedȱtheȱwildernessȱandȱitsȱsolitudeȱasȱa
“peacefulȱplaceȱtoȱdwell.”14ȱHowever,ȱDamianȱnotedȱthatȱanchoritesȱduringȱhis
ownȱtimeȱwereȱscarceȱorȱevenȱnonexistentȱandȱchoseȱthereforeȱtoȱconcentrateȱhis
discussionȱonȱhermits.15
Damian,ȱtherefore,ȱhadȱaȱlongȱtraditionȱofȱmonasticȱmodelingȱbehindȱhim.ȱWhile
heȱdrewȱonȱtheȱworksȱofȱhisȱpredecessors,ȱheȱinnovatedȱinȱtheȱexecutionȱofȱtheir
ideas.ȱUnlikeȱRomualdȱwhoȱmadeȱoneȱprelateȱpresideȱoverȱbothȱmonasteryȱand
hermitageȱatȱCamaldoli,ȱDamianȱappointedȱaȱseparateȱheadȱofȱeachȱcommunity.
Arguablyȱ heȱ wantedȱ toȱ allowȱ eachȱ communityȱ greaterȱ administrative
independence.16ȱInȱkeepingȱwithȱthisȱdecision,ȱheȱmeantȱforȱtheȱcommunitiesȱto
existȱinȱtwoȱdistinctȱwaysȱandȱtheȱtopographyȱofȱtheȱsitesȱreflectsȱhisȱparticular
agenda.ȱGamognaȱandȱAceretaȱareȱlocatedȱonȱtheȱmodernȱborderȱbetweenȱthe
regionsȱofȱTuscanyȱandȱEmiliaȬRomagna,ȱinȱwhatȱwasȱonceȱaȱcontentiousȱand
highlyȱcompetitiveȱpoliticalȱeconomy.ȱItȱisȱaȱmountainousȱregionȱandȱtheȱchief
agriculturalȱ cropsȱ areȱ olivesȱ andȱ grapes,ȱ althoughȱ contemporaryȱ chartersȱ also
recordȱpropertiesȱwithȱmillsȱpossiblyȱusedȱtoȱgrindȱgrain.ȱTheȱsocialȱgeographyȱin
theȱeleventhȱcenturyȱofȱthisȱregionȱincludedȱreformingȱmonasteries,ȱlocalȱimperial
monasteries,ȱpowerfulȱlayȱeliteȱlandowners,ȱsmallȱlandholders,ȱandȱtenantȱfarmers.
Smallȱsettlementsȱdottedȱtheȱlandscape,ȱwhichȱraisesȱtheȱquestion,ȱhowȱisolated
wereȱtheseȱreligiousȱhouses?ȱWhatȱwasȱtheirȱrelationshipȱtoȱtheȱ“wilderness,”ȱthe
archetypalȱlocusȱofȱasceticȱexperience?
OnlyȱfourȱkilometersȱseparateȱGamognaȱandȱAcereta,ȱthoughȱtheȱdistanceȱappears
muchȱgreater.ȱBothȱhousesȱoccupyȱtheȱruralȱcountrysideȱnearȱtheȱmodernȱtownȱof
Marradi,ȱ butȱ Gamognaȱ restsȱ inȱ theȱ foothillsȱ ofȱ theȱ Apenninesȱ whileȱ Acerta
occupiesȱaȱlowlandȱvalley.ȱTheȱphysicalȱstructureȱofȱtheȱmonasteryȱisȱnotȱunlike
289–334;ȱhereȱ293.ȱAsȱBlumȱnotes,ȱJeremiahȱcitesȱonlyȱwineȱ(293,ȱn.ȱ16).
14
Dieȱ Briefeȱ desȱ Petrusȱ Damiani,ȱ ed.ȱ Reindel,ȱ vol.ȱ IIȱ (1988)ȱ no.ȱ 50,ȱ 77–131;ȱ hereȱ 83.ȱ Theȱ English
293.ȱThisȱscripturalȱreferenceȱdescribingȱtheȱdichotomyȱofȱcityȱandȱcountrysideȱmirrorsȱDamian’s
descriptionȱofȱruralȱasceticȱmanifestationsȱdiscussedȱinȱhisȱletterȱtoȱtheȱurbanȱhermit,ȱTeuzoȱ(Letter
44;ȱdiscussedȱbelow).
15
Dieȱ Briefeȱ desȱ Petrusȱ Damiani,ȱ ed.ȱ Reindel,ȱ vol.ȱ IIȱ (1988),ȱ no.ȱ 50,ȱ 77–131;ȱ hereȱ 83.ȱ Theȱ English
293.ȱThisȱdefinitionȱofȱanchoritesȱrevealsȱthatȱDamianȱinventedȱaȱuniqueȱtaxonomyȱforȱascetic
movements.
16
BenitoȱCatani,ȱ“L’insediamentoȱmonasticoȱedȱeremitico,”ȱStudiȱRomagnoliȱXLIVȱ(1993):ȱ491–538;
hereȱ506.
otherȱcontemporaryȱhouses;ȱtheȱsiteȱincludesȱaȱcloister,ȱchurch,ȱandȱrefectory.17
Damianȱdescribedȱlifeȱinȱaȱmonasteryȱasȱmoreȱthanȱaȱwithdrawalȱfromȱtheȱworld.
Heȱconsideredȱaȱmonasticȱcommunityȱaȱ“smallȱnumberȱamongȱtheȱmanyȱwho
wereȱaboutȱtoȱperishȱinȱtheȱflood,ȱandȱ[were]ȱbroughtȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱintoȱtheȱrefugeȱofȱthe
ark.”18ȱ Thisȱ metaphorȱ characterizesȱ theȱ monastery,ȱ inȱ Damian’sȱ words,ȱ asȱ a
“vivariumȱofȱsouls,”19ȱorȱaȱsafeȱhavenȱfromȱworldlyȱcorruption,ȱaȱtermȱheȱnotably
borrowedȱfromȱCassiodorus’ȱInstitutiones.20ȱTheȱmonastery,ȱhowever,ȱensuredȱnot
onlyȱenclosureȱfromȱtheȱsecularȱbutȱalsoȱremovalȱfromȱtheȱwilderness.ȱ
Althoughȱmonasteriesȱhistoricallyȱhaveȱexistedȱinȱcityȱandȱcountryside,ȱmany
monasticȱfoundationsȱinȱItalyȱduringȱtheȱcentralȱMiddleȱAgesȱfrequentlyȱclaimed
undesiredȱandȱuncultivatedȱlandsȱinȱtheȱruralȱcontado.21ȱManyȱmonksȱregardedȱthe
practiceȱofȱtamingȱtheȱlandscapeȱandȱcreatingȱaȱlivableȱspaceȱasȱfundamentalȱto
theirȱspiritualȱdevelopment.ȱDamianȱfoundedȱAceretaȱawayȱfromȱnearbyȱlocalities,
andȱfarȱfromȱtheȱlargerȱurbanȱcentersȱofȱFaenzaȱandȱFlorence.ȱHeȱmostȱlikelyȱbuilt
theȱmonasteryȱinȱthatȱparticularȱplaceȱprimarilyȱtoȱsupportȱtheȱhermitage,22ȱbut
regardlessȱofȱitsȱoriginsȱtheȱresultȱofȱDamian’sȱdecisionȱmeantȱtheȱmonasteryȱwas
grantedȱtheȱopportunityȱtoȱforgeȱaȱcommunityȱoutȱofȱnothingȱinȱanȱundeveloped
forestedȱarea.ȱTheȱprocessȱrecallsȱOldȱTestamentȱaccountsȱofȱtheȱHebrewsȱmoving
intoȱ theȱ Landȱ ofȱ Canaan;ȱ likeȱ theȱ Hebrews,ȱ theȱ monksȱ wouldȱ alsoȱ bringȱ the
worshipȱofȱGodȱintoȱaȱnewȱterritory.23ȱ
17
Noȱcontemporaryȱstructuresȱsurvive.ȱTheȱearliestȱmedievalȱbuilding,ȱtheȱchurch,ȱdatesȱtoȱthe
thirteenthȱcentury.ȱHowever,ȱtheseȱmoreȱrecentȱbuildingsȱwereȱerectedȱonȱtheȱfoundationȱofȱthe
originalȱmonastery.ȱOnlyȱexcavationȱcouldȱrevealȱtoȱwhatȱextentȱtheȱearlyȱmodernȱstructures
followȱtheȱmedievalȱfloorȱplan,ȱbutȱaȱsurveyȱofȱtheȱsiteȱIȱconductedȱwithȱaȱsmallȱcrewȱinȱ2009
suggestedȱthatȱtheȱarchitectsȱofȱtheȱlaterȱreconstructionsȱofȱAceretaȱdidȱbuildȱdirectlyȱoverȱthe
originalȱfoundationȱandȱmadeȱonlyȱminorȱchanges.
18
DieȱBriefeȱdesȱPetrusȱDamiani,ȱed.ȱReindel,ȱvol.ȱIIȱ(1988)ȱno.ȱ86,ȱ459–504;ȱhereȱ462;ȱTheȱEnglish
translationȱisȱavailableȱinȱLettersȱofȱPeterȱDamian,ȱvol.ȱIII,ȱed.ȱBlumȱ(1992),ȱLetterȱ86,ȱ255–98;ȱhere
257.ȱInȱnoȱuncertainȱtermsȱthisȱmetaphorȱunderlinesȱtheȱprivilegedȱpositionȱasceticsȱoccupiedȱin
Damian’sȱvisionȱofȱChristianȱsociety.
19
DieȱBriefeȱdesȱPetrusȱDamiani,ȱed.ȱReindel,ȱvol.ȱIIȱ(1988)ȱno.ȱ86,ȱ459–504;ȱhereȱ462;ȱTheȱEnglish
translationȱisȱavailableȱinȱLettersȱofȱPeterȱDamian,ȱvol.ȱIII,ȱed.ȱBlumȱ(1992),ȱLetterȱ86,ȱ255–98;ȱhere
257ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ18).
20
Cassiodorus,ȱ Institutionesȱ divinarumȱ etȱ saeculariumȱ litterarum.ȱ Einführungȱ inȱ dieȱ geistlichenȱ und
weltlichenȱWissenschaften,ȱübersetztȱundȱeingeleitet,ȱed.ȱWolfgangȱBürsgensȱ(Freiburgȱi.ȱBr.,ȱNew
York:ȱHerder,ȱ2003),ȱI,ȱ29.
21
Ultimatelyȱtheirȱasceticȱpursuitsȱstand,ȱatȱleastȱinȱtheory,ȱequallyȱunaffectedȱbyȱruralȱorȱurban
surroundingsȱbecauseȱtheȱmonasteryȱwas,ȱasȱDamianȱputȱit,ȱaȱvivarium.ȱ
22
Seeȱnoteȱ1ȱabove.
23
Joshuaȱ24:5;ȱseeȱalsoȱGregoryȱtheȱGreat’sȱLifeȱofȱSaintȱBenedictȱthatȱshowsȱ(inȱanȱearlierȱtime)ȱthis
mentality:ȱ “Ubiȱ uetustissimumȱ fanumȱ fuit,ȱ inȱ quoȱ exȱ antiquorumȱ moreȱ gentiliumȱ abȱ stulto
rusticorumȱpopuloȱApolloȱcolebatur.ȱCircumquaqueȱetiamȱinȱcultuȱdaemonumȱluciȱsuccreuerant,
inȱquibusȱadhucȱeodemȱtemporeȱinfideliumȱinsanaȱmultitudoȱsacrificiisȱsacrilegisȱinsudabat”
(GregoriusȱMagnus,ȱDialogorumȱlibriȱIV,ȱ2.8.10,ȱlinesȱ97–102,ȱed.ȱA.ȱdeȱVogüé,ȱSChr,ȱvol.ȱ260ȱ[Paris:
Afterȱtheȱinitialȱconstructionȱofȱtheȱmonastery,ȱtheȱcommunityȱwouldȱhaveȱhadȱto
carveȱoutȱanȱexistenceȱandȱprovideȱforȱbasicȱneeds.ȱForȱexample,ȱatȱAceretaȱthere
remainsȱtodayȱevidenceȱofȱarableȱlandȱinȱtheȱeleventhȱcentury.ȱFruitȱtreesȱand
fieldsȱyieldingȱrootȱvegetablesȱthriveȱonȱsiteȱandȱthroughoutȱtheȱvalley,ȱandȱas
statedȱearlier,ȱeleventhȬcenturyȱdocumentsȱrepeatedlyȱmentionȱvinicultureȱand
oliveȱproductionȱnearby.ȱTheȱmonastery’sȱprimaryȱsourceȱofȱincomeȱcameȱfrom
rentsȱandȱproduceȱfromȱnearbyȱproperties,ȱacquiredȱthroughȱcharitableȱdonations,
butȱthereȱisȱeveryȱindicationȱtheȱmonksȱcouldȱhaveȱalsoȱengagedȱinȱagricultureȱon
theirȱownȱpremises.ȱMoreover,ȱBenedictȱhimselfȱprescribedȱthatȱmonksȱparticipate
inȱagriculturalȱactivities.ȱAsȱheȱwrote,ȱ“Idlenessȱisȱtheȱenemyȱofȱtheȱsoul,”24ȱandȱhe
specificallyȱidentifiesȱplowingȱandȱplantingȱasȱlegitimateȱwaysȱtoȱpassȱtheȱtime.
Benedict’sȱwordsȱonȱmanualȱlaborȱareȱalsoȱwellȱknown,ȱ“Theyȱmustȱnotȱbecome
distressedȱ ifȱ theȱ localȱ conditionsȱ orȱ theirȱ povertyȱ shouldȱ forceȱ themȱ toȱ doȱ the
harvestingȱthemselves.ȱWhenȱtheyȱliveȱbyȱtheȱlaborȱofȱtheirȱhands,ȱasȱourȱfather
andȱtheȱapostlesȱdid,ȱthenȱtheyȱareȱreallyȱmonks.”25ȱ
PeterȱDamianȱbelievedȱthatȱmanualȱlaborȱwasȱessentialȱtoȱspiritualȱimprovement
andȱcomplainedȱtoȱhisȱdisciple,ȱAriprandus,ȱthatȱmanyȱreligiousȱneglectedȱtoȱlearn
aȱ tradeȱ andȱ thereforeȱ lackedȱ discipline.26ȱ Heȱ expressedȱ aȱ similarȱ grievanceȱ to
DesideriusȱofȱMontecassinoȱinȱ1061.ȱHeȱtoldȱtheȱabbotȱofȱhisȱconcernȱthatȱmonks
tendedȱ toȱ gossipȱ duringȱ hoursȱ inȱ whichȱ theyȱ shouldȱ beȱ workingȱ orȱ reading,
accordingȱtoȱtheȱBenedictineȱRule.27ȱHowever,ȱDamianȱhimselfȱhadȱsomeȱdifficulty
followingȱhisȱownȱadvice.ȱUnableȱtoȱworkȱwithȱhisȱhandsȱinȱanyȱ“useful”ȱway,ȱhe
turnedȱtoȱwriting.ȱInȱaȱletterȱheȱsentȱtoȱtwoȱbishopsȱinȱ1059ȱheȱstated:
Iȱhaveȱundertakenȱtoȱwriteȱseveralȱsmallȱworks,ȱnot,ȱindeed,ȱthatȱIȱmightȱplaceȱthem
onȱtheȱpulpitsȱinȱtheȱchurchesȱ(whichȱwouldȱbeȱpresumptuous)ȱbutȱespeciallyȱbecause
LesȱÉditionsȱduȱCerf,ȱ1979],ȱ168).ȱCf.ȱtheȱEnglishȱtranslationȱbyȱMyraȱL.ȱUhlfelder.ȱGregoryȱthe
Great,ȱ Dialogues,ȱ Bookȱ II:ȱ Saintȱ Benedict.ȱ Theȱ Libraryȱ ofȱ Liberalȱ Artsȱ (Indianapolis,ȱ IN:ȱ BobbsȬ
Merrill,ȱ1967),ȱ18.
24
“Otiositasȱinimicaȱestȱanimae”ȱ(TheȱRuleȱofȱSaintȱBenedict,ȱed.ȱTimothyȱFry,ȱTimothyȱHorner,ȱand
ImogeneȱBaker,ȱch.ȱ48ȱ[seeȱnoteȱ3]).
25
TheȱRuleȱofȱSaintȱBenedictȱ(seeȱnoteȱ24),ȱch.ȱ48.ȱSeeȱalsoȱGregoriusȱMagnus,ȱDialogorumȱlibriȱIVȱ(see
noteȱ23),ȱed.ȱA.ȱdeȱVogüé,ȱI,ȱ3.ȱDamianȱcitesȱGregoryȱfrequentlyȱinȱhisȱletters.
26
DieȱBriefeȱdesȱPetrusȱDamiani,ȱed.ȱReindel,ȱvol.ȱIIȱ(1988),ȱ no.ȱ54,ȱ139–48;ȱhereȱ145.ȱTheȱEnglish
351.ȱThisȱletterȱisȱoneȱofȱmanyȱDamianȱsentȱtoȱhisȱdisciplesȱatȱFonteȱAvellana,ȱwithȱwhomȱhe
communicatedȱregularlyȱwhileȱheȱwasȱawayȱfromȱtheȱhermitage.
27
DieȱBriefeȱdesȱPetrusȱDamiani,ȱed.ȱReindel,ȱvol.ȱIIȱ(1988),ȱno.ȱ86,ȱ459–504;ȱhereȱ498–99.ȱTheȱEnglish
translationȱisȱavailableȱinȱLettersȱofȱPeterȱDamian,ȱed.ȱBlum,ȱvol.ȱIIIȱ(1992),ȱLetterȱ86,ȱ255–98;ȱhere
292.ȱInȱreadingȱDamian’sȱcorrespondenceȱwithȱAlberic,ȱitȱisȱimportantȱtoȱrememberȱthatȱneither
Damian’sȱpositionȱasȱcardinalȱorȱpriorȱofȱFonteȱAvellanaȱplacedȱhimȱonȱequalȱparȱwithȱAlbericȱin
termsȱofȱpoliticalȱcapital.
withoutȱsomeȱsortȱofȱoccupationȱIȱcouldȱnotȱbearȱtheȱidleȱleisureȱandȱtheȱtediumȱofȱa
remoteȱcell.ȱAsȱoneȱwhoȱdoesȱnotȱknowȱhowȱtoȱengageȱinȱusefulȱmanualȱlabor,ȱIȱwrite
thatȱIȱmightȱrestrainȱmyȱwanderingȱandȱlasciviousȱmindȱwithȱaȱleash.28
Clunyȱ wasȱ theȱ forerunnerȱ inȱ substitutingȱ theȱ divineȱ officeȱ forȱ manualȱ labor.
Damianȱsimilarlyȱadvocatedȱformsȱofȱlaborȱcompatibleȱwithȱlifeȱinȱone’sȱcell,ȱaȱlife
ofȱ prayerȱ andȱ penitence;ȱ thatȱ is,ȱ copyingȱ codices,ȱ studyingȱ andȱ reading.29
Therefore,ȱ itȱ isȱ conceivableȱ theȱ monksȱ ofȱ Aceretaȱ embracedȱ theȱ same
reinterpretationȱofȱtheȱRuleȱandȱdidȱnotȱlaborȱwithȱtheirȱhands,ȱbutȱDamianȱnever
saidȱ asȱ much.ȱ Heȱ prescribedȱ practicesȱ forȱ hermits,ȱ notȱ monks.ȱ Hisȱ favorable
attitudeȱ towardȱ acquiringȱ aȱ tradeȱ wouldȱ supportȱ theȱ practiceȱ ofȱ agricultural
cultivationȱasȱaȱmeansȱtoȱensureȱmonasticȱdiscipline.
Theȱattentionȱrequiredȱtoȱmaintainȱaȱgardenȱmadeȱtheȱprocessȱasȱmuchȱaȱspiritual
exerciseȱ asȱ aȱ practicalȱ one.ȱ However,ȱ theȱ actȱ ofȱ cultivationȱ wouldȱ haveȱ held
significanceȱ beyondȱ aȱ faithfulȱ interpretationȱ ofȱ theȱ Rule.30ȱ Evenȱ ifȱ theȱ monks
engagedȱinȱonlyȱsmallȬscaleȱproductionȱatȱtheȱlevelȱofȱaȱhortusȱMonasticus,ȱthis
monasticȱ gardenȱ wouldȱ haveȱ providedȱ forȱ theȱ monks’ȱ alimentaryȱ needs;ȱ in
additionȱtoȱfruitsȱandȱvegetables,ȱtheȱmonksȱcouldȱplantȱlegumes,ȱaȱfundamental
baseȱ forȱ theirȱ diet.31ȱ Theȱ medievalȱ gardenȱ demandedȱ substantialȱ labor:ȱ the
enclosureȱ ofȱ theȱ space,ȱ followedȱ byȱ furrowingȱ andȱ thenȱ plantingȱ andȱ finally
harvesting.ȱFromȱmidȬAprilȱtoȱmidȬOctoberȱfurrowingȱ andȱ plantingȱhadȱtoȱbe
repeatedȱroughlyȱeveryȱtwentyȱdays,ȱdependingȱonȱtheȱtypeȱofȱseed.ȱTheȱmonks
wouldȱalsoȱhaveȱtoȱweedȱtheȱgardenȱoftenȱandȱperhapsȱtransplantȱitems.32ȱInȱsum,
theȱgardenȱreceivedȱfrequentȱandȱcarefulȱattention.ȱForȱtheȱmonks,ȱtheȱrepetition
ofȱtheseȱtasksȱwasȱaȱdailyȱexerciseȱinȱmanipulatingȱtheirȱenvironmentȱandȱworking
asȱaȱcommunity.
28
“Noveritȱsanctitasȱvestra,ȱdilectissimiȱmihiȱpatresȱetȱdomini,ȱquiaȱpraesumpsiȱquaedamȱopuscula
scribere,ȱnonȱtamȱvidelicet,ȱutȱlegivisȱaecclesiasticis,ȱquodȱtemerariumȱfuerat,ȱaliquidȱadderem,
quamȱobȱhocȱpraecipue,ȱquiaȱsineȱquolibetȱexercitioȱinertisȱociiȱetȱremotiorisȱcellulaeȱtediaȱnon
perferrem,ȱutȱquiȱoperibusȱmanuumȱutiliterȱinsudareȱnonȱnoveram,ȱcorȱvagumȱatqueȱlascivum
quodamȱmeditationisȱloroȱrestrigerem,ȱsicqueȱcogitationumȱingruentiumȱstrepitumȱatqueȱaccidiae
orepentisȱ instantiamȱ faciliusȱ propulsarem”ȱ (Dieȱ Briefeȱ desȱ Petrusȱ Damiani,ȱ ed.ȱ Reindel,ȱ vol.ȱ II
[1988],ȱno.ȱ62,ȱ219–20;ȱhereȱ219.ȱTheȱEnglishȱtranslationȱisȱavailableȱinȱLettersȱofȱPeterȱDamian,ȱed.
Blum,ȱvol.ȱIIIȱ[1992],ȱLetterȱ62,ȱ14–15;ȱhereȱ14).
29
DellaȱSanta,ȱRichercheȱsull’ideaȱmonasticaȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1),ȱ79.
30
SeeȱTheȱRuleȱofȱSaintȱBenedictȱ(seeȱnoteȱ24),ȱch.ȱ66ȱonȱtheȱpresenceȱofȱaȱgardenȱonȱsite.ȱGardensȱwere
notȱexclusiveȱtoȱtheȱcountryside,ȱbutȱexistedȱinȱtownsȱasȱwellȱ(seeȱBrunoȱAndreolli,ȱ“Ilȱruolo
dell’Orticolturaȱ eȱ dellaȱ frutticolturaȱ nelleȱ campagneȱ dell’altoȱ medioevo,”ȱ L’ambienteȱ vegetale
nell’altoȱMedioevo.ȱSettimaneȱdiȱstudioȱdelȱCentroȱitalianoȱdiȱstudiȱsull’altoȱMedioevo,ȱ37ȱ[Spoleto:
LaȱSedeȱdelȱCentro,ȱ1990]),ȱ175–209.
31
Andreolli,ȱ“Ilȱruoloȱdell’Orticoltura”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ30),ȱ197.ȱ
32
Andreolli,ȱ“Ilȱruoloȱdell’Orticoltura”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ30),ȱ196.
Theȱ monasteryȱ ofȱ Aceretaȱ mayȱ haveȱ beenȱ enclosed,ȱ butȱ itȱ wasȱ byȱ noȱ means
entirelyȱisolated.ȱTheȱstructureȱtodayȱstandsȱnextȱtoȱtheȱmodernȱroad,ȱwhichȱlikely
runsȱ parallelȱ toȱ theȱ medievalȱ one.ȱ Asȱ Francescaȱ Feiȱ hasȱ shown,ȱ throughout
northernȱItalyȱmonasteriesȱcommonlyȱsprangȱupȱnextȱtoȱroads.ȱItȱisȱnotȱsurprising
thatȱmonasteriesȱwouldȱappearȱalongȱhighlyȱtraffickedȱroutes,33ȱbutȱwhyȱwould
DamianȱhaveȱplacedȱAceretaȱnextȱtoȱaȱroadȱwhereȱitȱwouldȱhaveȱbeenȱrelatively
accessibleȱandȱopenȱtoȱpotentialȱdangers?ȱTheȱsimpleȱanswerȱisȱthatȱtheȱbenefits
outweighedȱ theȱ risks.ȱ Althoughȱ cloistered,ȱ theȱ monksȱ wouldȱ haveȱ toȱ travel
occasionallyȱoutsideȱtheȱwallsȱtoȱcollectȱproduceȱsuchȱasȱgrainȱandȱperhapsȱalso
rents,ȱvisitȱnearbyȱmarkets,ȱorȱevenȱotherȱmonasteries.ȱDamian’sȱlettersȱtellȱusȱthat
interȬmonasteryȱcontactȱtookȱplaceȱoftenȱwithinȱtheȱcongregation.34ȱAceretaȱwas
responsibleȱforȱtwoȱcommunities,ȱandȱtheirȱaccessȱtoȱtheȱoutsideȱworldȱservedȱto
sustainȱtheȱhermitage.
WhileȱtheȱmonasteryȱofȱAceretaȱprovidedȱtheȱhermitsȱwithȱaȱconnectionȱtoȱthe
world,ȱtheȱhermitageȱofȱGamognaȱwasȱaȱretreatȱfromȱit.ȱTheȱmonksȱlaboredȱto
changeȱtheȱspaceȱinȱwhichȱtheyȱresided,ȱbutȱtheȱhermitsȱonȱtheȱhillȱaboveȱsought
toȱexistȱmoreȱwithinȱtheirȱnaturalȱsurroundings.ȱDamianȱinsistedȱthatȱhermitsȱlive
inȱtheȱwilderness,ȱthatȱtheyȱremoveȱthemselvesȱasȱfarȱfromȱtheȱurbanȱsceneȱas
possible.ȱTheȱbestȱexampleȱofȱhisȱattitudeȱonȱthisȱpointȱcomesȱfromȱanotherȱofȱhis
letters.ȱBetweenȱ1055ȱandȱ1057,ȱDamianȱwroteȱtoȱanȱurbanȱhermitȱtoȱchastiseȱhis
behaviorȱ andȱ inȱ soȱ doingȱ explainedȱ theȱ qualitativeȱ differencesȱ betweenȱ urban
monasticismȱandȱhisȱidealȱasceticȱwayȱofȱlife.ȱ
TheȱhermitȱTeuzo,ȱformerlyȱofȱtheȱmonasteryȱofȱSantaȱMariaȱinȱFlorence,ȱhadȱleft
hisȱcommunityȱtoȱresideȱinȱcellȱwithinȱtheȱcityȱcenter.ȱAtȱtheȱrequestȱofȱhisȱabbot,
Albizo,ȱPeterȱDamianȱvisitedȱTeuzoȱinȱhisȱcellȱandȱattemptedȱtoȱreasonȱwithȱhim
andȱpersuadeȱhimȱtoȱreturnȱtoȱtheȱfold.ȱInȱtheȱend,ȱtheȱmanȱrefusedȱtoȱlistenȱand
violentlyȱexpelledȱDamianȱfromȱhisȱcell.35ȱDamianȱdidȱnotȱgiveȱup,ȱhowever,ȱand
33
FrancescaȱFei,ȱ“Noteȱsullaȱviabilita’ȱeȱsugliȱinsediamentiȱabbazialiȱnelleȱmarche,”ȱLeȱAbbazieȱdelle
Marche,ȱstoriaȱeȱarte,ȱed.ȱEmmaȱSimiȱVaranelliȱ(Roma:ȱViella,ȱ1992),ȱ233–48;ȱhereȱ234.ȱOnȱroadsȱin
theȱMarchesȱseeȱLeȱstradeȱnelleȱMarche:ȱIlȱproblemaȱnelȱtempo.ȱAttiȱeȱMemorieȱdellaȱDeputazioneȱdi
StoriaȱPatriaȱperȱleȱMarche,ȱ89–91,ȱvol.ȱIIIȱ(Ancona:ȱPressoȱlaȱDeputazioneȱdiȱstoriaȱpatriaȱperȱle
Marche,ȱ1987);ȱIstituzioniȱeȱsocietàȱnell’altoȱmedioevoȱmarchigiano.ȱAttiȱeȱMemorieȱdellaȱDeputazione
diȱStoriaȱPatriaȱperȱleȱMarche,ȱ86,ȱed.ȱMassimoȱMaroni,ȱvol.ȱIȱ(Ancona:ȱPressoȱlaȱDeputazioneȱdi
storiaȱpatriaȱperȱleȱMarche,ȱ1983);ȱLorenzoȱQuilici,ȱLaȱreteȱstradaleȱdelȱducatoȱdiȱSpoletoȱnell’Alto
Medioevo.ȱAttiȱIXȱCongressoȱInternazionaleȱdiȱStudiȱsull’AltoȱMedioevoȱ(Spoleto:ȱCentroȱitaliano
diȱstudiȱsull’altoȱmedioevo,ȱ1983),ȱvol.ȱI,ȱ399–420.
34
DieȱBriefeȱdesȱPetrusȱDamiani,ȱed.ȱKurtȱReindel.ȱEpistolae:ȱ2,ȱDieȱBriefeȱderȱdeutschenȱKaiserzeit,ȱIV
[Munich:ȱ Monumentaȱ Germaniaeȱ Historica,ȱ 1989],ȱ vol.ȱ III,ȱ no.ȱ 133,ȱ 452–54;ȱ Englishȱ translation
availableȱinȱBlum,ȱLetters,ȱed.,ȱvol.ȱVȱ(2004),ȱLetterȱ133,ȱ73–75.
35
DieȱBriefeȱdesȱPetrusȱDamiani,ȱed.ȱReindel,ȱvol.ȱIIȱ(1988),ȱno.ȱ44,ȱ7–33;ȱhereȱ12;ȱEnglishȱtranslation
inȱavailableȱinȱLettersȱofȱPeterȱDamian,ȱed.ȱBlum,ȱvol.ȱIIȱ(1990),ȱLetterȱ44,ȱ221–43;ȱhereȱ225.
laterȱwroteȱaȱlengthyȱdiatribeȱcriticizingȱTeuzo’sȱwayȱofȱlife.ȱHeȱaskedȱofȱTeuzo,
“Ifȱyouȱareȱaȱmonk,ȱwhatȱbusinessȱdoȱyouȱhaveȱinȱcities?ȱIfȱyouȱareȱaȱhermit,ȱwhat
areȱyouȱdoingȱamongȱtheȱcrowdsȱinȱtown?ȱWhatȱdoȱnoisyȱmarketplacesȱorȱtowered
fortressesȱcontributeȱtoȱaȱcell?”36ȱ
InȱDamian’sȱmind,ȱtheȱproblemȱwasȱtheȱgoalȱofȱTeuzo’sȱasceticism.ȱHeȱaccused
theȱmanȱofȱseekingȱfameȱandȱglory.ȱAsȱheȱwrote,ȱ“Nowȱthoseȱwhoȱactȱasȱifȱthere
wasȱaȱshortageȱofȱforestsȱandȱseekȱsolitudeȱinȱtheȱcities,ȱwhatȱelseȱareȱweȱtoȱthink
butȱ thatȱ theyȱ areȱ notȱ lookingȱ forȱ theȱ perfectionȱ ofȱ solitaryȱ life,ȱ butȱ ratherȱ for
applauseȱandȱglory?”37ȱHeȱproceededȱtoȱexplainȱthatȱpracticingȱpublicȱfeatsȱof
asceticismȱsuchȱasȱfastingȱwouldȱgrantȱhimȱsingularȱauthorityȱandȱinfluenceȱover
theȱsurroundingȱcrowd.ȱAsȱaȱresultȱTeuzoȱwouldȱcomeȱtoȱjudgeȱhimselfȱnotȱbyȱthe
“testimonyȱofȱ[his]ȱownȱconscience,”ȱbutȱbyȱtheȱopinionȱofȱtheȱ“flatteringȱmob.”38
Theȱcityȱheldȱadditionalȱthreatsȱtoȱtheȱfundamentalȱprinciplesȱofȱasceticȱlife.ȱAs
Damianȱwrites,ȱ“toȱbeȱunacquaintedȱwithȱwineȱinȱtheȱcityȱwouldȱbeȱaȱmiracle.”39
Damian’sȱownȱruleȱforȱhermits40ȱproscribedȱstrictȱmoderationȱinȱtheȱconsumption
ofȱwine.ȱInȱaddition,ȱwhileȱaȱhairȬshirtȱattractsȱnoȱattentionȱinȱtheȱhermitage,ȱinȱthe
cityȱitsȱwearerȱbecomesȱaȱspectacle.ȱLikewiseȱforȱbareȱfeetȱandȱbareȱlegs.41ȱWhile
inȱtheȱcityȱaȱ“flimsyȱquilt”ȱwouldȱbeȱconsideredȱroughingȱit,ȱhermitsȱshouldȱsleep
36
“Sed,ȱqueso,ȱsiȱmonachusȱes,ȱquidȱtibiȱcumȱurbibus?ȱSiȱheremita,ȱquidȱtibiȱcumȱciviumȱcuneis?
Quidȱenimȱcellaeȱvelȱforaȱstrepentiaȱvelȱturritaȱconferuntȱpropugnacula?”ȱ(DieȱBriefeȱdesȱPetrus
Damiani,ȱed.ȱReindel,ȱvol.ȱIIȱ[1988],ȱno.ȱ44,ȱ7–33;ȱhereȱ12;ȱEnglishȱtranslationȱinȱavailableȱinȱLetters
ofȱPeterȱDamian,ȱed.ȱBlum,ȱvol.ȱIIȱ[1990],ȱLetterȱ44,ȱ221–41;ȱhereȱ225).
37
“Enimveroȱ quiȱ tamquamȱ deficientibusȱ silvisȱ solitudinemȱ inȱ urbibusȱ quaerunt,ȱ quidȱ aliquid
credendumȱ est,ȱ nisiȱ quiaȱ solitariaeȱ vitaeȱ nonȱ perfecionem,ȱ sedȱ favoremȱ potiusȱ etȱ gloriam
aucupantur?”ȱ (Dieȱ Briefeȱ desȱ Petrusȱ Damiani,ȱ ed.ȱ Reindel,ȱ vol.ȱ IIȱ [1988],ȱ no.ȱ 44,ȱ 7–33;ȱ hereȱ 13;
EnglishȱtranslationȱinȱavailableȱinȱLettersȱofȱPeterȱDamian,ȱed.ȱBlum,ȱvol.ȱIIȱ[1990]ȱLetterȱ44,ȱ221–41;
hereȱ225).
38
“Illicȱigiturȱcaptatoȱvulgiȱfavoreȱcivumfluus,ȱquicquidȱtibiȱmensȱvelȱimprovisaȱdictaverit,ȱproprio
iudicioȱlexȱhabetur,ȱquicquidȱpraecepsȱlinguaȱdecurrerit,ȱsententiaȱdeputatur.ȱNecȱteȱmetirisȱiuxta
testimoniumȱpropriaeȱconscientiae,ȱsedȱsecundamȱopinionemȱpotiusȱassentatricisȱturbae,ȱapud
quamȱvidelicetȱvenalisȱpallorȱinȱvultuȱetȱauditumȱnomenȱstuporemȱmentibusȱingerit”ȱ(DieȱBriefe
desȱ Petrusȱ Damiani,ȱ ed.ȱ Reindel,ȱ vol.ȱ IIȱ [1988],ȱ no.ȱ 44,ȱ 7–33;ȱ hereȱ 13–14;ȱ Englishȱ translationȱ is
availableȱinȱLettersȱofȱPeterȱDamian,ȱed.ȱBlum,ȱvol.ȱIIȱ[1990]ȱLetterȱ44,ȱ221–41;ȱhereȱ225).
39
“Vinumȱnamqueȱinȱurbeȱnescireȱprodigiumȱest,ȱinȱheremoȱbibereȱsatisȱignobile”ȱ(Reindel,ȱed.,
Briefe,ȱvol.ȱIIȱ[1988],ȱNR.ȱ44,ȱ14;ȱEnglishȱtranslationȱisȱavailableȱinȱLettersȱofȱPeterȱDamian,ȱed.ȱBlum,
vol.ȱIIȱ[1990]ȱLetterȱ44,ȱ221–41;ȱhereȱ225).
40
Damian’sȱwroteȱhisȱfirstȱruleȱforȱhermitsȱbetweenȱ1045ȱandȱca.ȱ1050,ȱandȱtheȱsecondȱdatesȱbetween
1050ȱandȱ1057,ȱwithȱaȱsecondȱeditionȱappearingȱinȱ1065.ȱAsȱtheȱdatingȱofȱtheȱsecondȱruleȱaccords
withȱtheȱfoundationȱdateȱofȱGamogna,ȱIȱreferȱtoȱthatȱruleȱinȱmyȱtext.ȱOnȱtheȱdatingȱofȱLetterȱ50,
seeȱDieȱBriefeȱdesȱPetrusȱDamiani,ȱed.ȱReindel,ȱvol.ȱIIȱ(1988),ȱno.ȱ50,ȱ77–79,ȱn.ȱ1–3.
41
“Cilitiumȱ inȱ heremoȱ vestimentum,ȱ inȱ urbeȱ spetaculum.ȱ Cruribusȱ pedibusnudatisȱ incedereȱ in
heremoȱquidemȱregula,ȱinȱforoȱautemȱafflictioȱcerniturȱindiscreta”ȱ(DieȱBriefeȱdesȱPetrusȱDamiani,
ed.ȱReindel,ȱvol.ȱIIȱ[1988],ȱno.ȱ44,ȱ7–13;ȱhereȱ14;ȱEnglishȱtranslationȱisȱavailableȱinȱLettersȱofȱPeter
Damian,ȱed.ȱBlum,ȱvol.ȱIIȱ[1990]ȱLetterȱ44,ȱ221–41;ȱhereȱ225).ȱ
onȱ“rushesȱandȱpapyrus.”42ȱLastly,ȱwhereasȱoneȱassumesȱsilenceȱasȱtheȱnormȱinȱa
hermitage,ȱinȱtheȱcityȱitȱisȱallȱtooȱrare.43ȱ
DamianȱexhortedȱTeuzoȱtoȱvisitȱaȱruralȱhermitage,ȱtoȱseeȱhowȱhermitsȱlivedȱand
thrivedȱ inȱ theȱ wild.ȱ Forȱ Damian,ȱ theȱ “woods”ȱ orȱ silvaeȱ enabledȱ aȱ rigorous
asceticismȱ thatȱ wouldȱ beȱ impossibleȱ toȱ achieveȱ inȱ theȱ city.ȱ Butȱ heȱ locatedȱ the
hermitageȱsomeȱdistanceȱfromȱtheȱmonastery,ȱwhichȱwasȱalsoȱinȱaȱruralȱsetting.ȱHe
desiredȱanȱevenȱmoreȱremoteȱandȱuntamedȱplotȱofȱland.ȱGamognaȱevenȱtodayȱis
surroundedȱ byȱ vegetationȱ andȱ reachableȱ onlyȱ byȱ roughȱ mountainȱ trails,ȱ and
conditionsȱcouldȱonlyȱhaveȱmoreȱextremeȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱparticularlyȱduring
theȱwinterȱmonths.ȱ
Inȱ theȱ eleventhȱ centuryȱ aȱ churchȱ stoodȱ onȱ site,ȱ possiblyȱ withȱ anȱ adjoining
scriptoriumȱ orȱ refectory,ȱ butȱ theseȱ wouldȱ haveȱ beenȱ theȱ onlyȱ permanent
structures.ȱTheȱhermitsȱlivedȱinȱcellsȱaloneȱorȱwithȱaȱcompanion.ȱTheirȱcellsȱcould
haveȱbeenȱconstructedȱawayȱfromȱtheȱchurch,ȱevenȱatȱaȱsignificantȱdistance,ȱinȱthe
hillsȱsurroundingȱtheȱproperty.ȱTodayȱthereȱremainsȱnoȱtraceȱofȱtheseȱcells;ȱtheir
architectsȱ didȱ notȱ builtȱ themȱ toȱ last,ȱ theyȱ builtȱ themȱ toȱ keepȱ outȱ theȱ elements
withoutȱ anyȱ furtherȱ embellishment.ȱ Thisȱ livingȱ situationȱ wasȱ notȱ uniqueȱ to
Gamogna.ȱ Thereȱ wereȱ numerousȱ analogousȱ hermitȱ communitiesȱ founded
throughoutȱItalyȱinȱtheȱspiritȱofȱEasternȱmonasticism.ȱTheȱvisionȱbehindȱtheȱlayout
ofȱthisȱhermitage,ȱhowever,ȱdependedȱonȱmoreȱthanȱrecallingȱtheȱDesertȱFathers.
Theȱ hagiographyȱ ofȱ Easternȱ asceticsȱ tellsȱ usȱ thatȱ earlyȱ hermitsȱ tookȱ extreme
measuresȱtoȱimmerseȱthemselvesȱinȱtheȱwildernessȱandȱevenȱpreferredȱtoȱliveȱoff
theȱlandȱandȱtoȱeatȱ“naturally,”ȱmeaningȱtheyȱforagedȱforȱfoodȱandȱateȱuncooked
vegetablesȱandȱfruit.44ȱThisȱtraditionȱofȱeatingȱrawȱvegetablesȱasȱanȱexpressionȱof
sanctityȱcarriedȱoverȱintoȱtheȱWestȱinȱearlyȱmedievalȱhagiographicalȱtexts.ȱGregory
42
“Inȱhaeremoȱstratumȱmolleȱiuncusȱestȱvelȱpapirus,ȱinterȱcivesȱapplauditurȱcentoneȱcontentus”ȱ(Die
BriefeȱdesȱPetrusȱDamiani,ȱed.ȱReindel,ȱvol.ȱIIȱ[1988],ȱno.ȱ44,ȱ7–13;ȱhereȱ14;ȱEnglishȱtranslationȱis
availableȱinȱLettersȱofȱPeterȱDamian,ȱed.ȱBlum,ȱvol.ȱIIȱ[1990]ȱLetterȱ44,ȱ221–41;ȱhereȱ225).
43
“Quodȱenimȱillicȱconversatioȱraraȱmirabile,ȱredditȱhicȱsotietasȱfraternaȱcommune.ȱAcȱperȱhoc,
quodȱillicȱpraeconioȱlaudisȱattollitur,ȱhicȱgeneraliterȱinditumȱgloriamȱnonȱmeretur”ȱ(DieȱBriefeȱdes
PetrusȱDamiani,ȱed.ȱReindel,ȱvol.ȱIIȱ[1988],ȱno.ȱ44,ȱ7–13;ȱhereȱ14;ȱEnglishȱtranslationȱisȱavailableȱin
LettersȱofȱPeterȱDamian,ȱed.ȱBlum,ȱvol.ȱIIȱ[1990]ȱLetterȱ44,ȱ221–41;ȱhereȱ225).
44
Forȱexample,ȱseeȱVitaeȱPatrumȱsiveȱHistoriaeȱEremiticaeȱlibriȱdecem,ȱvol.ȱI,ȱLiberȱIV,ȱexȱDialogoȱSeveri
SulpiciiȱetȱInstitutisȱetȱCollationibusȱJoannisȱCassiani,ȱed.ȱJ.ȱP.ȱMigne.ȱPatrologiaȱLatina,ȱ73ȱ(Paris:
Garnier,ȱ1879),ȱch.ȱX,ȱcol.ȱ822.ȱForȱaȱdiscussionȱofȱtheseȱtexts,ȱseeȱMassimoȱMontanari,”Vegetazione
eȱAlimentazione”ȱL’ambienteȱvegetaleȱnell’altoȱMedioevo.ȱSettimaneȱdiȱstudioȱdelȱCentroȱitalianoȱdi
studiȱsull’altoȱMedioevo,ȱ37ȱ(Spoleto:ȱLaȱSedeȱdelȱCentro,ȱ1990),ȱ281–322.ȱSeeȱalsoȱJacquesȱLeȱGoff,
“IlȱdesertoȬforestaȱnell’Occidenteȱmedievale,”ȱIlȱmeravigliosoȱeȱilȱquotidianoȱnell’Occidenteȱmedievale,
ed.ȱFrancescoȱMaiello,ȱtrans.ȱMicheleȱSampaolo.ȱStoriaȱeȱsocietà.ȱ2ndȱed.ȱ(RomeȱandȱBari:ȱLaterza,
1983),ȱ25–44.ȱForȱtheȱEnglishȱversion,ȱseeȱ“TheȱWildernessȱinȱtheȱMedievalȱWest,”ȱid.,ȱTheȱMedieval
Imagination,ȱ2ndȱed.,ȱtrans.ȱArthurȱGoldhammerȱ(1985;ȱChicago:ȱUniversityȱofȱChicagoȱPress,
1992),ȱ47–59.
ofȱTours’ȱHistoriaȱFrancorum,ȱcomposedȱinȱtheȱsixthȱcentury,ȱdescribesȱtheȱdietȱof
theȱhermitȬrecluseȱHospiciusȱduringȱLentȱasȱrootsȱfromȱEgyptianȱherbs,ȱwhichȱhe
hadȱobtainedȱfromȱtraders.45ȱSimilarlyȱJonasȱofȱBobbio’sȱLifeȱofȱSaintȱColumbanus,
writtenȱinȱtheȱlateȱseventhȱcenturyȱnotȱlongȱafterȱtheȱSaint’sȱdeath,ȱrecountsȱaȱtale
ofȱColumbanusȱandȱhisȱcompanionsȱfastingȱforȱnineȱdaysȱandȱsurvivingȱonȱthe
barkȱofȱtreesȱandȱrootsȱofȱherbs.46ȱ
AtȱGamognaȱthereȱisȱnoȱsignȱofȱsuchȱaȱtradition.ȱTheȱexperienceȱofȱlivingȱinȱthe
wildernessȱdidȱnotȱincludeȱforagingȱforȱfood.ȱAsȱDamianȱstatesȱanchorites,ȱnot
hermits,ȱengagedȱinȱthatȱbehavior.ȱTheȱhermitsȱatȱGamognaȱlivedȱaccordingȱtoȱthe
Benedictineȱ Rule,ȱ whichȱ Damianȱ somewhatȱ modifiedȱ accordingȱ toȱ hisȱ own
specificationsȱ includingȱ theȱ strictȱ regulationȱ ofȱ wine,ȱ andȱ withȱ theȱ additionȱ of
bodilyȱmortification.ȱGoingȱwithoutȱfoodȱservedȱasȱaȱpenitentialȱexercise,ȱandȱas
Damianȱ states,ȱ “Byȱ fastingȱ weȱ meanȱ eatingȱ breadȱ withȱ saltȱ andȱ water.”47ȱ The
brothersȱfastedȱthroughoutȱtheȱyear,ȱfiveȱdaysȱaȱweekȱfromȱtheȱIdesȱofȱSeptember
untilȱEaster.ȱTheȱtimeȱbetweenȱEasterȱandȱPentecostȱwouldȱincludeȱfourȱfastȱdays
withȱ mealsȱ servedȱ twiceȱ dailyȱ onȱ Tuesdaysȱ andȱ Thursdays.48ȱ Regularȱ meals
consistedȱ ofȱ cookedȱ vegetablesȱ andȱ legumesȱ fromȱ produceȱ sharedȱ withȱ their
brothersȱinȱtheȱlowerȱvalley.49ȱUnlikeȱtheȱDesertȱFathersȱtheȱhermitsȱatȱGamogna
45
“FuitȱautemȱapudȱNicensimȱeoȱtemporeȱHospiciusȱreclaususȱmagnaeȱabstinentiae,ȱqui…ȱinȱdiebus
autemȱquadragesimaeȱdeȱradicibusȱherbarumȱAegyptiarum,ȱquasȱheremitaeȱutuntur,ȱexhibentibus
sibiȱ negotiatoribusȱ alibatui”ȱ (Gregoryȱ ofȱ Tours,ȱ Liberiȱ Historiarumȱ X,ȱ ed.ȱ Brunoȱ Kruschȱ and
WilhelmȱLevinson.ȱScriptoresȱrerumȱMerovingicarum,ȱvol.ȱI,ȱpartȱI,ȱliberȱVIȱ[Hanover:ȱMonumenta
GermaniaeȱHistorica,ȱ1951]),ȱ272.ȱ
46
Jonas,ȱVitaȱColumbani,ȱed.ȱBrunoȱKrusch.ȱScriptoresȱRerumȱGermanicarumȱinȱUsumȱScholarum
SeparatimȱEditi,ȱ37ȱ(Hanover:ȱMonumentaȱGermaniaeȱHistorica,ȱ1905),ȱI,ȱ167–68.
47
“Ieiunareȱ autemȱ illosȱ dicimus,ȱ quiȱ panemȱ cumȱ saleȱ etȱ aquaȱ percipiunt”ȱ (Dieȱ Briefeȱ desȱ Petrus
Damiani,ȱed.ȱReindel,ȱvol.ȱIIȱ[1988],ȱno.ȱ50,ȱ77–130;ȱhereȱ89;ȱEnglishȱtranslationȱisȱavailableȱinȱLetters
ofȱPeterȱDamian,ȱed.ȱBlum,ȱvol.ȱIIȱ[1990]ȱLetterȱ50,ȱ289–334;ȱhereȱ297).ȱDamianȱremainsȱconsistent
hereȱwithȱhisȱearlierȱruleȱ(Reindel,ȱBriefe,ȱvol.ȱIȱ[1983],ȱNR.ȱ18,ȱ168179;ȱhereȱ172;ȱEnglishȱtranslation
inȱBlum,ȱed.,ȱLetters,ȱvol.ȱIȱ[1989],ȱLetterȱ18,ȱ159–170;ȱhereȱ163).
48
DamianȱalsoȱmentionsȱthatȱfromȱtheȱoctaveȱofȱPentacostȱuntilȱtheȱfeastȱofȱSaintȱJohnȱtheȱBaptist
(Juneȱ24th),ȱtheȱhermitsȱwouldȱbeȱservedȱaȱstewȱeveryȱTuesdayȱandȱThursdayȱatȱ3ȱpm.ȱFromȱthe
feastȱ ofȱ Saintȱ Johnȱ untilȱ theȱ 13thȱ ofȱ Septemberȱ aȱ mealȱ wouldȱ beȱ servedȱ twiceȱ aȱ day,ȱ alsoȱ on
TuesdaysȱandȱThursdays,ȱwhileȱtheyȱobservedȱtheirȱfastȱasȱusualȱonȱtheȱremainingȱfourȱdays
(Sundayȱbeingȱexcluded)ȱ(DieȱBriefeȱdesȱPetrusȱDamiani,ȱed.ȱReindel,ȱvol.ȱIIȱ[1988],ȱno.ȱ50,ȱ77–130;
hereȱ87–88;ȱEnglishȱtranslationȱisȱavailableȱinȱLettersȱofȱPeterȱDamian,ȱed.ȱBlum,ȱvol.ȱIIȱ[1990]ȱLetter
50,ȱ289–334;ȱhereȱ296).ȱDamianȱstipulatesȱtheȱscheduleȱofȱfastingȱinȱfarȱmoreȱdetailȱinȱhisȱearlier
ruleȱ(DieȱBriefeȱdesȱPetrusȱDamiani,ȱed.ȱReindel,ȱvol.ȱIȱ[1983],ȱno.ȱ18,ȱ168–79;ȱhereȱ172–73;ȱEnglish
translationȱisȱavailableȱinȱLettersȱofȱPeterȱDamian,ȱed.ȱBlum,ȱvol.ȱIȱ[1989],ȱLetterȱ18,ȱ159–70;ȱhere
163–64).
49
Damianȱusesȱtheȱwordȱ“pulmentum,”ȱwhichȱBlumȱetȱal.ȱtranslateȱasȱ“stew,”ȱbutȱweȱhaveȱnoȱfurther
detailsȱ(seeȱDieȱBriefeȱdesȱPetrusȱDamiani,ȱed.ȱReindel,ȱvol.ȱIIȱ[1988],ȱno.ȱ50,ȱ77–130;ȱhereȱ88,ȱn.ȱ27).
Presumablyȱtheirȱdietȱmirroredȱthatȱofȱtheirȱbrothersȱinȱtheȱmonastery,ȱwithȱtheȱexceptionȱofȱfar
livedȱinȱtheȱwildernessȱnotȱsolelyȱforȱitsȱownȱsake.ȱToȱbeȱsure,ȱDamianȱperpetuated
anȱ earlierȱ traditionȱ thatȱ characterizedȱ theȱ wildernessȱ asȱ aȱ battlefieldȱ inȱ which
hermitsȱfoughtȱonȱtheȱfrontȱlinesȱagainstȱevil.50ȱForestsȱhadȱalsoȱbeenȱreputedȱsites
forȱtheȱmiraculousȱsinceȱantiquity.ȱButȱasȱDamianȱexplainedȱinȱhisȱletterȱtoȱthe
urbanȱhermit,ȱTeuzo,ȱhermitsȱmustȱliveȱinȱtheȱremoteȱsilvaeȱalsoȱbecauseȱtheyȱare
notȱ cloistered.ȱ Toȱ preserveȱ theirȱ particularȱ formȱ ofȱ religiousȱ lifeȱ theȱ hermits
exploitedȱtheirȱisolationȱtoȱencourageȱsilenceȱandȱcontemplation.ȱIfȱDamianȱplaced
theȱ monastery,ȱ aȱ moreȱ laxȱ religious51ȱ community,ȱ inȱ tooȱ closeȱ proximity,ȱ its
presenceȱcouldȱpotentiallyȱimpedeȱtheseȱgoals.
Furthermore,ȱtheȱhermits’ȱexperienceȱinȱtheȱwildernessȱcorrespondsȱtoȱDamian’s
planȱ forȱ devotionalȱ practices.ȱ Theȱ physicalȱ layoutȱ ofȱ Gamognaȱ andȱ Acereta
suggestsȱthatȱspiritualityȱatȱtheȱhermitageȱemphasizedȱpersonalȱdevotionȱwhileȱthe
monasteryȱembodiedȱcommunalȱdevotion;ȱrather,ȱlifeȱatȱGamognaȱdidȱnotȱseparate
personalȱ andȱ communalȱ devotion,ȱ butȱ soughtȱ toȱ integrateȱ theȱ two.ȱ Asȱ stated
above,ȱtheȱbrothersȱlivedȱinȱaȱcommunity,ȱbutȱinȱindividualȱcells.ȱPracticesȱsuchȱas
goingȱbarefootȱthroughoutȱtheȱyearȱandȱselfȬflagellationȱtheȱhermitsȱwouldȱhave
carriedȱoutȱalone.ȱInȱaddition,ȱspiritualȱexercisesȱdependedȱonȱcompleteȱsilence,
whichȱmadeȱthemȱprofoundlyȱpersonal.ȱTheȱisolationȱofȱtheȱsiteȱandȱofȱtheȱcellsȱon
theȱ Apennineȱ hilltopȱ increasedȱ theȱ efficacyȱ ofȱ theseȱ practices.ȱ However,ȱ these
hermitsȱlivedȱtogether.ȱEvenȱthoughȱtheyȱperformedȱmanyȱspiritualȱactsȱalone,ȱthe
entireȱcommunityȱengagedȱinȱtheȱsameȱpractices.ȱ
DamianȱwroteȱinȱhisȱRuleȱforȱhermitsȱthatȱtheȱvirtueȱthatȱsurpassedȱallȱothersȱin
theȱcommunityȱwasȱmutualȱcharity.ȱForȱthatȱreason,ȱheȱrequiredȱthatȱeachȱmanȱin
theȱhermitageȱshareȱwillinglyȱallȱhisȱworldlyȱpossessions.ȱHeȱfurtherȱwroteȱthatȱif
aȱbrotherȱtookȱillȱhisȱcompanionsȱwouldȱvolunteerȱtoȱnurseȱhim.ȱLastly,ȱwhenȱa
brotherȱ died,ȱ everyoneȱ wouldȱ fastȱ forȱ sevenȱ days,ȱ performȱ sevenȬhundred
prostrations,ȱ disciplineȱ hisȱ bodyȱ sevenȱ timesȱ withȱ oneȬthousandȱ lashes,ȱ chant
thirtyȱpsaltersȱandȱcelebrateȱmassȱforȱtheȱdeceasedȱforȱthirtyȱconsecutiveȱdays.ȱIn
moreȱfrequentȱfasting.ȱDamianȱusesȱtheȱwordȱ“pulmentum,”ȱwhichȱBlumȱetȱal.ȱtranslateȱasȱ“stew.”
Theȱtermȱundoubtedlyȱindicatesȱaȱcookedȱmeal,ȱbutȱweȱhaveȱnoȱfurtherȱdetails.ȱȱ(SeeȱDieȱBriefeȱdes
PetrusȱDamiani,ȱed.ȱReindel,ȱvol.ȱIIȱ[1988],ȱno.ȱ50,ȱ77–130;ȱhereȱ88,ȱn.ȱ27).ȱPresumablyȱtheirȱdiet
mirroredȱthatȱofȱtheirȱbrothersȱinȱtheȱmonastery,ȱwithȱtheȱexceptionȱofȱfarȱmoreȱfrequentȱfasting.
50
“Illiȱ siquidemȱ subȱ divinaeȱ protectionisȱ clipeoȱ delitescunt,ȱ istiȱ veroȱ inȱ campumȱ certaminis
prodeuntesȱvictoriaeȱtitulisȱdecorantur”ȱ(DieȱBriefeȱdesȱPetrusȱDamiani,ȱed.ȱReindel,ȱvol.ȱIVȱ[1993],
no.ȱ152,ȱ5–12;ȱhereȱ12;ȱEnglishȱtranslationȱisȱavailableȱinȱLettersȱofȱPeterȱDamian,ȱed.ȱBlum,ȱvol.ȱVI,
[2005],ȱLetterȱ152,ȱ7–14;ȱhereȱ13).
51
InȱDamian’sȱownȱwords,ȱ“Nonȱitaqueȱadȱmonasterialemȱlaxitudinemȱabȱheremiticaȱvosȱlibeat
districtioneȱdescendereȱetȱrelictaȱlegeȱspiritusȱcarnalisȱillecebraeȱlenociniisȱconsentire”ȱ(DieȱBriefe
desȱ Petrusȱ Damiani,ȱ ed.ȱ Reindel,ȱ vol.ȱ Iȱ [1983],ȱ no.ȱ 18,ȱ 168–79;ȱ hereȱ 177;ȱ Englishȱ translationȱ is
availableȱinȱLettersȱofȱPeterȱDamian,ȱed.ȱBlum,ȱvol.ȱIȱ[1989],ȱLetterȱ18,ȱ159–70;ȱhereȱ168).
addition,ȱallȱpriestsȱwouldȱpersonallyȱcelebrateȱsevenȱmasses.52ȱDamianȱoriented
theȱsiteȱofȱGamognaȱtowardȱpersonalȱpietyȱbutȱmandatedȱprovisionsȱrootedȱin
fraternalȱcooperationȱtoȱbalanceȱtheȱsystemȱofȱdevotion.
Damian’sȱ designȱ forȱ Gamognaȱ wasȱ asȱ pragmaticȱ asȱ itȱ wasȱ spiritual,ȱ andȱ the
spiritualȱaspectȱofȱhisȱplanȱfocusedȱmoreȱonȱlivingȱinȱaȱcommunityȱthanȱonȱliving
inȱtheȱwilderness.ȱTheȱlocationȱinȱsilvisȱwasȱnonethelessȱfundamentalȱtoȱDamian’s
visionȱforȱtwoȱreasons.ȱOnȱanȱisolatedȱhilltop,ȱtheȱelementsȱmadeȱlifeȱallȱtheȱmore
physicallyȱdemanding.ȱItȱalsoȱshieldedȱtheȱhermitsȱfromȱpryingȱeyesȱthatȱwould
encourageȱ vanities,ȱ toȱ whichȱ Teuzoȱ wouldȱ haveȱ beenȱ subjectedȱ inȱ aȱ cityȱ like
Florence.ȱ Inȱ contrastȱ theȱ monksȱ ofȱ Aceretaȱ createdȱ aȱ spiritualȱ oasisȱ inȱ the
wilderness,ȱaȱcloisteredȱislandȱorȱvivarium.ȱInȱbothȱcasesȱone’sȱinteractionȱwith,ȱand
understandingȱof,ȱtheȱphysicalȱcharacteristicsȱofȱtheȱlandscapeȱwereȱasȱimportant
asȱtheȱlandscapeȱitself.ȱArguably,ȱatȱleastȱinȱthisȱsense,ȱGamognaȱandȱAceretaȱwere
notȱunlikeȱCîteaux.ȱAnyȱotherȱconnectionȱbetweenȱtheseȱcommunitiesȱwouldȱbe
aȱteleologicalȱfallacy;ȱtheȱCistercianȱorderȱappearedȱlaterȱandȱroseȱinȱresponseȱto
differentȱcircumstances.ȱButȱitȱwouldȱbeȱanȱinvaluableȱavenueȱforȱfutureȱresearch
toȱ considerȱ howȱ laterȱ reformingȱ congregations,ȱ likeȱ theȱ Cisterciansȱ orȱ the
Carthusians,ȱreinventedȱtheȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱreligiousȱlifeȱandȱtheȱ“wilderȬ
ness”ȱasȱDamianȱhadȱdoneȱinȱtheȱItalianȱApennines.
Inȱlightȱofȱallȱtheseȱobservations,ȱIȱwouldȱlikeȱtoȱconsiderȱbrieflyȱwhyȱruralȱItaly
isȱsoȱneglectedȱinȱthisȱperiod.ȱHistoriographyȱofȱtheȱlaterȱMiddleȱAgesȱdiscusses
theȱcountrysideȱprimarilyȱasȱaȱpassiveȱplayerȱinȱtheȱgrowthȱofȱcities,ȱthereforeȱthe
contadoȱdoesȱnotȱappearȱinȱtheȱnarrativeȱuntilȱrelativelyȱlate.ȱButȱtheȱrelationship
betweenȱcityȱandȱcountrysideȱwasȱaȱdynamicȱone,ȱnotȱlimitedȱtoȱproductionȱand
consumption.ȱIȱwouldȱsuggestȱthatȱwhileȱtheȱcityȱcreatedȱaȱdistinctȱurbanȱculture,
whichȱincludedȱeconomic,ȱsocial,ȱandȱreligiousȱlife,ȱalongsideȱthisȱdevelopment
wasȱtheȱarticulationȱofȱaȱnewȱspiritualityȱinȱaȱruralȱsettingȱthatȱhelpedȱdealȱwith
ageȬoldȱChristianȱconcernsȱinȱaȱnewȱcontext.
52
Dieȱ Briefeȱ desȱ Petrusȱ Damiani,ȱ ed.ȱ Reindel,ȱ vol.ȱ IIȱ (1988),ȱ no.ȱ 50,ȱ 77–130;ȱ hereȱ 98–99;ȱ English
translationȱavailableȱinȱLettersȱofȱPeterȱDamian,ȱed.ȱBlum,ȱvol.ȱIIȱ(1990),ȱ289–334;ȱhereȱ304.ȱDamian’s
earlierȱruleȱomitsȱonlyȱtheȱadditionalȱmassesȱperformedȱbyȱpriestsȱ(DieȱBriefeȱdesȱPetrusȱDamiani,
ed.ȱReindel,ȱvol.ȱIȱ[1983],ȱNR.ȱ18,ȱ168–79;ȱhereȱ175;ȱEnglishȱtranslationȱinȱLettersȱofȱPeterȱDamian,
ed.ȱBlum,ȱvol.ȱIȱ[1989],ȱLetterȱ18,ȱ159–70;ȱhereȱ166).
Chapterȱ2
SherriȱOlsonȱ
(UniversityȱofȱConnecticut,ȱStorrs)
Women’sȱPlaceȱandȱWomen’sȱSpaceȱinȱ
theȱMedievalȱVillage
ȱInȱaȱ1987ȱessayȱSusanȱMosherȱStuardȱobservedȱthatȱ“acquaintanceȱwithȱtheȱsource
materialȱfromȱtheȱEuropeanȱcenturiesȱbeforeȱ1500ȱsuggestsȱthatȱwomenȱmayȱhave
hadȱ aȱ prominenceȱ thenȱ whichȱ theyȱ haveȱ sinceȱ lost.”1ȱ Thisȱ deceptivelyȱ simple
statementȱmarksȱoutȱanȱambitiousȱandȱasȱyetȱunrealizedȱinterpretiveȱprogram,
sinceȱ historiansȱ whoȱ haveȱ studiedȱ villageȱ womenȱ haveȱ tendedȱ toȱ emphasize
womenȇsȱ“place”ȱoverȱwomen’sȱ“space,”ȱthatȱis,ȱtoȱargueȱthatȱwomen’sȱagency
mustȱ beȱ consideredȱ withinȱ theȱ frameworkȱ ofȱ itsȱ circumscriptionȱ byȱ men.ȱ In
concreteȱ terms,ȱ itȱ isȱ arguedȱ thatȱ thereȱ wereȱ genderedȱ spheresȱ inȱ village
topography,ȱi.e.,ȱthatȱ“[i]nȱpeasantȱsocietyȱtheȱwoman’sȱsphereȱandȱplaceȱwereȱthe
house,ȱclose,ȱandȱvillage;ȱtheȱman’sȱwereȱtheȱfields,ȱroads,ȱandȱforests.”2ȱNotȱonly
wasȱthereȱaȱ“femaleȱhouse”ȱandȱaȱ“maleȱoutside”ȱbut,ȱfurther,ȱ“whenȱwomenȱwent
outsideȱtheȱhouseȱtheyȱdidȱsoȱinȱtheȱcompanyȱofȱotherȱwomen.”3ȱ
Theseȱapproachesȱareȱimportantȱtoȱourȱunderstandingȱofȱwomenȱandȱruralȱspace
inȱ theȱ Middleȱ Ages,ȱ butȱ inȱ thisȱ essayȱ weȱ pursueȱ aȱ differentȱ path,ȱ following
Stuard’sȱlead,ȱandȱemployingȱaȱculturalȱhistoryȱapproachȱtoȱstudyȱtheȱformation
1
Womenȱ inȱ Medievalȱ Historyȱ andȱ Historiography,ȱ ed.ȱ Susanȱ Mosherȱ Stuard.ȱ Middleȱ Agesȱ Series
(Philadelphia:ȱUniversityȱofȱPennsylvaniaȱPress,ȱ1987),ȱvii.
2
WomenȱandȱWorkȱinȱPreindustrialȱEurope,ȱed.ȱBarbaraȱHanawaltȱ(Bloomington:ȱIndianaȱUniversity
Press,ȱ1986),ȱ1.
3
BarbaraȱHanawalt,ȱ‘OfȱGoodȱandȱIllȱRepute:’ȱGenderȱandȱSocialȱControlȱinȱMedievalȱEnglandȱ(New
York:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1998),ȱ73;ȱandȱseeȱChapterȱ5,ȱ“AtȱtheȱMarginsȱofȱWomen’sȱSpace
inȱMedievalȱEurope,”ȱ70–87,ȱforȱaȱfullerȱdiscussion.ȱ
210 SherriȱOlsonȱ
ofȱneighborhoodsȱinȱanȱEnglishȱvillageȱatȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱthirteenthȱandȱbeginning
ofȱtheȱfourteenthȱcenturies.ȱ
Toȱexploreȱtheseȱquestionsȱweȱturnȱtoȱtheȱpeopleȱandȱtheȱrecordsȱofȱtheȱvillage
ofȱEllingtonȱ(modernȱCambridgeshire),ȱwhichȱbelongedȱtoȱtheȱestatesȱofȱRamsey
Abbeyȱfromȱtheȱtimeȱofȱtheȱmonastery’sȱfoundationȱinȱ970ȱuntilȱitsȱsurrenderȱtoȱthe
Crownȱ onȱ Novemberȱ 22,ȱ 1539.ȱ Aȱ richȱ bodyȱ ofȱ materialȱ existsȱ forȱ ourȱ study,
especiallyȱ theȱ incomparableȱ estateȱ administrativeȱ recordsȱ thatȱ surviveȱ forȱ a
numberȱofȱEnglishȱlordships:ȱcourtȱrolls,ȱaccountȱrolls,ȱlandedȱsurveys,ȱcustumals,
allȱmoreȱorȱlessȱbasedȱuponȱtheȱknowledgeȱandȱtestimonyȱofȱlocalsȱ(justȱasȱthe
greatȱroyalȱinquestsȱofȱDomesdayȱBookȱandȱtheȱHundredȱRolls).ȱCourtȱrollsȱsurvive
forȱ hundredsȱ ofȱ Englishȱ villages,ȱ beginningȱ inȱ theȱ lateȱ thirteenthȱ centuryȱ and
continuingȱforȱcenturiesȱthereafter.4ȱTheseȱrecordsȱareȱanȱonȬtheȬspotȱtranscriptȱof
theȱbusinessȱofȱlocalȱcourts,ȱsometimesȱdescribedȱasȱaȱcrossȱbetweenȱaȱsmallȬtown
newspaperȱandȱaȱrecordȱofȱtheȱproceedingsȱofȱaȱpoliceȱcourt.ȱTheȱ(byȱnoȱmeans
complete)ȱseriesȱforȱEllingtonȱprovidesȱtheȱfullȱnamesȱofȱaboutȱ940ȱmen,ȱwomen,
andȱchildrenȱ(1280–1460),ȱaȱsenseȱofȱtheirȱlifeȱspan,ȱandȱsomeȱknowledgeȱofȱthe
activitiesȱ andȱ relationshipsȱ ofȱ manyȱ ofȱ them.ȱ Theseȱ recordsȱ areȱ notȱ verbatim
transcripts,ȱbutȱratherȱbriefȱentriesȱthatȱsummarizeȱtheȱcasesȱthatȱcomeȱbeforeȱthe
courtȱandȱitsȱjurorsȱonȱtheȱdayȱtheȱcourtȱmeets:ȱcasesȱsuchȱasȱlandȱexchanges,ȱdebt
andȱcreditȱarrangements,ȱminorȱactsȱofȱaggression,ȱetc.ȱThoughȱmostȱadultsȱwould
haveȱattendedȱtheȱcourt,ȱmen’sȱappearancesȱoutnumberȱthoseȱofȱwomenȱbyȱabout
5:1.ȱ5
Iȱwantȱtoȱargueȱthatȱtheȱactivityȱandȱsocialȱrelationshipsȱofȱwomenȱquaȱwomen
wereȱ aȱ significantȱ factorȱ inȱ theȱ onȬgoingȱ divisionsȱ inȱ localȱ spaceȱ that
accommodatedȱandȱdirectedȱchange,ȱi.e.,ȱtheȱ“productionȱofȱspace,”6ȱparticularly
withȱ respectȱ toȱ theȱ neighborhood.ȱ Weȱ willȱ concludeȱ ourȱ discussionȱ byȱ asking
whetherȱthisȱculturalȱroleȱforȱwomenȱamountsȱtoȱ“agency,”ȱorȱwhetherȱinȱfactȱit
representsȱanotherȱaspectȱofȱtheȱphenomenon,ȱnotedȱabove,ȱofȱtheȱmaleȱpolicing
ofȱ femaleȱ movement.ȱ Theȱ studyȱ ofȱ neighborhoodsȱ isȱ wellȬdevelopedȱ inȱ some
historiographiesȱ (e.g.,ȱ twentiethȬcenturyȱ U.S.)ȱ andȱ isȱ beginningȱ inȱ othersȱ (e.g.,
4
TheȱmanorȱofȱWakefieldȱinȱYorkshireȱhasȱcourtȱrollsȱfromȱ1274–1926.ȱItȱshouldȱbeȱnotedȱthatȱwhile
courtȱrollsȱdifferȱfromȱvillageȱtoȱvillage–becauseȱvillagesȱdifferȱfromȱeachȱother–theȱsortȱofȱinquiry
undertakenȱhereȱcouldȱbeȱpursuedȱforȱotherȱcommunities.ȱEllingtonȱandȱanotherȱRamseyȱAbbey
village,ȱUpwood,ȱhaveȱbeenȱstudiedȱinȱOlson,ȱAȱChronicleȱofȱAllȱThatȱHappens:ȱVoicesȱfromȱtheȱVillage
Courtȱ inȱ Medievalȱ England.ȱ Studiesȱ andȱ Texts.ȱ 124ȱ (Toronto:ȱ Pontificalȱ Instituteȱ ofȱ Mediaeval
Studies,ȱ1996),ȱwithȱaȱfocusȱonȱtheȱissueȱofȱselfȬgovernment.ȱForȱaȱfullȱbibliographyȱofȱprimary
sourceȱmaterialsȱforȱEllington,ȱseeȱ235–38.ȱ
5
SeeȱOlson,ȱAȱChronicleȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱChapterȱOneȱforȱaȱfullerȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱpeopleȱandȱsources.
Ourȱ databaseȱ includesȱ aboutȱ 4,000ȱ courtȱ rollȱ entriesȱ forȱ menȱ andȱ aboutȱ 670ȱ forȱ womenȱ in
Ellington.
6
Likeȱotherȱhistoriansȱinterestedȱinȱspace,ȱIȱdrawȱonȱHenriȱLefebvre,ȱTheȱProductionȱofȱSpace,ȱtrans.
DonaldȱNicholsonȬSmithȱ(1974;ȱOxford,ȱUK,ȱandȱCambridge,ȱMA:ȱBlackwell,ȱ1991).ȱ
Women’sȱPlaceȱandȱWomen’sȱSpaceȱinȱtheȱMedievalȱVillage 211
modernȱAfrica).7ȱAlthoughȱitȱisȱasȱyetȱlittleȱdevelopedȱforȱmedievalȱruralȱhistory,
itȱhasȱaȱvitalȱcontributionȱtoȱmakeȱtoȱtheȱstudyȱofȱspace,ȱgender,ȱandȱcultureȱin
theseȱcommunities,ȱwhereȱmostȱpeopleȱlivedȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱlongȱafter.8ȱ
Briefȱdiscussionsȱofȱtheȱmedievalȱruralȱneighborhoodȱcanȱbeȱfoundȱinȱsurveysȱof
peasantȱsocialȱandȱculturalȱhistory,9ȱwhereȱtheȱfocusȱisȱoftenȱonȱvillageȱassociations
andȱcollectiveȱaction.ȱInterpersonalȱandȱgroupȱrelationsȱareȱtypicallyȱnotȱanalyzed;
whenȱtheyȱare,ȱtheȱdiscussionȱisȱfrequentlyȱframedȱinȱtermsȱofȱclassȱconflict,ȱand
villagerȱ “solidarity”ȱ (i.e.,ȱ interpersonalȱ relationships)ȱ isȱ seenȱ asȱ theȱ resultȱ of
seigneurialȱ oppression.ȱ Thus,ȱ Susanȱ Reynoldsȱ asksȱ whetherȱ theȱ villageȱ was
“unitedȱprimarilyȱbyȱtheȱduesȱowedȱtoȱtheȱlordȱorȱlordsȱandȱconsequentȱcommon
interestsȱagainstȱthem,ȱandȱhowȱfarȱdidȱtheȱfreeȱandȱunfree,ȱtheȱricherȱandȱthe
poorerȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱformȱoneȱcommunity?”10ȱInȱtheȱmakingȱofȱtheȱvillageȱandȱitsȱhistory,
thisȱtraditionalȱapproachȱemphasizesȱdivisiveȱandȱextraneousȱforcesȱaboveȱthe
communalȱ andȱ internalȱ forcesȱ thatȱ mayȱ haveȱ animatedȱ theȱ membersȱ ofȱ that
community.ȱ
Someȱattentionȱhasȱalsoȱbeenȱgivenȱtoȱphysicalȱreality,ȱthatȱis,ȱtoȱspace,ȱinȱthe
village,ȱtypicallyȱfocusingȱonȱdemographicȱhistory:ȱaccordingȱtoȱWernerȱRösener,
aȱ“remarkableȱcompactness”ȱwouldȱhaveȱcharacterizedȱlaterȱmedievalȱvillages,
dueȱtoȱ“growingȱsettlementȱdensity,”ȱandȱresidentsȱwouldȱhaveȱ“hadȱtoȱmove
closerȱtogether—noȱmatterȱwhetherȱtheyȱwereȱindividualsȱorȱentireȱfamilies.”ȱSuch
changesȱ inȱ turnȱ inducedȱ aȱ “greaterȱ varietyȱ ofȱ socialȱ andȱ legalȱ relations,
associationsȱ andȱ tensions”;ȱ forȱ example,ȱ heȱ arguesȱ thatȱ growingȱ population
densityȱ wasȱ probablyȱ relatedȱ toȱ anȱ increasedȱ consciousnessȱ ofȱ andȱ senseȱ of
responsibilityȱforȱtheȱvillageȱpoorȱ(andȱifȱtrue,ȱaȱgoodȱexampleȱofȱtheȱforcesȱof
7
See,ȱforȱexampleȱCrisisȱ&ȱCreativity:ȱExploringȱtheȱWealthȱofȱtheȱAfricanȱNeighbourhood,ȱ ed.ȱ Piet
KoningsȱandȱDickȱFoeken.ȱAfricanȱDynamics,ȱ5ȱ(LeidenȱandȱBoston:ȱBrill,ȱ2006).
8
Aȱdiscussionȱofȱwomenȱandȱneighborhoodsȱinȱtwoȱvillagesȱwasȱbegunȱinȱmyȱbook,ȱAȱMuteȱGospel:
theȱ Peopleȱ andȱ Cultureȱ ofȱ theȱ Medievalȱ Englishȱ Commonȱ Fields.ȱ Studiesȱ andȱ Texts.ȱ 162ȱ (Toronto:
Pontificalȱ Instituteȱ ofȱ Mediaevalȱ Studies,ȱ 2009),ȱ Chapterȱ Two,ȱ “Peasantȱ Namesȱ andȱ Peasant
Women,”ȱesp.ȱ110–19.
9
Forȱexample,ȱSusanȱReynolds,ȱKingdomsȱandȱCommunitiesȱinȱWesternȱEurope,ȱ900–1300.ȱ2ndȱed.
(1984;ȱ Oxfordȱ Universityȱ Press,ȱ 1997);ȱ Wernerȱ Rösener,ȱ Peasantsȱ inȱ theȱ Middleȱ Ages,ȱ trans.
AlexanderȱStützerȱ(1990;ȱUrbana:ȱUniversityȱofȱIllinoisȱPress,ȱ1992).ȱBriefȱattentionȱisȱpaid,ȱnotȱto
theȱvillageȱneighborhoodȱbutȱtoȱtheȱmedievalȱvillageȱasȱaȱ“communityȱofȱneighborhoods”ȱinȱa
discussionȱofȱtheȱhistoryȱofȱ“ruralȱsolidarities”ȱinȱMoniqueȱBourinȱandȱRobertȱDurand,ȱ“Strangers
andȱNeighbors,”ȱDebatingȱtheȱMiddleȱAges:ȱIssuesȱandȱReadings,ȱed.ȱLesterȱK.ȱLittleȱandȱBarbaraȱH.
Rosenweinȱ(Malden,ȱMA,ȱandȱOxford:ȱȱBlackwell,ȱ1998),ȱ180–90.ȱ
10
Reynolds,ȱKingdomsȱandȱCommunitiesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ9),ȱ102–03;ȱseeȱalsoȱ129–30,ȱwhereȱsheȱstatesȱthat
oneȱresultȱofȱ“seigniorialȱpressureȱuponȱlocalȱcommunities…wasȱtoȱincreaseȱconflictsȱbetween
peasantsȱandȱlordsȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱTheȱsharpeningȱofȱconflictȱwithȱaȱsingleȱlordȱcouldȱbeȱbothȱaȱcauseȱand
anȱeffectȱofȱlocalȱunity,ȱthoughȱequallyȱtheȱdivisionȱofȱlordshipȱmayȱsometimesȱhaveȱstimulated
aȱvillageȱtoȱdevelopȱitsȱownȱinstitutions.”
212 SherriȱOlsonȱ
communityȱratherȱthanȱdivision).11ȱInȱaddition,ȱtheȱcrowdingȱofȱpeopleȱoverȱtime
intoȱhousesȱbuiltȱtoȱholdȱfewerȱinhabitantsȱwouldȱhaveȱledȱtoȱsomeȱdiversification
inȱ buildingsȱ andȱ aȱ reorganizationȱ ofȱ theȱ structureȱ ofȱ theȱ villageȱ itself.12ȱ Susan
Reynoldsȱalsoȱdrawsȱattentionȱtoȱtheȱdynamicsȱofȱgrowingȱpopulationȱdensity,
notingȱthatȱvillagersȱ“livedȱinȱbiggerȱandȱmoreȱdenselyȱpopulatedȱvillagesȱinȱ1300
thanȱ inȱ 900,”ȱ andȱ thatȱ “smallȱ neighbourhoodȱ communities”ȱ whichȱ were
undoubtedlyȱ activeȱ andȱ variedȱ inȱ theirȱ activitiesȱ inȱ theȱ tenthȱ andȱ eleventh
centuriesȱwereȱsurelyȱmoreȱactiveȱandȱvariedȱinȱtheirȱactivitiesȱinȱtheȱtwelfthȱand
thirteenthȱcenturies.13ȱ
Whileȱpreciseȱdefinitionȱofȱexactlyȱwhatȱaȱphysicalȱneighborhoodȱmightȱbeȱis
lackingȱinȱmanyȱofȱtheseȱstudies,ȱthereȱclearlyȱisȱaȱsenseȱofȱinternalȱchange,ȱthe
importanceȱofȱlocalȱdevelopments,ȱandȱanȱonȬgoingȱdivisionȱofȱspaceȱwithinȱthe
village.ȱRobertȱFossierȱpointsȱtoȱdifferentȱ“quarters”ȱorȱ“islands”ȱinȱtheȱvillage,
suchȱasȱtheȱvariousȱcentersȱofȱproductionȱandȱcommunalȱmeetingȬplaces,ȱlikeȱthe
villageȱoven,ȱtheȱsquareȱorȱgreen,ȱtheȱrowsȱofȱhousesȱandȱtheirȱyards,ȱtheȱwater
supplyȱ(whereȱ“itȱwasȱtheȱwomenȱwhoȱreignedȱsupreme”)ȱforȱdrinkingȱwaterȱand
washing,ȱ collectiveȱ storeȬpits,ȱ theȱ workshopsȱ ofȱ theȱ artisanȱ (preȬeminentlyȱ the
blacksmith),ȱtheȱmillȱ(whereȱwomenȱstandingȱinȱlineȱsocializedȱandȱexchanged
news),ȱtheȱcemeteryȱorȱatrium,ȱtheȱ“fieldȱofȱpeace”ȱandȱtheȱenclosedȱspaceȱaround
theȱchurch.14ȱ
FourȱdecadesȱofȱarcheologicalȱexcavationȱatȱWharramȱPercyȱinȱYorkshireȱ(in
whichȱlessȱthanȱ6%ȱofȱtheȱtotalȱareaȱofȱtheȱvillageȱwasȱexcavated)ȱunderscoreȱthe
complexityȱofȱruralȱbuilding,ȱinȱtheȱvillageȱatȱlargeȱasȱwellȱasȱonȱtheȱpeasantȱtoft
andȱcroft:ȱMauriceȱBeresfordȱandȱJohnȱHurstȱpointȱoutȱthatȱcastlesȱandȱmonasteries
wereȱmoreȱlikelyȱtoȱhaveȱclearlyȱdefinedȱareasȱofȱactivityȱoverȱlongerȱperiodsȱthan
aȱpeasantȱdomesticȱsiteȱwhereȱaȱbuildingȱmadeȱforȱoneȱpurposeȱmightȱbeȱrebuilt
andȱusedȱlaterȱforȱanother.15ȱInȱshort,ȱpeasantȱholdingsȱandȱtheȱlargerȱstructureȱof
theȱvillageȱbothȱunderwentȱconstantȱchange:ȱfromȱitsȱfirstȱclearing,ȱnoȱmedieval
villageȱwasȱaȱ“fixedȱsettlement.”ȱInȱgeneral,ȱscholarshipȱtoȱdateȱisȱinformedȱbyȱa
11
Rösener,ȱPeasantsȱ(seeȱnoteȱ9),ȱ164.
12
JeanȱChapelotȱandȱRobertȱFossier,ȱTheȱVillageȱandȱHouseȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱtrans.ȱHenryȱCleere
(1980;ȱBerkeley:ȱUniversityȱofȱCaliforniaȱPress,ȱ1985),ȱ138.
13
Reynolds,ȱKingdomsȱandȱCommunitiesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ9),ȱ153.
14
RobertȱFossier,ȱPeasantȱLifeȱinȱtheȱMedievalȱWest,ȱtrans.ȱJulietȱValeȱ(1984;ȱOxford:ȱBasilȱBlackwell,
1988),ȱ 64–66.ȱ Inȱ aȱ studyȱ ofȱ slaveȱ neighborhoodsȱ inȱ theȱ Americanȱ South,ȱ Anthonyȱ E.ȱ Kaye
enumeratesȱtheȱelementsȱinȱtheȱ“builtȱenvironment,”ȱtheȱ“mostȱconsistentȱarrangementȱinȱthe
neighborhood.ȱSlaveȱcabinsȱwereȱarrayedȱinȱneatȱrowsȱalongȱaȱdirtȱstreet.ȱTheȱgreatȱhousesȱwere
surroundedȱbyȱtheirȱattendantȱoutbuildings—kitchen,ȱsmokehouse,ȱstables,ȱbarns,ȱchickenȱcoops,
icehouses,ȱandȱotherȱstorehouses.”ȱSeeȱKaye,ȱJoiningȱPlaces:ȱSlavesȱNeighborhoodsȱinȱtheȱOldȱSouth
(ChapelȱHill:ȱUniversityȱofȱNorthȱCarolinaȱPress,ȱ2007),ȱ34.
15
MauriceȱBeresfordȱandȱJohnȱHurst,ȱWharramȱPercy:ȱDesertedȱMedievalȱVillageȱ(NewȱHaven,ȱCT:ȱYale
UniversityȱPress,ȱ1991),ȱ35.
senseȱofȱaȱvaried,ȱchanging,ȱandȱorganicallyȱfragmentedȱ“villagescape”16ȱwhereȱa
multitudeȱofȱforcesȱandȱactorsȱwereȱatȱworkȱinȱshaping,ȱdefining,ȱandȱinhabiting
localȱspace.ȱAttentionȱtoȱtheȱcontinuingȱstoryȱofȱtheȱunfoldingȱofȱtheȱvillagescape
inȱ theȱ Highȱ Middleȱ Agesȱ seemsȱ allȱ theȱ moreȱ justifiedȱ inȱ viewȱ ofȱ theȱ growing
consensusȱamongȱlandscapeȱhistoriansȱthatȱtheȱcommonȱfieldȱvillageȱitselfȱwasȱa
relativelyȱlateȱarrivalȱinȱtheȱEnglishȱcountryside,ȱaȱproductȱofȱtheȱlateȱfirst/early
secondȱmillennia.17ȱ
However,ȱthereȱisȱstillȱmuchȱtoȱbeȱdoneȱinȱtermsȱofȱaȱparticularȱfocusȱonȱthe
villageȱ neighborhood,ȱ bothȱ asȱ placeȱ andȱ process;ȱ andȱ where,ȱ ifȱ anywhereȱ in
particular,ȱdidȱwomenȱfitȱinȱthisȱimmenseȱandȱonȬgoingȱhistoricalȱenterprise?ȱOur
modelȱwillȱplaceȱemphasisȱnotȱonȱseigneurialȱpressureȱbutȱonȱpeasantȱagency,
specificallyȱonȱwomen’sȱroleȱinȱtheȱmeaningfulȱpartitioningsȱandȱunderstanding
ofȱspaceȱthatȱwereȱalwaysȱmoreȱorȱlessȱunderwayȱinȱtheȱvillage.ȱ
ItȱwouldȱbeȱdifficultȱtoȱoverȬestimateȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱhowȱpeopleȱunderstand
andȱthusȱoccupyȱtheȱplacesȱthatȱtheyȱfrequent,ȱtheȱplacesȱwhereȱtheyȱworkȱand
live,ȱtheȱplacesȱuponȱwhichȱtheyȱdepend.ȱItȱcouldȱbeȱarguedȱthatȱtheȱdegreeȱto
whichȱindividualsȱexperienceȱaȱsenseȱofȱbelongingȱinȱtheȱspacesȱtheyȱinhabitȱhas
anȱimpactȱonȱtheirȱsenseȱofȱlibertyȱandȱright,ȱtheirȱexistentialȱsecurityȱandȱthus
theirȱabilityȱtoȱact.ȱTheȱproductionȱofȱsocialȱspaceȱis,ȱinȱfact,ȱcentralȱtoȱtheȱhistory
ofȱaȱplace,ȱasȱHenriȱLefebvreȱhasȱmadeȱclear:
(Social)ȱspaceȱisȱnotȱaȱthingȱamongȱotherȱthings,ȱnorȱaȱproductȱamongȱotherȱproducts:
rather,ȱitȱsubsumesȱthingsȱproduced,ȱandȱencompassesȱtheirȱinterrelationshipsȱinȱtheir
coexistenceȱandȱsimultaneityȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ[it]ȱisȱtheȱoutcomeȱofȱaȱsequenceȱandȱsetȱofȱoperations,
andȱthusȱcannotȱbeȱreducedȱtoȱtheȱrankȱofȱaȱsimpleȱobject.ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱthereȱis
nothingȱimagined,ȱunrealȱorȱ‘ideal’ȱaboutȱitȱasȱcompared,ȱforȱexample,ȱwithȱscience,
representations,ȱideasȱorȱdreams.ȱItselfȱtheȱoutcomeȱofȱpastȱactions,ȱsocialȱspaceȱisȱwhat
permitsȱfreshȱactionsȱtoȱoccur,ȱwhileȱsuggestingȱothersȱandȱprohibitingȱyetȱothersȱ.ȱ.
.ȱ[Itȱis]ȱalwaysȱandȱsimultaneously,ȱbothȱaȱfieldȱofȱactionȱ(offeringȱitsȱextensionȱtoȱthe
deploymentȱofȱprojectsȱandȱpracticalȱintentions)ȱandȱaȱbasisȱofȱactionȱ(aȱsetȱofȱplaces
whenceȱenergiesȱderiveȱandȱwhitherȱenergiesȱareȱdirected).ȱItȱisȱatȱonceȱactualȱand
potential,ȱquantitativeȱandȱqualitative.18ȱ
16
SeeȱRichardȱJonesȱandȱMarkȱPage,ȱMedievalȱVillagesȱinȱanȱEnglishȱLandscape:ȱBeginningsȱandȱEnds
(Macclesfield,ȱCheshire:ȱWindgatherȱPress,ȱ2006),ȱ155.ȱJonesȱandȱPageȱuseȱtheȱtermȱ“villagescape”
toȱmeanȱtheȱ“landscapeȱofȱtheȱvill,ȱmanorȱandȱparish,”ȱallȱtheȱelementsȱwithinȱtheȱvillageȱ“linking
settlementsȱtoȱtheȱarableȱfields,ȱpastures,ȱmeadowsȱandȱwoodlandsȱthatȱlayȱbetweenȱthem,ȱand
toȱtheȱroadsȱandȱtracksȱwhichȱjoinedȱthemȱtogether.”
17
Forȱ aȱ recentȱ overviewȱ ofȱ thisȱ debate,ȱ seeȱ Stephenȱ Rippon,ȱ Beyondȱ theȱ Medievalȱ Village:ȱ The
DiversificationȱofȱLandscapeȱCharacterȱinȱSouthernȱBritainȱ(Oxford:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2008),
introduction.ȱ
18
Lefebvre,ȱTheȱProductionȱofȱSpaceȱ(seeȱnoteȱ6),ȱ73,ȱ191.
214 SherriȱOlsonȱ
Lefebvre’sȱnotionsȱaboutȱsocialȱspaceȱilluminateȱAnthonyȱE.ȱKaye’sȱanalysisȱofȱthe
socialȱdynamics,ȱtheȱ“socialȱrelationshipsȱembedded”19ȱinȱspaceȱinȱaȱveryȱdifferent
typeȱofȱagrarianȱcommunity,ȱoneȱthatȱprovidesȱaȱrichȱhistoricalȱanalogueȱforȱthe
medievalȱhistorianȱofȱruralȱspace:ȱtheȱslaveȱneighborhoodsȱofȱtheȱplantationsȱinȱthe
antebellumȱSouth.ȱAsȱKayeȱputsȱit,ȱaȱneighborhoodȱisȱaȱ“geographyȱofȱkinship,
work,ȱandȱsociability”ȱthatȱisȱconstantlyȱbeingȱmadeȱandȱremade,ȱforȱ“making
placesȱ isȱ alwaysȱ aȱ process.”ȱ Neighborhoodsȱ areȱ aȱ productȱ ofȱ theȱ continuous
processesȱofȱdailyȱlife—theyȱareȱstatesȱofȱmindȱasȱwellȱasȱphysicalȱplaces.ȱSoȱa
neighborhoodȱisȱanȱunderstanding,ȱtoo,ȱwhereȱtheȱ“naturalȱgeographyȱlen[ds]
permanenceȱtoȱtheȱsocialȱmilieuȱneighborsȱinscribeȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱonȱit.”ȱThusȱneighborhoods
deriveȱfromȱandȱcontributeȱtoȱtheȱformationȱofȱpersonalȱidentityȱofȱthoseȱwhoȱlive
there;ȱindeed,ȱneighborhoodȱformationȱhasȱbeenȱdescribedȱasȱaȱ“crucialȱdimension
ofȱcollectiveȱidentityȱformation.”20ȱ
Insteadȱ ofȱ notionsȱ ofȱ seigneurialȱ “pressure,”ȱ thisȱ viewȱ ofȱ neighborhood
formationȱisȱanchoredȱinȱtheȱvillageȱandȱhelpsȱusȱunderstandȱtheȱinteractionsȱthat
occurredȱthere,ȱtheȱlifeȱthatȱwasȱlivedȱthere:ȱagain,ȱtakingȱaȱcueȱfromȱAnthony
Kaye,ȱ“[w]hatȱgaveȱtheȱlandscapeȱorderȱforȱslavesȱwasȱtheirȱownȱsenseȱofȱplace,”
andȱinȱtheirȱconstantȱstruggleȱtheyȱ“tookȱstrength”ȱfromȱtheirȱ“senseȱofȱplace.”21
InȱtheȱsmallȬscale,ȱrelativelyȱstable,ȱfaceȬtoȬfaceȱsocietyȱofȱtheȱmedievalȱvillage,ȱthe
“productionȱofȱspace”ȱmodelȱcanȱdeeplyȱenrichȱourȱreadingȱofȱtheȱevidence.ȱThe
phenomenonȱofȱ“takingȱstrength”ȱfromȱone’sȱ“senseȱofȱplace”ȱisȱcrucialȱtoȱthe
discussionȱ here.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ reading,ȱ too,ȱ weȱ mustȱ understandȱ theȱ emergenceȱ of
neighborhoodsȱinȱaȱvillageȱ(theȱproductionȱofȱspace)ȱasȱaȱprocessȱthatȱembraces
everyoneȱtoȱsomeȱdegree:ȱandȱaȱwomanȱwasȱaȱfarmerȱandȱaȱvillager.ȱ
Thus,ȱtheȱpresentȱpaperȱhopesȱtoȱadvanceȱinquiryȱintoȱvillageȱspaceȱandȱvillage
womenȱalongȱaȱnumberȱofȱfronts.ȱOurȱtaskȱofȱstudyingȱvillageȱspace,ȱalreadyȱa
difficultȱone,ȱisȱfurtherȱcomplicatedȱbyȱthisȱfocusȱonȱwomen’sȱroleȱinȱtheȱcreation
ofȱandȱlifeȱinȱruralȱneighborhoods,ȱsinceȱevenȱthoseȱhistoriographiesȱthatȱhaveȱa
traditionȱ ofȱ neighborhoodȱ studiesȱ haveȱ givenȱ littleȱ attentionȱ toȱ women’s
participationȱ(indeedȱtheȱ“invisibility”ȱofȱwomenȱfarmersȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱis
replicatedȱinȱtheȱ“developed”ȱandȱ“developing”ȱworldȱtoday22).ȱAsȱhasȱbeenȱnoted
forȱmodernȱAfricanȱhistory:
ManyȱstudiesȱinȱAfricanȱcitiesȱhaveȱfocusedȱonȱtheȱformationȱofȱmigrantȱcommunities,
whichȱ areȱ frequentlyȱ connectedȱ withȱ theȱ assertion,ȱ defenceȱ orȱ inventionȱ ofȱ ethnic
identities.ȱBeyondȱtheȱdomainȱofȱmarriageȱstrategies,ȱtheȱroleȱofȱwomenȱinȱshaping
19
Lefebvre,ȱTheȱProductionȱofȱSpaceȱ(seeȱnoteȱ6),ȱ89.
20
KoningsȱandȱFoeken,ȱCrisisȱ&ȱCreativityȱ(seeȱnoteȱ7),ȱ120.ȱ
21
Kaye,ȱJoiningȱPlacesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ14),ȱ50.
22
SeeȱtheȱworkȱofȱeconomistȱMarilynȱWaring,ȱinȱparticularȱCountingȱforȱNothing:ȱWhatȱMenȱValueȱand
WhatȱWomenȱAreȱWorth.ȱ2ndȱed.ȱ(1988:ȱTorontoȱandȱBuffalo:ȱUniversityȱofȱTorontoȱPress,ȱ1999).ȱ
theseȱprocessesȱofȱcollectiveȱidentityȱformationȱinȱcitiesȱhasȱreceivedȱlittleȱattention.
Whileȱ Africanȱ urbanȱ womenȱ tradersȱ andȱ businesswomen,ȱ forȱ instance,ȱ haveȱ been
describedȱ asȱ powerfulȱ economicȱ andȱ politicalȱ actors,ȱ theirȱ socialȱ relationsȱ seemȱ to
centreȱonȱkinȱandȱmarriage.ȱWomenȱinȱurbanȱAfrica,ȱhowever,ȱdoȱnotȱonlyȱinteract
withȱfamilyȱbutȱalsoȱwithȱneighbours,ȱfriends,ȱcustomersȱandȱstrangers,ȱandȱmoveȱand
interactȱinȱspecificȱphysicalȱandȱsocialȱspaces.23
Whatȱwereȱtheȱ“specificȱphysicalȱandȱsocialȱspaces”ȱforȱvillageȱwomen?ȱToȱbegin
with,ȱwomen’sȱmannerȱofȱconstructingȱvillageȱspaceȱandȱassigningȱitȱmeaning
mustȱcertainlyȱhaveȱdifferedȱfromȱthatȱofȱmen.ȱWeȱknow,ȱforȱinstance,ȱthatȱthe
tithingȱgroupsȱintoȱwhichȱboysȱwereȱswornȱatȱtheȱageȱofȱtwelveȱforȱtheȱpurposes
ofȱlocalȱpolicingȱwereȱtypicallyȱbasedȱonȱresidentialȱproximityȱinȱtheȱvillage.ȱMen
andȱboysȱwereȱtheȱprincipalȱactorsȱwhenȱtheȱcommunityȱturnedȱoutȱtoȱ“beatȱthe
bounds,”ȱtheȱritualȱofȱcollectiveȱcircumambulationȱofȱtheȱvillage’sȱboundaries.ȱBut
womenȱ wereȱ notȱ “housebound,”ȱ andȱ theȱ waysȱ inȱ whichȱ theyȱ participatedȱ in
villageȱcultureȱdidȱnotȱalways—orȱevenȱfrequently—deriveȱfromȱconstraint.ȱPart
ofȱtheȱproblemȱliesȱinȱtheȱfactȱthatȱwhileȱhistoriansȱobviouslyȱrealizeȱthatȱhuman
interactionsȱoccurredȱinȱtheȱvillage’sȱ“faceȬtoȬface”ȱsociety,ȱweȱtendȱtoȱignoreȱthem.
Inȱsoȱdoing,ȱweȱdiscountȱtheȱexistenceȱofȱsystemsȱofȱsocialȱcapital,ȱdefinedȱasȱ“the
‘trust,ȱnorms,ȱandȱnetworks’ȱproducedȱbyȱsocialȱorganization,”ȱ“theȱgoodȱwill,
fellowship,ȱsympathyȱandȱsocialȱintercourse”ȱthatȱobtainedȱ“betweenȱ[members]
ofȱaȱsocialȱunit.”24ȱ
Theseȱareȱarenasȱwhereȱwomenȱmayȱhaveȱbeenȱmostȱinfluential,ȱinȱtheȱ“loosely
definedȱnetworksȱofȱreciprocalȱsocialȱcredit”ȱthatȱflourishedȱinȱmedievalȱvillages,
whereȱindividualsȱcreatedȱaȱ“problemȬanchored”ȱhelpingȱnetwork.25ȱAsȱWerner
Rösenerȱnotes,ȱtheȱ“principalȱoccasions”ȱinȱtheȱvillageȱwhenȱpeasantsȱneededȱand
reliedȱ onȱ theȱ helpȱ ofȱ theirȱ neighborsȱ wereȱ births,ȱ weddings,ȱ christeningsȱ and
deaths26;ȱallȱtheseȱareȱeventsȱandȱritualsȱwhereȱwomenȱplayedȱaȱcentralȱrole.ȱSuch
activitiesȱareȱofȱcourseȱnotȱwellȱevidencedȱinȱtheȱ“grassroots”ȱtypeȱofȱevidenceȱthat
hasȱcomeȱdownȱtoȱusȱ(here,ȱcourtȱrolls).ȱInstead,ȱasȱMarjorieȱMcIntoshȱhasȱargued,
ifȱweȱwishȱtoȱstudyȱ“networksȱofȱsocialȱcreditȱamongȱlowerȬstatusȱwomenȱinȱthe
pastȱ weȱ mustȱ lookȱ forȱ indirectȱ signsȱ ofȱ theirȱ existenceȱ inȱ historicalȱ sources”
[emphasesȱmine].27ȱGeorgeȱHomansȱdoesȱnotȱuseȱtheȱtermȱ“socialȱcapital,”ȱbutȱthat
isȱwhatȱheȱisȱreferringȱtoȱwhenȱheȱdiscussesȱtheȱ“sentimentsȱofȱconfidenceȱand
23
KatjaȱWerthmann,ȱ“UrbanȱSpace,ȱGenderȱandȱIdentity:ȱAȱNeighbourhoodȱofȱMuslimȱWomenȱin
Kano,ȱNigeria,”ȱKoningsȱandȱFoeken,ȱCrisisȱ&ȱCreativityȱ(seeȱnoteȱ7),ȱ117–41;ȱhereȱ120.
24
MarjorieȱK.ȱMcIntosh,ȱ“TheȱDiversityȱofȱSocialȱCapitalȱinȱEnglishȱCommunities,ȱ1300–1640ȱ(with
aȱ Glanceȱ atȱ Modernȱ Nigeria),”ȱ Journalȱ ofȱ Interdisciplinaryȱ History,ȱ 29.3ȱ (Winter,ȱ 1999):ȱ 459–90,
quotingȱhereȱfromȱtheȱworkȱofȱRobertȱPutnamȱandȱL.ȱJ.ȱHanifan,ȱ“Diversity,”ȱ459.
25
McIntosh,ȱ“Diversity”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ24),ȱ468.
26
27
McIntosh,ȱ“Diversity”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ24),ȱ469.
216 SherriȱOlsonȱ
goodȱwillȱamongȱneighbors,”ȱ“theȱsentimentsȱmenȱfeltȱasȱfellowȱvillagers.”ȱIndeed,
accordingȱtoȱHomans,ȱvillagers
workedȱtogetherȱsuccessfullyȱinȱcarryingȱonȱtheȱvariousȱaffairsȱofȱtheirȱcommunity,
andȱ peopleȱ workȱ togetherȱ notȱ usuallyȱ becauseȱ theyȱ recognizeȱ thatȱ itȱ isȱ toȱ their
advantageȱ thatȱ thereȱ beȱ suchȱ cooperation,ȱ butȱ becauseȱ theyȱ feelȱ certainȱ active
sentimentsȱ whichȱ makeȱ themȱ ableȱ andȱ willingȱ toȱ cooperateȱ withȱ theirȱ fellowsȱ .ȱ .ȱ .
Villagersȱevenȱhadȱaȱnameȱforȱtheseȱsentiments:ȱtheyȱcalledȱthemȱneighborhoodȱ[vicinitas
inȱtheȱcourtȱroll].28ȱ
Inȱtheȱpresentȱpaperȱourȱlensȱisȱtrainedȱuponȱwomen’sȱparticipationȱinȱtheȱmaking
ofȱspaceȱinȱtheȱmedievalȱcountryside,ȱwhichȱincludesȱtheȱ“islands”ȱinȱtheȱvillage
inȱadditionȱtoȱtheȱhousehold,ȱtheȱusualȱpointȱofȱfocus.ȱOurȱmodelȱinvestsȱwith
meaningȱandȱpowerȱtheȱsocialȱcapitalȱthatȱwomenȱcreatedȱandȱbenefittedȱfromȱin
theirȱ dayȬtoȬdayȱ activitiesȱ inȱ theȱ village,ȱ especiallyȱ inȱ theirȱ ownȱ immediate
environs,ȱ orȱ “neighborhood.”ȱ Weȱ rarelyȱ seeȱ directlyȱ whatȱ theyȱ wereȱ doing,
althoughȱ Englishȱ coroners’ȱ rollsȱ andȱ inquisitionȱ recordsȱ giveȱ usȱ someȱ good
indications:ȱ forȱ example,ȱ inȱ oneȱ studyȱ ofȱ accidentalȱ deathȱ patternsȱ itȱ hasȱ been
shownȱthatȱwomenȱspentȱmoreȱtimeȱaroundȱtheȱhouseȱandȱvillageȱcenter,ȱwith
21.2%ȱofȱtheȱwomenȱcomparedȱwithȱ8.3%ȱofȱtheȱmenȱdyingȱofȱaccidentsȱinȱtheir
ownȱhomesȱorȱyards;ȱwomenȱalsoȱspentȱmoreȱtimeȱwithȱtheirȱneighbors:ȱ5.8%ȱof
womenȱasȱcomparedȱwithȱ3.8%ȱofȱmenȱmetȱwithȱaccidentalȱdeathȱinȱaȱneighbor’s
houseȱ orȱ yard.29ȱ Theȱ menȱ andȱ womenȱ revealedȱ inȱ theȱ inquisitionȱ recordsȱ of
sixteenthȬȱandȱseventeenthȬcenturyȱFriuli,ȱstudiedȱbyȱCarloȱGinzburg,ȱcreatedȱand
inhabitedȱ aȱ richȱ culturalȱ worldȱ deeplyȱ anchoredȱ inȱ place,ȱ neighborhood,ȱ and
region.30ȱIfȱweȱbeginȱbyȱassumingȱthatȱsocialȱcapitalȱwasȱcreatedȱinȱtheȱvillageȱand
thatȱ itȱ wasȱ important,ȱ theȱ “indirectȱ signs”ȱ providedȱ byȱ courtȱ rollȱ dataȱ canȱ be
scrutinizedȱmoreȱclosely,ȱcanȱbearȱmoreȱanalyticalȱweight.ȱ
DidȱwomenȱplayȱaȱdistinctiveȱroleȱinȱtheȱadaptationȱtoȱchangeȱinȱsmallȬscale
farmingȱcommunities,ȱspecificallyȱinȱtheȱconstructingȱandȱ“construing”ȱofȱlocal
28
GeorgeȱHomans,ȱEnglishȱVillagersȱofȱtheȱThirteenthȱCenturyȱ(1941;ȱNewȱYork:ȱW.ȱW.ȱNortonȱ&ȱCo.,
1975),ȱ82,ȱ408,ȱ106,ȱrespectively.ȱAsȱReynoldsȱpointsȱoutȱ(KingdomsȱandȱCommunitiesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ9),
154ȱandȱn.ȱ154),ȱwordsȱlikeȱviciniȱandȱvillaniȱandȱgeburȱ“suggestȱthatȱoneȱofȱtheȱbonds—perhaps
oneȱofȱtheȱmostȱimportantȱbonds—betweenȱcountryȱpeopleȱwasȱthatȱtheyȱwereȱneighbours.”ȱ
29
Hanawalt,ȱ“PeasantȱWomen’sȱContributionȱtoȱtheȱHomeȱEconomy,”ȱWomenȱandȱWorkȱinȱPreȬ
IndustrialȱEuropeȱ(seeȱnoteȱ2),ȱ7.ȱForȱaȱfullerȱreconstructionȱofȱdailyȱvillageȱlifeȱusingȱdataȱfromȱthe
coroners’ȱrolls,ȱseeȱBarbaraȱHanawalt,ȱTheȱTiesȱthatȱBound:ȱPeasantȱFamiliesȱinȱMedievalȱEngland
(NewȱYork:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1986).
30
CarloȱGinzburg,ȱTheȱNightȱBattles:ȱWitchcraftȱandȱAgrarianȱCultsȱinȱtheȱSixteenthȱandȱSeventeenth
Centuries,ȱtrans.ȱJohnȱandȱAnneȱTedeschiȱ(1966;ȱNewȱYork:ȱPenguinȱBooks,ȱ1985).ȱInȱtheȱ“cult”ȱof
theȱbenandanti,ȱwomenȱmustȱhaveȱbeenȱcentralȱsinceȱidentifyingȱthoseȱwhoȱwouldȱ“fightȱforȱthe
crops”ȱdependedȱonȱmothersȱpreservingȱtheȱbirthȱsacȱfromȱinfantsȱbornȱwithȱaȱcaulȱ(whichȱwas
sometimesȱbaptizedȱatȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱasȱtheȱinfant);ȱseeȱforȱexample,ȱNightȱBattles,ȱ15.ȱ
space,ȱ overȱ theȱ lateȱ thirteenthȱ andȱ earlyȱ fourteenthȱ centuries?ȱ Let’sȱ beginȱ by
lookingȱatȱtheirȱactivitiesȱinȱtheȱvillage.ȱWomenȱofȱcourseȱoccupiedȱtheȱcentralȱrole
inȱtheȱhouseholdȱeconomy,ȱchildȬcare,ȱcooking,ȱbrewing,ȱwashing,ȱdairyȱwork,
gardening,ȱcareȱofȱpoultry,ȱetc.,ȱbutȱwomenȱwereȱalsoȱfullyȱintegratedȱintoȱtheȱweb
ofȱlifeȱoutsideȱtheirȱdoor,ȱvisitingȱfriendsȱandȱrelations,ȱrenderingȱlaborȱservices,
travelingȱtoȱmarkets,ȱattendingȱcourt,ȱfarmingȱtheirȱland.ȱInȱfact,ȱwomen’sȱrolesȱas
actorsȱandȱworkersȱwereȱmoreȱplastic,ȱmoreȱflexibleȱthanȱmen’s:ȱallȱhandsȱturned
outȱforȱtheȱharvest,ȱbutȱmaleȱbrewersȱwereȱcomparativelyȱfewȱandȱfarȱbetweenȱin
mostȱvillagesȱbeforeȱtheȱBlackȱDeath.31ȱ
Soȱflexibleȱwasȱwomen’sȱworkȱthatȱinȱhisȱstudyȱofȱmedievalȱwomenȱandȱwork
inȱtownȱandȱcountryside,ȱJeremyȱGoldbergȱarguesȱthatȱwomen’sȱ“workȱidentity”
tendedȱtoȱbeȱfluid,ȱindeedȱtheyȱlackedȱaȱ“wellȬdevelopedȱworkȱidentity”ȱbecause
theyȱwereȱ“seldomȱwhollyȱengagedȱinȱaȱsingleȱemployment.”32ȱOlwenȱHuftonȱhas
alsoȱ observedȱ thatȱ womenȱ “atȱ theȱ lowerȱ levelsȱ ofȱ societyȱ wereȱ remarkably
adaptableȱoverȱtheȱissueȱofȱwork,”ȱtakingȱ“whatȱtheyȱcouldȱasȱaȱsourceȱofȱincome
andȱadapt[ing]ȱitȱtoȱtheirȱlifeȱpatternsȱandȱtheȱrearingȱofȱtheirȱchildren.”33ȱWhile
thereȱwereȱimportantȱgenderȱdivisionsȱinȱmedievalȱfarmȱwork,ȱwomenȱcrossedȱthe
boundaryȱintoȱtheȱtraditionalȱmaleȱsphereȱroutinely,ȱwhereasȱmenȱwouldȱonly
“crossȱ over”ȱ inȱ aȱ crisis.ȱ Women’sȱ “fluidȱ workȱ identity”ȱ mayȱ contributeȱ toȱ the
problemȱ ofȱ theȱ generalȱ “invisibility”ȱ ofȱ womenȱ farmers,ȱ fromȱ theȱ historian’s
standpoint;ȱbutȱwhatȱitȱmeantȱinȱvillageȱterms,ȱwhetherȱitȱhadȱaȱnegativeȱeffectȱon
women’sȱ status,ȱ asȱ Goldbergȱ argues,ȱ isȱ aȱ pointȱ thatȱ deservesȱ furtherȱ study.
Alternatively,ȱthatȱfluidityȱmayȱhaveȱbeenȱoneȱdimensionȱofȱtheȱ“prominence”
womenȱonceȱhadȱwhichȱtheyȱhaveȱsinceȱlost,ȱreferredȱtoȱbyȱStuardȱinȱtheȱquotation
above.
Let’sȱturnȱtoȱtheȱvillage.ȱTheȱneighborhoodȱapproachȱisȱinȱharmonyȱwithȱwhatȱwe
understandȱaboutȱtheȱgenesisȱofȱtheȱmedievalȱvillage,ȱ“aȱgradualȱdevelopmentȱof
theȱ villageȱ communityȱ fromȱ smallȱ groupsȱ ofȱ familiesȱ andȱ neighborsȱ who
31
Theȱdegreeȱtoȱwhichȱwomenȱdominatedȱruralȱbrewingȱactivityȱraisesȱaȱcomplexȱquestionȱwhich
cannotȱbeȱaddressedȱhere.ȱHelenaȱGrahamȱhasȱarguedȱthatȱ“womenȱwereȱdominantȱinȱbrewing
butȱpartlyȱhiddenȱinȱrecord”ȱ(sic),ȱi.e.,ȱwhenȱmenȱareȱpresentedȱforȱbrewingȱinfractionsȱinȱthe
villageȱcourtȱtheyȱmayȱ“oftenȱhaveȱbeenȱansweringȱforȱtheirȱwives’ȱbrewingȱandȱretailingȱofȱale.”
Seeȱ“’Aȱwoman’sȱworkȱ.ȱ.ȱ.’:ȱLabourȱandȱGenderȱinȱtheȱLateȱMedievalȱCountryside,”ȱinȱWomenȱin
MedievalȱEnglishȱSociety,ȱed.ȱP.ȱJ.ȱP.ȱGoldbergȱ(Stroud,ȱGloucestershire:ȱSuttonȱPublishing,ȱ1997),
126–48;ȱhereȱ141.ȱ
32
P.ȱJ.ȱP.ȱGoldberg,ȱWomen,ȱWorkȱandȱLifeȬCycleȱinȱaȱMedievalȱEconomy:ȱWomenȱinȱYorkȱandȱYorkshire,
c.ȱ1300–1520ȱ(NewȱYork:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1992),ȱ335–36.ȱForȱfurtherȱdiscussionȱofȱrural
womenȱ andȱ work,ȱ seeȱ Judithȱ Bennett,ȱ Womenȱ inȱ theȱ Medievalȱ Englishȱ Countryside:ȱ Genderȱ and
HouseholdȱinȱBrigstockȱBeforeȱtheȱPlagueȱ(NewȱYork:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1987),ȱ115–29.
33
OlwenȱHufton,ȱTheȱProspectȱBeforeȱHer:ȱAȱHistoryȱofȱWomenȱinȱWesternȱEurope,ȱ1500–1800ȱ(New
York:ȱAlfredȱA.ȱKnopf,ȱ1998),ȱ173–74.
218 SherriȱOlsonȱ
eventuallyȱformedȱlargeȱcoȬoperatives.”34ȱWeȱknowȱfurtherȱthatȱneighborhoods
wereȱ importantȱ inȱ theȱ village,ȱ thatȱ villagersȱ thoughtȱ andȱ actedȱ inȱ termsȱ of
neighborhoods:ȱtithingȱgroups,ȱmentionedȱearlier,ȱwereȱbasedȱonȱresidenceȱonȱthe
sameȱstreetȱorȱsectionȱofȱtheȱvillage;ȱinquestsȱinȱtheȱvillageȱcourtȱwereȱfrequently
ifȱnotȱregularlyȱmadeȱupȱofȱneighbors,35ȱandȱsuchȱpanelsȱareȱsometimesȱspecifically
referredȱtoȱasȱviciniȱiurati,ȱ“swornȱneighbors.”ȱGroupsȱofȱfamiliesȱwhoȱlivedȱnext
toȱorȱnearȱeachȱotherȱenteredȱintoȱjointȬownershipȱarrangementsȱofȱplows,ȱharness
andȱ draftȱ animals,ȱ andȱ sometimesȱ engagedȱ inȱ jointȱ cultivationȱ ofȱ neighboring
parcelsȱofȱland.ȱ
Finally,ȱfamilyȱsurnamesȱlikeȱinȱEstrateȱ(inȱEastȱStreet),ȱatteȱPeretree,ȱBythebrok,
Atwater,ȱandȱatteȱTownsendeȱrevealȱtheȱnaturalȱvillageȱtendencyȱtoȱuseȱplaceȱin
framingȱsocialȱconcepts,ȱandȱinȱhelpingȱresidentsȱ“getȱtheirȱbearings.”ȱTurning
againȱtoȱKaye’sȱstudyȱofȱplantationȱneighborhoodsȱforȱinsightȱhere,ȱweȱlearnȱthat
slavesȱhadȱ“multifariousȱwaysȱofȱtakingȱneighborhoodȱbearingsȱfromȱquarters,ȱthe
bigȱhouse,ȱfields,ȱandȱwoodlandsȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ[and]ȱevenȱthisȱorderlyȱspaceȱwasȱopenȱto
interpretation.”ȱFurther,ȱnotȱallȱtheȱmarkersȱwereȱvisual:ȱsoundsȱalsoȱhaveȱtheir
roleȱtoȱplayȱinȱtheȱproductionȱofȱspace,ȱandȱhenceȱhaveȱaȱhistory.ȱFormerȱslaves
interviewedȱafterȱemancipationȱ“recalledȱhearingȱaȱcacophonyȱofȱsoundsȱfromȱa
mileȱoffȱorȱmore:ȱbellsȱandȱhornsȱcallingȱtheȱpeopleȱoutȱofȱbedȱandȱintoȱtheȱfields
aroundȱdaybreak,ȱsticksȱbeatingȱandȱwomenȱsingingȱonȱwashingȱday,ȱtheȱhighȬ
pitchedȱwailȱofȱaȱgreatȱwoodenȱscrewȱbearingȱdownȱonȱtheȱbalesȱinȱtheȱcotton
press.”36ȱ
Anȱarrayȱofȱenvironmentalȱfeatures,ȱmoreȱorȱlessȱpresentȱinȱeveryȱEuropeanȱvillage
inȱ theȱ Middleȱ Ages,ȱ pointȱ toȱ theȱ neighborhoodȱ asȱ aȱ fertileȱ settingȱ forȱ the
“deployment”ȱofȱsocialȱcapital—andȱinȱtheȱcreationȱofȱsocialȱcapitalȱwomenȱwere
particularlyȱimportant.ȱWhenȱtheyȱvisitedȱwithȱeachȱother,ȱinȱtheirȱhomes,ȱinȱthe
villageȱsquare,ȱinȱtheȱqueueȱatȱtheȱmill,ȱetc.,ȱtheȱnewsȱtheyȱrelayedȱtoȱeachȱother
wasȱ
moreȱ thanȱ idleȱ gossip.ȱ Itȱ elaboratedȱ theȱ connectionsȱ betweenȱ neighbors.ȱ Itȱ pooled
intelligence,ȱsynthesizedȱandȱreformulatedȱallȱtheȱtalkȱasȱcommonȱknowledgeȱand
commonȱsenseȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱInȱcreatingȱaȱloreȱofȱtheȱneighborhoodȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ[they]ȱembellishedȱthe
34
35
Sueȱ Sheridanȱ Walker,ȱ introductionȱ toȱ Theȱ Courtȱ Rollsȱ ofȱ theȱ Manorȱ ofȱ Wakefield:ȱ 1331–1333.
WakefieldȱCourtȱRollsȱSeries,ȱ3ȱ(Leeds:ȱYorkshireȱArchaeologicalȱSociety,ȱ1983),ȱxii.
36
Kaye,ȱ Joiningȱ Placesȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 14),ȱ 34.ȱ Theȱ importanceȱ ofȱ includingȱ soundȱ inȱ theȱ historical
reconstructionȱofȱearlierȱsocietiesȱisȱsuggestedȱinȱLefebvre’sȱobservationȱthatȱ“overȱtheȱcourseȱof
historyȱtheȱvisualȱhasȱincreasinglyȱtakenȱprecedenceȱoverȱelementsȱofȱthoughtȱandȱactionȱderiving
fromȱtheȱotherȱsensesȱ(theȱfacultyȱofȱhearingȱandȱtheȱactȱofȱlistening,ȱforȱinstance)ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱSoȱfarȱhas
thisȱtrendȱgoneȱthatȱtheȱsensesȱofȱsmell,ȱtaste,ȱandȱtouchȱhaveȱbeenȱalmostȱcompletelyȱannexedȱand
absorbedȱbyȱsight.”ȱLefebvre,ȱProductionȱofȱSpaceȱ(seeȱnoteȱ6),ȱ139.
textureȱandȱparticularityȱofȱtheȱneighborhoodȱinȱtheȱnarrativesȱtheyȱcrafted,ȱturned
mereȱspaceȱintoȱaȱfamiliarȱplace,ȱendowedȱitȱwithȱmeanings,ȱhistory,ȱandȱsymbolism
thatȱsetȱitȱapartȱfromȱotherȱneighborhoods.ȱStorytelling,ȱinȱshort,ȱwasȱintegralȱtoȱthe
creationȱandȱreȬcreationȱofȱneighborhoods.37ȱ
Theȱlateȱthirteenthȱandȱearlyȱfourteenthȱcenturiesȱprovideȱaȱgoodȱvantageȱpointȱfor
ourȱinvestigation,ȱsinceȱthisȱhalfȬcenturyȱembracedȱanȱeraȱofȱdemographicȱchange
inȱ theȱ formȱ ofȱ populationȱ crowding,ȱ whichȱ affectedȱ settlementȱ patternsȱ inȱ the
village.ȱ Onȱ aȱ largerȱ scale,ȱ itȱ isȱ worthȱ rememberingȱ thatȱ inȱ England,ȱ asȱ inȱ all
Europe,ȱ populationȱ levelsȱ inȱ theȱ generationsȱ justȱ beforeȱ theȱ Blackȱ Deathȱ of
1347–1352ȱwereȱgreaterȱthanȱtheyȱhadȱeverȱbeenȱbeforeȱorȱwouldȱbeȱagainȱfor
centuries:ȱtheȱfourȱtoȱfiveȱmillionȱmarkȱthatȱhasȱbeenȱestimatedȱforȱEngland’sȱpreȬ
plagueȱpopulationȱwasȱnotȱreachedȱagainȱuntilȱtheȱseventeenthȱcentury.38ȱ(Itȱhas
beenȱobservedȱthatȱinȱEuropeȱthereȱwasȱmoreȱlandȱunderȱtheȱplowȱinȱ1300ȱthanȱat
anyȱtimeȱbeforeȱorȱsince).ȱThisȱabsolutelyȱunrepeatableȱhistoricalȱmoment,ȱanȱeraȱof
overȬcrowdingȱ andȱ landȱ scarcity,ȱ theȱ encroachingȱ ofȱ arableȱ uponȱ pasture,ȱ the
cultivationȱofȱmarginalȱlands,ȱdecliningȱyieldsȱandȱdepressedȱwages,ȱprovidesȱa
settingȱwhereȱtheȱonȬgoingȱprocessȱofȱtheȱ“productionȱofȱspace”ȱmightȱalterȱswiftly
—andȱthusȱbeȱmoreȱvisibleȱtoȱus.ȱ
Womenȱwereȱmoreȱprominentȱthanȱmenȱinȱsomeȱcategoriesȱofȱactivityȱsuchȱas
brewingȱandȱmoneyȬlending,ȱandȱtheyȱalsoȱhadȱaȱfairlyȱhighȱprofileȱinȱraisingȱthe
hueȱandȱcry,ȱbeingȱresponsibleȱforȱ40%ȱofȱallȱcasesȱinȱEllington:ȱindeed,ȱwomen
alsoȱhadȱaȱslightlyȱbetterȱrecordȱforȱraisingȱtheȱhueȱandȱcryȱ“justly”ȱthanȱdidȱmen.39
Peopleȱwhoȱwereȱactiveȱinȱraisingȱtheȱhueȱandȱcryȱhadȱnecessarilyȱtoȱbeȱoutȱand
aboutȱ toȱ someȱ degree.ȱ Participationȱ inȱ localȱ neighborhoodȱ “crimeȱ watching”
broughtȱwomenȱintoȱcourtȱinȱotherȱways:ȱe.g.,ȱitȱisȱnotedȱinȱEllington’sȱ1311ȱcourt
rollȱ thatȱ Walterȱ Smithȱ brokeȱ intoȱ Emmaȱ Smith’sȱ houseȱ becauseȱ sheȱ hadȱ justly
raisedȱtheȱhueȱandȱcryȱonȱhim;ȱandȱalthoughȱherȱhusbandȱwasȱtheȱoneȱwhoȱraised
aȱhueȱjustlyȱonȱWilliamȱleȱFoulere,ȱWilliamȱbeatȱtheȱwifeȱofȱLaurenceȱofȱBedford;
(andȱlestȱweȱthinkȱthatȱthisȱwasȱalwaysȱaȱcaseȱofȱmaleȬonȬfemaleȱviolence,ȱweȱnote
thatȱinȱ1321ȱMargeryȱPilcokȱbitȱJoanȱPilcokȱbecauseȱJoanȱraisedȱtheȱhueȱagainstȱher
justly).40ȱThus,ȱinȱspiteȱofȱtheȱdiscontinuousȱnatureȱofȱcourtȱrollȱevidence,ȱandȱthe
37
Kaye,ȱJoiningȱPlacesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ14),ȱ41.
38
E.ȱA.ȱWrigleyȱandȱR.ȱS.ȱSchofield,ȱinȱTheȱPopulationȱHistoryȱofȱEngland,ȱ1541–1871ȱ(Cambridge,
MA:ȱHarvardȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1981),ȱ208–09,ȱestimateȱtheȱcountry’sȱpopulationȱatȱaboutȱfour
millionȱca.ȱ1600,ȱandȱaboutȱfiveȱmillionȱca.ȱ1700.
39
Olson,ȱAȱChronicleȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ94–97.ȱ
40
Theseȱandȱsimilarȱcasesȱthatȱgiveȱaȱsenseȱofȱtheȱrangeȱandȱcharacterȱofȱwomen’sȱactivitiesȱinȱthe
villageȱareȱtreatedȱmoreȱfullyȱinȱOlson,ȱMuteȱGospelȱ(seeȱnoteȱ8),ȱChapterȱTwo,ȱesp.ȱ96–98.ȱThe
standardȱworkȱforȱtheȱstudyȱofȱwomenȱinȱmedievalȱruralȱsocietyȱremainsȱJudithȱBennett,ȱWomen
inȱtheȱMedievalȱEnglishȱCountrysideȱ(seeȱnoteȱ32),ȱsupplementedȱbyȱBennett,ȱAȱMedievalȱLife:ȱCecilia
PenifaderȱofȱBrigstock,ȱc.ȱ1295–1344ȱ(Boston:ȱMcGrawȬHill,ȱ1999).ȱOlderȱbutȱstillȱuseful,ȱandȱimbued
220 SherriȱOlsonȱ
5:1ȱratioȱofȱentriesȱinȱfavorȱofȱmen’sȱactivities,ȱweȱcanȱgetȱsomeȱsenseȱnotȱonlyȱof
theȱdailyȱlivesȱofȱwomen,ȱbutȱalsoȱofȱtheȱvillageȱasȱaȱrichȱfieldȱforȱtheȱcreationȱof
socialȱcapital.ȱWhereȱwomenȱareȱparticularlyȱconspicuousȱinȱtheȱevidenceȱdeserves
closeȱstudy;ȱandȱinȱEllingtonȱtheyȱareȱconspicuousȱinȱtwoȱneighborhoods.ȱ
Let’sȱturnȱtoȱtheȱevidenceȱforȱCotenȱandȱSybethorpe,ȱtwoȱresidentialȱsubdivisions
(orȱneighborhoods)ȱthatȱareȱreferredȱtoȱasȱ“members”ȱ(membrum)ȱofȱEllingtonȱin
theȱQuoȱWarrantoȱrollsȱofȱca.ȱ1292ȱ(20ȱEdwȱI).41ȱRecognitionȱofȱtheirȱdistinctnessȱis
furtherȱsignaledȱtoȱusȱbyȱtheȱheadingȱforȱthatȱvillage’sȱcourtȱrollsȱinȱtheȱ1290s,
whichȱisȱgivenȱasȱElyngton’ȱcumȱSybethorpeȱetȱCotenȱ(thereafterȱsimplyȱElyngton).
Theȱyearsȱaroundȱ1300ȱwereȱtheȱveryȱtimeȱwhenȱtheȱonȬgoingȱ“production”ȱof
villageȱ spaceȱ mustȱ haveȱ beenȱ significantlyȱ influencedȱ byȱ relativeȱ crowding,
particularlyȱ inȱ theȱ areaȱ forȱ humanȱ habitationȱ (asȱ opposedȱ toȱ fields,ȱ wood,
meadow,ȱmarsh,ȱandȱcommonȱpaths,ȱlanesȱandȱroads).ȱ
CotenȱisȱtheȱdativeȱpluralȱofȱtheȱOldȱEnglishȱcot,ȱmeaningȱcell,ȱchamber,ȱhut,ȱor
cottage,ȱhenceȱCotenȱmeansȱ“atȱtheȱcottages.”42ȱTheȱnameȱoccursȱinȱtheȱearlyȱrolls
(andȱsurvivedȱlongȱafterȱourȱperiod,ȱappearingȱinȱtheȱnameȱCotonȱBarnȱonȱthe
ordinanceȱ surveyȱ mapsȱ ofȱ theȱ nineteenthȱ century).ȱ Theȱ earliestȱ evidenceȱ ofȱ a
clusterȱofȱsmallholdersȱthereȱderivedȱfromȱaȱvillageȱinquest,ȱalthoughȱitȱisȱhoused
inȱ anȱ extraȬvillageȱ source,ȱ theȱ Hundredȱ Rolls,ȱ aȱ “largeȬscaleȱ inquiryȱ apparently
designedȱtoȱrecordȱlandȱtenureȱandȱregalianȱrightsȱthroughoutȱtheȱcountry”ȱdrawn
upȱinȱtheȱlateȱ1270s.43ȱInȱthatȱdocumentȱaȱtotalȱofȱfourȱtenantsȱinȱEllingtonȱareȱlisted
asȱCoterelliȱ(occupantsȱofȱaȱcotaȱorȱcot,ȱhenceȱholdersȱofȱcottages):ȱWilliamȱLeonard,
Richardȱ leȱ Hunt,ȱ Agnesȱ ofȱ Beaumeys,ȱ andȱ Mabelȱ leȱ Hunte,ȱ eachȱ holdingȱ a
messuageȱ(thatȱis,ȱaȱdwelling)ȱandȱlittleȱorȱnoȱland:ȱWilliamȱLeonardȱheldȱone
messuageȱandȱtwoȱacresȱofȱland,ȱRichardȱleȱHuntȱoneȱmessuageȱcontainingȱone
rodȱ (ca.ȱ ¼ȱ acre)ȱ ofȱ land,ȱ andȱ Agnesȱ deȱ Beaumeysȱ andȱ Mabelȱ leȱ Hunte,ȱ one
messuageȱeach.ȱ
withȱaȱsympatheticȱsensibility,ȱisȱG.ȱE.ȱandȱK.ȱR.ȱFussell,ȱTheȱEnglishȱCountrywoman:ȱAȱFarmhouse
SocialȱHistory,ȱA.D.ȱ1500–1900ȱ(London:ȱMelrose,ȱ1953).ȱ
41
PlacitaȱdeȱquoȱwarrantoȱtemporibusȱEdw.ȱI,ȱII,ȱ&ȱIIIȱ(London:ȱG.ȱEyreȱandȱA.ȱStrahan,ȱ1818),ȱ301.ȱFor
anȱearlierȱandȱfullerȱdiscussionȱofȱtheseȱtwoȱareasȱinȱEllington,ȱseeȱOlson,ȱMuteȱGospelȱ(seeȱnote
8),ȱ110–19.
42
TheȱPlaceȬNamesȱofȱBedfordshireȱandȱHuntingdonshire,ȱed.ȱA.ȱMawerȱandȱF.M.ȱStentonȱ(Cambridge:
CambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1926),ȱ239.ȱ
43
RotuliȱHundredorumȱtemporeȱHenriciȱIIIȱetȱEdwardiȱI.,ȱed.ȱW.ȱIllingworthȱandȱJ.ȱCaleyȱ(1812;ȱLondon:
Eyreȱ andȱ Strahan,ȱ 1818),ȱ 2:ȱ 630–31.ȱ Theȱ quotationȱ isȱ fromȱ theȱ mostȱ recentȱ studyȱ ofȱ these
documents,ȱSandraȱRaban,ȱAȱSecondȱDomesday:ȱTheȱHundredȱRollsȱofȱ1279–80ȱ(NewȱYork:ȱOxford
Universityȱ Press,ȱ 2004),ȱ introduction.ȱ Rabanȱ pointsȱ outȱ (Secondȱ Domesday,ȱ 15)ȱ thatȱ the
investigationsȱwereȱmadeȱbyȱjuriesȱofȱ“twelveȱlocalȱknightsȱorȱsubstantialȱfreemenȱdrawnȱfrom
theȱhundredȱwho,ȱinȱturn,ȱassessedȱinformationȱsuppliedȱbyȱlesserȱjuriesȱfromȱindividualȱvills.”ȱ
Closeȱinspectionȱofȱtheseȱpeopleȱandȱtheirȱnamesȱleadsȱusȱaȱlittleȱwayȱintoȱthe
thirteenthȬcenturyȱvillage.ȱHuntȱisȱaȱknownȱCotenȱsurnameȱinȱtheȱcontemporary
courtȱrolls:ȱthirteenȱpeopleȱnamedȱHuntȱ(Hunte,ȱleȱHunt)ȱappearȱinȱtheȱrollsȱover
theȱperiodȱ1280–1340,ȱsixȱofȱwhomȱareȱwomen,ȱi.e.,ȱMabel,ȱElena,ȱBeatrice,ȱAlice,
Douce,ȱandȱanȱunnamedȱwifeȱofȱNicholasȱ(possiblyȱoneȱofȱtheȱfiveȱwhoseȱnames
areȱknown).ȱDouceȱ(LatinȱDulcia)ȱhadȱtwoȱsons,ȱRichardȱandȱRobert,ȱandȱitȱwasȱthe
latterȱwhoȱwasȱcitedȱasȱsonȱofȱDulcia,ȱsonȱofȱDouce,ȱorȱDoucessonȱinȱnearlyȱtwenty
entriesȱbetweenȱ1311ȱandȱ1340.44ȱApartȱfromȱWilliamȱleȱHunteȱwhoȱservedȱasȱan
aleȬtasterȱandȱjuror,ȱandȱpledgedȱaȱnumberȱofȱtimesȱforȱotherȱvillagersȱoverȱthe
periodȱ1311–1340,ȱotherȱHuntȱmenȱareȱmoreȱconspicuousȱbyȱtheirȱabsence:ȱthus,
Walterȱ leȱ Hunteȱ isȱ citedȱ forȱ defaultȱ ofȱ courtȱ attendanceȱ andȱ beingȱ outsideȱ the
villageȱ (theseȱ entriesȱ fallȱ betweenȱ theȱ yearsȱ 1280ȱ andȱ 1322),ȱ andȱ Richard
Doucessonȱwasȱoutsideȱtheȱvillȱinȱ1332/3.ȱAsȱweȱwillȱseeȱmoreȱfullyȱbelow,ȱtheȱmen
ofȱsuchȱsmallholdingȱfamiliesȱwereȱoftenȱabsentȱorȱofȱlowȱprofileȱinȱtheȱvillage.
TurningȱtoȱtheȱBeaumeysȱfamily,ȱthereȱareȱeightȱpeopleȱwithȱthisȱsurnameȱwho
wereȱ activeȱ inȱ theȱ periodȱ 1280–1340.ȱ Ofȱ particularȱ interestȱ isȱ theȱ Agnesȱ de
BeaumeysȱlistedȱinȱtheȱHundredȱRolls,ȱsinceȱweȱlearnȱfromȱtheȱcourtȱrollsȱthatȱshe
togetherȱwithȱaȱdaughterȱ(unnamed)ȱofȱRichardȱinȱHaleȱfoundȱaȱstrayȱsheepȱin
1280—aȱ rareȱ glimpseȱ ofȱ youngȱ women’sȱ activitiesȱ togetherȱ outsideȱ theȱ home,
possiblyȱinȱtheȱfieldsȱorȱwoods,ȱtheȱ“male”ȱportionȱofȱtheȱvillagescape.ȱTheȱother
namedȱBeaumeysȱwomen,ȱDyonisiaȱandȱIsabella,ȱareȱcitedȱinȱentriesȱthatȱsuggest
peopleȱofȱslenderȱmeans:ȱinȱ1286/1287ȱtheȱformerȱwasȱ“forgiven”ȱ(relaxatur)ȱ6d
worthȱofȱfinesȱ(presumablyȱdueȱtoȱinabilityȱtoȱpay),ȱandȱtheȱlatterȱwasȱfinedȱ3dȱin
1294ȱforȱgleaningȱbadly.45ȱ
Inȱ theȱ courtȱ rolls,ȱ theȱ firstȱ referencesȱ toȱ theȱ residentsȱ ofȱ Cotenȱ occurȱ in
connectionȱwithȱsupervisingȱtheȱlocalȱbrewingȱindustry,ȱaȱtraditionalȱsphereȱof
women’sȱworkȱinȱtheȱvillage.ȱForȱaȱbriefȱperiod,ȱinȱtheȱ1310sȱandȱ1320s,ȱtheȱcourt
enrolledȱtheȱbrewersȱofȱCotenȱasȱaȱgroup,ȱbasedȱonȱtheȱpresentmentȱofȱaleȬtasters
fromȱtheirȱownȱneighborhood:ȱthus,ȱRichardȱofȱCoten,ȱWalterȱSmithȱofȱCotenȱand
Galfridusȱ sonȱ ofȱ Edithȱ workedȱ alongsideȱ tastersȱ appointedȱ toȱ doȱ theȱ sameȱ for
Ellington.ȱThus,ȱ“TheȱCottages”ȱformedȱaȱquarterȱofȱtheȱvillageȱthatȱwasȱinȱpart
recognizableȱbyȱtheȱbrewingȱactivityȱofȱitsȱwomen,ȱwhoseȱsenseȱasȱaȱgroupȱwas
perhapsȱreinforcedȱbyȱtheirȱpresentmentȱtogether.ȱWeȱcannotȱprove,ȱbutȱcanȱonly
suggestȱthatȱtheseȱdevelopmentsȱareȱrelatedȱtoȱpopulationȱlevelsȱwhichȱpeakedȱin
44
OneȱofȱtheseȱcitationsȱisȱfromȱanotherȱextraȬvillageȱsource,ȱtheȱroyalȱlayȱsubsidyȱrollȱofȱ1327,
whereȱheȱpaidȱ15¾dȱandȱisȱcitedȱasȱRobertusȱfiliusȱDulcie.ȱSeeȱEarlyȱHuntingdonshireȱLayȱSubsidy
Rolls,ȱed.ȱJ.ȱA.ȱRaftisȱandȱM.ȱPatriciaȱHogan.ȱSubsidiaȱMediaevalia,ȱ8ȱ(Toronto:ȱPontificalȱInstitute
ofȱMediaevalȱStudies,ȱ1976),ȱ165.ȱ
45
TheȱBeaumeysȱfamily/familiesȱevidentlyȱprosperedȱoverȱtime,ȱsinceȱaȱlaterȱgenerationȱproduced
twoȱvillagers,ȱJohnȱandȱWalter,ȱwhoȱappearȱinȱtheȱ1327ȱlayȱsubsidyȱroll,ȱpayingȱrespectivelyȱ9¼
andȱ9½d.ȱSeeȱEarlyȱHuntingdonshireȱLayȱSubsidyȱRollsȱ(seeȱnoteȱ44),ȱ165.
222 SherriȱOlsonȱ
thisȱ generation,ȱ aȱ periodȱ whenȱ theȱ numbersȱ ofȱ smallholdersȱ wereȱ increasing
everywhereȱinȱEuropeȱ(althoughȱpressureȱwouldȱsoonȱbeȱrelievedȱinȱtheȱeraȱofȱthe
famines).ȱ
WernerȱRösenerȱsuggestsȱthatȱtheȱrisingȱnumberȱofȱcottagersȱwasȱaȱsignificant
socialȱfactorȱinȱtheȱcontinuingȱdevelopmentȱofȱnuclearȱvillages:ȱthus,ȱinȱtheȱcaseȱof
easternȱSwabiaȱheȱnotesȱthatȱtheȱ“housesȱandȱworkingȱquartersȱofȱcottagers,ȱwhich
oftenȱstoodȱinȱseparateȱrowsȱwithinȱtheȱvillage,ȱfilledȱtheȱgapsȱwithinȱtheȱvillages
.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ(and)ȱturnedȱmanyȱsettlementsȱwhichȱhadȱbeenȱhamletsȱintoȱdenselyȱpopulated
villages.”46ȱ
Thatȱwomen’sȱdailyȱactivitiesȱandȱassociationsȱplayedȱaȱroleȱinȱmakingȱCoten
intoȱ aȱ “place”ȱ isȱ furtherȱ suggestedȱ byȱ theirȱ conspicuousȱ presenceȱ inȱ theȱ court
records,ȱinȱspiteȱofȱthatȱ5:1ȱratioȱofȱmale:femaleȱappearances.ȱSixȱofȱtheȱtenȱmenȱof
Cotenȱareȱidentifiedȱnotȱbyȱtheirȱfathersȱbutȱbyȱtheirȱmothersȱ(Alice,ȱEdith,ȱRose,
Agnes,ȱ Beatrice,ȱ andȱ Clemence),ȱ andȱ theirȱ mothersȱ seemȱ toȱ beȱ theȱ headsȱ of
households.ȱ Thisȱ wouldȱ notȱ beȱ aȱ surprisingȱ developmentȱ inȱ aȱ communityȱ of
cottagersȱwhoseȱlaborȱservicesȱwereȱfewȱandȱwhoseȱadultȱmenfolkȱmightȱwork
outsideȱtheȱvillage,ȱtravellingȱinȱtheȱgroupsȱofȱitinerantȱlaborersȱthatȱcirculated
muchȱofȱtheȱyearȱinȱruralȱareas.ȱIndeed,ȱwhereȱCotenȱmenȱareȱcitedȱthereȱisȱaȱsense
ofȱstraitenedȱcircumstances:ȱforȱexample,ȱoneȱofȱtheȱveryȱfewȱmaleȱgleanersȱ(the
rightȱtoȱgleanȱafterȱharvestȱusuallyȱbeingȱreservedȱforȱwomenȱfromȱpoorȱfamilies)
toȱ appearȱ inȱ theȱ rollsȱ wasȱ aȱ Walterȱ leȱ Shepherdeȱ ofȱ Coteneȱ inȱ 1332,ȱ whoȱ was
receivedȱbyȱStephenȱofȱCotene,ȱwhoȱinȱhisȱturnȱwasȱpledgedȱbyȱAdamȱofȱCoten.
(WeȱshouldȱalsoȱnoteȱtheȱdistinctiveȱsurnameȱofȱoneȱresidentȱofȱCoten,ȱRobert
Dryngallday,ȱtheȱOldȱEnglishȱverbȱdringleȱmeaningȱ“toȱwasteȱtimeȱinȱaȱlazyȱand
lingeringȱmanner”).ȱItȱisȱalsoȱsurelyȱsignificantȱthatȱsuchȱaȱsmallȱneighborhood
(probablyȱ notȱ aboveȱ tenȱ households)ȱ shouldȱ produceȱ suchȱ aȱ largeȱ numberȱ of
metronymicȱsurnames,ȱhoweverȱephemeralȱsomeȱofȱtheseȱturnedȱoutȱtoȱbe:ȱDeneys
(fromȱDenice),ȱEdesson/Edithsone,ȱDouce/Doucesson,ȱMatild’,ȱandȱMuriel.ȱTaken
allȱtogether,ȱdoȱtheseȱelementsȱpointȱtoȱaȱvillageȱ“productionȱofȱspace”ȱthatȱlinks
women,ȱnamesȱandȱneighborhood?ȱ
Inȱtheȱcourtȱrollȱcitationsȱofȱtheȱ1320sȱandȱ1330sȱweȱfindȱperhapsȱtheȱ“indirect
signs”ȱofȱtheȱsocialȱcapitalȱthatȱpermeatedȱthisȱneighborhood,ȱforȱtheȱpeopleȱof
Cotenȱpledgedȱforȱeachȱother,ȱassaultedȱeachȱother,ȱandȱstoleȱfromȱeachȱother,ȱsuch
incidentsȱ indicatingȱ proximity,ȱ dependence,ȱ andȱ familiarity.ȱ Inȱ aȱ particularly
interestingȱandȱearlierȱentryȱ(1280)ȱWilliamȱtheȱsonȱofȱAliceȱofȱCotenȱwasȱfinedȱand
pledgedȱforȱhavingȱfailedȱtoȱmakeȱsatisfactionȱtoȱEdithȱofȱCotenȱ(adȱsatisfaciend’
46
Rösener,ȱPeasantsȱ(seeȱnoteȱ9),ȱ56.ȱTheȱpreȬplague,ȱindeedȱtheȱpreȬfamineȱeraȱ(1315–1322)ȱalso
witnessedȱ theȱ largestȱ numberȱ ofȱ brewersȱ inȱ theȱ village:ȱ inȱ nearbyȱ Upwood,ȱ forȱ example,ȱ an
averageȱofȱtwelveȱbrewersȱwereȱpresentedȱinȱeachȱcourtȱsessionȱbeforeȱ1318,ȱinȱwhichȱyearȱthat
numberȱdroppedȱtoȱfive.ȱSeeȱOlson,ȱAȱChronicleȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱTableȱ4–2,ȱ211.
EdithamȱdeȱCoten’ȱsuperȱeoȱquodȱuerberauitȱfiliumȱdicteȱEdithe)ȱforȱhavingȱbeatenȱher
son,ȱwhoȱisȱunnamedȱ(thisȱwouldȱhaveȱbeenȱeitherȱWilliam,ȱGeoffrey,ȱKynemann).
Whatȱisȱremarkableȱisȱthatȱtheȱmotherȱisȱnamedȱasȱtheȱinjuredȱparty,ȱnotȱtheȱfather
–ȱ hadȱ heȱ beenȱ presentȱ heȱ wouldȱ surelyȱ haveȱ beenȱ named.ȱ Suchȱ interpersonal
connectionsȱ amongȱ bearersȱ ofȱ theȱ sameȱ smallȱ poolȱ ofȱ surnamesȱ suggestȱ the
presenceȱofȱ“looselyȱdefinedȱnetworksȱofȱreciprocalȱsocialȱcredit,”ȱtheȱ“problemȬ
anchoredȱhelpingȱnetworks”ȱcharacteristicȱofȱtheseȱsmallȱcommunities.47ȱ
TheȱdataȱforȱCoten,ȱinȱshort,ȱsuggestȱsomeȱofȱtheȱlocalȱfactorsȱthatȱinfluencedȱthe
formationȱ ofȱ neighborhoods,ȱ withȱ specialȱ referenceȱ toȱ constellationsȱ of
smallholders:ȱ hereȱ weȱ seeȱ aȱ highȱ profileȱ forȱ women,ȱ whoseȱ flexibleȱ “work
identity”ȱcontributedȱtoȱtheȱdiversificationȱofȱtheirȱactivitiesȱandȱconnectionsȱinȱthe
village.ȱSocialȱcreditȱnetworksȱwereȱespeciallyȱimportantȱforȱvillageȱwomenȱasȱa
meansȱ ofȱ providingȱ economicȱ securityȱ forȱ themselvesȱ andȱ theirȱ children.ȱ Ifȱ a
womanȱwasȱsingleȱorȱwidowed,ȱifȱherȱhusbandȱwasȱabsentȱorȱunableȱtoȱwork,ȱif
togetherȱtheyȱheldȱaȱsmallȱtenementȱalongsideȱothersȱsimilarlyȱplaced,ȱsheȱcould
drawȱonȱ“informalȱkindsȱofȱaid,”ȱwhichȱmightȱinvolveȱloansȱofȱgoodsȱorȱmoney,
takingȱcareȱofȱaȱchildȱorȱneighborȱwhoȱwasȱill,ȱgivingȱorȱreceivingȱgifts.48ȱTheseȱare
theȱkindsȱofȱactivitiesȱthatȱcourtȱrollsȱdoȱnotȱcaptureȱunlessȱviolenceȱorȱaȱdispute
occursȱ thatȱ isȱ presentedȱ byȱ theȱ jurorsȱ orȱ broughtȱ toȱ theȱ court’sȱ attentionȱ byȱ a
complainant;ȱweȱglimpseȱthemȱonlyȱbyȱ“indirectȱsignsȱofȱtheirȱexistence.”49ȱ
LetȱusȱturnȱtoȱtheȱotherȱquarterȱorȱneighborhoodȱinȱEllingtonȱthatȱisȱidentifiable
preȬeminentlyȱthroughȱcourtȱrollȱevidence.ȱSibethorpe,ȱaȱhamletȱlocatedȱsouthȱof
theȱ village,ȱ appearsȱ inȱ theȱ evidenceȱ fromȱ theȱ earlyȱ thirteenthȱ century,ȱ whenȱ a
WalterȱofȱSibthorpeȱgaveȱlandȱthereȱtoȱRamseyȱAbbeyȱinȱtheȱtimeȱofȱAbbotȱHugh
(1216–1231).50ȱ Asȱ weȱ haveȱ seen,ȱ itȱ wasȱ listedȱ asȱ aȱ “member”ȱ ofȱ Ellingtonȱ with
CotenȱinȱtheȱHundredȱRolls,ȱandȱallȱthreeȱplacesȱwereȱgivenȱinȱtheȱheadingȱofȱthe
courtȱ rollȱ inȱ theȱ 1290s.ȱ Thisȱ neighborhoodȱ inȱ Ellingtonȱ receivedȱ aȱ distinctive
impressȱaboveȱallȱbecauseȱitȱcontainedȱsomeȱifȱnotȱallȱofȱtheȱlandsȱattachedȱtoȱthe
priest’sȱ house;ȱ andȱ possiblyȱ forȱ thatȱ reasonȱ womenȱ tenantsȱ areȱ conspicuous
figures.ȱAccordingȱtoȱtheȱHundredȱRollsȱnineȱtenantsȱheldȱlandȱofȱtheȱrector,ȱsixȱof
47
McIntosh,ȱ“Diversity”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ24),ȱ468.ȱForȱaȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱspecificȱentriesȱreferredȱtoȱhere
seeȱOlson,ȱMuteȱGospelȱ(seeȱnoteȱ8),ȱ114–16.
48
TheseȱareȱsomeȱofȱtheȱexamplesȱofȱmutualȱaidȱdiscussedȱbyȱMcIntosh,ȱ“Diversity”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ24),
468.
49
WellȬknownȱexamplesȱofȱtheȱphenomenonȱwherebyȱinstitutionsȱorȱpracticesȱareȱrevealedȱonly
whenȱsomethingȱgoesȱwrongȱareȱtheȱretirementȱarrangementsȱthatȱwereȱmadeȱbetweenȱelderly
parentsȱandȱtheirȱadultȱchildren,ȱwhichȱstipulatedȱtheȱdeliveriesȱofȱfoodȱandȱclothingȱandȱthe
livingȱarrangementsȱthatȱtheȱlatterȱwouldȱprovideȱtoȱtheȱformer.ȱWeȱknowȱofȱtheirȱexistenceȱonly
becauseȱonȱoccasionȱtheseȱarrangementsȱbrokeȱdownȱandȱtheȱcaseȱwouldȱbeȱbroughtȱtoȱtheȱcourt
forȱaȱresolutionȱofȱtheȱdifficulties.ȱ
50
TheȱVictoriaȱHistoryȱofȱtheȱCountiesȱofȱEngland:ȱHuntingdonshire,ȱed.ȱW.ȱW.ȱPage,ȱGranvilleȱProby,
andȱS.ȱInskipȱLaddsȱ(London:ȱStȱCatherineȱPress,ȱ1936),ȱ45.ȱ
224 SherriȱOlsonȱ
whomȱwereȱwomen.ȱTheseȱwereȱMabelȱGerold,ȱCassandra,ȱHelewys,ȱMabelȱCus,
MatildaȱdaughterȱofȱMatilda,ȱWilliamȱChaplain,ȱJohnȱFoulere,ȱWilliamȱBate,ȱand
EdithȱGerard.ȱAȱpreponderanceȱofȱwomenȱtenantsȱonȱrectoryȱlandsȱwouldȱbeȱa
naturalȱ configuration,ȱ givenȱ theȱ serviceȱ needsȱ ofȱ theȱ priest’sȱ household,ȱ i.e.,
cooking,ȱbrewing,ȱwashing,ȱandȱhousekeeping.ȱIndeed,ȱamongȱtheȱremainingȱmale
tenantsȱweȱmightȱenvisionȱthatȱJohnȱFoulereȱ(fowler,ȱbirdȬcatcher)ȱandȱWilliam
Chaplainȱ(assistingȱtheȱpriest)ȱalsoȱheldȱtheirȱtenementsȱasȱrectoryȱservants.ȱ
Littleȱisȱknownȱaboutȱtheseȱvillagers:ȱMabelȱGerold,ȱprobablyȱaȱwidow,ȱheldȱthe
largestȱtenementȱatȱnineȱandȱaȱhalfȱacresȱandȱaȱmessuage,ȱtoȱwhichȱwereȱattached
laborȱservices,ȱ30dȱrentȱandȱaȱmodestȱrenderingȱinȱkindȱ(fourȱchickens).ȱCassandra
heldȱoneȬandȬaȬhalfȱacresȱofȱlandȱandȱtheȱremainingȱtenantsȱheldȱoneȱmessuage
apiece.ȱMabelȱCusȱandȱMatildaȱdaughterȱofȱMatilda,ȱwhoȱheldȱaȱmessuageȱjointly,
giveȱtheȱclearestȱindicationȱofȱtheirȱstatusȱasȱservantsȱbecauseȱtheyȱheldȱnoȱland
(andȱ noteȱ theȱ metronymicȱ surnameȱ Cus,ȱ possiblyȱ aȱ diminutiveȱ ofȱ Custanceȱ or
Constance).51ȱFurther,ȱGeoffreyȱGerold,ȱtheȱcapitalȱpledgeȱofȱtheȱ“homageȱofȱthe
parson”ȱ(i.e.,ȱtheȱtithingȱgroupȱforȱallȱmalesȱoverȱtheȱageȱofȱtwelveȱwhoȱlivedȱon
theȱrectoryȱlands)ȱwasȱcitedȱforȱmenȱbeingȱoutsideȱtithing,ȱwhichȱincludedȱseveral
menȱidentifiedȱasȱsonsȱofȱAmice,ȱaȱRobertȱHelewysȱandȱWilliamȱHelewys.ȱThe
existenceȱofȱaȱ“neighborhoodȱofȱtheȱrectoryȱlands”ȱwasȱnoȱdoubtȱreinforcedȱbyȱthe
actionȱofȱtheȱparson’sȱhomageȱandȱtheȱhighȱprofileȱofȱwomen,ȱasȱsmallholders,
widows,ȱbrewers,ȱandȱservants.ȱ
TheȱmostȱsignificantȱresidentȱofȱSybethorpe,ȱforȱtheȱpurposesȱofȱthisȱstudy,ȱwas
SarraȱofȱSybethorpe.ȱAtȱfirstȱglanceȱthisȱclaimȱseemsȱunlikely,ȱsinceȱnotȱaȱsingle
actionȱofȱhersȱisȱenteredȱinȱtheȱcourtȱrolls.ȱWeȱknowȱofȱherȱexistenceȱonlyȱbecause
twoȱofȱherȱdescendantsȱappearȱinȱtheȱrecords,ȱJohnȱtheȱsonȱofȱSarra,ȱwhoȱserved
asȱaȱspecialȱinquestȱjurorȱtwiceȱinȱ1310,ȱandȱNicholasȱsonȱofȱJohnȱsonȱofȱSarraȱde
Sybethorp,ȱwhoȱwasȱgrantedȱpermissionȱtoȱleaveȱtheȱvillageȱinȱ1306ȱtoȱstudyȱand
takeȱholyȱorders.ȱHisȱrequestȱforȱpermissionȱtoȱleaveȱwasȱmadeȱatȱtheȱinstigation
(adȱ instanciam)ȱ ofȱ theȱ rectorȱ ofȱ Ellington.ȱ Suchȱ anȱ occurrenceȱ mustȱ haveȱ been
frequentȱ inȱ theȱ villagesȱ acrossȱ notȱ onlyȱ Englandȱ butȱ allȱ ofȱ Europe,ȱ ifȱ Michael
Clanchyȱisȱcorrectȱinȱhisȱreconstructionȱofȱearlyȱeducationȱforȱtheȱpeasantry:ȱafter
demonstratingȱ“sufficientȱabilityȱtoȱlearnȱreadingȱandȱelementaryȱLatinȱgrammar,”
theȱ“initialȱinstructionȱandȱselectionȱ[ofȱwouldȬbeȱclergy]ȱmustȱhaveȱtakenȱplace
inȱtheȱvillagesȱthemselves.”ȱIndeed,ȱheȱarguesȱthatȱtheȱ“elementaryȱteachingȱduties
ofȱparishȱpriests”ȱwereȱ“commonplace”;ȱtheȱ“averageȱparishȱpriest”ȱmightȱteach
readingȱandȱelementaryȱLatinȱgrammarȱtoȱ“oneȱpoorȱboyȱaȱyear,”ȱperhapsȱaȱboy
whoȱservedȱatȱtheȱaltar.52ȱThus,ȱtheȱpriestȱwhoȱsupportedȱNicholas’sȱrequestȱto
51
P.ȱH.ȱReaney,ȱAȱDictionaryȱofȱEnglishȱSurnames,ȱ3rdȱed.ȱ(Oxford:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1997),
122.
52
M.ȱT.ȱClanchy,ȱFromȱMemoryȱtoȱWrittenȱRecord,ȱEngland,ȱ1066–1307.ȱ2ndȱed.ȱ(1979;ȱCambridge,ȱMA:
leaveȱtheȱvillageȱinȱorderȱtoȱstudyȱmayȱalsoȱhaveȱbeenȱtheȱpersonȱwhoȱtaughtȱhim
hisȱletters.
Sarra’sȱcompleteȱabsenceȱfromȱtheȱevidenceȱisȱdeeplyȱemblematicȱofȱmuchȱofȱthe
foregoingȱdiscussion.ȱWeȱcannotȱseeȱherȱinȱtheȱrecords,ȱlongȬlivedȱthoughȱshe
mustȱhaveȱbeen,ȱbutȱperhapsȱsheȱplayedȱaȱmajorȱroleȱinȱtheȱgiveȱandȱtakeȱofȱthe
village,ȱparticipatingȱinȱvillageȱnetworksȱofȱsocialȱcapitalȱwhich,ȱbecauseȱthese
couldȱincludeȱtheȱparishȱpriestȱasȱwellȱasȱherȱotherȱneighbors,ȱwouldȱnotȱonly
makeȱherȱgrandsonȱvisible,ȱbutȱindeedȱwouldȱtakeȱhimȱbeyondȱtheȱspaceȱofȱhis
nativeȱvillage.ȱ
Didȱthisȱculturalȱroleȱforȱwomenȱamountȱtoȱ“agency,”ȱorȱwasȱitȱinsteadȱanother
aspectȱofȱtheȱphenomenonȱofȱmaleȱpolicingȱofȱfemaleȱmovement?ȱToȱaddressȱthis
question,ȱweȱhaveȱtriedȱtoȱteaseȱoutȱpatternsȱinȱtheȱevidenceȱthatȱbearsȱonȱthe
locality,ȱandȱtoȱfindȱtheȱmeaningȱofȱthoseȱpatterns,ȱaȱdifficultȱtaskȱevenȱwithȱa
muchȱfullerȱbodyȱofȱevidence.ȱTheȱpictureȱpiecedȱtogetherȱhereȱsuggestsȱthatȱthe
socialȱcapitalȱwhichȱwomenȱgeneratedȱinȱtheirȱeverydayȱcomingsȱandȱgoingsȱwere
importantȱ inȱ theȱ divisionȱ andȱ understandingȱ ofȱ “space”ȱ inȱ earlyȱ fourteenthȬ
centuryȱEllington,ȱandȱthatȱwomenȱ“drewȱstrength”ȱfromȱtheȱplacesȱtheyȱshaped.
Women’sȱassociations,ȱwovenȱintoȱtheȱfabricȱofȱbroaderȱvillageȱculture,ȱmadeȱthem
importantȱ agentsȱ inȱ theȱ “productionȱ ofȱ space,”ȱ notȱ byȱ beingȱ excludedȱ or
circumscribed,ȱbutȱbyȱleavingȱtheirȱmarkȱasȱitȱwereȱonȱvillageȱspace,ȱthroughȱthe
normalȱflowȱofȱtheirȱeverydayȱlives,ȱthroughȱtheȱsocialȱcapitalȱtheyȱcreatedȱand
deployed.ȱThatȱresponseȱwasȱoneȱstrandȱamongȱmanyȱthatȱtogetherȱconstitutedȱa
totalȱ villageȱ response,ȱ whoseȱ aimȱ wasȱ toȱ adaptȱ successfullyȱ toȱ aȱ timeȱ ofȱ rapid
change,ȱrelativeȱlandȱshortageȱandȱcrowding.ȱInȱthisȱview,ȱtheȱneighborhood—
thinkingȱaboutȱit,ȱinhabitingȱit,ȱcreatingȱit—fosteredȱcontrolȱandȱaȱsenseȱofȱcontrol,
powerȱ andȱ aȱ senseȱ ofȱ power,ȱ becauseȱ itȱ renderedȱ evenȱ moreȱ manageableȱ the
“place”ȱofȱtheȱvillage,ȱaȱplaceȱthatȱwasȱdiminutive,ȱfamiliar,ȱandȱenduring.
Blackwell,ȱ1993),ȱ242.
Chapterȱ3
ChristopherȱR.ȱClason
(OaklandȱUniversity,ȱRochster,ȱMI)
“Gebrochenȱbluomenȱundeȱgras”:ȱ
MedievalȱEcologicalȱConsciousnessȱinȱSelectedȱPoemsȱ
byȱWaltherȱvonȱderȱVogelweideȱ
Ecocriticism,ȱorȱ“theȱstudyȱofȱtheȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱliteratureȱandȱtheȱphysical
environment,”1ȱhasȱbeenȱslowȱinȱcomingȱtoȱMedievalȱStudies.ȱOftenȱcriticsȱhave
madeȱtheȱclaimȱthatȱtheȱearliestȱsignsȱofȱanȱ“ecologicalȱconsciousness”ȱinȱWestern
Europeanȱliteratureȱappearȱonlyȱafterȱtheȱunbridledȱgrowthȱofȱcapitalismȱandȱthe
IndustrialȱRevolutionȱbeginȱtoȱthreatenȱtheȱenvironmentȱinȱtheȱeighteenthȱand
earlyȱnineteenthȱcenturies.2ȱTheyȱsometimesȱsuggestȱthat,ȱbeforeȱthisȱtime,ȱliterary
worksȱdepictedȱnatureȱgenerallyȱ1)ȱasȱaȱdangerȱfromȱwhichȱtheȱurbanȱandȱcourtly
environmentsȱofferedȱprotection,3ȱ2)ȱasȱaȱ“challenge”ȱagainstȱwhichȱtheȱmythic
heroȱ testedȱ hisȱ mettle,4ȱ orȱ 3)ȱ asȱ aȱ “pastoral”ȱ milieu,5ȱ whereȱ courtlyȱ activities
(especiallyȱ theȱ ritualsȱ ofȱ courtlyȱ love)ȱ playȱ outȱ againstȱ aȱ backdropȱ ofȱ stylized,
1
Cheryllȱ Glotfelty,ȱ “Introduction:ȱ Literaryȱ Studiesȱ inȱ anȱ Ageȱ ofȱ Environmentalȱ Crisis,”ȱ The
Ecocriticismȱ Reader:ȱ Landmarksȱ inȱ Literaryȱ Ecology,ȱ eds.ȱ Cheryllȱ Glotfeltyȱ andȱ Haroldȱ Fromm
(Athens:ȱUniversityȱofȱGeorgiaȱPress),ȱxviii.
2
Forȱexample,ȱseeȱRaymondȱWilliams,ȱTheȱCountryȱandȱtheȱCityȱ(Oxford,ȱLondon,ȱNewȱYork,ȱetȱal.:
Oxfordȱ Universityȱ Press,ȱ 1973),ȱ 127–41,ȱ andȱ Wolfȱ Lepines,ȱ “Historisierungȱ derȱ Naturȱ und
EntmoralisierungȱderȱWissenschaftenȱseitȱdemȱ18.ȱJahrhundert,”ȱNaturȱundȱGeschichte,ȱed.ȱHubert
Markl.ȱ Schriftenȱ derȱ Carlȱ Friedrichȱ vonȱ Siemensȱ Stiftung,ȱ 7ȱ (Munich:ȱ R.ȱ Oldenbourg,ȱ 1983),
263–88.
3
JacquesȱLeȱGoff,ȱMedievalȱCivilization.ȱTrans.ȱfromȱtheȱFrenchȱbyȱJuliaȱBarrowȱ(1964;ȱOxfordȱand
Cambridge:ȱBlackwell,ȱ1988),ȱ131–33.
4
AlbrechtȱClassen,ȱ“Storms,ȱSeaȱCrossings,ȱtheȱChallengesȱofȱNature,ȱandȱtheȱTransformationȱof
theȱProtagonistȱinȱMedievalȱandȱRenaissanceȱLiterature,”ȱNeoheliconȱ30ȱ(2003):ȱ163–82.
5
ErnstȱRobertȱCurtius,ȱEuropeanȱLiteratureȱandȱtheȱLatinȱMiddleȱAgesȱTrans.ȱfromȱtheȱGermanȱby
WillardȱR.ȱTrask.ȱBollingenȱSeries,ȱ36ȱ(1948;ȱPrinceton:ȱPrincetonȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1990),ȱ193–200.
228 ChristopherȱR.ȱClason
“natural”ȱallegoriesȱandȱstereotypesȱandȱidealizedȱabstractions.ȱManyȱpoemsȱof
theȱmedievalȱperiodȱpresentȱtypicalȱpastoralȱartificesȱthatȱassembleȱaȱ“natural”
environment,ȱ whichȱ becomesȱ theȱ polarȱ oppositeȱ ofȱ theȱ restrictiveȱ rulesȱ and
customsȱtypicalȱofȱtheȱcourt.ȱWhileȱpastoralȱnatureȱlacksȱrealism,ȱitȱnevertheless
providesȱaȱreadyȱinventoryȱofȱconventionalȱimagesȱandȱaȱconvenientȱmilieuȱin
whichȱ artistsȱ canȱ exploreȱ extraȬcourtlyȱ attitudes,ȱ ideasȱ andȱ actions,ȱ suchȱ as
extramaritalȱ love,ȱ withoutȱ directlyȱ challengingȱ theȱ institutionsȱ informingȱ their
patrons’ȱcourtlyȱspaces.
InȱEcocriticism,6ȱGregȱGarrardȱsketchesȱ“threeȱorientationsȱofȱpastoralȱinȱterms
ofȱtime:ȱtheȱelegyȱlooksȱbackȱtoȱaȱvanishedȱpastȱwithȱaȱsenseȱofȱnostalgia;ȱtheȱidyll
celebratesȱaȱbountifulȱpresent;ȱtheȱutopiaȱlooksȱforwardȱtoȱaȱredeemedȱfuture.”ȱȱHe
suggestsȱthatȱthereinȱliesȱanȱimplicitȱpromiseȱfromȱGodȱthatȱtheȱresourcesȱofȱnature
areȱandȱwillȱremainȱavailableȱtoȱhumanȱexploitationȱasȱaȱsymbolȱofȱtheȱ“possibility
ofȱ presentȱ grace.”ȱ Oneȱ findsȱ theȱ treatmentȱ ofȱ natureȱ asȱ anȱ instrumentalȱ and
exploitableȱ spaceȱ inȱ numerousȱ medievalȱ literaryȱ contexts.ȱ Recently,ȱ however,
someȱcriticsȱhaveȱfoundȱevidenceȱofȱaȱcontraryȱdiscourseȱinȱwritingsȱbyȱaȱnumber
ofȱȱmedievalȱauthors,ȱartistsȱandȱotherȱintellectuals.7ȱWhileȱitȱisȱdifficultȱtoȱdefine
strictlyȱ whatȱ wouldȱ constituteȱ anȱ “ecologicalȱ consciousness”ȱ forȱ medieval
literatureȱ(or,ȱforȱthatȱmatter,ȱforȱȱliteratureȱgenerally,ȱwhereinȱtheȱawarenessȱof
humanȱimpactȱonȱenvironmentȱrevealsȱitselfȱinȱsuchȱprofusionȱandȱvariety),ȱsome
worksȱevinceȱcharacteristicsȱthatȱbendȱorȱbreakȱpastoralȱconventionsȱandȱpoint
aheadȱinȱtimeȱtoȱaȱnumberȱofȱconceptsȱandȱconcernsȱofȱimportanceȱtoȱmodern
ecocriticalȱthinking.ȱForȱexample,ȱsuchȱecologicalȱconsiderationsȱmightȱtakeȱthe
formȱofȱaȱdiscourseȱthatȱrunsȱ“againstȱtheȱgrain”ȱofȱpredominantȱculturalȱviewsȱon
nature,ȱ particularlyȱ thoseȱ inherentȱ toȱ theȱ pastoral,ȱ orȱ perhapsȱ thatȱ ofȱ theȱ role
whichȱhumansȱplayȱinȱtheirȱextraȬurbanȱenvironment,ȱeitherȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱthe
relationshipȱtheyȱforgeȱwithȱotherȱentitiesȱinȱtheȱecosystemȱ(animals,ȱplants,ȱetc.),
orȱ inȱ regardȱ toȱ theȱ direct,ȱ realȬtimeȱ effectsȱ ofȱ theirȱ foraysȱ intoȱ natureȱ andȱ the
footprints,ȱliterallyȱandȱfiguratively,ȱthatȱtheyȱleaveȱbehind.ȱ
6
GregȱGarrard,ȱEcocriticism.ȱTheȱNewȱCriticalȱIdiomȱ(LondonȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱRoutledge,ȱ2004),ȱ37.
7
See,ȱ forȱ example,ȱ theȱ broadȱ rangeȱ ofȱ medievalȱ ecocriticismȱ representedȱ byȱ Sarahȱ Stanbury,
“Ecochaucer:ȱGreenȱEthicsȱandȱMedievalȱNature,”ȱȱTheȱChaucerȱReviewȱ39ȱ(2004):ȱ1–16;ȱAlfredȱK.
Siewers,ȱStrangeȱBeauty:ȱEcocriticalȱApproachesȱtoȱEarlyȱMedievalȱLandscape.ȱTheȱNewȱMiddleȱAges
(NewȱYork:ȱPalgraveȱMacmillan,ȱ2009);ȱJeremyȱWithers,ȱ“TheȱEcologyȱofȱLateȱMedievalȱWarfare
inȱ Lydgate’sȱ Debateȱ ofȱ theȱ Horse,ȱ Goose,ȱ andȱ Sheep,”ȱ Interdisciplinaryȱ Studiesȱ inȱ Literatureȱ and
Environmentȱ18ȱ(2011):ȱ104–22;ȱandȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱAlbrechtȱClassen,ȱ“Rural
SpaceȱinȱLateȱMedievalȱBooksȱofȱHours:ȱBookȱIllustrationsȱasȱaȱLookingȬGlassȱIntoȱMedieval
MentalityȱandȱMirrorsȱofȱEcocriticism.”
“Gebrochenȱbluomenȱundeȱgras” 229
Waltherȱ vonȱ derȱ Vogelweide,8ȱ perhapsȱ theȱ finestȱ poetȱ ofȱ theȱ Germanȱ High
MiddleȱAges,ȱisȱwellȬknownȱforȱdeconstructingȱsuchȱconventionsȱasȱtheȱpastoral,
oftenȱemployingȱimagesȱandȱrhetoricȱinȱnewȱ waysȱ thatȱexpandȱtheȱexpressive
possibilitiesȱofȱtheȱmedievalȱlyric.ȱȱSeveralȱofȱhisȱpoemsȱplayȱwithȱpastoralȱformulae
andȱrepresentȱ“nature”ȱinȱanȱinterestingȱandȱuniqueȱlightȱthatȱforcesȱtheȱaudience
toȱ reexamineȱ bucolicȱ commonplaces.9ȱ ȱ However,ȱ theȱ questionȱ ofȱ theȱ extentȱ to
whichȱ Walther’sȱ poemsȱ removeȱ natureȱ fromȱ theȱ allegorical,ȱ stylizedȱ and,
therefore,ȱ“unreal”ȱrealmȱofȱtheȱpastoralȱandȱrestoreȱitȱtoȱitsȱmoreȱ“ecological”
position,ȱȱasȱaȱproperȱenvironmentȱinȱrelationshipȱwithȱandȱaffectedȱbyȱhuman
presence,ȱhasȱnotȱbeenȱaddressedȱinȱcriticalȱliterature.ȱȱInȱthisȱpaperȱIȱintendȱto
examineȱimagesȱofȱnatureȱinȱsixȱofȱWalther’sȱbestȬknownȱlyricsȱinȱanȱattemptȱto
answerȱtheȱquestion:ȱisȱthereȱaȱnascentȱenvironmentalȱconsciousnessȱreflectedȱin
theseȱpoems?ȱ
Inȱorderȱtoȱidentifyȱtracesȱofȱsuchȱaȱconsciousness,ȱIȱwouldȱlikeȱtoȱemployȱaȱ
paradigmȱsuggestedȱbyȱsuchȱmodernȱcriticsȱasȱGregȱGarrard,ȱTimothyȱMorton,
ChristopherȱManes10ȱandȱothers,ȱȱwho,ȱinȱtheirȱanalysesȱofȱmoreȱrecentȱliterary
works,ȱ attemptȱ toȱ shiftȱ theȱ anthropocentricȱ focusȱ ofȱ criticismȱ ontoȱ aȱ more
“ecocentric”ȱone.ȱAȱnew,ȱecologicalȱperspectiveȱconsidersȱhumanȱbeingsȱasȱaȱpart
ofȱtheȱecosphereȱandȱemphasizesȱ“interconnectedness,”ȱtheȱprincipleȱthatȱhumans
existȱinȱanȱunmediatedȱandȱconsequentialȱrelationshipȱwithȱbothȱlivingȱandȱnonȬ
livingȱ entitiesȱ inȱ theȱ environment,ȱ andȱ thatȱ humanȱ actionsȱ haveȱ aȱ directȱ and
8
TheȱgreatȱvarietyȱofȱcriticalȱapproachesȱtoȱWalther’sȱpoetryȱareȱsummarizedȱinȱseveralȱuseful
introductoryȱworksȱandȱcollectionsȱofȱessays,ȱincludingȱWaltherȱvonȱderȱVogelweide,ȱed.ȱSiegfried
Beyschlag.ȱ Wegeȱ derȱ Forschung,ȱ CXIIȱ (Darmstadt:ȱ Wissenschaftlicheȱ Buchgesellschaft,ȱ 1971);
ManfredȱGunterȱScholz,ȱWaltherȱvonȱderȱVogelweide.ȱSammlungȱMetzler,ȱ316ȱ(Stuttgart:ȱMetzler,
1999);ȱWaltherȱlesen:ȱInterpretationenȱundȱÜberlegungenȱzuȱWaltherȱvonȱderȱVogelweide:ȱFestschriftȱfür
UrsulaȱSchulzeȱzumȱ65.ȱGeburtstag,ȱeds.ȱVolkerȱMertensȱandȱUlrichȱMüller.ȱGöppingenȱArbeiten
zurȱGermanistik,ȱ692ȱ(Göppingen:ȱKümmerle,ȱ2001);ȱWaltherȱverstehenȱ–ȱWalterȱvermitteln,ȱed.
ThomasȱBein.ȱWaltherȬStudien,ȱ2ȱ(Frankfurtȱa.ȱM.,ȱBerlin,ȱetȱal.:ȱPeterȱLang,ȱ2004);ȱThomasȱBein,
“’dieȱächteȱlesart:’ȱÜberȱmittelalterlicheȱTexteȱundȱihreȱKonstitutionenȱ(amȱBeispielȱWalthersȱvon
derȱ Vogelweide),”ȱ Text:ȱ kritischeȱ Beiträgeȱ 9ȱ (2004):ȱ 47–63;ȱ Willȱ Hasty,ȱ “Waltherȱ vonȱ der
Vogelweide,”ȱ Germanȱ Literatureȱ ofȱ theȱ Highȱ Middleȱ Ages,ȱ ed.ȱ Willȱ Hasty.ȱ Theȱ Camdenȱ House
HistoryȱofȱGermanȱLiterature,ȱ3ȱ(Rochester,ȱNY:ȱCamdenȱHouseȱandȱWoodbridge,ȱUK:ȱBoydell
andȱBrewer,ȱ2006),ȱ109–20;ȱandȱHorstȱBrunner,ȱGerhardȱHahn,ȱUlrichȱMüllerȱandȱFranzȱViktor
Spechtler,ȱWaltherȱvonȱderȱVogelweide:ȱEpocheȱ–ȱWerkȱ–ȱWirkung.ȱ2ndȱrev.ȱandȱexpandedȱed.ȱ(1996;
Munich:ȱC.ȱH.ȱBeck,ȱ2009);ȱtwoȱparticularlyȱusefulȱbibliographiesȱareȱManfredȱGüntherȱScholz,
BibliographieȱzuȱWaltherȱvonȱderȱVogelweide.ȱBibliographienȱzurȱdeutschenȱLiteraturȱdesȱMittelalters
4ȱ (Berlin:ȱ E.ȱ Schmidt,ȱ 1969),ȱ andȱ Manfredȱ Güntherȱ Scholz,ȱ Waltherȱ Bibliographie:ȱ 1968–2004.
WaltherȬStudien,ȱ3ȱ(Frankfurtȱ.ȱM.,ȱBerlin,ȱetȱal.:ȱPeterȱLang,ȱ2005).
9
See,ȱforȱexample,ȱThomasȱBein,ȱWaltherȱvonȱderȱVogelweide.ȱLiteraturstudiumȱ(Stuttgart:ȱReclam,
1997),ȱ107–11.
10
Garrard,ȱ Ecocriticismȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 6),ȱ 176;ȱ Timothyȱ Morton,ȱ Ecologyȱ withoutȱ Nature:ȱ Rethinking
EnvironmentalȱAestheticsȱ(Cambridge,ȱMA:ȱHarvardȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2007);ȱChristopherȱManes,
“NatureȱandȱSilence,”ȱTheȱEcocriticismȱReaderȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1),ȱ15–29.ȱȱ
lastingȱeffectȱuponȱtheȱworldȱaroundȱthem.ȱSuchȱaȱperspectiveȱwouldȱopposeȱthe
elementsȱofȱtheȱpastoralȱthatȱappropriateȱnatureȱasȱanȱallegorical,ȱsublimeȱobject
forȱ humanȱ contemplation,ȱ placingȱ itȱ beyondȱ physicalȱ reachȱ andȱ renderingȱ it
eternallyȱ pristineȱ andȱ untouchable;ȱ instead,ȱ thisȱ pointȬofȬviewȱ wouldȱ restore
“nature”ȱasȱaȱlegitimatelyȱselfȬconstituting,ȱauthenticȱspace,ȱuponȱwhichȱhuman
activityȱcanȱhaveȱsignificantȱeffects.ȱBut,ȱinȱsuchȱaȱperspective,ȱthereȱisȱaȱcounterȬ
effectȱasȱwell:ȱnatureȱalsoȱbecomesȱanȱautonomousȱsubject,ȱwithȱwhichȱhuman
beingsȱmustȱinteractȱandȱcompromiseȱinȱorderȱtoȱsurviveȱandȱprosper.ȱ
Walther’sȱadroitnessȱinȱhandlingȱpastoralȱtropesȱisȱevidentȱinȱhisȱcelebratedȱsong,
“Sôȱdieȱbluomenȱûzȱdemȱgraseȱdringent”ȱ(L.ȱ45,37,ȱ“Thusȱtheȱflowersȱpushȱup
fromȱtheȱgrass”).11ȱTheȱtriȬstrophicȱpoemȱisȱstructuredȱbyȱanȱextendedȱcomparison
betweenȱ theȱ beautifulȱ thingsȱ ofȱ natureȱ andȱ theȱ beautyȱ ofȱ aȱ courtlyȱ lady,ȱ with
which,ȱinȱtheȱpoet’sȱeye,ȱnatureȱcannotȱcompete.ȱTheȱfirstȱfewȱlinesȱofȱtheȱfirst
stropheȱprovideȱessentiallyȱallȱthatȱtheȱaudienceȱfindsȱoutȱaboutȱtheȱpoem’sȱnatural
setting:ȱ
Sôȱdieȱbluomenȱûzȱdemȱgraseȱdringent,ȱ
sameȱsiȱlachenȱgegenȱderȱspildenȱsunnen,ȱȱ
inȱeinemȱmeienȱanȱdemȱmorgenȱvruo,ȱȱ
Undȱdiuȱcleinenȱvogellînȱwolȱsingentȱȱ
inȱirȱbestenȱwîse,ȱdieȱsiȱkunnen,ȱȱȱ
wazȱwunneȱmacȱsichȱdâȱgenôzenȱzuo?ȱ
[Thusȱtheȱflowersȱpushȱupȱfromȱtheȱgrass,ȱ
asȱifȱtheyȱwereȱlaughingȱtowardȱtheȱplayfulȱsun,ȱ
onȱanȱearlyȱmorningȱinȱMay,ȱ
andȱtheȱlittleȱbirdiesȱsingȱwellȱ
inȱtheȱbestȱmannerȱthatȱtheyȱcan,ȱ
whatȱpleasureȱcanȱbeȱȱenjoyedȱlikeȱthis?]
TheȱsettingȱisȱthatȱofȱaȱMayȱmorning,ȱtheȱsunȱshinesȱbenevolently,ȱgenericȱflowers
anthropomorphicallyȱ “lachen”ȱ (“laugh”)ȱ upwardsȱ andȱ diminutiveȱ birdsȱ sing
nicely.ȱClearly,ȱtheȱtextȱrecreatesȱtheȱmedievalȱlocusȱamoenus12ȱwithȱtheseȱfew,ȱfacile
andȱrelativelyȱdetailȬlessȱimages.ȱMoreȱimportantly,ȱtheȱemphasisȱofȱtheȱpoemȱis
notȱtheȱnaturalȱenvironmentȱperȱse,ȱbutȱratherȱtheȱlyricalȱfeelingȱthatȱtheȱbright,
cheerfulȱ sceneȱ producesȱ inȱ theȱ poet,ȱ asȱ aȱ backdropȱ forȱ theȱ appearanceȱ ofȱ his
11
AllȱoriginalȱMiddleȱHighȱGermanȱtextsȱareȱtakenȱfromȱWaltherȱvonȱderȱVogelweide,ȱLeich,ȱLieder,
Sangsprüche.ȱ14.,ȱvölligȱneubearbeiteteȱAuflageȱderȱAusgabeȱKarlȱLachmannsȱmitȱBeiträgenȱvon
Thomasȱ Beinȱ undȱ Horstȱ Brunner,ȱ ed.ȱ Christophȱ Cormeauȱ (Berlinȱ andȱ Newȱ York:ȱ Walterȱ de
Gruyter,ȱ1996),ȱhereȱ94–95;ȱtheȱtranslationsȱintoȱEnglishȱofȱtitlesȱandȱtextsȱareȱmyȱown.
12
ErnstȱRobertȱCurtius,ȱEuropeanȱLiteratureȱandȱtheȱLatinȱMiddleȱAges,ȱ194–200ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ5).ȱ
beautifulȱladyȱinȱtheȱnextȱstrophe.ȱAlthoughȱtheȱstropheȱengagesȱtheȱvisualȱsense
extensivelyȱ (saveȱ forȱ theȱ avianȱ song),ȱ itȱ conveysȱ remarkablyȱ littleȱ detail.ȱ For
example,ȱWaltherȱdoesȱnotȱidentifyȱevenȱtheȱcolorȱofȱtheȱflowersȱthatȱpressȱthough
theȱgrass,ȱalthoughȱoneȱsurelyȱsensesȱtheȱjoyȱthisȱeventȱhasȱcreatedȱinȱtheȱpoet’s
mood.ȱSimilarly,ȱtheȱbirdsȱareȱcolorlessȱandȱlackȱidentifyingȱcharacteristics,ȱsave
thatȱtheyȱareȱsmallȱandȱsingȱveryȱwellȱduringȱtheȱMayȱmorning.ȱInȱthisȱscene,
natureȱservesȱtheȱidyllicȱfunctionȱGarrard13ȱidentifiesȱinȱtheȱpastoral;ȱtheȱpresentȬ
tenseȱabundanceȱofȱjoy,ȱbeauty,ȱandȱgoodȱfeeling,ȱhowever,ȱareȱinterior,ȱwithinȱthe
mindȱ ofȱ theȱ poet,ȱ whoȱ isȱ aboutȱ toȱ celebrateȱ hisȱ loveȱ forȱ aȱ sublimelyȱ beautiful
woman.14ȱInȱjustȱaȱfewȱopeningȱlines,ȱandȱwithȱextremelyȱsparseȱdetail,ȱWaltherȱis
ableȱtoȱpaintȱallȱheȱrequiresȱofȱnaturalȱbackgroundȱtoȱsetȱproperlyȱanȱappropriate
atmosphere.ȱ
However,ȱitȱisȱmostȱimportantȱtoȱpointȱoutȱthat,ȱwhileȱtheȱmoodȱofȱtheȱpastoral
environmentȱ isȱ joyful,ȱ perhapsȱ evenȱ giddy,ȱ itȱ isȱ aȱ manufacturedȱ artificeȱ that
merelyȱplaysȱaȱsupportingȱroleȱtoȱanotherȱpoeticȱgoal.15ȱTheȱpictureȱofȱnatureȱone
receivesȱisȱvagueȱandȱinauthentic,ȱwhileȱtheȱanthropomorphismȱofȱgenericȱflowers,
sunȱandȱbirdsȱprovidesȱaȱbasisȱbyȱwhichȱWaltherȱcanȱcompareȱtheseȱentitiesȱwith
hisȱbeloved.ȱThus,ȱheȱfabricatesȱaȱ“nature”ȱthatȱonlyȱservesȱhumanȱpurposes;ȱthe
floralȱ andȱ faunalȱ substantivesȱ serveȱ asȱ propsȱ thatȱ eitherȱ supportȱ atmosphere
(typicalȱofȱtheȱpastoral)ȱorȱsetȱtheȱstageȱforȱaȱcomparison.ȱByȱtheȱpoem’sȱthird
strophe,ȱ evenȱtheȱvernalȱseasonȱisȱreducedȱtoȱaȱpartyȱforȱhumans:ȱ“desȱmeien
hôhgezîte”ȱ(“theȱfestivalȱofȱMay”),ȱwhereȱoneȱcanȱwitnessȱtheȱ“victory”ȱofȱcourtly,
femaleȱbeautyȱoverȱthatȱofȱnature.
Manyȱ ofȱ Walther’sȱ poemsȱ presentȱ aȱ “nature”ȱ thatȱ fitsȱ thisȱ pastoralȱ pattern.ȱ
However,ȱthereȱareȱalsoȱnoteworthyȱexceptions;ȱmore,ȱperhaps,ȱthanȱoneȱfindsȱin
theȱworksȱofȱotherȱmedievalȱpoets.ȱInȱtheȱfollowingȱdiscussionȱIȱintendȱtoȱidentify
lociȱinȱpoemsȱwhereȱWaltherȱeitherȱunderminesȱpastoralȱiconsȱinȱorderȱtoȱbring
greaterȱclarityȱandȱdetailȱtoȱhisȱnaturalȱdescriptions,ȱorȱdevelopsȱasȱauthenticȱa
naturalȱsettingȱasȱpossibleȱthroughȱspecific,ȱconcreteȱandȱdetailedȱimages.ȱThey
oftenȱ serveȱ toȱ drawȱ theȱ audienceȱ intoȱ theȱ poeticȱ setting,ȱ creatingȱ aȱ lyrical
atmosphereȱ thatȱ includesȱ aȱ moreȱ realistic,ȱ and,ȱ Iȱ maintain,ȱ moreȱ “ecological”
awarenessȱthanȱisȱpossibleȱwithinȱtheȱlimitsȱofȱtheȱpastoral.ȱȱ
13
Garrard,ȱEcocriticismȱ(seeȱnoteȱ6),ȱ37.
14
SeeȱHubertȱHeinen,ȱ“LoftyȱandȱBaseȱLoveȱinȱWaltherȱvonȱderȱVogelweide’sȱ‘Soȱdieȱbluomen’ȱand
‘Allerȱwerdekeit,’”ȱGermanȱQuarterlyȱ51ȱ(1978):ȱ463–75.
15
SeeȱArthurȱGroos,ȱ“’ShallȱIȱcompareȱtheeȱtoȱaȱMornȱinȱMay?’:ȱWaltherȱvonȱderȱVogelweideȱand
HisȱLady,”ȱPMLAȱ91ȱ(1976):ȱ398–405,ȱwhoȱassertsȱthatȱWalther,ȱdemonstratingȱcharacteristicsȱof
“modern”ȱpoeticȱauthorshipȱinȱthisȱpoem,ȱchallengesȱtheȱtraditionsȱofȱtheȱminnesangȱinȱthatȱ“the
mostȱexaltedȱladyȱofȱallȱisȱtheȱcreationȱofȱtheȱpoet”ȱ(404),ȱandȱthereforeȱsimilarȱtoȱtheȱpoeticȱartifice
ofȱnatureȱIȱdescribeȱhere.
Inȱ possiblyȱ hisȱ mostȱ famousȱ Lied,ȱ “Underȱ derȱ linden”ȱ (L.ȱ 39,11,ȱ “Beneathȱ the
LindenȱTree”)16ȱWaltherȱpresentsȱaȱ“morningȱsong,”ȱorȱalba,ȱinȱwhichȱaȱyoung
womanȱsingsȱinȱpraiseȱofȱtheȱbeautifulȱnightȱsheȱhasȱspentȱlyingȱinȱaȱmeadowȱin
theȱ amorousȱ embraceȱ ofȱ herȱ lover.ȱ Heȱ hasȱ treatedȱ herȱ gentlyȱ andȱ withȱ great
courtesy,ȱ andȱ herȱ pleasureȱ inȱ recallingȱ whatȱ transpiredȱ fillsȱ eachȱ ofȱ theȱ four
stanzasȱwithȱcharmingȱandȱdelightfulȱimagesȱandȱ language,ȱmuchȱofȱwhichȱis
typicallyȱpastoral.ȱTheȱwomanȱgladlyȱsharesȱherȱjoyȱwithȱherȱaudience,ȱandȱsheȱis
remarkablyȱforthcomingȱwithȱdetails.ȱȱSheȱevenȱpresentsȱtheȱevidenceȱofȱtheirȱloveȬ
making,ȱtheȱbrokenȱflowersȱandȱbentȱstalksȱofȱgrassȱwhereȱsheȱlay,ȱasȱwellȱasȱthe
intenselyȱcrimsonȱhueȱofȱherȱlipsȱwhereȱheȱkissedȱherȱatȱleastȱaȱthousandȱtimes,
bothȱimagesȱsuggestingȱtheȱgirl’sȱlossȱofȱvirginityȱduringȱthisȱnightȱofȱpassion.17ȱ
dâȱunserȱzweierȱbetteȱwas,
dâȱmugentȱirȱvinden
schôneȱbeide
gebrochenȱbluomenȱundeȱgrasȱ.ȱ.ȱ.
.ȱ.ȱ.ȱȱKusterȱmich?ȱwolȱtûsentstunt:
tandaradei,
seht,ȱwieȱrôtȱmirȱistȱderȱmunt.
[there,ȱwhereȱtheȱtwoȱofȱusȱmadeȱourȱbed,
thereȱyouȱcanȱfind
togetherȱquiteȱnicely
brokenȱflowersȱandȱstalksȱofȱgrassȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.
.ȱ.ȱ.ȱDidȱheȱkissȱme?ȱEasilyȱaȱthousandȱtimes:
tandaradei,
lookȱhowȱredȱmyȱmouthȱis.]
16
WaltherȱvonȱderȱVogelweide,ȱLeich,ȱLieder,ȱSangsprücheȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱ77–78;ȱattestingȱtoȱtheȱfame
ofȱthisȱpoem,ȱtheȱbodyȱofȱsecondaryȱliteratureȱonȱitȱisȱhuge,ȱsuchȱthatȱManfredȱGunterȱScholzȱhas
evenȱsuggestedȱaȱ“Ruhepause”ȱforȱitsȱcritics:ȱseeȱhisȱWaltherȱvonȱderȱVogelweideȱ(seeȱnoteȱ8),ȱ124;
someȱrecentȱexamplesȱincludeȱAnneȱMarieȱRasmussen,ȱ“RepresentingȱWoman’sȱDesire:ȱWalther’s
Woman’sȱStanzasȱinȱ‘Ichȱhoereȱiuȱsôȱvilȱtugendeȱjehen’ȱ(Lȱ43,ȱ9),ȱ‘Underȱderȱlinden’ȱ(Lȱ39,ȱ11),ȱand
‘FrôȱWelt’ȱ(Lȱ100,ȱ24),”WomenȱasȱProtagonistsȱandȱPoetsȱinȱtheȱGermanȱMiddleȱAges:ȱanȱAnthologyȱof
FeministȱApproachesȱtoȱMiddleȱHighȱGermanȱLiterature,ȱȱed.,ȱAlbrechtȱClassen.ȱGöppingerȱArbeiten
zurȱGermanistik,ȱ528ȱ(Göppingen:ȱKümmerle,ȱ1991),ȱ59–85;ȱCyrilȱEdwards,ȱ“HêreȱFrowe:ȱCase,
Number,ȱ andȱ Rankȱ inȱ Waltherȱ vonȱ derȱ Vogelweide’sȱ ‘Lindenlied:’ȱ Inȱ Memoryȱ ofȱ Davidȱ R.
McLintock,”ȱModernȱLanguageȱReviewȱ99ȱ(2004):ȱ94–100;ȱMaryȱM.ȱPaddock,ȱ“SpeakingȱofȱSpectacle:
AnotherȱLookȱatȱWalther’sȱ‘Lindenlied,’”ȱGermanȱQuarterlyȱ77ȱ(2004):ȱ11–28;ȱBrunner,ȱHahn,ȱetȱal.,
WaltherȱvonȱderȱVogelweideȱ(seeȱnoteȱ8),ȱ106–07;ȱandȱAlbrechtȱClassen’sȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolume,
“UtopianȱSpaceȱinȱtheȱCountryside:ȱLoveȱandȱMarriageȱbetweenȱaȱKnightȱandȱaȱPeasantȱGirlȱin
MedievalȱGermanȱLiterature:ȱHartmannȱvonȱAue’sȱ‘DerȱarmeȱHeinrich,’ȱAnonymous,ȱ’Disȱistȱvon
demȱHeselin,’ȱWaltherȱvonȱderȱVogelweide,ȱOswaldȱvonȱWolkenstein,ȱandȱLateȱMedievalȱPopular
Poetry.”
17
SeeȱBein,ȱWaltherȱvonȱderȱVogelweideȱ(seeȱnoteȱ8),ȱ109.
Theȱdetailsȱhereȱareȱmostȱrealisticȱandȱevokeȱaȱclearȱmentalȱimageȱofȱtheȱscene;ȱshe
evenȱpointsȱoutȱthat,ȱinȱtheȱimpressionȱleftȱonȱtheȱcrushedȱflowers,ȱoneȱcanȱdiscern
whereȱherȱheadȱpressedȱintoȱtheȱpetalsȱ(“Bîȱdenȱrôsenȱerȱwolȱmac,ȱ/ȱtandaradei,ȱ/
merken,ȱwâȱmirzȱhoubetȱlac”ȱ(“Inȱtheȱrosesȱoneȱmightȱindeedȱnoticeȱ/ȱtandaradei
/ȱwhereȱmyȱheadȱlay”).ȱHerȱpoeticȱlanguageȱreflectsȱaȱdesireȱnotȱonlyȱtoȱreveal,ȱbut
alsoȱtoȱconcealȱwhatȱhasȱtranspiredȱ(asȱsheȱlaterȱstatesȱexplicitly:ȱ“wessezȱiemen
/ȱnunȱwelleȱgot),ȱsôȱschamtȱichȱmich”ȱ[“ifȱanyoneȱwouldȱfindȱoutȱ/ȱ(heavenȱforbid!),
Iȱ wouldȱ beȱ reallyȱ ashamed”]);ȱ butȱ sheȱ isȱ hidingȱ herȱ pleasureȱ fromȱ the
condemnationȱofȱtheȱcourt,ȱandȱdefinitelyȱnotȱfromȱherȱaudienceȱofȱlisteners.ȱHer
joyȱ (aȱ functionȱ ofȱ whatȱ theȱ coupleȱ couldȱ doȱ outsideȱ theȱ courtȱ inȱ aȱ natural
environment)ȱ isȱ curbedȱ byȱ herȱ senseȱ ofȱ proprietyȱ (correspondingȱ toȱ the
judgmentalȱgazeȱofȱwhatȱotherȱhumans,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱcourtlyȱretinue,ȱmightȱthink).
Theȱdivisionȱof,ȱonȱtheȱoneȱhand,ȱherȱtextualȱopennessȱwithȱtheȱaudienceȱand,ȱon
theȱ other,ȱ herȱ desireȱ toȱ concealȱ theȱ nightȱ ofȱ loveȱ fromȱ courtlyȱ intrusionȱ and
condemnationȱ establishesȱ aȱ closeȱ associationȱ withȱ theȱ audience,ȱ removing
Walther’sȱ listenersȱ andȱ readersȱ fromȱ theȱ courtlyȱ sphereȱ ofȱ influenceȱ and
transportingȱ themȱ toȱ aȱ communal,ȱ lessȱ judgmentalȱ perspective,ȱ outsideȱ the
stuffinessȱofȱcourtlyȱproprietyȱandȱintoȱtheȱlyrical,ȱblissfulȱandȱnaturalȱecology
withȱtheȱlovers.ȱ
Associatedȱ withȱ thisȱ naturalȱ backgroundȱ isȱ aȱ nightingale,ȱ whoseȱ song
traditionallyȱ providesȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ mostȱ commonȱ medieval,ȱ pastoralȱ tropesȱ for
nocturnalȱlove.18ȱTheȱavianȱallyȱofȱtheȱloversȱstandsȱguardȱoverȱtheȱplaceȱwhere
theyȱcelebrateȱtheirȱamorousȱliaison,ȱandȱsingsȱasȱlongȱasȱitȱisȱundisturbed—but
growsȱsilentȱandȱfliesȱoff,ȱshouldȱsomeȱintruderȱdrawȱnear.ȱThus,ȱitsȱserviceȱtoȱthe
loversȱisȱthatȱofȱguardianȱandȱdangerȱsignal.ȱInȱWalther’sȱ“Underȱderȱlinden,”
howeverȱ(whereinȱitsȱvoice,ȱrepresentedȱasȱ“tandaradei,”ȱrecursȱasȱtheȱ“Waise”Ȭ
lineȱofȱeachȱstrophe),ȱtheȱnightingaleȱprovidesȱsomethingȱmoreȱthanȱitsȱcommon
significance.ȱTheȱyoungȱwomanȱidentifiesȱallȱwhoȱhaveȱwitnessedȱtheirȱtrystȱand
knowȱaboutȱwhatȱtranspired:ȱ“.ȱ.ȱ.ȱerȱundȱich,ȱ/ȱundȱeinȱkleinezȱvogellîn”ȱ(“.ȱ.ȱ.ȱhe,
andȱ I,ȱ andȱ aȱ littleȱ birdie”).ȱ Asȱ aȱ resultȱ ofȱ thisȱ emphaticȱ statement,ȱ eachȱ being
(woman,ȱbirdȱandȱman)ȱacquiresȱequalȱstatusȱasȱaȱfullyȱempoweredȱagentȱinȱtheir
communalȱrelationship.ȱThus,ȱtheȱmelodiousȱbirdȱbecomesȱanȱaccompliceȱinȱthe
lovers’ȱsecret,ȱaȱthirdȱpartnerȱinȱtheȱfellowshipȱofȱtheȱclandestineȱeroticȱencounter.
However,ȱasȱtheȱwomanȱasserts,ȱtheirȱsecretȱisȱsafe,ȱforȱtheȱlittleȱbirdȱcanȱbeȱtrusted
18
Criticismȱregardingȱtheȱnightingaleȱinȱmedievalȱliteratureȱisȱalsoȱprodigious;ȱsee,ȱforȱexample,
ThomasȱAlanȱȱShippey,ȱ“ListeningȱtoȱtheȱNightingale,”ȱComparativeȱLiteratureȱ22,ȱ(1970):ȱȱ46–60;
WendyȱPfeffer,ȱTheȱChangeȱofȱPhilomel:ȱTheȱNightingaleȱinȱMedievalȱLiterature.ȱAmericanȱUniversity
StudiesȱSeriesȱIII,ȱComparativeȱLiteratureȱ14ȱ(NewȱYork:ȱPeterȱLang,ȱ1985);ȱandȱJuneȱHallȱMcCash,
“TheȱSwanȱandȱtheȱNightingale:ȱNaturalȱUnityȱinȱaȱHostileȱWorldȱinȱtheȱLaisȱofȱMarieȱdeȱFrance,”
FrenchȱStudiesȱ49ȱ(1995):ȱ385–96.
notȱtoȱbetrayȱwhatȱtheyȱdid.ȱOneȱmightȱask,ȱhowȱcanȱsheȱbeȱsoȱsure?ȱTheȱanswer
isȱimplicitȱinȱtheȱfinalȱlineȱaffirmingȱtheȱnightingale’sȱtrustworthiness,ȱ“dazȱmac
wolȱgetriuweȱsîn”ȱ(“thatȱcan,ȱafterȱall,ȱbeȱkeptȱsecret”).ȱTheȱmodalȱparticleȱ“wol”
givesȱtheȱkeyȱtoȱherȱunderstandingȱofȱtheȱmatter,ȱoneȱwhichȱtheȱaudienceȱshould
graspȱasȱwell:ȱasȱinȱitsȱpreviousȱtwoȱusagesȱ(describing,ȱfirst,ȱtheȱmanyȱauthentic,
redȬmouthȬproducingȱkissesȱtheȱloversȱenjoyed,ȱandȱsecond,ȱtheȱtellȬtaleȱoutline
ofȱ whereȱ herȱ headȱ layȱ onȱ theȱ flowersȱ duringȱ theirȱ loveȬmaking)ȱ itȱ flavorsȱ the
statementȱwithȱaȱsenseȱofȱ“afterȱall”ȱorȱ“ofȱcourse,”ȱwhichȱshiftsȱtheȱaudience’s
attentionȱfromȱtheȱpastoralȱtrope’sȱartificialityȱandȱontoȱtheȱactualȱreality,ȱandȱthe
listener/readerȱwillȱ“get”ȱitȱifȱsheȱorȱheȱjustȱusesȱcommonȱsense.ȱTheȱbirdȱis,ȱin
pointȱofȱfact,ȱaȱcreatureȱofȱnature,ȱand,ȱofȱcourse,ȱbehavesȱjustȱasȱbirdsȱinȱnature
behave.ȱȱItȱgraduallyȱbecomesȱusedȱtoȱtheȱcompanyȱofȱtheseȱhumans,ȱandȱwhenȱit
isȱcalmȱandȱsensesȱnoȱdangerȱitȱinstinctivelyȱbeginsȱtoȱsing.ȱItsȱsongȱsignalsȱan
acceptanceȱofȱtheȱlovers’ȱpresence,ȱandȱtheirȱloveȱasȱanȱactionȱinȱharmonyȱwithȱthe
naturalȱsurroundings.ȱȱ
“Heard”ȱfromȱaȱsemioticȱperspective,ȱtheȱbirdsongȱbecomesȱaȱformȱofȱlanguage
thatȱtheȱloversȱunderstand,ȱanȱauditoryȱsignȱthatȱaddressesȱthemȱuniquely.ȱSince
Waltherȱ placesȱ theȱ onomatopoeicȱ “tandaradei”ȱ intoȱ theȱ mouthȱ ofȱ theȱ young
womanȱ(itȱisȱshe,ȱafterȱall,ȱwhoȱsingsȱtheȱlineȱthatȱtheȱaudienceȱactuallyȱhears),ȱhe
underscoresȱ theȱ intimacyȱ theȱ loversȱ shareȱ withȱ theirȱ avianȱ companion.
Additionally,ȱ“tandaradei”ȱechoesȱthroughoutȱeachȱstrophe,ȱfillingȱtheȱnatural
spaceȱwithȱtheȱbird’sȱacousticȱpresence,ȱjuxtaposedȱwithȱnumerousȱvisualȱimages
associatedȱwithȱtheȱwomanȱandȱherȱlover.ȱ
Finally,ȱtheȱnightingale’sȱtropicȱroleȱasȱtheȱlovers’ȱguardianȱoffersȱyetȱanotherȱ
potentialȱ forȱ communicationȱ thatȱ isȱ implicitȱ inȱ observable,ȱ instinctiveȱ avian
behavior:ȱitsȱnaturalȱresponseȱofȱceasingȱitsȱsongȱandȱtakingȱflightȱwhenȱalarmed
(forȱ exampleȱ ifȱ anȱ intruderȱ entersȱ itsȱ surroundings)ȱ wouldȱ alertȱ theȱ loversȱ to
potentialȱdiscovery,ȱprovidingȱanotherȱopportunityȱforȱintimateȱcommunication
amongȱtheȱtrio.ȱToȱtheȱearȱofȱtheȱintruder,ȱhowever,ȱitȱisȱhighlyȱdoubtfulȱthatȱeither
theȱ bird’sȱ silenceȱ orȱ itsȱ behaviorȱ wouldȱ revealȱ informationȱ aboutȱ theȱ lovers’
activities.ȱ Thus,ȱ theȱ avianȱ phraseȱ “tandaradei,”ȱ theȱ intimacyȱ thatȱ Walther
establishesȱbetweenȱtheȱloversȱandȱtheȱnightingale,ȱandȱtheȱrefocusingȱofȱattention
fromȱaȱstylizedȱtropeȱtoȱsomethingȱcloserȱtoȱauthentic,ȱnaturalȱbehaviorȱ(aidedȱby
theȱmodalȱparticleȱ“wol”ȱinȱtheȱpoem’sȱfinalȱline)ȱcombineȱtoȱsituateȱtheȱloversȱand
theirȱaudienceȱintoȱaȱmoreȱrealisticȱandȱ“natural”ȱecology.19ȱȱ
19
Byȱfocusingȱonȱtheȱperformanceȱofȱtheȱsong,ȱWendyȱPfefferȱ(TheȱChangeȱofȱPhilomel,ȱseeȱnoteȱ18)
showsȱhowȱtheȱpoemȱbringsȱtheȱmedievalȱaudienceȱintoȱtheȱintimateȱcommunityȱandȱnatural
ecologyȱasȱwell,ȱwhenȱsheȱasserts,ȱforȱexample,ȱthatȱ“[t]heȱbird’sȱsong,ȱ‘Tandaradei,’ȱservesȱto
lightenȱtheȱmoodȱofȱtheȱlyricȱatȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱasȱitȱprovidesȱaȱmusicalȱaccompanimentȱtoȱthe
performer’sȱsinging”ȱ(183).
Additionally,ȱ Walther’sȱ treatmentȱ ofȱ otherȱ tropesȱ removesȱ natureȱ fromȱ the
artificeȱofȱtheȱpastoralȱandȱrelocatesȱtheȱlovers’ȱsettingȱinȱaȱlessȱstylizedȱandȱmore
authenticȱlocus.ȱTheȱactualȱdetailsȱwithȱwhichȱWaltherȱpresentsȱtheȱsceneȱrecreate
forȱ theȱ audienceȱ aȱ naturalȱ spaceȱ thatȱ servesȱ asȱ aȱ recognizable,ȱ verisimilar
environment—itȱ isȱ malleable,ȱ fragile,ȱ andȱ whenȱ exploitedȱ itȱ canȱ beȱ destroyed
(“gebrochenȱ bluomenȱ undeȱ gras”).ȱ Althoughȱ elementsȱ ofȱ typicalȱ pastoral
metonymyȱappear,ȱtheȱmetaphors’ȱartisticȱconstructionȱcarriesȱthemȱfarȱbeyond
pastoralȱconventions,ȱforȱexample,ȱthatȱtheȱbrokenȱflowersȱandȱgrassȱareȱmerely
tropesȱ forȱ theȱ girl’sȱ lossȱ ofȱ virginity.ȱ Instead,ȱ Waltherȱ forcesȱ hisȱ audienceȱ to
examineȱtheȱsceneȱmoreȱclosely,ȱtoȱfocusȱonȱtheȱevidenceȱthatȱpresentsȱitself:ȱa
humanȱbodyȱhasȱlainȱonȱtheȱmeadowȱgrass,ȱandȱhasȱleftȱanȱimprint.ȱ
Theȱyoungȱwomanȱurgesȱherȱlistenersȱtoȱlookȱcloselyȱatȱwhatȱactuallyȱcanȱbe
seenȱthereȱ(“dâȱmugtȱirȱvinden”ȱandȱ“seht”).ȱTheȱindicationsȱareȱsoȱclear,ȱoneȱcan
evenȱidentifyȱtheȱoutlineȱofȱbodiesȱonȱtheȱmeadow’sȱgrassyȱsurfaceȱ(“merkenȱwâ
mirzȱhoubetȱlac”).ȱGrassȱandȱflowersȱareȱbroken,ȱandȱnatureȱhasȱbeenȱchanged.ȱ
Humanȱ tracesȱ canȱ beȱ detectedȱ (forȱ betterȱ orȱ forȱ worse),ȱ andȱ theȱ presenceȱ and
activitiesȱofȱhumansȱinȱnatureȱareȱcausesȱforȱwhichȱtheȱeffectsȱareȱvisuallyȱobvious.
Here,ȱ perhapsȱ moreȱ thanȱ inȱ mostȱ otherȱ medievalȱ poems,ȱ oneȱ canȱ identifyȱ the
poeticȱ awarenessȱ ofȱ aȱ humanȱ “footprint,”ȱ impressedȱ uponȱ theȱ natural
environment.ȱAlthoughȱtheȱtoneȱofȱtheȱpoemȱreflectsȱtheȱlovers’ȱexhilarationȱand
theȱ youngȱ woman’sȱ playfulness,ȱ Waltherȱ emphasizesȱ thatȱ theȱ naturalȱ space
beneathȱtheȱlindenȱtreeȱbothȱisȱaffectedȱbyȱhumanȱpresenceȱandȱaffectsȱhumans
whenȱtheyȱareȱpresentȱinȱit.ȱȱ
Onȱ theȱ otherȱ hand,ȱ theȱ poemȱ doesȱ littleȱ toȱ overcomeȱ theȱ typicallyȱ pastoral
oppositionȱ betweenȱ theȱ spacesȱ ofȱ cultureȱ andȱ ruralȱ space,ȱ betweenȱ theȱ court
(associatedȱhereȱwithȱtheȱ“gaze”ȱthatȱmightȱdiscoverȱtheȱlovers’ȱrendezvousȱand
condemnȱ theirȱ relationshipȱ asȱ “illicit”)ȱ andȱ theȱ blissfullyȱ innocent,ȱ sublime
nocturnalȱexperienceȱofȱpristine,ȱnaturalȱamourȱinȱtheȱblooming,ȱgrassyȱmeadow.
Indeed,ȱ theȱ youngȱ womanȱ insistsȱ thatȱ sheȱ wouldȱ feelȱ onlyȱ shameȱ shouldȱ the
rendezvousȱbeȱdiscoveredȱbyȱanotherȱhumanȱbeing,ȱandȱtheȱresultingȱinstitutional
condemnationȱwouldȱinevitablyȱdestroyȱtheȱpreciousȱjoyȱthatȱgenuineȱloveȱinȱthese
surroundingsȱ hasȱ affordedȱ herȱ andȱ herȱ lover.ȱ Waltherȱ ultimatelyȱ impliesȱ that,
actingȱonȱnaturalȱinclinations,ȱtheȱloversȱareȱmoreȱ“atȱhome”ȱbeyondȱtheȱcritical
gazeȱ ofȱ theȱ court,ȱ andȱ theirȱ new,ȱ secretȱ relationship,ȱ includingȱ theirȱ avian
companion,ȱassociatesȱthemȱmoreȱcloselyȱwithȱtheȱnaturalȱ“other”ȱthanȱwithȱthe
courtlyȱinstitution.ȱAlthoughȱsomeȱcurrentȱecocriticalȱtheoriesȱwouldȱmaintainȱthat
thereȱareȱnoȱfundamentalȱdifferencesȱbetweenȱtheȱnatureȱthatȱexistsȱinȱtheȱcastle
andȱtheȱnatureȱwhichȱoneȱfindsȱonȱtheȱmeadow,20ȱWalther’sȱ“Underȱderȱlinden”
20
SeeȱKateȱSoper,ȱWhatȱisȱNature?:ȱCulture,ȱPoliticsȱandȱtheȱNonȬHumanȱ(Oxford,ȱUK,ȱandȱCambridge,
MA:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1995),ȱ15–36.ȱ
stronglyȱdrawsȱaȱdistinctionȱbetweenȱtheȱtwo,ȱandȱprivilegesȱtheȱlatter.ȱThus,ȱit
remainsȱonȱtheȱborderlineȱofȱpastoralȱpoetry,ȱalthoughȱitȱclearlyȱchallengesȱthe
audienceȱtoȱconfrontȱpastoralȱcommonplacesȱandȱfostersȱaȱkindȱofȱprotoȬecocritical
awareness.ȱ
Inȱ“Dôȱderȱsumerȱkomenȱwas”ȱ(L.ȱ94,ȱ11,ȱ“Whenȱsummerȱarrived”),21ȱWalther
furtherȱdeconstructsȱhisȱownȱpoeticȱpersona’sȱslippageȱintoȱtheȱpastoralȱliterary
tradition.ȱItȱisȱaȱhumorousȱpoem,ȱandȱasȱGeorgeȱF.ȱJonesȱhasȱpointedȱout,ȱ“the
songȱridiculesȱtheȱconventionȱofȱvisionaryȱverses.”22ȱToȱaccomplishȱhisȱsatirical
ends,ȱ Waltherȱ placesȱ himselfȱ deeplyȱ withinȱ aȱ pastoralȱ environment,ȱ onlyȱ asȱ a
preludeȱtoȱitsȱutterȱdemolition.ȱTheȱnarratorȱrelatesȱhowȱheȱsetsȱoutȱonȱaȱlovely
dayȱinȱearlyȱsummerȱtoȱtakeȱaȱwalkȱinȱtheȱcountryside.ȱTheȱlanguageȱheȱemploys
toȱ describeȱ hisȱ surroundingsȱ conjuresȱ aȱ seriesȱ ofȱ typical,ȱ andȱ trivial,ȱ pastoral
images,ȱ perhapsȱ severalȱ moreȱ thanȱ wouldȱ befitȱ aȱ seriousȱ poemȱ onȱ nature:ȱ he
includesȱflowersȱspringingȱforthȱfromȱtheȱgrass,ȱbirdsȱchirping,ȱaȱgreatȱmeadow,
andȱnearbyȱaȱclearȱbrookȱrunningȱpastȱaȱforest,ȱwhereȱthereȱisȱevenȱaȱnightingale
singing.ȱTheȱutterȱcontentmentȱtheȱpoetȱfeelsȱasȱaȱȱresultȱofȱtheseȱmotifsȱfromȱthe
firstȱ strophe,ȱ however,ȱ doesȱ notȱ invigorateȱ himȱ toȱ provideȱ moreȱ beautiful
descriptionsȱorȱinspireȱhimȱtoȱexpressȱmoreȱ“sublime”ȱthoughts.ȱInstead,ȱtheȱscene
compelsȱhimȱtoȱfindȱaȱcomfortableȱspotȱbeneathȱaȱtreeȱwhereȱheȱcanȱfallȱasleepȱand
dream23:
Bîȱdemȱbrunnenȱstuontȱeinȱboum,
dâȱgesachȱichȱeinenȱtroum.:
ichȱwasȱvonȱderȱsunnen
entwichenȱzuoȱdemȱbrunnen,
dazȱdiuȱlindeȱmære
denȱküelenȱschatenȱbære.
bîȱdemȱbrunnenȱichȱgesaz,
21
WaltherȱvonȱderȱVogelweide,ȱLeich,ȱLieder,ȱSangsprücheȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱ206–07.
22
Georgeȱ F.ȱ Jones,ȱ Waltherȱ vonȱ derȱ Vogelweide.ȱ Twayne’sȱ Worldȱ Authorsȱ Seriesȱ 46ȱ (Newȱ York:
Twayne,ȱ1968),ȱ64;ȱseeȱalsoȱJohnȱA.ȱAsher,ȱ“DasȱTraumglückȱWalthersȱvonȱderȱVogelweide:ȱzum
parodistischȬerotischenȱInhaltȱdesȱLiedesȱ94,11,”ȱStudienȱzurȱdeutschenȱLiteraturȱundȱSpracheȱdes
Mittelalters:ȱFestschriftȱfürȱHugoȱMoserȱzumȱ65.ȱGeburtstag,ȱed.ȱWernerȱBeschȱandȱGünterȱJungbluth
(Berlin:ȱErichȱSchmidt,ȱ1974),ȱ60–67;ȱS.ȱL.ȱClark,ȱ“WaltherȱvonȱderȱVogelweide’sȱDreamȱImagery,”
TheȱSouthȱCentralȱBulletinȱ36ȱ(1976),ȱ138–41;ȱandȱAlfredȱEbenbauer,ȱ“ZuȱWalthersȱ‘Traumglück’
(L.ȱ94,11),”ȱZeitschriftȱfürȱdeutscheȱPhilologieȱ96ȱ(1977):ȱ370–83.
23
Theȱ“paradisiacal”ȱnatureȱofȱtheȱdreamȱisȱpointedȱoutȱbyȱBrunner,ȱHahn,ȱetȱal.,ȱWaltherȱvonȱder
Vogelweideȱ(seeȱnoteȱ8),ȱ86;ȱseeȱalsoȱUrbanȱKüsters,ȱ“’Wazȱderȱtroumȱbediute’”:ȱGlückszeichenȱund
GlücksvorstellungenȱinȱWalthersȱTraumballadeȱL.ȱ94,ȱ11,”ȱWaltherȱvonȱderȱVogelweide:ȱBeiträgeȱzu
LebenȱundȱWerk,ȱGüntherȱSchweikleȱzumȱ60.ȱGeburtstag,ȱed.ȱHansȬDieterȱMückȱ(Stuttgart:ȱStöfflerȱand
Schütz,ȱ1989),ȱ341–62.
mînerȱswæreȱichȱvergaz,
schierȱentsliefȱichȱumbeȱdaz.
[Atȱtheȱspringȱthereȱstoodȱaȱtree,
ThereȱIȱhadȱaȱdream—
Iȱgotȱoutȱofȱtheȱsunȱ
andȱwentȱoverȱtoȱtheȱspring
thatȱtheȱlindenȱtreeȱ
offeredȱmeȱitsȱcoolȱshadow.
NearȱtheȱspringȱIȱsatȱdownȱ
andȱforgotȱmyȱworries,
andȱIȱsoonȱfellȱintoȱaȱdeepȱsleep.]
Theȱdreamȱheȱexperiencesȱbecomesȱaȱ“dreamȱwithinȱaȱdream”:ȱbyȱtheȱsecondȱline
ofȱtheȱstropheȱheȱisȱalreadyȱdreaming;ȱtheȱdreamȱsituatesȱhimȱamongȱcoolȱshadows
nearȱaȱbrookȱwhereȱheȱcanȱforgetȱhisȱtroublesȱandȱdescribeȱhisȱfallingȱasleepȱa
secondȱtimeȱinȱtheȱstrophe’sȱfinalȱline,ȱonȱaȱyetȱdeeperȱlevelȱofȱunconsciousness.
Escapismȱandȱinactivityȱdominateȱalmostȱeveryȱpredicate,ȱdescribingȱtheȱpoet’s
escaping,ȱforgettingȱandȱfallingȱasleep.ȱTheȱartificial,ȱpastoralȱenvironmentȱhas
thusȱremovedȱtheȱsleepingȱpoetȱaȱgreatȱdistanceȱfromȱtheȱrealityȱofȱhisȱnatural
surroundings,ȱ renderingȱ himȱ lethargicȱ underȱ theȱ anesthesiaȱ thatȱ theseȱ facile,
predictableȱandȱtrivialȱnaturalȱimagesȱcreate.ȱTheȱpoet,ȱperhapsȱtogetherȱwithȱhis
audienceȱ(byȱnowȱalsoȱmesmerizedȱbyȱpastoralȱformulaeȱinȱprofusion)ȱslumbers
on,ȱstagnatingȱinȱanȱimpotenceȱthatȱsuchȱstaticȱclichésȱandȱtrivialȱcommonplaces
impose.ȱIndeed,ȱthingsȱcouldȱnotȱbeȱbetter—inȱtheȱthirdȱstropheȱWaltherȱclaims
thatȱ“schœnerȱtroumȱenwartȱnieȱmê”ȱ(“thereȱneverȱwasȱaȱmoreȱbeautifulȱdream”).ȱ
Theȱpoetȱwouldȱgladlyȱremainȱforeverȱ(“Gerneȱsliefȱichȱiemerȱdâ”ȱ[“Iȱwouldȱhave
likedȱtoȱremainȱthereȱsleepingȱeternally”]),ȱbut,ȱalas,ȱtheȱnaturalȱworldȱwillȱnot
haveȱitȱthatȱway.ȱȱ
Inȱ theȱ fourthȱ strophe,ȱ nature,ȱ viaȱ theȱ cawingȱ ofȱ anȱ annoyingȱ crow,ȱ stirsȱ the
sleepingȱpoetȱfromȱhisȱdeepȱreveriesȱandȱforcesȱhimȱtoȱreturnȱtoȱreality.ȱȱ
.ȱ.ȱ.ȱwanȱeinȱunsæligiuȱkrâ,
diuȱbegondeȱschrien.
dazȱalleȱkrâȱgedien
alsȱichȱinȱdesȱgunne!
siȱnamȱmirȱmichelȱwunne.
vonȱirȱschrienȱichȱerschrac,ȱ
wanȱdazȱdâȱnihtȱsteinesȱlac,
sôȱwæreȱezȱirȱsuontac.
[.ȱ.ȱ.ȱbutȱanȱunholyȱcrow
beganȱtoȱscreech.
Iȱhopeȱthatȱallȱcrowsȱgetȱtheȱcomeuppanceȱ
thatȱIȱwishȱforȱthisȱone!
Itȱtookȱallȱmyȱjoyȱaway.
Iȱwasȱstartledȱ[awake]ȱbyȱitsȱscreech:ȱ
butȱifȱaȱstoneȱhadȱbeenȱlyingȱthere,
soȱitȱwouldȱhaveȱbeenȱitsȱJudgmentȱDay.]
ȱ
Inȱcontrastȱtoȱtheȱsweet,ȱmelodiousȱsongȱofȱtheȱnightingale,ȱtheȱcrow’sȱintrusive
shriekingȱincitesȱtheȱhuman’sȱanger;ȱalthoughȱhisȱfirstȱinclinationȱisȱtoȱpunishȱthe
birdȱwithȱaȱwellȬaimedȱstone,ȱheȱcannotȱfindȱaȱfittingȱprojectile,ȱandȱthereforeȱmust
endureȱtheȱdreamȬshatteringȱracket.ȱThusȱtheȱpoet,ȱwhoȱatȱfirstȱpaintedȱforȱhis
audienceȱaȱsublimelyȱnaturalȱlandscapeȱandȱfilledȱitȱwithȱnumerous,ȱinnocuous,
andȱartificialȱimagesȱofȱtheȱpastoral,ȱdiscoversȱheȱisȱpowerlessȱagainstȱaȱgenuine
bird’sȱintrusiveȱclamoring.ȱ
However,ȱinȱthisȱconfrontationȱweȱgainȱaȱvaluableȱinsightȱintoȱoneȱaspectȱofȱthe
relationshipȱ betweenȱ artȱ andȱ nature;ȱ ȱ throughȱ theȱ crow’sȱ seeminglyȱ mocking
cackle,ȱtheȱaudienceȱbecomesȱawareȱofȱtheȱpoet’sȱlimitations,ȱorȱindeed,ȱevenȱofȱhis
finalȱimpotence.ȱUnlikeȱtheȱearlierȱpoeticȱartifices,ȱtheȱcrowȱpossessesȱfleshȬandȬ
bloodȱreality,ȱandȱitsȱcawȱresoundsȱthroughȱtheȱfourthȱstropheȱnotȱasȱaȱtropeȱor
contrivedȱadornmentȱtoȱtheȱpoet’sȱreverie,ȱbutȱasȱtheȱtriumphant,ȱunassailableȱvox
naturae,ȱtauntingȱtheȱfrustratedȱpoet,ȱdestroyingȱhisȱillusionsȱandȱdreams,ȱandȱthus
shatteringȱtheȱartificialȱcalmȱpermeatingȱtheȱmanufacturedȱenvironmentȱofȱhis
reverie.ȱ“Real”ȱnatureȱisȱnotȱpurelyȱsublimeȱandȱbeautiful,ȱnorȱoneȬsidedlyȱcalm
andȱinnocuous;ȱaȱcompleteȱimageȱofȱnatureȱincludesȱelementsȱthat,ȱfromȱaȱhuman
perspective,ȱmightȱbeȱconsideredȱuglyȱandȱannoyingȱ(likeȱtheȱcrow’sȱshriek),ȱbut
whichȱevenȱWaltherȱisȱpowerlessȱtoȱeliminateȱfromȱhisȱpoemȱifȱheȱreportsȱhonestly
whatȱheȱfindsȱaroundȱhim.24ȱ
Inȱtheȱfinalȱstrophe,ȱheȱencountersȱaȱ“remarkableȱoldȱwoman”ȱofȱtheȱforest,ȱa
figureȱthatȱremindsȱoneȱofȱtheȱpersonificationȱofȱnatureȱasȱaȱdeity,25ȱwhoȱspeaks
confusinglyȱofȱthingsȱtheȱpoetȱknowsȱlittle,ȱbutȱlongsȱtoȱunderstandȱmore.ȱȱ
Wanȱeinȱwunderaltezȱwîp
diuȱgetrôsteȱmirȱdenȱlîp.
dieȱbegondȱichȱeiden,
nûȱhâtȱsieȱmirȱbescheiden
wazȱderȱtroumȱbediute.
dazȱhœret,ȱliebenȱliute:
24
Someȱ twoȱ centuriesȱ later,ȱ Oswaldȱ vonȱ Wolkensteinȱ similarlyȱ lamentsȱ someȱ harshȱ soundsȱ of
nature,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱspringtimeȱroaringȱofȱaȱmountainȱcreek,ȱandȱtheȱdeleteriousȱeffectsȱofȱsuch
naturalȱracket,ȱinȱhisȱ“DurchȱBarbarei,ȱArabia,”ȱKl.ȱ44;ȱseeȱAlbrechtȱClassen,ȱTheȱPoemsȱofȱOswald
vonȱWolkenstein:ȱAnȱEnglishȱTranslationȱofȱtheȱCompleteȱWorksȱ(1376/77–1445).ȱTheȱNewȱMiddleȱAges
(NewȱYorkȱandȱHoundmills,ȱBasingstoke,ȱHampshire:ȱPalgraveȱMacmillan,ȱ2008),ȱ126–28.ȱIȱam
gratefulȱthatȱProf.ȱClassenȱpointedȱoutȱthisȱparallelȱtoȱme.
25
Seeȱ Georgeȱ Economou,ȱ Theȱ Goddessȱ Naturaȱ inȱ Medievalȱ Literatureȱ (Cambridge,ȱ MA:ȱ Harvard
zwênȱundȱeiner,ȱdazȱsintȱdrî:
dannochȱseiteȱsiȱmirȱdâȱbî,
dazȱmînȱdûmeȱeinȱvingerȱsî.
[Thenȱaȱmarvelouslyȱoldȱwoman
comfortedȱme:
Iȱbeganȱtoȱentreatȱher,
nowȱsheȱshouldȱexplain
whatȱtheȱdreamȱmightȱmean.
Soȱmarkȱthisȱwell,ȱdearȱpeople:ȱ
Twoȱplusȱone,ȱwell,ȱthatȱmakesȱthree:ȱ
what’sȱmore,ȱsinceȱshe’dȱgoneȱthatȱfar,
thatȱmyȱthumbȱisȱnothingȱbutȱaȱfinger.]
Walther’sȱcommonȱpersonificationȱofȱnatureȱasȱtheȱgoddessȱ“natura,”ȱorȱ“mother
nature,”ȱ seemsȱ toȱ returnȱ toȱ theȱ realmȱ ofȱ pastoralȱ trope,ȱ butȱ withȱ aȱ twist.ȱ The
womanȱ isȱ notȱ sublimelyȱ beautiful,ȱ as,ȱ forȱ example,ȱ theȱ commonplaceȱ would
presentȱher26;ȱrather,ȱsheȱisȱanȱoldȱwoman,ȱwho,ȱlikeȱnatureȱitself,ȱseemsȱancient
and,ȱ perhaps,ȱ likeȱ theȱ crow,ȱ moreȱ metaphoricallyȱ “true”ȱ thanȱ anyȱ partȱ ofȱ the
previousȱ pastoralȱ depictions.ȱ Sheȱ presentsȱ theȱ poetȱ withȱ theȱ “wisdom”ȱ ofȱ the
obvious,ȱperhapsȱmockingȱhimȱforȱhisȱbeliefȱthatȱtheȱconjurationsȱofȱhisȱpastoral
dreamȱwereȱsomehowȱmoreȱsignificantȱthanȱtheȱrealityȱconfrontingȱhimȱinȱthe
fleshȬandȬbloodȱcrow.ȱTheȱpoetȱadmitsȱthatȱwhatȱsheȱsaysȱisȱmysteriousȱtoȱhim,
butȱheȱstrugglesȱtoȱunderstandȱher.ȱ
Theȱ remainderȱ ofȱ theȱ stropheȱ smacksȱ ofȱ satire,ȱ butȱ theȱ targetȱ posesȱ some
difficultyȱforȱtheȱmodernȱinterpreter.27ȱHerȱfirstȱassertion,ȱthatȱoneȱplusȱtwoȱequals
three,ȱisȱaȱfactȱofȱelementaryȱmathematics,ȱandȱobtainsȱuniversalȱvalidityȱinȱnature.
Theȱ apparentȱ referenceȱ toȱ theȱ Trinityȱ hereȱ seemsȱ toȱ implyȱ aȱ slightlyȱ veiled
criticismȱofȱaȱtheologicallyȱinstrumentalȱviewȱofȱtheȱnaturalȱworld,ȱthatȱnature
revealsȱGodȱtoȱhumanity:ȱthus,ȱaccordingȱtoȱmotherȱnature,ȱanyȱideaȱthatȱ“three
isȱ equalȱ toȱ one,”ȱ and,ȱ byȱ extension,ȱ otherȱ religiousȱ dogma,ȱ mustȱ comeȱ from
anotherȱsourceȱthanȱherȱrealm.ȱȱHerȱsecondȱproposal,ȱthatȱtheȱpoet’sȱthumbȱisȱa
finger,ȱspeaksȱperhapsȱtoȱtheȱarrogantȱhumanȱassumptionȱofȱsuperiorityȱtoȱall
creaturesȱofȱnature,ȱsinceȱtheȱopposingȱthumbȱsetsȱhumansȱapartȱfromȱallȱother
speciesȱthatȱmightȱbeȱfoundȱinȱtheȱforestsȱandȱwildȱareasȱofȱtheȱEuropeanȱMiddle
26
GeorgeȱEconomou,ȱTheȱGoddessȱNaturaȱ(seeȱnoteȱ25)ȱ,ȱ105ȱreportsȱJeanȱdeȱMeun’sȱtreatmentȱofȱthe
goddessȱinȱhisȱRomanȱdeȱlaȱRose:ȱ“Invokingȱtheȱinexpressibilityȱtopos,ȱJeanȱrefusesȱtoȱdescribe
Natura,ȱforȱsinceȱsheȱisȱentirelyȱtheȱworkȱofȱGod,ȱherȱbeautyȱexceedsȱtheȱpowerȱofȱexpression.”ȱ
27
See,ȱ forȱ example,ȱ Johnȱ A.ȱ Asher,ȱ “Dasȱ ‘Traumglück’ȱ Walthersȱ vonȱ derȱ Vogelweide:ȱ zum
parodistischȬerotischenȱInhaltȱdesȱLiedesȱ94,11,”ȱȱStudienȱzurȱdeutschenȱLiteraturȱundȱSpracheȱdes
Mittelalters:ȱFestschriftȱfürȱHugoȱMoserȱzumȱ65.ȱGeburtstag,ȱed.ȱWernerȱBeschȱ(Berlin:ȱE.ȱSchmidt,
1974),ȱ 60–68;ȱ andȱ Guntramȱ Haag,ȱ Traumȱ undȱ Traumdeutungȱ inȱ mittelhochdeutscherȱ Literatur:
theoretischeȱGrundlagenȱundȱFallstudien.ȱGermanistikȱ(Stuttgart:ȱS.ȱHirzel,ȱ2003),ȱ111–202.
Ages.ȱYet,ȱwhenȱoneȱexaminesȱaȱthumb,ȱoneȱactuallyȱfindsȱlittleȱtoȱdistinguishȱit
fromȱtheȱotherȱfingersȱofȱtheȱhand,ȱperhapsȱjustȱasȱaȱhumanȱbeing,ȱwhenȱinȱthe
forestȱecology,ȱisȱlikeȱtheȱotherȱanimalsȱthatȱoneȱfindsȱthere.ȱThus,ȱWaltherȱmayȱbe
usingȱtheȱnaturaȱtropeȱinȱanȱunusual,ȱsatiricalȱmanner,ȱcertainlyȱnotȱbyȱsketching
aȱ conventionalȱ forestȱ “wîp”ȱ ofȱ idealizedȱ youthȱ andȱ beauty,ȱ butȱ ratherȱ a
“wunderaltezȱwîp,”ȱaȱbitȱgrotesqueȱandȱdifficult,ȱbutȱhumorouslyȱso,ȱpossibly
deconstructingȱ theȱ commonȱ figureȱ oneȱ usuallyȱ wouldȱ expectȱ inȱ thisȱ context.
Indeed,ȱ asȱ Gibbsȱ andȱ Johnsonȱ pointȱ out,ȱ “itȱ isȱ veryȱ muchȱ Walther’sȱ unique
contributionȱtoȱplayȱwithȱtheȱconventionsȱwhichȱheȱappearsȱtoȱbeȱoverthrowing.”28ȱ
WhileȱeachȱofȱtheseȱtwoȱexamplesȱhasȱdisplayedȱWalther’sȱcapacityȱtoȱdeviate
fromȱandȱevenȱtoȱrejectȱtypicallyȱpastoralȱformulae,ȱweȱhaveȱalsoȱseenȱthatȱheȱis
completelyȱ capableȱ ofȱ workingȱ withinȱ theȱ pastoralȱ tradition.ȱ Oneȱ important
exampleȱofȱthisȱcomesȱtoȱtheȱforegroundȱinȱoneȱofȱWalther’sȱbestȬknownȱpoems,
theȱ “Reichston”ȱ (L.ȱ 8,4ȱ “Songȱ ofȱ theȱ Empire”).29ȱ Theȱ poemȱ consistsȱ ofȱ three
strophes,ȱtheȱfirstȱofȱwhichȱestablishesȱanȱatmosphereȱofȱphilosophicalȱbrooding,
andȱ expressesȱ Walther’sȱ bitterȱ politicalȱ complaint:ȱ contemporaryȱ societyȱ is
completelyȱoutȱofȱbalance,ȱandȱtheȱpoetȱconsidersȱitȱimpossibleȱtoȱreconcileȱthe
demandsȱofȱhonor,ȱpossessionsȱandȱserviceȱtoȱGodȱwithinȱtheȱcurrentȱpolitical
environment.30ȱȱ
Atȱtheȱbeginningȱofȱtheȱsecondȱverse,ȱWaltherȱshiftsȱhisȱsettingȱtoȱtheȱnatural
world,ȱwhereȱheȱfindsȱanȱarenaȱinȱwhichȱinteractionsȱbetweenȱcreaturesȱprovide
metaphoricalȱparallelsȱtoȱthoseȱofȱhumans.ȱȱFirst,ȱheȱpresentsȱnatureȱasȱȱanȱacoustic
28
MarionȱE.ȱGibbsȱandȱSidneyȱM.ȱJohnson,ȱed.,ȱMedievalȱGermanȱLiterature:ȱAȱCompanion.ȱGarland
ReferenceȱLibraryȱofȱtheȱHumanities,ȱ1774ȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱLondon:ȱRoutledge,ȱ1997),ȱ275.ȱ
29
Thisȱpopularȱpoemȱisȱalsoȱcommonlyȱassociatedȱwithȱtheȱimage,ȱevokedȱinȱitsȱfirstȱline,ȱofȱtheȱpoet
inȱaȱnaturalȱsetting,ȱperchedȱcontemplativelyȱonȱaȱrock:ȱ“Ichȱsazȱûfȱeimeȱsteine;”ȱWaltherȱvonȱder
Vogelweide,ȱ Leich,ȱ Lieder,ȱ Sangsprücheȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 11),ȱ 11–13;ȱ amongȱ theȱ profusionȱ ofȱ critical
commentariesȱ onȱ theseȱ threeȱ Sprüche,ȱ theȱ followingȱ bearȱ particularȱ relevance:ȱ Horstȱ Wenzel,
“Melancholieȱ undȱ Inspiration:ȱ Waltherȱ vonȱ derȱ Vogelweideȱ L.ȱ 8,4ff.ȱ Zurȱ Entwicklungȱ des
europäischenȱDichterbildes,“ȱWaltherȱvonȱderȱVogelweide:ȱBeiträgeȱzuȱLebenȱundȱWerkȱ(seeȱnoteȱ23),
133–53;ȱPeterȱKern,ȱȱ“DerȱReichstonȱ–ȱDasȱersteȱpolitischeȱLiedȱWalthersȱvonȱderȱVogelweide?”
ZeitschriftȱfurȱDeutscheȱPhilologieȱȱ111ȱ(1992),ȱ344–62.ȱSeeȱalsoȱHaikoȱWandhoff,ȱ“’swazȱfliuzetȱoder
fliugetȱoderȱbeinȱzerȱerdeȱbiuget’.ȱKonkurrierendeȱNaturkonzeptionenȱimȱReichstonȱWalthersȱvon
derȱVogelweide,”ȱNaturȱimȱMittelalter:ȱKonzepteȱ–ȱErfahrungenȱ–ȱWirkungen:ȱAktenȱdesȱ9.ȱSymposiums
desȱMediävistenverbandes,ȱMarburg,ȱ14.–17.ȱMärzȱ2001,ȱed.ȱPeterȱDilgȱ(Berlin:ȱAkademieȱVerlag,
2003),ȱ360–372.
30
UlrichȱMüllerȱoffersȱaȱdetailedȱcommentaryȱonȱvariousȱmodernȱtheoriesȱregardingȱtheȱhistorical
figuresȱandȱeventsȱtoȱwhichȱWaltherȱmayȱbeȱreferringȱinȱhisȱ“Reichston”ȱinȱBrunner,ȱHahn,ȱetȱal.,
WaltherȱvonȱderȱVogelweide,ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ8),ȱ144–50,ȱandȱtheȱgreatȱmajorityȱofȱstudiesȱonȱthisȱpoem
haveȱdealtȱwithȱpoliticalȱthemesȱinȱtheȱpoem’sȱthreeȱstrophes;ȱȱhowever,ȱoneȱstudyȱofȱparticular
interestȱtoȱtheȱcurrentȱdiscussionȱisȱTheoȱSchumacher,ȱ“WalthersȱzweiterȱSpruchȱimȱReichston,”
DeutscheȱVierteljahrschriftȱfürȱLiteraturwissenschaftȱundȱGeistesgeschichteȱ36ȱ(1962):ȱ179–89.
imageȱ throughȱ theȱ soundȱ ofȱ rushingȱ water,ȱ whichȱ setsȱ inȱ placeȱ aȱ natural
background.ȱ ȱ Ontoȱ thisȱ canvasȱ heȱ layersȱ andȱ developsȱ severalȱ visualȱ images,
maintainingȱaȱfirstȬpersonȱperspectiveȱasȱsubjectȱandȱobserver,ȱrepeatingȱ“Iȱsaw”
threeȱȱtimesȱbeforeȱmakingȱanyȱfurther,ȱsubjectiveȱcommentȱaboutȱhumanȱbeings
andȱculture:ȱ
Ichȱhôrteȱeinȱwazzerȱdiezen
undeȱsachȱdieȱvischeȱvliezen,
ichȱsach,ȱswazȱinȱderȱwelteȱwas,
velt,ȱwalt,ȱloup,ȱrôrȱundeȱgras.ȱ
Swazȱkriuchetȱundeȱvliuget
undȱbeinȱzerȱerdenȱbiuget,
dazȱsachȱich,ȱundeȱsagȱiuȱdazȱ.ȱ.ȱ.
[Iȱheardȱtheȱwaterȱrushing
andȱsawȱtheȱfishȱswimming;
Iȱsawȱwhateverȱthereȱwasȱtoȱseeȱinȱtheȱworld,
field,ȱforest,ȱtreetops,ȱstalksȱandȱgrass.
Whateverȱswimsȱandȱflies
andȱbendsȱaȱlegȱtoȱtheȱground,
allȱthatȱIȱsaw,ȱandȱIȱtellȱyouȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ(emphasisȱmyȱown)]
Waltherȱ thusȱ encouragesȱ hisȱ audienceȱ toȱ enterȱ intoȱ theȱ environmentȱ ofȱ the
“Reichston”ȱthroughȱsound,ȱandȱthenȱtoȱfocusȱvisuallyȱonȱaȱmoreȱspecificȱimage
andȱ action,ȱ thatȱ ofȱ fishȱ dartingȱ about.ȱ However,ȱ theȱ fishȱ andȱ theirȱ motionȱ are
generic,ȱandȱtheirȱnonȬspecificityȱdoesȱnotȱinviteȱtheȱreaderȱtoȱformȱaȱparticularly
sharpȱimage.ȱTheȱreaderȱisȱnotȱinȱtheȱrealmȱofȱnatureȱwhereȱdetailȱisȱimportant,ȱbut
ratherȱwhereȱoneȱperceives,ȱasȱtheȱpoetȱstatesȱinȱtheȱthirdȱline,ȱ“swazȱinȱderȱwerlte
was,”ȱallȱmaterialȱnatureȱsynchronically:ȱanȱidealized,ȱpastoralȱnature,ȱandȱone
whichȱinspiresȱinȱtheȱreaderȱaȱfeelingȱofȱimmenseȱsizeȱandȱgrandeur.ȱInȱtheȱfourth
andȱ fifthȱ linesȱ heȱ continuesȱ thisȱ processȱ ofȱ focusingȱ theȱ reader’sȱ attentionȱ on
generalizedȱobjects,ȱemployingȱfloralȱimagesȱandȱproceedingȱfromȱtheȱlargeȱand
ambientȱ(theȱfieldȱandȱforest)ȱthroughȱtheȱmoreȱspecificȱ(theȱfoliage)ȱandȱfinallyȱto
theȱsmallestȱandȱmostȱproximateȱ(theȱreedȱandȱtheȱgrass).ȱ
Walther’sȱstropheȱȱrendersȱtheȱtotalityȱofȱtheȱworldȱasȱaȱsumȱofȱitsȱvegetative
parts,ȱparticularlyȱthroughȱhisȱreiterationȱofȱtheȱindefiniteȱpronounȱ“swaz.”ȱHis
compositionalȱpatternȱandȱconsciouslyȱorderedȱseriesȱofȱimages,ȱfromȱlargestȱto
smallest,ȱimpressȱtheȱaudienceȱwithȱtheȱvastnessȱofȱcreation,ȱtheȱforestȱandȱthe
field,ȱwhichȱtheȱpoetȱholdsȱinȱhisȱmind’sȱeye:ȱitȱisȱaȱsublimeȱscene,ȱoneȱofȱgreat
majestyȱ andȱ authority.ȱ Similarly,ȱ heȱ representsȱ allȱ faunaȱ throughȱ synecdoche,
employingȱverbsȱofȱlocomotionȱtoȱrepresentȱtheȱbeastsȱofȱtheȱwater,ȱtheȱskyȱand
theȱlandȱrespectively.ȱHence,ȱWaltherȱspeaksȱwithȱtheȱauthorityȱofȱoneȱwhoȱhas
seenȱallȱofȱcreation,ȱfromȱtheȱgreatestȱtoȱtheȱleast,ȱandȱcanȱstateȱtheȱtruthȱoutȱof
suchȱauthority,ȱthatȱallȱcreaturesȱhaveȱaȱplaceȱinȱaȱhierarchy,ȱandȱthatȱthereȱis
alwaysȱoneȱmemberȱofȱaȱgroupȱwhoȱdominates.ȱOfȱcourse,ȱhisȱhumanȱreference
isȱanȱEmperor,ȱwhoȱshouldȱexerciseȱleadershipȱoverȱallȱsubjectsȱinȱtheȱEmpire.ȱIn
oneȱsense,ȱtheȱaweȬinspiringȱauthorityȱandȱmajestyȱinȱtheȱenvironmentȱhaveȱbeen
transferred,ȱviaȱWalther’sȱrhetoricalȱskills,ȱfromȱsublimeȱnatureȱtoȱtheȱrealmȱof
humanȱpolitics.ȱTheȱpastoralȱtropes,ȱhereȱinȱtheȱserviceȱofȱWalther’sȱpoliticalȱaim
(toȱsupportȱoneȱcandidateȱforȱHolyȱRomanȱEmperorȱoverȱanother)ȱremainȱtrueȱto
theȱpastoralȱtradition:ȱtheyȱreflectȱanȱallegoricalȱandȱstylizedȱexploitationȱofȱnature
imageryȱinȱtheȱserviceȱofȱaȱhumanȱgoal.ȱNevertheless,ȱtheȱ“Reichston”ȱprovidesȱa
uniqueȱandȱmasterfulȱexecutionȱofȱsuchȱaȱmanipulationȱthatȱsurelyȱimpressesȱand
mostȱlikelyȱthoroughlyȱconvincesȱtheȱaudienceȱofȱ theȱ correctnessȱofȱtheȱpoet’s
opinionȱonȱthisȱmatter.
ForȱmanyȱmedievalȱGermanȱpoets,ȱincludingȱWalther,ȱtheȱfourȱseasonsȱprovideȱthe
mostȱconcreteȱandȱimmediateȱsignsȱofȱtemporalȱchangesȱinȱtheȱnaturalȱworld.ȱȱIn
fact,ȱinȱseveralȱpoems,ȱWaltherȱpresentsȱtheȱseasonsȱasȱtheȱcentralȱthematicȱfocus,
causingȱtheȱpoetȱgreatȱcontentmentȱorȱsignificantȱdistress.ȱȱHeȱoffersȱperhapsȱthe
clearestȱexampleȱofȱhisȱ“seasonalȱaffects”ȱinȱhisȱpoem,ȱ“Diuȱwerltȱwasȱgelf,ȱrôt
undeȱblâ”ȱ(L.ȱ75,ȱ25,ȱ“Theȱworldȱwasȱyellow,ȱredȱandȱblue”).31ȱOnȱaȱbasicȱlevelȱit
expressesȱtheȱpoet’sȱfrustrationȱwithȱtheȱhighȱlevelȱofȱdiscomfortȱandȱseemingly
endlessȱdurationȱofȱwinterȱweatherȱinȱaȱdrollȱmanner.ȱByȱmeansȱofȱacousticȱand
rhetoricalȱdevices,ȱstrikingȱandȱunusualȱcomparisonsȱandȱprofuseȱvisualȱimagery,
especiallyȱcolor,ȱWaltherȱestablishesȱaȱcomplexȱandȱintimateȱrelationshipȱwithȱthe
naturalȱ world,ȱ situatingȱ himselfȱ inȱ itsȱ midst,ȱ whileȱ fashioningȱ aȱ lightȱ and
humorous,ȱlyricalȱtone.ȱȱAsȱinȱfewȱotherȱGermanȱlyricsȱofȱtheȱperiod,ȱtheseȱverses
areȱaȱconcretizationȱofȱtheirȱecologicalȱsubject:ȱtheyȱareȱclearlyȱmeantȱtoȱbeȱ“felt”
asȱwellȱasȱread.ȱȱ
Waltherȱanchorsȱtheȱacousticȱstructureȱofȱtheȱpoemȱinȱaȱmonorhymeȱinȱeachȱof
theȱfive,ȱeightȬlinedȱstrophes.32ȱTheȱrecurringȱuniformityȱofȱsoundȱatȱtheȱendȱof
eachȱlineȱimposesȱmonotony,ȱliterallyȱandȱfiguratively,ȱonȱtheȱpoem,ȱcreatingȱa
tonalȱenvironmentȱofȱunrelentingȱtedium,ȱparallelingȱtheȱpoet’sȱattitudeȱtoward
theȱoverlongȱwinterȱbleakness.ȱFurthermore,ȱtheȱfiveȱrhymesȱbroadlyȱrepresentȱthe
vocalicȱpossibilitiesȱinȱeachȱregionȱofȱtheȱmouth:ȱrespectively,ȱtheȱrhymingȱvowelsȱ
ofȱeachȱverseȱconsistȱofȱaȱmidrangeȱvowelȱ(representedȱbyȱ<â>),ȱaȱlowȱfrontȱvowelȱ
(representedȱbyȱ<ê>),ȱȱaȱhighȱfrontȱvowelȱ(representedȱbyȱ<î>),ȱȱaȱlowȱbackȱvowel
(representedȱbyȱ<ô>)ȱand,ȱfinally,ȱaȱhighȱbackȱvowelȱ(representedȱbyȱ<û>);ȱallȱofȱthe
rhymingȱvowelsȱareȱmarkedȱasȱlong.ȱȱThus,ȱtheȱvowels’ȱrangeȱandȱlengthȱsuggest
31
WaltherȱvonȱderȱVogelweide,ȱLeich,ȱLieder,ȱSangsprücheȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱ169–70.ȱ
32
Seeȱ Georgeȱ F.ȱ Jones,ȱ Waltherȱ vonȱ derȱ Vogelweideȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 22),ȱ 65–66;ȱ althoughȱ heȱ paysȱ some
attentionȱtoȱthisȱpoem’sȱacousticȱstructure,ȱJonesȱmaintainsȱthatȱitȱisȱnothingȱmoreȱthanȱaȱ“trivial
ditty”ȱbyȱwhichȱWaltherȱcanȱshowȱhisȱskillsȱatȱdashingȱoffȱaȱtune.ȱȱ
theȱubiquitousnessȱandȱseeminglyȱeternalȱdurationȱofȱwinter’sȱsting,ȱwhileȱtheir
repetitivenessȱ eloquentlyȱ conveysȱ theȱ author’sȱ boredomȱ withȱ hisȱ monotonic
naturalȱ winterȱ environment.ȱ Ofȱ course,ȱ Waltherȱ firmlyȱ establishesȱ theȱ poem’s
humorousȱ atmosphereȱ throughȱ theseȱ exaggeratedȱ vocalicȱ repetitions,ȱ evoking
mirthȱviaȱtheȱrelentless,ȱacousticȱhyperboleȱinȱeachȱstrophe.
Theȱpoemȱbeginsȱwithȱaȱcontrastȱbetweenȱtheȱbleaknessȱofȱtheȱpresentȱȱnatural
surroundingsȱandȱanȱimagined,ȱlovelyȱsummerȱthatȱisȱlongȱpast.ȱ
Diuȱwerltȱwasȱgelf,ȱrôtȱundeȱblâ,
grüeneȱinȱdemȱwaldeȱundȱanderswâ,
dieȱcleineȱvogeleȱsungenȱdâ.
nûȱschrietȱaberȱdiuȱnebelcrâ.
phligtȱsîȱihtȱanderȱvarwe?ȱjâ:
sistȱwordenȱbleichȱundȱübergrâ.
desȱrimpfetȱsichȱvilȱmenicȱbrâ.
[Theȱworldȱwasȱyellow,ȱredȱandȱblue,
greenȱinȱtheȱforestȱandȱelsewhere
Littleȱbirdsȱsangȱthere.ȱȱ
Nowȱtheȱhoodedȱcrowȱcriesȱout.ȱ
Doesȱ(theȱworld)ȱnowȱhaveȱotherȱcolors?ȱYes,ȱindeed:
Itȱhasȱgrownȱpaleȱandȱoverlyȱgray.
Andȱmanyȱaȱbrowȱhasȱbecomeȱwrinkledȱbecauseȱofȱthat.]
Here,ȱ theȱ orientationȱ ofȱ theȱ pastoralȱ asȱ aȱ nostalgicȱ recollectionȱ ofȱ beautiful,
irretrievableȱexperienceȱbecomesȱmostȱimportant.33ȱTheȱimagesȱthatȱemergeȱinȱthe
firstȱfewȱlinesȱpresentȱanȱutopianȱmemoryȱofȱtheȱsummerȱseason,ȱforȱwhichȱthe
poetȱ ardentlyȱ longsȱ inȱ theȱ poem’sȱ presentȱ time,ȱ andȱ asȱ oftenȱ occursȱ with
rememberedȱ events,ȱ thingsȱ andȱ people,ȱ theirȱ “objectiveness”ȱ becomesȱ less
significantȱ thanȱ theirȱ idealizedȱ qualities.ȱ Pureȱ colorȱ dominatesȱ Walther’s
recollectionȱofȱtheȱlandscape,ȱalthoughȱobjectsȱtoȱwhichȱtheȱcolorsȱcanȱattachȱare
lacking.ȱThus,ȱtheȱpoetȱrecallsȱtheȱred,ȱtheȱyellowȱandȱtheȱblueȱofȱtheȱsummer
worldȱ(“Diuȱwerltȱwasȱgelf,ȱrôtȱundeȱblâ”),ȱbutȱdoesȱnotȱyetȱidentifyȱpreciselyȱwhat
inȱ theȱ environmentȱ isȱ soȱ colorful.ȱ Likeȱ anȱ artistȱ brushingȱ paintȱ ontoȱ aȱ canvas,
Waltherȱlaysȱoutȱhisȱhuesȱinȱsplashesȱbeforeȱblendingȱandȱformingȱtheȱcolorsȱinto
recognizableȱobjects.ȱ
Ofȱ course,ȱ oneȱ expectsȱ aȱ greenȱ shadeȱ inȱ naturalȱ surroundings,ȱ andȱ Walther
providesȱthisȱcolorȱinȱtheȱsecondȱline;ȱhowever,ȱheȱthenȱcuriouslyȱcompletesȱthe
lineȱbyȱjuxtaposingȱtwoȱadverbsȱofȱplaceȱ(“inȱdemȱwalde”ȱandȱ“anderswâ”).ȱOne
canȱscarcelyȱimagineȱaȱmoreȱunspecificȱlocusȱthanȱthis:ȱtheȱgreenȱisȱlocatedȱnotȱonly
“in”ȱtheȱsummertimeȱforest,ȱbutȱalsoȱ“elsewhere”;ȱtheȱoffhandednessȱofȱWalther’s
33
Garrard,ȱEcocriticismȱ(seeȱnoteȱ6),ȱ37.
wordȱchoiceȱinitiatesȱtheȱpoem’sȱsemiȬseriousȱtoneȱwhileȱitȱfurtherȱdetachesȱthe
greenȱfromȱtheȱworldȱofȱobjects.ȱIndeed,ȱevenȱtheȱforest,ȱwhichȱoneȱimaginesȱasȱa
realȱspaceȱconsistingȱofȱindividualȱdeciduousȱandȱconiferousȱtreesȱinȱabundance,
doesȱnotȱbearȱtheȱcolor;ȱinstead,ȱtheȱforestȱmerelyȱprovidesȱaȱspaceȱinȱwhichȱthe
colorȱexists.ȱThus,ȱinȱtheȱfirstȱtwoȱlinesȱofȱthisȱpoem,ȱsummerȱcolorȱisȱeverywhere,
but,ȱdisassociatedȱfromȱtheȱobjectiveȱworld,ȱitȱremainsȱaȱdisembodiedȱimpression
thatȱlingersȱindistinctlyȱinȱtheȱmemory.ȱȱ
InȱtheȱthirdȱlineȱWaltherȱbeginsȱtoȱpopulateȱtheȱspatialȱimageȱinȱhisȱmemory
withȱ theȱ firstȱ ofȱ severalȱ objectsȱ thatȱ heȱ willȱ addȱ toȱ hisȱ recalledȱ summertime
landscapeȱoverȱtheȱcourseȱofȱtheȱpoem.ȱȱLikeȱWalther’sȱcolors,ȱtheȱobjects,ȱtoo,
seemȱmoreȱidealizedȱthanȱreal,ȱandȱcertainlyȱareȱdrawnȱfromȱtheȱstorehouseȱof
prefabricated,ȱpastoralȱimages.ȱTheȱfirstȱofȱtheseȱareȱlittleȱbirds;ȱȱpredictably,ȱthe
poetȱrecallsȱthatȱtheyȱwereȱ singing.ȱTheȱaudienceȱdoesȱnotȱdiscover,ȱhowever,
whetherȱWaltherȱisȱreferringȱtoȱsparrows,ȱnightingales,ȱlarks,ȱwarblersȱorȱother
songbirdsȱthatȱoneȱencountersȱamongȱtheȱEuropeanȱfauna.34ȱTheȱpoet’sȱmemory
offersȱnoȱmoreȱspecificȱinformationȱthanȱthatȱthereȱwereȱsmallȱbirdsȱsomewhere
inȱ theȱ imageȱ (‘dâ”)ȱ andȱ thatȱ theyȱ sang.ȱ ȱ However,ȱ theȱ suggestionȱ ofȱ generic
birdsongȱproducesȱonlyȱaȱhazyȱrecollectionȱofȱjoy,ȱcenteredȱinȱtheȱpoet,ȱthatȱdoes
notȱprovideȱmoreȱspecificityȱorȱconcretenessȱforȱtheȱreader.ȱOfȱcourse,ȱsuchȱan
exclusivelyȱanthropocentricȱperspectiveȱisȱinherentȱinȱtheȱpastoral,ȱwhereȱtheȱpoet
indulgesȱinȱtheȱsublimeȱenjoyment,ȱforȱherȱorȱhisȱownȱpleasure,ȱprovidedȱbyȱa
recollected,ȱgenericȱimageȱofȱcontrivedȱnaturalȱbeautyȱthatȱrequiresȱfewȱdetails.ȱAs
aȱresult,ȱtheȱaudienceȱmustȱmakeȱdoȱwithȱaȱveryȱvagueȱpictureȱofȱtheȱsummer
landscape.
However,ȱtheȱpastoralȱimageȱevaporatesȱcompletelyȱwhenȱitȱconfrontsȱtheȱreality
ofȱtheȱwintertime.ȱTheȱwarmȱcolorsȱandȱavianȱmelodiesȱdisappearȱinȱtheȱfourth
line,ȱwhenȱtheȱverbȱtenseȱshiftsȱfromȱtheȱ(remembered)ȱpastȱtoȱtheȱ(authentic)
present,ȱ markedȱ byȱ theȱ temporalȱ adverbȱ “nû”ȱ (“now”).ȱ Suddenly,ȱ theȱ poet
encountersȱ aȱ creatureȱ thatȱ incorporatesȱ theȱ oppositeȱ ofȱ thatȱ whichȱ heȱ has
presentedȱinȱtheȱfirstȱthreeȱlines.ȱAsȱinȱtheȱpreviouslyȱdiscussedȱpoem,ȱ“Dôȱder
sumerȱkomenȱwas,”ȱaȱcrowȱinterruptsȱWalther’sȱreverie.ȱTheȱindistinctȱmemory
ofȱ birdsongȱ isȱ shatteredȱ byȱ theȱ harshȱ cryȱ ofȱ aȱ “nebelcrâ”ȱ (corvusȱ cornix,ȱ aȱ
“Nebelkrähe”ȱorȱ“hoodedȱcrow”).ȱȱTheȱspecificityȱwithȱwhichȱtheȱpoetȱnamesȱthe
speciesȱ conjuresȱ aȱ concrete,ȱ visualȱ andȱ acousticȱ imageȱ inȱ contrastȱ toȱ theȱ hazy
memoriesȱ ofȱ summertime.ȱ ȱ Yet,ȱ theȱ crow’sȱ nameȱ itselfȱ presentsȱ anȱ ironic
juxtapositionȱ ofȱ vaguenessȱ (“nebel,”ȱ Eng.ȱ “fog”ȱ orȱ “haze”)ȱ withȱ concreteness
(“krâ,”ȱEng.ȱ“crow”),ȱembodyingȱWalther’sȱvainȱattemptȱtoȱrecallȱaȱmoreȱauthentic
34
WhenȱWaltherȱnamesȱspecificȱavianȱspecies,ȱtheȱidentificationȱoftenȱcarriesȱgreatȱsignificance;ȱsee,
forȱexample,ȱStephenȱL.ȱWailes,ȱ“TheȱCrane,ȱtheȱPeacock,ȱandȱtheȱReadingȱofȱWaltherȱvonȱder
Vogelweideȱ19.29,”ȱModernȱLanguageȱNotesȱ88ȱ(1973):ȱ947–55.
summerȱexperienceȱinȱtheȱfaceȱofȱwinter.ȱDevoidȱofȱanyȱcolors,ȱshriekingȱoutȱits
“song”ȱintoȱtheȱsnowyȱandȱcoldȱwinterȱenvironment,ȱtheȱdrabȱcrowȱthusȱbecomes
moreȱthanȱaȱdenizenȱofȱtheȱwinterȱlandscape:ȱitȱpresentsȱaȱkindȱofȱDingsymbolȱof
Walther’sȱdilemma,ȱironicallyȱincorporating,ȱthroughȱcolorȱsymbolism,ȱtheȱpoet’s
utterȱdiscontentȱwithȱtheȱlongȱandȱtediousȱseasonȱandȱhisȱhelplessnessȱtoȱcallȱback
summertime.ȱȱȱȱȱ
Asȱ Waltherȱ furtherȱ developsȱ theȱ contrastsȱ betweenȱ theȱ memoryȱ ofȱ summer
pleasuresȱandȱtheȱcurrentȱdiscomfortȱofȱwinter,ȱtheȱdominantȱbackgroundȱcolor
changesȱtoȱanȱubiquitous,ȱpaleȱgraynessȱthatȱcharacterizesȱtheȱwinterȱcold.ȱThe
poem’sȱtoneȱchangesȱasȱwell,ȱtoȱoneȱofȱfrustrationȱandȱexasperation,ȱwhileȱobjects
becomeȱmuchȱmoreȱconcreteȱandȱtactileȱasȱpastȱmemoryȱfadesȱintoȱpresentȱreality.
Byȱtheȱbeginningȱofȱtheȱsecondȱstropheȱtheȱsceneȱreturnsȱtoȱsummerȱpast,ȱbut
againȱtheȱpoet’sȱmemoryȱconjuresȱnothingȱmoreȱsolidȱandȱspecificȱthanȱaȱgreen
hill,ȱflowers,ȱcloverȱandȱaȱdistantȱlake,ȱallȱofȱwhichȱrapidlyȱdissolve—asȱtheȱpoet
sadlyȱasserts,ȱ“derȱougenweideȱistȱdâȱnihtȱmê”ȱ(“thereȱisȱnoȱmoreȱsceneryȱthere”).
Theȱalternatingȱbetweenȱrecalled,ȱindistinctȱsummerȱmemoriesȱandȱtheȱmonotonic,
coldȱ andȱ concreteȱ presentȱ movesȱ theȱ poemȱ relentlesslyȱ deeperȱ intoȱ anȱ almost
sarcasticȱflippancy.ȱȱ
Theȱ thirdȱ stropheȱ claimsȱ thatȱ onlyȱ foolsȱ wouldȱ sayȱ Ȉsnîâȱ snî!Ȉȱ (“letȱ itȱ snow,
snow!”)ȱwhileȱtheȱpoorȱpeopleȱsufferȱsoȱmuch.ȱTheȱwinterȱmakesȱtheȱpoetȱfeel
“swær”ȱ(“heavy”)ȱwithȱworries,ȱthatȱwouldȱdisappearȱifȱonlyȱtheȱsummerȱwould
comeȱback.ȱȱBeginningȱtheȱfourthȱstanza,ȱtheȱpoetȱclaimsȱthat,ȱratherȱthanȱendure
muchȱmoreȱofȱthisȱweather,ȱheȱwouldȱratherȱeatȱrawȱcrustaceansȱ(“denȱcrebzȱwolte
ichȱ êȱ ezzenȱ rô”);ȱ sinceȱ hoodedȱ crowsȱ makeȱ suchȱ “crebz,”ȱ orȱ “crayfish,”ȱ a
significantȱpartȱofȱtheirȱdiet,ȱitȱisȱlikelyȱthatȱtheȱinspirationȱforȱthisȱimageȱcomes
fromȱ theȱ poet’sȱ directȱ observationȱ ofȱ theȱ “nebelcrâ”ȱ earlierȱ inȱ theȱ poem.
Additionally,ȱthroughȱthisȱfoodȱimage,ȱWaltherȱforgesȱaȱhumorousȱidentityȱwith
theȱ crow,ȱ parallelȱ toȱ (but,ȱ inȱ tone,ȱ quiteȱ differentȱ from)ȱ theȱ youngȱ woman’s
identificationȱwithȱtheȱnightingale,ȱȱpreviouslyȱdiscussedȱinȱ‘Underȱderȱlinden.”
Thereafter,ȱtheȱfocusȱshiftsȱonceȱagainȱontoȱimagesȱofȱsummer,ȱbutȱthese,ȱtoo,ȱare
indistinctȱandȱhazy:ȱtheȱsummerȱprovidedȱflowers,ȱaȱmeadowȱandȱbushesȱthat
madeȱhisȱheartȱhappyȱthen,ȱbutȱnowȱtheȱwinterȱhasȱreplacedȱtheȱelementsȱofȱthe
vernalȱlandscapeȱwithȱtheȱstrawȱheȱfindsȱemergingȱfromȱtheȱsnowȱaroundȱhim.ȱȱ
Inȱtheȱfifthȱstanzaȱheȱblamesȱtheȱoverlongȱwinterȱforȱhisȱdisheveledȱappearance
andȱforȱhisȱfeelingȱ“verlegenȱalsȱeinȱsû”ȱ(“lazyȱasȱaȱsow”),ȱanotherȱfaunalȱimage
moreȱconcreteȱthanȱthatȱofȱtheȱgenericallyȱremembered,ȱpastoralȱbirds.ȱȱByȱtheȱend
ofȱtheȱpoemȱtheȱpoet’sȱexasperationȱandȱsarcasmȱreachȱaȱzenith,ȱasȱtheȱfinalȱtwo
linesȱ provideȱ anȱ amusingȱ closingȱ pointe:ȱ thatȱ theȱ poetȱ wouldȱ ratherȱ becomeȱ a
“monkȱ inȱ Dobrilugk”ȱ (“munichȱ zeȱ Toberlû”)35ȱ thanȱ endureȱ moreȱ ofȱ winter’s
discomfort.ȱForȱWalther,ȱwhoȱcloselyȱobservesȱandȱcelebratesȱtheȱsecularȱworldȱof
theȱcourtȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱnaturalȱenvironment,ȱevenȱtheȱdeprivationȱandȱrigorsȱof
monasticȱlifeȱseemȱaȱdesirableȱalternativeȱtoȱwinter.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱreaderȱfeels
compelledȱ toȱ takeȱ thisȱ oneȱ stepȱ further:ȱ itȱ seemsȱ likelyȱ that,ȱ sinceȱ Walther
measuresȱtheȱbemoanedȱdiscomfortsȱofȱtheȱseasonȱagainstȱtheȱmonasticȱlifeȱ“ze
Toberlû”ȱ(asȱaȱyardstickȱthatȱdefinesȱanȱultimateȱ“placeȱwhereȱoneȱwouldȱnotȱwant
toȱbe”),ȱheȱgainsȱaȱhumorousȱopportunityȱtoȱcriticizeȱcloisteredȱexistenceȱasȱan
unpleasantȱplace,ȱaȱ“locusȱterribilis,”ȱor,ȱinȱotherȱwords,ȱaȱpolarȱoppositeȱofȱthe
summertimeȱpastoralȱlocusȱamoenusȱevokedȱearlierȱinȱtheȱpoem.36ȱByȱtheȱendȱofȱthe
finalȱstropheȱWaltherȱconvincesȱusȱnotȱonlyȱthatȱtheȱlongȱwinterȱisȱpossiblyȱthe
mostȱuncomfortableȱsituationȱoneȱmustȱendureȱinȱlife,ȱbutȱalsoȱthatȱitȱisȱnotȱallȱthat
muchȱworseȱthanȱtoȱbeȱ“beclemmet”ȱ(“shutȱin”)ȱbehindȱmonasticȱwalls.ȱȱ
Eachȱ stropheȱ ofȱ thisȱ poemȱ thusȱ presentsȱ aȱ starkȱ contrastȱ betweenȱ the
representationȱofȱidealizedȱnatureȱinȱtheȱpoet’sȱmemoryȱandȱthatȱofȱhisȱpresent
ecologicalȱ reality,ȱ betweenȱ theȱ imaginedȱ landscapeȱ ofȱ pastoralȱ artificeȱ andȱ the
authenticȱchallengesȱmedievalȱlifeȱposed,ȱespeciallyȱtoȱhumanȱbeingsȱconfronting
rawȱandȱmercilessȱnature.ȱTheȱphenomenalȱmedievalȱworldȱwasȱindeedȱoneȱof
extremeȱharshness,ȱandȱtheȱpastoralȱstorehouseȱofȱreadyȱpoeticȱimagesȱcreatedȱa
prettifiedȱbutȱunrealȱlandscape,ȱprovidingȱaȱbackdropȱand,ȱperhaps,ȱaȱrefugeȱfrom
thisȱharshnessȱforȱmanyȱaȱmedievalȱpoet.ȱHowever,ȱinȱWalther’sȱ“Diuȱwerltȱwas
gelf,ȱ rôtȱ undeȱ blâ”ȱ weȱ receiveȱ aȱ mostȱ accomplishedȱ artist’sȱ insightȱ intoȱ how
ineffectiveȱpastoralȱtropesȱmayȱproveȱtoȱbe,ȱrecalledȱthroughȱhazyȱmemory,ȱinȱthe
faceȱofȱstark,ȱnaturalȱimagesȱfromȱtheȱrealȱandȱintolerableȱdiscomfortsȱofȱwinter.ȱ
Oneȱ ofȱ Walther’sȱ finalȱ Liederȱ andȱ perhapsȱ oneȱ ofȱ hisȱ bestȱ knownȱ poemsȱ after
“Underȱ derȱ linden”ȱ isȱ “Owê,ȱ warȱ sintȱ verswundenȱ alliuȱ mîniuȱ jâr”ȱ (L.ȱ 124,ȱ 1,
“Alas,ȱwhereȱhaveȱallȱmyȱyearsȱdisappeared”).37ȱȱOftenȱreferredȱtoȱasȱhisȱ”Elegie,”
theȱ threeȬstropheȱ poemȱ lamentsȱ theȱ poet’sȱ perceptionȱ thatȱ theȱ worldȱ has
35
Theȱlocaleȱ“Toberlû”ȱhasȱdrawnȱattentionȱfromȱbothȱliteraryȱcriticsȱandȱ“Heimat”Ȭgeographers;
seeȱforȱexampleȱMichaelȱLindner,ȱ“Prolog:ȱWaltherȱvonȱderȱVogelweideȱundȱdasȱLandȱhinterȱder
Elbe,”ȱAkkulturationȱundȱSelbstbehauptung:ȱStudienȱzurȱEntwicklungsgeschichteȱderȱLandeȱzwischen
Elbe/SaaleȱundȱOderȱimȱspätenȱMittelalter,ȱed.ȱEberhardȱHoltz,ȱMichaelȱLindner,ȱandȱPeterȱMoraw.
BerichteȱundȱAbhandlungen,ȱSonderbandȱ6ȱ(Berlin:ȱAkademieȱVerlag,,ȱ2001),ȱ7–11;ȱandȱManfred
Lemmer,ȱ“MünchȱzeȱToberlû:ȱAnmerkungenȱzuȱWaltherȱLȱ76,ȱ21,”ȱRöllwagenbüchlein:Festschrift
fürȱWalterȱRöllȱzumȱ65.ȱGeburtstag,ȱed.ȱJürgenȱJaehrling,ȱUweȱMeves,ȱandȱErikaȱTimmȱ(Tübingen:
Niemeyer,ȱ2002),ȱ43–49.
36
SeeȱGabrieleȱFitschen,ȱDerȱKörperȱinȱderȱLyrikȱWalthersȱvonȱderȱVogelweide:ȱSprachlicheȱDarstellung
undȱsemantischeȱFunktion.ȱGöppingerȱArbeitenȱzurȱGermanistik,ȱ740ȱ(Göppingen:ȱKümmerle,ȱ2008),
194–98.
37
WaltherȱvonȱderȱVogelweide,ȱLeich,ȱLieder,ȱSangsprücheȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱ264–66.
degeneratedȱbeforeȱhisȱveryȱeyes,ȱuntilȱitȱnowȱseemsȱtoȱlanguishȱinȱaȱsorryȱstate.38
Hisȱyearsȱareȱlost,ȱandȱlifeȱseemsȱtoȱbeȱdreamlike—asȱifȱtheȱpoetȱhadȱsleptȱhisȱtime
awayȱwhileȱtheȱworldȱchanged,ȱtoȱtheȱpointȱwhereȱitȱhasȱbecomeȱunrecognizable.
Keyȱtoȱthisȱrealizationȱareȱlongtimeȱfriends,ȱsuchȱasȱhisȱchildhoodȱplaymatesȱfrom
longȱago,ȱwhoȱhaveȱlostȱtheirȱfamiliarityȱandȱnowȱstrikeȱhimȱasȱelderlyȱandȱfeeble
strangers.ȱMostȱsignificantlyȱforȱtheȱenvironmentalȱtheme,ȱhowever,ȱareȱWalther’s
lamentationsȱ regardingȱ theȱ physicalȱ worldȱ itself,ȱ whichȱ hasȱ alsoȱ become
remarkablyȱforeign,ȱevenȱuncannyȱtoȱhim.
Waltherȱbringsȱupȱtheȱnaturalȱenvironmentȱthreeȱtimesȱinȱtheȱthreeȱverses.ȱȱIn
theȱ firstȱ strophe,ȱ heȱ makesȱ whatȱ becomesȱ perhapsȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ mostȱ significant
expressionsȱ ofȱ anȱ ecocriticalȱ consciousnessȱ toȱ beȱ foundȱ inȱ medievalȱ German
literature.ȱHeȱstates:ȱ
ȱ
bereitetȱistȱdazȱvelt,ȱȱȱȱȱverhouwenȱistȱderȱwalt.ȱ
wanȱdazȱdazȱwazzerȱfliuzetȱȱȱȱȱalsȱezȱwîlentȱvlôz,ȱ
fürȱwâr,ȱichȱwânde,ȱmînȱȱȱȱungelückeȱwurdeȱgrôz.ȱ
[theȱfieldȱisȱploughedȱup,ȱcutȱdownȱisȱtheȱforest:ȱ
andȱifȱtheȱwaterȱdidn’tȱflowȱasȱitȱhasȱalwaysȱflowed,ȱ
myȱunhappinessȱwouldȱcertainlyȱbecomeȱgreat.]ȱȱ
Inȱ theȱ firstȱ ofȱ theseȱ linesȱ heȱ expressesȱ hisȱ regretȱ thatȱ theȱ landȱ hasȱ nowȱ been
cultivated,ȱandȱtheȱtreesȱofȱtheȱforestȱhaveȱbeenȱfelled.ȱAsȱinȱpreviousȱpoems,ȱthe
totalityȱofȱWalther’sȱnaturalȱlandscapeȱisȱ“velt”ȱ(“field”)ȱandȱ“walt”ȱ(“forest”).
Whileȱtheȱactivityȱofȱfarming,ȱaȱwarmȬweatherȱoccupation,ȱhasȱcausedȱhimȱjoyȱin
earlierȱ contexts,ȱ nowȱ theȱ strikingȱ parallelȱ ofȱ “bereitet”ȱ (“cultivated”)ȱ and
“verhouwen”ȱ(“cleared,”ȱ“cutȱdown”)ȱemphasizesȱtheȱextremeȱeffectȱcultivation
ofȱ theȱ landȱ hasȱ hadȱ onȱ theȱ onceȱ familiarȱ (and,ȱ weȱ mustȱ assume,ȱ pristine)
landscape.ȱTheȱpoet’sȱalienated,ȱ“upsideȬdown”ȱsenseȱofȱtheȱenvironmentȱinȱthe
firstȱlineȱisȱmadeȱevenȱmoreȱemphaticȱbyȱmeansȱofȱtheȱinversionȱ(theȱpredicate
38
Theȱ greatȱ numberȱ ofȱ recentȱ criticalȱ commentariesȱ onȱ thisȱ poemȱ includeȱ Berndȱ Thum,ȱ “Die
sogenannteȱ‘Alterselegie’ȱWalthersȱvonȱderȱVogelweideȱundȱdieȱKriseȱdesȱLandesausbausȱimȱ13.
Jahrhundertȱ unterȱ besondererȱ Berücksichtigungȱ desȱ DonauȬRaumes,”ȱ Literaturȱ –ȱ Publikumȱ –
historischerȱKontext,ȱed.ȱGertȱKaiser.ȱBeiträgeȱzurȱälterenȱdeutschenȱLiteraturgeschichte,ȱ1ȱ(Bern,
Lasȱ Vegas,ȱ etȱ al.:ȱ Peterȱ Lang,ȱ 1977),ȱ 205–39;ȱ ȱ Berndtȱ Volkmann,ȱ Owêȱ warȱ sintȱ verswunden:ȱ die
ȈElegieȈȱ Walthersȱ vonȱ derȱ Vogelweide:ȱ Untersuchungen,ȱ kritischerȱ Text,ȱ Kommentar.ȱ Göppinger
ArbeitenȱzurȱGermanistik,ȱ483ȱ(Göppingen:ȱKümmerle,ȱ1987);ȱMarkȱChinca,ȱ“Waltherȱvonȱder
Vogelweide:ȱ‘Elegie,’”ȱLandmarksȱinȱGermanȱPoetry,ȱed.ȱPeterȱHutchinson.ȱBritischeȱundȱirische
StudienȱzurȱdeutschenȱSpracheȱundȱLiteratur,ȱ20ȱ(OxfordȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱPeterȱLang,ȱ2000),ȱ9–30;
Brunner,ȱHahnȱetȱal.,ȱWaltherȱvonȱderȱVogelweideȱ(seeȱnoteȱ8),ȱ222–27;ȱAlbrechtȱClassen,ȱ“Crimeȱand
ViolenceȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges:ȱTheȱCasesȱofȱHeinrichȱderȱGlichezare’sȱReinhardȱFuchsȱandȱWernher
derȱGartenære’sȱHelmbrecht,”ȱCrime,ȱCriminality,ȱandȱPunishmentȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱEarly
ModernȱPeriod,ȱȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassenȱandȱConnieȱScarborough.ȱFundamentalsȱofȱMedievalȱand
EarlyȱModernȱCulture,ȱ10ȱ(Berlin:ȱDeGruyter,ȱforthcoming).ȱ
adjectiveȱ occurringȱ first,ȱ followedȱ byȱ theȱ verbȱ “toȱ be”ȱ andȱ finallyȱ byȱ the
substantive)ȱstructuringȱeachȱhalfȬline.ȱ
Clearly,ȱ withinȱ theȱ contextȱ ofȱ negativeȱ changeȱ thatȱ thisȱ poemȱ laments,ȱ the
humanȱ footprintȱ onȱ theȱ naturalȱ worldȱ hasȱ beenȱ aȱ majorȱ causeȱ ofȱ theȱ poet’s
estrangementȱfromȱit,ȱaȱsymptomȱofȱaȱmodernȱturningȱawayȱfromȱinnocenceȱand
connection,ȱ andȱ aȱ movingȱ towardȱ unsettlednessȱ andȱ dissatisfaction,ȱ primary
factorsȱcausingȱtheȱpoetȱtoȱcryȱoutȱatȱbothȱtheȱbeginningȱandȱendȱofȱeachȱstrophe
“alas!”ȱ(“Owê”ȱorȱ“ouwê”).ȱTheȱpoetȱthenȱdeclaresȱthat,ȱifȱtheȱwatersȱflowedȱin
otherȱchannelsȱthanȱwasȱtheirȱcustom,ȱhisȱunhappinessȱwouldȱindeedȱbeȱgreat.ȱOf
course,ȱtheȱmassȱredirectionȱandȱrestrictionȱofȱmeanderingȱstreambedsȱandȱthe
engineeringȱofȱartificialȱriversȱhadȱnotȱyetȱbecomeȱaȱtechnologicalȱpossibility,39
evenȱ thoughȱ theseȱ wordsȱ ringȱ propheticallyȱ intoȱ theȱ modernȱ era,ȱ inȱ which
damming,ȱfloodplainȱmanipulationȱandȱtheȱdrasticȱreductionȱofȱwatershedȱhave
hadȱdireȱeffectsȱonȱmodernȱecosystems,ȱtoȱtheȱ“ungelücke”ȱofȱourȱcontemporary
world.ȱHere,ȱWaltherȱgivesȱusȱaȱstrongȱtasteȱofȱtheȱalienatingȱeffectsȱthatȱecological
changeȱcanȱexertȱonȱtheȱhumanȱpsyche.
Theȱ secondȱ stropheȱ lamentsȱ someȱ ofȱ theȱ unfortunateȱ directionsȱ cultural
phenomenaȱ haveȱ taken,ȱ causingȱ careȱ andȱ unhappinessȱ amongȱ peopleȱ who
otherwiseȱshouldȱbeȱlightheartedȱandȱjoyful,ȱincludingȱtheȱyoung.ȱGrumpily,ȱthe
poetȱcomplainsȱthatȱwomen’sȱfashionȱisȱunsightly,ȱknightsȱdressȱinappropriately,
andȱtheȱPopeȱisȱsendingȱunfriendlyȱlettersȱfromȱRome.ȱAgain,ȱWaltherȱreachesȱinto
theȱenvironmentȱtoȱindicateȱhowȱtheȱentireȱworld,ȱbothȱcultureȱandȱnature,ȱhave
becomeȱpitiable,ȱforȱevenȱtheȱbirdsȱnowȱjoinȱinȱtheȱlamentations:ȱ
dieȱwildenȱvogellînȱȱȱȱȱbetrüebetȱunserȱclage:ȱ
wazȱwundersȱist,ȱȱȱȱȱobȱichȱdâȱvonȱverzage?
[ourȱlamentȱsaddensȱtheȱbirdsȱinȱtheȱwilderness:ȱ
isȱitȱanyȱwonder,ȱthen,ȱthatȱIȱhaveȱgivenȱupȱonȱanyȱjoyȱatȱall?]
Underȱbetterȱcircumstances,ȱourȱavianȱcompanionsȱinȱtheȱnaturalȱworldȱwould
undoubtedlyȱ beȱ singingȱ happilyȱ inȱ aȱ forest,ȱ asȱ inȱ otherȱ poemsȱ whereȱ Walther
employsȱtheȱimageȱofȱ“vogel”ȱ(“birds”).ȱHowever,ȱthisȱtimeȱWaltherȱisȱnotȱevoking
theȱtypicalȱpastoralȱtropeȱofȱbirds,ȱnorȱdoesȱheȱsituateȱthemȱinȱaȱpastoralȱ“walt.”
Instead,ȱtheȱbirdsȱareȱ“dieȱwildenȱvogellîn”ȱandȱcanȱbeȱfoundȱinȱtheȱ“wilde,”ȱwith
itsȱmedievalȱconnotationsȱofȱestrangementȱfromȱtheȱcourtlyȱworld.ȱTheirȱusually
cheerfulȱ melodiesȱ haveȱ ceased,ȱ whileȱ humanȱ complaintsȱ nowȱ affectȱ theȱ birds,
makingȱthemȱsad.ȱ
39
JeremyȱWithersȱremarks,ȱhowever,ȱthatȱmedievalȱarmiesȱhadȱdevelopedȱsomeȱtechnicalȱskillsȱin
thisȱarea,ȱsinceȱ“riversȱwereȱdammedȱandȱreroutedȱtoȱcreateȱobstaclesȱforȱadvancingȱtroops,”ȱsee
“TheȱEcologyȱofȱLateȱMedievalȱWarfareȱinȱLydgate’sȱDebateȱofȱtheȱHorse,ȱGoose,ȱandȱSheep”ȱ(seeȱnote
7),”ȱ104.
Apparentlyȱtheȱpoetȱcanȱdetectȱthisȱchange,ȱeitherȱinȱtheȱbirds’ȱsilenceȱorȱperhaps
inȱaȱnew,ȱsadderȱsong,ȱandȱthisȱrealizationȱcausesȱhimȱtoȱdespairȱthatȱjoyȱwillȱever
return.ȱ Remarkably,ȱ theȱ singleȱ lineȱ inȱ thisȱ stanzaȱ regardingȱ natureȱ makesȱ a
powerfulȱimpactȱonȱtheȱreader,ȱandȱmakesȱitȱunambiguouslyȱclearȱthatȱdestructive
humanȱactivitiesȱaffectȱtheȱnaturalȱecologyȱnegatively,ȱcausingȱaȱlossȱofȱhuman
connectionȱ toȱ theȱ naturalȱ worldȱ thatȱ diminishesȱ humanȱ joy.ȱ Waltherȱ tracesȱ a
downwardȱ spiralȱ thatȱ somewhatȱ parallelsȱ moreȱ modernȱ modelsȱ ofȱ theȱ often
negativeȱ relationshipȱ betweenȱ humanȱ cultureȱ andȱ nature.ȱ Itȱ isȱ strikingȱ that
Waltherȱseemsȱtoȱsenseȱtheȱirretrievabilityȱofȱtheȱtiesȱthatȱbindȱusȱtoȱnature,ȱand
theȱdireȱimplicationsȱofȱthisȱloss.ȱ
AtȱtheȱoutsetȱofȱtheȱthirdȱstropheȱWaltherȱshiftsȱhisȱattentionȱfromȱsecularȱto
religiousȱconcerns,ȱremindingȱtheȱreaderȱthatȱasȱbeautifulȱasȱtheȱworldȱmightȱseem,
itȱisȱtarnished.ȱWalther’sȱnatureȱimagesȱbeginȱtoȱacquireȱbiblicalȱovertones:ȱthe
sweetnessȱofȱtheȱnaturalȱworldȱisȱconcretelyȱlikenedȱtoȱthatȱofȱhoney,ȱbutȱitȱhas
beenȱcontaminatedȱwithȱgall,ȱrecallingȱtheȱwineȱthatȱhadȱbeenȱmixedȱwithȱgallȱand
givenȱtoȱChristȱonȱtheȱcrossȱtoȱdrinkȱ(Matthewȱ27:34).ȱThen,ȱWaltherȱreturnsȱtoȱa
favoriteȱdepictionȱofȱnature’sȱexternalȱbeauty,ȱthroughȱitsȱcolors,ȱ“white,ȱgreenȱand
red”:ȱ
diuȱweltȱistȱûzenȱschœne,ȱȱȱȱȱwîzȱgrüenȱundȱrôt,ȱ
undȱinnanȱswarzerȱvarwe,ȱȱȱȱȱvinsterȱsamȱderȱtôt.ȱ
[Theȱworldȱisȱbeautifulȱonȱtheȱoutside,ȱwhite,ȱgreenȱandȱred,ȱ
butȱinsideȱitȱisȱblackȱinȱcolor,ȱasȱdarkȱasȱdeathȱitself.]
Again,ȱoneȱdetectsȱtracesȱofȱbiblicalȱlanguage,ȱparticularlyȱChrist’sȱdescriptionȱof
theȱPharisees,ȱcomparingȱthemȱtoȱ“whitedȱsepulchers”ȱ(Matthewȱ23:27),ȱwhiteȱon
theȱ outsideȱ butȱ actuallyȱ fullȱ ofȱ deathȱ andȱ decayȱ onȱ theȱ inside.ȱ Suchȱ language
marksȱanotherȱtrendȱinȱ“Owê,ȱwarȱsintȱverswundenȱalliuȱmîniuȱjâr,”ȱmovingȱthe
poet’sȱfieldȱofȱvisionȱawayȱfromȱnaturalȱecologyȱandȱȱtowardȱaȱblissful,ȱdivine
space.ȱIndeed,ȱtheȱpoemȱendsȱwithȱaȱmementoȱmori,ȱasȱtheȱpoetȱissuesȱaȱcallȱfor
knightsȱtoȱparticipateȱinȱaȱcrusade,ȱasȱheȱinvitesȱthemȱtoȱlookȱforwardȱtoȱearning
theȱ “crône”ȱ (“crown”)ȱ ofȱ eternalȱ lifeȱ inȱ aȱ heavenlyȱ environment,ȱ noȱ longer
obligatedȱtoȱsufferȱtheȱbitternessȱofȱexistenceȱinȱaȱworldȬturnedȬupsideȬdown.ȱ
Inȱtheȱmeantime,ȱtheȱdiscourseȱconveyingȱtropesȱofȱtheȱnaturalȱworldȱreflectsȱa
mostȱ strikingȱ transformation,ȱ especiallyȱ ifȱ oneȱ recallsȱ theȱ praisesȱ ofȱ the
rememberedȱsummerȱlandscapeȱthatȱWaltherȱsangȱpreviouslyȱ(e.g.,ȱinȱ“Diuȱwerlt
wasȱ gelf,ȱ rôtȱ undeȱ blâ”).ȱ Theȱ summertimeȱ huesȱ indicatingȱ life,ȱ inȱ fullȱ force,
adorningȱtheȱvernalȱenvrionmentȱofȱearlierȱpoemsȱnowȱmaskȱtheȱputrefactionȱof
nature,ȱ whichȱ Waltherȱ alsoȱ depictsȱ inȱ referenceȱ toȱ color.ȱ Atȱ theȱ sameȱ time,
Walther’sȱrevelationȱhereȱpresentsȱanȱadditionalȱconcreteȱandȱrealisticȱfeatureȱof
theȱbiosphere.ȱAlthoughȱtheȱphraseȱ“innanȱswarzerȱvarwe”ȱfunctionsȱasȱaȱreligious
trope,ȱ theȱ factȱ remainsȱ thatȱ deathȱ andȱ decayȱ areȱ asȱ muchȱ partȱ ofȱ anȱ authentic
naturalȱexperienceȱasȱnature’sȱbeautifulȱgreenȱandȱredȱhues.ȱTherefore,ȱdrawing
theȱreader’sȱfocusȱontoȱnature’sȱ“unsightly”ȱsideȱmarksȱaȱdistinctȱshiftȱtoward
realism.ȱ Atȱ leastȱ onȱ theȱ ecocriticalȱ level,ȱ Waltherȱ hasȱ leftȱ behindȱ theȱ idyllic,
sublimeȱ splendorȱ ofȱ theȱ pastoralȱ forȱ aȱ moreȱ realisticȱ perspectiveȱ onȱ theȱ space
aroundȱ him.ȱ However,ȱ thisȱ doesȱ notȱ lastȱ long;ȱ insteadȱ ofȱ lingeringȱ onȱ aȱ more
authentic,ȱbutȱlessȱidealistic,ȱnaturalȱenvironment,ȱheȱredirectsȱhisȱviewȱtowardȱa
beautifulȱandȱperfectȱafterlifeȱinȱheaven.ȱByȱtheȱconclusionȱofȱtheȱpoemȱheȱhas
completelyȱembracedȱaȱvisionȱofȱeternalȱglory,ȱclaimingȱitȱisȱbetterȱthatȱknights
participateȱinȱaȱcrusadeȱandȱtherebyȱgainȱaȱplaceȱinȱheavenȱthanȱthatȱtheyȱremain
inȱtheȱintolerableȱstatusȱquoȱheȱlamentsȱinȱtheȱpreviousȱtwoȱverses.ȱ
Thus,ȱasȱweȱhaveȱseen,ȱWalther’sȱpoetryȱdevelopsȱaȱnewȱdiscourseȱofȱtheȱnatural
worldȱ that,ȱ inȱ severalȱ ofȱ hisȱ bestȬknownȱ poems,ȱ challengesȱ theȱ dominant,
privilegedȱ pastoralȱ discourseȱ commonȱ inȱ medievalȱ art,ȱ andȱ reflectsȱ aȱ nascent
“ecocritical”ȱ consciousness.ȱ Whileȱ inȱ someȱ poemsȱ Waltherȱ engagesȱ fullyȱ in
stereotypicalȱpastoralȱtreatmentsȱofȱnatureȱ(e.g.,ȱ“Sôȱdieȱbluomenȱûzȱdemȱgrase
dringent”),ȱinȱothersȱheȱadoptsȱanȱironicȱtoneȱtowardȱtheseȱimagesȱandȱbreaks
throughȱ theȱ simpleȱ acceptanceȱ ofȱ theirȱ formulaicȱ references,ȱ asȱ heȱ focusesȱ on
individualȱnaturalȱphenomenaȱinȱaȱcontrastiveȱandȱmoreȱrealisticȱlight.ȱInȱseveral
ofȱtheȱpoemsȱweȱhaveȱexamined,ȱWaltherȱcreatesȱaȱscenarioȱwhereȱaȱhuman,ȱlyrical
subjectȱ entersȱ aȱ naturalȱ environmentȱ andȱ discoversȱ thatȱ pastoralȱ discourseȱ is
insufficientȱtoȱrelateȱherȱorȱhimȱtoȱecologicalȱreality.ȱ
Inȱotherȱpoems,ȱfacileȱandȱidealizedȱpastoralȱtropesȱevaporateȱwhenȱtheȱpoet
focusesȱonȱauthenticȱvisualȱandȱacousticȱimagesȱofȱtheȱnaturalȱworld.ȱThisȱprocess
enablesȱWaltherȱtoȱplaceȱhisȱreadersȱinȱaȱperspectiveȱthatȱallowsȱthemȱuniquelyȱto
observeȱtheȱresultsȱofȱactualȱhumanȱincursionȱintoȱtheȱnaturalȱecology,ȱevenȱtoȱthe
pointȱwhereȱtheȱpoetȱcanȱquestionȱtheȱthoughtlessȱexploitationȱofȱtheȱenvironment
andȱchallengeȱtheȱseeminglyȱinnocuousȱliteraryȱconventionsȱthatȱencourageȱsuch
thoughtlessness.ȱInȱtheseȱpoems,ȱtheȱpoetȱcannotȱlookȱuponȱnatureȱasȱaȱperpetual
subjectȱthatȱisȱobservingȱaȱsublimeȱobject;ȱoneȱusuallyȱfindsȱoneselfȱinȱtheȱthickȱof
authenticȱnaturalȱthings,ȱperhapsȱawakenedȱfromȱaȱpastoralȱreverieȱbyȱaȱcrow’s
shriek,ȱorȱpossiblyȱshakenȱbyȱtheȱsuddenȱawarenessȱthatȱsummer’sȱprettyȱcolors
maskȱtheȱveryȱrealȱandȱubiquitousȱblacknessȱofȱcorruptionȱandȱdecay.ȱOr,ȱoneȱcan
discoverȱevidenceȱofȱone’sȱownȱimpressionȱinȱtheȱbrokenȱgrassȱstalksȱandȱflowers,
formingȱtheȱoutlineȱofȱaȱhumanȱbodyȱuponȱtheȱfloralȱforestȱcarpet.ȱThus,ȱsomeȱof
Walther’sȱmostȱimportantȱcontributionsȱtoȱmedievalȱenvironmentalȱconsciousness
lieȱ inȱ hisȱ mimeticȱ attemptsȱ toȱ depictȱ theȱ naturalȱ worldȱ inȱ someȱ “naturalistic”
detail,ȱratherȱthanȱasȱaȱsumȱofȱcommon,ȱstylizedȱandȱtrivialȱmetaphors,ȱandȱto
situateȱtheȱlyricalȱsubjectȱintoȱaȱmeaningfulȱandȱauthenticȱperspectiveȱonȱitself
withinȱthatȱecologicalȱspace.
Chapterȱ4
AlbrechtȱClassen
UtopianȱSpaceȱinȱtheȱCountryside:ȱ
LoveȱandȱMarriageȱbetweenȱaȱKnightȱandȱ
aȱPeasantȱGirlȱinȱMedievalȱGermanȱLiterature.
HartmannȱvonȱAue’sȱDerȱarmeȱHeinrich,ȱAnonymous,
“DisȱistȱvonȱdemȱHeselin,”ȱWaltherȱvonȱderȱVogelweide,
OswaldȱvonȱWolkenstein,ȱandȱ
LateȬMedievalȱPopularȱPoetry1
Mostȱofȱmedievalȱliteratureȱwasȱwrittenȱbyȱandȱforȱmembersȱofȱtheȱcourts.ȱWeȱare
reallyȱdealingȱwithȱaristocraticȱliterature,ȱinȱwhichȱtraditionalȱethicsȱandȱidealsȱfind
vocalȱexpression.ȱAsȱJamesȱA.ȱSchultzȱobserves,ȱ“Courtlyȱloveȱisȱaȱproductȱofȱthis
moderationȱandȱregulation.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱAsȱtableȱmannersȱdisciplineȱtheȱappetiteȱforȱfood,
andȱtheȱtournamentȱdisciplinesȱtheȱknights’ȱcompulsionȱtoȱfight,ȱsoȱcourtlyȱlove
disciplinesȱ theȱ tendencyȱ ofȱ menȱ andȱ womenȱ toȱ fallȱ inȱ loveȱ andȱ theirȱ urgeȱ to
consummateȱthatȱloveȱphysically.ȱItȱdoesȱsoȱinȱtheȱnameȱofȱtheȱsameȱstandardsȱto
whichȱcourtlyȱcultureȱinȱgeneralȱisȱheld.”2ȱCourtlyȱromancesȱandȱcourtlyȱpoetry,
alongȱ withȱ didacticȱ textsȱ andȱ alsoȱ numerousȱ chroniclesȱ elaboratedȱ onȱ and
cementedȱtheȱfundamentalȱconceptȱcharacterizingȱthatȱworldȱinȱwhichȱfeudalism
hadȱcreatedȱratherȱstrictȱbarriersȱbetweenȱtheȱthreeȱsocialȱclasses.3ȱPeasantsȱwere
1
IȱwouldȱlikeȱtoȱexpressȱmyȱgratitudeȱtoȱChristopherȱR.ȱClasonȱ(OaklandȱUniversity,ȱMI)ȱforȱhis
helpfulȱcommentsȱonȱthisȱpaper.
2
JamesȱA.ȱSchultz,ȱCourtlyȱLove,ȱtheȱLoveȱofȱCourtliness,ȱandȱtheȱHistoryȱofȱSexualityȱ(Chicagoȱand
London:ȱTheȱUniversityȱofȱChicagoȱPress,ȱ2006),ȱ160.
3
Theȱrelevantȱliteratureȱonȱthisȱtopicȱisȱlegion,ȱbutȱforȱaȱrepresentativeȱselectionȱofȱcurrentȱscholarly
approaches,ȱseeȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱCourtlyȱArtsȱandȱtheȱArtȱofȱCourtliness:ȱSelectedȱPapersȱfromȱthe
supposedȱtoȱworkȱonȱtheirȱfarmsȱandȱcreateȱtheȱnecessaryȱproduce;ȱclericsȱwere
supposedȱtoȱprayȱforȱallȱChristiansȱandȱprovideȱtheȱnecessaryȱreligiousȱservice;
knightsȱwereȱsupposedȱtoȱfightȱandȱdefendȱtheirȱsociety.
Eachȱmemberȱofȱthoseȱthreeȱclasses,ȱatȱleastȱinȱidealȱterms,ȱgaveȱsomethingȱand
receivedȱsomethingȱbackȱ(everyoneȱreceivedȱfoodȱfromȱtheȱpeasants,ȱprotection
fromȱ theȱ knights,ȱ andȱ prayersȱ fromȱ theȱ priests),ȱ whichȱ generallyȱ speaking
achievedȱ aȱ harmoniousȱ balanceȱ thatȱ satisfiedȱ theȱ needsȱ andȱ desiresȱ ofȱ every
individualȱinȱthatȱworldȱaccordingȱtoȱaȱsocialȱcontractȱ(contractualȱsociety).ȱThis
trifunctionalȱ structureȱ ofȱ medievalȱ society,ȱ whichȱ alsoȱ couldȱ beȱ expandedȱ to
includeȱaȱfourthȱestateȱduringȱtheȱlateȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(merchants,ȱorȱburghers),ȱhas
longȱbeenȱrecognizedȱasȱtheȱessentialȱframeworkȱbyȱcountlessȱhistorians,ȱsupreme
amongȱthemȱ ȱ GeorgesȱDumézil,ȱwhomȱȱGeorgesȱDubyȱcloselyȱfollowedȱinȱhis
historicalȱ analyses,ȱ andȱ Duby’sȱ fellowȱ annalist,ȱ Marcȱ Bloch.ȱ Dubyȱ cites,ȱ for
instance,ȱ theȱ famousȱ formulaȱ characterizingȱ thatȱ fundamentalȱ structureȱ of
premodernȱEuropeanȱsociety:ȱ“orare,ȱpugnare,ȱagricolariȬlaborare”ȱ(pray,ȱfight,
labor).4ȱ
Oneȱofȱcountlessȱmedievalȱcommentatorsȱaboutȱthatȱsocialȱstructureȱcanȱsuffice
hereȱ toȱ confirmȱ thisȱ observation,ȱ underscoringȱ theȱ profoundȱ relevanceȱ ofȱ this
trifunctionality.ȱChristineȱdeȱPizan,ȱinȱherȱLivreȱdeȱlaȱPaix,ȱcomposedȱbetweenȱ1412
andȱ1414,ȱidentifiedȱoneȱofȱtheȱkeyȱcomponentsȱinȱtheȱcharacterȱofȱaȱgoodȱprince
whoȱknowsȱhowȱtoȱprotectȱpeaceȱandȱtoȱdefendȱhisȱcountryȱinȱtimeȱofȱneed.5ȱThe
princeȱisȱcriticallyȱresponsibleȱforȱtheȱharmonyȱofȱamongȱtheȱsocialȱclasses,ȱand
thus,ȱ ideally,ȱ shouldȱ treatȱ themȱ withȱ humilityȱ andȱ kindness,ȱ payȱ respectȱ to
everyoneȱaccordingȱtoȱhisȱorȱherȱstatus,ȱandȱmaintainȱthatȱsocialȱstructureȱthrough
hisȱleadershipȱrole:ȱ
laȱpremiereȱestȱdeȱhaulteceȱdeȱtresȱnoblesȱprincesȱd’unȱmeismesȱsangȱdeȱlaȱligneeȱroyal,
laȱsecondeȱestȱdeȱvaillantȱchevalerieȱetȱestatȱdesȱnobles,ȱlaȱtierceȱdeȱsolonnelȱclergiéȱen
plusieursȱ universelzȱ estudesȱ etȱ parȱ especialȱ aȱ Paris,ȱ laȱ quarteȱ enȱ notableȱ etȱ riche
bourgoisieȱenȱmaintesȱcitezȱetȱparȱespecialȱenȱcesteȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱC’estȱassavoirȱleȱchiefȱquiȱest
leȱroy,ȱlesȱespaulesȱetȱpartiesȱhaultesȱquiȱrepresententȱlesȱprincesȱetȱseigneurs,ȱlesȱbras
quiȱ estȱ laȱ chevalerie,ȱ lesȱ flansȱ quiȱ estȱ leȱ clergié,ȱ lesȱ reinsȱ etȱ ventreȱ quiȱ sontȱ les
EleventhȱTriennialȱCongressȱofȱtheȱInternationalȱCourtlyȱLiteratureȱSociety.ȱUniversityȱofȱWisconsinȬ
Madison,ȱ29ȱJuly–4ȱAugustȱ2004,ȱed.ȱKeithȱBusbyȱandȱChristopherȱKleinhenzȱ(Cambridge:ȱD.ȱS.
Brewer,ȱ2006).
4
GeorgesȱDuby,ȱTheȱThreeȱOrders:ȱFeudalȱSocietyȱImagined.ȱTrans.ȱbyȱArthurȱGoldhammer.ȱwithȱa
ForewordȱbyȱThomasȱN.ȱBissonȱ(1978;ȱChicagoȱandȱLondon:ȱTheȱUniversityȱofȱChicagoȱPress,
1980),ȱcitesȱGerardȱdeȱCambrais,ȱ13.ȱSeeȱalsoȱhisȱTheȱChivalrousȱSociety.ȱTrans.ȱbyȱCynthiaȱPostan
(London:ȱ Edwardȱ Arnold,ȱ 1977).ȱ Forȱ aȱ surveyȱ ofȱ theȱ criticalȱ literature,ȱ seeȱ nowȱ Harry
Kitsikopoulos,ȱ“SocialȱandȱEconomicȱTheoryȱinȱMedievalȱStudies,”ȱHandbookȱofȱMedievalȱStudies,
ed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassen.ȱVol.ȱ2ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱDeȱGruyter,ȱ2010),ȱ1270–92.
5
SeeȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱPrincelyȱVirtuesȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ1200–1500,ȱed.ȱIstvánȱP.ȱBejczyȱandȱCary
J.ȱNederman.ȱDisputatio,ȱ9ȱ(Turnhout:ȱBrepols,ȱ2007).
UtopianȱSpaceȱinȱtheȱCountryside 253
bourgeois,ȱ lesȱ cuissesȱ quiȱ sontȱ lesȱ marchans,ȱ lesȱ jambesȱ etȱ piézȱ quiȱ sontȱ leȱ menu
peuple.6
[theȱfirstȱisȱtheȱhighȱdignityȱofȱitsȱprinces,ȱwhoȱallȱshareȱtheȱbloodȱofȱtheȱroyalȱline;ȱthe
secondȱ isȱ theȱ valiantȱ knighthoodȱ andȱ estateȱ ofȱ theȱ nobility;ȱ theȱ thirdȱ isȱ the
distinguishedȱclergy,ȱactiveȱinȱallȱkindsȱofȱscholarship,ȱespeciallyȱinȱParis;ȱtheȱfourth,
theȱworthyȱandȱrichȱburghersȱinȱmanyȱcities,ȱespeciallyȱinȱthisȱone.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱTheȱheadȱthat
isȱtheȱking,ȱtheȱshouldersȱandȱupperȱpartsȱthatȱrepresentȱtheȱprincesȱandȱlords,ȱthe
armsȱthatȱareȱtheȱknights,ȱtheȱsidesȱthatȱareȱtheȱclergy,ȱtheȱloinsȱandȱbellyȱthatȱareȱthe
burghers,ȱtheȱthighsȱthatȱareȱtheȱmerchants,ȱtheȱlegsȱandȱfeetȱthatȱareȱtheȱpeople.7]
Atȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱalthoughȱsheȱmightȱnotȱsayȱsoȱexplicitlyȱenoughȱforȱourȱtaste,
theseȱ‘people’ȱareȱforȱherȱnothingȱbutȱthoseȱwhoȱliveȱinȱtheȱcountryside,ȱonȱfarms
andȱinȱvillages,ȱhenceȱtheȱpeasants.ȱTheȱgreatestȱdangerȱforȱsocietyȱwouldȱariseȱif
thoseȱlowȬlevelȱpeopleȱwouldȱbeȱgrantedȱpoliticalȱpower,ȱinfluence,ȱandȱauthority:
“nobleceȱyȱestȱenȱgrantȱvilté,ȱbienȱyȱestȱmenacee,ȱtoutȱseraȱmisȱaȱmort,ȱplusȱn’en
souffreront.ȱ Adontȱ sontȱ siȱ aisésȱ quantȱ ilzȱ tuentȱ ouȱ massacrentȱ gent,ȱ rompent
coffres,ȱrobentȱtout,ȱeffoucentȱvinȱaȱsesȱrichesȱgens”ȱ(273;ȱ“Nobilityȱisȱdespised,
propertyȱisȱmenaced,ȱallȱwillȱbeȱkilled.ȱTheyȱhaveȱputȱupȱwithȱenough:ȱsoȱthey
quiteȱhappilyȱkillȱpeople,ȱbreakȱopenȱchests,ȱpillageȱeverything,ȱandȱbreachȱthe
wineȱcasksȱofȱthoseȱrichȱpeople,”ȱ142).ȱ
Throughoutȱ theȱ entireȱ Middleȱ Ages,ȱ however,ȱ theȱ relationshipȱ amongȱ these
socialȱclasses,ȱorȱestates,ȱwasȱfarȱfromȱbalanced,ȱandȱoverallȱpeasantsȱhadȱaȱmuch
harderȱlifeȱthanȱallȱtheȱotherȱgroupsȱbyȱvirtuallyȱanyȱfactorȱweȱmightȱadduce.ȱWe
constantlyȱhearȱvoicesȱthatȱexpressȱcontemptȱforȱtheȱpeasantsȱorȱenjoinȱthemȱto
keepȱtheȱclassȱdemarcationsȱinȱmind,ȱtoȱdressȱandȱeatȱmoreȱhumbly,ȱandȱsimply
toȱdeferȱmoreȱtoȱtheȱnobilityȱoutȱofȱreverenceȱforȱtheȱGodȬgivenȱsocialȱorder.ȱOf
course,ȱtheȱprimaryȱpurposeȱofȱChristine’sȱtreatiseȱwasȱtoȱteachȱprincesȱhowȱto
serveȱtheirȱcountriesȱproperlyȱandȱhowȱtoȱmaintainȱsocialȱpeace,ȱbutȱweȱstillȱnotice
theȱ virtualȱ absenceȱ ofȱ theȱ peasantȱ classȱ inȱ herȱ ruminationsȱ becauseȱ theȱ upper
classesȱwereȱsimplyȱentitled,ȱifȱnotȱchargedȱwith,ȱtoȱkeepȱitȱunderȱcontrol.8
SinceȱthisȱpaperȱwillȱfocusȱonȱmedievalȱGermanȱvoices,ȱitȱseemsȱmostȱreasonable
toȱsupportȱourȱgeneralȱclaimȱalsoȱwithȱtheȱreferenceȱtoȱanȱimportantȱandȱhighly
6
ChristineȱdeȱPizan,ȱTheȱBookȱofȱPeace,ȱed.,ȱtrans.,ȱandȱwithȱanȱintroductionȱandȱcommentaryȱby
KarenȱGreen,ȱConstantȱJ.ȱMews,ȱJaniceȱPinder,ȱandȱTaniaȱVanȱHemelryckȱwithȱtheȱassistanceȱof
Alanȱ Crosier.ȱ Pennȱ Stateȱ Romanceȱ Studiesȱ (Universityȱ Park,ȱ PA:ȱ Theȱ Pennsylvaniaȱ State
UniversityȱPress,ȱ2008),ȱBookȱ3,ȱvi,ȱ265–66.
7
ChristineȱdeȱPizan,ȱTheȱBookȱofȱPeace,ȱ134ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ6).
8
Forȱtheȱcriticalȱconcernȱregardingȱhowȱtoȱmaintainȱsocialȱcontrol,ȱseeȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱSocial
ControlȱinȱEurope.ȱVol.ȱ1:ȱ1500–1800,ȱed.ȱHermanȱRoodenburgȱandȱPieterȱSpierenburgȱ(Columbus,
OH:ȱTheȱOhioȱStateȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2004).ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱcollectionȱofȱarticles:ȱTheȱCivilizationȱof
Crime:ȱ Violenceȱ inȱ Townȱ andȱ Countryȱ Sinceȱ theȱ Middleȱ Ages,ȱ ed.ȱ Ericȱ A.ȱ Johnsonȱ andȱ Ericȱ H.
Monkkonenȱ(Urbana,ȱIL:ȱUniversityȱofȱIllinoisȱPress,ȱ1996).ȱ
influentialȱsocialȱcriticȱandȱdidacticȱ writer,ȱHugoȱvonȱTrimbergȱ(ca.ȱ1230–after
1313).ȱInȱhisȱRennerȱ(ca.ȱ25,000ȱverses,ȱseventyȬtwoȱmanuscriptsȱandȱoneȱearlyȱprint
edition),ȱ inȱ whichȱ heȱ discussesȱ theȱ wideȱ spectrumȱ ofȱ socialȱ classes,ȱ public
behavior,ȱethics,ȱandȱmorality,ȱheȱalsoȱcommentsȱaboutȱtheȱpeasants.ȱHeȱsetsȱup
upȱaȱfictionalȱsceneȱinȱwhichȱtheȱnarratorȱarrivesȱinȱaȱvillageȱwhereȱoneȱperson
immediatelyȱapproachesȱhimȱandȱinquiresȱaboutȱtheȱsocialȱinequalityȱbetween
themȱandȱtheȱnobles.ȱAtȱfirstȱtheȱnarratorȱrefusesȱtoȱrespond,ȱandȱonlyȱwhenȱheȱis
surroundedȱbyȱaȱgroupȱofȱdrunkenȱfarmersȱdoesȱheȱfinallyȱconsentȱtoȱexplainȱthe
originȱofȱtheȱsocialȱstructure,ȱreferring,ȱaboveȱall,ȱtoȱAdam,ȱthenȱtoȱNoahȱandȱhis
threeȱsons,ȱtwoȱofȱwhomȱdevelopedȱintoȱnobleȱandȱfreeȱpeople,ȱwhileȱtheȱthird
wasȱcursedȱandȱcondemnedȱtoȱbeȱunfree,ȱthatȱis,ȱtoȱbeȱaȱpeasantȱbecauseȱheȱhad
gazedȱatȱhisȱfather’sȱexposedȱbodyȱwhileȱheȱwasȱasleepȱinȱaȱdrunkenȱstupor.ȱThis
isȱ allȱ basedȱ onȱ theȱ biblicalȱ account,ȱ Genesisȱ 9:20Ȭ27,ȱ butȱ itȱ isȱ repeatedȱ here,ȱ as
countlessȱtimesȱthroughoutȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱtoȱprovideȱtheȱnecessaryȱexplanation
andȱjustificationȱforȱtheȱpeasants’ȱsubordinatedȱpositionȱinȱsociety.ȱHugoȱbasically
summarizesȱ theȱ canonȱ ofȱ traditionalȱ opinionsȱ andȱ reconfirmsȱ themȱ directly,
emphasizing,ȱ forȱ instance,ȱ “Einȱ edelincȱ tuotȱ edellîchen,ȱ /ȱ Einȱ eselincȱ tuot
esellîchen”ȱ(1421–22;ȱAȱnobleȱactsȱnobly,ȱanȱassȱactsȱasininely).9ȱHeȱindicatesȱalso
thatȱsomeȱgroupsȱofȱpeasantsȱmightȱenjoyȱmoreȱfreedomȱthanȱothers,ȱbutȱthat
altogetherȱtheyȱmustȱacceptȱtheirȱdestinyȱasȱtheȱthirdȱclass,ȱobligatedȱtoȱobeyȱthe
lords.ȱ
Hugoȱdoesȱnotȱshyȱawayȱfromȱcriticizingȱnobles,ȱorȱtheȱclergy,ȱasȱmanyȱother
socialȱcommentatorȱdidȱduringȱtheȱlateȱMiddleȱAges,10ȱbutȱoverallȱheȱinsistsȱthat
peasantsȱmustȱnotȱriseȱaboveȱtheirȱsocialȱstatus.ȱInȱthisȱregardȱheȱprovesȱtoȱinȱfull
conformityȱwithȱtheȱstandardȱpracticesȱandȱideologyȱofȱhisȱtime,ȱdespite,ȱorȱjust
becauseȱofȱtheȱperceivedȱthreatȱofȱsocialȱunrestȱresultingȱfromȱtheȱpeasants’ȱdesire
toȱgainȱinȱpublicȱstandingȱbecauseȱtheyȱseemȱtoȱhaveȱexperiencedȱbetterȱeconomic
9
HugoȱvonȱTrimberg,ȱDerȱRenner,ȱed.ȱGustavȱEhrismann.ȱMitȱeinemȱNachwortȱundȱErgänzungen
vonȱGüntherȱSchweikle.ȱDeutscheȱNeudrucke.ȱReihe:ȱTexteȱdesȱMittelaltersȱ(Berlin:ȱWaltherȱde
Gruyter,ȱ1970);ȱforȱanȱexcellentȱcriticalȱstudyȱofȱtheȱsocialȱperceptionsȱinȱHugo’sȱwork,ȱseeȱJutta
Goheen,ȱMenschȱundȱMoralȱimȱMittelalter:ȱGeschichteȱundȱFiktionȱinȱHugoȱvonȱTrimbergsȱ“DerȱRenner”
(Darmstadt:ȱWissenschaftlicheȱBuchgesellschaft,ȱ1990),ȱ121–28;ȱseeȱalsoȱRudolfȱKilianȱWeigand,
Derȱ “Renner”ȱ desȱ Hugoȱ vonȱ Trimberg:ȱ Überlieferung,ȱ Quellenabhängigkeitȱ undȱ Strukturȱ einer
spätmittelalterlichenȱLehrdichtung.ȱWissensliteraturȱimȱMittelalter,ȱ35ȱ(Wiesbaden:ȱL.ȱReichert,ȱ2000);
AlbrechtȱClassen,ȱ“ThomasinȱvonȱZerclaere’sȱDerȱWaelscheȱGastȱandȱHugoȱvonȱTrimberg’sȱRenner.
TwoȱMiddleȱHighȱGermanȱDidacticiansȱFocusȱonȱtheȱGenderȱRelationship,”ȱWhatȱNatureȱDoesȱNot
Teach:ȱ Didacticȱ Literatureȱ inȱ theȱ Medievalȱ andȱ EarlyȬModernȱ Periods,ȱ ed.ȱ Juanitaȱ Ferrosȱ Ruys.
Disputatio,ȱ15ȱ(Turnhoutȱ[Belgium]:ȱBrepols,ȱ2008),ȱ205–29.ȱIȱhaveȱdiscussedȱthisȱtextȱalsoȱinȱmy
Introduction.
10
AlbrechtȱClassen,ȱ“HeinrichȱderȱTeichner:ȱTheȱDidacticȱPoetȱasȱaȱTroublemaker,ȱWhistleȬBlower,
andȱ Socialȱ Rebel,”ȱ Medievaliaȱ etȱ Humanistica,ȱ Newȱ Series,ȱ 32ȱ (2007):ȱ 63Ȭ81;ȱ id.,“Heinrichȱ der
Teichner:ȱCommentatorȱandȱCriticȱofȱtheȱWorldsȱofȱtheȱCourt,”ȱOrbisȱLitterarumȱ63.3ȱ(2008):ȱ237Ȭ61.
conditions.11ȱInȱmostȱcasesȱcourtlyȱpoetsȱhadȱveryȱlittleȱpositiveȱtoȱsayȱaboutȱthe
peasantsȱandȱtendedȱtoȱridiculeȱthemȱinȱmostȱdrasticȱterms,ȱasȱweȱobserve,ȱfor
instance,ȱinȱtheȱworksȱbyȱtheȱtroubadourȱBertranȱdeȱBornȱ(lateȱtwelfthȱcentury)ȱor
inȱ theȱ evenȱ moreȱ bitingȱ andȱ sarcasticȱ songsȱ byȱ theȱ AustrianȬBavarianȱ poet
Neidhartȱ(earlyȱthirteenthȱcentury).12ȱApartȱfromȱveryȱfewȱexceptions,ȱIȱknowȱonly
ofȱsongsȱinȱpraiseȱofȱpeasantsȱasȱtheȱpeople’sȱbreadȱwinnersȱfromȱtheȱsixteenth
centuryȱonwards,ȱsuchȱasȱinȱtheȱBernerȱLiederbuch.13ȱIȱwillȱreturnȱtoȱthisȱissueȱatȱthe
endȱofȱourȱinvestigation.
SoȱfarȱIȱhaveȱonlyȱparaphrasedȱwhatȱcurrentȱscholarshipȱhasȱunearthedȱasȱtoȱthe
relationshipȱbetweenȱnobilityȱandȱtheȱpeasantryȱandȱaboutȱtheȱglobalȱestimation
ofȱ theȱ peasantȱ class,ȱ asȱ viewedȱ byȱ theȱ nobilityȱ orȱ theȱ clergy.14ȱ Significantly,
however,ȱthisȱuniversalȱperspectiveȱcannotȱbeȱsimplyȱupheldȱbecauseȱthereȱare,
afterȱ all,ȱ aȱ numberȱ ofȱ highlyȱ noteworthyȱ exceptions,ȱ atȱ leastȱ asȱ farȱ asȱ literary
authorsȱsawȱit.ȱInȱatȱleastȱtwoȱcasesȱinȱMiddleȱHighȱGermanȱliteratureȱtheȱauthors
presentȱ aȱ mostȱ unusualȱ situationȱ whereȱ aȱ youngȱ noblemanȱ marriesȱ aȱ peasant
womanȱandȱspendsȱtheȱrestȱofȱhisȱlifeȱinȱhappinessȱwithȱher.ȱIȱproposeȱtoȱreadȱboth
11
Theȱbestȱexampleȱforȱaȱfarmer’sȱsonȱwhoȱwantsȱtoȱclimbȱtheȱsocialȱladderȱbutȱthenȱonlyȱturnsȱinto
aȱrobberȱknightȱwasȱprovidedȱbyȱtheȱlateȱthirteenthȬcenturyȱMiddleȱHighȱGermanȱpoetȱWernher
theȱGardenerȱwithȱhisȱverseȱnovellaȱHelmbrecht,ȱed.ȱFriedrichȱPanzerȱandȱKurtȱRuh.ȱ10thȱed.ȱby
HansȬJoachimȱ Ziegeler.ȱ Altdeutscheȱ Textbibliothek,ȱ 11ȱ (Tübingen:ȱ Maxȱ Niemeyer,ȱ 1993).ȱ For
criticalȱstudiesȱonȱthatȱtext,ȱseeȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱWernherȱderȱGärtner:ȱ‘Helmbrecht’:ȱDieȱBeiträge
desȱHelmbrechtȬSymposionsȱinȱBurghausenȱ2001,ȱed.ȱTheodorȱNolteȱandȱTobiasȱSchneiderȱ(Stuttgart:
S.ȱHirzelȱVerlag,ȱ2001);ȱseeȱalsoȱAlbrechtȱClassen,ȱVerzweiflungȱundȱHoffnung:ȱDieȱSucheȱnachȱder
kommunikativenȱGemeinschaftȱinȱderȱdeutschenȱLiteraturȱdesȱMittelalters.ȱBeihefteȱzurȱMediävistik,ȱ1
(Frankfurtȱa.ȱM.,ȱBerlin,ȱetȱal.:ȱPeterȱLang,ȱ2002),ȱ359–99.
12
PeterȱDinzelbacher,ȱEuropaȱimȱHochmittelalterȱ1050–1250:ȱEineȱKulturȬȱundȱMentalitätsgeschichte.
Kulturȱ undȱ Mentalitätȱ (Darmstadt:ȱ Primusȱ Verlag,ȱ 2003),ȱ 139–42.ȱ Forȱ Neidhart,ȱ seeȱ Albrecht
Classen,ȱ“TheȱUltimateȱTransgressionȱofȱtheȱCourtlyȱWorld:ȱPeasantsȱonȱtheȱCourtlyȱStageȱand
TheirȱGrotesqueȱQuestsȱforȱSexualȱPleasures.ȱTheȱPoetryȱbyȱtheȱThirteenthȬCenturyȱAustrianȬ
BavarianȱNeidhart,”ȱMedievaliaȱetȱHumanisticaȱ36ȱ(2010):ȱ1–24;ȱid.,ȱ“TransgressionȱatȱtheȱMedieval
Court,ȱ Courtliness,ȱ andȱ Deconstruction:ȱ Withȱ Emphasisȱ onȱ theȱ Middleȱ Highȱ Germanȱ Poet
NeidhartȱandȱtheȱAnonymousȱVerseȱNovellaȱMauritiusȱvonȱCraûn,”ȱtoȱappearȱinȱArthuriana.
13
“DerȱBawersleuthenȱLobgsang,”ȱno.ȱ36ȱ(BürgerbibliothekȱBern:ȱRar.ȱ63).ȱSeeȱAlbrechtȱClassen,
DeutscheȱLiederbücherȱdesȱ15.ȱundȱ16.ȱJahrhunderts.ȱVolksliedstudien,ȱ1ȱ(Münster,ȱNewȱYork,ȱetȱal.:
Waxmann,ȱ2001),ȱ94.ȱSeeȱalsoȱ“VomȱEdlenȱBawman”ȱ(no.ȱ133)ȱinȱtheȱAmbraserȱLiederbuch,ȱȱ1582
(andȱinȱsubsequentȱeditionsȱinȱtheȱFrankfurtȱversionȱofȱ1584ff.);ȱDeutscheȱLiederbücher,ȱ45.
14
Franzȱ Günther,ȱ Deutschesȱ Bauerntumȱ imȱ Mittelalter.ȱ Wegeȱ derȱ Forschung,ȱ 416ȱ (Darmstadt:
WissenschaftlicheȱBuchgesellschaft,ȱ1976);ȱWernerȱRösener,ȱPeasantsȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱtrans.
[fromȱtheȱGerman]ȱandȱwithȱforewordȱandȱglossaryȱbyȱAlexanderȱStützerȱ(1985;ȱCambridge:
Polity,ȱ1992);ȱid.,ȱGrundherrschaftȱundȱbäuerlicheȱGesellschaftȱimȱHochmittelalter.ȱVeröffentlichungen
desȱMaxȬPlanckȬInstitutsȱfürȱGeschichte,ȱ115ȱ(Göttingen:ȱVandenhoeckȱ&ȱRuprecht,ȱ1995);ȱPaul
Freedman,ȱImagesȱofȱtheȱMedievalȱPeasant.ȱFiguraeȱ(Stanford,ȱCA:ȱStanfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1999);
Michaelȱ Toch,ȱ Peasantsȱ andȱ Jewsȱ inȱ Medievalȱ Germany:ȱ Studiesȱ inȱ Cultural,ȱ Social,ȱ andȱ Economic
History.ȱCollectedȱStudiesȱ(Aldershot,ȱHampshire,ȱEngland,ȱandȱBurlington,ȱVT:ȱAshgate,ȱ2003).
examplesȱasȱevidenceȱforȱaȱsortȱofȱutopianȱapproachȱbecauseȱinȱeachȱnarrativeȱa
highlyȱunrealisticȱeroticȱrelationshipȱdevelops,ȱwhichȱdisregardsȱallȱtraditional
classȱbarriersȱandȱgivesȱabsoluteȱpriorityȱtoȱtheȱerotic,ȱorȱatȱleastȱtoȱdeeplyȱerotic
feelingsȱthatȱsupersedeȱeveryȱsocialȱexpectationȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱmarriageȱinȱthe
highȱMiddleȱAges.15ȱ
Exploringȱthisȱissueȱwillȱshedȱimportantȱlightȱonȱaȱhighlyȱthornyȱissueȱwhichȱhas
beenȱ examinedȱ especiallyȱ inȱ recentȱ yearsȱ fromȱ aȱ social,ȱ legal,ȱ gender,ȱ and
emotionalȬhistoricalȱ perspective;ȱ marriage.ȱ Neilȱ Cartlidge,ȱ forȱ instance,ȱ has
outlinedȱinȱexcellentȱclarityȱhowȱmuchȱtheȱissueȱitselfȱhadȱbecomeȱtheȱfocalȱpoint
ofȱmanyȱpublicȱdebatesȱduringȱthatȱperiod,ȱwithȱaȱlargeȱnumberȱofȱtheologians,
lawyers,ȱphilosophers,ȱandȱpoetsȱofferingȱtheirȱopinionsȱthroughȱaȱvarietyȱofȱtexts.
Inȱ fact,ȱ marriageȱ servedȱ exceedinglyȱ wellȱ asȱ aȱ mediumȱ forȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ central
discoursesȱinȱmedievalȱtimes,ȱpittingȱtheȱordinaryȱlayȱpeopleȱagainstȱtheȱclerics,
eachȱsideȱpursuingȱitsȱownȱagendaȱandȱideology.16ȱInȱourȱcasesȱweȱwillȱadditional
observeȱhowȱmuchȱtheȱquestionȱregardingȱtrueȱloveȱmightȱevenȱtransgressȱhighly
conservativeȱapproachesȱtoȱtheȱsocialȱhierarchy.
ThroughoutȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱtheȱpopularȱmottoȱ“amorȱvincitȱomnia,”ȱalready
commonlyȱusedȱbyȱVirgilȱandȱOvid,ȱsignaledȱmanyȱdifferentȱmessages,ȱalthough
Iȱdoubtȱthatȱitȱalsoȱcarriedȱaȱsocialȱmeaningȱasȱtoȱtheȱpossibilityȱthatȱaȱmanȱofȱthe
nobilityȱwouldȱhaveȱagreedȱorȱwouldȱhaveȱreceivedȱtheȱpermissionȱtoȱmarryȱinto
theȱpeasantȱclass.ȱNevertheless,ȱthatȱisȱpreciselyȱtheȱcase,ȱfirstȱinȱHartmannȱvon
Aue’sȱ Derȱ armeȱ Heinrichȱ (ca.ȱ 1200;ȱ Lordȱ Henryȱ [orȱ Poorȱ Henry]),ȱ thenȱ inȱ an
15
RecentȱscholarshipȱhasȱbegunȱtoȱexploreȱtheȱquestionȱhowȱmuchȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱmightȱhave
beenȱ familiarȱ withȱ utopia;ȱ seeȱ Tomasȱ Tomasek,ȱ Dieȱ Utopieȱ imȱ ‘Tristan’ȱ Gotfridsȱ vonȱ Straßburg.
Hermaea.ȱ Germanistischeȱ Forschungen,ȱ Neueȱ Folge,ȱ 49ȱ (Tübingen:ȱ Maxȱ Niemeyer,ȱ 1985);
AlbrechtȱClassen,ȱ“DieȱSucheȱnachȱderȱUtopieȱinȱderȱGralswelt.ȱAlbrechtsȱ(vonȱScharfenberg)ȱDer
jüngereȱTiturel,”ȱParzival.ȱ ȱ ReescrituraȱyȱTransformación,ȱed.ȱBertaȱRaposoȱFernándezȱ(Valencia:
UniversitatȱdeȱValència,ȱ2000),ȱ133–56.ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱEnȱquêteȱd’Utopies,ȱed.ȱClaude
Thomassetȱ andȱ Danièleȱ JamesȬRaoul.ȱ Culturesȱ etȱ Civilisationsȱ Médiévalesȱ (Paris:ȱ Pressesȱ de
l’Universitéȱ ParisȬSorbonne,ȱ 2005);ȱ and,ȱ mostȱ recently,ȱ Heikoȱ Hartmann,ȱ “Utopiasȱ /Utopian
Thought,”ȱHandbookȱofȱMedievalȱStudies,ȱVol.ȱ2,ȱ1400–08ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4).
16
NeilȱCartlidge,ȱMedievalȱMarriage:ȱLiteraryȱApproaches,ȱ1100–1300ȱ(Cambridge:ȱD.ȱS.ȱBrewer,ȱ1997);
RüdigerȱSchnell,ȱFrauendiskurs,ȱMännerdiskurs,ȱEhediskurs:ȱTextsortenȱundȱGeschlechterkonzepteȱin
MittelalterȱundȱFrüherȱNeuzeit.ȱReiheȱ“GeschichteȱundȱGeschlechter”,ȱȱ23ȱ(Frankfurtȱa.ȱM.ȱandȱNew
York:ȱCampusȱVerlag,ȱ1998);ȱid.,ȱSexualitätȱundȱEmotionalitätȱinȱderȱvormodernenȱEheȱ(Cologne,
Weimar,ȱetȱal.:ȱBöhlau,ȱ1002);ȱMichaelȱM.ȱSheehan,ȱCSB,ȱMarriage,ȱFamily,ȱandȱLawȱinȱMedieval
Europe:ȱ Collectedȱ Studies,ȱ ed.ȱ Jamesȱ K.ȱ Farge.ȱ Introductionȱ byȱ Joelȱ T.ȱ Rosenthalȱ (Torontoȱ and
Buffalo:ȱUniversityȱofȱTorontoȱPress,ȱ1996);ȱseeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱWomen,ȱMarriage,ȱand
FamilyȱinȱMedievalȱChristendom:ȱEssaysȱinȱMemoryȱofȱMichaelȱM.ȱSheehan,ȱC.S.B.,ȱed.ȱConstanceȱM.
RouosseauȱandȱJoelȱT.ȱRosenthal.ȱStudiesȱinȱMedievalȱCulture,ȱXXXVIIȱ(Kalamazoo,ȱMI:ȱWestern
MichiganȱUniversity,ȱ1998);ȱAlbrechtȱClassen,ȱDerȱLiebesȬȱundȱEhediskursȱvomȱhohenȱMittelalterȱbis
zumȱfrühenȱ17.ȱJahrhundert.ȱVolksliedstudien,ȱ5ȱ(Münster,ȱNewȱYork,ȱetȱal.:ȱWaxmann,ȱ2005);ȱD.
L.ȱD’Avray,ȱMedievalȱMarriage:ȱSymbolismȱandȱSocietyȱ(OxfordȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱOxfordȱUniversity
Press,ȱ2005).
anonymousȱverseȱnarrative,ȱ“DisȱistȱvonȱdemȱHeslin”ȱ(ca.ȱ1300;ȱTheȱLittleȱBunny
Rabbit),ȱalthoughȱtheȱcircumstancesȱsurroundingȱeachȱmarriageȱrespectivelyȱdiffer
remarkably.ȱBeforeȱconcludingȱthisȱstudyȱIȱwillȱalsoȱencounterȱtheȱevidenceȱofȱlateȬ
medievalȱ andȱ earlyȬmodernȱ folkȱ poetryȱ whereȱ weȱ comeȱ acrossȱ unsuspected
examplesȱofȱeroticȱutopiasȱasȱwell.
Theȱ famousȱ clericȱ Andreasȱ Capellanusȱ outlinedȱ inȱ hisȱ treatiseȱ Deȱ amoreȱ (ca.
1180–1190)ȱ theȱ complexitiesȱ inȱ allȱ wooingȱ processes,ȱ henceȱ ofȱ allȱ gender
relationships.17ȱInȱfact,ȱasȱheȱconfirmsȱthroughȱtheȱlongȱseriesȱofȱdialoguesȱbetween
menȱandȱwomenȱmostlyȱfromȱdifferentȱ socialȱclasses,ȱloveȱwasȱregardedȱfrom
earlyȱonȱasȱaȱhighlyȱchallengingȱmatterȱwhichȱrequiredȱintensiveȱexchangesȱonȱthe
rhetorical,ȱsymbolic,ȱritual,ȱandȱphysicalȱlevel.ȱInȱtheȱfirstȱtwoȱbooks,ȱallȱmenȱwho
tryȱtoȱgainȱtheirȱladies’ȱloveȱbasicallyȱfailȱbecauseȱtheȱcircumstancesȱareȱnotȱright,
becauseȱtheȱsocialȱclassȱdifferencesȱareȱtooȱbig,ȱandȱbecauseȱtheȱwomenȱareȱsimply
resistant,ȱunwillingȱtoȱacceptȱtheȱmen’sȱwooing.ȱWeȱcannotȱdecideȱhereȱwhether
Andreasȱpursuedȱanȱironicȱapproach,ȱorȱwhetherȱheȱwasȱseriouslyȱinterestedȱin
exploringȱgenderȱrelationshipsȱinȱtheȱcourtlyȱcontextȱinȱtermsȱofȱdiscourse.18ȱIt
mightȱwellȱbeȱthatȱtheȱentireȱtreatiseȱservedȱpurelyȱforȱliterary,ȱrhetorical,ȱcourtly
entertainment,ȱorȱthatȱitȱreflectedȱhighlyȱcomplexȱtheoreticalȱperspectivesȱvisȬàȬvis
courtlyȱ love,ȱ beggingȱ toȱ beȱ takenȱ seriouslyȱ asȱ aȱ representativeȱ ofȱ scholarly
dialecticsȱinȱtheȱworldlyȱcontext.ȱ
Hereȱ Iȱ wantȱ toȱ focusȱ onlyȱ onȱ oneȱ chapterȱ inȱ theȱ secondȱ book,ȱ “Theȱ Loveȱ of
Peasants”ȱ (XI).ȱ Andreasȱ openlyȱ admittedȱ hisȱ contemptȱ forȱ theȱ farmers:ȱ “Forȱ a
farmerȱ hardȱ laborȱ andȱ theȱ uninterruptedȱ solacesȱ ofȱ ploughȱ andȱ mattockȱ are
sufficient.ȱAndȱevenȱifȱitȱshouldȱhappenȱatȱtimes,ȱthoughȱrarely,ȱthatȱcontraryȱto
theirȱnatureȱtheyȱareȱstirredȱupȱbyȱCupid’sȱarrows,ȱitȱisȱnotȱexpedientȱthatȱthey
shouldȱbeȱinstructedȱinȱtheȱtheoryȱofȱloveȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.”19ȱAsȱtoȱtheȱeroticȱrelationship
betweenȱaȱnoblemanȱandȱaȱpeasantȱwoman,ȱAndreasȱhasȱonlyȱtoȱsayȱtheȱfollowing:
“Andȱifȱyouȱshould,ȱbyȱsomeȱchance,ȱfallȱinȱloveȱwithȱsomeȱofȱtheirȱwomen,ȱbe
17
Seeȱ alsoȱ theȱ contributionsȱ toȱ Masculinitiesȱ andȱ Femininitiesȱ inȱ theȱ Middleȱ Agesȱ andȱ Renaissance.
ArizonaȱStudiesȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱRenaissance,ȱ23ȱ(Turnhoutȱ[Belgium]:ȱBrepols,ȱ2009).
18
SeeȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱSpeakingȱinȱtheȱMedievalȱWorld,ȱed.ȱJeanȱE.ȱGodsalȬMyers.ȱCultures,ȱBeliefs
andȱTraditions,ȱ16ȱ(LeidenȱandȱBoston:ȱBrill,ȱ2003).
19
AndreasȱCapellanus,ȱTheȱArtȱofȱCourtlyȱLove,ȱtrans.ȱwithȱintrod.ȱandȱnotesȱbyȱJohnȱJayȱParry.
RecordsȱofȱCivilization,ȱSourcesȱandȱStudiesȱ(1941;ȱNewȱYorkȱandȱLondon:ȱW.ȱW.ȱNorton,ȱ1969),
149–50.ȱOnlyȱonceȱdoȱweȱhear,ȱinȱaȱfleetingȱcommentȱbyȱoneȱofȱtheȱnobleȱladies,ȱofȱtheȱpossibility
thatȱ aȱ manȱ ofȱ theȱ lowerȱ classȱ mightȱ riseȱ upȱ toȱ theȱ levelȱ ofȱ nobility,ȱ thatȱ is,ȱ whenȱ theȱ prince
recognizesȱhisȱinnerȱnobilityȱandȱliftsȱhimȱupȱfromȱhisȱlowȱstatusȱ(56;ȱBookȱI,ȱVI,ȱ138).ȱForȱaȱnew
translationȱwithȱvaluableȱcommentary,ȱseeȱAndreasȱaulaeȱregiaeȱcapellanus,ȱDeȱamore:ȱLibriȱtres.
TextȱnachȱderȱAusgabeȱvonȱE.ȱTrojel.ȱÜbersetztȱundȱmitȱAnmerkungenȱundȱeinemȱNachwort
versehenȱvonȱFritzȱPeterȱKnappȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱWalterȱdeȱGruyter,ȱ2006),ȱ92–93;ȱforȱa
commentary,ȱseeȱ618.
carefulȱtoȱpuffȱthemȱupȱwithȱlotsȱofȱpraiseȱandȱthen,ȱwhenȱyouȱfindȱaȱconvenient
place,ȱdoȱnotȱhesitateȱtoȱtakeȱwhatȱyouȱseekȱandȱtoȱembraceȱthemȱbyȱforce.ȱForȱyou
canȱhardlyȱsoftenȱtheirȱoutwardȱinflexibilityȱsoȱfarȱthatȱtheyȱwillȱgrantȱyouȱtheir
embracesȱquietlyȱorȱpermitȱyouȱtoȱhaveȱtheȱsolacesȱyouȱdesireȱunlessȱfirstȱyouȱuse
aȱlittleȱcompulsionȱasȱaȱconvenientȱcureȱforȱtheirȱshyness”ȱ(150).ȱInȱotherȱwords,
ifȱaȱnoblemanȱwantsȱtoȱrapeȱaȱpeasantȱwoman,ȱthatȱwouldȱbeȱquiteȱalrightȱbecause
theyȱareȱnotȱmuchȱmoreȱthanȱanimalsȱanywayȱandȱsecretlyȱdesireȱsexualȱpleasure
fromȱanyȱman.20
TheȱsituationȱinȱHartmannȱvonȱAue’sȱverseȱnovellaȱDerȱarmeȱHeinrichȱ(PoorȱHenry,
orȱLordȱHenry)ȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱentirelyȱdifferentȱandȱoffersȱaȱliteraryȱstageȱwhereȱa
utopianȱmodelȱofȱloveȱisȱallowedȱtoȱenterȱtheȱpicture.ȱHereȱaȱyoungȱnobleman,
Henry,ȱ havingȱ beenȱ struckȱ byȱ leprosyȱ andȱ notȱ beingȱ ableȱ toȱ receiveȱ ardently
desiredȱmedicalȱhelp,ȱnotȱevenȱfromȱtheȱbestȱmedicalȱdoctors,ȱretiresȱtoȱtheȱfarm
ofȱaȱwealthyȱmanȱwhoȱhasȱapparentlyȱenjoyedȱhisȱlord’sȱgenerosityȱandȱsupport
overȱmanyȱyears.ȱAlthoughȱeveryoneȱinȱtheȱcountryȱandȱevenȱabroadȱlaments
Henry’sȱdestiny,ȱheȱfindsȱnoȱsolaceȱandȱnoȱindividualȱsupport.ȱHeȱknowsȱthatȱhe
isȱgoingȱtoȱdieȱfast,ȱandȱsoȱheȱdoesȱnotȱwantȱtoȱimposeȱhimselfȱonȱanyone,ȱexcept
forȱthatȱrichȱfarmer,ȱwhomȱheȱalmostȱregardsȱasȱaȱfriend.ȱAsȱtheȱcommentator
emphasizes,ȱ farmers’ȱ destinyȱ andȱ lifeȱ conditionsȱ dependedȱ veryȱ muchȱ onȱ the
individualȱattitudeȱbyȱtheirȱlords,ȱandȱwhileȱsomeȱhadȱtoȱsufferȱbadly,ȱthisȱfarmer
hasȱalwaysȱenjoyedȱaȱgoodȱrelationshipȱwithȱLordȱHenryȱ(269–75).21ȱThisȱpeasant
doesȱnotȱhaveȱtoȱassumeȱanyȱadditionalȱworkȱloadsȱforȱhim,ȱandȱisȱfreeȱofȱtheȱquite
commonȱrequirementȱtoȱassistȱotherȱlordsȱ(276–80).ȱInȱfact,ȱhereȱweȱencounterȱa
20
ForȱaȱdiscussionȱofȱrapeȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱseeȱKathrynȱGravdal,ȱRavishingȱMaidens:ȱWritingȱRape
inȱMedievalȱFrenchȱLiteratureȱandȱLaw.ȱTheȱMiddleȱAgesȱSeriesȱ(Philadelphia:ȱTheȱUniversityȱof
PennsylvaniaȱPress,ȱ1991);ȱCorinneȱJ.ȱSaunders,ȱRapeȱandȱRavishmentȱinȱtheȱLiteratureȱofȱMedieval
Englandȱ(Woodbridge,ȱSuffolk,ȱandȱRochester,ȱNY:ȱD.ȱS.ȱBrewer,ȱ2001);ȱseeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributions
toȱRepresentingȱRapeȱinȱMedievalȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱLiterature,ȱed.ȱElizabethȱRobertsonȱandȱChristine
M.ȱRose.ȱTheȱNewȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(NewȱYork:ȱandȱHoundmills,ȱBasingstoke,ȱHampshire:ȱPalgrave
MacMillan,ȱ2001);ȱseeȱalsoȱmyȱmonograph,ȱSexualȱViolenceȱandȱRapeȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges:ȱAȱCritical
DiscourseȱinȱMedievalȱGermanȱandȱEuropeanȱLiterature.ȱFundamentalsȱofȱMedievalȱandȱEarlyȱModern
Culture,ȱ7ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱDeȱGruyter,ȱ2011).
21
HartmannȱvonȱAue,ȱDerȱarmeȱHeinrich,ȱed.ȱHermannȱPaul.ȱ16th,ȱnewlyȱrev.ȱed.ȱbyȱKurtȱGärtner.
Altdeutscheȱ Textbibliothek,ȱ 3ȱ (1882;ȱ Tübingen:ȱ Maxȱ Niemeyer,ȱ 1996);ȱ seeȱ alsoȱ theȱ English
translationȱArthurianȱRomances,ȱTales,ȱandȱLyricȱPoetry:ȱTheȱCompleteȱWorksȱofȱHartmannȱvonȱAue,
trans.ȱwithȱcommentaryȱbyȱFrankȱTobin,ȱKimȱVivian,ȱandȱRichardȱH.ȱLawsonȱ(UniversityȱPark:
TheȱPennsylvaniaȱStateȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2001).ȱHereȱIȱrelyȱonȱmyȱownȱtranslations.ȱForȱrecent
studiesȱonȱHartmann,ȱseeȱAȱCompanionȱtoȱtheȱWorksȱofȱHartmannȱvonȱAue,ȱed.ȱFrancisȱG.ȱGentry.
StudiesȱinȱGermanȱLiterature,ȱLinguistics,ȱandȱCultureȱ(Rochester,ȱNY,ȱandȱWoodbridge,ȱSuffolk:
CamdenȱHouse,ȱ2005).ȱForȱanȱexcellentȱcommentary,ȱseeȱHartmannȱvonȱAue,ȱGregorius,ȱDerȱarme
Heinrich,ȱ ed.ȱ andȱ trans.ȱ byȱ Volkerȱ Mertens.ȱ Bibliothekȱ desȱ Mittelalters,ȱ 6ȱ (Frankfurtȱ a.ȱ M.:
DeutscherȱKlassikerȱVerlag,ȱ2004).
richȱ man,ȱalthoughȱheȱhasȱmaintainedȱhisȱhumbleȱattitudeȱandȱrespectȱforȱthe
upperȱsocialȱclass,ȱandȱnow,ȱwitnessingȱhisȱlord’sȱmisery,ȱshowersȱhimȱwithȱthe
bestȱtreatmentȱpossible,ȱprovidesȱhimȱwithȱaȱsplendidȱapartment,ȱandȱdoesȱnot
spareȱ anyȱ effortȱ toȱ makeȱ Henry’sȱ lifeȱ asȱ comfortableȱ asȱ possibleȱ underȱ those
terribleȱcircumstancesȱofȱhisȱdisease.ȱ
Whileȱtheȱfarmerȱandȱhisȱwifeȱcontinueȱwithȱtheirȱordinaryȱbusiness,ȱoneȱofȱtheir
daughters,ȱ onlyȱeightȱyearsȱofȱage,ȱ dedicatesȱallȱherȱattentionȱtoȱtheȱleperȱand
develops,ȱalthoughȱthisȱisȱonlyȱimpliedȱindirectly,ȱanȱeroticȱattachmentȱtoȱHenry.
Everyoneȱelseȱfleesȱfromȱhisȱpresence,ȱhorrifiedȱaboutȱhisȱappearance,ȱwhereasȱthe
girlȱenjoysȱbeingȱwithȱherȱlordȱmoreȱthanȱanythingȱelse.ȱAsȱscholarsȱhaveȱargued
manyȱtimesȱalready,ȱtheȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱtheseȱtwoȱyoungȱpeopleȱintensifies
subsequently,ȱandȱwhenȱtheȱgirl—orȱratherȱyoungȱwoman,ȱparticularlyȱafterȱthree
yearsȱ haveȱ passed—finallyȱ learnsȱ ofȱ Henry’sȱ onlyȱ chanceȱ ofȱ recovery,ȱ she
immediatelyȱdeclaresȱherȱwillingnessȱtoȱofferȱtheȱsacrificeȱofȱherȱownȱbloodȱforȱhis
wellȬbeing.22ȱ Fromȱ aȱ modernȱ perspectiveȱ weȱ mightȱ haveȱ toȱ raiseȱ aȱ numberȱ of
questionsȱasȱtoȱtheȱappropriatenessȱofȱHenry’sȱbehaviorȱtowardȱtheȱgirl,ȱsinceȱhe
regularlyȱbringsȱherȱhighlyȱsymbolicȱgifts,ȱcallsȱherȱhisȱ“gemahel”ȱ(341;ȱbride),ȱand
allowsȱ herȱ toȱ spendȱ allȱ herȱ timeȱ withȱ him,ȱ despiteȱ theȱ hugeȱ ageȱ andȱ class
differenceȱbetweenȱthem.ȱForȱourȱpurposes,ȱhowever,ȱletȱusȱignoreȱthisȱcurious
andȱhighlyȱuniqueȱsituationȱandȱturnȱratherȱtowardȱtheȱfamilyȱsituationȱandȱthe
worldȱofȱtheȱruralȱpopulation.ȱ
HenryȱhasȱbeenȱinformedȱbyȱtheȱmedicalȱdoctorȱinȱSalernoȱthatȱonlyȱtheȱblood
ofȱaȱvirginȱwillingȱtoȱdieȱforȱhimȱwouldȱrescueȱhimȱfromȱcertainȱdeath.ȱKnowing
tooȱwellȱthatȱthisȱwouldȱnotȱbeȱpossibleȱtoȱobtain,ȱHenryȱhasȱabandonedȱhisȱformer
lifeȱ ofȱ wealthȱ andȱ highȱ livingȱ andȱ hasȱ withdrawnȱ toȱ thisȱ farm.ȱ Atȱ oneȱ point,
however,ȱtheȱfarmer,ȱhisȱwife,ȱandȱtheirȱdaughterȱallȱsitȱtogetherȱandȱshareȱtheir
company.ȱTheȱcoupleȱcriesȱoverȱtheirȱlord’sȱdestiny,ȱwithoutȱknowingȱhowȱthey
mightȱhelpȱhim.ȱAsȱtheȱnarrator’sȱcommentsȱillustrates,ȱhowever,ȱtheyȱareȱmore
worriedȱaboutȱwhatȱwouldȱhappenȱtoȱtheirȱlivesȱifȱHenryȱwereȱtoȱdieȱsoon,ȱthan
aboutȱtheȱleper’sȱdestiny.ȱForȱthemȱhisȱdeathȱwouldȱcertainlyȱmeanȱtheȱlossȱof
propertyȱandȱhonorȱbecauseȱtheyȱthenȱwouldȱhaveȱtoȱfaceȱaȱnewȱlordȱwhoȱwould
certainlyȱimposeȱnewȱdemandsȱforȱtaxesȱandȱfeesȱ(360–65).ȱOnlyȱuponȱtheirȱurging
theȱleperȱfinallyȱbeginsȱtoȱtellȱthemȱwhatȱheȱhadȱlearnedȱfromȱtheȱmedicalȱdoctor,
revealingȱtheȱwholeȱtruthȱwhichȱseemsȱtoȱdangleȱsomeȱhopeȱbeforeȱhisȱeyes,ȱin
reality,ȱhowever,ȱitȱcondemnsȱhimȱtoȱcertainȱdeath.ȱȱ
22
Again,ȱsinceȱthisȱverseȱnovellaȱenjoysȱsuchȱhugeȱreputationȱandȱpopularity,ȱcountlessȱscholars
haveȱofferedȱtheirȱcriticalȱviewsȱonȱthisȱfigure,ȱherȱaction,ȱandȱherȱrelationshipȱwithȱHenry.ȱSee
Albrechtȱ Classen,ȱ “Herzȱ undȱ Seeleȱ inȱ Hartmannsȱ vonȱ Aueȱ “Derȱ armeȱ Heinrich.”ȱ Der
mittelalterlicheȱDichterȱalsȱPsychologe?,”ȱMediaevistikȱ14ȱ(2003):ȱ7–30.ȱAsȱtoȱtheȱfunctionȱofȱblood
sacrifice,ȱseeȱBettinaȱBildhauer,ȱMedievalȱBlood.ȱReligionȱandȱCultureȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(Cardiff:
UniversityȱofȱWalesȱPress,ȱ2006),ȱ60,ȱ78.
TheȱfactȱbyȱitselfȱthatȱHenryȱspendsȱtimeȱwithȱthatȱpeasantȱfamilyȱandȱreveals
toȱthemȱhisȱsecret,ȱthatȱis,ȱtheȱprecariousȱnatureȱofȱhisȱlifeȱandȱtheȱimminentȱthreat
ofȱhisȱdeath,ȱindicatesȱaȱconsiderableȱdegreeȱofȱtrustȱandȱconfidenceȱamongȱthem.
Weȱcannotȱdeduce,ȱhowever,ȱanyȱkindȱofȱfriendshipȱbecauseȱtheȱfarmerȱcouple
clearlyȱcontinuesȱtoȱregardȱhimȱasȱtheirȱlordȱandȱsubmissivelyȱtreatsȱhimȱwith
greatȱrespect.ȱHenry,ȱonȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱdoesȱnotȱholdȱbackȱandȱopensȱhisȱheart
toȱtheseȱpeople,ȱprobablyȱbecauseȱthereȱisȱnoȱoneȱleftȱwithȱwhomȱheȱcouldȱshare
theȱbadȱnews.ȱHeȱdoesȱnotȱevenȱshyȱawayȱfromȱrevealingȱtoȱthemȱhisȱreligious
reflectionsȱandȱmoralȱconcernsȱregardingȱhisȱownȱlife,ȱasȱifȱtheyȱwereȱhisȱequals,
perhapsȱevenȱhisȱfriends.ȱHenryȱcommentsȱthatȱerstwhileȱheȱhadȱassumedȱtheȱrole
ofȱlord,ȱwhereasȱnowȱheȱisȱinȱneedȱofȱtheȱpeasant’sȱhelp:ȱ“hieȱvorȱwasȱichȱdînȱherre
/ȱundȱbinȱdînȱdürftigeȱnû.ȱ/ȱmînȱlieberȱvriunt,ȱnûȱkôufestûȱ/ȱundȱmînȱgemahelȱund
dînȱwîpȱ/ȱanȱmirȱdenȱêwigenȱlîpȱ/ȱdazȱdûȱmichȱsiechenȱbîȱdirȱlâst”ȱ(428–33;ȱBefore
Iȱ wasȱ yourȱ lord,ȱ andȱ nowȱ Iȱ amȱ yourȱ indigent.ȱ Myȱ dearȱ friend,ȱ nowȱ you,ȱ my
belovedȱ[theȱgirl]ȱandȱyourȱwifeȱacquireȱtheȱeternalȱlifeȱthroughȱmeȱbyȱallowing
meȱasȱaȱsickȱpersonȱtoȱstayȱwithȱyou).ȱHenryȱisȱtryingȱhisȱbestȱtoȱhumbleȱandȱto
mortifyȱhimself,ȱhavingȱrealizedȱhowȱlittleȱallȱofȱhisȱpreviousȱstatusȱandȱwealth
trulyȱmeansȱinȱtheȱȱfaceȱofȱGod’sȱpowerȱwhichȱbroughtȱleprosyȱuponȱhim.ȱForȱthat
reasonȱ heȱ resortsȱ toȱ theȱ termȱ ‘friend’ȱ andȱ identifiesȱ theȱ peasantȱ asȱ hisȱ true
benefactor.23ȱThereuponȱheȱrelatesȱwhatȱtheȱdoctorȱinȱSalernoȱhadȱinformedȱhim
about,ȱbutȱthenȱconsignsȱhimselfȱtoȱhisȱdestinyȱbecauseȱheȱwouldȱneverȱbeȱableȱto
findȱaȱnubileȱwomanȱwillingȱtoȱdieȱforȱhim.24ȱ
Theȱsubsequentȱevents,ȱcertainlyȱtheȱcoreȱsectionȱinȱtheȱverseȱnarrative,ȱhave
beenȱ discussedȱ fromȱ manyȱ differentȱ perspectives,ȱ whichȱ underscoresȱ the
enormousȱliteraryȱqualityȱofȱthisȱtext.ȱSummarizingȱitȱbriefly,ȱtheȱyoungȱwoman
overhearsȱHenry’sȱconfession,ȱandȱsoonȱenoughȱdecidesȱonȱherȱownȱtoȱacceptȱthat
sacrificeȱonȱbehalfȱofȱherȱlordȱtoȱhelpȱhimȱregainȱhisȱhealth.ȱTheȱdebateȱbetween
herȱandȱherȱparentsȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱaȱpowerfulȱmasterpieceȱofȱrhetoric,ȱdrawingȱon
aȱ fullȱ registerȱ ofȱ theological,ȱ economic,ȱ andȱ ethicalȱ arguments,ȱ whichȱ finally
convinceȱbothȱherȱparentsȱandȱHenry.25ȱSheȱevenȱridiculesȱtheȱmedicalȱdoctorȱin
Salerno,ȱexposingȱhisȱtimidity,ȱasȱsheȱseesȱit,ȱandȱeagerlyȱawaitsȱherȱdeathȱwhich
wouldȱaccelerateȱherȱpassageȱtoȱHeavenȱandȱfreeȱherȱfromȱtheȱdevil’sȱcountless
temptations.ȱHowever,ȱjustȱbeforeȱtheȱdoctorȱbeginsȱtoȱstartȱcuttingȱintoȱherȱbody
23
Asȱtoȱtheȱmedievalȱdiscourseȱonȱfriendship,ȱseeȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱFriendshipȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges
andȱEarlyȱModernȱAge:ȱExplorationsȱofȱaȱFundamentalȱEthicalȱDiscourse,ȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassenȱand
MarilynȱSandidge.ȱFundamentalsȱofȱMedievalȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱCulture,ȱ6ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNew
York:ȱDeȱGruyter,ȱ2010).
24
See,ȱforȱinstance,ȱBirgitȱA.ȱJensen,ȱ“TransgressingȱtheȱBody:ȱLeperȱandȱGirlȱinȱHartmannȱvon
Aue’sȱ‘ArmerȱHeinrich’,”ȱAmsterdamerȱBeiträgeȱzurȱälterenȱGermanistikȱ61ȱ(2006):ȱ103–26.
25
DavidȱDuckworth,ȱTheȱLeperȱandȱtheȱMaidenȱinȱHartmann’sȱDerȱarmeȱHeinrich.ȱGöppingerȱArbeiten
zurȱGermanistik,ȱ627ȱ(Göppingen:ȱKümmerle,ȱ1996).
toȱremoveȱherȱheart,ȱHenryȱgazesȱthroughȱaȱlittleȱholeȱinȱtheȱwall,ȱrecognizesȱher
stunningȱbeautyȱinȱtheȱlikenessȱofȱGod,ȱandȱquicklyȱreversesȱhisȱownȱdecisionȱto
acceptȱherȱsacrifice.ȱAlthoughȱsheȱcursesȱbitterlyȱatȱhimȱforȱbeingȱsuchȱaȱcoward,
Henryȱremainsȱsteadfastȱandȱreturnsȱhomeȱwithȱher.ȱBecauseȱheȱhasȱacceptedȱhis
ownȱ punishmentȱ atȱ God’sȱ handȱ andȱ hasȱ provenȱ hisȱ worthinessȱ asȱ aȱ good
Christian,ȱheȱmiraculouslyȱregainsȱhisȱhealthȱonȱtheirȱreturnȱvoyage.ȱ
Onceȱ heȱ hasȱ reachedȱ theȱ borderȱ toȱ Swabia,ȱ hisȱ formerȱ friendsȱ andȱ relatives
joyfullyȱgreetȱandȱwelcomeȱhimȱback,ȱandȱthenȱsupportȱhimȱinȱhisȱdesireȱtoȱfind
aȱmarriageȱpartnerȱasȱtheȱcrowningȱachievementȱofȱhisȱyoungȱlife.ȱThus,ȱafterȱlong
sufferingȱinȱtheȱveinȱofȱbiblicalȱJob,ȱheȱregainsȱallȱofȱhisȱformerȱhonor,ȱwealth,ȱand
power,ȱthatȱis,ȱheȱrisesȱonceȱagainȱtoȱtheȱhighestȱpositionȱinȱaristocraticȱsociety,
whichȱalsoȱrequiresȱthatȱheȱchooseȱaȱwifeȱasȱhisȱconsort.ȱ
ButȱHenryȱhasȱnotȱforgottenȱtheȱpeasantȱfamilyȱandȱtheirȱdaughter,ȱwhomȱhe
treatsȱwithȱgreatestȱrespectȱbecauseȱactuallyȱitȱwasȱsheȱwhoȱhadȱreallyȱsavedȱhis
life,ȱnotȱthroughȱherȱblood,ȱbutȱthroughȱherȱwillingnessȱtoȱdieȱandȱthroughȱher
physicalȱbeauty,ȱwhichȱheȱhadȱwitnessedȱwhenȱheȱhadȱgazedȱthroughȱaȱholeȱinȱthe
wallȱseparatingȱhimȱfromȱtheȱsurgeon’sȱoffice.26ȱFirst,ȱhowever,ȱheȱtransformsȱall
theȱlandȱbelongingȱtoȱtheȱfarmȱintoȱtheȱpeasant’sȱproperty,ȱraisingȱhimȱfullyȱtoȱthe
statusȱofȱaȱfreeȱman:ȱ“erȱgapȱinȱzeigenȱdâȱzehantȱ/ȱdazȱbreiteȱgeriute.ȱ/ȱdieȱerdeȱund
dieȱliute,ȱ/ȱdâȱerȱdôȱsiecherȱûfeȱlac”ȱ(1442–45;ȱheȱgaveȱhimȱtheȱwideȱrangeȱofȱland
andȱ theȱ peopleȱ workingȱ thereȱ andȱ whereȱ heȱ hadȱ stayedȱ asȱ aȱ sickȱ manȱ asȱ his
personalȱproperty).ȱ
Onceȱallȱhisȱfriendsȱandȱadvisorsȱhaveȱassembled,ȱtheyȱargueȱbitterlyȱaboutȱwhat
womanȱmightȱbeȱtheȱproperȱconsortȱforȱhim,ȱasȱwasȱcommonlyȱdoneȱinȱmedieval
marriageȱpractices.ȱAfterȱaȱwhile,ȱHenryȱaddressesȱthemȱasȱaȱtrulyȱchangedȱman,
pointingȱ outȱ howȱ muchȱ heȱ himselfȱ owesȱ hisȱ entireȱ lifeȱ toȱ hisȱ youngȱ female
companion,ȱandȱthenȱsurprisesȱthemȱwithȱtheȱdecisionȱtoȱmarryȱonlyȱherȱandȱno
otherȱwoman.ȱTheȱnarratorȱresortsȱtoȱtheȱsignificantȱtermȱ“trûtgemahel”ȱ(1490;
belovedȱ bride),ȱ underscoringȱ theȱ degreeȱ toȱ whichȱ Henryȱ reallyȱ lovesȱ her,
especiallyȱsinceȱheȱthenȱembracesȱher,ȱemphasizingȱthatȱsheȱwouldȱbeȱhisȱonly
choice;ȱotherwiseȱheȱwouldȱpreferȱtoȱremainȱunmarriedȱ(1503),ȱwhichȱprovesȱtoȱbe
aȱmostȱpowerfulȱthreatȱbyȱhimȱandȱagainstȱwhichȱtheȱcouncilȱdoesȱnotȱdareȱto
speakȱ up.ȱ Onȱ theȱ contrary,ȱ theyȱ allȱ immediatelyȱ approveȱ ofȱ hisȱ decision:ȱ “Nû
sprâchenȱ siȱ alleȱ gelîche,ȱ /ȱ beideȱ armeȱ undȱ rîche,ȱ /ȱ ezȱ wæreȱ einȱ michelȱ vuoge”
26
Forȱaȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱamatoryȱgaze,ȱespeciallyȱinȱcorrelationȱwithȱlateȬmedievalȱoptics,ȱseeȱDana
E.ȱStewart,ȱTheȱArrowȱofȱLove:ȱOptics,ȱGender,ȱandȱSubjectivityȱinȱMedievalȱLoveȱPoetryȱ(Lewisburg:
Bucknellȱ Universityȱ Press,ȱ andȱ London:ȱ Associatedȱ Universityȱ Presses,ȱ 2003).ȱ Sheȱ doesȱ not,
however,ȱconsiderȱtheȱcaseȱofȱHartmann’sȱnovella.ȱSeeȱalsoȱA.ȱC.ȱSpearing,ȱTheȱMedievalȱPoetȱas
Voyeur:ȱLookingȱandȱListeningȱinȱMedievalȱLoveȬNarrativesȱ(CambridgeȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱCambridge
(1509–11;ȱTheyȱallȱsaidȱinȱoneȱvoice,ȱbothȱtheȱpoorȱandȱtheȱrichȱpeople,ȱthatȱit
wouldȱbeȱveryȱappropriateȱtoȱdoȱso).ȱ
Withȱthisȱturnȱofȱeventsȱtheȱnarrativeȱquicklyȱreachesȱitsȱconclusion,ȱandȱweȱonly
learnȱthatȱtheȱcoupleȱenjoyedȱaȱlongȱandȱhappyȱlifeȱtogether,ȱandȱultimately,ȱafter
theirȱdeath,ȱgainedȱtheirȱsalvationȱ(1514–16).ȱTheȱerstwhileȱsocialȱdifferenceȱno
longerȱmatters,ȱandȱtheȱpoetȱevenȱgoesȱsoȱfarȱasȱtoȱenjoinȱhisȱaudienceȱtoȱtakeȱthis
caseȱasȱaȱmodelȱforȱtheirȱownȱlivesȱ(1517–18).ȱAsȱfleetingȱasȱthisȱreferenceȱmight
be,ȱandȱasȱunrealisticȱasȱtheȱtaleȱseemsȱtoȱbeȱinȱtheȱfaceȱofȱtotallyȱdifferentȱsocial
andȱ economicȱ conditionsȱ inȱ theȱ Highȱ Middleȱ Ages—disregardingȱ some
exceptionalȱsituationsȱhereȱandȱthere—Hartmannȱstillȱprojectsȱanȱidealȱformȱof
marriageȱbasedȱonȱmutualȱlove,ȱrespect,ȱandȱhonor.ȱTheȱutopianȱoutcomeȱstill
conformsȱwellȱtoȱChristianȱvalues,ȱwhereasȱitȱappearsȱtoȱcontradictȱtheȱconcrete
conditionsȱwithinȱaristocraticȱsociety.ȱHowever,ȱthatȱisȱtheȱprivilegeȱofȱHartmann’s
literaryȱdiscourse,ȱwhichȱfacilitatesȱtheȱprojectionȱofȱimaginaryȱsituationsȱandȱthus
providesȱ theȱ basisȱ forȱ theȱ presentationȱ ofȱ aȱ utopiaȱ thatȱ foundȱ extremelyȱ few
parallelsȱinȱmedievalȱliterature.ȱ
Asȱtheȱpoetȱsuggests,ȱhisȱprotagonistȱregainsȱhisȱhealthȱprimarily,ȱofȱcourse,
throughȱ God’sȱ grace,ȱ butȱ alsoȱ throughȱ theȱ youngȱ woman’sȱ love,ȱ herȱ virtually
celestialȱ beauty,ȱ andȱ herȱ utterȱ commitmentȱ toȱ Henry,ȱ whoseȱ lifeȱ sheȱ wantsȱ to
rescueȱatȱallȱcosts,ȱwhichȱunderscoresȱwhatȱidealȱtheȱpoetȱtriedȱtoȱpresent.ȱToȱbe
clear,ȱHartmannȱdoesȱnot,ȱprojectȱtheȱpeasantȱworldȱasȱidealȱandȱpreferableȱto
nobleȱ existence.ȱ Theȱ leperȱ retiresȱ toȱ theȱ farmȱ onlyȱ becauseȱ heȱ feelsȱ soȱ deeply
mortifiedȱandȱhelpless,ȱknowingȱexceedinglyȱwellȱofȱhisȱhorribleȱdisfigurement
andȱdestinyȱofȱcertainȱandȱquickȱdeathȱasȱaȱkindȱofȱdivineȱpunishmentȱforȱhis
previousȱsinfulȱlifeȱasȱaȱnobleman.27ȱOnceȱGodȱhasȱhealedȱhimȱagain,ȱhowever,ȱthis
youngȱmanȱdoesȱnotȱcontinueȱwithȱhisȱexistenceȱinȱtheȱcountryside.ȱHeȱdoesȱnot
pursueȱanȱalternativeȱlifeȱstyleȱinȱnatureȱavantȱlaȱlettre,ȱsoȱtoȱspeak.ȱFarmsȱareȱfor
farmers,ȱnotȱforȱkings.ȱHence,ȱtheȱpeasantȱdaughterȱmovesȱintoȱhisȱpalace,ȱandȱnot
theȱotherȱwayȱaround.
However,ȱaȱnumberȱofȱsmallȱbutȱsignificantȱfactorsȱdeserveȱtoȱbeȱconsideredȱto
understandȱ howȱ theȱ poetȱ viewedȱ theȱ worldȱ ofȱ theȱ farmers.ȱ First,ȱ longȱ before
havingȱcontractedȱleprosy,ȱHenryȱhadȱdemonstratedȱhisȱextraordinaryȱgenerosity
toȱtheȱfarmer.ȱSecond,ȱthisȱgenerosityȱhadȱledȱtoȱaȱconsiderableȱlevelȱofȱfamiliarity
andȱ aȱ senseȱ ofȱ communityȱ involvingȱ theȱ farmer’sȱ familyȱ andȱ Henry.ȱ Third,
27
See,ȱforȱinstance,ȱFrançoisȬOlivierȱTouati,ȱMaladieȱetȱsociétéȱauȱMoyenȱÂge:ȱlaȱlèpre,ȱlesȱlépreuxȱetȱles
léproseriesȱdansȱlaȱprovinceȱecclésiastiqueȱdeȱsensȱjusqu’auȱmilieuȱduȱXIVeȱsiècle.ȱBibliothèqueȱduȱMoyen
Age,ȱ11ȱ(Brussels:ȱDeȱBoeckȱUniversité,ȱ1998);ȱPeterȱL.ȱAllen,ȱTheȱWagesȱofȱSin:ȱSexȱandȱDisease,ȱPast
andȱ Presentȱ (2000;ȱ Chicago:ȱ Universityȱ ofȱ Chicagoȱ Press,ȱ 2002);ȱ Caroleȱ Rawcliffe,ȱ Leprosyȱ in
Medievalȱ Englandȱ (Woodbridge,ȱ UK,ȱ andȱ Rochester,ȱ VT:ȱ Boydellȱ Press,ȱ 2006);ȱ Disabilityȱ inȱ the
Middleȱ Ages:ȱ Reconsiderationsȱ andȱ Reverberations,ȱ ed.ȱ Joshuaȱ Eylerȱ (Farnham,ȱ Surrey,ȱ and
Burlington,ȱVT:ȱAshgate,ȱ2010).
althoughȱ caughtȱ byȱ aȱ horribleȱ andȱ miserableȱ disease,ȱ Henryȱ recognizesȱ the
astoundingȱ beautyȱ ofȱ theȱ farmer’sȱ daughterȱ andȱ developsȱ aȱ sortȱ ofȱ erotic
relationshipȱwithȱher.ȱFourth,ȱheȱfreelyȱrevealsȱtoȱtheȱfamilyȱwhatȱheȱhadȱlearned
fromȱtheȱmedicalȱdoctorȱinȱSalerno.ȱFifth,ȱHenryȱdisplaysȱhisȱprofoundȱgratitude
forȱtheȱgirl’sȱactionȱwhichȱultimatelyȱsavesȱhisȱlifeȱbyȱwayȱofȱturningȱtheȱentire
farmȱ overȱ toȱ theȱ farmerȱ asȱ hisȱ personalȱ property,ȱ elevatingȱ himȱ outȱ ofȱ his
traditionalȱsocialȱclassȱandȱmakingȱhimȱaȱfreeȱman.ȱLastȱbutȱnotȱtheȱleast,ȱHenry
optsȱtoȱmarryȱtheȱyoungȱwomanȱbecauseȱheȱadmiresȱher,ȱfindsȱherȱmostȱattractive,
andȱknowsȱhowȱtoȱappreciateȱherȱdedicationȱandȱloveȱforȱhim.ȱ
AllȱthisȱdoesȱnotȱtransformȱDerȱarmeȱHeinrichȱintoȱaȱliteraryȱaccountȱofȱaȱsocial
utopia,ȱbutȱitȱcertainlyȱindicatesȱthatȱtheȱpoetȱdidȱnotȱhesitateȱinȱhisȱreligiousȱdrive
toȱargueȱthatȱaȱfulfillingȱandȱhappyȱmarriageȱcouldȱbeȱarrangedȱevenȱbetweenȱa
noblemanȱ andȱ aȱ peasant’sȱ daughter—andȱ thisȱ inȱ radicalȱ oppositionȱ toȱ the
teachingsȱbyȱAndreasȱCapellanusȱ(seeȱabove).ȱHenry’sȱrescueȱawaitsȱhimȱnotȱat
court,ȱbutȱinȱtheȱcountryside.ȱNoȱnobleȱladyȱwouldȱhaveȱeverȱbeenȱwillingȱtoȱoffer
herselfȱasȱsacrificeȱforȱHenry’sȱrecovery,ȱbutȱtheȱfarmer’sȱdaughterȱprovedȱher
nobleȱheart,ȱtrueȱlove,ȱandȱspirituality.ȱOfȱcourse,ȱweȱmustȱbeȱveryȱcarefulȱinȱthe
criticalȱassessmentȱofȱtheȱgirl’sȱreadinessȱtoȱdieȱforȱHenry.ȱAfterȱall,ȱsuicideȱwas
radicallyȱcondemnedȱbyȱtheȱChristianȱChurch,28ȱandȱevenȱherȱbestȱargumentsȱin
defenseȱ ofȱ herȱ decisionȱ toȱ giveȱ herȱ heart’sȱ bloodȱ forȱ Henry,ȱ whichȱ certainly
convinceȱherȱparentsȱandȱtheȱleprousȱlord,ȱultimatelyȱwouldȱhaveȱtoȱbeȱidentified
asȱfalseȱandȱmisleading.ȱNevertheless,ȱsheȱemergesȱasȱtheȱcriticalȱcatalystȱforȱhis
healing,ȱandȱthisȱnotȱthroughȱherȱdeathȱbutȱthroughȱherȱinnocence,ȱbeauty,ȱand
readinessȱtoȱdieȱforȱherȱbelovedȱlord.29ȱ
AsȱSusanȱL.ȱClarkȱonceȱcommented,ȱ“theȱexchangeȱofȱaȱlifeȱforȱaȱlife—which
Heinrichȱ ultimatelyȱ rejectsȱ forȱ allȱ ofȱ theȱ rightȱ reasons—cutsȱ acrossȱ theȱ social,
feudalȱhierarchy.ȱTheȱtrueȱmotivesȱofȱloveȱforȱone’sȱfellowȱmanȱknowȱnoȱsocial
28
AlexanderȱMurray,ȱSuicideȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges.ȱVol.ȱII:ȱTheȱCurseȱonȱSelfȱMurderȱ(2000;ȱOxford:
OxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2011),ȱoffersȱanȱextensiveȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱdiscourseȱonȱsuicide,ȱbutȱhe
hardlyȱexaminesȱliteraryȱevidence,ȱandȱcertainlyȱnotȱHartmannȱvonȱAue’sȱcase.ȱButȱhisȱdiscussion
demonstratesȱhowȱmuchȱtheȱauthoritiesȱinȱmedievalȱrealityȱwouldȱhaveȱrejectedȱandȱcondemned
theȱgirl’sȱwillingnessȱtoȱsacrificeȱherselfȱforȱHenry.
29
EvaȬMariaȱCarne,ȱDieȱFrauengestaltenȱbeiȱHartmannȱvonȱAue:ȱIhreȱBedeutungȱimȱAufbauȱundȱGehalt
derȱEpen.ȱMarburgerȱBeiträgeȱzurȱGermanistikȱ 31ȱ(Marburgȱa.ȱd.ȱL.:ȱN.ȱG.ȱElwert,ȱ1970),ȱ118,
correctlyȱ observes:ȱ “Dieȱ seelischeȱ Heilungȱ desȱ Rittersȱ wirdȱ nurȱ möglich,ȱ weilȱ eineȱ warme
persönlicheȱBeziehungȱzwischenȱihmȱundȱdemȱBauernmädchenȱbesteht.ȱDieȱherzlicheȱBeziehung
zuȱdiesemȱeinen,ȱbesonderenȱMenschenkind,ȱdessenȱverklärteȱSchönheitȱihmȱplötzlichȱaufgeht,
machtȱihnȱhellsichtigȱundȱöffnetȱihnȱganzȱdemȱEinflußȱihresȱWesens.ȱIndemȱerȱsieȱanschaut,ȱsieht
erȱauchȱsich”ȱ(Theȱknight’sȱspiritualȱhealingȱisȱonlyȱpossibleȱbecauseȱthereȱisȱaȱwarm,ȱpersonal
relationshipȱbetweenȱhimȱandȱtheȱpeasantȱgirl.ȱThisȱheartfeltȱrelationshipȱtoȱthisȱone,ȱveryȱspecial
humanȱcreature,ȱwhoseȱcelestialȱbeautyȱheȱsuddenlyȱrealizes,ȱopensȱhisȱeyesȱandȱ makesȱhim
receptiveȱforȱtheȱinfluenceȱofȱherȱbeing.ȱByȱlookingȱatȱher,ȱheȱalsoȱrecognizesȱhimself).ȱ
class.ȱAȱwellȬbornȱmaidenȱdoesȱnotȱmakeȱtheȱofferȱtoȱdieȱforȱHeinrich,ȱnorȱisȱaȱlowȬ
bornȱ maidenȱ summarilyȱ sacrificed.”30ȱ Ultimately,ȱ asȱ weȱ canȱ observe,ȱ the
protagonist’sȱtransformationȱandȱhenceȱhealing,ȱthatȱis,ȱtheȱrecoveryȱofȱhisȱselfȱand
hisȱreturnȱtoȱGodȱtakesȱplaceȱnotȱatȱtheȱcourt,ȱnotȱamongȱtheȱaristocraticȱpublic,
butȱitȱbeginsȱatȱtheȱfarmȱandȱisȱfinallyȱcompletedȱatȱtheȱdoctor’sȱofficeȱandȱon
Henry’sȱreturnȱhomeȱ(thoughȱthenȱnoȱlongerȱtoȱtheȱfarm!).ȱȱItȱisȱcertainlyȱtrueȱthat
theȱpeasantȱgirlȱshinesȱforthȱthroughȱherȱphysicalȱbeauty,ȱwhichȱcouldȱbeȱregarded
asȱaȱsignȱofȱinbornȱnobility,ȱdespiteȱherȱsocialȱstatusȱasȱaȱfarmer’sȱdaughter,31ȱand
inȱthisȱregardȱweȱmightȱwellȱconsiderȱherȱasȱaȱpredecessorȱofȱBoccaccio’sȱfamous
andȱ yetȱ mostȱ troublesomeȱ Griseldaȱ figureȱ whomȱ theȱ Marquessȱ ofȱ Saluzzo,
Gualtieri,ȱmarriesȱbecauseȱheȱregardsȱherȱasȱtheȱmostȱhonorableȱandȱtrustworthy
personȱ(10thȱday,ȱ10thȱtale).32
Thereȱareȱmanyȱcourtlyȱloveȱpoemsȱinȱwhichȱbeautifulȱnature,ȱmostlyȱinȱspring
time,ȱprovidesȱtheȱidealȱbackdropȱtoȱtheȱeventsȱsurroundingȱtheȱlovers,ȱcommonly
expressedȱthroughȱtheȱlocusȬamoenusȱtopos.33ȱOneȱofȱthoseȱcanȱbeȱfoundȱinȱWalther
30
SusanȱL.ȱClark,ȱHartmannȱvonȱAue:ȱLandscapesȱofȱMindȱ(Houston:ȱRiceȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1989),ȱ141.
Forȱ aȱ religiousȱ andȱ spiritualȱ interpretation,ȱ seeȱ Volkerȱ Mertens’sȱ commentsȱ inȱ hisȱ edition,
Hartmannȱ vonȱ Aue,ȱ Gregorius,ȱ Derȱ armeȱ Heinrich,ȱ 884–86ȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 21).ȱ Forȱ aȱ broad,ȱ mostly
summaryȱinterpretation,ȱseeȱChristophȱCormeauȱandȱWilhelmȱStörmer,ȱHartmannȱvonȱAue:ȱEpoche
–ȱWerkȱ–ȱWirkung.ȱArbeitsbücherȱzurȱLiteraturgeschichteȱ(Munich:ȱC.ȱH.ȱBeck,ȱ1985),ȱ153–59.
31
Helmutȱ Tervooren,ȱ “Schönheitsbeschreibungȱ undȱ Gattungsethikȱ inȱ derȱ mittelhochdeutschen
Lyrik,”ȱ Schöneȱ Frauenȱ –ȱ Schöneȱ Männer:ȱ Literarischeȱ Schönheitsbeschreibungen.ȱ 2.ȱ Kolloquiumȱ der
Forschungsstelleȱ fürȱ europäischeȱ Literaturȱ desȱ Mittelalters,ȱ ed.ȱ Theoȱ Stemmlerȱ (Mannheim:
ForschungstelleȱfürȱeuropäischeȱLiteraturȱdesȱMittelalters,ȱ1988),ȱ171–98;ȱDieterȱKartschoke,ȱ“Der
HerrȱvonȱSchwabenȱundȱdasȱBauernmädchenȱimȱArmenȱHeinrichȱHartmannsȱvonȱAue,”ȱPaareȱund
Paarungen:ȱFestschriftȱfürȱWernerȱWunderlichȱzumȱ60.ȱGeburtstag,ȱed.ȱUlrichȱMüllerȱandȱMargarete
Springeth,ȱ togetherȱ withȱ Michaelaȱ AuerȬMüller.ȱ Stuttgarterȱ Arbeitenȱ zurȱ Germanistik,ȱ 420
(Stuttgart:ȱVerlagȱHansȬDieterȱHeinz,ȱ2004),ȱ213–18.ȱC.ȱStephenȱJaeger,ȱEnnoblingȱLove:ȱInȱSearch
ofȱaȱLostȱSensibility.ȱTheȱMiddleȱAgesȱSeriesȱ(Philadelphia:ȱTheȱUniversityȱofȱPennsylvaniaȱPress,
1999),ȱ36–37.ȱInȱparticular,ȱheȱpointsȱoutȱthatȱtheȱ“idealȱofȱkalosȱkaiȱagathosȱmadeȱvirtue,ȱareté,ȱinto
theȱinnerȱmotivatingȱforceȱsignaledȱbyȱexternalȱrefinements”ȱ(37).ȱJamesȱA.ȱSchultz,ȱCourtlyȱLove,
79–91ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ2)ȱcoinedȱtheȱbrilliantȱtermȱ“aristophilia”ȱforȱthisȱphenomenon,ȱindicatingȱthe
expressionȱofȱnobilityȱbothȱthroughȱtheȱbodilyȱappearanceȱ(“sexuallyȱdimorphic”,ȱ79)ȱandȱthrough
theȱnobleȱcharacter.
32
Giovanniȱ Boccaccio,ȱ Theȱ Decameron,ȱ trans.ȱ byȱ Richardȱ Aldingtonȱ (1962;ȱ Newȱ York:ȱ Dell
Publishing,ȱ1970);ȱsomeȱofȱtheȱbestȱrecentȱscholarlyȱdiscussionsȱcanȱbeȱfoundȱinȱMarilynȱMigiel’s
monograph,ȱAȱRhetoricȱofȱtheȱDecameronȱ(Toronto,ȱBuffalo,ȱandȱLondon:ȱUniversityȱofȱToronto
Press,ȱ2003),ȱ5,ȱ13,ȱ40,ȱ50,ȱetȱpassim.ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱfurtherȱreferencesȱbelow.
33
Theȱ classicalȱ studyȱ forȱ thisȱ observationȱ remainsȱ untilȱ todayȱ Ernstȱ Robertȱ Curtius,ȱ European
LiteratureȱandȱtheȱLatinȱMiddleȱAges.ȱTrans.ȱFromȱtheȱGermanȱbyȱWillardȱR.ȱTrask.ȱBollingenȱSeries
XXXVIȱ (1948;ȱ Princeton:ȱ Princetonȱ Universityȱ Press,ȱ 1990),ȱ 194–200;ȱ seeȱ alsoȱ Dagmarȱ Thoss,
StudienȱzumȱlocusȱamoenusȱimȱMittelalter.ȱWienerȱromanistischeȱArbeiten,ȱXȱ(Vienna:ȱBraumüller,
1972);ȱ Ursulaȱ Frühe,ȱ Dasȱ Paradiesȱ einȱ Gartenȱ –ȱ derȱ Gartenȱ einȱ Paradies:ȱ Studienȱ zurȱ Literaturȱ des
Mittelaltersȱ unterȱ Berücksichtigungȱ derȱ bildendenȱ Kunstȱ undȱ Architekturȱ Europäischeȱ HochschulȬ
vonȱderȱVogelweide’sȱ“Underȱderȱlinden”ȱ(L.ȱ39,11,ȱorȱno.ȱ16ȱinȱmss.ȱBC;ȱUnder
theȱ Lindenȱ Tree).34ȱ Althoughȱ theȱ narrativeȱ focusȱ restsȱ onȱ theȱ idyllic,ȱ parkȬlike
settingȱwhereȱtheȱtwoȱloversȱmeet,ȱoutsideȱofȱtheȱcastleȱorȱcity,ȱcloseȱtoȱtheȱedge
ofȱ theȱ forest,ȱ relyingȱ heavilyȱ onȱ rhetoricalȱ elementsȱ borrowedȱ fromȱ classical
bucolicȱ poetryȱ andȱ especiallyȱ fromȱ theȱ medievalȱ genreȱ ofȱ theȱ pastourelle,ȱ the
narrativeȱvoiceȱstillȱprojectsȱtheȱdistantȱplaceȱunderȱtheȱlindenȱtreeȱasȱidealȱfor
loversȱtoȱgetȱtogetherȱandȱtoȱenjoyȱeachȱotherȱtoȱtheȱfullestȱextentȱpossible.ȱTrue
loveȱseemsȱtoȱbeȱrealizableȱonlyȱfarȱawayȱfromȱsociety,ȱinȱthatȱlovelyȱdaleȱwhere
theȱyoungȱmanȱhasȱalreadyȱpreparedȱaȱbedȱoutȱofȱpetalsȱandȱgrassȱforȱbothȱof
them.35ȱ
Weȱcannotȱcompletelyȱmakeȱoutȱwhetherȱtheȱloveȱsceneȱtakesȱplaceȱtrulyȱinȱa
ruralȱspace,ȱbutȱweȱknowȱforȱsureȱthatȱtheȱlocationȱwasȱfarȱenoughȱawayȱfrom
societyȱtoȱguaranteeȱsomeȱkindȱofȱprivacy.ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱthereȱisȱtheȱgood
possibilityȱthatȱsomeȱindividualsȱmightȱcomeȱby,ȱtakingȱtheȱsameȱpathȱthroughȱthe
meadowȱandȱobserveȱtheȱabandonedȱnatureȱbedȱwhereȱtheyȱhadȱmadeȱloveȱwith
eachȱother.ȱTheȱnarrativeȱvoiceȱdoesȱnotȱincludeȱanyȱreferencesȱtoȱfarmȱland,ȱfarm
animals,ȱorȱfarmers.ȱWeȱonlyȱlearnȱthatȱtheȱloneȱobserversȱcouldȱclearlyȱrecognize
whatȱhadȱhappenedȱthere,ȱandȱthenȱwouldȱsmileȱfilledȱwithȱsilentȱdelightȱabout
theȱcompleteȱhappinessȱwhichȱhadȱbeenȱrealizedȱthere.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱpetalsȱupon
whichȱtheȱloversȱhadȱlainȱhadȱtoȱbeȱtakenȱfromȱroses,ȱandȱtheȱbirdȱinȱtheȱlinden
treeȱ whichȱ hadȱ beenȱ theirȱ onlyȱ witnessȱ turnsȱ outȱ toȱ beȱ aȱ nightingale.ȱ Inȱ other
words,ȱWaltherȱheavilyȱdrewȱonȱtraditionalȱtopoiȱforȱtheȱdescriptionȱofȱanȱidyllic
natureȱscene.ȱ
Still,ȱ thereȱ isȱ noȱ doubtȱ aboutȱ aȱ certainȱ degreeȱ ofȱ criticismȱ ofȱ courtlyȱ society
becauseȱtrueȱloveȱseemsȱtoȱbeȱpossibleȱonlyȱfarȱaway,ȱalmost,ȱthoughȱnotȱquite,ȱin
theȱforest,ȱatȱtheȱlimitȱbetweenȱhumanȱsocietyȱandȱwildȱnature.36ȱAsȱGerhardȱHahn
notes,ȱ“DieȱSzeneȱallerdingsȱverweistȱaufȱländlichesȱMilieu,ȱaufȱdieȱpuellaȬSphäre.
Ihrȱistȱaber,ȱwieȱgezeigt,ȱinhaltlichȱundȱdarstellerischȱallesȱgenommen,ȱwasȱden
schriften:ȱReiheȱ18,ȱVergleichendeȱLiteraturwissenschaft,ȱ103ȱ(Frankfurtȱa.ȱM.:ȱPeterȱLang,ȱ2002).
ForȱlyricalȱexamplesȱfromȱtheȱIberianȱPeninsua,ȱseeȱLocusȱamoenus:ȱantologíaȱdeȱlaȱlíricaȱmedievalȱde
laȱpenínsulaȱibéricaȱ(latín,ȱárabe,ȱhebreo,ȱmozárabe,ȱprovenzal,ȱgalaicoȬportugués,ȱcastellanoȱyȱcatalán),ȱed.
CarlosȱAlvarȱandȱJenaroȱTalensȱ(Barcelona:ȱGalaxiaȱGutenberg/CírculoȱdeȱLectores,ȱ2009).
34
WaltherȱvonȱderȱVogelweide,ȱLeich,ȱLieder,ȱSangsprüche.ȱ14.,ȱvölligȱneubearbeiteteȱAuflageȱder
AusgabeȱKarlȱLachmannsȱmitȱBeiträgenȱvonȱThomasȱBeinȱundȱHorstȱBrunner,ȱed.ȱChristoph
Cormeauȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱWalterȱdeȱGruyter,ȱ1996),ȱ77–78.
35
Forȱfurtherȱdiscussionsȱofȱthisȱpoemȱinȱaȱvarietyȱofȱcontexts,ȱseeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthis
volumeȱbyȱChristopherȱR.ȱClason.
36
AnnȱMarieȱRasmussen,ȱ“RepresentingȱWoman’sȱDesire:ȱWalther’sȱWoman’sȱStanzasȱinȱ‘Ichȱhoere
iuȱsôȱvilȱtugendeȱjehen’ȱ(Lȱ43,ȱ9),ȱ‘Underȱderȱlinden’ȱ(Lȱ39,ȱ11),ȱandȱ‘FrôȱWelt’ȱ(Lȱ100,ȱ24),”ȱWomen
asȱProtagonistsȱandȱPoetsȱinȱtheȱGermanȱMiddleȱAges:ȱAnȱAnthologyȱofȱFeministȱApproachesȱtoȱMiddle
Highȱ Germanȱ Literature,ȱ ed.ȱ Albrechtȱ Classen.ȱ Göppingerȱ Arbeitenȱ zurȱ Germanistik,ȱ 528
(Göppingen:ȱKümmerle,ȱ1991),ȱ69–85.
Tadelȱsôȱnidereȱgerechtfertigtȱerscheinenȱließe”ȱ(Theȱscene,ȱhowever,ȱpointsȱtoward
theȱruralȱenvironment,ȱtoȱtheȱsphereȱofȱtheȱpuella.ȱButȱtheȱpoetȱremoved,ȱasȱIȱhave
demonstrated,ȱbothȱinȱcontentȱandȱinȱtheȱpresentation,ȱeverythingȱwhichȱcould
haveȱmadeȱtheȱcriticismȱagainstȱtheȱ‘lowȱclass’ȱjustified).37ȱBothȱtheȱsecrecyȱofȱthis
loveȱaffairȱandȱtheȱidyllicȱsetting,ȱandȱthenȱalsoȱtheȱephemeralȱexperience,ȱsince
fulfilledȱloveȱseemsȱtoȱbeȱjustȱfleetingȱhere,ȱunderscoreȱundoubtedlyȱthatȱWalther
projected,ȱinȱaȱsense,ȱaȱutopianȱsetting,ȱagainȱinȱruralȱspace.38ȱAllȱthisȱdoesȱnot
necessarilyȱmean,ȱhowever,ȱthatȱtheȱpoetȱwantedȱtoȱinjectȱtheȱideaȱthatȱtrueȱlove
couldȱonlyȱbeȱfoundȱwithȱaȱpeasantȱwoman,ȱfarȱfromȱit.ȱHisȱconceptȱofȱ‘nidere
minne’ȱ(lowȱlove)ȱwasȱnotȱpredicatedȱonȱtheȱideaȱofȱsocialȱclassȱconflictsȱorȱthe
transgressionȱofȱsocialȱroles,ȱbutȱonȱtheȱconceptȱofȱhowȱtoȱfindȱtrueȱloveȱoutside
ofȱcourtlyȱsocietyȱfreedȱfromȱtheȱconstraintsȱofȱfeudalism.39
Thisȱnowȱallowsȱusȱtoȱtakeȱtheȱnextȱstepȱandȱtoȱturnȱtoȱtheȱsecondȱmajorȱexample
ofȱaȱverseȱnarrativeȱwhichȱillustratesȱhowȱmuchȱtheȱdeliberateȱtransgressionȱofȱthe
socialȱ classȱ boundariesȱ mightȱ facilitateȱ theȱ experienceȱ ofȱ trueȱ love,ȱ whileȱ all
attemptsȱtoȱgainȱthatȱhappinessȱamidstȱtheȱaristocraticȱclass,ȱatȱcourt,ȱareȱvirtually
condemnedȱ toȱ fail.ȱ Theȱ essentialȱ issueȱ continuesȱ toȱ beȱ howȱ toȱ findȱ trueȱ love,
irrespectiveȱofȱsocialȱexpectations.ȱTheȱanonymousȱauthorȱofȱtheȱmostȱremarkable
verseȱnarrativeȱinȱmedievalȱGermanȱliterature,ȱ“DisȱistȱvonȱdemȱHeselin”ȱ(“Das
Häslein,”ȱorȱ“TheȱLittleȱBunnyȱRabbit”),ȱcomposedȱsometimeȱatȱtheȱendȱofȱthe
thirteenthȱcentury,ȱpreservedȱinȱonlyȱoneȱmanuscriptȱinȱStrasbourg,ȱwhichȱwasȱ
burnedȱinȱ1870ȱwhenȱtheȱlibraryȱwasȱsetȱtoȱflamesȱduringȱtheȱPrussianȬFrenchȱwar,
offersȱoneȱofȱtheȱmostȱfascinatingȱliteraryȱconstellationsȱwhereȱaȱyoungȱnobleȱman
realizesȱ thatȱ theȱ innocent,ȱ perhapsȱ evenȱ foolish,ȱ butȱ certainlyȱ beautifulȱ and
honorableȱpeasantȱgirlȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱaȱmuchȱmoreȱworthyȱmarriageȱpartnerȱthan
theȱhypocritical,ȱarrogant,ȱandȱdisingenuousȱcourtlyȱladyȱwhomȱhisȱfriendsȱhave
suggestedȱtoȱhimȱasȱhisȱfutureȱwife.ȱInȱtheȱworldȱofȱlove,ȱasȱweȱcanȱreasonably
surmise,ȱsocialȱandȱeconomicȱconditionsȱtendȱtoȱcollideȱwithȱissuesȱofȱpureȱand
simpleȱemotions,ȱandȱsoȱasȱwellȱinȱtheȱlateȱMiddleȱAges.40
37
GerhardȱHahn,ȱ“WalthersȱMinnesang,”ȱHorstȱBrunner,ȱGerhardȱHahn,ȱUlrichȱMüller,ȱandȱFranz
ViktorȱSpechtler,ȱWaltherȱvonȱderȱVogelweide:ȱEpocheȱ–ȱWerkȱ–ȱWirkung.ȱ2ndȱrev.ȱandȱexpandedȱed.
(1996;ȱMunich:ȱC.ȱH.ȱBeck,ȱ2009),ȱ74–134;ȱhereȱ106.
38
Maryȱ M.ȱ Paddock,ȱ “Speakingȱ ofȱ Spectacle:ȱ Anotherȱ Lookȱ atȱ Walther’sȱ ‘Lindenlied’,”ȱ German
Quarterlyȱ77.1ȱ(2004):ȱ11–28.
39
AchimȱMasser,ȱ“Zuȱdenȱsogenanntenȱ‘Mädchenliedern’ȱWalthersȱvonȱderȱVogelweide,”ȱWirkendes
Wortȱ39.1ȱ(1989):ȱ3–15;ȱCyrilȱEdwards,ȱ“HêreȱFrowe:ȱCase,ȱNumber,ȱandȱRankȱinȱWaltherȱvonȱder
Vogelweide’sȱ‘Lindenlied’,”ȱModernȱLanguageȱReviewȱ99.1ȱ(2004):ȱ94–100.ȱTheȱliteratureȱonȱthis
specificȱsongȱandȱonȱWalther’sȱloveȱpoetryȱatȱlargeȱisȱlegion,ȱbutȱsufficeȱitȱtoȱreferȱtoȱtheseȱtwo
studies.ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱChristopherȱR.ȱClason.
40
HereȱIȱquoteȱfromȱNovellistikȱdesȱMittelalters:ȱMärendichtung,ȱed.,ȱtrans.,ȱandȱcommentaryȱbyȱKlaus
Grubmüller.ȱBibliothekȱdesȱMittelalters,ȱ23ȱ(Frankfurtȱa.ȱM.:ȱDeutscherȱKlassikerȱVerlag,ȱ1996)
Althoughȱ theȱ maleȱ protagonistȱ belongsȱ toȱ theȱ nobility,ȱ heȱ isȱ immediately
presentedȱasȱbeingȱinvolvedȱwithȱhisȱfarmȱhandsȱbecauseȱhisȱeffortsȱtoȱhuntȱdown
aȱlittleȱrabbitȱthatȱhadȱbeenȱfrightenedȱbyȱhisȱarrivalȱandȱhadȱfledȱintoȱaȱfieldȱof
wheatȱfailȱremarkably.ȱHowever,ȱoneȱofȱtheȱworkers,ȱwithoutȱusingȱanyȱknightly
trapping,ȱsucceedsȱinȱcapturingȱtheȱlittleȱrabbitȱandȱhandsȱitȱoverȱtoȱhisȱlord,ȱwho
thenȱhappilyȱholdsȱtheȱanimalȱinȱhisȱlap,ȱhopingȱthatȱheȱcouldȱuseȱitȱasȱaȱgiftȱfor
theȱladyȱwhomȱheȱhadȱwooedȱforȱaȱlongȱtimeȱinȱvainȱ(39–55).ȱThereȱdoesȱnotȱseem
toȱbeȱanyȱconversationȱbetweenȱtheȱnoblemanȱandȱhisȱservant,ȱbutȱwithoutȱthe
latter’sȱhelpȱtheȱrabbitȱwouldȱhaveȱescapedȱhim.ȱMoreover,ȱnowȱinȱpossessionȱof
thisȱ fuzzyȱ creature,ȱ heȱ keepsȱ ridingȱ alongȱ andȱ approachesȱ aȱ village,ȱ whereȱ he
encountersȱaȱyoungȱpeasantȱwoman.ȱAlthoughȱsheȱbelongsȱtoȱtheȱlowestȱsocial
class,ȱtheȱnarratorȱdoesȱnotȱhesitateȱtoȱdescribeȱherȱasȱaȱbeautifulȱnobleȱlady:ȱ“edel,
schœneȱundȱfin”ȱ(62;ȱnoble,ȱbeautiful,ȱandȱattractive).ȱMoreover,ȱsheȱappearsȱlike
aȱ“juncvrouwenȱzart”ȱ(68;ȱtenderȱyoungȱlady),ȱwhichȱobviouslyȱfacilitatesȱherȱto
engageȱtheȱknightȱinȱanȱexchange.ȱSignificantly,ȱheȱgreetsȱherȱfirst,ȱwhereuponȱshe
inquiresȱaboutȱtheȱoriginȱofȱtheȱrabbitȱ(70–71).ȱAlthoughȱsheȱbelongsȱtoȱtheȱpeasant
class,ȱtheȱknightȱdoesȱnotȱhesitateȱtoȱrespondȱtoȱherȱrespectfully,ȱalthoughȱheȱthen
seducesȱherȱbyȱofferingȱherȱtheȱrabbitȱinȱexchangeȱforȱherȱminneȱ(84),ȱmeaning
courtlyȱloveȱatȱlarge,ȱbutȱhereȱspecificallyȱherȱsexualȱfavor.ȱ
Heȱrejectsȱallȱherȱattemptsȱtoȱofferȱanyȱofȱherȱpersonalȱtreasures,ȱsuchȱasȱrings
andȱherȱvaluableȱbeltȱbecauseȱheȱhasȱalreadyȱrealizedȱherȱnaiveteȱandȱfindsȱherȱso
attractiveȱthatȱheȱisȱburningȱwithȱtheȱdesireȱtoȱsleepȱwithȱher.ȱSinceȱsheȱisȱallȱalone,
herȱmotherȱandȱallȱtheȱservantsȱattendingȱchurchȱservice,ȱtheyȱcanȱsubsequently
carryȱoutȱtheȱbarter,ȱwhichȱmeansȱthatȱheȱcanȱhaveȱsexȱwithȱher,ȱforȱwhichȱhe
handsȱoverȱtheȱrabbit,ȱnoȱlongerȱthinkingȱaboutȱhisȱoriginalȱbeloved,ȱwhoȱhas
completelyȱ disappearedȱ fromȱ theȱ narrative.ȱ Asȱ theȱ commentatorȱ remarks,ȱ she
provesȱtoȱbeȱmostȱbeautiful,ȱandȱwouldȱoutshineȱanyȱotherȱwomanȱinsofarȱasȱeven
Godȱwouldȱbeȱdelightedȱtoȱlookȱatȱherȱ(132).ȱ
Inȱmanyȱrespectsȱweȱareȱdealingȱwithȱtheȱsameȱsituationȱhereȱasȱinȱtheȱlyrical
genreȱofȱtheȱpastourelle,ȱexceptȱthatȱtheȱyoungȱwomanȱsoonȱenoughȱenjoysȱthe
sexualȱpleasuresȱsoȱmuchȱthatȱsheȱasksȱhimȱtoȱsleepȱwithȱherȱnotȱonlyȱaȱsecond,
butȱalsoȱaȱthirdȱtime.41ȱJustȱasȱinȱtheȱpastourelle,ȱweȱfaceȱtheȱuniqueȱconstellationȱof
and,ȱrespectively,ȱfromȱmyȱEnglishȱtranslationȱinȱEroticȱTalesȱofȱMedievalȱGermany.ȱSelectedȱand
trans.ȱbyȱAlbrechtȱClassen.ȱSecondȱed.ȱMedievalȱandȱRenaissanceȱTextsȱandȱStudies,ȱ3ȱ(2007;
Tempe,ȱAZ:ȱArizonaȱCenterȱforȱMedievalȱandȱRenaissanceȱStudies,ȱ2009),ȱ35–41.ȱIȱhaveȱalready
discussedȱthisȱnarrativeȱinȱaȱvarietyȱofȱotherȱcontexts,ȱ mostȱrecentlyȱwithȱregardȱtoȱtheȱmale
protagonist’sȱhighlyȱsymbolicȱlaughter:ȱ“LaughingȱinȱLateȬMedievalȱVerseȱ(mæren)ȱandȱProse
(Schwänke)ȱNarratives:ȱEpistemologicalȱStrategiesȱandȱHermeneuticȱExplorations,”ȱLaughterȱinȱthe
MiddleȱAgesȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱTimes:ȱEpistemologyȱofȱaȱFundamentalȱHumanȱBehavior,ȱitsȱMeaning,ȱand
Consequences,ȱed.ȱid.ȱFundamentalsȱofȱMedievalȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱCulture,ȱ5ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNew
York:ȱDeȱGruyter,ȱ2010),ȱ547–85;ȱhereȱ550–65.
41
Forȱaȱusefulȱandȱcompactȱintroductionȱtoȱtheȱgenre,ȱseeȱWilliamȱD.ȱPaden,ȱ“Pastourelle,”TheȱNew
aȱ knightȱ inȱ aȱ trystȱ withȱ aȱ peasantȱ woman,ȱ albeitȱ theȱ narratorȱ describesȱ herȱ in
highlyȱlaudatoryȱterms,ȱpraisingȱherȱasȱaȱmostȱpleasingȱandȱwellȬmanneredȱvirgin
(124–30).ȱMoreover,ȱsheȱdoesȱnotȱresistȱhisȱwooingȱandȱreadilyȱgrantsȱhimȱhis
sexualȱwishes,ȱevenȱthoughȱoutȱofȱignoranceȱatȱfirst,ȱandȱthenȱbecauseȱsheȱherself
delightsȱinȱexperiencingȱorgasms.ȱWeȱwouldȱcertainlyȱcallȱtheȱknight’sȱbehavior
ratherȱreprehensible,ȱifȱnotȱrape,ȱespeciallyȱbecauseȱheȱhadȱabusedȱherȱchildish
ignoranceȱandȱtheȱsituationȱwithȱherȱbeingȱallȱaloneȱonȱtheȱfarm.ȱTheȱnarrator,
however,ȱindicatesȱhimselfȱthatȱtheȱsituationȱamountsȱtoȱaȱcriminalȱactȱinsofarȱas
theȱknightȱisȱworriedȱofȱbeingȱcaughtȱinȱflagranteȱandȱsleepsȱwithȱherȱonlyȱafterȱhe
hasȱlearnedȱthatȱtheȱentireȱfamilyȱalongȱwithȱtheȱservantsȱareȱgone.ȱMoreover,
whenȱsheȱwantsȱhimȱtoȱsleepȱwithȱherȱaȱthirdȱtime,ȱheȱrefuses,ȱnotȱbecauseȱheȱis
physicallyȱ exhausted,ȱ butȱ becauseȱ heȱ correctlyȱ worriesȱ thatȱ herȱ familyȱ might
returnȱandȱcatchȱhimȱinȱtheȱactȱ(276–78),ȱwhichȱconstitutes,ȱasȱheȱhimselfȱknows
onlyȱtooȱwell,ȱaȱkindȱofȱstatutoryȱrape,ȱasȱweȱwouldȱcallȱitȱtoday.42ȱ
Theȱsubsequentȱeventsȱcanȱbeȱquicklyȱsummarizedȱandȱdoȱnotȱconcernȱusȱhere
toȱaȱlargeȱextent.ȱTheȱgirlȱpresentsȱtheȱrabbitȱtoȱherȱmotherȱonceȱtheȱlatterȱhas
returnedȱ fromȱ church,ȱ butȱ insteadȱ ofȱ displayingȱ greatȱ joyȱ aboutȱ theȱ delightful
animal,ȱtheȱmotherȱbeatsȱherȱupȱbadly,ȱthoughȱwithoutȱexplainingȱtheȱreasonsȱfor
herȱbehavior.ȱNotȱsurprisingly,ȱtheȱyoungȱwoman,ȱinȱherȱnaivete,ȱtriesȱtoȱamend,
butȱ notȱ byȱ stayingȱ awayȱ fromȱ thisȱ seducer,ȱ theȱ knight;ȱ insteadȱ sheȱ isȱ onȱ the
lookoutȱ forȱ himȱ andȱ finallyȱ espiesȱ himȱ againȱ threeȱ daysȱ later.ȱ Sheȱ insistsȱ onȱ a
reversalȱofȱtheirȱbarter,ȱwhichȱheȱhappilyȱcompliesȱwith,ȱandȱheȱevenȱleavesȱthe
rabbitȱwithȱherȱbecauseȱheȱdoesȱnotȱhaveȱanyȱneedȱforȱitȱandȱisȱhappyȱenoughȱwith
freelyȱhavingȱhadȱsexȱwithȱherȱonceȱagain.ȱAsȱtheȱnarratorȱremarks:ȱ“werȱzwîvelt
anȱdemȱmære,ȱ/ȱdemȱguotenȱritterȱwæreȱ/ȱmitȱirȱreinerȱminneȱwol?”ȱ(259–61;ȱwho
wouldȱdoubtȱtheȱstoryȱthatȱthisȱgoodȱknightȱwasȱtrulyȱhappyȱwithȱherȱinnocent
love?).ȱ
Despiteȱtheȱ narrator’sȱattemptsȱtoȱwhitewashȱtheȱyoungȱman—“niemanȱdaz
unbildenȱsolȱ/ȱnochȱwazȱderȱâventiureȱgeschiht”ȱ(263–64;ȱnoȱoneȱshouldȱthink
badlyȱaboutȱitȱnorȱaboutȱanythingȱelseȱwhatȱhappenedȱhere)—heȱhasȱcertainly
transgressedȱandȱcanȱbeȱregardedȱasȱaȱperpetrator,ȱrobbingȱtheȱyoungȱpeasant
PrincetonȱEncyclopediaȱofȱPoetryȱandȱPoetics,ȱed.ȱAlexȱPremingerȱandȱT.ȱV.ȱF.ȱBroganȱ(Princeton,ȱNJ:
PrincetonȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1993),ȱ888;ȱJayȱRuud,ȱ“Pastourelle,”ȱEncyclopediaȱofȱMedievalȱLiterature,
ed.ȱid.ȱ(NewȱYork:ȱFactsȱonȱFile,ȱ2006),ȱ494–95;ȱforȱaȱmoreȱcomprehensiveȱtreatment,ȱseeȱnowȱGeri
L.ȱSmith,ȱTheȱMedievalȱFrenchȱPastourelleȱTradition:ȱPoeticȱMotivationsȱandȱGenericȱTransformations
(Gainesville:ȱUniversityȱPressȱofȱFlorida,ȱ2009).ȱForȱaȱgoodȱtextȱeditionȱandȱtranslation,ȱseeȱThe
MedievalȱPastourelle,ȱtrans.ȱandȱed.ȱbyȱWilliamȱD.ȱPaden.ȱGarlandȱLibraryȱofȱMedievalȱLiterature,
34Ȭ35ȱ(NewȱYork:ȱGarland,ȱ1987).ȱForȱtheȱGermanȱtradition,ȱseeȱSabineȱChristianeȱBrinkmann,ȱDie
deutschsprachigeȱ Pastourelle,ȱ 13.–16.ȱ Jahrhundert.ȱ Göppingerȱ Arbeitenȱ zurȱ Germanistik,ȱ 307
(Göppingen:ȱKümmerle,ȱ1986).
42
KathrynȱGravdal,ȱRavishingȱMaidensȱ(seeȱnoteȱ20);ȱCorinneȱJ.ȱSaunders,ȱRapeȱandȱRavishmentȱ(see
noteȱ20);ȱseeȱalsoȱmyȱmonograph,ȱSexualȱViolenceȱandȱRapeȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱ129–34ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ20).
womanȱofȱherȱvirginity.ȱWhenȱweȱhearȱthatȱheȱhadȱactuallyȱdemonstratedȱallȱhis
virtuousȱbehaviorȱbyȱrestoringȱherȱvirginityȱthroughȱsleepingȱwithȱherȱonceȱagain
(274–75),ȱweȱclearlyȱnoticeȱtheȱsatire,ȱifȱnotȱsarcasmȱhiddenȱbetweenȱtheȱlines.ȱAnd
whenȱtheȱgirl’sȱmotherȱlearnsȱofȱtheȱnewȱevent,ȱsheȱbreaksȱoutȱinȱfuryȱandȱblames
herselfȱforȱhavingȱneglectedȱherȱparentalȱresponsibilityȱtoȱguardȱherȱdaughterȱfrom
suchȱsexualȱattacksȱ(296–304).ȱTheȱyoungȱwomanȱdoesȱnotȱviewȱherȱexperienceȱin
suchȱnegativeȱtermsȱandȱencouragesȱherȱmotherȱtoȱdisregardȱtheȱmisfortuneȱthat
hasȱ struckȱ herȱ becauseȱ sheȱ wouldȱ acceptȱ herȱ ownȱ responsibilityȱ andȱ would
rememberȱitȱwithȱjoy,ȱsinceȱsheȱhadȱhad,ȱafterȱall,ȱaȱmostȱjoyfulȱexperienceȱwithȱthe
knightȱ(310–11).ȱ
Theȱcriticalȱissueȱinȱthisȱverseȱnarrativeȱhingesȱonȱtheȱquestionȱwhatȱvirginity
meansȱandȱwhetherȱsocietyȱcanȱtrustȱexternalȱappearance,ȱasȱsignaledȱbyȱwomen
wearingȱaȱspecificȱwreathȱsymbolizingȱthatȱvirginity.ȱAsȱweȱlearnȱsoonȱthereafter,
dissimulation,ȱhowever,ȱcanȱeasilyȱcomeȱintoȱplayȱandȱmakeȱallȱphysicalȱsymbols
disingenuousȱandȱambivalent.ȱWhenȱtheȱknightȱisȱsupposedȱtoȱgetȱmarried,ȱhis
lovelyȱbrideȱwearsȱthatȱveryȱwreathȱ(327),ȱandȱheȱlooksȱforwardȱtoȱaȱjoyfulȱlife
withȱhisȱfutureȱwife,ȱtrustingȱherȱvirtuosityȱandȱhonorȱ(330–32).ȱSoonȱenoughȱthe
weddingȱpreparationsȱsetȱin,ȱandȱtheȱknightȱinvitesȱallȱofȱhisȱfriendsȱandȱrelatives,
notȱforgettingȱevenȱtheȱpeasantȱgirlȱandȱherȱmother.ȱAlthoughȱhisȱaffairȱwithȱthe
formerȱconstitutesȱaȱscandal,ȱasȱtheȱmotherȱhadȱexpressedȱmostȱdramatically,ȱthe
knightȱ stillȱ believesȱ thatȱ theseȱ twoȱ womenȱ shouldȱ beȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ festivities.
Accordingȱtoȱtheȱnarratorȱtheȱknightȱisȱmotivatedȱbyȱhisȱnobleȱheartȱ(348),ȱbutȱhe
alsoȱrequestsȱthatȱtheȱgirlȱbringȱtheȱrabbitȱwithȱher,ȱwhichȱseemsȱratherȱodd,ȱifȱnot
inappropriate,ȱasȱtheȱnarratorȱindicatesȱhimself:ȱ“wieȱhetȱerȱsiȱgelâzenȱdâ!”ȱ(351;
ifȱheȱonlyȱhadȱletȱherȱstayȱatȱhome!).43ȱ
Surprisingly,ȱyetȱquiteȱmeaningfully,ȱtheȱknightȱreturnsȱtoȱtheȱvillageȱtoȱinvite
motherȱ andȱ daughterȱ himself,ȱ andȱ theȱ maid,ȱ whoȱ recognizesȱ himȱ first,
immediatelyȱidentifiesȱhimȱasȱherȱlover:ȱ“irȱvriunt,ȱzeȱdemȱsiȱherzeȱtruoc”ȱ(555;ȱher
friendȱforȱwhomȱsheȱfeltȱlove).ȱTheȱmotherȱbegrudgesȱtheȱknight’sȱarrivalȱbitterly,
sinceȱheȱhasȱrapedȱherȱdaughter,ȱbutȱsheȱalsoȱthinks,ȱalthoughȱbeingȱonlyȱaȱpeasant
woman,ȱthatȱtheȱknightȱshouldȱhaveȱmarriedȱherȱdaughterȱtoȱrestoreȱtheȱlatter’s
honor:ȱ“sîtȱerȱdesȱhovesȱsolteȱ/ȱbillîch,ȱobȱerȱwolte,ȱ/ȱpflegenȱmitȱderȱtohterȱdîn”
(371–73;ȱsinceȱheȱshouldȱproperlyȱholdȱaȱweddingȱfeastȱwithȱyourȱdaughter,ȱifȱhe
onlyȱwereȱwilling).ȱSubsequentlyȱtheȱmotherȱacceptsȱtheȱinvitation,ȱwhichȱfillsȱthe
knightȱwithȱgreatȱhappiness,ȱalthoughȱweȱdoȱnotȱyetȱquiteȱunderstandȱtheȱreasons.
Theȱcircumstancesȱseemȱtoȱimplyȱthatȱtheȱattendanceȱbyȱtheȱgirlȱandȱherȱmother
atȱ hisȱ weddingȱ wouldȱ beȱ moreȱ importantȱ thanȱ anythingȱ else,ȱ asȱ soonȱ enough
43
AlbrechtȱClassen,ȱ“EroticȱSymbolism,ȱLaughter,ȱandȱHermeneuticsȱatȱWorkȱinȱLateȬMedieval
mæren.ȱTheȱCaseȱofȱDasȱHäslein,”ȱMedievaliaȱetȱHumanistica,ȱNS.ȱ34ȱ(2008):ȱ87–104.ȱAllȱrelevant
researchȱliterature,ȱasȱfarȱasȱIȱknow,ȱisȱreviewedȱthere.
provesȱtoȱbeȱtrue.ȱRevealingly,ȱtheȱknightȱrepliesȱtoȱtheȱmother,ȱwhenȱsheȱhas
accepted:ȱ “‘genâdeȱ undȱ dancȱ habentȱ iemer;ȱ /ȱ derȱ tugendeȱ vergizȱ ichȱ niemer’”
(581–82;ȱmyȱthanksȱtoȱyouȱforȱever,ȱIȱwillȱneverȱforgetȱyourȱgracefulness).ȱ
Whenȱtheȱspecifiedȱdayȱhasȱarrived,ȱandȱtheȱweddingȱfestivitiesȱareȱalreadyȱfully
underȱway,ȱmotherȱandȱdaughterȱactuallyȱarrive,ȱtheȱyoungȱwomanȱcarryingȱthe
rabbitȱinȱherȱarms.ȱTheȱnarratorȱcomments,ȱonceȱagain,ȱonȱtheȱgirl’sȱextraordinary
beauty,ȱdescribingȱherȱasȱaȱmiracle:ȱ“einȱwunderȱdôȱkamȱinȱgeriten”ȱ(389;ȱaȱmiracle
cameȱridingȱin).ȱButȱisn’tȱsheȱaȱpeasant’sȱdaughter?ȱOrȱatȱleastȱaȱsimpleȱvillage
maid?ȱDetailsȱescapeȱus,ȱbutȱtheȱpoetȱhasȱcertainlyȱsetȱherȱapartȱfromȱtheȱentire
courtȱsociety,ȱbothȱbyȱhavingȱherȱliveȱinȱtheȱvillageȱandȱbyȱhavingȱtheȱknightȱgo
outȱofȱhisȱwayȱtoȱinviteȱherȱtoȱhisȱwedding.ȱAllȱhisȱotherȱguestsȱheȱhadȱinvitedȱin
genericȱways,ȱprobablyȱbyȱmeansȱofȱmessengers,ȱwhereasȱheȱhimselfȱhadȱreturned
toȱtheȱvillageȱtoȱfindȱmotherȱandȱdaughterȱandȱtoȱencourageȱthemȱtoȱacceptȱhis
invitation,ȱprobablyȱinȱtheȱcorrectȱassumptionȱthatȱtheyȱwouldȱnotȱfeelȱencouraged
enoughȱtoȱacceptȱtheȱformalȱinvitation.ȱAfterȱall,ȱwhyȱwouldȱrepresentativesȱofȱthe
peasantȱclassȱmingleȱwithȱtheȱaristocraticȱweddingȱcrowd?ȱ
Asȱsoonȱasȱtheȱknightȱwitnessesȱtheȱgroupȱwithȱtheȱrabbit,ȱheȱbreaksȱoutȱin
loudȱlaughter,ȱbutȱheȱhidesȱtheȱreasonȱforȱaȱlongȱtimeȱuntilȱhisȱfiancéeȱthreatens
himȱwithȱtreatingȱhimȱlaterȱinȱlifeȱinȱtheȱworstȱpossibleȱmanner.ȱButȱonceȱheȱhas
revealedȱ theȱ truthȱ andȱ toldȱ herȱ theȱ wholeȱ story,ȱ sheȱ onlyȱ scoffsȱ atȱ theȱ young
woman,ȱ obviouslyȱ herȱ competitorȱ forȱ theȱ knight’sȱ heart,ȱ andȱ relaysȱ some
backgroundȱinformationȱaboutȱherselfȱinȱorderȱtoȱridiculeȱtheȱgirl.ȱSheȱherselfȱhad
sleptȱwithȱtheȱestateȱpriestȱalreadyȱhundredȱtimes,ȱwithoutȱherȱownȱmotherȱhaving
everȱ learnedȱ anythingȱ aboutȱ thisȱ affairȱ (438–48).44ȱ Inȱ herȱ foolishnessȱ sheȱ only
perceivesȱtheȱproblemȱforȱtheȱgirlȱtoȱbeȱthatȱsheȱhadȱreceivedȱtheȱmother’sȱbeating,
notȱunderstandingȱthatȱtheȱissueȱconsistsȱofȱhavingȱhadȱsexualȱcontactsȱbefore
marriage.ȱȱȱ
Theȱdenouementȱthatȱfollowsȱnextȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱratherȱsurprising,ȱandȱwill
supportȱ ourȱ argumentȱ thatȱ theȱ ideaȱ ofȱ havingȱ aȱ representativeȱ ofȱ theȱ nobility
marryȱaȱpeasantȱgirlȱconstitutedȱaȱkindȱofȱmedievalȱutopia.ȱTheȱknightȱfeelsȱdeeply
shockedȱaboutȱthisȱrevelation,ȱandȱrealizesȱquicklyȱthatȱheȱhadȱbrutallyȱravaged
theȱpeasantȱgirlȱalthoughȱsheȱisȱtheȱmostȱvirtuousȱandȱinnocentȱcreatureȱheȱhas
everȱmet.ȱInȱfact,ȱtheȱknightȱfeelsȱshameȱforȱhisȱmockery,ȱhisȱlaughter,ȱandȱatȱthe
sameȱtimeȱdeepȱangerȱandȱfrustrationȱwithȱhisȱbrideȱwhoȱwouldȱcertainlyȱcuckold
himȱlaterȱinȱtheirȱlifeȱifȱheȱwouldȱactuallyȱmarryȱher.ȱInȱanȱabruptȱreversalȱofȱthe
narrativeȱsetȬup,ȱheȱgetsȱup,ȱbringsȱtheȱgirlȱtoȱhisȱtable,ȱandȱtreatsȱherȱasȱifȱsheȱwere
hisȱ actualȱbride.ȱMostȱsurprisingly,ȱheȱnextȱstepsȱforwardȱandȱrelaysȱtoȱallȱhis
guestsȱ theȱ storyȱ ofȱ eachȱ woman,ȱ askingȱ themȱ thereuponȱ whomȱ theyȱ would
44
Forȱfurtherȱdiscussionsȱaboutȱtheȱknight’sȱlaughterȱandȱtheȱfiancee’sȱadmissionȱaboutȱherȱown
misbehavior,ȱseeȱmyȱstudyȱ“LaughingȱinȱLateȬMedievalȱVerse”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ40).
considerȱasȱmoreȱvirtuousȱandȱworthyȱasȱhisȱfutureȱwife.ȱEveryoneȱimmediately
agreesȱ thatȱ theȱ peasantȱ girlȱ wouldȱ beȱ hisȱ idealȱ wife,ȱ especiallyȱ ifȱ heȱ wereȱ to
considerȱhisȱownȱandȱherȱhonorȱandȱvirtues:ȱ“obȱerȱgedenkenȱwolte,ȱ/ȱwazȱbîllich
wæreȱundȱêre”ȱ(496–97;ȱifȱheȱwereȱtoȱkeepȱinȱmindȱwhatȱwouldȱbeȱproperȱand
pertinentȱforȱhisȱhonor).ȱ
Theȱyoungȱmanȱhasȱdivulged,ȱasȱweȱcanȱassume,ȱallȱdetailsȱaboutȱtheȱpeasant
woman’sȱsocialȱbackground,ȱherȱnaiveteȱandȱignorance,ȱandȱherȱwillingnessȱtoȱsell
herȱminneȱforȱtheȱhighlyȱsymbolic,ȱthatȱis,ȱeroticallyȱchargedȱrabbit.ȱByȱtheȱsame
token,ȱ heȱ hasȱ revealedȱ hisȱ fiancee’sȱ duplicityȱ andȱ disingenuousness,ȱ hence
exposedȱherȱfailureȱtoȱliveȱupȱtoȱtheȱidealsȱbyȱwhichȱmembersȱofȱherȱownȱsocial
classȱwouldȱbeȱjudged.ȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱbothȱtheȱknightȱandȱallȱhisȱguestsȱagreeȱthat
trueȱloveȱandȱdedication,ȱhonorȱandȱvirtuosityȱplayȱaȱbiggerȱroleȱthanȱtheȱpretense
orȱscreenȱputȱupȱbyȱtheȱnobleȱladyȱwhoȱwantedȱtoȱmarryȱtheȱknightȱasȱpartȱofȱa
socialȱ contractȱ (notȱ love,ȱ ofȱ course),ȱ althoughȱ sheȱ herselfȱ hadȱ alreadyȱ lostȱ her
virginityȱaȱlongȱtimeȱagoȱtoȱtheȱchaplain.ȱ
Theȱnarratorȱconcludesȱhisȱaccountȱplacingȱgreatestȱemphasisȱonȱtheȱnatural
courseȱofȱallȱevents.ȱAlthoughȱtheȱoutcomeȱisȱtheȱmarriageȱofȱtheȱknightȱwithȱthe
peasantȱgirl,ȱthisȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱtheȱrightȱdecisionȱandȱmeetsȱtheȱfullȱconfirmation
becauseȱ“dazȱsînȱsol,ȱdazȱmuozȱgeschehen”ȱ(505;ȱwhatȱhasȱtoȱhappenȱthatȱwill
happen).ȱHeȱdoesȱnotȱevenȱconsiderȱanyȱofȱtheȱtraditionalȱcriteriaȱdetermining
marriageȱarrangements;ȱinsteadȱheȱprojectsȱaȱvirtuallyȱutopianȱsettingȱinȱwhichȱthe
onlyȱdesirableȱwifeȱforȱtheȱnoblemanȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱtheȱpeasant’sȱdaughterȱbecause
sheȱisȱnotȱonlyȱextremelyȱbeautiful,ȱbutȱbecauseȱsheȱalsoȱrepresentsȱtrueȱhonor,
virtue,ȱinnocence,ȱandȱlove.ȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱcloselyȱfollowingȱHartmann’sȱmodel,
theȱanonymousȱpoetȱprojectsȱaȱutopianȱframeworkȱinȱwhichȱaȱhappyȱmarriageȱcan
beȱachievedȱevenȱwhenȱtheȱusualȱsocialȱcriteriaȱareȱdisregardedȱinȱfavorȱofȱhonest
emotions,ȱaffections,ȱandȱethicalȱvalues,ȱasȱtheyȱcanȱbeȱfound,ȱsuchȱasȱinȱthisȱcase,
evenȱamongȱtheȱpeasantȱclass.45ȱ
ThereȱareȱcertainlyȱaȱnumberȱofȱparallelsȱbetweenȱthisȱmæreȱandȱotherȱMiddle
HighȱGermanȱexamples,ȱsuchȱasȱDerȱSperberȱandȱtheȱOldȱFrenchȱfabliauxȱ“LaȱGrue”
andȱ “Leȱ Héron.”46ȱ Butȱ weȱ wouldȱ lookȱ inȱ vainȱ forȱ furtherȱ casesȱ inȱ medieval
literatureȱwhereȱsuchȱanȱeroticȱutopia,ȱallowingȱaȱmanȱandȱaȱwomanȱfromȱtwo
differentȱsocialȱclassesȱtoȱgetȱtogetherȱandȱmarryȱoutȱofȱlove,ȱmightȱbeȱpresented
45
lausȱGrubmüller,ȱDieȱOrdnung,ȱderȱWitzȱundȱdasȱChaos:ȱEineȱGeschichteȱderȱeuropäischenȱNovellistik
imȱMittelalter:ȱFabliauȱ–ȱMäreȱ–ȱNovelleȱ(Tübingen:ȱNiemeyer,ȱ2006),ȱ78,ȱ127,ȱ132,ȱ141–42,ȱ227.ȱCan
weȱreallyȱconfirmȱthatȱtheȱknight’sȱdecisionȱtoȱrejectȱtheȱpreȬselectedȱbride,ȱhisȱfiancée,ȱandȱto
marryȱ theȱ peasantȱ girlȱ insteadȱ representsȱ theȱ collapseȱ ofȱ theȱ “‘MärenȬWelt’,”ȱ asȱ Grubmüller
arguesȱ(142)?ȱTheȱpretensesȱofȱaristocraticȱsocietyȱfail,ȱorȱareȱridiculed,ȱbutȱtheȱnarrativeȱreally
comesȱtoȱaȱsatisfying,ȱthoughȱastoundingȱconclusionȱwithoutȱdestroyingȱtheȱtraditionalȱsocial
parametersȱbecauseȱtheȱpeasantȱwomanȱrisesȱupȱtoȱtheȱclassȱofȱtheȱaristocracy.
46
StephenȱL.ȱWailes,ȱ“TheȱHuntȱofȱtheȱHareȱinȱ‘DasȱHäslein’,”ȱSeminarȱ5.2.ȱ(1969):ȱ92–101.
asȱ aȱ possibility—theȱ onlyȱ noteworthyȱ exceptionȱ beingȱ theȱ Frenchȱ chantefable

“AucassinȱetȱNicolette”ȱorȱtheȱentireȱcorpusȱofȱverseȱnarrativesȱdealingȱwithȱFloire
etȱBlancheflor.47ȱWeȱcouldȱalsoȱreferȱtoȱnumerousȱmærenȱorȱfabliauxȱthatȱtakeȱplace
inȱtheȱsocialȱsphereȱofȱtheȱurbanȱorȱtheȱruralȱclass,ȱalthoughȱtheȱloveȱrelationships
describedȱinȱthoseȱaccountsȱdoȱnotȱreflectȱsuchȱradicalȱtransgressionsȱofȱaȱsocial
kind.ȱThereȱisȱnoȱshortageȱofȱrepresentativesȱofȱtheȱmerchantȱclass,ȱandȱsometimes
evenȱofȱtheȱpeasantry,ȱbutȱthenȱtheȱtroubleȱwithȱwhichȱtheyȱhaveȱtoȱdealȱpertain
toȱtheirȱownȱsocialȱbackgroundȱandȱisȱnotȱpredicatedȱonȱanyȱspecificȱcasesȱofȱclass
transgression.ȱThisȱwouldȱjustifyȱus,ȱultimately,ȱtoȱidentifyȱbothȱHartmann’sȱverse
narrativeȱ andȱ theȱ anonymousȱ mæreȱ “Disȱ istȱ vonȱ demȱ Heselin”ȱ asȱ literary
experimentsȱbasedȱatȱleastȱtoȱsomeȱextentȱonȱtheȱconceptȱofȱutopia.ȱThisȱisȱanȱerotic
utopiaȱinȱwhichȱloveȱconnectsȱaȱnoblemanȱwithȱaȱsimpleȱpeasantȱgirl,ȱwhoȱsoon
enoughȱevolvesȱintoȱtheȱidealȱbride.ȱTheȱnoblemanȱardentlyȱdesiresȱtoȱmarryȱthis
womanȱbecauseȱsheȱrepresentsȱtheȱdreamȱimageȱofȱaȱmostȱbeautifulȱandȱvirtuous
wife,ȱasȱweȱwillȱsoonȱenoughȱhearȱaboutȱinȱBoccaccio’sȱDecameronȱ(Griselda)ȱand
inȱmanyȱsubsequentȱvariantsȱofȱthatȱspecificȱstoryȱ(X,ȱ10).48ȱIȱcannotȱdoȱjusticeȱhere
toȱtheȱhighlyȱcomplexȱnatureȱofȱBoccaccio’sȱtreatmentȱofȱthisȱmaterial,ȱespecially
consideringȱ theȱ brutalityȱ ofȱ herȱ husband,ȱ theȱ princeȱ Gualtieri,ȱ andȱ Griselda’s
almostȱ infiniteȱ patience,ȱ humility,ȱ andȱ modesty.ȱ Butȱ weȱ canȱ beȱ certainȱ that
Griseldaȱrepresents,ȱonceȱagain,ȱtheȱworldȱofȱtheȱfarmers,ȱaȱproductȱofȱparentsȱof
highestȱstandardsȱinȱvirtuesȱandȱmorality.ȱUnfortunately,ȱthisȱdoesȱnotȱprovide
anyȱrealȱprotectionȱforȱtheseȱinnocentȱwomen,ȱwhoȱareȱvictimizedȱbyȱtheirȱfuture
nobleȱhusbands,ȱasȱIȱhaveȱalreadyȱdiscussedȱinȱtheȱIntroductionȱtoȱthisȱvolume.
47
Aucassinȱ andȱ Nicolette,ȱ ed.ȱ Anneȱ Elizabethȱ Cobby,ȱ withȱ aȱ trans.ȱ andȱ introductionȱ byȱ Glynȱ S.
Burgess.ȱGarlandȱLibraryȱofȱMedievalȱLiterature,ȱSeriesȱA,ȱ47ȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱLondon:ȱGarland,
1988);ȱTheȱRomanceȱofȱFloireȱandȱBlanchefleur;ȱaȱFrenchȱIdyllicȱPoemȱofȱtheȱTwelfthȱCentury.ȱTranslated
intoȱEnglishȱverseȱbyȱMertonȱJeromeȱHubert.ȱStudiesȱinȱtheȱRomanceȱLanguagesȱandȱLiteratures,
63ȱ (Chapelȱ Hill,ȱ Universityȱ ofȱ Northȱ Carolinaȱ Pressȱ [1966]);ȱ Albrechtȱ Classen,ȱ “Sufferingȱ in
KonradȱFleck’sȱFloreȱundȱBlanscheflurȱasȱaȱCatalystȱinȱtheȱMeetingȱwithȱtheȱForeign:ȱEmotional
BondsȱwithȱtheȱOrientȱinȱaȱLateȬMedievalȱSentimentalȱRomance,”ȱtoȱappearȱinȱNeophilologus.
48
Giovanniȱ Boccaccio,ȱ Theȱ Decameronȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 32).ȱ Seeȱ alsoȱ theȱ textȱ collection,ȱ preparedȱ by
FrançoiseȱCazal,ȱL’ȱhistoireȱdeȱGriselda:ȱuneȱfemmeȱexemplaireȱdansȱlesȱlittératuresȱeuropéennes,ȱsous
laȱdirectionȱdeȱJeanȬLucȱNardoneȱetȱHenriȱLamarque.ȱInterlangues.ȱTextesȱ(Toulouse:ȱPresses
universitairesȱduȱMirail,ȱ2000);ȱAchimȱAurnhammer,ȱDieȱdeutscheȱGriselda:ȱTransformationenȱeiner
literarischenȱFigurationȱvonȱBoccaccioȱbisȱzurȱModerne.ȱFrüheȱNeuzeit,ȱ146ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱDe
Gruyter,ȱ2010).ȱTheȱmostȱusefulȱsurveyȱofȱtheȱmanyȱmanifestationsȱofȱtheȱGriselda/Griseldisȱfigure
isȱ providedȱ byȱ Judithȱ Bronham,ȱ “Griselda,”ȱ Womenȱ inȱ theȱ Middleȱ Ages:ȱ Anȱ Encyclopedia,ȱ ed.
KatharinaȱM.ȱWilsonȱandȱNadiaȱMargolis.ȱVol.ȱ1ȱ(Westport,ȱCT,ȱandȱLondon:ȱGreenwoodȱPress,
2004),ȱ376Ȭ82.ȱForȱtheȱreceptionȱofȱBoccaccio’sȱnarrativeȱinȱlateȬmedievalȱItalianȱliterature,ȱsee
ThomasȱKlinkert,ȱ“DieȱitalienischeȱGriseldaȬRezeptionȱimȱ14.ȱundȱ15.ȱJahrhundert,”ȱDieȱdeutsche
Griselda:ȱTransformationenȱeinerȱliterarischenȱFigurationȱvonȱBoccaccioȱbisȱzurȱModerne,ȱed.ȱAchim
AurnhammerȱandȱHansȬJochenȱSchiewerȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱDeȱGruyter,ȱ2010),ȱ55–72.
Toȱreturnȱtoȱourȱactualȱtopic,ȱofȱcourse,ȱtheȱthematicȱdifferencesȱbetweenȱboth
MiddleȱHighȱGermanȱtalesȱcannotȱbeȱoverlooked,ȱbutȱtheȱsimilaritiesȱalsoȱprove
toȱbeȱstrikingȱandȱoutlineȱfundamentalȱconcernsȱregardingȱethicsȱandȱmorality.ȱIn
bothȱcasesȱaȱprinceȱfallsȱinȱloveȱwithȱaȱpeasantȱwoman,ȱalthoughȱheȱdoesȱnotȱadmit
thatȱinȱpublic,ȱorȱmightȱnotȱevenȱbeȱawareȱaboutȱitȱatȱfirst.ȱThereȱisȱnoȱdiscussion
inȱeitherȱstoryȱaboutȱtheȱman’sȱgreatȱneedȱofȱtheȱyoungȱwoman’sȱassistance,ȱboth
inȱpragmaticȱandȱeroticȱterms.ȱInsofarȱasȱbothȱwomenȱshineȱforthȱthroughȱtheir
honestyȱandȱnaivete,ȱtheyȱultimatelyȱemergeȱasȱidealȱcharacters.ȱInȱneitherȱstory
doesȱtheȱwoman’sȱlowlyȱsocialȱstatusȱtriggerȱtheȱknight’sȱlove.ȱInstead,ȱtheȱyoung
women’sȱextraordinaryȱbeauty,ȱandȱfurthermoreȱalsoȱtheirȱthinlyȱveiledȱloveȱfor
theȱmaleȱprotagonistȱachieveȱtheȱdesiredȱgoal.ȱInȱbothȱcasesȱtheȱmaleȱprotagonist
learnsȱ atȱ theȱ endȱ theȱ importanceȱ ofȱ basicȱ humanȱ values,ȱ toȱ someȱ extentȱ those
alreadyȱ expressedȱ inȱ theȱ Tenȱ Commandments.ȱ Theirȱ rewardȱ consistsȱ ofȱ the
unsuspectedȱ opportunityȱ toȱ marryȱ theȱ oneȱ womanȱ whomȱ theyȱ trulyȱ loveȱ and
enjoyȱaȱlifeȱwithȱher.ȱ
Trueȱhappinessȱcannotȱbeȱachievedȱbyȱsubmittingȱtoȱsocialȱrulesȱandȱregulations,
butȱ rather,ȱ asȱ bothȱ authorsȱ indicate,ȱ byȱ pursuingȱ theȱ goalȱ ofȱ findingȱ trueȱ love
whereverȱitȱmightȱrest.ȱClassȱdistinctionsȱdoȱnotȱmeanȱmuchȱatȱallȱinȱthisȱregard;
instead,ȱasȱKlausȱGrubmüllerȱhasȱpoignantlyȱremarked,ȱ“Esȱistȱdeutlich,ȱwieȱhier
mitȱeinfachenȱMittelnȱeinȱneuerȱAkzentȱgesetztȱwird:ȱdurchȱdieȱKontrastierungȱdes
unschuldigenȱMädchensȱmitȱderȱabgebrühtenȱBrautverkehrtȱsichȱdasȱSchmunzeln
überȱNaivitätȱinȱBewunderungȱfürȱunschuldigeȱNatürlichkeit”ȱ(Itȱbecomesȱclear
howȱ muchȱ theȱ poetȱ createsȱ aȱ newȱ emphasisȱ withȱ simpleȱ means:ȱ byȱ meansȱ of
contrastingȱtheȱinnocentȱgirlȱwithȱtheȱcallousȱfiancéeȱtheȱsmilingȱaboutȱnaiveté
transformsȱ intoȱ admirationȱ forȱ innocentȱ naturalness).49ȱ Inȱ thisȱ sense,ȱ both
HartmannȱvonȱAue’sȱ“LordȱHenry”ȱandȱtheȱthirteenthȬcenturyȱanonymousȱverse
narrativeȱconfirmȱthatȱtheȱideaȱofȱanȱeroticȱutopiaȱcloselyȱassociatedȱwithȱtheȱrural
worldȱexistedȱalreadyȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges.
Laterȱ writersȱ hardlyȱ everȱ followedȱ thatȱ model,ȱ andȱ subsequentȱ literary
representationsȱ ofȱ peasants,ȱ maleȱ andȱ female,ȱ stronglyȱ tendedȱ toȱ resortȱ toȱ the
satirical,ȱ ifȱ notȱ sarcasticȱ modeȱ ofȱ expression,ȱ ridiculingȱ theȱ ruralȱ population
altogether.50ȱ Theȱ bestȱ knownȱ examplesȱ wouldȱ beȱ Wernherȱ derȱ Gartenære’s
49
KlausȱGrubmüller,ȱDieȱOrdnung,ȱderȱWitzȱundȱdasȱChaos:ȱEineȱGeschichteȱderȱeuropäischenȱNovellistik
imȱMittelalter:ȱFabliauȱ–ȱMäreȱ–ȱNovelleȱ(Tübingen:ȱMaxȱNiemeyer,ȱ2006),ȱ142.
50
HildeȱHügli,ȱDerȱdeutscheȱBauerȱimȱMittelalter:ȱdargestelltȱnachȱdenȱdeutschenȱliterarischenȱQuellenȱvom
11.Ȭ15.ȱJahrhundert.ȱSpracheȱundȱDichtung,ȱForschungenȱzurȱSprachȬȱundȱLiteraturwissenschaft,
42ȱ(Bern:ȱPaulȱHaupt,ȱ1929);ȱFritzȱMartini,ȱDasȱBauerntumȱimȱdeutschenȱSchrifttum:ȱVonȱdenȱAnfängen
bisȱ zumȱ 16.ȱ Jahrhundert.ȱ Deutscheȱ Vierteljahresschriftȱ fürȱ Literaturwissenschaftȱ und
Geistesgeschichte.ȱBuchreihe,ȱ27ȱ(Halle:ȱNiemeyer,ȱ1944);ȱLambertusȱOkkenȱandȱHansȬDieter
Mück,ȱ Dieȱ satirischenȱ Liederȱ Oswaldsȱ vonȱ Wolkensteinȱ widerȱ dieȱ Bauern:ȱ Untersuchungenȱ zum
Helmbrechtȱ(lateȱthirteenthȱcentury),ȱHeinrichȱWittenwiler’sȱbitingȱpeasantȱsatire
DerȱRingȱ(ca.ȱ1400),ȱandȱtheȱlargeȱcorpusȱofȱlateȬmedievalȱShrovetideȱplays.51ȱThe
famousȱ SouthȬTyroleanȱ poetȱ Oswaldȱ vonȱ Wolkensteinȱ (1376/77–1445)ȱ also
formulatedȱhighlyȱcriticalȱopinionsȱaboutȱpeasantsȱatȱlarge,ȱandȱhisȱruralȱneighbors
inȱ hisȱ Alpineȱ worldȱ nearȱ Brixenȱ andȱ Bozen.ȱ However,ȱ thereȱ areȱ alsoȱ some
examplesȱinȱhisȱœuvreȱwhichȱindicateȱhowȱmuchȱheȱfeltȱdeeplyȱattractedȱtoȱthe
outdoors,ȱespeciallyȱduringȱSpringȱtimeȱwhenȱtheȱexperienceȱofȱreturningȱlifeȱafter
theȱlongȱandȱcoldȱwinterȱmadeȱnatureȱmostȱattractive.52ȱ
Thisȱcomesȱtoȱtheȱforeȱaȱnumberȱofȱtimes,ȱbutȱprobablyȱmostȱimpressivelyȱin
hisȱsongȱKl.ȱ76ȱ“Ainȱgraserin”ȱ(Aȱgrassȱcuttingȱwoman),ȱpartlyȱbasedȱonȱtheȱgenre
ofȱtheȱpastourelle,ȱpartlyȱborrowingȱfromȱtheȱtraditionȱofȱtheȱmaritalȱsong.53ȱAȱman
approachesȱaȱfarmȱmaidȱwhoȱisȱcuttingȱfreshȱgrass,ȱofferingȱhisȱhelp,ȱwhichȱshe
happilyȱaccepts.ȱThisȱhelpȱinvolvesȱadjustingȱtheȱgate,ȱfixingȱtheȱfence,ȱandȱraking
theȱ grass,ȱ andȱ theȱ latterȱ repeatedly.ȱ Ofȱ course,ȱ atȱ closerȱ analysisȱ weȱ easily
Wortschatzȱ undȱ zurȱ literarhistorischenȱ Einordnung.ȱ Göppingerȱ Arbeitenȱ zurȱ Germanistik,ȱ 316
(Göppingen:ȱKümmerle,ȱ1981);ȱKarlȱBrunnerȱandȱGerhardȱJaritz,ȱLandherr,ȱBauer,ȱAckerknecht:ȱder
BauerȱimȱMittelalterȱ:ȱKlischeeȱundȱWirklichkeitȱ(Vienna:ȱH.ȱBöhlausȱNachfolger,ȱ1985);ȱOrdelleȱG.
Hill,ȱTheȱManor,ȱtheȱPlowman,ȱandȱtheȱShepherd:ȱAgrarianȱThemesȱandȱImageryȱinȱLateȱMedievalȱand
EarlyȱRenaissanceȱEnglishȱLiteratureȱ(Selinsgroveȱ[PA]:ȱSusquehannaȱUniversityȱPress;ȱLondonȱand
Cranbury,ȱ NJ:ȱ Associatedȱ Universityȱ Presses,ȱ 1993).ȱ Seeȱ alsoȱ myȱ Introductionȱ toȱ theȱ present
volume.
51
Heinrichȱ Wittenwiler,ȱ Derȱ Ring:ȱ Frühneuhochdeutscheȱ /ȱ Neuhochdeutsch.ȱ Nachȱ demȱ Textȱ von
Edmundȱ Wießnerȱ insȱ Neuhochdeutscheȱ übersetztȱ undȱ herausgegebenȱ vonȱ Horstȱ Brunner
(Stuttgart:ȱReclam,ȱ1991);ȱforȱWernherȱtheȱGardener’sȱHelmbrecht,ȱseeȱnoteȱ11;ȱforȱtheȱgenreȱofȱthe
Shrovetideȱplays,ȱseeȱEckehardȱSimon,ȱDieȱAnfängeȱdesȱweltlichenȱdeutschenȱSchauspielsȱ1370–1530:
UntersuchungȱundȱDokumentation.ȱMünchenerȱTexteȱundȱUntersuchungenȱzurȱdeutschenȱLiteratur
desȱMittelalters,ȱ124ȱ(Tübingen:ȱNiemeyer,ȱ2003).
52
AlbrechtȱClassen,ȱ“DerȱBauerȱinȱderȱLyrikȱOswaldsȱvonȱWolkenstein,”ȱEuphorionȱ82.2ȱ(1988):
150–67;ȱseeȱalsoȱtheȱexcellentȱcommentaryȱbyȱWernerȱMarold,ȱKommentarȱzuȱdenȱLiedernȱOswalds
vonȱWolkenstein,ȱrev.ȱandȱed.ȱbyȱAlanȱRobertshaw.ȱInnsbruckerȱBeiträgeȱzurȱKulturwissenschaft.
GermanistischeȱReihe,ȱ52ȱ(1926;ȱInnsbruck:ȱInstitutȱfürȱGermanistik,ȱ1995).
53
Dieȱ Liederȱ Oswaldsȱ vonȱ Wolkenstein.ȱ Unterȱ Mitwirkungȱ vonȱ Walterȱ Weißȱ undȱ Notburgaȱ Wolf
herausgegebenȱvonȱKarlȱKurtȱKlein.ȱ3.,ȱneubearbeiteteȱundȱerweiterteȱAuflageȱvonȱHansȱMoser,
NorbertȱRichardȱWolfȱundȱNotburgaȱWolf.ȱAltdeutscheȱTextbibliothek,ȱ55ȱ(Tübingen:ȱNiemeyer,
1987);ȱ seeȱ nowȱ myȱ Englishȱ trans.,ȱ Albrechtȱ Classen,ȱ Theȱ Poemsȱ ofȱ Oswaldȱ vonȱ Wolkenstein:ȱ An
EnglishȱTranslationȱofȱtheȱCompleteȱWorksȱ(1376/77–1445).ȱTheȱNewȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(Houndmills,
Basingstoke,ȱ Hampshire,ȱ andȱ Newȱ York:ȱ Palgraveȱ Macmillan,ȱ 2008);ȱ forȱ aȱ usefulȱ critical
introduction,ȱseeȱJohannesȱSpicker,ȱOswaldȱvonȱWolkenstein:ȱDieȱLieder.ȱKlassikerȱLektüren,ȱ10
(Berlin:ȱErichȱSchmidtȱVerlag,ȱ2007).ȱThereȱare,ȱhowever,ȱaȱnumberȱofȱdeplorableȱshortcomings,
seeȱmyȱreviewȱinȱNeuphilologischeȱMitteilungenȱCXI.1ȱ(2010):ȱ108–09.ȱSeeȱnowȱtheȱcontributionsȱto
OswaldȱvonȱWolkenstein:ȱLebenȱȬȱWerkȱȬȱRezeption,ȱed.ȱUlrichȱMüllerȱandȱMargareteȱSpringethȱ(Berlin
andȱNewȱYork:ȱDeȱGruyter,ȱ2011).
recognizeȱtheȱstronglyȱsexualȱmetaphorsȱdeterminingȱtheȱentireȱsong,54ȱsoȱwhen
weȱlistenȱtoȱtheȱthirdȱstanza:
Alsȱichȱdenȱkleȱhettȱabgemät
undȱallȱirȱluckenȱwoverzeunt,
dannochtȱgertȱsi,ȱdasȱichȱjät
nochȱainmalȱinnȱderȱnidernȱpeunt;
zeȱlonȱwoltȱsiȱvonȱrosenȱwinden,
bindenȱmirȱainȱkrenzel.
“swenzel,ȱrenzelȱmirȱdenȱflachs!
treutȱin,ȱwiltu,ȱdasȱerȱwachs!”
“herzȱliebeȱgans,ȱwieȱschönȱistȱdirȱdeinȱgrensel”ȱ (19–27)
[AfterȱIȱhadȱmowedȱtheȱclover,
andȱafterȱIȱhadȱclosedȱupȱallȱgapsȱinȱtheȱfence,
sheȱdesiredȱfromȱmeȱfurtherȱthatȱIȱshould
weedȱoneȱmoreȱtimeȱinȱtheȱgardenȱbelow.
Asȱaȱrewardȱsheȱwasȱwillingȱtoȱweaveȱandȱbind
aȱwreathȱoutȱofȱrosesȱforȱme.
“Combȱtheȱflaxȱforȱme,ȱliftȱitȱup!
Takeȱgoodȱcareȱofȱitȱifȱyouȱwantȱitȱtoȱgrow”!
“HeartȬbelovedȱgoose,ȱwhatȱaȱprettyȱbeakȱyouȱhave!”] 55
Veryȱsimilarȱtoȱtheȱverseȱnarrativeȱwithȱtheȱlittleȱbunnyȱrabbit,ȱloveȱandȱsexual
fulfillmentȱ areȱ suddenlyȱ presentedȱ asȱ harmoniouslyȱ joinedȱ withȱ eachȱ other.
However,ȱthereȱtheȱeroticȱidealȱisȱachievedȱonlyȱatȱtheȱend,ȱafterȱtheȱyoungȱknight
hasȱrealizedȱhowȱlittleȱheȱcanȱtrustȱappearanceȱandȱmustȱguardȱhimselfȱagainst
dissimulationȱonȱtheȱpartȱofȱhisȱfiancée,ȱinȱOswald’sȱpoemȱhappinessȱandȱsexual
satisfactionȱ areȱ intimatelyȱ combinedȱ fromȱ theȱ beginning.ȱ Thisȱ utopiaȱ becomes
realizedȱ inȱ theȱ natureȱ setting,ȱ thatȱ isȱ onȱ theȱ pasture,ȱ whereȱ manȱ and
54
UlrichȱMüller,ȱ“OswaldȱvonȱWolkenstein:ȱAinȱgraserinȱdurchȱkúlenȱtau,”ȱid.,ȱGesammelteȱSchriften
zurȱ Literaturwissenschaft.ȱ Vol.ȱ 1:ȱ Lyrikȱ desȱ Mittelalters,ȱ ed.ȱ Margareteȱ Springeth,ȱ Gertraud
Mitterauer,ȱ Ruthȱ Weichselbaumer,ȱ etȱ al..ȱ Göppingerȱ Arbeitenȱ zurȱ Germanistik,ȱ 750,ȱ Iȱ (1993;
Göppingen:ȱKümmerle,ȱ2010),ȱvol.ȱ3,ȱ663–77.
55
KerstinȱHelmkamp,ȱ“JenseitsȱderȱPastourelle,”ȱMittelalterlicheȱLyrik:ȱProblemeȱderȱPoetik,ȱed.ȱThomas
CramerȱandȱIngridȱKasten.ȱPhilologischeȱStudienȱundȱQuellen,ȱ134ȱ(Berlin:ȱErichȱSchmidtȱVerlag,
1999),ȱ106–21;ȱWolframȱKossagȱandȱStefanieȱStockhorst,ȱ“SexuellesȱundȱwieȱesȱzuȱWortȱkommt:
DieȱFrageȱnachȱdemȱObszönenȱinȱdenȱLiedernȱOswaldsȱvonȱWolkenstein,”ȱDaphnisȱ28ȱ(1999):ȱ1–33;
hereȱ17–18;ȱseeȱalsoȱmyȱintroduction,ȱ“TheȱCulturalȱSignificanceȱofȱSexualityȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,
theȱRenaissance,ȱandȱBeyond:ȱAȱSecretȱContinuousȱUndercurrentȱorȱaȱDominantȱPhenomenonȱof
theȱ Premodernȱ World?ȱ Or:ȱ Theȱ Irrepressibilityȱ ofȱ Sexȱ Yesterdayȱ andȱ Today,”ȱ Sexualityȱ inȱ the
Middleȱ Agesȱ andȱ Earlyȱ Modernȱ Times:ȱ Newȱ Approachesȱ toȱ aȱ Fundamentalȱ CulturalȬHistoricalȱ and
LiteraryȬAnthropologicalȱTheme,ȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassen.ȱFundamentalsȱofȱMedievalȱandȱEarlyȱModern
Culture,ȱ3ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱWalterȱdeȱGruyter,ȱ2008),ȱ1–141;ȱhereȱ46–47.
woman—perhapsȱOswaldȱhimselfȱandȱhisȱwifeȱMargaretȱofȱSchwangau—meet,
findȱeachȱotherȱhighlyȱattractive,ȱandȱthenȱengageȱinȱloveȱmaking.56ȱ
Happinessȱrulesȱhere,ȱdeterminedȱbyȱsexualȱblissȱwhichȱbothȱpartnersȱfreely
exchangeȱ withoutȱ eitherȱ oneȱ beingȱ submittedȱ underȱ theȱ otherȱ inȱ socialȱ terms.
Neitherȱpatriarchyȱnorȱmisogynyȱshowȱtheirȱuglyȱfaces;ȱinsteadȱtheȱpoetȱindicates
inȱmostȱexplicitȱtermsȱtheȱtrueȱjoysȱofȱmaritalȱunion,ȱfreedȱfromȱfeudalȱconstraints,
whichȱ seemsȱ toȱ beȱ possible,ȱ however,ȱ onlyȱ outsideȱ inȱ nature.ȱ Inȱ remarkable
contrastȱtoȱtheȱFrenchȱtraditionȱofȱtheȱpastourelle,ȱtheȱelementȱofȱsexualȱviolenceȱ
doesȱnotȱfigureȱhere;ȱinsteadȱtheȱtwoȱpeopleȱhappilyȱmeetȱonȱtheȱmeadowȱand
enjoyȱeachȱotherȱinȱaȱsexualȱunion.57ȱTheȱsameȱobservationsȱcanȱbeȱmadeȱwith
regardȱtoȱOswald’sȱsongȱKl.ȱ21ȱ“Irȱaltenȱweib”ȱ(Youȱoldȱwomen)ȱinȱwhichȱfreely
enjoyableȱsexualȱunionsȱareȱsuddenlyȱpossibleȱinȱtheȱspringȱsetting,ȱwhereȱthe
birdsȱjubilateȱandȱinviteȱallȱcreaturesȱtoȱshareȱtheȱwondersȱofȱrejuvenatedȱlife.ȱ
Theȱpoetȱopenlyȱimpliesȱhowȱmuchȱtheȱruralȱframeworkȱappealsȱtoȱhisȱinner
instincts,ȱalthoughȱheȱalsoȱremembersȱtheȱpreviousȱdelightsȱofȱhisȱinternational
travelsȱ(92–98).ȱTheȱconcludingȱonomatopoeticȱverses,ȱcertainlyȱborrowedȱfromȱthe
worldȱofȱtheȱfarm,ȱthatȱis,ȱhereȱinȱmostȱconcreteȱtermsȱtheȱchickenȱcoop,ȱindicate
howȱ muchȱ sexualȱ pleasuresȱ playȱ theȱ greatestȱ role,ȱ irrespectiveȱ ofȱ anyȱ social
conditionsȱ orȱ relationship.58ȱ Oswaldȱ doesȱ notȱ discussȱ marriage,ȱ althoughȱ that
mightȱ beȱ impliedȱ atȱ times;ȱ insteadȱ heȱ projectsȱ theȱ ruralȱ space,ȱ somewhatȱ in
analogyȱtoȱWaltherȱvonȱderȱVogelweide’sȱ“Underȱderȱlinden,”ȱasȱtheȱidealȱlocation
forȱtheȱutopianȱrealizationȱofȱhisȱdreamsȱofȱloveȱandȱsex.
Althoughȱ theȱ earlyȱ modernȱ ageȱ witnessedȱ manyȱ bitterȱ conflictsȱ betweenȱ the
peasantȱclassȱandȱtheȱnobility,ȱwitness,ȱforȱinstance,ȱtheȱGermanȱPeasants’ȱWar
1524–1525,59ȱ weȱ canȱ alsoȱ discoverȱ increasinglyȱ popularȱ songsȱ thatȱ idealizeȱ the
56
Althoughȱthereȱareȱnoȱspecificȱreferencesȱtoȱtheȱfiguresȱactingȱinȱthisȱpoem,ȱtheȱcontextȱofȱKl.ȱ76
inȱtheȱmanuscriptsȱA,ȱB,ȱandȱc,ȱwhichȱfocusesȱcentrallyȱonȱmaritalȱbliss,ȱstronglyȱsuggestsȱthatȱthe
poetȱintendedȱtoȱcreateȱaȱkindȱofȱautobiographicalȱsetting,ȱalthoughȱheȱstillȱreliedȱonȱtheȱgenreȱof
theȱpastourelle.ȱSeeȱAlbrechtȱClassen,ȱ“LiebeseheȱundȱEheliederȱinȱderȱDichtungȱOswaldsȱvon
Wolkenstein,”ȱ Jahrbuchȱ derȱ OswaldȬvonȬWolkensteinȬGesellschaftȱ 5ȱ (1988/89),ȱ 445–464;ȱ Spicker,
OswaldȱvonȱWolkensteinȱ(seeȱnoteȱ53),ȱignoresȱthisȱaspectȱcompletelyȱandȱspeculatesȱwithoutȱany
evidenceȱthatȱtheȱfemaleȱpersonȱisȱaȱ“Landmädchen”ȱ(73;ȱaȱcountryȱmaid).ȱ
57
Müller,ȱ“OswaldȱvonȱWolkenstein,”ȱ675–76ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ54).ȱHeȱrightlyȱwarnsȱusȱtoȱstayȱawayȱfrom
commonȱevaluationsȱofȱthisȱandȱsimilarȱsongsȱasȱmorallyȱdepraved,ȱorȱsordid.ȱAfterȱall,ȱOswald’s
poemȱinfluencedȱotherȱpoets,ȱitȱconformsȱprettyȱmuchȱtoȱtheȱstandardȱversionsȱofȱlateȬmedieval
Germanȱpastourelle,ȱandȱitȱsimplyȱglorifiesȱtheȱdelightȱinȱhumanȱsexuality.
58
AlbrechtȱClassen,ȱ“LoveȱofȱDiscourseȱandȱDiscourseȱofȱLoveȱinȱMiddleȱHighȱGermanȱMinnesang:
TheȱCaseȱofȱtheȱPostȬWaltherȱGenerationȱfromȱtheȱThirteenthȬȱThroughȱtheȱFifteenthȱCentury,”
Wordsȱ ofȱ Loveȱ andȱ Loveȱ ofȱ Wordsȱ inȱ theȱ Middleȱ Agesȱ andȱ theȱ Renaissance,ȱ ed.ȱ Albrechtȱ Classen.
Medievalȱ andȱ Renaissanceȱ Textsȱ andȱ Studies,ȱ 347ȱ (Tempe:ȱ Arizonaȱ Centerȱ forȱ Medievalȱ and
RenaissanceȱStudies,ȱ2008),ȱ359–78.
59
TheȱGermanȱPeasants’ȱWar:ȱAȱHistoryȱinȱDocuments,ȱed.,ȱtrans.,ȱandȱwithȱanȱintroductionȱbyȱTom
farmerȱandȱpresentȱhimȱasȱtheȱessential,ȱifȱnotȱexclusive,ȱproducerȱofȱallȱfood,
henceȱasȱtheȱoneȱpersonȱwhoȱsustainsȱeveryoneȱelse,ȱsuchȱasȱinȱPeterȱFrey’sȱ“Vom
EdlenȱBawman”ȱinȱtheȱAmbraserȱLiederbuchȱfromȱ1582ȱ(no.ȱ133).60ȱTheȱsameȱtheme
emergesȱalsoȱinȱtheȱBernerȱLiederbuchȱfromȱtheȱlateȱsixteenthȱorȱearlyȱseventeenth
centuryȱ(no.ȱ36).61ȱ
Significantly,ȱ parallelȱ toȱ thisȱ tentativeȱ reevaluationȱ ofȱ theȱ peasantȱ class,ȱ a
numberȱofȱanonymousȱpoetsȱprojectedȱtheȱidealizedȱpeasantȱwomanȱasȱtheȱidyllic
mistress,ȱ suchȱ asȱ inȱ “Ichȱ weyßȱ mirȱ einȱ feinsȱ braunsȱ meydelin”ȱ (no.ȱ 12)ȱ inȱ the
collectionȱofȱGassenhawerlinȱundȱReutterliedlinȱfromȱ1535.62ȱTheȱsameȱmotifȱfindsȱits
realizationȱinȱtheȱsongȱ“Ichȱwaisȱmirȱeinȱfeinsȱbraunsȱmägetlein”ȱ(no.ȱ150)ȱinȱthe
HeidelbergerȱLiederhandschriftȱfromȱtheȱmiddleȱofȱtheȱsixteenthȱcentury.63ȱInȱaȱvery
lateȱ representativeȱofȱthisȱgenreȱofȱsongȱcollections,ȱinȱtheȱVenusȬGärtleinȱfrom
1656,ȱtheȱsingerȱgoesȱsoȱfarȱasȱtoȱcriticizeȱandȱtoȱridiculeȱtheȱaristocraticȱcourts
altogetherȱandȱtoȱidealizeȱtheȱsimpleȱbutȱtrueȱbeautyȱofȱtheȱcountryȱgirlsȱwhoȱdo
notȱdonȱallȱthatȱsuperfluousȱcourtlyȱclothingȱorȱjewelry—whichȱtheyȱdoȱnotȱown
anyway—andȱ presentȱ themselvesȱ inȱ theirȱ naturalȱ andȱ honestȱ characterȱ and
charm.64ȱȱ
AsȱMaxȱWehrliȱhadȱcommentedȱseveralȱdecadesȱago,ȱ“AusȱderȱhöfischenȱDame
wirdȱdasȱ‘feineȱbraunȱMägdelein’,ȱBäuerlichesȱmischtȱsichȱselbstverständlichȱein,
.ȱ.ȱ.ȱdieȱEhreȱdesȱMädchensȱwirdȱzumȱMotivȱ.ȱ.ȱ.”ȱ(Theȱcourtlyȱladyȱtransformsȱinto
theȱ‘fine,ȱbrownȱgirl,’ȱelementsȱfromȱtheȱpeasantȱworldȱareȱmixedȱinȱasȱmatterȱof
fact,ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱtheȱgirl’sȱhonorȱbecomesȱaȱmotifȱ.ȱ.ȱ.).65ȱButȱweȱdoȱnotȱsimplyȱfaceȱaȱplayful
strategyȱhere,ȱintendedȱtoȱinnovateȱtheȱtraditionalȱcourtlyȱloveȱdiscourseȱbyȱway
ofȱsimplifyingȱorȱ‘countrysizing’ȱtheȱtraditionalȱloveȱdiscourse.ȱInstead,ȱtheȱpoets
obviouslyȱpickedȱupȱonȱtheȱapproachȱalreadyȱpursuedȱbyȱHartmannȱvonȱAue,ȱthe
Scottȱ andȱ Bobȱ Scribnerȱ (Atlanticȱ Highlands,ȱ NJ:ȱ Humanitiesȱ Pressȱ International,ȱ 1991);ȱ Peter
Blickle,ȱDerȱBauernkrieg:ȱdieȱRevolutionȱdesȱGemeinenȱMannes.ȱBeck’scheȱReihe:ȱWissenȱ(Munich:ȱC.
H.ȱBeck,ȱ1989).ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱtheȱpresentȱvolumeȱbyȱScottȱL.ȱTaylor.
60
DasȱAmbraserȱLiederbuchȱvomȱJahreȱ1582,ȱed.ȱJosephȱBergmann.ȱBibliothekȱdesȱLiterarischenȱVereins
inȱStuttgart,ȱXIIȱ(1845;ȱHildesheimȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱGeorgȱOlms,ȱ1971),ȱ159–61.ȱByȱtheȱsameȱtoken,
thisȱcollection,ȱlikeȱmanyȱothers,ȱalsoȱcontainsȱmockingȱsongsȱaboutȱpeasants,ȱsuchȱasȱ“EinȱLied
vonȱdenȱuppigenȱBawren”ȱ(no.ȱ129).ȱForȱfurtherȱexamplesȱofȱnegativeȱandȱpositiveȱsongsȱabout
peasantsȱinȱearlyȬmodernȱGermanȱsongbooks,ȱseeȱAlbrechtȱClassen,ȱDeutscheȱLiederbücher,ȱ325ȱ(see
noteȱ13),ȱconsultȱtheȱIndexȱforȱfurtherȱexamplesȱofȱsongsȱcontainingȱtheȱthemeȱofȱȱ“Bauernlob.”
61
Classen,ȱDeutscheȱLiederbücher,ȱ94ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ13).ȱThisȱsongbookȱisȱstillȱnotȱreȬeditedȱandȱcanȱonly
beȱviewedȱinȱtheȱcityȱarchive.
62
Classen,ȱDeutscheȱLiederbücher,ȱ138ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ13).ȱ
63
Classen,ȱDeutscheȱLiederbücher,ȱ237ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ13).
64
SeeȱmyȱdiscussionȱofȱthisȱsongȱinȱAlbrechtȱClassenȱandȱLukasȱRichter,ȱLiedȱundȱLiederbuchȱinȱder
FrühenȱNeuzeit.ȱVolksliedstudien,ȱ10ȱ(Münster,ȱNewȱYork,ȱetȱal.:ȱWaxmann,ȱ2010),ȱ309.
65
MaxȱWehrli,ȱGeschichteȱderȱdeutschenȱLiteraturȱimȱMittelalter:ȱVonȱdenȱAnfängenȱbisȱzumȱEndeȱdesȱ16.
Jahrhunderts.ȱ3.,ȱbibliographischȱerneuerteȱAuflageȱ(1980;ȱStuttgart:ȱPhilippȱReclam,ȱ1997),ȱ1077.
anonymousȱpoetȱofȱtheȱthirteenthȬcenturyȱverseȱnovella,ȱandȱthenȱevenȱbyȱOswald
vonȱWolkenstein.ȱ
Thereȱ isȱ noȱ reasonȱ toȱ assumeȱ thatȱ earlyȬmodernȱ audiencesȱ ofȱ theseȱ popular
songs,ȱ mostlyȱ locatedȱ inȱ urbanȱ settings,ȱ butȱ stillȱ alsoȱ atȱ theȱ variousȱ courts,
suddenlyȱ wouldȱ haveȱ feltȱ especiallyȱ attractedȱ toȱ theȱ peasantȱ worldȱ inȱ aȱ preȬ
Romanticȱfashion.66ȱAllȱavailableȱevidenceȱclearlyȱspeaksȱagainstȱsuchȱspeculation.
Nevertheless,ȱ weȱ faceȱ inȱ quiteȱ aȱ numberȱ ofȱ casesȱ theȱ eroticȱ idealizationȱ ofȱ the
peasantȱgirl/youngȱwoman,ȱalthoughȱinȱrealityȱnoȱoneȱwouldȱhaveȱconsidered
theseȱfemaleȱrepresentativesȱofȱtheȱlowestȱsocialȱclassȱasȱparticularlyȱattractive.
Crossingȱsocialȱbarriers,ȱespeciallyȱbyȱupshots,ȱwasȱgenerallyȱviewedȱwithȱgreat
suspicion,ȱorȱwasȱsimplyȱrejectedȱoutright,ȱasȱtheȱearlierȱexampleȱofȱWernherȱthe
Gardener’sȱHelmbrechtȱ(lateȱthirteenthȱcentury)ȱhadȱdramaticallyȱcommunicated.ȱ
Instead,ȱ theȱ rusticȱ women’sȱ appearanceȱ onȱ theȱ poeticȱ stageȱ clearlyȱ signalsȱ the
searchȱforȱanȱeroticȱutopia,ȱandȱsinceȱthisȱcannotȱbeȱfoundȱatȱtheȱcourts,ȱasȱWalther
vonȱ derȱ Vogelweideȱ andȱ Oswaldȱ vonȱ Wolkensteinȱ hadȱ suggestedȱ inȱ their
respectiveȱsongs,ȱtheȱonlyȱalternativeȱprovedȱtoȱbeȱnatureȱandȱtheȱcountryside
whereȱtheȱpeasantȱgirlsȱoperate.ȱ
Waltherȱ hadȱ notȱ yetȱ specifiedȱ theȱ socialȱ differencesȱ amongȱ theȱ worthyȱ and
honorableȱladiesȱallȱthatȱclearly;ȱinsteadȱheȱinsistedȱonȱpursuingȱaȱloveȱthatȱwas
givenȱfreelyȱandȱwouldȱproveȱtoȱbeȱhonorable,ȱirrespectiveȱofȱtheȱlady’sȱrankȱand
power,ȱ suchȱ asȱ inȱ hisȱ “Herzeliebezȱ vrowelîn”ȱ (Lȱ 49,ȱ 25,ȱ orȱ no.ȱ 26).67ȱ Oswald
playfullyȱ includedȱ theȱ peasantȱ woman,ȱ withoutȱ fullyȱ investingȱ inȱ thatȱ social
utopia.ȱHowever,ȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱHartmannȱandȱofȱtheȱanonymousȱauthorȱofȱthe
mæreȱthatȱveryȱpossibilityȱwasȱfullyȱdevelopedȱandȱpresentedȱasȱaȱconcreteȱreality
whichȱeveryoneȱatȱcourtȱactuallyȱagreedȱwith.
Toȱconclude,ȱweȱgraspȱinȱtheȱinnocentȱpeasantȱdaughterȱandȱinȱtheȱsimpleȱvillage
maid—whetherȱ nobleȱ orȱ not—inȱ herȱ honorableȱ characterȱ andȱ innerȱ strength,
whichȱempowersȱherȱtoȱgrantȱlove,ȱtheȱearlyȱrepresentativeȱofȱtheȱeroticȱideal,ȱthe
dreamȱfigureȱfreeȱofȱtheȱtraditional,ȱsocialȱblemishes,ȱtheȱwomanȱwhoȱextendsȱher
loveȱirrespectiveȱofȱtheȱman’sȱeconomic,ȱpolitical,ȱorȱfamilyȱstatus,ȱandȱwhoȱisȱeven
blindȱtoȱhisȱphysicalȱappearance.ȱTheȱ‘fine,ȱbrownȱgirl’ȱofȱtheȱlateȱmedievalȱand
earlyȱmodernȱfolkȱpoetryȱseemsȱtoȱbeȱaȱfarȱcryȱfromȱHartmann’sȱpeasantȱdaughter,
66
Thisȱdoesȱnotȱmeanȱthatȱtheseȱsongsȱwereȱnotȱpopularȱamongȱtheȱpeasantȱclass,ȱonȱtheȱcontrary.
Butȱweȱareȱwellȱfamiliarȱwithȱmanyȱofȱtheȱscribesȱandȱcollectors,ȱwithȱtheȱpoetsȱandȱcomposers,
andȱsoȱweȱcanȱbeȱcertainȱthatȱthisȱgenreȱappealedȱstronglyȱtoȱtheȱurbanȱclassȱandȱalsoȱtoȱthe
membersȱofȱnobleȱcourts.ȱ
67
Waltherȱ vonȱ derȱ Vogelweide,ȱ Leich,ȱ Lieder,ȱ Sangsprücheȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 34);ȱ seeȱ alsoȱ Heikeȱ Sievert,
Studienȱ zurȱ Liebeslyrikȱ Walthersȱ vonȱ derȱ Vogelweide.ȱ Göppingerȱ Arbeitenȱ zurȱ Germanistik,ȱ 506
(Göppingen:ȱKümmerle,ȱ1990),ȱ43–58;ȱDerkȱOhlenroth,ȱ“ZumȱlyrischenȱUmfeldȱdesȱMädchenȬ
liedesȱWaltherȱL.ȱ49,25,”ȱZeitschriftȱfürȱdeutscheȱPhilologieȱ128.1ȱ(2009):ȱ29–64.
yetȱtheȱutopianȱidealȱcomesȱforthȱinȱherȱasȱwell.ȱPoetsȱcontinuedȱthroughoutȱthe
centuriesȱtoȱprojectȱtheȱsimpleȱmaidȱasȱtheȱinnocent,ȱhonest,ȱbeautiful,ȱuntarnished
figureȱwhoȱwasȱtrulyȱableȱtoȱidentifyȱandȱliveȱoutȱwhatȱloveȱcouldȱandȱshould
meanȱandȱstandȱfor.ȱNoticeably,ȱhowever,ȱthisȱdidȱnotȱchangeȱtheȱmostlyȱnegative
viewȱofȱmaleȱpeasants,ȱregularlyȱdescribedȱasȱcontemptible,ȱfoolish,ȱsinfulȱpeople
whoȱcannotȱbeȱtrustedȱinȱanyȱway—forȱaȱfewȱandȱhardȱtoȱfindȱexceptions,ȱsee
aboveȱ(BernerȱLiederbuch).ȱHowever,ȱaristocraticȱauthorsȱatȱtimesȱindicatedȱtheir
willingnessȱ toȱ acceptȱ theȱ peasantȱ womanȱ ifȱ sheȱ metȱ theȱ specificȱ demandsȱ and
submissivelyȱadaptedȱtoȱtheȱexpectationsȱofȱnobleȱsociety,ȱmarryingȱtheȱmanȱwho
couldȱ thusȱ profitȱ fromȱ her,ȱ whileȱ sheȱ wasȱ tremendouslyȱ elevatedȱ inȱ social
rank—again,ȱ seeȱ theȱ laterȱ exampleȱ ofȱ theȱ famousȱ ‘Griselda’ȱ figure,ȱ suchȱ asȱ in
Boccaccio’sȱDecameron.ȱȱWeȱareȱcertainlyȱdealingȱwithȱdoubleȱstandardsȱbothȱinȱthe
verseȱnarrativesȱandȱinȱtheȱvariousȱpoemsȱbyȱWaltherȱandȱOswald,ȱandȱalsoȱby
numerousȱlaterȱcomposersȱofȱfolkȱpoetry,ȱbutȱonȱthatȱconceptualȱbasisȱatȱleast,
earlyȱ inklingsȱ ofȱ anȱ eroticȱ utopiaȱ couldȱ beȱ developedȱ alreadyȱ inȱ medieval
literature.68
68
I’llȱpursueȱthatȱtopicȱinȱtermsȱofȱartȬhistoryȱinȱmyȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱonȱBooksȱofȱHours.
Chapterȱ5
SarahȱGordon
(UtahȱStateȱUniversity,ȱLogan,ȱUtah)
RuralȱSpaceȱandȱAgriculturalȱSpaceȱinȱtheȱOldȱFrench
FabliauxȱandȱtheȱRomanȱdeȱRenart
Asȱisȱtheȱcaseȱwithȱsimilarlyȱbroadȱconcepts,ȱtheȱtermȱ“rural”ȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱuseful
andȱubiquitous,ȱifȱimprecise.ȱEvenȱnumerousȱruralȱsociologistsȱtodayȱadmitȱthat
theȱtermȱhasȱseveralȱdefinitions.ȱAsȱweȱseeȱthroughoutȱtheȱpresentȱvolume,ȱthe
conceptualizationȱandȱuseȱofȱtheȱtermȱruralȱisȱdrawnȱalongȱdifferentȱideological,
geographical,ȱandȱtemporalȱlines.1ȱRecentȱattemptsȱbyȱsociologistsȱandȱgovernment
policyȱ makersȱ toȱ defineȱ theȱ notionȱ typicallyȱ includeȱ measuresȱ ofȱ population
densityȱandȱmeasuresȱofȱproximityȱtoȱfarmsȱorȱurbanȱenvironments.2ȱInȱtheȱMiddle
Ages,ȱtheȱruralȱwasȱdefinedȱnotȱonlyȱinȱoppositionȱtoȱtheȱurban,ȱbutȱinȱopposition
toȱtheȱcourtlyȱandȱtheȱclericalȱasȱwell.ȱRuralȱsociologistsȱareȱoftenȱmoreȱconcerned
withȱrelativeȱrurality,ȱthatȱis,ȱruralityȱmeasuredȱinȱdegrees,ȱinȱwhichȱboundaries
areȱfluidȱandȱpopulationsȱareȱeverȱchanging.ȱ
ThisȱwasȱindeedȱtheȱcaseȱwithȱruralȱandȱagriculturalȱspacesȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,
particularlyȱinȱthirteenthȬcenturyȱwesternȱEurope,ȱaȱtimeȱandȱplaceȱinȱwhichȱcities
wereȱgrowingȱandȱurbanȱenvironments,ȱmindsets,ȱandȱactivitiesȱbeganȱtoȱencroach
furtherȱ onȱ theȱ ruralȱ landscape.ȱ Althoughȱ medievalȱ literatureȱ doesȱ notȱ offerȱ a
clearlyȱdefinedȱdistinctionȱbetweenȱruralȱandȱurban,ȱpopularȱcontemporaryȱtexts
provideȱrepresentationsȱofȱruralȱspacesȱandȱtheirȱinhabitants,ȱlendingȱvaluable
1
Relatedȱtoȱtheȱtermsȱruralȱandȱrurality,ȱseeȱalsoȱChristopherȱClason’sȱarticleȱinȱtheȱpresentȱvolume,
forȱaȱhelpfulȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱtermsȱ“pastoral”ȱandȱ“nature.”
2
Evenȱ today,ȱ theȱ U.S.ȱ Departmentȱ ofȱ Agriculture’sȱ broadestȱ definitionȱ ofȱ ruralȱ entailsȱ low
populationȱdensityȱandȱdistanceȱfromȱurbanȱcenters,ȱincludingȱ“openȱcountryȱandȱsettlements;”
conversely,ȱtheȱU.S.ȱgovernmentȱdefinesȱurbanȱbroadlyȱasȱ“denselyȱsettledȱterritory,”ȱandȱthisȱis
similarȱforȱotherȱgovernmentsȱandȱdisciplines:
http://www.ers.usda.gov/Briefing/Rurality/WhatIsRural/ȱ(lastȱaccessedȱFeb.ȱ19,ȱ2012).
282 SarahȱGordon
insightȱintoȱcontemporaryȱperceptionsȱofȱtheȱrural.ȱTheȱextentȱtoȱwhichȱaȱspace
mayȱ beȱ qualifiedȱ asȱ ruralȱ (ratherȱ thanȱ urban,ȱ courtly,ȱ orȱ liminal)ȱ alsoȱ remains
somewhatȱambiguousȱandȱmayȱalsoȱbeȱmeasuredȱinȱdegreesȱinȱtextualȱdescriptions
andȱ manuscriptȱ miniaturesȱ ofȱ medievalȱ popularȱ narratives.ȱ Caseȱ inȱ point:ȱ the
narrativesȱofȱthirteenthȬcenturyȱshortȱcomicȱtalesȱofȱtheȱOldȱFrenchȱfabliauxȱandȱthe
comicȱbeastȱepicȱofȱtheȱRomanȱdeȱRenartȱcharacterizeȱruralȱspaceȱandȱagricultural
spaceȱasȱmarkedȱbyȱtheȱsameȱsortsȱofȱpoverty,ȱcrime,ȱgreedȱandȱhungerȱseenȱinȱthe
urbanȱsphere,ȱandȱlessȱasȱaȱbucolicȱpastoralȱimageȱofȱfarmȱlife.ȱSocialȱsatireȱand
comicȱrealismȱareȱtheȱmarksȱofȱbothȱgenresȱandȱitȱisȱwithinȱthisȱcriticalȱcontextȱthat
medievalȱ conceptsȱ ofȱ spaceȱ andȱ spatialityȱ beginȱ toȱ emerge.ȱ Theȱ farmȱ isȱ not
uniformlyȱ idealizedȱ inȱ theseȱ genres,ȱ asȱ itȱ isȱ inȱ someȱ ofȱ theȱ otherȱ medieval
Europeanȱlyricȱandȱnarrativeȱpoetryȱexploredȱinȱthisȱvolume.ȱMoreover,ȱtheȱtwo
genresȱillustrate,ȱlikeȱnoȱotherȱextantȱculturalȱproduction,ȱtheȱencroachmentȱofȱthe
urbanȱonȱtheȱruralȱorȱtheȱblurringȱofȱlinesȱbetweenȱfarm,ȱcity,ȱandȱcourt.ȱRevisiting
theseȱtextsȱwithȱanȱeyeȱtoȱtheȱruralȱmayȱhelpȱusȱgetȱcloserȱtoȱbetterȱmappingȱthese
twoȱhardȬtoȬdefineȱgenresȱasȱwellȱasȱsuchȱimpreciseȱnotionsȱofȱspace.
Evenȱ theȱ Oldȱ Frenchȱ termsȱ vileȱ andȱ vilain,ȱ alsoȱ spelledȱ vilein,ȱ wereȱ not
themselvesȱ staticȱ andȱ continuedȱ toȱ evolveȱ andȱ signifyȱ differentȱ spacesȱ and
individualsȱoverȱtime,ȱasȱtheyȱdoȱinȱtheseȱtwoȱgenres.ȱTheȱOldȱFrenchȱvileȱmay
meanȱtown,ȱcity,ȱorȱvillage,ȱbutȱscholarshipȱoftenȱoverlooksȱthatȱitȱmayȱalsoȱdenote
inȱ someȱ cases,ȱ farmland.ȱ Oneȱ meaningȱ ofȱ vilainȱ asȱ withȱ itsȱ Latinȱ counterpart,
villanus,ȱaȱfarmhandȱorȱworkerȱonȱaȱvilla,ȱreferredȱtoȱpeasantsȱandȱfarmersȱmore
thanȱtoȱcityȬdwellersȱorȱmerchantsȱfromȱitsȱfirstȱvernacularȱusageȱthroughȱtheȱmidȬ
thirteenthȱcentury,ȱatȱleast.ȱFabliauxȱwithȱtheȱtermȱvilainȱinȱtheȱtitleȱorȱfirstȱlineȱare
setȱinȱtheȱcountryside,ȱbutȱsometimesȱonȱtheȱroadȱtoȱtheȱmarketplaceȱorȱnearȱa
village.ȱ
InȱtheȱRomanȱdeȱRenart,ȱvileȱisȱlikewiseȱ usedȱtoȱdescribeȱbucolicȱfarmsȱinȱthe
countryside,ȱ whereȱ vilesȱ areȱ oftenȱ depictedȱ asȱ enclosedȱ livingȱ andȱ agricultural
spacesȱwithȱlivestock,ȱpoultry,ȱandȱcrops,ȱasȱdemonstratedȱinȱtheȱcloseȱreadingȱof
theȱpassageȱfromȱtheȱRomanȱdeȱRenartȱbelow,ȱinȱwhichȱtheȱvileȱisȱaȱrichȱfarmȱlocated
inȱaȱspaceȱsurroundedȱbyȱtheȱforestȱ(andȱisȱnot,ȱasȱsomeȱreadersȱmightȱexpect,ȱin
orȱnearȱaȱtown).ȱMoreover,ȱtheȱsocioȬeconomicȱproblemsȱrelatedȱtoȱtheirȱstatusȱas
vilains,ȱ includingȱ lackȱ ofȱ education,ȱ unemployment,ȱ poverty,ȱ andȱ hunger,ȱ are
commonȱamongȱtheseȱfictionalȱcharacters,ȱasȱtheyȱwere,ȱofȱcourse,ȱforȱtheirȱrealȬlife
counterparts.ȱIfȱweȱconsiderȱthatȱvileȱmayȱalsoȱhaveȱindicatedȱtheȱruralȱasȱwell,ȱas
itȱdoesȱbelow,ȱweȱdiscoverȱevenȱfurtherȱevidenceȱofȱtheȱconceptsȱofȱurbanȱand
ruralȱinȱthisȱperiod.ȱThoughȱmanyȱscholarsȱhaveȱlongȱdeemedȱtheȱfabliauxȱandȱthe
RomanȱdeȱRenartȱeitherȱurban,ȱpopular,ȱorȱtheȱoppositeȱofȱtheȱcourtlyȱliteratureȱthey
tendȱ toȱ mock,ȱ theseȱ talesȱ presentȱ someȱ ofȱ theȱ harshȱ realitiesȱ ofȱ ruralȱ life,ȱ as
OldȱFrenchȱFabliauxȱandȱtheȱRomanȱdeȱRenart 283
discussedȱinȱtheȱprecedingȱchaptersȱofȱtheȱpresentȱvolume,ȱbutȱoftenȱwithȱaȱcomic
pointȱofȱview.3
ThereȱisȱanȱextantȱFrenchȱproseȱdocumentȱfromȱtheȱPicardieȱregion,ȱdatingȱfrom
theȱlateȱthirteenthȱcentury,ȱthatȱdetailsȱphysicalȱappearanceȱandȱcharacterȱtraitsȱof
theȱtwentyȬthreeȱtypesȱofȱvilainsȱinȱthisȱperiod,4ȱthusȱprovidingȱaȱcontemporary
typologyȱofȱvilainȱnatureȱandȱoccupations,ȱmostlyȱofȱaȱpejorativeȱnature.ȱFromȱthis
comicȱtext,ȱweȱmayȱreferȱtoȱaȱfewȱthatȱechoȱtheȱunfavorableȱliteraryȱrepresentations
ofȱ suchȱ figuresȱ inȱ theȱ fabliaux,ȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ following,ȱ inȱ whichȱ theȱ vilainsȱ are
referredȱtoȱasȱifȱinȱaȱbestiary,ȱwithȱfarmȱanimalȱnamesȱsuchȱasȱpigs,ȱdogs,ȱdonkeys,
andȱchickensȱ(andȱisȱattributedȱadjectivesȱsuchȱasȱillȬformed,ȱferocious,ȱpureȬbread,
orȱclovenȱhoofed,ȱetc.)ȱtoȱnameȱjustȱaȱfew:ȱTheȱpigȱpeasantȱisȱ“Leȱvilainȱporcinȱest
celuiȱ quiȱ travailleȱ dansȱ lesȱ vignesȱ etȱ neȱ veutȱ pasȱ indiquerȱ leurȱ cheminȱ aux
passants,ȱmaisȱditȱàȱchacun,ȱ‘vousȱleȱsavezȱmieuxȱqueȱmoi’”ȱ[Theȱporcineȱpeasant
isȱtheȱoneȱwhoȱworksȱinȱtheȱvineyardsȱandȱwillȱnotȱgiveȱdirectionsȱtoȱaȱpasserby,
butȱsaysȱtoȱeveryone,ȱ‘youȱknowȱbetterȱthanȱI].ȱ
Theȱdogȱpeasantȱ(“Leȱvilainȱcanin”)ȱ“estȱceluiȱquiȱresteȱassisȱdevantȱsaȱporteȱet
seȱmoqueȱdesȱgentilhommesȱquiȱpassentȱ.ȱ.ȱ.”ȱ(isȱtheȱoneȱwhoȱstaysȱseatedȱinȱfront
ofȱhisȱdoorȱandȱmakesȱfunȱofȱpeopleȱwhoȱpassȱby).ȱTheȱthickȱoneȱis,ȱ“Leȱvilain
pattueȱestȱceluiȱquiȱporteȱdesȱsouliersȱserrésȱparȱuneȱcorde,ȱetȱquiȱtraînentȱsurȱle
solȱ.ȱ.ȱ.”ȱ(Theȱthickȱpeasantȱisȱtheȱoneȱwhoȱwearsȱfootwearȱcinchedȱupȱbyȱaȱcord
thatȱdragsȱonȱtheȱground).ȱLeȱvilainȱdoubleȱpattuȱestȱceluiȱquiȱporteȱdesȱhoseaux
coupésȱquiȱontȱdesȱboutonsȱparȱderrièreȱ.ȱ.ȱ.”ȱ(Theȱdoublyȱthickȱpeasantȱisȱtheȱone
whoȱwearsȱcutȱpantsȱthatȱhasȱbuttonsȱonȱtheȱbehind).ȱOrȱtheȱstrong,ȱgluttonous
oneȱisȱcomparedȱtoȱaȱdonkey:ȱ“Leȱvilainȱâninȱestȱceluiȱquiȱporteȱlesȱgâteauxȱetȱle
barrilȱdeȱvinȱàȱlaȱfêteȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.”(Theȱdonkeyȱpeasantȱisȱtheȱoneȱwhoȱcarriesȱtheȱcakes
andȱtheȱbarrelȱofȱwineȱtoȱtheȱparty),ȱandȱ“Leȱvilainȱchapéȱestȱleȱpauvreȱclercȱmarié
quiȱdoitȱtravaillerȱlesȱvignesȱavecȱlesȱautresȱvilains”ȱ(Theȱblanketedȱoneȱisȱtheȱpoor
marriedȱ clerkȱ whoȱ hasȱ toȱ toilȱ inȱ theȱ vineyardsȱ withȱ theȱ otherȱ vilains).ȱ Others
includeȱ:ȱ“Leȱvilainȱaccroupiȱestȱceluiȱquiȱlaisseraitȱlaȱcharrueȱpourȱbraconnerȱles
lapinsȱduȱseigneurȱmatinȱetȱsoir”ȱ(theȱbentȬoverȱpeasantȱisȱheȱwhoȱwouldȱleaveȱthe
3
Particularlyȱtheȱfabliauxȱhaveȱlongȱbeenȱtreatedȱasȱaȱbourgeoisȱgenre,ȱandȱwereȱreferredȱtoȱbyȱsome
scholarsȱasȱlittératureȱbourgeoise,ȱorȱevenȱasȱaȱbourgeoisȱburlesqueȱofȱcourtlyȱliteratureȱbyȱCharles
Muscatine,ȱ“TheȱSocialȱBackgroundȱofȱtheȱOldȱFrenchȱFabliau,”ȱGenreȱ9ȱ(1976):ȱ1–19,ȱthoughȱthis
isȱnoȱlongerȱtheȱcurrentȱviewȱheldȱbyȱmanyȱscholars.ȱThoughȱitȱisȱofȱcourseȱdevoidȱofȱMarxist
connotations,ȱaȱfewȱfabliauxȱincludeȱtheȱtermȱbourgeoisȱinȱtheirȱtitlesȱorȱnarrative,ȱforȱinstanceȱLa
Borgoiseȱd’OrliensȱandȱLesȱdeuxȱbourgeoisȱetȱunȱvilain.ȱFabliauxȱtitlesȱandȱcitationsȱareȱfromȱtheȱcritical
editionȱ of:ȱ Nouveauȱ recueilȱ completȱ desȱ fabliaux,ȱ ed.ȱ Willemȱ Noomenȱ (Assen:ȱ Vanȱ Gorcum,
1988–1998)ȱ10ȱvols.
4
TheȱcriticalȱeditionȱandȱmodernȱFrenchȱtranslationȱcitedȱhereȱisȱthatȱofȱAchilleȱRubinalȱandȱEloi
Johanneau,ȱeds.ȱDesȱXXIIIȱmanièresȱdeȱvilainsȱ(Paris:ȱSylvestre,ȱ1834),ȱbasedȱonȱtheȱmanuscriptȱBNF
7595.ȱEnglishȱtranslationsȱareȱmyȱown.
284 SarahȱGordon
ploughȱtoȱgoȱpoachȱhisȱmaster’sȱrabbitsȱdayȱandȱnight),ȱorȱ“Leȱvilainȱécrevisseȱest
celuiȱquiȱrevientȱduȱboisȱchargéȱdeȱbûchesȱetȱentreȱenȱsaȱmaisonȱàȱreculonsȱparce
queȱlaȱporteȱestȱtropȱbasse”ȱ(Theȱcrayfishȱpeasantȱisȱtheȱoneȱwho,ȱreturningȱfrom
theȱwoodsȱcarryingȱlogs,ȱentersȱhisȱhouseȱbackwards,ȱbecauseȱtheȱdoorȱisȱtooȱlow)
andȱsimilarlyȱpéjorativeȱanimalȬrelatedȱdescriptions.
Detailingȱbothȱphysicalȱandȱmentalȱtraitsȱinȱaȱnegativeȱfashion,ȱthisȱcontemporary
(whatȱIȱwouldȱsuggestȱcouldȱbeȱtermed)ȱmockȬbestiaryȱtextȱofȱruralȱpeopleȱ(though
thereȱareȱnonȬanimalȱentriesȱasȱwell)ȱinȱFranceȱpresentsȱaȱstrikingȱparallelȱwithȱthe
anthropomorphismȱinȱtheȱRomanȱdeȱRenartȱandȱunderlinesȱtheȱgeneralȱdisdainȱand
mistrustȱ ofȱ ruralȱ figuresȱ inȱ bothȱ genresȱ inȱ popularȱ andȱ comicȱ writtenȱ cultural
productionȱofȱtheȱtime.
Theȱtwoȱgenresȱhaveȱmuchȱinȱcommon,ȱIȱargue,ȱnotȱonlyȱinȱthatȱtheyȱinclude
rural,ȱurban,ȱandȱcourtlyȱsettingsȱandȱattitudesȱwithȱaȱcriticalȱandȱcomicȱpointȱof
view,ȱbutȱalsoȱinȱthatȱbothȱgenresȱrepresentȱaȱworldȱofȱsuffering,ȱinȱwhichȱsurvival
dependsȱonȱcleverness,ȱtrickery,ȱgreed,ȱandȱluck.ȱNarratorsȱareȱcynicalȱregarding
humanȱnatureȱandȱpessimisticallyȱpointȱoutȱtheȱinequalitiesȱofȱsociety.ȱHowever,
theȱmoralȱstanceȱisȱoftenȱambiguous.ȱStandingȱinȱoppositionȱtoȱcourtlyȱromance,
theȱfabliauxȱandȱtheȱRomanȱdeȱRenartȱareȱpopular,ȱcomicȱgenres,ȱfocusingȱmoreȱon
dailyȱlifeȱandȱcenteringȱmoreȱonȱtheȱeverymanȱpeasantȱfigureȱofȱtheȱpaysanȱorȱvilain
thanȱonȱcourtlyȱthemesȱorȱaristocraticȱcharacters.ȱInȱthisȱcombinedȱcorpusȱofȱbeast
epicȱ andȱ humanȱ tales,ȱ moreȱ thanȱ inȱ otherȱ contemporaryȱ literaryȱ genres,ȱ rural
spaceȱshapesȱtheȱidentityȱofȱthoseȱwhoȱinhabitȱit,ȱandȱdemonstratesȱhowȱspace
shapesȱdailyȱlivesȱinȱgeneral.
Today,ȱtheȱdisciplineȱofȱruralȱsociologyȱdefinesȱtheȱruralȱasȱthatȱwhichȱisȱnot
urbanȱ (withȱ urbanȱ denotingȱ aȱ certainȱ populationȱ density,ȱ oftenȱ anȱ arbitrary
distinction);ȱhowever,ȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱtheȱfabliauȱandȱbeastȱepicȱgenres,ȱtheȱdialectic
ofȱcityȱvs.ȱcountryȱisȱnotȱthatȱsimple.ȱInȱaddition,ȱtheȱruralȱisȱalsoȱcontrastedȱwith
theȱcourtly,ȱtheȱsacred,ȱandȱtheȱurbanȱinȱbothȱgenres.ȱTheȱfabliauxȱshowȱruralȱmores
asȱ differentȱ thanȱ urbanȱ socialȱ norms,ȱ andȱ exploreȱ thisȱ contrast,ȱ oftenȱ though
humor.ȱPresentingȱaȱdiscourseȱofȱeverydayȱlifeȱinȱallȱsocialȱspheres,ȱruralȱpeople
andȱpersonifiedȱanimalsȱstealȱfoodȱandȱlivestockȱandȱresortȱtoȱelaborateȱtrickery
toȱsurviveȱinȱtheȱcountry.ȱButȱtheȱruralȱisȱnotȱalwaysȱequatedȱwithȱpovertyȱor
ignoranceȱinȱtheȱtwoȱgenres;ȱwithinȱtheȱrural,ȱinȱbothȱgenresȱweȱseeȱaȱrangeȱof
socialȱclasses,ȱfromȱtheȱruralȱaristocracyȱtoȱruralȱpoverty.ȱInequalityȱisȱexplored,
asȱisȱtheȱriseȱofȱtheȱmiddleȱclassȱandȱmovementȱtowardȱcitiesȱandȱcityȱlife.ȱ
Aȱcloseȱreadingȱofȱdescriptionsȱofȱphysicalȱruralȱspace,ȱroads,ȱhouses,ȱgardens,
orchards,ȱandȱfarmsȱrevealsȱcontemporaryȱperspectivesȱonȱtheȱrural.ȱAnȱoverview
ofȱsomeȱofȱtheȱvilains,ȱpeasants,ȱandȱfarmers,ȱorȱtheirȱanthropomorphizedȱanimal
equivalentsȱinȱtheȱRomanȱdeȱRenart.5ȱRuralȱspaceȱisȱrepresentedȱinȱbothȱliteraryȱtext
andȱ image,ȱ depictingȱ bothȱ theȱ realȱ andȱ theȱ imaginary.ȱ Spatialityȱ andȱ social
hierarchiesȱareȱinextricablyȱlinkedȱinȱtheseȱnarrativesȱandȱtheȱpowerȱplayȱofȱsocial
statusȱ isȱ playedȱ outȱ inȱ theseȱ spaces.ȱ Indeed,ȱ theseȱ textsȱ provideȱ someȱ comic
glimpsesȱ ofȱ howȱ foodȱ andȱ agriculture,ȱ landscapes,ȱ andȱ ruralȱ governanceȱ fit
together.6
TheȱRomanȱdeȱRenart
TheȱOldȱFrenchȱbeastȱepicȱofȱtheȱRomanȱdeȱRenartȱconsistsȱofȱapproximatelyȱ80,000
lines,ȱseveralȱmanuscripts,ȱandȱtwentyȬsevenȱbranches,ȱcomposedȱandȱcopiedȱover
nearlyȱaȱcentury,ȱcircaȱ1170–1250.7ȱWellȱoverȱfiveȱhundredȱminiaturesȱillustrating
theȱRomanȱdeȱRenartȱareȱextant,ȱmanyȱofȱwhichȱincludeȱscenesȱofȱruralȱlife,ȱfarms,
gardens,ȱenclosures,ȱwells,ȱroads,ȱchickenȱcoops,ȱandȱpeasantsȱinteractingȱwith
animals.ȱWhileȱanimalsȱareȱplayingȱtheȱrolesȱofȱruralȱaristocrats,ȱjudges,ȱclergy,
andȱotherȱcentralȱroles,ȱhumansȱareȱmostȱoftenȱrelegatedȱtoȱtheȱmarginsȱofȱtheȱfarm
andȱassignedȱtheȱroleȱofȱruralȱcultivator.
Theȱbeastȱepicȱdepictsȱmoreȱruralȱversusȱcourtlyȱconflictȱthanȱdoȱmostȱfabliaux
(whichȱmoreȱoftenȱshowȱtheȱoppositionȱofȱruralȱversusȱurban).ȱRuralȱsociologists
todayȱoftenȱinvestigateȱtheȱnatureȱofȱwhatȱisȱtermedȱruralȬmetroȱinterfaceȱorȱruralȬ
urbanȱ interface.ȱ Indeed,ȱ thisȱ interfaceȱ isȱ oneȱ majorȱ themeȱ ofȱ conflictȱ inȱ these
genres,ȱinȱwhichȱconflictȱisȱoftenȱlocatedȱatȱtheȱintersectionȱofȱtheseȱtwoȱspacesȱand
culturesȱandȱfocusedȱonȱtheȱruralȬurbanȱclash.ȱTheȱessentialȱsocialȱcriticismȱisȱthe
failureȱofȱtheȱdominantȱclassȱtoȱprovideȱfoodȱforȱtheȱhungryȱpoor,ȱandȱthisȱrealistic
ruralȱstruggleȱforȱfoodȱandȱcontrolȱofȱnaturalȱresourcesȱisȱplayedȱoutȱasȱhungry
animalsȱsearchȱinȱvainȱforȱfoodȱwhileȱothersȱenjoyȱcopiousȱmeals.ȱ
ManyȱdifferentȱlandscapesȱappearȱinȱtheȱRomanȱdeȱRenart;ȱtheȱbucolicȱsideȱofȱthe
talesȱshowsȱpeacefulȱmeadows,ȱbountifulȱfarms,ȱandȱdenseȱwoods.ȱTheȱdivide
betweenȱrichȱandȱpoorȱisȱevidentȱinȱtheȱlinesȱbetweenȱtheseȱspacesȱandȱtheȱcourt.
Theȱ Romanȱ deȱ Renartȱ mapsȱ aȱ rangeȱ ofȱ landscapesȱ andȱ resources,ȱ fromȱ the
unforgivingȱwildernessȱandȱliminalȱspacesȱofȱtheȱforest,ȱoftenȱdepictedȱasȱonȱthe
5
Seeȱ Jodogne’sȱ studyȱ onȱ theȱ evolutionȱ ofȱ anthropomorphizedȱ animals,ȱ andȱ theȱ ruralȱ and
agriculturalȱspacesȱthatȱtheyȱinhabit,ȱusefulȱtoȱmapȱbetterȱtheȱruralȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱinȱthe
contextȱofȱthisȱvolume:ȱOmerȱJodogne,ȱLeȱFabliauȱ(Turnhout:ȱBrepols,ȱ1975).
6
Iȱalsoȱenvisageȱreadingȱtheȱmedievalȱruralȱinȱtheseȱshortȱtalesȱinȱcontrastȱtoȱtheȱurbanȱandȱtoȱthe
sacred.ȱWeȱmayȱalsoȱseeȱtheseȱspacesȱinȱcontrastȱtoȱsacredȱspaces,ȱorȱtoȱtheȱFoucauldianȱ“other”
spaces;ȱ asȱ Foucaultȱ hasȱ shownȱ inȱ thisȱ corpusȱ andȱ otherȱ contemporaryȱ literaryȱ texts,ȱ Michel
Foucault,ȱ“Desȱéspacesȱautres,”ȱArchitectureȬMouvementȬContinuitéȱ5ȱ(1984):ȱ46–49.
7
TheȱRomanȱdeȱRenartȱeditionsȱcitedȱhereȱare:ȱLeȱromanȱdeȱRenart:ȱéditéȱd’aprèsȱleȱmanuscriptȱO,ȱed.
AurélieȱBarreȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱDeȱGruyter,ȱ2010).
286 SarahȱGordon
edge,ȱ onȱ theȱ roadȱ fromȱ farmȱ toȱ town.ȱ Asȱ Jodogneȱ hasȱ pointedȱ out,ȱ the
anthropomorphicȱanimalsȱareȱpicturedȱinȱtheȱcountrysideȱorȱatȱcourt,ȱbutȱnotȱinȱa
bourgeoisȱ environment.8ȱ Thereȱ isȱ generalȱ denunciationȱ ofȱ hungerȱ andȱ unjust
treatmentȱ andȱ violenceȱ againstȱ theȱ poor.ȱ Inȱ theȱ Romanȱ deȱ Renartȱ theȱ country,
agriculturalȱsettingȱisȱcontrastedȱwithȱtheȱfinalȱscenesȱatȱcourt.ȱItȱrepresentsȱthe
livesȱ ofȱ personifiedȱ animalsȱ livingȱ withinȱ aȱ hierarchyȱ thatȱ goesȱ fromȱ rural,
barnyardȱfarmȱanimalsȱtoȱtheȱaristocraticȱpredators.ȱHereȱruralȱspaceȱisȱmainly
agricultural,ȱwithȱscenesȱinȱfarms,ȱbarnyards,ȱandȱhomes.ȱAndȱhereȱruralȱlifeȱis
markedȱbyȱactionsȱmotivatedȱbyȱhunger,ȱpoverty,ȱandȱinequality.9
TheȱRomanȱdeȱRenartȱprovidesȱperhapsȱtheȱmostȱdetailedȱliteraryȱdescriptionsȱof
ruralȱlife,ȱofȱtheȱdispositionsȱofȱtheȱspaceȱofȱtheȱfarm,ȱofȱpeasantsȱandȱtheirȱdaily
activities,ȱ paintingȱ aȱ completeȱ representationȱ ofȱ ruralȱ life.ȱ Inȱ theȱ following
representativeȱexample,ȱtheȱruralȱfarmȱisȱmoreȱthanȱonceȱdescribedȱlikeȱaȱprotected
space,ȱorȱevenȱanȱimpenetrableȱfortress,ȱandȱpeasantsȱareȱdescribedȱasȱcultivating
aȱbountifulȱagriculturalȱspace,ȱcalledȱaȱvile:ȱ
Senȱvintȱcorantȱaȱuneȱvile.
Laȱvileȱseoitȱenȱunȱbos,
Moultȱiȱotȱgelinesȱetȱcos,
Anes,ȱmalarz,ȱetȱjarsȱetȱoes.
EtȱmesireȱCostantȱdesȱNoes,
Unsȱvilainȱquiȱmoutȱertȱgarniz,
Manoitȱmoutȱpresȱduȱplaiseïz.
Plenteïveȱestoitȱsaȱmeson
Deȱgelinesȱetȱdeȱchapons:
Bienȱavoitȱgarniȱsonȱostel,
Assezȱiȱavoitȱunȱetȱel,
Charȱsalee,ȱbaconsȱetȱfliches,
Deȱceȱestoitȱliȱvilainsȱriches;
Etȱmoutȱestoitȱbienȱherbergiez,
Toutȱenvironȱertȱliȱplaisiez.
8
OmerȱJodogne,ȱ“L’anthropomorphismeȱcroissantȱdansȱleȱRomanȱdeȱRenart,”ȱAspectsȱofȱtheȱMedieval
AnimalȱEpic:ȱProceedingsȱofȱtheȱInternationalȱConference,ȱLouvain,ȱMayȱ1972,ȱed.ȱEdwardȱRombauts
andȱAndriesȱWelkenhuysenȱ(Leuven:ȱCatholicȱUniversityȱofȱLeuvenȱPress,ȱ1975)ȱ25–42;ȱhereȱ25.
9
Onȱ theȱ literatureȱ ofȱ povertyȱ inȱ medievalȱ andȱ lateȱ medievalȱ Englandȱ andȱ methodologiesȱ for
readingȱ povertyȱ (andȱ notȱ justȱ ruralȱ poverty)ȱ inȱ textsȱ andȱ socioȬhistoricalȱ context,ȱ seeȱ Kate
Crassons’sȱsurveyȱofȱrepresentationsȱandȱdefinitionsȱofȱpoverty,ȱinȱwhichȱsheȱexploresȱimagesȱand
narrativeȱpoemsȱthatȱdemonstrateȱharshȱeconomicȱrealitiesȱandȱpoorȱlivingȱconditions,ȱforȱcity
dwellers,ȱfarmȱlaborers,ȱbeggars,ȱandȱothers.ȱMoreover,ȱCrassonsȱexplainsȱtheȱneedȱforȱliterary
textsȱandȱanalysesȱinȱongoingȱscholarlyȱdiscussionsȱaboutȱmedievalȱpoverty:ȱ“Literaryȱtextsȱare
essentialȱ toȱ theȱ studyȱ ofȱ povertyȱ becauseȱ povertyȱ isȱ asȱ muchȱ anȱ economicȱ forceȱ asȱ itȱ isȱ an
epistemologicalȱissueȱthatȱchallengesȱourȱabilityȱtoȱknowȱandȱfixȱtheȱpreciseȱnatureȱofȱmaterial
reality,”ȱ Kateȱ Crasons,ȱ Theȱ Claimsȱ ofȱ Poverty:ȱ Literature,ȱ Culture,ȱ andȱ Ideologyȱ inȱ Lateȱ Medieval
Englandȱ(NotreȱDame,ȱIN:ȱUniversityȱofȱNotreȱDameȱPress,ȱ2010),ȱ5.
Moultȱiȱotȱdeȱbonnesȱcerises,
Etȱplusorsȱfruizȱdeȱmaintesȱguises,
Pomesȱiȱotȱetȱautreȱfruit.
Renartȱiȱvaȱporȱsonȱdeduit.
Sonȱjardinȱestoitȱmoutȱbienȱclos
Deȱpiexȱdeȱchiesneȱaguzȱetȱgros,
Hordezȱestoitȱdȇaubesȱespines.
Dedenzȱavoitȱmisȱsesȱgelines
DantȱCostantȱporȱlaȱforteresce.
EtȱRenartȱceleȱpartȱs’adresce:
Toutȱcoiement,ȱleȱcolȱbessié
Sȇenȱvaȱtotȱdroitȱversȱleȱplessié.
MoultȱfuȱRenartȱenȱgrantȱporchas,
Mesȱlaȱforceȱdesȱespinars
Leȱtrestorneȱdeȱsonȱafere
Siȱquȇilȱn’enȱsetȱaȱquelȱchiefȱtrere;
Neȱporȱluitierȱneȱporȱsaillir
Asȱgelinesȱneȱpuetȱvenir.
Acroupizȱs’estȱenȱmiȱlaȱvoie,
Moultȱseȱdouteȱqueȱl’enȱnelȱvoie.
(RomanȱdeȱRenartȱvv.ȱ1212–46,ȱemphasisȱmyȱown)
[Heȱtookȱoffȱrunningȱtoȱaȱfarm.ȱTheȱfarmȱwasȱnextȱtoȱtheȱwoods.ȱItȱwasȱwellȱstocked
withȱanimalsȱandȱfeed.ȱThereȱwereȱchicks,ȱroosters,ȱdonkeys,ȱducks,ȱnighthawks,ȱand
geese.ȱMr.ȱConstantȱisȱaȱveryȱrichȱpeasantȱwhoȱisȱworkingȱnearȱthere.ȱHisȱhousehold
wasȱfullȱofȱhensȱandȱcapons:ȱsoȱwellȱhadȱheȱprovisionedȱtheȱhouse,ȱthatȱheȱhadȱenough
ofȱthisȱandȱthatȱandȱsaltedȱmeats,ȱbaconȱandȱotherȱfoods,ȱsoȱthatȱthisȱwasȱaȱrichȱvilain,
whoȱlivedȱveryȱwell,ȱandȱkeptȱsuchȱaȱgoodȱhouseholdȱthatȱeverythingȱaroundȱhim
pleasedȱhim.ȱThereȱwereȱmanyȱgoodȱcherryȱtreesȱthere,ȱandȱmanyȱotherȱkindsȱofȱfruits.
Thereȱwereȱapplesȱandȱotherȱfruitȱtrees.ȱRenartȱgoesȱthereȱtoȱtakeȱsome.ȱTheȱgarden
wasȱclosedȱandȱwellȱprotectedȱbyȱanȱenclosureȱwithȱhedgesȱandȱspinyȱbushes.ȱInside
those,ȱtheȱConstantȱputȱallȱofȱhis,ȱlikeȱaȱfortress.ȱRenartȱwentȱthereȱcautiously,ȱneck
down,ȱ theȱ spinyȱ bushesȱ andȱ hedges,ȱ stealthilyȱ inȱ fullȱ pursuitȱ butȱ botheredȱ byȱ the
painfulȱbushes,ȱsoȱmuchȱsoȱthatȱheȱisȱableȱtoȱneitherȱattackȱnorȱpounceȱonȱtheȱchicks
inȱtheȱenclosureȱandȱmustȱgoȱawayȱwithȱhisȱheadȱdown]ȱ[Ttranslationȱmyȱown].
Theȱcovetedȱagriculturalȱspaceȱisȱthusȱshownȱnextȱtoȱtheȱfearfulȱwildernessȱofȱthe
woods,ȱdescribedȱasȱanȱidyllicȱenclosureȱfullȱofȱbarnyardȱanimals,ȱpoultry,ȱand
livestock.ȱTheȱdescriptionȱofȱthisȱruralȱspaceȱisȱbountiful,ȱwithȱcopiousȱfruitȱand
foliage,ȱliveȱanimals,ȱandȱampleȱstoresȱofȱfood.ȱItȱstandsȱinȱsharpȱcontrastȱtoȱthe
animalsȱthatȱwereȱstarvingȱtoȱtheȱdeathȱinȱtheȱforest,ȱinȱbranchȱeightȱ(v.ȱ3683)ȱand
elsewhere,ȱthatȱwereȱ“dyingȱofȱhunger,”ȱallȱaroundȱhim.
OftenȱinȱtheȱRomanȱdeȱRenart,ȱactionȱisȱsetȱinȱtheȱspaceȱofȱtheȱruralȱpasture.ȱItȱis
aȱbucolicȱpastoralȱsceneȱofȱsimpleȱruralȱlife,ȱinterruptedȱbyȱhungerȱandȱviolence.
288 SarahȱGordon
TheȱruralȱmeadowsȱofȱsheepȱareȱlikenedȱtoȱtheȱparadiseȱofȱAdamȱandȱEveȱinȱthe
prologueȱbranch.ȱInȱanotherȱbranch,ȱRenartȱandȱYsengrin,ȱhisȱnemesisȱtheȱwolf,
discoverȱaȱflockȱofȱsheepȱgrazingȱonȱaȱhill.ȱSalivatingȱasȱheȱimaginesȱtheȱtasteȱof
lamb,ȱRenartȱplotsȱthatȱYsengrinȱwillȱputȱonȱshepherdȇsȱclothingȱtoȱtrickȱtheȱguard
dogsȱ withȱ hisȱ scent,ȱ andȱ thenȱ catchȱ theȱ newbornȱ lambsȱ whenȱ theyȱ hearȱ their
supposedȱmasterȱcalling.ȱHowever,ȱRenartȱknowsȱfullȱwellȱthatȱwhenȱYsengrin
calls,ȱ theȱ sheepȱ willȱ panicȱ atȱ theȱ wolfȇsȱ howlsȱ andȱ theȱ dogsȱ willȱ chaseȱ his
accomplice,ȱallowingȱRenartȱinsteadȱtoȱgrabȱsheepȱforȱhisȱownȱdinner.ȱThus,ȱthose
thatȱexhibitȱcunningȱandȱclevernessȱwillȱsurvive,ȱandȱeatȱwell,ȱinȱtheȱbleakȱand
hungryȱruralȱworld.
Toȱsomeȱextent,ȱthen—evenȱthoughȱallȱtheȱanimalsȱareȱtechnicallyȱnoblesȱand
Renartȱ mocksȱ humanȱ vilainsȱ andȱ stealsȱ fromȱ farmers—theȱ figureȱ ofȱ the
extraordinaryȱRenartȱseemsȱtoȱrepresentȱtheȱruralȱpoorȱ(thoughȱheȱhimselfȱisȱa
baronȱ andȱ aȱ memberȱ ofȱ theȱ poorerȱ ruralȱ aristocracy),ȱ readyȱ toȱ doȱ anythingȱ to
survive,ȱwhileȱYsengrinȱrepresentsȱtheȱricherȱbourgeoisie,ȱfromȱwhomȱheȱmay
steal,ȱandȱBrunȱandȱothersȱrepresentȱtheȱnobility.ȱSeveralȱmanuscriptȱimagesȱshow
peasantȱfarmersȱchasingȱandȱbeatingȱRenart.ȱTheȱanimalsȱoftenȱclashȱwithȱlocal
peasantȱ farmers,ȱ termedȱ paysanȱ orȱ vilainȱ inȱ theȱ text,ȱ asȱ forȱ exampleȱ inȱ branch
fourteen,ȱwhenȱPrimautȱleȱloupȱisȱattackedȱandȱthenȱchasesȱtheȱpeasantȱ“quiȱest
morduȱauxȱfesses”ȱ[whoȱisȱbittenȱonȱhisȱbehind].ȱTheȱpeasantsȱareȱusuallyȱshown
inȱaȱpredominantlyȱoutdoorȱruralȱenvironment,ȱworkingȱinȱtheȱgarden,ȱtendingȱthe
landȱorȱpreservingȱfood,ȱorȱgoingȱtoȱtheȱmarket;ȱweȱalsoȱfindȱthemȱorȱatȱhome
eatingȱatȱtheȱtable.ȱTheirȱfarmsȱandȱcellarsȱareȱusuallyȱwellȱprovisionedȱandȱwell
protected,ȱandȱtheȱtargetȱofȱtheȱhungryȱanimals,ȱwhoȱsurroundȱandȱthreatenȱthem
onȱtheȱmarginsȱofȱtheirȱlandȱandȱthreatenȱtheirȱwealthȱandȱpower—hereȱperhaps
aȱ comicȱ satireȱ ofȱ socialȱ inequalityȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ aȱ representationȱ ofȱ theȱ realȱ rural
threatsȱanimalsȱposedȱtoȱgardensȱandȱlivestock.
Inȱaȱbranchȱinȱwhichȱtheȱcleverȱfoxȱtriesȱtoȱoutsmartȱaȱgreedyȱarrivisteȱfarmer
namedȱBertaud,ȱweȱhaveȱaȱrichȱdescriptionȱagriculturalȱruralȱspace,ȱtoȱparaphrase:
theȱfarmȱspaceȱisȱonȱtheȱedgeȱofȱtheȱwoods.ȱTheȱroadsȱareȱnotȱgoodȱandȱnotȱmeant
forȱaȱfoxȱtoȱtravelȱon,ȱanyway.ȱFirstȱweȱseeȱprairieȱland,ȱthenȱfarmland.ȱTheȱprairie
isȱdescribedȱasȱpleasant,ȱlush,ȱandȱbountiful.ȱAsȱforȱtheȱfarm,ȱ“c’estȱleȱparadis
terrestre,”ȱanȱearthlyȱparadise,ȱwithȱlotsȱofȱwater,ȱflowers,ȱwood,ȱhills.ȱItȱisȱfullȱof
life,ȱandȱhuntingȱisȱabundantȱandȱeasy.ȱTheȱfieldsȱareȱgreenȱandȱtheȱflowersȱsmell
good.ȱ
HungerȱbringsȱRenartȱfromȱtheȱwoodsȱtoȱthisȱruralȱspace.ȱThereȱisȱnowhereȱmore
pleasantȱthanȱthis,ȱheȱthinksȱtoȱhimself.ȱRenartȱspiesȱtheȱfarmȱofȱtheȱrichestȱvilain,
thisȱ sideȱ ofȱ Troyes,ȱ fullȱ ofȱ fruitȱ treesȱ andȱ allȱ theȱ livestockȱ andȱ foodȱ ofȱ one’s
hungriestȱandȱgreediestȱdreams,ȱ“abundantlyȱprovisionedȱwithȱeverythingȱthatȱit
isȱ possibleȱ toȱ desireȱ inȱ theȱ country:ȱ bullsȱ andȱ cows,ȱ ewesȱ andȱ sheep,ȱ chicks,
capons,ȱeggs,ȱandȱmilk,”ȱ(translationȱmyȱown).ȱAsȱwithȱsoȱmanyȱofȱtheȱprivate
vegetableȱgardensȱillustratedȱinȱtheȱextantȱcorpus,ȱthisȱgardenȱofȱplentyȱisȱclosed
andȱwellȬprotectedȱwithȱpointyȱsticks,ȱdeepȱwells,ȱandȱaȱditchȱfullȱofȱwater.ȱThis
vilainȱisȱdescribed,ȱsimilarlyȱtoȱsomeȱofȱtheȱvilainsȱinȱtheȱXXIIIȱmanièresȱdeȱvilains
typologyȱdiscussedȱabove,ȱas:ȱunsubtle,ȱveryȱgreedy,ȱandȱwantingȱtoȱincreaseȱhis
wealth.ȱHeȱpreferredȱtoȱkeepȱhisȱchickensȱandȱroostersȱratherȱthanȱputȱthemȱinȱa
potȱ butȱ heȱ soldȱ someȱ eachȱ weekȱ atȱ theȱ market.ȱ However,ȱ theȱ ruralȱ aristocrat
Renartȱhasȱaȱbetterȱideaȱofȱwhatȱtoȱdoȱwithȱtheȱhensȱhe’sȱsavingȱup.ȱWhileȱthe
vilain’sȱwifeȱwasȱgoneȱtoȱtownȱtoȱsellȱsomethingȱandȱtheȱboysȱwereȱoutȱworking
inȱtheȱfields,ȱtheȱhungryȱRenartȱstalksȱtheȱchickenȱfromȱbehindȱanȱimpenetrable
bushyȱhedgeȱnextȱtoȱaȱstreamȱofȱcollectedȱrainȱwater.ȱThisȱsceneȱdescribesȱmuch
aboutȱ notȱ onlyȱ theȱ useȱ ofȱ ruralȱ space,ȱ butȱ alsoȱ lifeȱ andȱ workȱ inȱ theȱ rural
environment.ȱ
TheȱOldȱFrenchȱFabliaux
Anȱoverviewȱofȱfabliauxȱruralityȱisȱusefulȱbeforeȱreturningȱtoȱaȱcomparisonȱofȱthe
twoȱrelatedȱgenres.ȱTheȱfabliauxȱincludeȱoverȱoneȱhundredȱfiftyȱextantȱshortȱverse
narratives,ȱcomposedȱcircaȱ1159–1340.ȱInȱhisȱdiscussionȱofȱfabliauȱtaxonomy,ȱNorris
Lacyȱ remindsȱ usȱ thatȱ genreȱ notȱ aȱ medievalȱ termȱ andȱ theȱ linesȱ areȱ notȱ strictly
drawn.10ȱTheȱaverageȱlengthȱofȱaȱshortȱnarrativeȱfabliauȱtaleȱisȱroughlyȱsimilarȱto
aȱbranchȱofȱtheȱRomanȱdeȱRenart,ȱwithȱoutliersȱthatȱareȱveryȱbrief.ȱFirstȱdefinedȱby
JosephȱBédierȱas,ȱ“contesȱàȱrireȱenȱvers,”ȱ[talesȱofȱlaughterȱinȱverse]ȱtheȱfabliaux
zoomȱinȱonȱaspectsȱofȱeverydayȱlifeȱinȱtheȱcountryȱandȱtheȱcityȱthroughȱaȱcomic
lens.11ȱ Itȱ isȱ generallyȱ agreedȱ thatȱ mostȱ fabliauxȱ wereȱ composedȱ forȱ aȱ largely
bourgeois,ȱcityȬdwelling,ȱmerchantȬclassȱaudienceȱ(thoughȱthereȱwereȱcertainly
courtlyȱaudiencesȱasȱwell).ȱ
Thoughȱtheȱfabliauxȱareȱoftenȱcharacterizedȱasȱanȱurbanȱgenreȱbyȱscholars,ȱthey
areȱnotȱonlyȱsetȱinȱcities,ȱbutȱalsoȱdealȱwithȱhumanȱnatureȱandȱdailyȱlifeȱinȱrural
andȱagriculturalȱsettingsȱasȱwell.ȱJodogneȱsuggestsȱthatȱtheȱfabliauxȱareȱcloseȱto
beingȱ historicallyȱ accurateȱ inȱ theirȱ portrayalȱ ofȱ theȱ ruralȱ world;ȱ conversely,
Bianciottoȱ situatesȱ theȱ genreȱ inȱ aȱ specificallyȱ “urbanȱ context.”12ȱ Vàrvaro
compromisesȱinȱhisȱtypologyȱofȱtheȱextantȱtextsȱofȱtheȱgenre,ȱdividingȱtheȱcorpus
10
NorrisȱJ.ȱLacy,ȱReadingȱtheȱFabliauxȱ(NewȱYork:ȱGarland,ȱ1998).
11
JosephȱBédier,ȱLesȱfabliauxȱ(Paris:ȱChampion,ȱ1893).ȱ39.
12
Jodogne,ȱLeȱFabliauȱ(seeȱnoteȱ5).ȱGabrielȱBianciotto,ȱ“Leȱfabliauȱetȱlaȱville,”ȱThirdȱInternationalȱBeast
Epic,ȱ Fable,ȱ andȱ Fabliauxȱ Colloquiumȱ (Cologne:ȱ Böhlan,ȱ 1981),ȱ 43–65;ȱ hereȱ 43.ȱ Forȱ moreȱ onȱ the
historicalȱcontextȱinȱFrance,ȱroughlyȱaroundȱtheȱtimeȱofȱcomposition,ȱseeȱMarcȱBloch,ȱFrenchȱRural
History:ȱ Anȱ Essayȱ inȱ itsȱ Basicȱ Characteristics,ȱ trans.ȱ Janetȱ Sondheimerȱ (Berkeley:ȱ Universityȱ of
CaliforniaȱPress,ȱ1966).
290 SarahȱGordon
intoȱ fabliauxȱ cittadiniȱ andȱ fabliauxȱ contadini,ȱ orȱ cityȱ narrativesȱ andȱ country
narratives.13ȱAȱcriticalȱcompromiseȱisȱindeedȱinȱorder,ȱasȱtheȱfabliauxȱdepictȱurban,
country,ȱandȱotherȱspaces.ȱDescriptionsȱofȱtheȱruralȱincludeȱelementsȱofȱrealism
thatȱwouldȱnoȱdoubtȱbeȱfamiliarȱtoȱmostȱruralȱandȱurbanȱcontemporaryȱaudiences
alike.
CharlesȱMuscatine’sȱstudyȱofȱtheȱfabliauxȱsituatesȱtheȱgenreȱparticularlyȱinȱaȱtime
ofȱgrowingȱpopulationsȱofȱcitiesȱthatȱdependedȱonȱruralȱagriculture.ȱHeȱseesȱthe
interactionȱbetweenȱruralȱandȱurbanȱatȱtheȱcenterȱofȱtheȱfabliaux.ȱȱRuralȱandȱurban
povertyȱ andȱ debtȱ andȱ theȱ fluidityȱ ofȱ socialȱ statusȱ areȱ aȱ focusȱ forȱ Muscatine.
However,ȱMuscatineȱemphasizesȱtheȱupwardlyȬmobileȱnatureȱofȱtheȱvilainȱandȱthe
growthȱofȱtheȱbourgeoisȱsocietyȱofȱtheȱcitiesȱasȱmoreȱcentralȱtoȱtheȱfabliauxȱthanȱdo
otherȱfabliauȱscholars,ȱsuchȱasȱBrianȱLevy,ȱwhoȱtakesȱissueȱwithȱthisȱpointȱofȱview
andȱsuggestsȱmoreȱcomplexityȱtoȱtheȱfabliaux.14
Theȱ lowerȱ socialȱ classȱ ofȱ vilainȱ existedȱ inȱ bothȱ ruralȱ andȱ urbanȱ settings,ȱ but
usuallyȱrefersȱtoȱaȱfarmerȱorȱsimilarȱstatus.ȱMostȱfabliauxȱcharactersȱareȱfarmersȱor
merchants,ȱ withȱ aȱ fewȱ knightlyȱ andȱ priestlyȱ outliers.ȱ Manyȱ charactersȱ liveȱ in
poverty,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱpoorȱwoodcutters,ȱpoorȱfarmers,ȱpoorȱdonkeyȱdrivers,ȱrural
clergy,ȱandȱothersȱthatȱpopulateȱtheȱruralȱsideȱofȱtheȱfabliauxȱworld.ȱSomeȱofȱthe
ruralȱpoorȱareȱdepictedȱwithȱaspirationsȱofȱsocialȱmobilityȱorȱwithȱgreedyȱand
covetousȱnatures,ȱasȱtheyȱattemptȱtoȱdupeȱorȱstealȱfromȱtheȱrich.ȱNearlyȱaȱfourth
ofȱtheȱtitlesȱ(orȱopeningȱlines)ȱofȱtheȱextantȱfabliauxȱreferȱtoȱaȱruralȱoccupationȱand
vilainȱ(orȱupwardlyȬmobileȱvilain)ȱstatus,ȱsuchȱas:ȱtheȱLeȱvilainȱasnierȱ[TheȱPeasant
MuleȱDriver],ȱLeȱvilainȱmireȱ[TheȱPeasantȱSurgeon]ȱandȱLeȱVilainȱquiȱconquistȱparadis
.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ[TheȱPeasantȱthatȱConqueredȱParadise]ȱandȱmanyȱothers.ȱ
Someȱfabliauxȱnarratorsȱhighlightȱwhatȱtheyȱsuggestȱisȱrealism,ȱorȱtheirȱownȱselfȬ
proclaimedȱtrueȱportrayalsȱofȱsocioȬeconomicȱhardshipsȱandȱfamine.ȱCaseȱinȱpoint:
asȱtoȱbeȱexpectedȱinȱthisȱperiod,ȱtheȱVilainȱdeȱBaileulȱnarrator,ȱJeanȱBodel,ȱclaimsȱthe
taleȱisȱtrue.ȱThisȱisȱaȱportraitȱweȱseeȱrepeatedȱwithȱvariationȱinȱseveralȱfabliaux,
withȱaȱpoor,ȱhungry,ȱugly,ȱignorant,ȱandȱcuckoldedȱfarmer,ȱinȱaȱruralȱcontextȱthat
theȱnarrator,ȱinȱaȱcommonȱtrope,ȱclaimsȱtoȱbeȱtrueȬtoȬlife:
Seȱfabliauxȱpuetȱveritezȱestre,
Dontȱavintȱil,ȱceȱdistȱmonȱmestre,
C’unsȱvilainsȱBailluelȱmanoit.
Formenzȱetȱterresȱahanoit,
N’estoitȱuseriersȱneȱchangiere.
Unȱjor,ȱaȱeureȱdeȱprangiere,
13
AlbertoȱVàrvaro,ȱ“Iȱfabliauxȱeȱlaȱsocietà,”ȱStudioȱMediolatiniȱeȱVolgariȱ8ȱ(1960):ȱ275–99;ȱhereȱ287.
14
BrianȱJosephȱLevyȱreevaluatesȱMuscatine’sȱtraditionalȱstanceȱintroducedȱinȱhisȱ1976ȱarticleȱhere;
theȱaboveȱcitationȱisȱLevyȱonȱMuscatine’sȱpointȱofȱviewȱbyȱBrianȱJosephȱLevy,ȱTheȱComicȱText:
PatternsȱandȱImagesȱinȱtheȱOldȱFrenchȱFabliauxȱ(AmsterdamȱandȱAtlanta:ȱRodopiȱ2000),ȱ14.
Vintȱenȱmesonȱmoutȱfameilleus,
Ilȱestoitȱgranzȱetȱmerveilleus
Etȱmaufezȱetȱdeȱlaideȱhure.
.ȱ.ȱ.
Ezȱvousȱleȱvilainȱquiȱbaaille
Etȱdeȱfamineȱetȱdeȱmésaise ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ(vv.ȱ1–9ȱandȱ20–21).
[Thisȱfabliauȱmayȱbeȱtrue,ȱforȱsoȱitȱcameȱtoȱme,ȱsoȱmyȱmasterȱtoldȱme,ȱaboutȱthis
oneȱvilain,ȱwhoȱcameȱfromȱBailleul.ȱHeȱworkedȱtheȱlandȱandȱtendedȱtoȱhisȱgrain,
forȱheȱwasȱnotȱaȱusurerȱorȱmoneyȬlender.ȱOneȱday,ȱheȱcameȱbackȱtoȱtheȱhouseȱvery
hungry.ȱHeȱwasȱbigȱandȱmarvelousȱandȱstrong,ȱbutȱrusticȱandȱugly.ȱAndȱthus
cameȱtheȱpeasantȱthatȱwasȱgroaningȱofȱhungerȱandȱpain,ȱtranslationȱmyȱown.]
Thisȱvilainȱisȱdescribedȱasȱrural,ȱessentiallyȱinȱtermsȱofȱhisȱphysicalȱmanualȱlabor,
andȱinȱoppositionȱtoȱtheȱurban,ȱsinceȱheȱdoesȱnotȱhaveȱanȱurbanȱoccupation,ȱsuch
asȱ moneyȬlending,ȱ asȱ theȱ narratorȱ suggests.ȱ Moreover,ȱ theȱ descriptionȱ above
showsȱthatȱheȱisȱstrong,ȱhardy,ȱhardȬworking,ȱandȱnonethelessȱsufferingȱandȱdying
ofȱhunger.
Aboutȱforty,ȱofȱtheȱapproximatelyȱoneȱhundredȱfifty,ȱextantȱfabliauȱareȱabout
vilains,ȱwithȱseveralȱdescribingȱfarmersȱsimilarȱtoȱtheȱVilainȱdeȱBaileulȱabove,ȱand
othersȱwithȱruralȱoccupations.ȱSeveralȱbriefȱyetȱvariedȱexamplesȱofȱsuchȱcentral
ruralȱfiguresȱsufficeȱtoȱpaintȱtheȱpictureȱofȱfabliauȱruralȱfigures,ȱlongȱneglectedȱby
literaryȱhistorians.ȱFromȱtheȱsettingsȱandȱtheȱactorsȱwhoȱmoveȱaboutȱinȱthem,ȱwe
seeȱthatȱtheȱfabliauxȱareȱfarȱfromȱbeingȱaȱbourgeoisȱurbanȱgenre;ȱforȱinstance,ȱinȱDu
Segretainȱmoineȱ(TheȱSacristanȱMonk),ȱFarmerȱThibaut’sȱmanureȱpileȱisȱtheȱscene
ofȱtheȱcleverȱruralȱcomedyȱofȱerrors.ȱInȱDeȱlaȱdemoiselleȱquiȱn’otȱparlerȱdeȱfotreȱqui
n’aüstȱmalȱauȱcoeur,ȱthereȱareȱfarmhandsȱwithȱdirtyȱmouthsȱwhoȱcurseȱandȱswear
andȱharassȱtheȱgirlȱwithȱgraphicȱsexualȱlanguageȱuntilȱ(soȱtheȱfatherȱbelieves)ȱshe
isȱsickȱtoȱherȱstomach.ȱInȱtheȱVilainȱauȱbuffet,ȱtheȱfarmerȱhasȱcallusesȱandȱblistersȱon
hisȱ handsȱ fromȱ workingȱ inȱ theȱ field,ȱ andȱ cautiouslyȱ guardsȱ hisȱ hardȬearned
foodstuffs.ȱ
LandowningȱfarmersȱandȱhiredȱfarmhandsȱalsoȱappearȱinȱEstula,ȱinȱaȱportaitȱof
farmerȱandȱsonȱwhoȱliveȱoffȱtheȱland.ȱInȱEstula,ȱanȱignorantȱfarmerȱbelievesȱhe
ownsȱaȱtalkingȱdogȱandȱneedsȱtheȱpriestȱtoȱverify.ȱInȱthisȱsameȱtale,ȱtwoȱpovertyȬ
strickenȱbrothersȱattemptȱtoȱrobȱtheȱpoorȱfarmerȱofȱsheepȱandȱcabbages,ȱdueȱto
theirȱextremeȱhungerȱandȱsuffering,ȱtheȱnarratorȱtellsȱus.ȱInȱtheȱDuȱmeunierȱetȱles
deuxȱclercsȱ[TheȱMillerȱandȱtheȱTwoȱClerks],ȱweȱseeȱthatȱruralȱpeopleȱdoȱnotȱhave
manyȱhouseholdȱpossessions,ȱasȱtheȱruralȱmillerȱisȱpoorȱandȱhisȱdaughterȱsleeps
inȱaȱtrunk.
Theȱfabliauȱruralȱinhabitantsȱareȱoftenȱportrayedȱnotȱonlyȱasȱgreedy,ȱbutȱoftenȱas
naïveȱ andȱ gullible,ȱ tryingȱ toȱ getȱ somethingȱ forȱ nothingȱ orȱ toȱ climbȱ social
hierarchiesȱ butȱ oftenȱ failing.ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ inȱ Brunain,ȱ ouȱ Laȱ vacheȱ auȱ prêtre
[Brunain,ȱorȱtheȱPriest’sȱCow]:ȱaȱruralȱclergyȱmemberȱtellsȱaȱpoor,ȱgullibleȱvilain
292 SarahȱGordon
andȱhisȱwifeȱtheyȱwillȱreceiveȱdoubleȱwhatȱtheyȱgiveȱinȱtheȱnameȱofȱGod.ȱTheȱpoor
farmerȱcoupleȱgoȱbackȱtoȱtheirȱstable,ȱretrieveȱtheirȱoldȱmilkȱcow,ȱthatȱisȱalmostȱout
ofȱ milkȱ andȱ nearlyȱ worthless,ȱ theyȱ reason,ȱ andȱ giveȱ itȱ toȱ theȱ priest,ȱ whoȱ then
attachesȱitȱtoȱhisȱownȱcowȱinȱtheȱenclosureȱforȱtheȱproudȱsafeȬkeepingȱofȱhisȱeasily
obtainedȱprize.ȱTheȱnextȱday,ȱtheȱpeasant’sȱcowȱsauntersȱdownȱtheȱroadȱtoȱthe
homeȱthatȱitȱknowsȱwellȱasȱitȱpullsȱtheȱsecondȱanimalȱwithȱit,ȱthusȱfulfillingȱthe
supposedȱprophecy.ȱTheȱluckyȱpeasantsȱlamentȱthatȱtheirȱstableȱmightȱbeȱtooȱsmall
forȱtwoȱcows.ȱTheȱtaleȱgivesȱaȱvaluableȱglimpseȱofȱabuseȱofȱpower,ȱsocioȬeconomic
inequality,ȱandȱruralȱpoverty.
Poverty,ȱhunger,ȱcrime,ȱviolenceȱandȱinequalityȱareȱrampantȱinȱtheȱruralȱspaces
ofȱtheȱfabliaux,ȱnarrativesȱthatȱoftenȱweighȱinȱonȱtheȱinequalityȱofȱtheȱgapȱbetween
richȱandȱpoor.15ȱMoreover,ȱtheȱvilainȱisȱportrayedȱasȱanȱignorantȱcountryȱbumpkin.
InȱEstulaȱ[AreȬyouȬthereȱtheȱDog]ȱ(vv.ȱ2–18)ȱtwoȱstarvingȱvilainȱbrothers,ȱwhoȱlive
inȱ theȱ country,ȱ aimȱ toȱ stealȱ sheepȱ andȱ cabbageȱ fromȱ aȱ richerȱ localȱ farmer,ȱ to
paraphraseȱtheȱdiscussionȱofȱruralȱlifeȱandȱpovertyȱinȱthisȱsalientȱexample:ȱpoverty
wasȱtheȱbrothers’ȱcloseȱfriend,ȱforȱitȱwasȱoftenȱwithȱthem.ȱItȱisȱtheȱthingȱthatȱmakes
thoseȱitȱhauntsȱsufferȱtheȱmost;ȱthereȱisȱnoȱworseȱillness.ȱOneȱnightȱtheȱbrothersȱare
pushedȱtoȱtheȱedgeȱofȱhunger,ȱthirstȱandȱcold,ȱallȱtheȱevilsȱthatȱattachȱthemselves
toȱthoseȱwhomȱpovertyȱholdsȱinȱitsȱpower.ȱ
Theyȱponderȱhowȱtoȱdefendȱthemselvesȱfromȱtheȱpovertyȱthatȱattackedȱthemȱ(vv.
1–8,ȱtranslationȱmyȱown).ȱTheyȱareȱmotivatedȱbyȱhungerȱtoȱstealȱcabbagesȱand
sheepȱfromȱaȱneighboringȱfarmer.ȱButȱtheȱtwoȱhungryȱbrothersȱareȱignorantȱand
easilyȱtricked,ȱagainȱreinforcingȱtheȱfabliauxȱstereotypeȱofȱruralȱpeopleȱasȱpovertyȬ
stricken,ȱignorant,ȱandȱdesperate.ȱRuralȱpovertyȱisȱagainȱequatedȱwithȱignorance
andȱgullibility,ȱasȱLesȱdeuxȱbourgeoisȱetȱunȱvilain,ȱinȱwhichȱtheȱmerchantȬclassȱmen
referȱtoȱtheȱvilainȱasȱstupidȱasȱanȱanimalȱandȱsuggestȱfindingȱaȱwayȱtoȱteachȱthis
ignorantȱman.ȱIfȱtheȱcityȬdwellerȱisȱcharacterizedȱbyȱgreedȱandȱcorruption,ȱthen
thisȱruralȱinhabitantȱisȱtreatedȱwithȱpejorativeȱlanguageȱandȱisȱcharacterizedȱby
povertyȱ andȱ ignoranceȱ orȱ cunning,ȱ asȱ areȱ othersȱ locatedȱ inȱ ruralȱ spaceȱ inȱ this
corpus.ȱ
Inȱaddition,ȱtheȱconflictȱbetweenȱrichȱandȱpoorȱandȱissuesȱofȱtaxationȱareȱtaken
upȱ inȱ Laȱ vie[i]lleȱ quiȱ graissaȱ laȱ patteȱ duȱ chevalierȱ [Theȱ Womanȱ whoȱ Greasedȱ the
Knight’sȱ Palm]ȱ (translationȱ ofȱ titleȱ myȱ own),ȱ inȱ whichȱ anȱ ignorantȱ womanȱ in
financialȱtroubleȱturnsȱtoȱaȱfriendȱforȱadvice,ȱandȱverbalȱandȱphysicalȱcomedy
15
SeeȱTracy’sȱarticleȱonȱimagesȱofȱexcessiveȱviolenceȱandȱtortureȱinȱtheȱfabliauxȱinȱLarissaȱTracy,
“TheȱUsesȱofȱTortureȱandȱViolenceȱinȱtheȱFabliaux:ȱWhenȱComedyȱCrossesȱtheȱLine,”ȱFlorilegium
23.2ȱ (2006):ȱ 143–68.ȱ Albrechtȱ Classen’sȱ definitiveȱ volumeȱ onȱ violenceȱ inȱ medievalȱ culture
investigatesȱviolenceȱinȱotherȱcontemporaryȱgenresȱfromȱanȱinterdisciplinaryȱperspective:ȱViolence
inȱMedievalȱCourtlyȱLiterature:ȱAȱCasebook.ȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassenȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱLondon:ȱRoutledge,
2004).
ensuesȱwhenȱsheȱtakesȱtheȱsuggestionȱtoȱbribeȱandȱflatterȱtheȱtaxȱcollectorȱand
“butterȱhimȱup,”ȱallȱtooȱliterally.ȱWhatȱisȱmore,ȱtheȱcontrastȱbetweenȱurbanȱand
ruralȱisȱnotȱtheȱonlyȱoppositionȱpresented.ȱTheȱruralȱandȱtheȱcourtlyȱalsoȱclash,ȱin
talesȱsuchȱasȱLeȱvilainȱmire,ȱasȱtheyȱcriticizeȱtheȱignoranceȱandȱpovertyȱofȱtheȱvilain
andȱpaysanȱandȱtheȱmistrustȱthoseȱofȱotherȱsocialȱmilieuxȱhaveȱofȱthem.
Conclusions
Asȱ weȱ remapȱ theseȱ shortȱ narrativesȱ toȱ includeȱ theȱ vastȱ ruralȱ spacesȱ andȱ their
inhabitants,ȱ longȱ neglectedȱ byȱ scholarship,ȱ weȱ bringȱ toȱ lightȱ furtherȱ powerful
representationsȱ ofȱ poverty,ȱ hunger,ȱ greed,ȱ inequality,ȱ andȱ foodȱ stealingȱ that
plagueȱtheȱotherwiseȱidyllicȱruralȱspaceȱofȱtheȱtwoȱgenres.ȱThereȱisȱalsoȱaȱsocial
stigmaȱattachedȱtoȱpovertyȱthatȱisȱscrutinized.ȱFinally,ȱweȱdiscoverȱaȱcomplex,
comicȱsocialȱroadmapȱofȱrural,ȱurban,ȱandȱotherȱinȬbetweenȱspaces.ȱTheȱruralȱisȱa
continuumȱinȱtheseȱtales,ȱthatȱmayȱbeȱmeasuredȱinȱgeographicȱandȱdemographic
degreesȱandȱinȱtextualȱnuances,ȱasȱillustratedȱinȱtheȱexamplesȱabove,ȱandȱmany
similarȱexamplesȱthroughoutȱbothȱgenres.
Inȱsummary,ȱtheȱfabliauxȱfocusȱmoreȱonȱtheȱcharacterizingȱtheȱruralȱmindset,
whileȱ inȱ contrast,ȱ theȱ Romanȱ deȱ Renartȱ focusesȱ primarilyȱ onȱ theȱ describingȱ the
detailsȱofȱruralȱspaces.ȱTheȱfabliauxȱdrawȱaȱcontrastȱbetweenȱtheȱruralȱandȱurban
spheres,ȱ whileȱ theȱ Romanȱ deȱ Renartȱ paintsȱ aȱ pictureȱ ofȱ theȱ inhabitantsȱ ofȱ the
marginalȱspaceȱbetweenȱtheȱfarmȱandȱtheȱwoods,ȱtheȱrichȱworldȱofȱtheȱcourtȱand
theȱpoorȱworldȱofȱtheȱcountry.ȱSocialȱsatireȱandȱcorrectiveȱcommentaryȱofȱsocioȬ
economicȱinequalitiesȱareȱapparentȱinȱportrayalsȱofȱruralȱinteractions.ȱ
Moreover,ȱinȱcomparingȱandȱcontrastingȱrepresentationsȱofȱtheȱruralȱacrossȱthese
twoȱgenres,ȱthatȱareȱotherwiseȱsimilarȱinȱmanyȱways,ȱweȱmayȱgeneralizeȱthatȱthe
RomanȱdeȱRenartȱdescriptionsȱofȱruralȱandȱagriculturalȱspaceȱfocusȱonȱfarmsȱand
livingȱconditionsȱtherein,ȱincludingȱanimals,ȱproperty,ȱdiet,ȱandȱwork,ȱwhereasȱthe
fabliauxȱ tendȱ towardȱ theȱ portrayalȱ ofȱ attitudesȱ ofȱ andȱ aboutȱ ruralȱ inhabitants
themselves,ȱfocusingȱlessȱonȱhumanȱnatureȱthanȱonȱtheȱrelationȱofȱhumansȱtoȱthe
ruralȱlandscapes.ȱWhileȱweȱcannotȱfullyȱapplyȱtoday’sȱsociologicalȱnotionsȱofȱthe
ruralȱtoȱwhatȱruralȱmeantȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱbyȱlookingȱatȱtheȱdescriptionsȱsuch
asȱthoseȱcitedȱaboveȱandȱothers,ȱweȱgainȱaȱbetterȱunderstandingȱofȱruralȱlifeȱin
exploringȱtheȱculturalȱproductionȱthatȱitȱdepicts,ȱthroughȱbothȱtheȱrealisticȱandȱthe
imaginary.
InȱmappingȱtheȱruralȱlandscapeȱpaintedȱbyȱtheȱRomanȱdeȱRenartȱandȱunpacking
theȱruralȱethosȱsharedȱbyȱtheȱmanyȱvilainȱfiguresȱofȱtheȱfabliaux,ȱpatternsȱemerge
inȱdescriptionsȱofȱruralȱandȱagriculturalȱspacesȱandȱinȱruralȱmindsets.ȱRealityȱand
ruralityȱ alsoȱ emergeȱ inȱ theseȱ otherwiseȱ imaginativeȱ andȱ comicȱ narratives.ȱ In
conclusion,ȱinȱitsȱexplorationȱofȱruralȱandȱagriculturalȱlife,ȱtheȱRomanȱdeȱRenart
294 SarahȱGordon
focusesȱonȱruralȱspaces,ȱwhileȱtheȱfabliauxȱfocusȱonȱruralȱpeople.ȱItȱisȱinȱtheȱvery
natureȱofȱtheȱfabliauxȱtoȱconcentrateȱmoreȱonȱhumanȱnatureȱinȱgeneralȱthanȱon
otherȱdetails.ȱMostȱruralȱfabliauxȱcharactersȱfailȱtoȱescapeȱtheirȱrusticity,ȱnoȱmatter
howȱ economicallyȱ upwardlyȱ mobileȱ theyȱ are,ȱ noȱ matterȱ howȱ courtlyȱ their
intentions,ȱhowȱurbanȱtheirȱactivitiesȱmayȱbe.ȱTrue,ȱtheȱfabliauȱruralȱfigureȱisȱoften
shownȱ asȱ illȬmannered,ȱ ignorant,ȱ greedy,ȱ uneducated,ȱ foulȬmouthed,ȱ and
sometimesȱhirsute,ȱmalodorous,ȱorȱroughȬhanded,ȱbutȱitȱoftenȱcleverlyȱdupesȱthe
richȱandȱsometimesȱhappilyȱlivesȱoffȱtheȱland,ȱblissfullyȱignorantȱandȱfarȱfromȱthe
corruptionȱofȱtheȱcityȱorȱtheȱcourt.
Chapterȱ6
AndrewȱBreeze
(UniversityȱofȱNavarre,ȱPamplona)
Moor,ȱCourt,ȱandȱRiverȱinȱtheȱFourȱBranchesȱofȱthe
Mabinogi
1.ȱTheȱNatureȱofȱtheȱText
OfȱtheȱelevenȱWelshȱtalesȱknownȱtogetherȱasȱTheȱMabinogion,ȱtheȱperennialȱfavorite
isȱtheȱquartetȱonȱlove,ȱdanger,ȱandȱtheȱsupernaturalȱcalledȱtheȱFourȱBranchesȱofȱthe
Mabinogi.ȱ Theseȱ twelfthȬcenturyȱ narrativesȱ have,ȱ withȱ theȱ sevenȱ otherȱ stories,
gainedȱ readersȱ everȱ sinceȱ Charlotteȱ Guestȱ (1812–1895)ȱ firstȱ publishedȱ and
translatedȱthemȱinȱ1838–1849.ȱThisȱpopularityȱbroughtȱtheȱFourȱBranchesȱacademic
noticeȱasȱearlyȱasȱ1867,ȱwhenȱ(inȱhisȱOnȱtheȱStudyȱofȱCelticȱLiterature)ȱtheȱpoetȱand
criticȱMatthewȱArnoldȱ(1822–1888)ȱperceivedȱinȱthemȱtheȱremainsȱofȱCelticȱmyth,
nobleȱinȱitsȱruin,ȱbutȱ(heȱimplied)ȱwithȱsecretsȱtoȱbeȱfoundȱbyȱastuteȱresearchers.
Debateȱ onȱ theȱ talesȱ continuesȱ evenȱ now.ȱ Oneȱ recentȱ studyȱ dealsȱ withȱ their
manuscripts,ȱprovenance,ȱdating,ȱfolklore,ȱandȱsupposedȱmonasticȱlinks.1ȱOthers
discussȱtheirȱcompilationȱorȱIrishȱborrowings.2ȱThisȱattentionȱisȱdeserved,ȱforȱthe
societyȱ representedȱ inȱ them,ȱ althoughȱ nominallyȱ thatȱ ofȱ ancientȱ Britain,ȱ isȱ not
archaicȱbutȱmodern,ȱbeingȱthatȱofȱtheȱearlyȱtwelfthȱcenturyȱwhenȱtheȱtalesȱwere
written.ȱTheȱFourȱBranchesȱthusȱholdȱupȱaȱcloseȱandȱcircumstantialȱmirrorȱtoȱWelsh
courtȱlifeȱinȱtheȱageȱofȱHenryȱIȱ(1100–1135),ȱincludingȱdetailsȱofȱroyalȱnegotiation
andȱdecisionȬmakingȱinȱtimeȱofȱwarȱorȱpeace.3
1
150ȱ Jahreȱ “Mabinogion”:ȱ DeutschȬWalisischeȱ Kulturbeziehungen,ȱ ed.ȱ Bernhardȱ Maierȱ andȱ Stefan
Zimmerȱ(Tübingen:ȱMaxȱNiemeyer,ȱ2001).
2
NikolaiȱTolstoy,ȱTheȱOldestȱBritishȱProseȱLiteratureȱ(Lewiston,ȱQueenston,ȱandȱLampeter:ȱEdwin
Mellen,ȱ2009);ȱPatrickȱSimsȬWilliams,ȱIrishȱInfluenceȱonȱMedievalȱWelshȱLiteratureȱ(Oxford:ȱOxford
3
AndrewȱBreeze,ȱ“WarlordsȱandȱDiplomatsȱinȱtheȱFourȱBranchesȱofȱtheȱMabinogi,”ȱWarȱandȱPeace:
Criticalȱ Issuesȱ inȱ Europeanȱ Societiesȱ andȱ Literatureȱ 800–1800,ȱ ed.ȱ Albrechtȱ Classenȱ andȱ Nadia
Margolis.ȱFundamentalsȱofȱMedievalȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱCulture,ȱ8ȱ(Berlin:ȱDeȱGruyter,ȱ2011),
296 AndrewȱBreeze
Soȱ materialȱ aboundsȱ inȱ theȱ Fourȱ Branchesȱ onȱ theȱ Welshȱ rulingȱ classesȱ and
feasting,ȱhunting,ȱmarriage,ȱdiplomacy,ȱlegalȱredress,ȱprovisionȱofȱestates,ȱpolitics,
territorialȱgains,ȱbattle,ȱandȱsuddenȱdeath.ȱInȱcontrastȱtoȱthatȱisȱCelticȱpaganism,
onȱ whichȱ (despiteȱ theȱ claimsȱ ofȱ enthusiasts)ȱ theyȱ effectivelyȱ sayȱ nothing.4
Thoughtfulȱobserversȱnowȱacceptȱthis,ȱthanksȱtoȱaȱswirlȱofȱcriticismȱfromȱFrench,
British,ȱandȱUSȱscholarsȱthatȱhasȱsweptȱspeculationȱaway.5ȱYet,ȱifȱtheȱstoriesȱare
silentȱonȱheathenȱgodsȱandȱgoddesses,ȱtheyȱhaveȱmuchȱtoȱsayȱonȱmenȱandȱwomen,
andȱonȱWalesȱitself.ȱTheirȱauthorȱknewȱwellȱtheȱlandscapeȱofȱGwyneddȱinȱnorthȬ
westȱWalesȱandȱ(slightlyȱlessȱso)ȱthatȱofȱDyfedȱinȱtheȱsouthȬwest.ȱVaguerȱareȱthe
regionsȱbeyond,ȱwithȱGlamorganȱandȱGwentȱtoȱtheȱsouthȬeast,ȱandȱthenȱDublin,
Hereford,ȱOxford,ȱLondon,ȱandȱKent,ȱorȱevenȱ(byȱallusion)ȱNorthȱBritain,ȱwithȱthe
RomanȱWallȱofȱAntoninusȱandȱtheȱriverȱClyde.ȱ
AnalysisȱofȱperceptionsȱofȱlandscapeȱorȱruralȱspaceȱinȱWalesȱthusȱbringsȱusȱnear
theȱauthorȱofȱtheȱnarratives,ȱwhoȱwasȱclearlyȱatȱhomeȱwithȱlifeȱatȱtheȱhighestȱsocial
levelȱ inȱ Gwyneddȱ andȱ Dyfed,ȱ butȱ lessȱ soȱ inȱ theȱ worldȱ beyond.ȱ Ofȱ places
mentionedȱinȱtheȱFourȱBranches,ȱIȱhaveȱchosenȱelevenȱforȱdiscussionȱhere.ȱInȱthe
firstȱbranchȱareȱGlynȱCuchȱandȱArberthȱ(withȱitsȱmound),ȱGwawlȱfabȱCludȱ“Wall
sonȱ ofȱ Clyde,”ȱ theȱ Preseliȱ Hills,ȱ andȱ Teyrnon’sȱ courtȱ inȱ Lowerȱ Gwent.ȱ Inȱ the
secondȱareȱHarlechȱandȱtheȱmysteriousȱIrishȱriverȱ“Llinon.”ȱInȱtheȱthirdȱisȱDyfed;
andȱinȱtheȱfinalȱbranchȱPryderi’sȱcourtȱatȱRhuddlanȱTeifi,ȱArdudwy,ȱandȱLleu’s
courtȱatȱMurȱyȱCastell.ȱAllȱinformȱusȱonȱtheȱsureȱresponseȱofȱtheȱauthorȱofȱtheȱtales
toȱrealȱplaces,ȱbutȱcommentaryȱonȱthemȱalsoȱbringsȱoutȱtheȱvaryingȱreponsesȱof
modernȱscholars.
II.ȱTheȱFirstȱBranch,ȱtheȱTaleȱofȱPwyll
Thisȱ branchȱ beginsȱ crisplyȱ andȱ matterȬofȬfactlyȱ withȱ aȱ statementȱ ofȱ territorial
authority.ȱItȱtellsȱusȱthatȱPwyll,ȱPrinceȱofȱDyfed,ȱwasȱlordȱoverȱtheȱsevenȱcantrefs
(=ȱhundreds)ȱofȱDyfed,ȱthatȱArberthȱwasȱaȱchiefȱcourtȱofȱhis,ȱandȱthatȱoneȱdayȱhe
wentȱhuntingȱwithinȱhisȱdomainȱatȱGlynȱCych.ȱ(HeȱthereȱencountersȱtheȱKingȱof
theȱOtherȱWorld,ȱtoȱwhichȱheȱisȱtransportedȱforȱaȱyearȱandȱaȱdayȱinȱtheȱtale’sȱfirst
adventure.)ȱDyfed,ȱatȱtheȱtimeȱequivalentȱtoȱallȱofȱmodernȱPembrokeshireȱand
155–69.ȱSeeȱalsoȱCompanionȱTalesȱtoȱtheȱMabinogi:ȱLegendȱandȱLandscapeȱofȱWales,ȱtrans.ȱJohnȱK.
Bollardȱ(Llandysul:ȱGomer,ȱ2007).
4
Andrewȱ Breeze,ȱ “Someȱ Criticsȱ ofȱ theȱ Fourȱ Branchesȱ ofȱ theȱ Mabinogi,”ȱ Constructingȱ Nations,
ReconstructingȱMyth:ȱEssaysȱinȱHonourȱofȱT.ȱA.ȱShippey,ȱed.ȱAndrewȱWawnȱ(Brepols:ȱTurnhout,
2007),ȱ155–66.
5
K.ȱH.ȱJackson,ȱTheȱInternationalȱPopularȱTaleȱandȱEarlyȱWelshȱTraditionȱ(Cardiff:ȱUniversityȱofȱWales
Press,ȱ1961),ȱ81–133;ȱCeridwenȱLloydȬMorgan,ȱ“Introduction,”ȱArthurianȱLiteratureȱXXI:ȱCeltic
ArthurianȱMaterial,ȱed.ȱCeridwenȱLloydȬMorganȱ(Cambridge:ȱD.ȱS.ȱBrewer,ȱ2004),ȱ1–8.
Moor,ȱCourt,ȱandȱRiverȱ 297
westernȱCarmarthenshire,ȱwasȱborderedȱbyȱtheȱriverȱTeifiȱinȱtheȱnorthȱandȱTywi
inȱtheȱeast.ȱGlynȱCuchȱisȱeasilyȱfound.ȱItȱisȱtheȱriver,ȱrunningȱnorthȱintoȱtheȱTeifi,
whichȱtoȱthisȱdayȱseparatesȱPembrokeshireȱfromȱCarmarthenshire.ȱThisȱisȱwhere
Pwyll’sȱadventuresȱbegin,ȱwhen,ȱearlyȱinȱtheȱmorning,ȱheȱaroseȱandȱ“cameȱtoȱGlyn
Cuchȱtoȱlooseȱhisȱdogsȱintoȱtheȱwood”ȱ(“dyuotȱyȱLynnȱCuchȱiȱellwngȱeȱgwnȱdan
yȱcoet”).ȱHeȱsoundedȱhisȱhorn,ȱmusteredȱtheȱhunt,ȱfollowedȱtheȱdogs,ȱandȱlostȱhis
companions;ȱand,ȱwhileȱheȱwasȱlisteningȱtoȱtheȱcryȱofȱhisȱpack,ȱheȱheardȱtheȱcryȱof
anotherȱpack,ȱandȱtheyȱcameȱtoȱmeetȱhisȱown.6
TheȱvalleyȱofȱtheȱCuchȱisȱwoodedȱandȱsecludedȱtoȱthisȱday.ȱGuideȬbooksȱvariously
commentȱonȱthisȱslightlyȱmysteriousȱplace.ȱInȱtheȱnineteenthȱcentury,ȱoneȱsaid
somewhatȱunctuouslyȱofȱtheȱparishȱofȱMaenordeifiȱ(whereȱAberȬcuchȱis)ȱthatȱ“The
vicinityȱisȱornamentedȱwithȱseveralȱgentlemen’sȱseats;ȱandȱtheȱadjoiningȱcountry
isȱrichlyȱwooded,ȱandȱaffordsȱsomeȱfineȱviewsȱofȱtheȱvalesȱofȱTeivyȱandȱCych,
whichȱhereȱunite,ȱaboundingȱwithȱfeaturesȱofȱromanticȱbeauty.”ȱItȱcontinuesȱwith
proprietor’sȬeyeȱ remarksȱ onȱ countryȱ housesȱ “embosomedȱ inȱ flourishing
plantations”ȱorȱ“beautifullyȱsituated”ȱgrovesȱwhereȱ“groundsȱcomprehendȱsome
ruralȱandȱromanticȱscenery.”7ȱAȱcenturyȱlater,ȱaȱWelshmanȱwasȱbothȱevocativeȱand
practical:ȱ“Theȱcountryȱaroundȱisȱrichȱinȱlegends.ȱTheȱlanesȱareȱnarrowȱandȱdrop
withȱalarmingȱsteepnessȱintoȱhiddenȱvalleys.”8ȱOthersȱremarkȱonȱhowȱ“theȱwoods
closeȱin,ȱandȱtheȱvalleyȱbecomesȱaȱplaceȱforȱtheȱwalker,ȱnotȱtheȱmotorist”,ȱciteȱthe
taleȱofȱPwyll,ȱandȱconcludeȱthatȱtheȱwholeȱareaȱ“hasȱaȱfeelingȱofȱremotenessȱfrom
theȱ ordinaryȱ world.”9ȱ Aȱ recentȱ volumeȱ isȱ moreȱ bland,ȱ statingȱ merelyȱ thatȱ the
“delightfulȱ Cychȱ valleyȱ featuresȱ inȱ Theȱ Mabinogion.”10ȱ Forȱ someȱ theȱ areaȱ is
agreeable,ȱforȱothers,ȱuncanny.ȱBut,ȱwithȱthickȱwoodsȱandȱdeepȱvalleys,ȱitȱwould
beȱaȱplaceȱbothȱforȱfindingȱgameȱandȱforȱlosingȱone’sȱway.ȱTheȱmedievalȱauthor’s
perceptionsȱwereȱexact.
NowȱforȱArberthȱandȱitsȱmoundȱorȱgorsedd,ȱfiguringȱinȱtheȱfirstȱandȱthirdȱbranches.
Thisȱrequiresȱaȱlittleȱmoreȱthought.ȱWeȱmeetȱitȱinȱtheȱtale’sȱsecondȱsentenceȱand
againȱafterȱPryderi’sȱreturnȱfromȱtheȱOtherȱWorld:
6
ȱTheȱMabinogion,ȱtrans.ȱGwynȱJonesȱandȱThomasȱJonesȱ(NewȱYork:ȱDutton,ȱ1949),ȱ3;ȱPwyllȱPendeuic
Dyuet,ȱed.ȱR.ȱL.ȱThomsonȱ(Dublin:ȱDublinȱInstituteȱforȱAdvancedȱStudies,ȱ1957),ȱ1.ȱSeeȱalsoȱthe
contributionsȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱAbigailȱP.ȱDowlingȱandȱMarilynȱL.ȱSandidge,ȱandȱconsultȱalsoȱthe
IntroductionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱAlbrechtȱClassen.
7
SamuelȱLewis,ȱAȱTopographicalȱDictionaryȱofȱWales,ȱ3rdȱed.ȱ(London:ȱS.ȱLewisȱandȱCo.,ȱ1844),ȱII,
191–92.
8
VyvyanȱRees,ȱShellȱGuideȱtoȱSouthȬWestȱWalesȱ(London:ȱFaber,ȱ1963),ȱ13.
9
WynfordȱVaughanȬThomasȱandȱAlunȱLlewellyn,ȱTheȱShellȱGuideȱtoȱWalesȱ(London:ȱMichaelȱJoseph,
1969),ȱ66.
10
ȱAnon.,ȱ“Manordeifi,”ȱTheȱWelshȱAcademyȱEncyclopaediaȱofȱWales,ȱed.ȱJohnȱDavies,ȱNigelȱJenkins,
MennaȱBaines,ȱandȱPeredurȱLynchȱ(Cardiff:ȱUniversityȱofȱWalesȱPress,ȱ2008),ȱ535.
298 AndrewȱBreeze
Aȱ threigylgueithȱ ydȱ oedȱ ynȱ Arberth,ȱ prifȱ lysȱ idaw,ȱ aȱ gwledȱ darparedicȱ idaw,ȱ ac
yniueroedȱmawrȱoȱwyrȱyȱgytȱacȱef.ȱAȱguedyȱyȱbwytaȱkyntaf,ȱkyuodiȱyȱorymdeithȱa
orucȱPwyll,ȱaȱchyrchuȱpennȱgorssedȱaȱoedȱuchȱlawȱyȱllys,ȱaȱelwitȱGorssedȱArberth.11
[AndȱonceȱuponȱaȱtimeȱheȱwasȱatȱArberth,ȱaȱchiefȱcourtȱofȱhis,ȱwithȱaȱfeastȱpreparedȱfor
him,ȱandȱgreatȱhostsȱofȱmenȱalongȱwithȱhim.ȱAndȱafterȱtheȱfirstȱsittingȱPwyllȱaroseȱto
takeȱaȱwalk,ȱandȱmadeȱforȱtheȱtopȱofȱaȱmoundȱwhichȱwasȱaboveȱtheȱcourtȱandȱwas
calledȱGorseddȱArberth.12]
Commentȱonȱtheȱmound’sȱwhereaboutsȱshowsȱconfusion.ȱTheȱfavoriteȱhasȱbeen
theȱtownȱofȱNarberthȱ(whichȱlendsȱitsȱnameȱtoȱNarberth,ȱMontgomeryȱCounty,
Pennsylvania),ȱnearȱTenbyȱinȱsouthȱPembrokeshire.ȱThisȱisȱdoneȱonȱtheȱnotȬveryȬ
logicalȱgroundsȱthatȱNarberthȱisȱeasyȱtoȱfindȱonȱtheȱmodernȱmap,ȱunlikeȱNant
Arberth,ȱnearȱCardiganȱinȱsouthȱCeredigion.ȱTheȱevidenceȱisȱasȱfollows.ȱAbove
NantȱArberthȱandȱmarkedȱonȱOrdnanceȱSurveyȱmapsȱisȱaȱmoundȱcalledȱBancȬyȬ
Warren,ȱwhichȱmustȱbeȱancient,ȱbecauseȱtheȱmainȱCardiganȬAberystwythȱroad
bendsȱroundȱit.ȱItȱhasȱbeenȱpassedȱbyȱtravellersȱforȱcenturies,ȱandȱisȱparticularly
visibleȱinȱbeingȱatȱtheȱsummitȱofȱaȱpointedȱhillȱwhichȱcanȱbeȱseenȱforȱmilesȱaround.
Thisȱisȱhowȱtheȱnineteenthȱcenturyȱsawȱit.ȱItȱisȱinȱtheȱparishȱofȱLlangoedmor,ȱ“a
districtȱaboundingȱwithȱtimberȱofȱancientȱandȱluxuriantȱgrowth,ȱandȱwithȱgroves
ofȱstatelyȱoaksȱandȱotherȱtrees,ȱforȱtheȱnumberȱandȱbeautyȱofȱwhichȱtheȱimmediate
vicinityȱisȱeminentlyȱdistinguished.ȱSoonȱafterȱtheȱdeathȱofȱHenryȱI,ȱaȱmemorable
battleȱwasȱfoughtȱnearȱCrûgȱMawr,ȱaȱconicalȱhillȱinȱtheȱparish,ȱwithȱtheȱWelsh,
commandedȱbyȱGruffyddȱabȱRhÏs,ȱandȱtheȱEnglish,ȱinȱwhichȱtheȱlatterȱsustained
aȱsignalȱdefeat.”13ȱTheȱplaceȱwasȱfamousȱbeforeȱthat,ȱforȱitȱfiguresȱasȱaȱWonderȱof
Britainȱ inȱ theȱ ninthȬcenturyȱ Historiaȱ Brittonum,ȱ citedȱ byȱ Sirȱ Johnȱ Lloyd,ȱ who
mentionedȱ Crugȱ Mawrȱ andȱ “theȱ conicalȱ hill,ȱ stillȱ aȱ conspicuousȱ objectȱ inȱ the
landscapeȱ aroundȱ Cardigan,ȱ whichȱ legendȱ associatedȱ withȱ theȱ cureȱ of
melancholy.”14ȱButȱheȱsaidȱnothingȱonȱitȱasȱtheȱmoundȱofȱArberth,ȱwhereȱPwyll
witnessedȱstrangeȱevents.ȱ Sirȱ IforȱWilliamsȱwasȱsureȱthatȱPwyll’sȱcourtȱwasȱat
Narberth,ȱPembrokeshire.15
Againstȱhim,ȱW.ȱJ.ȱGruffyddȱ(inȱaȱrareȱflashȱofȱscepticism)ȱobservedȱthatȱthe
strongholdȱofȱrulersȱinȱthatȱlocalityȱwasȱTenby;ȱNarberthȱwasȱneverȱaȱchiefȱcourt
evenȱofȱitsȱownȱcantrefȱ(=ȱdistrict),ȱletȱaloneȱDyfed.ȱHeȱoptedȱforȱtheȱnorthern
Arberth.16ȱRobertȱThomsonȱnotedȱtheȱdifficultyȱpointedȱoutȱbyȱGruffydd.17ȱThe
11
PwyllȱPendeuicȱDyuet,ȱed.ȱThomsonȱ(seeȱnoteȱ6),ȱ7–8.
12
TheȱMabinogion,ȱtrans.ȱGwynȱJonesȱandȱThomasȱJonesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ6),ȱ9.
13
SamuelȱLewis,ȱTopographicalȱDictionaryȱ(seeȱnoteȱ7),ȱII,ȱ41–42.
14
J.ȱE.ȱLloyd,ȱAȱHistoryȱofȱWalesȱ(London:ȱLongmans,ȱGreen,ȱandȱCo.,ȱ1911),ȱ260,ȱ473.
15
PedeirȱKeincȱyȱMabinogi,ȱed.ȱIforȱWilliamsȱ(Caerdydd:ȱGwasgȱPrifysgolȱCymru,ȱ1930),ȱ93.
16
W.ȱJ.ȱGruffydd,ȱRhiannon:ȱAnȱInquiryȱintoȱtheȱOriginsȱofȱtheȱFirstȱandȱThirdȱBranchesȱofȱtheȱMabinogi
(Cardiff:ȱUniversityȱofȱWalesȱPress,ȱ1953),ȱ18.
17
PwyllȱPendeuicȱDyuet,ȱ24ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ6).
fameȱofȱtheȱspotȱisȱsuggestedȱfurtherȱbyȱaȱreferenceȱtoȱCrugȱDyfedȱinȱaȱpraiseȬ
poemȱonȱCynanȱGarwyn,ȱrulerȱofȱPowysȱ(eastȱcentralȱWales)ȱandȱfatherȱofȱthe
SelyfȱkilledȱatȱtheȱbattleȱofȱChesterȱinȱ613ȱ(orȱ615).ȱItȱwouldȱalludeȱtoȱconflictȱon
thisȱstrategicȱcoastalȱroute,ȱwithȱaȱcrucialȱriverȬcrossingȱatȱCardigan,ȱlongȱbefore
GruffyddȱapȱRhys’sȱencounterȱwithȱNormansȱinȱ1136.ȱTheȱbardȱmentionsȱbattleȱin
CrugȱDyfed,ȱandȱAergolȱonȱtheȱmove,ȱwhereȱAergolȱorȱAgricolaȱwasȱtheȱrulerȱof
Dyfed,ȱfatherȱofȱtheȱVoteporixȱwhoȱsufferedȱtheȱinvectiveȱofȱGildasȱinȱaboutȱ540,
andȱ whoseȱ monumentȱ isȱ onȱ showȱ inȱ Carmarthenȱ Museum.18ȱ Sirȱ Iforȱ Williams
thoughtȱCrugȱDyfedȱwasȱunidentified.19ȱSoȱdidȱJosephȱClancy.20
Butȱ thereȱ isȱ reasonȱ toȱ takeȱ itȱ asȱ Crugȱ Mawr,ȱ anȱ obviousȱ featureȱ inȱ Dyfed’s
landscape,ȱandȱonȱaȱstrategicȱroute.ȱAsȱforȱBancȬyȬWarren,ȱatȱitsȱsummitȱandȱon
aȱkinkȱinȱtheȱA487ȱtwoȱmilesȱeastȱofȱCardigan,ȱthisȱwasȱacceptedȱasȱtheȱmoundȱof
Arberthȱ byȱ me,ȱ usingȱ informationȱ fromȱ Geraintȱ Gruffyddȱ ofȱ Aberystwyth.21
Despiteȱ that,ȱ Sionedȱ Daviesȱ statesȱ thatȱ Arberthȱ “isȱ usuallyȱ equated”ȱ with
Narberth,ȱPembrokeshire,ȱsoȱ sheȱ discountsȱtheȱnorthernȱplace,ȱwithoutȱsaying
why.22ȱAnȱencyclopediaȱdeclaresȱthatȱtheȱPembrokeshireȱNarberthȱ“isȱmentioned
inȱtheȱsecondȱsentenceȱofȱtheȱfirstȱbranch”ȱofȱtheȱMabinogi.23ȱMoreȱrecently,ȱIȱargue
againȱforȱArberth,ȱCeredigion.24ȱCountȱTolstoyȱquotesȱGruffyddȱbutȱisȱinconclusive
onȱtheȱmatter.25ȱPatrickȱSimsȬWilliams,ȱdespiteȱtwoȱpagesȱofȱdiscussion,ȱsaysȱof
Arberth’sȱ locationȱ merelyȱ thatȱ itȱ isȱ “debated.”26ȱ Soȱ itȱ mayȱ beȱ saidȱ without
equivocationȱthatȱArberthȱmustȱbeȱtheȱnorthernȱplace,ȱnotȱtheȱsouthernȱone,ȱforȱit
possessedȱaȱmoundȱfamousȱinȱtraditionȱandȱsituatedȱinȱaȱhighlyȱvisibleȱplace,ȱas
theȱsouthernȱArberthȱdidȱnot.ȱȱ
FromȱthatȱmoundȱPwyllȱwitnessesȱtheȱpassageȱofȱaȱmysteriousȱrider,ȱRhiannon.
Eventuallyȱ theyȱ meetȱ andȱ areȱ betrothed.ȱ Theirȱ trueȱ loveȱ doesȱ notȱ runȱ quite
smoothly,ȱforȱatȱtheȱbetrothalȱappearsȱGwawlȱsonȱofȱClud,ȱRhiannon’sȱunloved
suitor,ȱandȱPwyllȱfindsȱthatȱthanksȱtoȱaȱrashȱpromiseȱheȱhasȱgivenȱhisȱbelovedȱto
Gwawl.ȱWhatȱconcernsȱusȱhereȱisȱtheȱotherȱman’sȱname.ȱTheȱRev.ȱA.ȱW.ȱWadeȬ
Evansȱ(1875–1964)ȱpointedȱoutȱinȱ1934ȱthatȱitȱmeansȱ“WallȱsonȱofȱClyde”ȱandȱwas
aȱjibeȱatȱNorthȱBritishȱkinsfolkȱinȱStrathclyde,ȱlivingȱbyȱtheȱriverȱClydeȱandȱthe
18
I.ȱ Ll.ȱ Foster,ȱ “Theȱ Emergenceȱ ofȱ Wales,”ȱ Prehistoricȱ andȱ Earlyȱ Wales,ȱ ed.ȱ id.ȱ andȱ Glynȱ Daniel
(London:ȱRoutledge,ȱ1965),ȱ213–35.
19
TheȱPoemsȱofȱTaliesin,ȱed.ȱIforȱWilliamsȱ(Dublin:ȱDublinȱInstituteȱforȱAdvancedȱStudies,ȱ1968),ȱ22.
20
J.ȱP.ȱClancy,ȱTheȱEarliestȱWelshȱPoetryȱ(London:ȱMacmillan,ȱ1970),ȱ23.
21
AndrewȱBreeze,ȱMedievalȱWelshȱLiteratureȱ(Dublin:ȱFourȱCourts,ȱ1997),ȱ69.
22
TheȱMabinogionȱtrans.ȱSionedȱDaviesȱ(Oxford:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2007),ȱ230.
23
Anon.,ȱ“Narberth,”ȱTheȱWelshȱAcademyȱEncyclopaediaȱ(seeȱnoteȱ10),ȱ590.
24
AndrewȱBreeze,ȱTheȱOriginsȱofȱtheȱ“FourȱBranchesȱofȱtheȱMabinogi”ȱ(Leominster,ȱHerefordshire:
Gracewing,ȱ2009),ȱ18.
25
NikolaiȱTolstoy,ȱTheȱOldestȱBritishȱProseȱLiteratureȱ(seeȱnoteȱ2),ȱ130.
26
PatrickȱSimsȬWilliams,ȱIrishȱInfluenceȱ(seeȱnoteȱ2),ȱ60ȱn.ȱ59.
300 AndrewȱBreeze
WallȱofȱAntoninusȱ(notȱHadrian’s).27ȱHisȱsuggestionȱhasȱnotȱbeenȱmuchȱnoticed.
Pennarȱ Daviesȱ (1911–1996),ȱ theologian,ȱ patriot,ȱ andȱ prisonerȱ ofȱ conscience,
ignoredȱ it,ȱ insteadȱ declaring,ȱ “Itȱ isȱ evidentȱ thatȱ thereȱ areȱ mythsȱ ofȱ nature
somewhereȱbehindȱtheseȱstories,ȱandȱtheȱsameȱconclusionȱisȱimplicitȱinȱnamesȱlike
‘Gwawl.’”28ȱ(DidȱheȱseeȱmythsȱinȱAȱMidsummerȱNight’sȱDream,ȱalsoȱwithȱaȱcharacter
calledȱ “Wall”?)ȱ Soȱ itȱ mayȱ beȱ saidȱ thatȱ inȱ Gwawlȱ weȱ shouldȱ perceive,ȱ not
mythology,ȱbutȱaȱreflectionȱofȱtheȱauthor’sȱtartȱhumor.ȱAȱludicrousȱcharacterȱhas
aȱludicrousȱname.ȱ
However,ȱevenȱtheȱappellationȱofȱaȱrivalȱinȱloveȱhasȱaȱgeopoliticalȱsignicance,ȱif
aȱ comicȱ oneȱ (forȱ afterȱ aȱ yearȱ andȱ aȱ dayȱ Gwawlȱ isȱ outwittedȱ andȱ subjectedȱ to
humiliatingȱdefeat,ȱbyȱbeingȱkickedȱandȱtrampledȱwithȱscrapsȱofȱfoodȱinȱaȱbag).
TheȱlastȱstrongholdȱofȱtheȱNorthȱBritons,ȱwhoȱspokeȱCumbricȱ(aȱsisterȬlanguage
ofȱWelsh)ȱuntilȱaboutȱ1100,ȱwasȱtheȱKingdomȱofȱStrathclyde.ȱInȱtheȱearlyȱeleventh
centuryȱ itȱ wentȱ intoȱ decline,ȱ eventuallyȱ beingȱ absorbedȱ intoȱ theȱ Kingdomȱ of
Scotland.29ȱByȱtheȱearlyȱtwelfthȱcenturyȱtheȱNorthȱBritonsȱwere,ȱforȱsomeȱinȱWales,
noȱmoreȱthanȱaȱsubjectȱforȱquaintȱmockery.ȱGwawlȱsonȱofȱCludȱisȱthereforeȱthe
firstȱcomicȱScotsmanȱinȱliteratureȱofȱanyȱkind,ȱthoughȱhisȱabsurdȱnameȱstillȱattests
theȱauthor’sȱawarenessȱofȱCelticȱtradition,ȱandȱ(lessȱexpectedly)ȱpoliticalȱspace.ȱ
Arberthȱwasȱaȱroyalȱcourt.ȱTheȱPreseliȱHillsȱareȱaȱplaceȱwhereȱroyaltyȱfindsȱitself
underȱthreat.ȱPwyllȱhasȱmarriedȱtheȱnobleȱmaidenȱRhiannonȱandȱtheyȱareȱhappy.
Theirȱbaronsȱareȱnot.ȱTheyȱloveȱtheirȱlordȱandȱfosterȬbrother,ȱbutȱafterȱthreeȱyears
beginȱtoȱfeelȱ“sorrow”ȱorȱheavinessȱofȱheartȱatȱseeingȱhimȱchildless,ȱandȱsummon
himȱtoȱPreseliȱinȱDyfed.ȱTheyȱareȱblunt.ȱTheyȱtellȱhimȱthatȱheȱisȱnotȱasȱyoungȱas
others,ȱurgeȱhimȱtoȱtakeȱaȱwifeȱwhoȱwillȱgiveȱhimȱheirs,ȱandȱwarnȱhimȱthat,ȱifȱhe
isȱreluctant,ȱtheyȱwillȱnotȱendureȱit.ȱPwyllȱcalmlyȱtalksȱthemȱintoȱgivingȱhimȱa
year’sȱrespiteȱ(byȱtheȱendȱofȱwhichȱRhiannonȱhasȱhadȱaȱson).30ȱTheȱhillsȱofȱthis
interestingȱpoliticalȱeventȱareȱinȱcentralȱPembrokeshire,ȱandȱgainȱdustyȱopinions
fromȱsomeȱtopographers.ȱLewisȱwroteȱofȱtheirȱ“bareȱandȱsterileȱaspect,ȱdrearyȱin
itsȱappearance.”31
SirȱJohnȱLloydȱspokeȱofȱthemȱasȱ“theȱsceneȱofȱmanyȱaȱromanticȱstory”ȱ(heȱdidȱnot
reflectȱthatȱPwyllȱmightȱfindȱnothingȱromanticȱinȱintimidationȱbyȱbarons).32ȱLess
enthusiasticȱisȱtheȱcommentȱ“Sixtyȱinchesȱofȱrainȱaȱyear.ȱBleakȱmoorlandȱofȱsparse
heather,ȱgorse,ȱbouldersȱandȱbog,ȱwithȱaȱfewȱrockyȱcrags.”33ȱStill,ȱPwyllȱandȱhis
baronsȱwereȱnotȱthereȱtoȱadmireȱscenery.ȱTheȱsignificanceȱofȱthisȱaspectȱofȱrural
27
PwyllȱPendeuicȱDyuet,ȱed.ȱThomsonȱ(seeȱnoteȱ6),ȱ34.
28
PennarȱDavies,ȱRhwngȱChwedlȱaȱChredoȱ(Caerdydd:ȱGwasgȱPrfysgolȱCymru,ȱ1966),ȱ38.ȱ
29
TimȱClarkson,ȱTheȱMenȱofȱtheȱNorthȱ(Edinburgh:ȱJohnȱDonald,ȱ2010),ȱ169–93.
30
TheȱMabinogion,ȱtrans.ȱCharlotteȱGuestȱ(London:ȱDent,ȱ1906),ȱ26.
31
SamuelȱLewis,ȱAȱTopographicalȱDictionaryȱofȱWalesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ7),ȱII,ȱ199.
32
J.ȱE.ȱLloyd,ȱAȱHistoryȱofȱWalesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ14),ȱ263.
33
VyvyanȱRees,ȱShellȱGuideȱtoȱSouthȬWestȱWalesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ8),ȱ40.
spaceȱ isȱ political.ȱ Theȱ hillsȱ wereȱ inȱ theȱ midstȱ ofȱ Pwyll’sȱ domains;ȱ being
uninhabited,ȱtheyȱwereȱneutralȱterritoryȱforȱbothȱtheȱprinceȱandȱhisȱlords.ȱTheyȱare
evidenceȱforȱtheȱauthor’sȱpoliticalȱawareness,ȱnotȱleastȱofȱPwyll’sȱ comparative
weakness.34ȱWhen,ȱinȱtheȱsecondȱbranch,ȱBendigeidfranȱtakesȱcounsel,ȱhisȱadvisers
comeȱtoȱhimȱatȱhisȱcourt.ȱHeȱisȱnotȱsummonedȱtoȱaȱremoteȱspotȱforȱgratuitous
adviceȱfromȱvassals.ȱTheȱPreseliȱHillsȱthereforeȱbringȱoutȱtheȱrelativeȱinsecurityȱof
royalȱpowerȱinȱDyfed,ȱinȱcontrastȱtoȱitsȱunquestionedȱauthorityȱinȱGwynedd.ȱRural
spaceȱhasȱaȱpoliticalȱaspectȱthroughoutȱtheȱFourȱBranches.
BothȱpoliticsȱandȱaȱwonderȬtaleȱfigureȱinȱtheȱepisodeȱofȱTeyrnonȱTwryfȱLiant,ȱlord
ofȱGwentȱIsȬCoedȱ(inȱsouthȬeastȱWales).ȱRhiannonȱhasȱaȱbaby,ȱbutȱtheȱnewȬborn
childȱisȱstolenȱinȱtheȱnight,ȱandȱhisȱmotherȱhasȱtoȱdoȱpenanceȱforȱhisȱsupposed
murder.ȱThatȱsameȱnight,ȱonȱtheȱotherȱsideȱofȱtheȱcountry,ȱTeyrnonȱfightsȱoffȱa
monsterȱthatȱhasȱbeenȱstealingȱfoalsȱfromȱhisȱstable;ȱwhenȱitȱhasȱgone,ȱheȱfindsȱa
babyȱboyȱinȱtheȱstraw.ȱHeȱadoptsȱtheȱchild,ȱwhoȱfourȱyearsȱlaterȱisȱrecognizedȱas
theȱsonȱofȱPwyllȱandȱRhiannon.ȱHeȱisȱrestoredȱtoȱhisȱfatherȱandȱmother,ȱRhiannon
isȱfreedȱfromȱherȱpunishment,ȱandȱsoȱallȱendsȱhappily.ȱ
LikeȱGwawl,ȱTeyrnonȱTwyrfȱLiantȱhasȱaȱgeographicalȱname.ȱItsȱsecondȱpart
meansȱ“thunderȱofȱwaters”ȱandȱisȱreferredȱtoȱeagresȱorȱtidalȱboresȱonȱtheȱSevern
andȱotherȱriversȱofȱsouthȬeastȱWales.ȱHisȱfirstȱnameȱisȱmoreȱproblematic,ȱandȱhere
Iȱ wishȱ toȱ correctȱ aȱ detailȱ inȱ anȱ earlierȱ publication.ȱ Iȱ arguedȱ thatȱ Teyrnonȱ had
nothingȱtoȱdoȱwithȱanȱotherwiseȱunknownȱCelticȱgodȱTigernonosȱ“greatȱlord,”ȱbut
wasȱdueȱtoȱaȱmisunderstandingȱofȱtheȱnameȱofȱNantȱTeyrnonȱ“valleyȱofȱlords,”ȱa
feudalȱcenterȱinȱlowerȱGwent,ȱtheȱauthorȱofȱtheȱtextsȱhavingȱtakenȱNantȱTeyrnon
insteadȱasȱmeaningȱ“Teyrnon’sȱvalley”.ȱ
Becauseȱ Teyrnon,ȱ likeȱ Gwawl,ȱ isȱ unknownȱ elsewhereȱ inȱ Welshȱ tradition,ȱ I
regardedȱhimȱasȱanȱauthorialȱinvention.35ȱButȱtheȱlastȱpointȱcannotȱbeȱso.ȱTeyrnon
isȱoneȱofȱtheȱcharactersȱinȱtheȱFourȱBranchesȱwhoȱareȱmentionedȱinȱearlierȱtexts,
suchȱasȱtheȱeleventhȬcenturyȱsagaȱofȱCulhwchȱandȱOlwen,ȱwhereȱheȱappearsȱin
slightlyȱ corruptedȱ formȱ asȱ “Teyrnonȱ Twrȱ Bliant”.ȱ Heȱ alsoȱ figuresȱ inȱ obscure
archaicȱverseȱfromȱtheȱBookȱofȱTaliesin,ȱandȱperhapsȱinȱaȱpraiseȬpoemȱofȱabout
1100ȱinȱtheȱBlackȱBookȱofȱCarmarthen.36ȱHeȱcannotȱhaveȱbeenȱinventedȱbyȱthe
authorȱofȱtheȱFourȱBranchesȱinȱtheȱearlyȱtwelfthȱcentury,ȱwhoȱwouldȱinsteadȱknow
ofȱhimȱfromȱCelticȱtradition.ȱ
34
AndrewȱBreeze,ȱTheȱOriginsȱofȱtheȱ“FourȱBranchesȱofȱtheȱMabinogi”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ24),ȱ44,ȱ68.
35
AndrewȱBreeze,ȱ“TheȱNameȱofȱTeyrnonȱTwrfȱLiant,”ȱPerspectivesȱonȱCelticȱLanguages,ȱed.ȱMaria
BlochȬTrojnar.ȱLublinȱStudiesȱinȱCelticȱLanguages,ȱȱ6ȱ(Lublin:ȱWydawnictwoȱKUL,ȱ2009),ȱ111–18.
36
CulhwchȱandȱOlwen,ȱed.ȱRachelȱBromwichȱandȱD.ȱSimonȱEvansȱ(Cardiff:ȱUniversityȱofȱWalesȱPress,
1992),ȱ90;ȱLegendaryȱPoemsȱfromȱtheȱBookȱofȱTaliesin,ȱed.ȱMargedȱHaycockȱ(Aberystwyth:ȱCMCS,
2009),ȱ299.
302 AndrewȱBreeze
TheȱupshotȱhereȱisȱthatȱtheȱauthorȱknewȱofȱTeyrnonȱasȱaȱlegendaryȱmagnateȱof
southȬeastȱWales,ȱandȱincorporatedȱhimȱintoȱtheȱtextȱasȱaȱvassalȱofȱPwyllȱinȱthe
southȬwest.ȱOnȱTeyrnon’sȱoriginsȱweȱmayȱsayȱthis.ȱThereȱisȱnothingȱwhateverȱto
suggestȱthatȱheȱwasȱaȱgodȱorȱthatȱhisȱnameȱisȱfromȱreconstructedȱTigernonosȱ“great
lord,”ȱalthoughȱsomeȱkeepȱsayingȱthis.ȱNorȱdoesȱanythingȱshowȱhimȱasȱhistorical.
Heȱ isȱ unknownȱ inȱ Welshȱ genealogies.ȱ Itȱ mayȱ thusȱ beȱ thatȱ heȱ derivesȱ from
misunderstandingȱ ofȱ theȱ nameȱ ofȱ Nantȱ Teyrnonȱ “valleyȱ ofȱ lords”ȱ (now
Llantarnam),ȱanȱearlyȱseatȱofȱgovernmentȱinȱtheȱGwentȱregion,ȱitȱbeingȱregarded
laterȱonȱasȱ“Teyrnon’sȱvalley.”ȱIfȱso,ȱthereȱwouldȱbeȱaȱparallelȱinȱtheȱbardȬmagician
MyrddinȱorȱMerlin,ȱacceptedȱbyȱallȱasȱfromȱmisinterpretationȱofȱCaerfyrddinȱor
Carmarthenȱ“fortressȱofȱtheȱseaȬstronghold”ȱasȱ“Myrddin’sȱfortress.”37ȱThatȱwould
explainȱwhyȱweȱhearȱsoȱlittleȱofȱTeyrnonȱinȱWelshȱsourcesȱ(heȱis,ȱforȱexample,
unknownȱinȱtheȱtriads).ȱItȱisȱcuriousȱtoȱthinkȱofȱthisȱgallantȱlordȱofȱLowerȱGwent
asȱexistingȱthanksȱtoȱtoponymicȱerror;ȱbutȱthisȱexplanationȱappearsȱtoȱfitȱtheȱfacts.
Onceȱagain,ȱweȱmayȱseeȱtheȱcreativeȱimaginationȱofȱtheȱauthorȱofȱtheȱfourȱstories,
makingȱcharacterȱandȱincidentȱfromȱminimalȱsources.
III.ȱTheȱSecondȱBranch,ȱTheȱTaleȱofȱBranwen
TheȱfollowingȱnarrativeȱmovesȱfromȱSouthȱWalesȱtoȱGwyneddȱandȱIreland.ȱItȱtells
howȱtheȱKingȱofȱIrelandȱcameȱtoȱGwyneddȱtoȱseekȱtheȱhandȱofȱBranwen,ȱsisterȱof
Bendigeidfran,ȱKingȱofȱBritainȱorȱ“theȱIsleȱofȱtheȱMighty.”ȱTheyȱmarryȱandȱhave
aȱchild,ȱbutȱaȱmurmuringȱamongstȱtheȱnoblesȱofȱIrelandȱobligesȱherȱhusbandȱtoȱput
herȱawayȱandȱforceȱherȱtoȱworkȱasȱaȱmenialȱinȱtheȱroyalȱkitchens.ȱYetȱsheȱisȱastute.
Sheȱsendsȱaȱmessageȱtoȱherȱbrother;ȱheȱinvadesȱIreland;ȱtheȱIrishȱsueȱforȱpeace,
termsȱareȱagreed;ȱbutȱallȱendsȱinȱdisaster,ȱwithȱIrelandȱravagedȱandȱaȱmereȱhandful
ofȱBritonsȱescapingȱbackȱtoȱGwynedd,ȱwhereȱBranwenȱdiesȱandȱisȱburied,ȱandȱthe
survivorsȱ findȱ thatȱ Britainȱ hasȱ fallenȱ intoȱ theȱ handsȱ ofȱ aȱ usurper.ȱ Thisȱ isȱ the
bleakestȱandȱmostȱtragicȱofȱtheȱfourȱstories.
Asȱregardȱplaceȱandȱparticularlyȱruralȱspace,ȱweȱmayȱsayȱthis.ȱTheȱactionȱbegins
inȱtheȱimposingȱsettingȱofȱHarlech,ȱnowȱcrownedȱbyȱEdwardȱI’sȱcastle,ȱonȱaȱhigh
rockȱ withȱ magnificentȱ viewsȱ ofȱ Snowdoniaȱ andȱ theȱ Irishȱ Sea.ȱ (Theȱ rock
discouragedȱattackers;ȱtheȱviewȱaidedȱreconnaisance;ȱtheȱseaȱletȱtheȱRoyalȱNavy
supplyȱtheȱgarrison.ȱEdwardȱI’sȱplanningȱwasȱstrategicȱandȱseverelyȱpractical.)
Onceȱagain,ȱtheȱchoiceȱofȱHarlechȱasȱsettingȱforȱaȱminiȬepicȱtellsȱusȱsomethingȱof
theȱauthor.ȱHarlech,ȱdespiteȱpresentȬdayȱfameȱinȱsongȱandȱtouristȬposter,ȱplaysȱan
37
Anon.,ȱ“Merlin,”ȱTheȱWelshȱAcademyȱEncyclopaediaȱofȱWales,ȱed.ȱJohnȱDavies,ȱNigelȱJenkins,ȱMenna
Baines,ȱandȱPeredurȱLynchȱ(seeȱnoteȱ10),ȱ549–50.
insignificantȱpartȱinȱearlyȱtradition.ȱTheȱnineteenthȱcenturyȱsuppliedȱinteresting
informationȱ onȱ itsȱ historyȱ afterȱ Longshanks,ȱ andȱ someȱ carefullyȱ hedged
suppositionsȱonȱwhatȱcameȱbeforeȱhim,ȱtheȱoneȱcertainȱfactȱbeingȱ“theȱdiscovery
ofȱ someȱ Romanȱ coinsȱ andȱ aȱ goldenȱ torquesȱ inȱ theȱ vicinity.”ȱ Harlechȱ (in
Llandanwg)ȱwasȱnotȱevenȱaȱparishȱinȱitsȱownȱright.38ȱSirȱJohnȱLloydȱcalledȱitȱa
“famousȱsite”ȱonȱtheȱbasisȱofȱtheȱtaleȱofȱBranwen,ȱmentioningȱitȱwithȱMurȱyȱCastell
aȱfewȱmilesȱinlandȱ(whichȱappearsȱinȱtheȱfourthȱbranch,ȱwhereȱaȱsoddenȱmoorland
retreatȱisȱmadeȱoutȱasȱaȱloveȬnest).39ȱNevertheless,ȱaccountsȱofȱcastleȱandȱborough
implyȱthatȱHarlechȱwasȱnoȱplaceȱuntilȱEdwardȱI’sȱmenȱmadeȱitȱaȱcenterȱofȱEnglish
administrationȱinȱNorthȱWales.40ȱAȱglossaryȱofȱbardicȱlanguageȱshowsȱnothingȱon
itȱthatȱpredatesȱtheȱstoryȱofȱBranwen.41ȱ
Weȱknowȱthatȱsoonȱafterȱ1300ȱthereȱwasȱnoȱbuildingȱfitȱforȱgovernmentȱpurposes
atȱHarlech,ȱbecauseȱEdwardȱIȱhadȱLlywelyn’sȱhallȱatȱYstumgwernȱdismantledȱand
broughtȱ fiveȱ milesȱ northȱ toȱ beȱ rebuiltȱ thereȱ (theȱ hallȱ wasȱ aȱ modestȱ structure,
measuringȱfifteenȱfeetȱbyȱfortyȬtwo).42ȱGruffyddȱtriedȱtoȱshowȱthat,ȱbecauseȱthe
rockȱisȱcalledȱcarregȱ“rock”ȱinȱtheȱtextȱandȱnotȱllechȱ“rock,”ȱtheȱauthorȱdidȱnotȱknow
Harlechȱwell,ȱforȱitsȱnativesȱnowȱuseȱtheȱsecondȱwordȱforȱtheȱeminenceȱonȱwhich
theyȱlive,ȱbutȱneverȱtheȱfirst.43ȱIfȱtheȱauthorȱ(whoȱhasȱexcellentȱknowledgeȱofȱother
Gwyneddȱplaces)ȱactuallyȱcameȱfromȱHarlech,ȱitȱwouldȱbeȱsurprising.ȱButȱthere
isȱnoȱreasonȱtoȱsupposeȱthat.ȱTheȱevidenceȱsuggestsȱthatȱHarlechȱwasȱdesertedȱin
theȱtwelfthȱcentury,ȱdespiteȱitsȱpositionȱonȱaȱmainȱnorthȬsouthȱcoastalȱroad.ȱAn
officialȱguideȱthusȱdeclares,ȱ“Neitherȱhistoryȱnorȱarchaeologyȱfurnishȱanyȱevidence
toȱsuggestȱthatȱHarlechȱitselfȱhadȱformerlyȱhadȱaȱcastleȱofȱtheȱprinces.”ȱItȱalso
makesȱ retrogradeȱ remarksȱ onȱ theȱ taleȱ ofȱ Branwen,ȱ describingȱ thisȱ literary
masterpieceȱasȱ“folkȬtale”ȱandȱ“myth”,ȱandȱnoȱrivalȱforȱtheȱ“lightȱofȱrecordedȱfact”
comingȱwithȱEnglishȱinvasion.44ȱ
MoreȱhelpfulȱisȱCountȱTolstoy,ȱquotingȱBrynleyȱRobertsȱonȱhowȱtheȱGwynedd
placeȬnamesȱ“haveȱaȱgreaterȱringȱofȱconfidenceȱthanȱtheȱDyfedȱlocations”,ȱ the
implicationȱbeingȱthatȱtheȱauthorȱcameȱfromȱGwynedd.45ȱItȱisȱtrueȱthatȱGwynedd
isȱknownȱinȱmoreȱdetailȱthanȱDyfed,ȱjustȱasȱBendigeidfranȱisȱaȱmoreȱdecisiveȱand
formidableȱrulerȱofȱGwyneddȱthanȱPwyllȱorȱPryderiȱareȱofȱDyfed;ȱoneȱnotesȱalso
38
SamuelȱLewis,ȱAȱTopographicalȱDictionaryȱofȱWalesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ7),ȱI,ȱ393.
39
Lloyd,ȱAȱHistoryȱofȱWalesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ14),ȱ238.
40
E.ȱA.ȱLewis,ȱTheȱMediaevalȱBoroughsȱofȱSnowdoniaȱ(London:ȱHenryȱSotheran,ȱ1912),ȱ31.
41
Johnȱ LloydȬJones,ȱ Geirfaȱ Barddoniaethȱ Gynnarȱ Gymraegȱ (Caerdydd:ȱ Gwasgȱ Prifysgolȱ Cymru,
1931–1963),ȱ766.
42
AileenȱFox,ȱ“EarlyȱChristianȱPeriod:ȱSettlementȱSitesȱandȱOtherȱRemains,”ȱAȱHundredȱYearsȱof
WelshȱArchaeology,ȱed.ȱV.ȱE.ȱNashȬWilliamsȱ(Gloucester:ȱCambrianȱArchaeologicalȱAssociation,
1946),ȱ105–22.
43
Gruffydd,ȱRhiannonȱ(seeȱnoteȱ16),ȱ8.
44
A.ȱJ.ȱTaylor,ȱHarlechȱCastleȱ(Cardiff:ȱHMSO,ȱ1980),ȱ4.
45
NikolaiȱTolstoy,ȱTheȱOldestȱBritishȱProseȱLiteratureȱ(seeȱnoteȱ2),ȱ490.
304 AndrewȱBreeze
how,ȱinȱtheȱfourthȱbranch,ȱtheȱbattleȬhostsȱofȱGwyneddȱdefeatȱthoseȱofȱDyfedȱ(who
areȱ yetȱ treatedȱ withȱ singularȱ andȱ curiousȱ consideration).ȱ Butȱ Robertsȱ didȱ not
reflectȱthat,ȱifȱweȱcouldȱbeȱsureȱwhereȱArberthȱandȱotherȱDyfedȱplacesȱare,ȱhis
argumentsȱfallȱtoȱtheȱground.ȱ
TheȱauthorȱknewȱGlynȱCuchȱasȱgoodȱforȱhunting,ȱtheȱmoundȱofȱArberthȱasȱan
enchantedȱspot,ȱandȱPreseliȱasȱaȱpoliticalȱmeetingȬplace.ȱRoberts’sȱreferenceȱtoȱany
ofȱtheseȱasȱaȱ“liminalȱarea”ȱwithȱ“noȱrealȱsenseȱofȱgeography”ȱdoesȱnotȱholdȱwater.
Itȱisȱtheȱ veryȱ pointȱofȱtheȱpresentȱexerciseȱtoȱshowȱ thatȱtheȱauthorȱofȱtheȱFour
Branchesȱ knewȱ theseȱ locationsȱ atȱ firstȬhand.ȱ Theyȱ didȱ andȱ doȱ exist.ȱ Finally,
ProfessorȱSimsȬWilliamsȱremarksȱthatȱ“someȱsortȱofȱroleȱforȱHarlechȱasȱaȱnative
royalȱ centreȱ isȱ suggestedȱ byȱ theȱ taleȱ ofȱ Branwen.”ȱ Hisȱ statementȱ isȱ vagueȱ and
confused.46ȱ Ifȱ Harlechȱ hadȱ beenȱ aȱ seatȱ ofȱ nativeȱ government,ȱ weȱ shouldȱ have
testimonyȱforȱitȱfromȱWelshȱtraditionȱandȱhistory.ȱTheȱimplicationȱis,ȱinstead,ȱthat
placingȱ Bendigeidfran’sȱ courtȱ atȱ Harlechȱ wasȱ anȱ imaginativeȱ creationȱ ofȱ the
author,ȱ whoȱ neededȱ noȱ traditionȱ toȱ doȱ that.ȱ Patrickȱ SimsȬWilliamsȱ alsoȱ here
remarksȱthatȱtheȱdateȱofȱtheȱstoryȱisȱ“uncertain,”ȱwhereȱheȱveryȱstrangelyȱseems
unawareȱofȱargumentsȱforȱtheȱ1120sȱorȱearlyȱ1130sȱinȱmyȱMedievalȱWelshȱLiterature,
despiteȱaȱreviewȱofȱitȱinȱaȱperiodicalȱofȱwhichȱheȱisȱeditor.47ȱ
AnotherȱproblemȱinȱtheȱtaleȱofȱBranwenȱhasȱbeenȱtheȱIrishȱriverȱ“Llinon,”ȱwhether
itȱisȱtheȱLiffeyȱatȱDublinȱorȱtheȱriverȱShannonȱinȱtheȱwest.ȱItȱcomesȱinȱaȱpassageȱon
howȱtheȱIrishȱkingȱandȱcourtȱreactȱwhenȱaȱWelshȱinvaderȱcomesȱtoȱIreland.ȱThe
Irishȱnoblesȱtellȱtheirȱking,ȱMatholwch,ȱthatȱthereȱisȱnoȱotherȱcounselȱthanȱtoȱretreat
overȱtheȱriverȱLlinon,ȱtoȱkeepȱtheȱriverȱbetweenȱhimȱandȱtheȱBritishȱtroops,ȱand
breakȱdownȱtheȱbridgeȱacrossȱtheȱriver,ȱforȱthereȱwasȱaȱlodestoneȱatȱtheȱbottomȱof
theȱ riverȱ thatȱ neitherȱ shipȱ norȱ vesselȱ couldȱ passȱ over.ȱ Whenȱ theȱ Britishȱ king
Bendigeidfranȱcameȱtoȱtheȱland,ȱtheȱfleetȱwithȱhimȱbyȱtheȱbankȱofȱtheȱriver,ȱhis
chieftainsȱexplainȱtheȱdifficulty.ȱHeȱresolvesȱtheȱproblemȱbyȱdeclaringȱthatȱheȱwho
willȱbeȱchief,ȱshouldȱbeȱaȱbridge.ȱBendigeidfranȱ(aȱgiant)ȱliesȱdownȱacrossȱtheȱriver,
hurdlesȱareȱplacedȱuponȱhim,ȱandȱtheȱhostȱpassesȱoverȱthereby.48ȱ
WhatȱwasȱthisȱIrishȱriver?ȱSirȱIforȱWilliamsȱwasȱfirmlyȱforȱtheȱ“Shannon.”ȱHeȱcited
Hoganȱ forȱ itsȱ Latinȱ formȱ asȱ “Sinonam,”ȱ andȱ describedȱ Welshȱ “ll”ȱ asȱ aȱ sound
substituteȱforȱIrishȱ“sh,”ȱsoȱthatȱitȱwouldȱbeȱanȱoral,ȱnotȱwritten,ȱborrowing.ȱBeside
that,ȱ“Llinon”ȱmeansȱ“spear”ȱinȱWelsh,ȱaȱfitȱnameȱforȱaȱriver,ȱasȱwithȱtheȱGelauȱof
AbergeleȱinȱNorthȱWales,ȱorȱtheȱCleddauȱatȱMilfordȱHavenȱinȱPembrokeshire.ȱOf
theȱauthor’sȱcuriousȱreferenceȱtoȱ“theȱfleetȱwithȱhimȱbyȱtheȱbankȱofȱtheȱriver,”ȱhe
46
PatrickȱSimsȬWilliams,ȱIrishȱInfluenceȱonȱMedievalȱWelshȱLiteratureȱ(seeȱnoteȱ2),ȱ298.
47
D.ȱR.ȱJohnston,ȱ‘[Reviewȱof]ȱMedievalȱWelshȱLiterature’,ȱCambrianȱMedievalȱCelticȱStudiesȱ34ȱ(1997),
122–23.
48
TheȱMabinogion,ȱtrans.ȱCharlotteȱGuestȱ(seeȱnoteȱ30),ȱ41–42.
saidȱitȱshowsȱtheȱauthorȱknewȱnothingȱofȱIrishȱgeography.ȱButȱonȱtheȱsubjectȱof
hurdlesȱheȱwasȱsilent.49ȱ
FollowingȱSirȱIfor,ȱGwynȱJonesȱandȱThomasȱJonesȱinȱ1949ȱwithoutȱhesitationȱtook
theȱriversȱasȱ“Shannon.”50ȱTheȱfirstȱreferenceȱtoȱDublinȱcameȱwithȱW.ȱJ.ȱGruffydd.
HeȱpointedȱoutȱthatȱtheȱbundlesȱofȱwattleȱcastȱuponȱBendigeidfran’sȱback,ȱsoȱthat
hisȱarmyȱcouldȱpassȱtoȱtheȱotherȱside,ȱalludeȱtoȱtheȱIrishȱnameȱofȱDublin,ȱBaileȱÁtha
Cliath,ȱ“townȱofȱaȱfordȱofȱhurdles,”ȱthoughȱheȱspoiledȱtheȱobservationȱbyȱstating
thatȱ Bendigeidfranȱ layȱ down,ȱ notȱ overȱ anȱ Irishȱ river,ȱ butȱ betweenȱ Britainȱ and
Irelandȱ (whichȱ isȱ nonsense),ȱ andȱ thatȱ thisȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ taleȱ ofȱ Branwenȱ must
originallyȱhaveȱbeenȱinȱIrishȱ(whichȱisȱabsurd).51ȱ
TheȱlateȱProinsiasȱMacȱCanaȱthenȱtookȱonȱtheȱquestion.ȱHeȱtriedȱtoȱhaveȱitȱboth
ways,ȱlikeȱotherȱconfusedȱscholars.ȱHeȱfollowedȱbothȱIforȱWilliamsȱinȱseeingȱthe
LlinonȱasȱtheȱShannon,ȱwithȱWelshȱsoundȬsubstitutionȱofȱtheȱinitialȱsound,ȱand
GruffyddȱinȱseeingȱtheȱhurdlesȱasȱanȱallusionȱtoȱDublin.ȱHeȱsolvedȱtheȱquestionȱof
theȱfleetȱandȱtheȱriverȱbyȱpositingȱaȱlacuna,ȱandȱsoȱreadȱ“Bendigeidfranȱcameȱtoȱthe
landȱandȱtheȱfleetȱwithȱhim,ȱandȱheȱadvancedȱtowardsȱtheȱbankȱofȱtheȱriver.”52
Thatȱisȱspecialȱpleading.ȱTheȱshipsȱwouldȱinȱanyȱcaseȱbeȱleftȱbehindȱonȱtheȱsouth
sideȱ ofȱ Dublinȱ Bay,ȱ andȱ notȱ atȱ Howthȱ orȱ anywhereȱ onȱ theȱ northȱ side,ȱ since
Dublin’sȱstrongholdȱisȱonȱtheȱLiffey’sȱsouthȱbank,ȱonȱaȱbankȱofȱboulderȱclayȱleftȱby
anȱancientȱglacier,ȱandȱnowȱwithȱDublinȱCastleȱtoppingȱit.ȱMacȱCanaȱdidȱnotȱsee
thatȱanȱallusionȱtoȱDublinȱcollidesȱwithȱidentificationȱofȱtheȱLlinonȱasȱShannon.ȱBut
RachelȱBromwichȱdid,ȱspeakingȱupȱforȱtheȱLlinonȱasȱnotȱtheȱShannon,ȱbutȱthe
Liffey.53ȱSheȱwasȱnotedȱbrieflyȱbyȱDerickȱThomson,ȱwhoȱthoughtȱtheȱriverȱwasȱthe
Shannonȱjustȱtheȱsame,ȱlogicȱnotwithstanding.ȱ54ȱ
Howȱhasȱthisȱexplanationȱfared?ȱJeffreyȱGantzȱlikewiseȱtriedȱtoȱhaveȱitȱbothȱways.
Heȱsaidȱthat,ȱsinceȱtheȱLiffeyȱflowsȱintoȱtheȱIrishȱSea,ȱitȱisȱnotȱaȱsuitableȱlineȱof
defenseȱ againstȱ anȱ invaderȱ withȱ aȱ fleet,ȱ andȱ thatȱ Llinonȱ mightȱ represent
“Shannon.”ȱOnȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱtheȱhurdlesȱclearlyȱalludeȱtoȱDublin’sȱIrishȱname.55
TheseȱdoubtsȱhadȱnoȱeffectȱonȱMacȱCana,ȱwhoȱinȱ1977ȱstillȱstyledȱtheȱLlinonȱas
“Shannon”ȱtoutȱcourt.56ȱYetȱPatrickȱSimsȬWilliams,ȱcitingȱdiscussionȱbyȱSaunders
LewisȱandȱThomasȱCharlesȬEdwards,ȱinȱ1991ȱobservedȱthatȱitȱwasȱfarȱmoreȱlikely
49
PedeirȱKeincȱyȱMabinogi,ȱed.ȱIforȱWilliamsȱ(seeȱnoteȱ15),ȱ195–96.
50
TheȱMabinogion,ȱtrans.ȱGwynȱJonesȱandȱThomasȱJonesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ6),ȱ34.
51
W.ȱJ.ȱGruffydd,ȱRhiannonȱ(seeȱnoteȱ16),ȱ8.
52
ProinsiasȱMacȱCana,ȱBranwenȱDaughterȱofȱLlÏrȱ(Cardiff:ȱUniversityȱofȱWalesȱPress,ȱ1958),ȱ119–21.
53
TrioeddȱYnysȱPrydein,ȱed.ȱRachelȱBromwichȱ(Cardiff:ȱUniversityȱofȱWalesȱPress,ȱ1961),ȱ284ȱn.ȱ1.
54
BranwenȱUerchȱLyr,ȱed.ȱD.ȱS.ȱThomsonȱ(Dublin:ȱDublinȱInstituteȱforȱAdvancedȱStudies,ȱ1961),ȱ33.
55
TheȱMabinogion,ȱtrans.ȱJeffreyȱGantzȱ(London:ȱPenguin,ȱ1976),ȱ76.ȱ
56
ProinsiasȱMacȱCana,ȱWritersȱofȱWales:ȱTheȱMabinogionȱ(Cardiff:ȱUniversityȱofȱWalesȱPress,ȱ1977),
26.
306 AndrewȱBreeze
thatȱtheȱriverȱwasȱtheȱLiffeyȱthanȱtheȱShannon,ȱwithȱscribalȱmiscopyingȱofȱLliuon
asȱLlinon.57ȱIȱacceptedȱthisȱwithoutȱhesitationȱinȱ1997.58ȱItȱwasȱsimilarlyȱacceptedȱin
Sionedȱ Davies’sȱ Oxfordȱ translation,ȱ whichȱ doesȱ notȱ soȱ muchȱ asȱ mentionȱ the
Shannon.59ȱInȱmyȱOriginsȱofȱ2009ȱIȱaddedȱoneȱsignificantȱpoint,ȱnotingȱthatȱfrom
theȱ yearȱ 1000ȱ thereȱ wasȱ aȱ bridgeȱ overȱ theȱ Liffeyȱ inȱ Dublin,ȱ atȱ theȱ endȱ ofȱ the
modernȱ Bridgeȱ Street,ȱ onȱ theȱ siteȱ ofȱ Fatherȱ Mathewȱ Bridge,ȱ andȱ immediately
downstreamȱfromȱtheȱfordȱofȱhurdlesȱwhereȱtheȱLiffeyȱwasȱpreviouslyȱcrossedȱon
foot.ȱTheȱbridgeȱmustȱhaveȱbeenȱoneȱofȱtheȱsightsȱofȱOldȱDublin.ȱWhenȱtheȱauthor
ofȱtheȱFourȱBranchesȱmentionsȱaȱbridgeȱoverȱtheȱ“Llinon,”ȱweȱcanȱsayȱthatȱitȱreally
existed,ȱandȱwasȱoverȱaȱcenturyȱoldȱbyȱtheȱtimeȱtheȱtalesȱwereȱwritten.60ȱThere
wereȱbridgesȱbuiltȱoverȱtheȱShannonȱinȱtheȱ1120sȱbyȱTurloughȱOȱConnor,ȱincluding
oneȱatȱAthlone.ȱButȱtheyȱwereȱnotȱasȱoldȱasȱtheȱoneȱoverȱtheȱLiffeyȱatȱDublin,ȱand
notȱasȱfamous.
ScholarsȱofȱtheȱFourȱBranches,ȱthoughȱdisagreeingȱonȱotherȱquestionsȱconstantly,
yetȱseemȱagreedȱthatȱtheȱLlinonȱisȱtheȱLiffey,ȱnotȱtheȱShannon.ȱOrȱsoȱitȱwould
appear;ȱforȱtheȱShannonȱnowȱfindsȱaȱdefenderȱinȱCountȱTolstoy.ȱHeȱfollowsȱMac
Canaȱwithȱtheȱargumentȱthat,ȱifȱtheȱWelshȱhadȱaȱfleet,ȱtheyȱcouldȱcrossȱDublinȱBay
easily.ȱ Theȱ Liffeyȱ andȱ lodestonesȱ couldȱ notȱ stopȱ them.ȱ If,ȱ however,ȱ theyȱ were
strandedȱbyȱtheȱShannonȱsomewhereȱnearȱAthlone,ȱtheirȱshipsȱwayȱbehindȱthem
onȱtheȱIrishȱSeaȱwouldȱbeȱuseless.ȱAfterȱreviewingȱreferencesȱinȱearlyȱsourcesȱto
theȱ Shannon,ȱ heȱ concludesȱ thatȱ “allȱ theȱ geographicalȱ implicationsȱ inȱ Branwen
indicateȱtheȱShannonȱasȱtheȱriverȱintendedȱbyȱtheȱLlinon.”ȱHow,ȱthen,ȱtoȱaccount
forȱtheȱallusionȱtoȱhurdles?ȱ
MacȱCana’sȱ“perversityȱofȱtheȱstoryȬteller’sȱnature”ȱisȱnotȱgoodȱenough.ȱCount
Tolstoyȱ seesȱ ratherȱ “someȱ extraneousȱ factorȱ thatȱ induced”ȱ theȱ storytellerȱ to
mentionȱDublinȱhereȱinȱtheȱstory.ȱHeȱbelievesȱthatȱ“inȱanȱearlierȱversionȱofȱtheȱtale
itȱwasȱnotȱtheȱIrishȱSeaȱthatȱwasȱnavigatedȱbyȱBran,ȱbutȱthoseȱdarkȱwatersȱwhich
dividedȱBritainȱfromȱtheȱOtherworldȱrealmsȱofȱAnnwfnȱorȱCaerȱSidi”,ȱlikeȱancient
StyxȱorȱLethe,ȱtheȱauthorȱofȱBranwenȱthusȱhavingȱaddedȱ“twoȱwateryȱbarriersȱ(the
LiffeyȱandȱtheȱShannon)ȱtoȱtheȱIrishȱSea,”ȱinȱplaceȱofȱoneȱfloodȱinȱtheȱoriginalȱtext.61ȱ
Thisȱhasȱnotȱbeenȱwellȱreceived.ȱSimsȬWilliams,ȱwhoȱmentionsȱit,ȱyetȱobserves
thatȱllȱforȱinitialȱsȱinȱloanwordsȱisȱnotȱtoȱbeȱexpected.ȱNoȱotherȱinstanceȱofȱitȱisȱon
record,ȱandȱParryȬWilliams’sȱEnglishȱElementȱinȱWelshȱgivesȱnoȱsupportȱforȱthe
view.62ȱ Soȱ theȱ phonologicalȱ argumentȱ forȱ Llinon=Shannonȱ simplyȱ fallsȱ toȱ the
57
PatrickȱSimsȬWilliams,ȱ“TheȱSubmissionȱofȱIrishȱKingsȱinȱFactȱandȱFiction,”ȱCambridgeȱMedieval
CelticȱStudiesȱ22ȱ(1991),ȱ31–61.
58
AndrewȱBreeze,ȱMedievalȱWelshȱLiteratureȱ(seeȱnoteȱ21),ȱ78.
59
TheȱMabinogion,ȱtrans.ȱSionedȱDaviesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ22),ȱ29.
60
AndrewȱBreeze,ȱTheȱOriginsȱofȱtheȱ“FourȱBranchesȱofȱtheȱMabinogi”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ24),ȱ19,ȱ62.
61
NikolaiȱTolstoy,ȱTheȱOldestȱBritishȱProseȱLiteratureȱ(seeȱnoteȱ25),ȱ144–46,ȱ150,ȱ153,ȱ158.
62
PatrickȱSimsȬWilliams,ȱIrishȱInfluenceȱonȱMedievalȱWelshȱLiteratureȱ(seeȱnoteȱ26),ȱ197–201.
ground.ȱToȱthatȱmayȱbeȱaddedȱfourȱotherȱarguments.ȱFirst,ȱtheȱshortestȱrouteȱfrom
NorthȱWalesȱtoȱIrelandȱbringsȱoneȱtoȱDublin.ȱWhenȱMatholwchȱleavesȱWalesȱwith
hisȱbride,ȱheȱsailsȱfromȱCaernarfon.ȱTheȱimplicationȱisȱthatȱheȱisȱgoingȱtoward
Dublin,ȱandȱnotȱtowardȱ(say)ȱUlster,ȱWexford,ȱorȱWaterford.ȱSecond,ȱitȱisȱeasyȱto
attackȱ Dublinȱ fromȱ theȱ sea,ȱ becauseȱ theȱ southernȱ shoreȱ ofȱ Dublinȱ Bayȱ near
Sandymountȱ andȱ Blackrockȱ isȱ flatȱ andȱ open.ȱ Theȱ proofȱ ofȱ thisȱ isȱ theȱ Martello
towersȱalongȱitsȱlength,ȱbuiltȱbyȱtheȱBritishȱgovernmentȱduringȱtheȱNapoleonic
Warsȱ(oneȱofȱthoseȱtowersȱfiguresȱmemorablyȱinȱJamesȱJoyce’sȱUlysses).ȱIfȱaȱFrench
fleetȱmightȱenterȱDublinȱBayȱtwoȱcenturiesȱago,ȱaȱWelshȱoneȱmightȱdoȱtheȱsame
sevenȱcenturiesȱpreviously.ȱThird,ȱitȱis,ȱhowever,ȱdifficultȱevenȱnowȱtoȱgetȱfrom
DublinȱtoȱtheȱShannon.ȱItȱisȱ78ȱmilesȱfromȱDublinȱtoȱAthlone.ȱThatȱwouldȱtake
threeȱorȱfourȱdaysȱforȱaȱmedievalȱarmy,ȱevenȱifȱtheyȱwereȱnotȱattackedȱfromȱthe
rearȱasȱtheyȱmadeȱtheirȱwayȱalongȱAnȱtSligeȱMhór,ȱtheȱgreatȱhighwayȱwest.ȱAnd
yetȱthereȱisȱnotȱtheȱslightestȱmentionȱofȱthisȱtrekȱacrossȱIrelandȱinȱourȱtext.ȱ
ThisȱisȱtheȱmoreȱsurprisingȱsinceȱT.ȱJ.ȱMorganȱinȱhisȱYsgrifauȱLlenyddolȱlongȱago
commentedȱonȱourȱauthor’sȱdistasteȱforȱomission,ȱandȱwasȱhereȱtakenȱupȱbyȱA.ȱO.
H.ȱ Jarman.63ȱ Theȱ authorȱ hadȱ aȱ Homericȱ wishȱ toȱ accountȱ forȱ everyȱ detail.ȱ This
appliesȱespeciallyȱtoȱjourneys,ȱwhenȱweȱareȱtoldȱthatȱhoweverȱlongȱtheȱBritish
survivorsȱofȱtheȱIrishȱwarȱwereȱuponȱtheȱroad,ȱtheyȱcameȱtoȱLondon,ȱandȱthere
buriedȱtheȱheadȱofȱBendigeidfran:ȱor,ȱonȱPryderiȱandȱManawydanȱinȱtheȱthird
branch,ȱreturningȱfromȱEngland,ȱthatȱhoweverȱlongȱtheyȱwereȱuponȱtheȱroad,ȱthey
cameȱ toȱ Dyfed.64ȱ Ifȱ Bendigeidfranȱ andȱ hisȱ menȱ hadȱ toȱ trampȱ acrossȱ theȱ Irish
Midlands,ȱitȱisȱextraordinaryȱthatȱweȱhearȱnothingȱofȱit.ȱ
Oneȱmightȱaddȱthat,ȱafterȱtheȱfinalȱbattleȱwithȱtheȱIrish,ȱweȱhearȱnothingȱofȱany
returnȱjourneyȱacrossȱIrelandȱbyȱtheȱhandfulȱofȱsurvivors,ȱwhoȱeventuallyȱreach
Anglesey,ȱwhereȱBranwenȱdiesȱandȱisȱburied.ȱFinally,ȱifȱtheȱwarȱwithȱtheȱIrish
meantȱaȱdangerousȱandȱinvolvedȱmarchȱintoȱtheȱinterior,ȱoneȱmightȱexpectȱthe
authorȱtoȱknowȱmoreȱofȱIrishȱgeography.ȱButȱnotȱso.ȱLikeȱotherȱvisitors,ȱtheȱauthor
showsȱnoȱknowledgeȱofȱIrishȱtopographyȱbeyondȱthatȱofȱtheȱDublinȱarea,ȱexcept
inȱoneȱmatter,ȱtheȱallusionȱtoȱIreland’sȱfiveȱprovinces.ȱThisȱcontrastsȱsharplyȱwith
otherȱWelshȱtexts,ȱincludingȱCulhwchȱandȱOlwen,ȱtheȱlifeȱofȱGruffuddȱapȱCynan,
andȱwritingsȱbyȱGeraldȱofȱWales,ȱasȱalsoȱtheȱauthor’sȱminuteȱknowledgeȱofȱWelsh
topography.ȱ
Soȱthereȱisȱoneȱconclusion.ȱTheȱLlinonȱisȱtheȱLiffey;ȱtheȱhurdlesȱareȱthoseȱofȱDublin;
theȱ bridgeȱ brokenȱ downȱ stoodȱ atȱ theȱ footȱ ofȱ Bridgeȱ Street.ȱ Theȱ nextȱ timeȱ one
passesȱFatherȱMathewȱBridgeȱinȱcentralȱDublin,ȱoneȱmayȱlikeȱtoȱthinkȱthatȱitȱwas
63
A.ȱO.ȱH.ȱJarman,ȱ“PedairȱCaincȱyȱMabinogi,”ȱYȱTraddodiadȱRhyddiaithȱynȱyrȱOesauȱCanol,ȱed.ȱGeraint
Bowenȱ(Llandysul:ȱGomerȱPress,ȱ1974),ȱ83–142.
64
TheȱMabinogion,ȱtrans.ȱCharlotteȱGuestȱ(seeȱnoteȱ30),ȱ55.
308 AndrewȱBreeze
there,ȱonȱthatȱveryȱspot,ȱthatȱtheȱBritishȱroyalȱgiantȱBendigeidfranȱsupposedlyȱlay
downȱ acrossȱ theȱ river,ȱ andȱ letȱ hisȱ armyȱ crossȱ northwardsȱ overȱ hisȱ back.ȱ Ifȱ so,
Dublin,ȱwhichȱhasȱseenȱtheȱcreationȱofȱmuchȱgreatȱliterature,ȱalsoȱhadȱaȱpartȱin
creatingȱtheȱtaleȱofȱBranwen.ȱOnȱthisȱquestionȱSirȱIforȱWilliamsȱandȱProinsiasȱMac
Canaȱwereȱwrong,ȱandȱRachelȱBromwichȱandȱPatrickȱSimsȬWilliamsȱareȱright.
IV.ȱTheȱThirdȱBranch,ȱtheȱTaleȱofȱManawydan
AfterȱArmageddonȱinȱtheȱsecondȱbranch,ȱtheȱthirdȱsetsȱoutȱhowȱtheȱsurvivors
comeȱtoȱtermsȱwithȱtheȱusurperȱCaswallonȱbyȱgoingȱtoȱOxfordȱandȱbecomingȱhis
vassal.ȱTheyȱthenȱsettleȱinȱDyfed,ȱwhichȱisȱdescribedȱinȱlyricalȱterms.ȱTheyȱwander
throughȱtheȱcountry,ȱthinkingȱtheyȱhadȱneverȱseenȱaȱlandȱmoreȱdelightfulȱtoȱlive
in,ȱnorȱaȱbetterȱhuntingȱground,ȱnorȱaȱlandȱmoreȱabundantȱthanȱthatȱinȱhoneyȱand
fish;ȱandȱitȱisȱthereȱthatȱtheyȱliveȱuponȱtheȱmeatȱwhichȱtheyȱhuntȱandȱonȱfishȱand
wildȱswarms.ȱButȱtheȱidyllȱdoesȱnotȱlast.ȱMagicȱpowerȱbringsȱdesolationȱtoȱDyfed,
andȱ Manawydanȱ andȱ Pryderiȱ goȱ toȱ Herefordȱ andȱ otherȱ unnamedȱ townsȱ in
Englandȱ toȱ practiceȱ tradesȱ (successivelyȱ makingȱ saddles,ȱ shields,ȱ andȱ shoes),
whichȱ theyȱ doȱ excellently,ȱ butȱ unfortunatelyȱ excitingȱ theȱ hostilityȱ ofȱ English
competitors.ȱSoȱtheyȱgoȱbackȱtoȱDyfed.ȱManawydanȱbringsȱwheatȱwithȱhim,ȱand
rejoicesȱtoȱseeȱagainȱArberthȱandȱitsȱoldȱhuntingȬgrounds.ȱHeȱbeginsȱonceȱmoreȱto
catchȱfishȱandȱtheȱwildȱanimalsȱinȱtheȱcovertsȱthere,ȱbutȱalsoȱtoȱplantȱtheȱwheat
springingȱupȱtheȱbestȱinȱtheȱworld,ȱandȱhisȱthreeȱcroftsȱthrivingȱinȱlikeȱgrowth,ȱ“so
thatȱmortalȱhadȱnotȱseenȱwheatȱfinerȱthanȱthat.”65ȱYetȱtheȱwheatȱisȱravagedȱby
mice;ȱManawydanȱcapturesȱoneȱmouseȱandȱpreparesȱtoȱhangȱitȱonȱtheȱmoundȱof
Arberth,ȱdespiteȱtheȱattemptsȱofȱaȱpassingȱclerkȱandȱaȱpriestȱtoȱstopȱhim.ȱFinally
aȱbishopȱonȱtheȱroadȱbuysȱhimȱoff;ȱandȱtheȱbishopȱturnsȱoutȱtoȱbeȱnoȱclericȱbutȱthe
agentȱofȱmagicȱpowers.ȱAfterȱhardȱbargaining,ȱDyfedȱisȱreleasedȱfromȱitsȱcurseȱand
allȱendsȱwell.
Despiteȱproblemsȱwithȱsorcerers,ȱDyfedȱisȱseenȱasȱsmilingȱandȱwelcomingȱcountry.
Theȱauthorȱhadȱpositiveȱidentificationȱwithȱit,ȱasȱwithȱGwynedd,ȱbutȱnotȱwith
Scotland,ȱIreland,ȱorȱEngland,ȱallȱseenȱmoreȱorȱlessȱnegativelyȱinȱtermsȱofȱtreachery
andȱinsecurity,ȱwhetherȱpersonalȱ(GwawlȱsonȱofȱClud)ȱorȱpoliticalȱ(Matholwch,
Caswallon,ȱHerefordȱcraftsmen).ȱDyfed,ȱinȱcontrast,ȱisȱhome:ȱaȱlandȱwithȱfishȱinȱits
rivers,ȱ gameȱ inȱ itsȱ woodlands,ȱ beesȱ inȱ itsȱ glades,ȱ andȱ wheatȱ inȱ itsȱ fields.
Remarkably,ȱlivestockȱneverȱappears.ȱTheȱauthorȱhadȱanȱupperȬclassȱinterestȱin
huntingȱandȱfishing,ȱandȱaȱpracticalȱoneȱinȱraisingȱcrops,ȱbutȱnoȱapparentȱinterest
inȱdairyingȱorȱinȱmeatȱotherȱthanȱgame.ȱDyfed’sȱruralȱbeautiesȱareȱseenȱinȱtheȱway
65
anȱ estateȬownerȱ mightȱ seeȱ it,ȱ asȱ producingȱ thingsȱ thatȱ areȱ goodȱ toȱ eat.ȱ Itȱ is
beautiful,ȱbutȱbeautifulȱbecauseȱitȱisȱfertile.
V.ȱTheȱFourthȱBranch,ȱtheȱTaleȱofȱMath
AfterȱaȱbitterȬsweetȱsojournȱinȱDyfed,ȱweȱreturnȱtoȱGwynedd,ȱandȱGwynedd’s
tragicȱ conflictȱ withȱ Dyfed.ȱ Ourȱ finalȱ taleȱ opensȱ byȱ tellingȱ usȱ thatȱ Mathȱ sonȱ of
MathonwyȱwasȱlordȱoverȱGwynedd,ȱandȱPryderiȱsonȱofȱPwyllȱwasȱlordȱoverȱoneȬ
andȬtwentyȱcantrefsȱinȱtheȱSouth.ȱThoseȱwereȱtheȱsevenȱcantrefsȱofȱDyfed,ȱandȱthe
sevenȱofȱMorgannwgȱ[=Glamorgan],ȱandȱtheȱfourȱofȱCeredigion,ȱandȱtheȱthreeȱof
YstradȱTywi.ȱSuchȱisȱtheȱpoliticalȱsetting.ȱAtȱtheȱcourtȱofȱGwyneddȱisȱanȱintrigue
betweenȱGoewin,ȱaȱmaidenȱinȱtheȱserviceȱofȱMath,ȱandȱhisȱnephewȱGilfaethwy,
whoȱ desiresȱ her.ȱ Theȱ firstȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ storyȱ relatesȱ howȱ Gilfaethwy’sȱ brother
Gwydionȱ(aȱwarlock)ȱprovokesȱwarȱwithȱDyfedȱbyȱstealingȱPryderi’sȱmagicȱswine;
whileȱMathȱisȱonȱcampaign,ȱGilfaethwyȱusesȱtheȱopportunityȱtoȱrapeȱGoewin.ȱBut
heȱ andȱ hisȱ brotherȱ payȱ forȱ theirȱ crimeȱ onȱ Math’sȱ returnȱ (theyȱ areȱ forȱ aȱ while
transformedȱintoȱwildȱanimals).ȱ
TheȱsecondȱpartȱofȱtheȱtaleȱdealsȱwithȱtheȱGwyneddȱnoblemanȱLleuȱandȱhisȱwife
Blodeuedd,ȱmagicallyȱcreatedȱforȱhimȱoutȱofȱflowers.ȱSheȱyetȱprovesȱfaithless,ȱand
herȱloverȱGronwȱtriesȱtoȱmurderȱherȱhusband;ȱLleuȱescapesȱbyȱturningȱintoȱan
eagle.ȱ Theȱ taleȱ endsȱ withȱ Math’sȱ punishmentȱ ofȱ Gronwȱ (spearedȱ throughȱ his
backbone,ȱsoȱthatȱheȱdies)ȱandȱBlodeueddȱ(turnedȱintoȱanȱowl).ȱOrderȱisȱrestored,
and,ȱ afterȱ theȱ betrayalsȱ ofȱ warȱ andȱ love,ȱ Gwyneddȱ returnsȱ toȱ peacefulȱ and
prosperousȱ rule.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ catalogueȱ ofȱ goingsȬonȱ inȱ highȱ places,ȱ threeȱ locations
concernȱus:ȱRhuddlanȱTeifi,ȱtheȱcourtȱofȱPryderiȱinȱCeredigion;ȱEifionyddȱand
Ardudwy,ȱ theȱ domainȱ ofȱ Lleu;ȱ andȱ Murȱ yȱ Castell,ȱ Lleu’sȱ courtȱ inȱ Ardudwy’s
uplands.ȱTheyȱareȱdescribedȱthus.
ItȱwasȱtoȱRhuddlanȱTeifiȱthatȱGwydionȱwent,ȱandȱGilfaethwy,ȱandȱtenȱmenȱwith
them,ȱasȱfarȱasȱCeredigion,ȱtoȱtheȱplaceȱwhichȱwasȱlaterȱcalledȱRhuddlanȱTeifi.
ThereȱwasȱaȱcourtȱofȱPryderi’sȱthere,ȱandȱinȱtheȱguiseȱofȱbardsȱtheyȱcameȱinside.
Afterȱ entertainingȱ theirȱ hostȱ withȱ talesȱ andȱ theȱ like,ȱ theyȱ showȱ thanksȱ forȱ his
hospitalityȱbyȱstealingȱhisȱmagicȱswine.ȱTheyȱareȱearlyȱWelshȱpigȬrustlers.ȱPryderi
andȱhisȱmenȱsetȱoffȱafterȱthem,ȱandȱtheȱresultȱisȱwarȱbetweenȱDyfedȱandȱGwynedd,
whichȱ Dyfedȱ loses.ȱ Ofȱ Rhuddlanȱ Teifiȱ weȱ canȱ sayȱ this.ȱ Itȱ isȱ inȱ theȱ parishȱ of
Llanwenog,ȱ sevenȱ milesȱ westȬsouthȬwestȱ ofȱ theȱ pocketȱ universityȱ townȱ of
Lampeter.ȱ
Twoȱcenturiesȱagoȱaȱtopographerȱsaid,ȱ“HighȱMead,ȱanotherȱseat,ȱisȱdelightfully
situatedȱonȱanȱeminenceȱaboveȱtheȱriverȱTeivy,ȱcommandingȱanȱextensiveȱprospect
ofȱtheȱsurroundingȱcountryȱonȱbothȱsidesȱofȱtheȱvale,ȱwhichȱhereȱexpandsȱinto
310 AndrewȱBreeze
considerableȱbreadth;ȱtheȱhouseȱisȱcompletelyȱshelteredȱfromȱtheȱnorthȱwindsȱby
aȱrangeȱofȱloftyȱhills,”ȱandȱtheȱlike.66ȱSoȱtheȱspotȱwasȱwellȬchosen.ȱTheȱLordȱRhys
(d.ȱ 1197)ȱ eventuallyȱ grantedȱ Rhuddlanȱ Teifiȱ asȱ aȱ manorȱ toȱ theȱ Cistercian
monasteryȱofȱWhitland,ȱCarmarthenshire.ȱGruffyddȱmaintainedȱthatȱ“thisȱepisode
wasȱprobablyȱreȬwrittenȱbyȱanȱauthorȱwhoȱknewȱnextȱtoȱnothingȱaboutȱWales
outsideȱ theȱ twoȱ districtsȱ whereȱ theȱ twoȱ partsȱ ofȱ Mathȱ areȱ staged,ȱ Arvonȱ and
Ardudwy.ȱTheȱonlyȱnameȱinȱDyvedȱwhichȱisȱmentionedȱisȱRhuddlanȱTeivi.”67
Againstȱthatȱoneȱcanȱsayȱ(a)ȱthereȱisȱnotȱaȱshredȱofȱevidenceȱtoȱsuggestȱanother
authorȱhere,ȱandȱ(b)ȱRhuddlanȱTeifiȱisȱnotȱinȱDyfedȱbutȱinȱCeredigion.ȱSirȱJohn
Lloydȱ spokeȱ ofȱ theȱ place’sȱ “richȱ meadowsȱ alongȱ theȱ riverȱ bankȱ andȱ sunny,
southwardȬfacingȱ slopes,”ȱ withȱ Pryderi’sȱ “courtȱ atȱ Rhuddlanȱ Teifi,ȱ whereȱ the
houseȱofȱHighmeadȱhasȱbeenȱbuilt,”ȱwhereȱGwydionȱtrickedȱPryderiȱintoȱparting
withȱ hisȱ “marvellousȱ herdȱ ofȱ swine.”68ȱ Whitland’sȱ rightȱ toȱ Rhuddlanȱ was
confirmedȱbyȱKingȱJohnȱ(1199–1216).ȱTheȱestate,ȱfertileȱinȱwheatȱandȱwithȱvast
numbersȱ ofȱ cattleȱ andȱ sheep,ȱ wasȱ originallyȱ grantedȱ toȱ theȱ nearby
PremonstratensianȱabbeyȱofȱTalleyȱbyȱtheȱLordȱRhysȱ(d.ȱ1197),ȱbutȱtheȱWhitland
monksȱhadȱgotȱholdȱofȱitȱbyȱunderhandȱmeans,ȱ andȱ keptȱitȱuntilȱHenryȱVIII’s
days.69ȱ Itȱ isȱ evidentȱ thatȱ theȱ authorȱ ofȱ theȱ narrativeȱ knewȱ Rhuddlanȱ Teifiȱ asȱ a
desirableȱproperty,ȱwhereȱPryderi’sȱhouseȱwouldȱhaveȱbeenȱatȱPentreȱRhuddlan,
immediatelyȱbyȱtheȱgreatȱhouseȱofȱHighmead.70ȱSinceȱweȱargueȱthatȱtheȱauthor’s
sonȱwasȱtheȱLordȱRhysȱwhoȱatȱfirstȱgrantedȱtheȱestateȱtoȱTalleyȱAbbey,ȱwhichȱhe
hadȱfoundedȱatȱanȱunknownȱdateȱinȱtheȱ1180s,ȱthisȱwouldȱbeȱnoȱsurprise.ȱItȱhad
beenȱaȱpossessionȱofȱtheȱprincesȱofȱDyfed,ȱandȱtheȱauthorȱknewȱitȱwell.
Inȱcontrastȱtoȱsunnyȱslopes,ȱlushȱmeadows,ȱandȱcontentedȱcattleȱatȱRhuddlanȱTeifi
isȱEifionyddȱandȱArdudwy,ȱgrantedȱtoȱtheȱyoungȱlordȱLleu,ȱwhoseȱadventuresȱand
misfortunesȱ makeȱ upȱ theȱ finalȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ storyȱ ofȱ Math.ȱ Heȱ andȱ hisȱ bride
Blodeueddȱsleepȱtogetherȱafterȱtheȱmarriageȱfeast,ȱGwydionȱdeclaresȱthatȱaȱman
withoutȱterritoryȱcanȱhardlyȱmaintainȱhimself,ȱandȱMathȱpromisesȱhimȱtheȱvery
bestȱcantrefȱforȱaȱyoungȱmanȱtoȱhave,ȱthatȱofȱDinoding,ȱwhich,ȱasȱtheȱauthorȱadds,
isȱnowadaysȱcalledȱEifionyddȱandȱArdudwy.ȱLleuȱsetȱupȱcourtȱinȱaȱplaceȱcalled
MurȱyȱCastell,ȱinȱtheȱuplandsȱofȱArdudwy.71
66
SamuelȱLewis,ȱAȱTopographicalȱDictionaryȱofȱWalesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ7),ȱII,ȱ159.
67
W.ȱJ.ȱGruffydd,ȱMathȱvabȱMathonwyȱ(Cardiff:ȱUniversityȱofȱWalesȱPress,ȱ1928),ȱ330.
68
J.ȱE.ȱLloyd,ȱTheȱStoryȱofȱCeredigionȱ(Cardiff:ȱUniversityȱofȱWalesȱPress,ȱ1937),ȱ19.
69
J.ȱF.ȱO’Sullivan,ȱCistercianȱSettlementsȱinȱWalesȱandȱMonmouthshire,ȱ1140–1540ȱ(NewȱYork:ȱDeclan
X.ȱMcMullenȱCompany,ȱ1947),ȱ8–9.
70
F.ȱG.ȱCowley,ȱTheȱMonasticȱOrderȱinȱSouthȱWalesȱ1066–1349ȱ(Cardiff:ȱUniversityȱofȱWalesȱPress,
1977),ȱ74.
71
SirȱJohnȱLloydȱdefinedȱtheȱcantrefȱorȱdistrictȱofȱDinodingȱasȱtheȱ“ruggedȱheights
whichȱsurroundȱtheȱnorthȬeasternȱcornerȱofȱCardiganȱBay,”,ȱcitedȱinȱtheȱabove
passage,ȱandȱremarkedȱthatȱ“asȱaȱroughȱandȱcraggyȱregion,ȱitȱtriedȱandȱdisciplined
theȱpowersȱofȱtheȱbuddingȱchieftain.”ȱHeȱwentȱonȱtoȱmentionȱLleu’sȱcourtȱ“amid
theȱbrokenȱwallsȱofȱtheȱdismantledȱRomanȱencampment.ȱItȱwasȱaȱlandȱwhichȱbred
hardyȱwieldersȱofȱtheȱlance,ȱaȱnurturerȱofȱwarriorsȱratherȱthanȱchurchmen,ȱfor
neitherȱhereȱnorȱinȱEifionyddȱwereȱthereȱinȱearlyȱtimesȱanyȱchurchesȱofȱtheȱfirst
rank.”72ȱAsȱforȱtheȱRomanȱcamp’sȱ“brokenȱwalls”,ȱtheseȱareȱnowȱcalledȱTomenȱy
Mur,ȱ“moundȱofȱtheȱwall”ȱandȱareȱonȱuplandsȱinȱtheȱparishȱofȱMaentwrog,ȱlooking
downȱonȱtheȱdecommissionedȱTrawsfynyddȱnuclearȱpowerȬstation.ȱAȱmodern
topographerȱdescribesȱitȱasȱaȱdesertedȱ“greenȱmoundȱonȱaȱrushyȱplateau,”ȱwhere
acidȱsoilȱandȱheavyȱrainfallȱfosterȱaȱmoorlandȱflora,ȱandȱfieldsȱareȱfencedȱwith
slate.ȱ HeȱmentionsȱtheȱRomanȱcamp,ȱoccupiedȱfromȱ78ȱtoȱ140ȱC.E.;ȱaȱNorman
motte,ȱfromȱtheȱtimeȱofȱWilliamȱRufus;ȱandȱaȱlaterȱfarmstead,ȱnowȱabandonedȱand
collapsed.73ȱNevertheless,ȱthisȱmelancholyȱspotȱhadȱtheȱadvantageȱofȱbeingȱatȱa
RomanȱroadȬjunction,ȱsoȱthatȱitȱwasȱseenȱbyȱtravellers.ȱLocatedȱonȱtheȱ950Ȭfoot
contourȱ andȱ withȱ viewsȱ forȱ miles,ȱ itȱ wasȱ aȱ dramaticȱ locationȱ forȱ theȱ Welsh
storytellerȱtoȱlocateȱthereȱtheȱamoursȱofȱBlodeueddȱandȱGronw.
VI.ȱConclusion
Severalȱ pointsȱ ariseȱ fromȱ theȱ above.ȱ Firstȱ isȱ theȱ author’sȱ knowledgeȱ ofȱ Dyfed,
Ceredigion,ȱGwynedd,ȱandȱDublin.ȱWithȱtheȱfirstȱtwoȱareȱtheȱwoodsȱofȱtheȱCuch,
theȱprehistoricȱmoundȱbyȱArberth,ȱandȱtheȱestateȱofȱRhuddlanȱTeifi.ȱTheȱauthor
alsoȱknewȱDublinȱandȱimaginativelyȱincorporatedȱDublin’sȱoldestȱbridgeȱintoȱthe
narrative.ȱInȱartisticȱcontrastȱareȱHarlech,ȱonȱitsȱcragȱaboveȱtheȱsea,ȱandȱMurȱy
Castellȱinȱruggedȱcountryȱaȱfewȱmilesȱtoȱtheȱeast,ȱaboveȱtheȱvaleȱofȱTrawsfynydd.
Readersȱhaveȱtheȱexperience,ȱnotȱoftenȱtoȱbeȱhadȱwithȱaȱmedievalȱromance,ȱof
pointingȱtoȱplacesȱthatȱwereȱknownȱbyȱanȱauthorȱnineȱcenturiesȱago,ȱwhoȱused
themȱinȱtheȱmostȱnaturalȱandȱdownȬtoȬearthȱwayȱasȱtheȱscenesȱforȱwonder,ȱlove,
andȱtheȱsupernatural.ȱSoȱtheȱauthorȱhadȱanȱintimateȱknowledgeȱofȱnorthȬwestȱand
southȬwestȱ Wales,ȱ aȱ lesserȱ oneȱ ofȱ otherȱ Welshȱ regions,ȱ andȱ aȱ sketchierȱ oneȱ of
England,ȱScotland,ȱandȱIreland.ȱTheȱlastȱthreeȱareȱseenȱinȱnegativeȱterms,ȱtheȱfirst
asȱaȱplaceȱofȱusurpersȱandȱinferiorȱhostileȱcraftsmen,ȱtheȱsecondȱasȱhomeȱtoȱan
absurdȱ(butȱtreacherous)ȱsuitor;ȱtheȱthirdȱasȱaȱlandȱofȱcruelȱandȱfickleȱhusbands
andȱnobles.
72
Lloyd,ȱAȱHistoryȱofȱWalesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ14),ȱ238–39.
73
VyvyanȱRees,ȱAȱShellȱGuide:ȱMidȱWesternȱȱWalesȱ(London:ȱFaber,ȱ1971),ȱ128.
312 AndrewȱBreeze
Further,ȱ territoryȱ isȱ consistentlyȱ seenȱ inȱ termsȱ ofȱ royalȱ powerȱ and
administration.ȱLandsȱareȱdescribedȱasȱseenȱbyȱhunters,ȱadministrators,ȱandȱrulers.
Theȱconvictionȱandȱcircumstantialȱdetailȱwithȱwhichȱthisȱisȱdoneȱisȱremarkable.ȱIt
stronglyȱindicatesȱthatȱtheȱauthorȱwasȱatȱhomeȱinȱcirclesȱofȱpower.ȱTheȱauthorȱhad
theȱ giftȱ ofȱ selectingȱ aȱ wood,ȱ aȱ moor,ȱ anȱ Irishȱ bridge,ȱ aȱ seasideȱ crag,ȱ aȱ ruined
stronghold,ȱ andȱ ofȱ populatingȱ theseȱ artisticallyȱ contrastedȱ locales,ȱ ratherȱ as
Thomasȱ Hardyȱ didȱ inȱ theȱ nineteenthȱ centuryȱ withȱ theȱ Wessexȱ ofȱ hisȱ novels,
althoughȱtheȱWelshȱauthorȱisȱinterestedȱinȱkings,ȱlords,ȱandȱladies,ȱwhileȱHardy
hasȱanȱeyeȱforȱcommonȱfolk.ȱTheseȱplacesȱconstantlyȱrelateȱtoȱtheȱactivitiesȱofȱa
rulingȱclass,ȱwhetherȱhunting,ȱdiplomacy,ȱmarriageȬbrokering,ȱadultery,ȱandȱthe
like.ȱTheȱWelshȱwriterȱpraisesȱtheȱbeautyȱandȱfertilityȱofȱDyfedȱinȱaȱwayȱunusual
forȱoneȱbornȱinȱGwynedd,ȱbutȱhasȱlittleȱinterestȱinȱtheȱbeautiesȱofȱnatureȱasȱsuch.
Inȱshort,ȱcontinuedȱattentionȱtoȱdescriptionȱofȱplaceȱwill,ȱitȱseems,ȱtendȱtoȱconfirm
myȱ hypothesisȱ (setȱ outȱ inȱ booksȱ citedȱ above)ȱ thatȱ theȱ talesȱ areȱ theȱ workȱ ofȱ a
twelfthȬcenturyȱGwyneddȱprincessȱresidentȱinȱDyfed.
Chapterȱ7
PennyȱSimons
(UniversityȱofȱSheffield,ȱUnitedȱKingdom)
RuralȱSpaceȱandȱTransgressiveȱSpaceȱinȱBérengerȱauȱloncȱcul
Theȱ Oldȱ Frenchȱ fabliauȱ Bérengerȱ auȱ loncȱ cul1ȱ datesȱ fromȱ theȱ firstȱ halfȱ ofȱ the
thirteenthȱcentury;ȱitȱisȱpreservedȱinȱthreeȱmanuscripts,ȱA,ȱB,ȱandȱD,2ȱandȱwas
composedȱbyȱaȱfableorȱGuerin,ȱwhoȱnamesȱhimselfȱinȱtheȱthirdȱofȱtheseȱmss.3ȱOfȱthe
threeȱextantȱmanuscriptȱwitnesses,ȱBȱandȱDȱofferȱaȱversionȱofȱtheȱstory,ȱ(whichȱI
1
Theȱ nameȱ ofȱ theȱ eponymousȱ heroȱ ofȱ thisȱ textȱ isȱ renderedȱ variouslyȱ inȱ modernȱ editions:
Bérenger/Bérengierȱ auȱ lonc/longȱ cul.ȱ Iȱ useȱ theȱ formȱ Bérengerȱ auȱ loncȱ cul,ȱ unlessȱ citingȱ other
sourcesȱwhichȱuseȱaȱdifferentȱspelling.ȱThereȱareȱseveralȱeditionsȱofȱtheȱfabliau:ȱitȱappearsȱinȱthe
earlyȱ collectionȱ Recueilȱ généralȱ etȱ completȱ desȱ fabliauxȱ desȱ XIIIeȱ etȱ XIVeȱ siècles,ȱ ed.ȱ Anatoleȱ de
MontaiglonȱandȱGastonȱRaynaud.ȱ6ȱvolumesȱ(Paris:ȱLibrairieȱdesȱBibliophiles,ȱ1872–1890),ȱIII,
252–62ȱ andȱ IV,ȱ 57–66;ȱ inȱ theȱ studyȱ Contributionȱ àȱ l’étudeȱ desȱ fabliaux.ȱ Variantes,ȱ remaniements,
dégradations,ȱed.ȱbyȱJeanȱRychner.ȱUniversitéȱdeȱNeuchâtel,ȱRecueilȱdeȱtravauxȱpubliésȱparȱla
FacultéȱdeȱLettres,ȱfasciculeȱ28,ȱ2ȱvolumesȱ(NeuchâtelȱandȱGeneva:ȱDroz,ȱ1960),ȱVolumeȱIIȱTextes,
100–109;ȱ inȱ Nouveauȱ recueilȱ completȱ desȱ fabliaux,ȱ ed.ȱ byȱ Willemȱ Noomenȱ andȱ Nicoȱ vanȱ den
Boogaard,ȱ10ȱvolumesȱ(AssenȱandȱMaastricht:ȱvanȱGorcum,ȱ1983–2001),ȱIV,ȱ245–77.ȱAllȱreferences,
unlessȱotherwiseȱstated,ȱareȱtoȱthisȱthirdȱedition,ȱ270–77;ȱtheȱfullȱtextȱofȱNoomenȱandȱBoogaard
isȱgivenȱatȱtheȱendȱofȱthisȱchapter,ȱtogetherȱwithȱmyȱownȱmodernȱEnglishȱtranslation.ȱSeeȱalso
otherȱpublishedȱtranslationsȱofȱBerengier:ȱRobertȱHarrisonȱBerkeley,ȱGallicȱSalt:ȱEighteenȱFabliaux
TranslatedȱfromȱtheȱOldȱFrenchȱ(BerkeleyȱandȱLondon:ȱUniversityȱofȱCaliforniaȱPress,ȱ1974);ȱFabliaux
érotiques,ȱed.ȱandȱtrans.ȱLucianoȱRossiȱandȱRichardȱStraub.ȱLettresȱgothiquesȱ(Paris:ȱLeȱLivreȱde
poche,ȱ1992);ȱandȱChevalerieȱetȱgrivoiserie:ȱFabliauxȱdeȱchevalerie,ȱed.ȱandȱtrans.ȱJeanȬLucȱLeclanche.
SérieȱMoyenȱAgeȱ(Paris:ȱChampion,ȱ2003).
2
ManuscriptȱA:ȱParis,ȱBibliothèqueȱNationaleȱdeȱFrance,ȱfr.ȱ837
ManuscriptȱB:ȱBerne,ȱBibliothèqueȱdeȱlaȱBourgoisie,ȱ354
ManuscriptȱD:ȱParis,ȱBibliothèqueȱNationaleȱdeȱFrance,ȱfr.ȱ19152.
3
Inȱtheirȱintroductionȱtoȱthisȱfabliau,ȱNoomenȱandȱBoogaardȱpointȱoutȱthatȱthereȱareȱfiveȱother
fabliauxȱinȱwhichȱthereȱisȱanȱattributionȱtoȱaȱfableorȱbyȱtheȱnameȱofȱGuerin,ȱorȱitsȱvariantȱform
Garin:ȱDuȱPrestreȱquiȱabevet,ȱDuȱChevalierȱquiȱfistȱparterȱlesȱcons,ȱLaȱGrue,ȱDesȱTresces,ȱandȱDuȱPrestre
quiȱmanjaȱmores.ȱGiven,ȱhowever,ȱthatȱGarin/GuerinȱisȱaȱveryȱcommonȱnameȱinȱOldȱFrench,ȱitȱis
unwiseȱtoȱconcludeȱthatȱtheseȱfabliauxȱareȱallȱtheȱworkȱofȱoneȱindividual.ȱSeeȱ“BerengierȱauȱLong
Cul,”ȱNouveauȱrecueilȱcompletȱdesȱfabliaux,ȱed.ȱbyȱNoomenȱandȱBoogaardȱIVȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1),ȱ245–77;
hereȱ248.
314 PennyȱSimons
willȱfollowȱNoomenȱandȱBoogaardȱinȱcallingȱversionȱI)ȱinȱwhichȱtheȱissueȱofȱclass
distinctionȱ appearsȱ toȱ beȱ ofȱ particularȱ importanceȱ toȱ theȱ poet;ȱ manuscriptȱ A
containsȱanȱalternativeȱ(versionȱIIȱinȱNoomenȱandȱBoogaard’sȱanalysis)ȱinȱwhich
theȱsubjectȱofȱclassȱisȱgivenȱmuchȱlessȱimportance,ȱandȱwhichȱhasȱbeenȱdeemedȱby
mostȱcriticsȱtoȱbeȱanȱinferiorȱreworkingȱofȱversionȱI.4ȱRychner,ȱforȱexample,ȱinȱthe
firstȱvolumeȱofȱhisȱstudyȱofȱtheȱfabliaux,ȱisȱparticularlyȱcategoricalȱinȱhisȱassertion
ofȱtheȱprimacyȱofȱversionȱI:ȱ“bref,ȱunȱfabliauȱanalogueȱàȱDȱseȱtrouveraitȱàȱlaȱbase
duȱremaniementȱA,ȱquiȱl‘auraitȱgravementȱaltéré”(Inȱshort,ȱaȱfabliauȱsimilarȱtoȱD
wasȱapparentlyȱreworkedȱandȱsignificantlyȱalteredȱbyȱA).5ȱRoyȱPearcyȱattenuates
Rychner’sȱdismissalȱofȱtheȱAȱversion,ȱbutȱevenȱheȱstillȱconcludesȱthatȱ“Rychner
wasȱ perfectlyȱ correctȱ inȱ recognizingȱ theȱ superiorityȱ ofȱ D.”6ȱ Theȱ following
discussionȱwillȱtakeȱversionȱIȱasȱitsȱstartingȱpointȱinȱanȱanalysisȱofȱtheȱportrayal
andȱfunctionȱofȱruralȱspaceȱofȱBérengerȱauȱloncȱcul;ȱthisȱis,ȱhowever,ȱprincipallyȱfor
convenience,ȱinȱrecognitionȱofȱtheȱfactȱthatȱitȱisȱtheȱmoreȱgenerallyȱknownȱversion,
andȱisȱnotȱaȱtacitȱacceptanceȱofȱitsȱsuperiorȱworth.ȱTheȱdiscussionȱwillȱreturnȱinȱthe
secondȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ chapterȱ toȱ versionȱ II,ȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ reviewȱ andȱ challengeȱ the
“inferiorȱreworking”ȱstatusȱofȱthisȱversion,ȱinȱtheȱlightȱofȱconclusionsȱdrawnȱabout
theȱfunctionȱofȱruralȱspaceȱinȱtheȱfabliau.
BothȱversionsȱofȱBérengerȱauȱloncȱculȱexemplifyȱcommonȱtopoiȱofȱtheȱfabliauȱgenre:
thusȱweȱseeȱaȱfamiliarȱbattleȱofȱwitsȱinȱwhichȱtheȱwifeȱusesȱherȱsuperiorȱintelligence
toȱdefeatȱandȱcuckoldȱherȱfoolishȱhusband,ȱandȱtheȱwholeȱstoryȱcentresȱonȱaȱribald
anatomicalȱ jokeȱ thatȱ featuresȱ explicitȱ referencesȱ toȱ femaleȱ genitaliaȱ andȱ toȱ the
anus.7ȱTheseȱgenericȱtopoiȱtypicallyȱfunctionȱaroundȱbinaryȱoppositionsȱwhichȱlend
theȱfabliauxȱtheȱnarrativeȱeconomyȱnecessaryȱforȱtheirȱshortȱform:ȱinȱtheȱcaseȱof
Bérengerȱweȱhaveȱhusbandȱversusȱwife,ȱhusbandȱversusȱlover,ȱleȱconȱversusȱleȱcul.
Theȱ presentationȱ ofȱ theseȱ oppositesȱ inȱ theȱ fabliauxȱ alsoȱ oftenȱ involvesȱ the
subversionȱofȱnormalȱsocialȱexpectationsȱwhichȱcreatesȱaȱmondeȱàȱl’envers,ȱaȱtopsyȬ
4
Allȱtheȱeditionsȱreferredȱtoȱaboveȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1)ȱbaseȱtheirȱeditionsȱonȱversionȱIȱasȱtheȱpreferred
version,ȱalthoughȱopinionȱisȱdividedȱasȱtoȱwhetherȱmsȱBȱorȱDȱisȱtheȱbetterȱchoiceȱforȱaȱbaseȱms.;
RychnerȱchoseȱDȱforȱhisȱedition,ȱwhereasȱNoomenȱandȱBoogaardȱpreferȱB.ȱThereȱisȱoneȱpublished
editionȱofȱversionȱII,ȱbyȱNoraȱScott,ȱContesȱpourȱrire?ȱFabliauxȱdesȱXIIeȱetȱXIVeȱsièclesȱ10/18ȱ(Paris:
Unionȱgénéraleȱdȇéditions,ȱ1977),ȱ205–09.ȱAȱtextȱofȱversionȱII,ȱbasedȱuponȱNoomenȱandȱBoogaard’s
diplomaticȱtranscriptionȱofȱmanuscriptȱA,ȱaccompaniedȱbyȱmyȱownȱmodernȱEnglishȱtranslation
appearsȱatȱtheȱendȱofȱthisȱchapter,ȱ31–41.
5
JeanȱRychner,ȱContributionȱàȱl’étudeȱdesȱfabliaux,VolumeȱIȱObservationsȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1),ȱ67.
6
RoyȱPearcy,ȱ“RelationsȱbetweenȱtheȱDȱandȱAȱVersionsȱofȱBérengerȱauȱlongȱcul,”ȱRomanceȱNotesȱ14
(1972):ȱ173–78;ȱhereȱ177.
7
TheȱcommonȱfeaturesȱofȱfabliauȱhumorȱandȱnarrativesȱareȱdescribedȱinȱCharlesȱMuscatine,ȱThe
OldȱFrenchȱFabliauxȱ(NewȱHaven:ȱYaleȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1986),ȱMaryȱJaneȱStearnsȱSchenck,ȱThe
Fabliaux:ȱTalesȱofȱWitȱandȱDeception.ȱPurdueȱUniversityȱMonographsȱinȱRomanceȱLanguages,ȱ24
(Amsterdam:ȱBenjamins,1987),ȱDominiqueȱBoutet,ȱLesȱFabliaux.ȱEtudesȱlittérairesȱ(Paris:ȱPresses
UniversitairesȱdeȱFrance,ȱ1985),ȱBrianȱJ.ȱLevy,ȱTheȱComicȱText:ȱPatternsȱandȱImagesȱinȱtheȱOldȱFrench
Fabliaux.ȱ Fauxȱ titre:ȱ étudesȱ deȱ langueȱ etȱ littératureȱ françaises,ȱ 186ȱ (Amsterdamȱ andȱ Atlanta:
Rodopi,ȱ2000).
RuralȱSpaceȱandȱTransgressiveȱSpaceȱinȱBérengerȱauȱloncȱcul 315
turvyȱversionȱofȱrealityȱthatȱgeneratesȱcomedyȱthroughȱincongruity.8ȱSoȱhereȱwe
findȱ aȱ stupidȱ husbandȱ andȱ shrewdȱ wife;ȱ aȱ husbandȱ “inȱ theȱ wrong”ȱ andȱ a
triumphantȱloverȱ“inȱtheȱright”;ȱtheseȱculminateȱinȱtheȱvictoryȱofȱfemaleȱoverȱmale,
obscenelyȱencodedȱinȱtheȱbattleȱbetweenȱtheȱculȱandȱtheȱcon.ȱ
VersionȱI,ȱhowever,ȱaddsȱaȱfurtherȱbinaryȱopposition,ȱthatȱofȱtheȱupper,ȱknightly
classȱ versusȱ theȱ lowerȱ vilainȱ orȱ peasantȱ class.9ȱ Moreover,ȱ unlikeȱ theȱ other
oppositionsȱwhichȱareȱsubjectȱtoȱcomicȱinversion,ȱinȱthisȱversionȱtheȱquestionȱof
classȱremainsȱfirmlyȱorthodox;ȱversionȱIȱofȱBérengerȱauȱlongȱculȱis,ȱinitiallyȱatȱleast,
unequivocalȱinȱassertingȱtheȱprimacyȱofȱtheȱaristocracyȱoverȱtheȱparvenuȱfilsȱà
vilain—seeȱtheȱpoetȬnarrator’sȱcommentsȱaboutȱtheȱdireȱconsequencesȱofȱmixed
marriagesȱinȱvv.ȱ24–35,ȱforȱexample.ȱTurningȱnowȱtoȱtheȱpresenceȱandȱportrayal
ofȱruralȱspacesȱinȱthisȱfabliau,ȱweȱmight,ȱinȱtheȱlightȱofȱtheȱclearȱcontrastȱbetween
aristocratȱandȱvilain,ȱwishȱtoȱaddȱtoȱourȱearlierȱlistȱofȱoppositions:ȱ“courtlyȱspace”
versusȱ“ruralȱspace.”ȱIndeedȱitȱisȱfairlyȱobviousȱthatȱBérengerȱmovesȱbetweenȱthese
twoȱkindsȱofȱspace;ȱforȱexample,ȱtheȱlocationsȱshiftȱfromȱcourt,ȱtoȱwoodland,ȱback
toȱcourt,ȱbackȱtoȱwoodlandȱandȱendȱatȱtheȱcourt,ȱproducingȱaȱcircularȱtopography
thatȱunderpinsȱtheȱnarrativeȱstructureȱofȱtheȱfabliau.ȱThisȱtopographyȱmakesȱitȱclear
thatȱthereȱisȱatȱleastȱsomeȱtensionȱbetweenȱruralȱandȱcourtlyȱspaces,ȱandȱthatȱthis
correspondsȱtoȱtheȱtwoȱprincipalȱcharacters:ȱtheȱhusband,ȱforȱexample,ȱisȱclearly
aȱproductȱofȱtheȱlandȱ(vv.ȱ18–19,ȱ52–53),ȱandȱresortsȱtoȱaȱruralȱspaceȱtoȱcarryȱout
hisȱdeceptionȱofȱhisȱwife;ȱwhileȱsheȱinȱherȱturnȱparadesȱherȱultimateȱvictoryȱback
inȱtheȱcourtlyȱsetting,ȱhavingȱdefeatedȱhimȱinȱhisȱownȱruralȱspace.
ButȱcloserȱexaminationȱofȱtheȱruralȱspaceȱinȱversionȱIȱofȱBérengerȱsuggestsȱthat
itȱ operatesȱ inȱ aȱ ratherȱ moreȱ complexȱ andȱ sophisticatedȱ mannerȱ thanȱ simply
mirroringȱtheȱapparentȱemphasisȱonȱclassȱethos,ȱandȱthatȱitȱis,ȱinȱfact,ȱcrucialȱtoȱa
readingȱofȱthisȱversionȱand,ȱasȱaȱconsequence,ȱtoȱthatȱofȱversionȱII.ȱFirstȱofȱall,ȱthe
ruralȱlocationȱfeaturesȱnotȱjustȱonce,ȱbutȱtwice:ȱthereȱisȱaȱdoubleȱmoveȱfromȱcourtly
toȱruralȱspaceȱandȱbackȱagain.ȱThisȱrepetitionȱdrawsȱtheȱaudience’sȱattentionȱtoȱthe
functionȱofȱthisȱspaceȱinȱtheȱeconomyȱofȱtheȱtaleȱasȱaȱwhole.ȱSecondly,ȱtheȱactivities
whichȱtakeȱplaceȱthereȱalsoȱclaimȱourȱattention:ȱtheȱclashingȱofȱswordȱuponȱshield
inȱtheȱfirstȱruralȱsceneȱmakesȱbothȱliteralȱandȱnarrativeȱnoise,ȱandȱtheȱobsceneȱact
ofȱtheȱnobleȱwifeȱinȱtheȱsecondȱcontrastsȱstarklyȱwithȱherȱcourtlyȱstandingȱwhich
isȱemphasizedȱinȱtheȱcourtlyȱscenes.ȱMoreover,ȱtheseȱactivitiesȱalsoȱrepresentȱthe
8
Forȱ discussionsȱ ofȱ theȱ roleȱ ofȱ incongruityȱ inȱ medievalȱ humor,ȱ seeȱ theȱ workȱ ofȱ Leslieȱ Zarker
Morgan,ȱespeciallyȱ“CanȱanȱEpicȱWomanȱBeȱFunny?ȱHumorȱandȱtheȱFemaleȱProtagonistȱinȱLate
MedievalȱandȱEarlyȱRenaissanceȱEpic,”ȱInternationalȱJournalȱofȱHumorȱResearchȱ19,ȱ(2006):ȱ157–78;
alsoȱAnneȱE.ȱCobby,ȱAmbivalentȱConventions:ȱFormulaȱandȱParodyȱinȱOldȱFrench.ȱFauxȱtitre:ȱétudes
deȱlangueȱetȱlittératureȱfrançaises,ȱ101ȱ(AmsterdamȱandȱAmsterdam:ȱRodopi,ȱ1995).
9
ForȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱwayȱinȱwhichȱOldȱFrenchȱliteraryȱtextsȱhaveȱplayedȱwithȱtheȱvilainȬcourtois
paradigm,ȱseeȱKathrynȱGravdal,ȱVilainȱandȱCourtois:ȱTransgressiveȱParodyȱinȱFrenchȱLiteratureȱofȱthe
Twelfthȱ andȱ Thirteenthȱ Centuries.ȱ Regentsȱ Studiesȱ inȱ Medievalȱ Cultureȱ (Lincolnȱ andȱ London:
UniversityȱofȱNebraskaȱPress,ȱ1989).
316 PennyȱSimons
collisionȱ andȱ subversionȱ ofȱ theȱ otherȱ dichotomiesȱ inȱ theȱ story—theȱ gendered,
social,ȱanatomical—soȱthat,ȱinȱnarrativeȱterms,ȱruralȱspaceȱbecomesȱtheȱcruxȱofȱthe
wholeȱwork.ȱItȱisȱthereforeȱimportantȱtoȱlookȱinȱmoreȱdetailȱatȱhowȱandȱwhyȱthis
happensȱ andȱ henceȱ atȱ howȱ theseȱ twoȱ ruralȱ spacesȱ workȱ togetherȱ asȱ the
embodimentȱofȱtheȱmessageȱandȱtheȱcomicȱimpactȱofȱthisȱtale.ȱThisȱanalysisȱwill
alsoȱenableȱusȱtoȱreviewȱtheȱquestionȱofȱwhetherȱversionȱIȱreallyȱdoesȱpresentȱa
simple,ȱorthodoxȱportrayalȱofȱclass,ȱwhichȱinȱturnȱwillȱallowȱforȱaȱreconsideration
ofȱtheȱstatusȱofȱtheȱalternativeȱversionȱII.ȱ
Theȱactionsȱofȱtheȱhusbandȱinȱhisȱfirstȱforayȱintoȱtheȱruralȱspaceȱofȱtheȱwoodȱare
anȱobviousȱtravestyȱofȱknightlyȱbehavior,ȱandȱareȱwhatȱweȱwouldȱexpectȱfromȱa
manȱ whoȱ prefersȱ haymakingȱ andȱ eatingȱ pastriesȱ toȱ fightingȱ (vv.ȱ 46,ȱ 52–53).10
Comicȱeffectȱisȱachievedȱbyȱtheȱincongruousȱclothingȱofȱaȱvilainȱinȱknight’sȱarmor
andȱ theȱ assaultȱ uponȱ shield,ȱ swordȱ andȱ lanceȱ byȱ theirȱ owner;ȱ butȱ these
incongruitiesȱalsoȱexemplifyȱtheȱmiscegenationȱtoȱwhichȱtheȱpoetȱofȱthisȱversion
hasȱsoȱloudlyȱdeclaredȱhisȱoppositionȱinȱvv.ȱ24–35.ȱTheȱsecondȱsceneȱinȱthisȱrural
settingȱisȱthenȱobviouslyȱdesignedȱtoȱreplayȱtheȱfirstȱandȱreȬestablishȱtheȱproper
socialȱ order:ȱ theȱ falseȱ braveryȱ ofȱ theȱ fakeȱ knightȱ needsȱ toȱ beȱ exposed.ȱ Thisȱ is
achievedȱthroughȱtheȱinterventionȱofȱBérengerȱauȱloncȱculȱwhoȱnotȱonlyȱdefeats
thisȱimposter,ȱbutȱremainsȱasȱtheȱprotectorȱofȱtheȱwife’sȱliaisonȱwithȱherȱlover,ȱwho
isȱaȱgenuineȱknight.ȱ
Butȱtheȱnameȱofȱthisȱprotectorȱintroducesȱaȱnewȱdynamicȱintoȱtheȱplayȱwith
oppositionsȱ andȱ theȱ travestyȱ ofȱ knightlyȱ activity.ȱ Asȱ Royȱ Pearcyȱ hasȱ rightly
pointedȱout,ȱ“Bérengerȱauȱloncȱcul”ȱisȱanȱobsceneȱrewritingȱofȱtheȱnameȱofȱthe
famousȱ heroȱ ofȱ theȱ chansonsȱ deȱ geste,ȱ Guillaumeȱ auȱ cortȱ nez.11ȱ Thereȱ isȱ thusȱ a
genericȱclashȱtoȱaddȱtoȱtheȱotherȱclashingȱ soundsȱtoȱbeȱheardȱinȱtheȱtwoȱrural
encounters:ȱheroicȱliteratureȱcollidesȱwithȱtheȱfarȱlessȱcourtlyȱworldȱofȱtheȱfabliau,
andȱexpectationsȱfromȱtwoȱdifferentȱgenericȱcodesȱareȱplayedȱagainstȱeachȱother.
Thisȱgenericȱplayȱdestabilizesȱtheȱapparentlyȱsimpleȱclassȱethosȱofȱtheȱtale:ȱasȱthe
fakeȱknightȱassaultsȱtheȱiconicȱemblemsȱofȱtheȱchivalricȱcode,ȱsoȱmetonymically
thisȱfabliauȱappearsȱtoȱassaultȱtheȱheroicȱliteratureȱwhichȱglorifiesȱthatȱcode.ȱ
Moreȱimportantly,ȱhowever,ȱtheȱobsceneȱrewritingȱofȱtheȱnameȱinȱtheȱsecond
ruralȱsceneȱalsoȱforcesȱusȱtoȱreappraiseȱourȱreadingȱofȱtheȱfirst.ȱAreȱthereȱother
echoesȱofȱmoreȱheroicȱorȱcourtlyȱworksȱorȱgenresȱtoȱbeȱdiscernedȱinȱthisȱscene,ȱand
doȱtheseȱalsoȱundercutȱourȱinitialȱstraightforwardȱreadingȱofȱtheȱfabliau?ȱBothȱRoy
10
Theȱhusband’sȱfoodȱpreferencesȱmirrorȱhisȱlackȱofȱtrueȱchivalry.ȱHeȱdoesȱnotȱhungerȱforȱtheȱmeat
whichȱisȱcaughtȱbyȱtheȱhuntsman,ȱwhoseȱactivitiesȱwereȱanȱimportantȱpracticeȱgroundȱforȱmilitary
action.ȱAsȱSarahȱGordonȱpointsȱout,ȱ“fabliauȱcharactersȱareȱwhatȱtheyȱeat,ȱmorallyȱandȱsocially.”
Culinaryȱ Comedyȱ inȱ Medievalȱ Frenchȱ Literature.ȱ Purdueȱ Studiesȱ inȱ Romanceȱ Literaturesȱ (West
Lafayette,ȱIndiana:ȱPurdueȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2007),ȱ104.
11
RoyȱJ.ȱPearcy,ȱ“AnȱInstanceȱofȱHeroicȱParodyȱinȱtheȱFabliaux,”ȱRomaniaȱ98ȱ(1977):ȱ105–08.
PearcyȱandȱKeithȱBusbyȱhaveȱsuggestedȱthatȱthereȱare;ȱPearcyȱdemonstratesȱthat
thisȱ firstȱ ruralȱ sceneȱ makesȱ allusiveȱ referenceȱ toȱ theȱ thirteenthȬcenturyȱ prose
romanceȱLestoireȱdeȱMerlin,ȱwhileȱKeithȱBusbyȱidentifiesȱreferencesȱtoȱearlierȱverse
romance,ȱspecificallyȱtoȱtheȱworksȱofȱChrétienȱdeȱTroyes.12ȱInȱLestoireȱdeȱMerlinȱa
similarȱboastȱtoȱthatȱofȱtheȱhusbandȱisȱcarriedȱoutȱbyȱtheȱcharacterȱDagenet,ȱand,
toȱciteȱoneȱexampleȱfromȱBusby,ȱtheȱhusband’sȱlazingȱatȱhomeȱparodiesȱErec’s
recréantiseȱfromȱChrétien’sȱErecȱetȱEnide.ȱThereȱis,ȱtherefore,ȱaȱsubversiveȱpattern
ofȱrewritingȱofȱepicȱandȱromanceȱmodels,ȱplacingȱthemȱbothȱinȱtheȱinappropriate
contextȱofȱtheȱfabliauȱandȱinȱnarrativeȱspaceȱwhichȱisȱmarkedȱasȱruralȱratherȱthan
courtly.ȱTheȱruralȱspacesȱinȱBérengerȱareȱthusȱveryȱsignificantȱasȱtheȱlociȱwithin
whichȱthisȱgenericȱclashȱandȱconsequentȱundercuttingȱofȱheroic/courtlyȱnarratives
takeȱplace.ȱ
Theȱimportanceȱofȱthisȱrewritingȱandȱundercuttingȱisȱfurtherȱemphasizedȱby
KatherineȱBrown,ȱwhoȱhasȱanalyzedȱrewritingȱofȱanotherȱcourtlyȱformȱinȱBérenger
auȱloncȱcul.13ȱBrownȱdemonstratesȱtheȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱtheȱencounterȱbetweenȱthe
manȱandȱwomanȱinȱthisȱfabliauȱreworksȱtheȱessentialȱelementsȱofȱtheȱpastourelle,ȱa
courtlyȱlyricȱformȱbasedȱuponȱtheȱmeetingȱofȱaȱknightȱandȱaȱshepherdessȱinȱaȱrural
setting.ȱ Sheȱ showsȱ howȱ Bérengerȱ systematicallyȱ turnsȱ eachȱ elementȱ ofȱ the
pastourelleȱ uponȱ itsȱ headȱ inȱ whatȱ mightȱ appearȱ toȱ beȱ anotherȱ caseȱ ofȱ the
underminingȱofȱcourtlyȱliterature.ȱForȱexample,ȱweȱhaveȱtheȱroleȱreversalȱofȱthe
courtlyȱladyȱ“seducing”ȱtheȱlowȬbornȱman,ȱandȱthereȱisȱaȱcomicȱrewriting,ȱagain
withȱaȱgenderȱreversal,ȱofȱtheȱtypicalȱopeningȱofȱtheȱpastourelle,ȱasȱtheȱdinȱcreated
byȱ theȱ husbandȱ crashingȱ hisȱ swordȱ againstȱ hisȱ shieldȱ reworksȱ theȱ songȱ ofȱ the
shepherdessȱwhichȱtypicallyȱalertsȱtheȱknightȱtoȱherȱpresence.14ȱHowever,ȱBrown
concludesȱthatȱtheȱplayȱwithȱthisȱcourtlyȱlyricȱformȱreassertsȱsocialȱorthodoxyȱin
Bérengerȱ auȱ loncȱ culȱ andȱ doesȱ notȱ ultimatelyȱ undermineȱ theȱ valuesȱ ofȱ courtly
literature.15ȱThisȱisȱsupportedȱbyȱherȱreadingȱofȱtheȱmoralȱofȱtheȱfabliauȱ“Aȱmol
pastorȱchieȱlousȱlaine”ȱ(Whenȱtheȱshepherd’sȱweak,ȱtheȱwolfȱshitsȱwool,ȱv.ȱ296).
Insteadȱofȱreadingȱ theȱproverbȱinȱtheȱtraditionalȱwayȱwithȱtheȱ“pastor”ȱasȱthe
husbandȱandȱtheȱwolfȱasȱtheȱlover,ȱsheȱsuggests,ȱveryȱplausibly,ȱthatȱtheȱ“weak
12
RoyȱJ.ȱPearcy,ȱ“RelationsȱbetweenȱtheȱDȱandȱAȱVersionsȱofȱBérengerȱauȱlongȱcul,”ȱRomanceȱNotes
14ȱ(1972):ȱ173–78;ȱBusby,ȱKeithȱ“CourtlyȱLiteratureȱandȱtheȱFabliaux:ȱSomeȱInstancesȱofȱParody,”
ZeitschriftȱfürȱRomanischeȱPhilologieȱ102ȱ(1986):ȱ67–87.
13
KatherineȱBrown,ȱ“Bérengerȱauȱlongȱculȱandȱtheȱpastourelle,”ȱRomanceȱNotesȱ43ȱ(2007):ȱ323–31.
14
Forȱanȱeditionȱofȱtheȱfullȱcorpusȱofȱpastourelles,ȱseeȱJeanȬClaudeȱRivière,ȱPastourelles,ȱ3ȱvolumes.
Textesȱlittérairesȱfrançais,ȱ213,ȱ220,ȱ232ȱ(Geneva:ȱDroz,ȱ1974–1976).ȱForȱaȱusefulȱscholarlyȱstudy
ofȱtheȱgenre,ȱseeȱKathrynȱGravdal,ȱRavishingȱMaidens:ȱWritingȱRapeȱinȱMedievalȱFrenchȱLiterature
andȱLaw.ȱNewȱCulturalȱStudiesȱSeriesȱ(Philadelphia:ȱUniversityȱofȱPennsylvaniaȱPress,ȱ1991).
15
“Althoughȱ inverted,ȱ theȱ textȱ underminesȱ neitherȱ courtlyȱ literatureȱ norȱ theȱ pastourelle,ȱ forȱ the
essentialȱcomponentȱofȱeachȱgenreȱisȱmaintainedȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱtheȱonlyȱpartȱofȱtheȱtypicalȱpastourelleȱscenario
thatȱisȱnotȱinvertedȱhereȱisȱtheȱsocialȱrankȱofȱtheȱcharacters.”ȱBrown,ȱ“Bérengerȱauȱlongȱculȱandȱthe
pastourelle”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ14),ȱ329.
318 PennyȱSimons
shepherds”ȱareȱthose,ȱlikeȱourȱheroine’sȱfather,ȱwhoȱallowȱtheȱintegrityȱofȱtheir
bloodlinesȱtoȱbeȱweakenedȱbyȱinappropriateȱalliances.
However,ȱIȱamȱnotȱconvincedȱthatȱtheȱdirectionȱorȱconclusionȱofȱBérengerȱdoes
suggestȱsuchȱaȱsimpleȱreturnȱtoȱnormativeȱsocialȱvaluesȱasȱBrownȱmaintains.ȱThere
areȱfurtherȱsubversiveȱundercurrentsȱwhichȱneedȱtoȱbeȱinvestigatedȱbeforeȱwe
returnȱ toȱ thisȱ questionȱ ofȱ theȱ moralȱ ofȱ theȱ fabliau.ȱ Theȱ incorporationȱ ofȱ the
pastourelleȱstorylineȱintoȱtheȱsecondȱruralȱsceneȱaddsȱtoȱtheȱlayersȱofȱgenericȱplay
bothȱbyȱplayingȱtheȱconventionsȱofȱaȱpastourelleȱagainstȱthoseȱofȱtheȱfabliau,ȱbutȱalso
byȱplayingȱthemȱagainstȱheroicȱexpectationsȱgeneratedȱbyȱaȱdifferentȱsetȱofȱgeneric
conventions.ȱThereȱareȱthusȱseveralȱlayersȱofȱsubversiveȱeffectȱcreatedȱwithinȱthese
ruralȱscenesȱthatȱworkȱcollectivelyȱtoȱundercutȱtheȱapparentȱsimplicityȱofȱmoral
outlookȱsetȱoutȱatȱtheȱstartȱofȱtheȱtale.ȱTheȱconflictingȱgenericȱexpectationsȱcome
toȱaȱheadȱasȱtheȱattemptedȱseductionȱofȱtheȱpastourelleȱshepherdessȱisȱreplayed,
alongsideȱ theȱ challengeȱ ofȱ oneȱ knightȱ toȱ anotherȱ overȱ aȱ matterȱ ofȱ chivalric
transgression,ȱinȱtheȱmockȱ“ordeal”ȱofȱtheȱbaiserȱhonteux.
Thisȱisȱtheȱcomicȱclimaxȱtoȱtheȱfabliauȱandȱisȱworthȱexaminingȱinȱmoreȱdetail.ȱIn
orderȱtoȱchallengeȱherȱworthlessȱhusbandȱtoȱthisȱshamefulȱact,ȱtheȱwifeȱbendsȱover
andȱexposesȱherȱnakedȱrear.ȱThisȱinvolvesȱherȱturningȱherselfȱupsideȱdown,ȱraising
herȱculȱandȱconȱtoȱtheȱpositionȱwhereȱherȱheadȱshouldȱbe,ȱandȱviceȱversa.ȱItȱisȱa
corporeal,ȱliteralȱinversionȱthatȱsymbolisesȱtheȱinversionsȱwhichȱlieȱatȱtheȱheartȱof
thisȱ tale;ȱ andȱ anȱ actȱ ofȱ literalȱ exposureȱ paradoxicallyȱ designed,ȱ byȱ theȱ crude
uncoveringȱofȱtheȱwife’sȱnetherȱparts,ȱtoȱlayȱbareȱtheȱtrueȱnatureȱofȱherȱhusband.
Itȱalsoȱexposesȱotherȱobsceneȱconnotationsȱofȱtheȱfabliau,ȱwhichȱcontributeȱtoȱthe
destabilisationȱofȱtheȱdistinctionȱbetweenȱtheȱsimpleȱbinaryȱoppositionsȱofȱclass
andȱgender.
Theȱexposureȱofȱtheȱwife’sȱassȱandȱherȱhusband’sȱbewildermentȱoverȱtheȱsight
ofȱherȱnetherȱpartsȱhas,ȱunsurprisingly,ȱbeenȱtheȱsubjectȱofȱsomeȱcriticalȱattention
andȱdebate.ȱEȱJaneȱBurnsȱseesȱtheȱhusband’sȱequatingȱofȱhisȱwife’sȱgenitaliaȱwith
“theȱmodelȱofȱaȱmaleȱasshole”16ȱasȱaȱconstructionȱofȱmaleȱpowerȱinȱhisȱarrogant
assumptionȱthatȱheȱ“knows”ȱwhatȱaȱwoman’sȱbodyȱisȱlike.ȱHisȱwife’sȱact,ȱthrusting
thoseȱpartsȱintoȱhisȱface,ȱbothȱrevealsȱhisȱfundamentalȱignoranceȱofȱaȱwoman’s
body,ȱbutȱalsoȱpresagesȱherȱblatantȱenjoymentȱofȱthemȱwithȱherȱlover,ȱinȱfullȱsight
ofȱ herȱ husband,ȱ atȱ theȱ endȱ ofȱ theȱ tale.ȱ Burnsȱ thusȱ readsȱ theȱ storyȱ asȱ strongly
womanȬcenteredȱandȱgenderȬoriented.17ȱBut,ȱasȱSimonȱGauntȱpointsȱout,ȱtheȱact
cleverlyȱplaysȱoffȱtheȱgenderȱhierarchyȱagainstȱtheȱsocialȱhierarchy:ȱtheȱwoman
mayȱbeȱsubjectȱtoȱherȱhusbandȱatȱhome,ȱbutȱinȱthisȱruralȱspaceȱsheȱcan,ȱ“asȱaȱnoble
16
E.ȱ Janeȱ Burns,ȱ Bodytalk:ȱ Whenȱ Womenȱ Speakȱ inȱ Oldȱ Frenchȱ Literature.ȱ Newȱ Culturalȱ Series
(Philadelphia:ȱUniversityȱofȱPennsylvaniaȱPress,ȱ1993),ȱ40.
17
Anȱequallyȱstronglyȱgenderedȱreading,ȱalthoughȱusingȱaȱdfferentȱapproachȱbasedȱonȱtheȱtheme
ofȱdreaming,ȱisȱfoundȱinȱAlainȱCorbellari,ȱ“Rêvesȱetȱfabliaux:ȱunȱautreȱaspectȱdeȱlaȱruseȱfeminine,”
Reinardusȱ15ȱ(2002):ȱ53–62.
dealingȱwithȱaȱpeasant,”18ȱemergeȱvictorious.ȱTheȱexposureȱofȱtheȱwoman’sȱass
exposesȱaȱfundamentalȱinstabilityȱinȱthisȱfabliau,ȱasȱtheȱneedȱtoȱassertȱmaleȱover
femaleȱinȱtheȱgenderȱhierarchyȱcomesȱintoȱconflictȱwithȱtheȱneedȱtoȱassertȱnoble
overȱpeasantȱinȱtheȱsocialȱhierarchy.ȱAsȱweȱshallȱsee,ȱitȱepitomizesȱtheȱsubversive
rewritingȱstrategyȱofȱtheȱpoetȱGuerin.
Theȱ ruralȱ settingȱ ofȱ theȱ baiserȱ honteuxȱ alsoȱ hasȱ anȱ importantȱ roleȱ toȱ playȱ in
bringingȱaboutȱtheȱmutualȱdestabilisationȱofȱclassȱandȱgenderȱorthodoxyȱinȱthis
story.ȱTheȱbodilyȱinversionȱofȱtheȱbaiserȱhonteuxȱraisesȱthatȱmostȱdisturbingȱand
subversiveȱ elementȱ ofȱ woman,ȱ simultaneouslyȱ celebratedȱ andȱ fearedȱ inȱ the
fabliaux,ȱandȱplacesȱitȱatȱtheȱheadȱofȱherȱbody:ȱherȱcon.ȱAtȱnoȱpointȱbeforeȱthisȱscene
hasȱtheȱwifeȱbeenȱpresentedȱasȱaȱsexualȱbeing;ȱindeedȱinȱaccordanceȱwithȱtheȱethos
ofȱ courtlyȱ literature,ȱ thisȱ sideȱ ofȱ herȱ hasȱ beenȱ concealedȱ beneathȱ theȱ foldsȱ of
decorumȱwhenȱweȱhaveȱseenȱherȱinȱtheȱcourtlyȱsetting.ȱHowever,ȱhere,ȱinȱtheȱrural
spaceȱinȱwhichȱsheȱconfrontsȱherȱhusband,ȱsheȱcomesȱintoȱcontactȱwithȱtheȱearth
andȱtheȱcoarse,ȱmaterialȱsphereȱofȱlife;ȱandȱhere,ȱtheȱwomanȱrevertsȱtoȱtheȱnature
whichȱ theȱ medievalȱ misogynistsȱ attributedȱ toȱ her,ȱ thatȱ ofȱ anȱ earthly,ȱ worldly
being,ȱmotivatedȱbyȱtheȱdesiresȱofȱtheȱfleshȱandȱtheȱbody.19ȱTheȱinversionȱofȱher
bodyȱexemplifiesȱtheȱdominanceȱofȱherȱsexualȱdesireȱoverȱtheȱrationalȱcontrolȱof
herȱheadȱandȱmind.ȱTheȱruralȱspaceȱhasȱnotȱonlyȱlaidȱbareȱtheȱtruthȱofȱtheȱfalse
knight,ȱitȱhasȱalsoȱlaidȱbareȱtheȱtruthȱofȱhisȱwife’sȱnature:ȱthisȱwomanȱisȱasȱbound
asȱtheȱrestȱofȱherȱkindȱbyȱtheȱdesiresȱofȱtheȱflesh.ȱThatȱdesireȱisȱstillȱvisibleȱand
dominantȱatȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱtale,ȱalthoughȱitȱisȱexpressedȱthroughȱaȱmoreȱnormative
relationshipȱwithȱaȱmaleȱwhoȱisȱherȱsocialȱequal.ȱHence,ȱalthoughȱsheȱapparently
winsȱatȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱtale,ȱsheȱdoesȱsoȱonlyȱbyȱpretendingȱtoȱbeȱaȱman,ȱandȱby
revertingȱtoȱaȱnegativeȱfemaleȱstereotype.ȱ20
Ruralȱ spaceȱ isȱ thusȱ associatedȱ onȱ manyȱ levelsȱ withȱ transgression:ȱ weȱ have
witnessedȱ theȱ transgressionȱ ofȱ socialȱ andȱ genderȱ normsȱ andȱ ofȱ generic
expectations.ȱ Thereȱ is,ȱ however,ȱ yetȱ anotherȱ aspectȱ ofȱ transgressiveȱ behavior
whichȱisȱrevealedȱinȱourȱruralȱspaces.ȱAsȱweȱhaveȱseen,ȱtheȱwoman’sȱnakedȱrear,
thatȱwhichȱisȱuppermostȱandȱvisibleȱinȱtheȱbaiserȱhonteuxȱscene,ȱisȱtheȱsourceȱofȱthe
scurrilousȱ nameȱ whichȱ sheȱ adopts.ȱ Andȱ likeȱ thatȱ name,ȱ itȱ functionsȱ both
18
Simonȱ Gaunt,ȱ Genderȱ andȱ Genre.ȱ Cambridgeȱ Studiesȱ inȱ French,ȱ 53ȱ (Cambridge:ȱ Cambridge
UniversityȱPress,ȱ1995),ȱ280.ȱ
19
Thereȱareȱmanyȱstudiesȱofȱmedievalȱmisogyny;ȱforȱaȱcomprehensiveȱdiscussionȱseeȱR.ȱHoward
Bloch,ȱ Medievalȱ misogynyȱ andȱ theȱ Inventionȱ ofȱ Westernȱ Romanticȱ Loveȱ (Chicagoȱ andȱ London:
UniversityȱofȱChicagoȱPress,ȱ1991).ȱWomanȱDefamedȱandȱWomanȱDefended:ȱanȱAnthologyȱofȱMedieval
Texts,ȱed.ȱbyȱAlcuinȱBlamiresȱwithȱKarenȱPrattȱandȱC.W.ȱMarxȱ(Oxford:ȱClarendonȱPress,ȱ1992),
providesȱaȱusefulȱselectionȱofȱprimaryȱtexts.
20
SylviaȱHuot,ȱinȱherȱdiscussionȱofȱmadmenȱandȱmisfits,ȱsumsȱupȱtheȱimpactȱofȱtheȱbaiserȱhonteux
sceneȱ veryȱ neatly:ȱ “inȱ herȱ dualȱ aspectȱ asȱ sexualȱ womanȱ andȱ travestiedȱ knight,ȱ theȱ wifeȱ is
ultimatelyȱaȱmeansȱbyȱwhichȱtheȱtwoȱmenȱareȱplacedȱinȱhierarchicalȱorder.”ȱSylviaȱHuot,ȱMadness
inȱMedievalȱFrenchȱLiterature:ȱIdentitiesȱFoundȱandȱLostȱ(Oxford:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2003),
47–48.
320 PennyȱSimons
prospectively,ȱ prefiguringȱ theȱ finalȱ sceneȱ betweenȱ wifeȱ andȱ lover,ȱ and
retrospectively,ȱaddingȱshadesȱofȱmeaningȱtoȱtheȱfirstȱruralȱscene.ȱJustȱasȱtheȱcrude
reworkingȱtheȱnameȱofȱGuillaumeȱauȱcortȱnezȱhighlightedȱmoreȱsubtleȱreferences
toȱheroicȱliterature,ȱsoȱtooȱtheȱcrudeȱreferenceȱtoȱfemaleȱandȱmaleȱanatomyȱandȱto
aȱshamefulȱsexualȱactȱhighlightsȱtheȱpossibilityȱofȱreadingȱaȱsexualȱactȱintoȱthe
knight’sȱbehaviorȱinȱtheȱfirstȱruralȱscene.
Theȱweaponsȱwhichȱtheȱvilain/knightȱabusesȱinȱhisȱinitialȱforaysȱintoȱtheȱwood
areȱsymbolsȱofȱknighthoodȱandȱofȱmasculinity:ȱtheyȱareȱwhatȱtheȱmaleȱchevalier,ȱa
mountedȱwarrior,ȱusesȱtoȱfulfillȱhisȱappointed,ȱmaleȱroleȱinȱsociety.ȱAsȱsuchȱthe
lanceȱandȱotherȱmilitaryȱequipmentȱfrequentlyȱalsoȱfunctionȱasȱphallicȱsymbols.21
Readȱinȱthisȱway,ȱtheȱrepeatedȱthrustingȱofȱhisȱownȱswordȱandȱlanceȱagainstȱthe
shieldȱbecomesȱanȱautoeroticȱactȱonȱtheȱpartȱofȱtheȱknight,ȱaȱsubstituteȱforȱ“proper”
masculineȱ congressȱ withȱ aȱ womanȱ thatȱ replicatesȱ theȱ shamȱ ofȱ hisȱ pretenceȱ at
chivalry.ȱTheȱfailureȱofȱtheȱhusbandȱtoȱrecognizeȱtheȱgenitalȱanatomyȱofȱhisȱwife
whenȱ heȱ encountersȱ itȱ inȱ theȱ secondȱ woodlandȱ sceneȱ isȱ thusȱ unsurprising.
Moreoverȱitȱhasȱfurtherȱconnotations:ȱhisȱmaleȬorientedȱreadingȱofȱthoseȱpartsȱas
representingȱBurns’sȱ“maleȱasshole”ȱsuggestsȱthatȱautoeroticismȱmayȱbeȱcoupled
withȱhomoeroticismȱinȱtheȱsexualȱexperienceȱofȱthisȱunworthyȱhusband.ȱPresented
withȱ hisȱ wife’sȱ genitalia,ȱ readyȱ forȱ theȱ taking,ȱ theȱ husbandȱ failsȱ toȱ actȱ asȱ the
dominantȱmale,ȱthrustingȱhisȱphallusȱintoȱtheȱreadyȱtargetȱsheȱpresents,ȱthereby
assertingȱhimselfȱoverȱher.ȱHeȱprefersȱinsteadȱtoȱreconstructȱherȱgenitaliaȱintoȱa
“maleȱasshole”ȱasȱhisȱpreferredȱtarget.ȱTheȱgenderȱconflictȱhighlightedȱbyȱBurns
nowȱbecomesȱaȱquestionȱofȱorientationȱasȱmuchȱasȱoneȱofȱhierarchy.
Theȱfailureȱofȱtheȱhusbandȱtoȱactȱasȱaȱtrueȱmaleȱandȱtrueȱknightȱisȱhighlighted
byȱtheȱcontrastȱbetweenȱthisȱbaiserȱhonteuxȱsceneȱandȱtheȱonlyȱotherȱexampleȱofȱthe
sameȱchallengeȱinȱtheȱfabliauxȱcorpusȱwhichȱisȱfoundȱinȱLaȱGageure.22ȱInȱtheȱlatter
text,ȱaȱsquireȱisȱchallengedȱbyȱaȱchambermaidȱtoȱsubmitȱtoȱtheȱshameȱofȱkissingȱher
ass.ȱHowever,ȱheȱdoesȱnotȱcarryȱoutȱtheȱchallengeȱinȱtheȱwayȱheȱisȱexpectedȱtoȱdo:
Laȱdamoiseleȱseȱestȱvenue
Aȱl’esquier,ȱqueȱlaȱsalue;
Ylȱleveȱsusȱlesȱdrasȱderer,
21
Theȱentryȱunderȱ“lance”ȱinȱRoseȱM.ȱBidler,ȱDictionnaireȱeыrotique:ȱancienȱfranc6ais,ȱmoyenȱfranc6ais,
Renaissance.ȱ Eroticaȱ veteraȱ (Montreыal:ȱ CERES,ȱ 2002),ȱ 384–86,ȱ containsȱ aȱ wideȱ rangeȱ ofȱ sexual
connotationsȱassociatedȱwithȱtheȱlance.ȱBidlerȱrefersȱinȱthisȱentryȱtoȱtheȱgeneralȱ“emploiȱérotique
duȱvocabulaireȱmilitaire”ȱ(theȱuseȱofȱmilitaryȱvocabularyȱinȱanȱeroticȱsense)ȱinȱmedievalȱtexts;ȱhere
384.
22
TheȱsimilaritiesȱbetweenȱLaȱGageureȱandȱBérengerȱauȱloncȱculȱasȱexamplesȱofȱparodiesȱofȱheroic
motifsȱisȱdiscussedȱbyȱRoyȱJ.ȱPearcy,ȱ“ChansonsȱdeȱgesteȱandȱFabliaux:ȱLaȱGageureȱandȱBérengerȱau
longȱcul,”ȱNeuphilologischeȱMitteilungenȱ79ȱ(1978):ȱ76–83.ȱPerȱNykrogȱinȱhisȱstudyȱofȱtheȱgenre,ȱLes
Fabliauxȱ (Copenhagen:ȱ Ejnarȱ Munksgaard,ȱ 1957),ȱ notesȱ thatȱ theȱ storyȱ ofȱ Laȱ Gageureȱ parodies
courtlyȱ elements,ȱ describingȱ itȱ asȱ “àȱ laȱ foisȱ courtoisȱ etȱ grossier”ȱ (simultaneouslyȱ courtlyȱ and
obscene),ȱ64.
Puisȱpensoutȱsiȱàȱbonȱmester
Liȱesquierȱàȱsounȱvoler
Deȱl’affereȱneȱvoeltȱfailler.
Ylȱsakeȱavauntȱunȱbonȱbordoun,
Siȱl’aȱdonnéȱenȱmyȱleȱcoun,
Unȱgrosȱvitȱetȱlongȱetȱquarré,
Siȱl’aȱenȱmyȱleȱcounȱdonné;
Ensiȱàȱlyȱdeȱcesȱbrasȱl’afferma
Neȱpoeitȱgwenchirȱsàȱneȱlà.ȱ (vv.ȱ71–82)23
[Theȱchambermaidȱcameȱtoȱtheȱsquireȱwhoȱgreetedȱher.ȱHeȱliftedȱupȱherȱclothingȱfrom
behindȱandȱthenȱheȱthoughtȱhardȱaboutȱdoingȱaȱgoodȱjobȱasȱheȱwantedȱto;ȱheȱdidȱnot
wantȱtoȱfail.ȱHeȱdrewȱforthȱaȱgoodȱstaffȱandȱgaveȱitȱtoȱherȱrightȱinȱtheȱcunt;ȱaȱbigȱprick,
longȱandȱsquareȱheȱgaveȱher,ȱrightȱinȱtheȱcunt.ȱAndȱheȱheldȱherȱfirmlyȱwithȱhisȱarms
soȱthatȱsheȱcouldȱnotȱmoveȱleftȱorȱright.]
Thusȱtheȱchambermaidȱandȱherȱmistress,ȱwhoȱhadȱsetȱupȱtheȱchallengeȱasȱaȱbet,
andȱaȱmeansȱofȱshamingȱtheȱsquire,ȱareȱoutwittedȱbyȱhisȱresoundinglyȱredȬblooded
response.ȱ
TheȱresponseȱofȱtheȱhusbandȱinȱBérenger,ȱbyȱcontrast,ȱshowsȱtheȱemasculationȱof
theȱmanȱatȱtheȱexpenseȱofȱtheȱwoman,ȱtheȱeffectȱwhichȱtheȱwomenȱinȱLaȱGageure
hadȱaimed,ȱandȱfailed,ȱtoȱaccomplish.ȱThisȱisȱachievedȱbyȱtheȱconflationȱofȱtheȱtwo
anatomicalȱpartsȱinȱBérenger,ȱtheȱconȱandȱtheȱcul,ȱpartsȱwhichȱareȱtypicallyȱsetȱin
oppositionȱtoȱeachȱotherȱinȱtheȱfabliauȱcorpus.24ȱAȱsimpleȱreadingȱofȱBérengerȱwould
leadȱusȱtoȱexpectȱthatȱitsȱgenderȱopposition,ȱwhichȱseesȱtheȱwomanȱdefeatȱher
husband,ȱwouldȱbeȱmirroredȱanatomicallyȱinȱtheȱvictoryȱofȱtheȱconȱoverȱtheȱcul.ȱBut
thisȱ isȱ notȱ whatȱ happens;ȱ unlikeȱ theȱ squireȱ inȱ Laȱ Gageure,ȱ theȱ manȱ doesȱ not
respondȱinȱpreferenceȱtoȱtheȱsightȱofȱtheȱconȱandȱreconstructsȱitȱasȱitsȱoppositional
counterpart,ȱtheȱcul.ȱSo,ȱjustȱasȱintertextualȱreadingsȱrevealȱtheȱinstabilityȱofȱthe
classȱdichotomyȱinȱBérengerȱauȱloncȱcul,ȱsoȱtooȱtheȱbattleȱofȱtheȱgendersȱprovesȱless
clearȬcutȱthanȱitȱmightȱappearȱatȱfirstȱsight.
Theȱ relationshipȱ betweenȱ theȱ ruralȱ andȱ courtlyȱ spacesȱ Bérengerȱ auȱ loncȱ cul
epitomizesȱtheȱwayȱinȱwhichȱtheȱpoetȱrewritesȱaȱrangeȱofȱconventionsȱfromȱother
genresȱandȱmotifsȱfromȱotherȱtexts;ȱcruciallyȱitȱisȱinȱtheȱruralȱspacesȱthatȱthese
conventionsȱ collide,ȱ givingȱ riseȱ toȱ aȱ subversiveȱ instabilityȱ whichȱ isȱ neatly
encapsulatedȱinȱtheȱstrikingȱvisualȱrepresentationȱofȱtheȱwife’sȱinvertedȱbody.ȱThis
instabilityȱisȱultimatelyȱcapturedȱinȱtheȱmoralȱwhichȱendsȱthisȱfabliau—“whereȱthe
shepherdȱisȱweak,ȱtheȱwolfȱshitsȱwool.”ȱKatherineȱBrownȱsuggests,ȱasȱweȱhave
23
“LeȱDitȱdeȱlaȱGageure,”ȱRecueilȱgénéralȱetȱcompletȱdesȱfabliauxȱdesȱXIIIeȱetȱXIVeȱ siècles,ȱed.ȱbyȱde
MontaiglonȱandȱRaynaudȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1),ȱII,ȱ193–96.ȱ
24
See,ȱforȱexampleȱ“LeȱdébatȱduȱConȱetȱduȱCul,”ȱRecueilȱgénéralȱetȱcompletȱdesȱfabliauxȱdesȱXIIIeȱetȱXIV
sièclesȱed.ȱbyȱdeȱMontaiglonȱandȱRaynaudȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1),ȱII,ȱ133–36;ȱthisȱshort,ȱscurrilousȱtaleȱfeatures
aȱdebateȱbetweenȱtheȱtwoȱbodyȱpartsȱasȱtoȱwhichȱhasȱtoȱendureȱtheȱmoreȱunpleasantȱsuffering,
givenȱtheirȱanatomicalȱposition.
322 PennyȱSimons
seenȱalready,ȱthatȱthereȱareȱtwoȱwaysȱofȱreadingȱthisȱmoral:ȱeitherȱweȱseeȱitȱas
genderȬoriented,ȱwarningȱweakȱhusbandsȱofȱpredatorsȱuponȱtheirȱwives,ȱorȱclassȬ
oriented,ȱwarningȱofȱtheȱdangersȱofȱmésalliancesȱperpetratedȱbyȱweakȱfathers.ȱShe
seesȱthisȱsecondȱreadingȱasȱtheȱmeansȱbyȱwhichȱourȱfabliauȱ“adaptsȱandȱinverts
[storyȱmotifs]ȱinȱorderȱtoȱreaffirmȱcourtlyȱvalues.”25ȱButȱweȱmayȱchooseȱtoȱconsider
neitherȱreadingȱasȱdefinitiveȱandȱacceptȱtheȱambiguityȱofȱtheȱmoralȱasȱappropriate
toȱtheȱcontinual,ȱunderlyingȱtensionȱbetweenȱgenderȱandȱclassȱcodesȱinȱthisȱfabliau.
Theȱoriginalȱofȱtheȱmoralȱinȱfactȱsupportsȱthisȱapproach.ȱTheȱmoralȱtoȱBérengerȱis
aȱ proverbȱ whichȱ Morawskiȱ identifiesȱ asȱ belongingȱ toȱ theȱ extremelyȱ popular
twelfthȬcenturyȱproverbȱcollection,ȱtheȱProverbesȱauȱvilain.26
Inȱthisȱcollection,ȱwiseȱwordsȱareȱattributedȱtoȱanȱemblematicȱvilain,ȱaȱrural,
everymanȱexemplarȱwhoȱembodiesȱtheȱnotionȱofȱpopularȱwisdom.ȱAsȱSallyȱBurch
argues,ȱ “theȱ exploitationȱ ofȱ proverbsȱ suggestsȱ aȱ clericalȱ author,”ȱ andȱ the
dedicationȱ toȱ Philipȱ ofȱ Flandersȱ stronglyȱ suggestsȱ aȱ courtlyȱ audience.27ȱ Many
writersȱ ofȱ courtlyȱ literature,ȱ suchȱ asȱ Chrétien,ȱ Hueȱ deȱ Rotelandeȱ andȱ the
anonymousȱpoetȱofȱPartonopeuȱdeȱBloisȱdrewȱuponȱtheȱdictaȱofȱtheȱProverbesȱauȱvilain
asȱaȱsourceȱofȱauthorityȱtoȱsupportȱtheirȱobservationsȱonȱcourtlyȱmatters.28ȱInȱthe
handsȱofȱourȱfableorȱGuerin,ȱtheȱuseȱofȱaȱproverbeȱauȱvilainȱtoȱconcludeȱhisȱversion
ofȱBérengerȱacquiresȱaȱspecialȱirony;ȱtheȱwordsȱofȱaȱcourtlyȱvilainȱareȱusedȱatȱthe
endȱofȱaȱtaleȱwhichȱhasȱsetȱout,ȱatȱtheȱstart,ȱtoȱshowȱthatȱnothingȱworthwhileȱcomes
fromȱtheȱmarriageȱofȱnobleȱandȱpeasant.ȱWhetherȱtheȱmoralȱisȱthenȱmeantȱtoȱbe
directedȱagainstȱweakȱhusbandsȱorȱweakȱfathersȱisȱultimatelyȱlessȱimportantȱthan
theȱsubversiveȱimpactȱofȱtheȱproverbȱchosenȱtoȱbeȱtheȱmoral.29ȱFabliauxȱmoralsȱare
notȱnecessarilyȱmeantȱtoȱbeȱtakenȱatȱfaceȱvalue;ȱwhatȱweȱlearnȱfromȱthisȱoneȱisȱthat
evenȱtheȱaristocraticȱmantraȱ“nobleȱgood,ȱvilainȱbad”ȱisȱliableȱtoȱinstabilityȱand
mutability.ȱ
WeȱhaveȱseenȱhowȱversionȱIȱofȱBérengerȱauȱloncȱculȱachievesȱitsȱcomicȱeffectȱby
rewritingȱtheȱconventionsȱofȱfamiliarȱcourtlyȱgenresȱwithinȱaȱfabliauȱframework,
25
Brown,ȱ“Bérengerȱauȱlongȱculȱandȱtheȱpastourelle”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ13);ȱhereȱ330.
26
JosephȱMorawski,ȱProverbesȱfrançaisȱanteыrieursȱauȱXVeȱsieъcle.ȱClassiquesȱfranc6aisȱduȱMoyenȱAge
(Paris:ȱChampion,ȱ1925);ȱtheȱproverbȱinȱBérengerȱisȱno.ȱ82ȱinȱMorawski’sȱcollection.ȱ
27
SallyȱL.ȱBurch,ȱ“TheȱLaiȱdeȱL’Oiselet,ȱtheȱProverbesȱauȱVilainȱandȱtheȱParableȱofȱtheȱSower,”ȱFrench
Studiesȱ58ȱ(2004):ȱ1–14;ȱhereȱ2.
28
ElisabethȱSchulzeȬBusacker,ȱProverbesȱetȱexpressionsȱproverbialesȱdansȱlaȱlittératureȱnarrativeȱduȱMoyen
Ageȱfrançais:ȱrecueilȱetȱanalyse.ȱNouvelleȱbibliothèqueȱduȱMoyenȱAge,ȱ9ȱ(Geneva:ȱSlatkine,ȱ1985),
85.
29
Theȱwayȱweȱareȱmeantȱtoȱrespondȱtoȱtheȱmoralsȱinȱtheȱfabliauxȱhasȱbeenȱtheȱsubjectȱofȱsomeȱcritical
debate.ȱAlthoughȱJosephȱBédierȱinȱhisȱkeyȱearlyȱstudyȱofȱtheȱgenre,ȱLesȱfabliaux,ȱetudesȱdeȱlittérature
populaireȱetȱd’histoireȱlittéraireȱduȱMoyenȱAgeȱ(Paris:ȱLibrairieȱEmileȱBouillon,ȱ1893),ȱ311,ȱpointedȱout
thatȱweȱwereȱ notȱ meantȱtoȱtakeȱtheȱmorals,ȱwhichȱappearȱinȱoverȱhalfȱofȱtheȱfabliauxȱcorpus,
literally.ȱBut,ȱasȱPhilippeȱMénardȱpointsȱoutȱinȱhisȱstudy,ȱLesȱFabliaux,ȱcontesȱàȱrireȱduȱMoyenȱAge.
Littératuresȱmodernesȱ(Paris:ȱPressesȱUniversitairesȱdeȱFrance,ȱ1983),ȱdespiteȱtheirȱirreverentȱand
oftenȱimmoralȱcontent,ȱtheȱfabliauxȱdoȱtendȱtowardȱaȱreiterationȱofȱorthodoxȱmoralȱvalues,ȱ108–42.
andȱ thatȱ itȱ usesȱ theȱ ruralȱ spacesȱ asȱ aȱ locusȱ whereȱ theseȱ conventionsȱ collideȱ in
mutuallyȱsubversiveȱways.ȱTheseȱsubversionsȱundermineȱsimpleȱmoralȱjudgments
orȱreadingsȱofȱtheȱfabliau,ȱlendingȱitȱaȱkindȱofȱinstabilityȱwhich,ȱasȱSimonȱGaunt
points,ȱout,ȱopensȱtheȱdoorȱtoȱtextualȱmutabilityȱandȱmouvance.30ȱWeȱshouldȱnot,
therefore,ȱbeȱsurprisedȱtoȱfindȱmoreȱthanȱoneȱversionȱofȱthisȱfabliau:ȱBérengerȱauȱlonc
culȱmirrorsȱtheȱsocialȱfluidityȱwhichȱGauntȱseesȱcharacteristicȱofȱtheȱgenre,ȱ“forȱthe
composersȱandȱtransmittersȱofȱtheseȱtextsȱrecognizeȱnoȱstableȱtextualȱorȱauthorial
authority.”31ȱWeȱneedȱnowȱtoȱreturnȱtoȱversionȱIIȱtoȱinvestigateȱwhetherȱfurther
subversionsȱofȱnarrativeȱcodesȱareȱtoȱbeȱfoundȱinȱtheȱruralȱspacesȱofȱBérengerȱau
loncȱculȱasȱthisȱversionȱrelatesȱit.32
TheȱprincipalȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱthisȱversionȱdiffersȱfromȱversionȱIȱareȱtheȱdecreased
emphasisȱ onȱ theȱ statusȱ ofȱ theȱ husbandȱ withȱ theȱ resultingȱ degeneracyȱ ofȱ the
aristocracy,ȱandȱitsȱreplacementȱwithȱ anȱ increasedȱemphasisȱonȱtheȱhusband’s
boastingȱasȱhisȱprincipalȱshortcoming.ȱTheȱthemeȱofȱboastingȱactsȱasȱaȱunifying
themeȱthroughoutȱtheȱnarrativeȱofȱversionȱII,ȱmotivatingȱtheȱhusband’sȱdeception
ofȱhisȱwifeȱandȱtheȱnecessityȱforȱhisȱunmasking,ȱandȱreturningȱatȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱtale
inȱ theȱ narrator’sȱ closingȱ remarks.ȱ Simonȱ Gauntȱ hasȱ rightlyȱ arguedȱ thatȱ this
emphasisȱ onȱ theȱ consequencesȱ ofȱ illȬadvisedȱ maleȱ boastingȱ isȱ partȱ ofȱ aȱ more
stronglyȱgenderȬcenteredȱapproachȱinȱthisȱversionȱwhichȱisȱinternallyȱconsistent
andȱlogical.33ȱButȱisȱthereȱanyȱevidenceȱthatȱtheȱpoetȱofȱversionȱIIȱadoptsȱaȱsimilar
strategyȱofȱsubversiveȱrewritingȱfocusedȱuponȱgenderȱissuesȱasȱwellȱasȱthoseȱthat
focusȱ onȱ classȱ asȱ partȱ ofȱ thisȱ differentȱ approach?ȱ Ifȱ weȱ doȱ findȱ evidenceȱ of
subversiveȱ rewritingȱ thatȱ highlightsȱ genderȱ stereotypes,ȱ thenȱ weȱ wouldȱ have
groundsȱforȱassertingȱtheȱrightȱofȱversionȱIIȱtoȱequalȱstatusȱwithȱversionȱI.
ThereȱisȱoneȱsmallȱdetailȱofȱversionȱIIȱwhichȱdoesȱfunctionȱinȱthisȱwayȱandȱwhich
Iȱ wouldȱ likeȱ toȱ examineȱ first,ȱ beforeȱ movingȱ onȱ toȱ aȱ muchȱ moreȱ significant
example.ȱInȱversionȱI,ȱbothȱwoodlandȱepisodesȱmentionȱanȱoakȱtreeȱasȱtheȱspecies
beneathȱwhichȱtheȱknightȱdismountsȱinȱtheȱfirstȱsceneȱ(v.ȱ96)ȱandȱfromȱwhichȱhe
hangsȱhisȱshieldȱinȱorderȱtoȱsmashȱitȱwithȱhisȱlanceȱinȱtheȱsecondȱ(v.ȱ181).ȱThis
worksȱwellȱasȱanȱironicȱundercuttingȱofȱtheȱstatusȱofȱtheȱoakȱasȱaȱtreeȱwhichȱis
quiteȱoftenȱassociatedȱwithȱcourtlyȱheroes.34ȱ
30
Gaunt,ȱGenderȱandȱGenreȱ(seeȱnoteȱ17);ȱ280.
31
Gaunt,ȱGenderȱandȱGenreȱ(seeȱnoteȱ17);ȱ280.
32
TheȱfullȱtextȱofȱversionȱII,ȱtogetherȱwithȱmyȱModernȱEnglishȱtranslation,ȱisȱgivenȱinȱtheȱAppendix.
33
“Theȱ authorȱ ofȱ Aȱ wentȱ toȱ someȱ lengthsȱ toȱ supplyȱ aȱ coherentȱ moralȱ frameȱ toȱ hisȱ plot,ȱ asȱ his
epilogue,ȱwhichȱexplicitlyȱtakesȱusȱbackȱtoȱhisȱintroductionȱofȱtheȱhusband,ȱshows.ȱWithoutȱthe
themeȱofȱclassȱconflict,ȱtheȱfabliauȱbecomesȱanȱattackȱonȱmaleȱboasting,ȱandȱgenderȱtheȱdominant
theme.”ȱGaunt,ȱGenderȱandȱGenreȱ(seeȱnoteȱ17);ȱ280.
34
Seeȱtheȱquotationsȱunderȱtheȱheadwordȱ“chaisne”ȱinȱToblerȬLommatzschȱAltfranzæzischesȱWærterbuch
(Berlin:ȱWeidmannscheȱBuchhandlung,ȱ1925–1976),ȱwhichȱincludeȱaȱnumberȱofȱexamplesȱfrom
courtlyȱromance,ȱincludingȱChrétien’sȱErecȱetȱEnideȱandȱYvain.
324 PennyȱSimons
ButȱinȱversionȱII,ȱtheȱspeciesȱofȱtreeȱchangesȱinȱtheȱfirstȱwoodlandȱscene;ȱhereȱthe
knightȱhangsȱhisȱshieldȱfromȱaȱpearȱtreeȱbeforeȱproceedingȱtoȱhisȱviolentȱassault
uponȱit.ȱTheȱpearȱtreeȱlinksȱintoȱaȱratherȱdifferentȱsetȱofȱassociationsȱthanȱtheȱoak.
Asȱ Iȱ haveȱ pointedȱ outȱ elsewhere,ȱ thereȱ areȱ aȱ seriesȱ ofȱ sexualȱ associations
surroundingȱtheȱpearȱwhichȱdateȱbackȱtoȱwellȱbeforeȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱbutȱwhich
areȱ apparentȱ inȱ medievalȱ texts.35ȱ Theȱ shapeȱ ofȱ theȱ pearȱ evokesȱ bothȱ maleȱ and
femaleȱgenitalia,ȱforȱexample,ȱand,ȱmoreȱsignificantly,ȱfeaturesȱinȱaȱstoryȱinȱwhich
aȱstupidȱhusbandȱseesȱhisȱwifeȱmakingȱloveȱtoȱaȱsquireȱbeneathȱaȱpearȱtree,ȱbutȱis
dupedȱintoȱbelievingȱheȱisȱwitnessingȱanȱillusionȱgeneratedȱbyȱmagicalȱproperties
ofȱtheȱtree.ȱ
ThisȱisȱrewrittenȱinȱChaucer’sȱMerchant’sȱTaleȱasȱCarolȱHeffernanȱhasȱshown,36
butȱalsoȱfeaturesȱinȱChrétienȱdeȱTroyes’ȱCligés.37ȱTheȱnetworkȱofȱassociationsȱlinked
toȱ theȱ pearȱ inȱ theseȱ examples—associationsȱ withȱ aȱ foolishȱ husband,ȱ withȱ an
assertiveȱwifeȱwhoȱdupesȱthisȱhusbandȱtoȱenjoyȱherȱlover,ȱandȱwithȱbothȱmaleȱand
femaleȱsexualȱparts—areȱclearlyȱvisibleȱinȱtheȱsubsequentȱbaiserȱhonteuxȱtoȱwhich
theȱhusbandȱisȱsubjectedȱinȱtheȱsecondȱwoodlandȱscene.ȱTheȱpresenceȱofȱtheȱpear
tree,ȱwhichȱmayȱseemȱinsignificantȱatȱfirstȱreading,ȱacquiresȱnewȱmeaningȱwhen
weȱreachȱtheȱsecondȱscene,ȱjustȱasȱtheȱscurrilousȱnameȱ“Bérengerȱauȱloncȱcul”
forcesȱaȱreȬreadingȱofȱtheȱfirstȱruralȱscene.ȱButȱthereȱisȱanȱevenȱmoreȱsuggestive
meaningȱassociatedȱwithȱtheȱpearȱtree;ȱtheȱexpressionȱ“faireȱleȱpoirier”ȱorȱ“faire
l’arbreȱfourchu”ȱmeansȱtoȱstandȱuponȱone’sȱheadȱwithȱtheȱlegsȱinȱtheȱair.38ȱThisȱis
veryȱ nearlyȱ theȱ postureȱ whichȱ theȱ wifeȱ willȱ adoptȱ inȱ theȱ secondȱ woodland
encounterȱwhenȱsheȱbendsȱoverȱtoȱexposeȱherȱrearȱtoȱherȱshamedȱhusband,ȱand
certainlyȱinvolvesȱtheȱsameȱinversionȱandȱexposure,ȱtheȱkeyȱaspectsȱofȱthatȱactȱas
weȱsawȱabove.ȱTheȱreferenceȱtoȱtheȱpearȱtreeȱhereȱbringsȱinȱassociationsȱfromȱboth
courtlyȱliteratureȱandȱfromȱnonȬcourtlyȱsourcesȱandȱsexualȱconnotations.ȱItȱthus
encapsulatesȱpreciselyȱtheȱsameȱgenericȱmixtureȱwhichȱformsȱtheȱheartȱofȱGuerin’s
poeticȱapproach.ȱTheseȱassociationsȱcenterȱlessȱonȱtheȱquestionȱofȱclass,ȱhowever,
andȱmoreȱuponȱtheȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱtheȱgenders,ȱinȱkeepingȱwithȱtheȱdifferent
focusȱofȱthisȱversion.
35
SeeȱPennyȱSimonsȱandȱJessicaȱTurnbull,ȱ“TheȱPearȬTreeȱEpisodeȱinȱJoufroiȱdeȱPoitiers,”ȱFrench
StudiesȱBulletinȱ75ȱ(Summerȱ2000):ȱ2–4,ȱandȱPennyȱSimonsȱ“Love,ȱMarriageȱandȱTransgressionȱin
JoufroiȱdeȱPoitiers:ȱAȱCaseȱofȱLiteraryȱAnarchism,”ȱDiscoursesȱonȱLove,ȱMarriageȱandȱTransgression,
ed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassen.ȱMedievalȱandȱRenaissanceȱTextsȱandȱStudies,ȱ278ȱ(Tempe,ȱAZ:ȱArizona
CenterȱforȱMedievalȱandȱRenaissanceȱStudies,ȱ2004),ȱ225–41.
36
CarolȱFalvoȱHeffernan,ȱ“ContraceptionȱandȱtheȱPearȱTreeȱEpisodeȱofȱChaucerȇsȱMerchantȇsȱTale,”
JournalȱofȱEnglishȱandȱGermanicȱPhilologyȱ94ȱ(1995):ȱ31–41.ȱ
37
LucieȱPolak,ȱ“Cliges,ȱFeniceȱetȱl’arbreȱd’amour,”ȱRomaniaȱ93ȱ(1972):ȱ303–16;ȱhereȱ311–12.ȱSeeȱalso
Pennyȱ Simons,ȱ “Pearȱ asȱ Prophylactic?ȱ Conceptionȱ andȱ Compositionȱ inȱ Chrétienȱ deȱ Troyes’
Cligés,”ȱNottinghamȱMedievalȱStudiesȱ49ȱ(2005):ȱ18–41.
38
TheȱexpressionȱexistsȱinȱModernȱFrenchȱandȱinȱOldȱFrench,ȱwhereȱitȱisȱattested,ȱaccordingȱto
ToblerȬLommatzsch,ȱ fromȱ circaȱ 1200.ȱ Seeȱ underȱ headwordȱ “poirier”ȱ inȱ ToblerȬLommatzsch
AltfranzæzischesȱWærterbuchȱ(Berlin:ȱWeidmannscheȱBuchhandlung,ȱ1925–1976).
TheȱchoiceȱofȱtheȱpearȱtreeȱinȱtheȱfirstȱruralȱsceneȱofȱversionȱIIȱaddsȱaȱfurther
layerȱtoȱtheȱintertextualȱandȱgenericȱplayȱwhichȱitȱintroduces;ȱitȱevokesȱassociations
withȱ sexualityȱ andȱ withȱ strongȱ femaleȱ charactersȱ whoȱ canȱ outwitȱ theirȱ male
opponents.ȱGenderȱoppositionsȱareȱthusȱwrittenȱintoȱtheȱscene,ȱfocusingȱprimarily,
however,ȱ onȱ associationsȱ withȱ theȱ feminine;ȱ weȱ needȱ toȱ examineȱ another
importantȱintertextȱtoȱfindȱtheȱcomplementaryȱplayȱwithȱnotionsȱofȱtheȱmasculine
andȱinȱparticularȱwithȱmaleȱboasting.ȱThereȱisȱaȱveryȱimportantȱintertextȱforȱboth
versionsȱofȱBérengerȱauȱloncȱcul,ȱwhichȱcriticsȱhaveȱsoȱfarȱoverlooked,ȱandȱwhichȱwe
needȱ toȱ examineȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ understandȱ theȱ differentȱ waysȱ inȱ whichȱ theȱ two
versionsȱrewriteȱandȱplayȱwithȱearlierȱmodelsȱandȱconventions.ȱThisȱisȱtheȱcomic
chansonȱdeȱgesteȱorȱheroicȱepic,ȱLeȱPèlerinageȱdeȱCharlemagne.39
Theȱ Pèlerinageȱ deȱ Charlemagne,40ȱ whichȱ probablyȱ datesȱ fromȱ theȱ midȱ toȱ late
twelfthȱcentury,41ȱtellsȱtheȱstoryȱofȱCharlemagne’sȱpilgrimageȱtoȱJerusalemȱand
thenȱ onȱ toȱ Constantinople,ȱ whereȱ heȱ andȱ hisȱ twelveȱ peersȱ boastȱ togetherȱ one
eveningȱ aboutȱ theȱ fantasticȱ deedsȱ theyȱ couldȱ performȱ toȱ amazeȱ theȱ Emperor;
unfortunatelyȱthisȱjestingȱisȱoverheardȱbyȱaȱspyȱandȱtheyȱareȱchallengedȱtoȱmake
goodȱtheirȱgapsȱ(jests)ȱorȱhaveȱtheirȱheadsȱcutȱoff.42ȱHowever,ȱtheyȱareȱsavedȱbyȱthe
interventionȱ ofȱ Godȱ whoȱ enablesȱ theȱ firstȱ threeȱ boastsȱ toȱ beȱ miraculously
accomplished,ȱ afterȱ whichȱ theȱ terrifiedȱ Greeksȱ callȱ offȱ theȱ challengeȱ andȱ King
HugoȱsubmitsȱinȱvassalageȱtoȱCharlemagne.
ThereȱareȱaȱstrikingȱnumberȱofȱsimilaritiesȱbetweenȱthisȱtextȱandȱBérengerȱauȱlonc
cul.ȱ First,ȱ andȱ veryȱ obviously,ȱ theȱ nameȱ Bérengerȱ appearsȱ inȱ bothȱ texts.
Charlemagne’sȱpeersȱincludeȱBérenger,43ȱaȱcharacterȱconsistentlyȱincludedȱasȱone
ofȱtheȱdouzeȱpairsȱinȱepicsȱfeaturingȱCharlemagneȱandȱRoland,ȱbutȱtheȱnameȱisȱalso
givenȱtoȱotherȱheroesȱofȱtheȱchivalricȱepicȱgenreȱasȱPearcyȱpointsȱout.44ȱSecondly,
theȱboastingȱofȱCharlemagneȱandȱhisȱknightsȱtakesȱplaceȱafterȱtheyȱhaveȱenjoyed
39
RoyȱPearcyȱdoesȱalludeȱtoȱthisȱtextȱinȱtheȱarticleȱ“ChansonsȱdeȱgesteȱandȱFabliaux”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ21),ȱ77;
however,ȱheȱdoesȱnotȱexploreȱtheȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱitȱandȱBérengerȱauȱloncȱculȱinȱanyȱdetail.
40
Allȱ referencesȱ areȱ toȱ Leȱ Pèlerinageȱ deȱ Charlemagne,ȱ ed.ȱ Glynȱ S.ȱ Burgess,ȱ Britishȱ Rencesvals
Publicationsȱ(Edinburgh:ȱSociétéȱRencesvalsȱBritishȱBranch,ȱ1998).
41
Onȱtheȱquestionȱofȱdating,ȱseeȱBurgess’sȱ“Introduction”ȱtoȱhisȱeditionȱofȱtheȱPèlerinageȱ(seeȱnote
40),ȱxi.
42
Thisȱ work,ȱ whichȱ isȱ knownȱ variouslyȱ asȱ Leȱ Pèlerinageȱ deȱ Charlemagneȱ andȱ theȱ Voyageȱ de
Charlemagne,ȱhasȱbeenȱsubjectȱtoȱaȱwideȱrangeȱofȱinterpretationsȱasȱtoȱitsȱnatureȱandȱintent;ȱearlier
attemptsȱareȱconvenientlyȱsummarisedȱbyȱOttϱȱSüpek,ȱ“UneȱParodieȱroyaleȱduȱMoyenȱAge,”
Annalesȱ Universitatisȱ Scientarumȱ Budapestiensisȱ deȱ Rolandoȱ Eötvösȱ Nominatae,ȱ Sectioȱ Philologica
Modernaȱ8ȱ(1977):ȱ3–5;ȱseeȱalsoȱtheȱdifferentȱreadingsȱinȱCobby,ȱAmbivalentȱConventionsȱ(seeȱnote
8);ȱ Margaretȱ Burrell,ȱ “Theȱ Voyageȱ ofȱ Charlemagne:ȱ Culturalȱ Transmissionȱ orȱ Culturalȱ TransȬ
gression?,”ȱParergon,ȱnewȱseriesȱ7ȱ(1989):ȱ47–53;ȱSharonȱKinoshita,ȱ“LeȱVoyageȱdeȱCharlemagne:
MediterraneanȱPalacesȱinȱtheȱMedievalȱFrenchȱImaginary,”ȱOlifantȱ25ȱ(2006):ȱ255–70.
43
ErnestȱLanglois,ȱTableȱdesȱnomsȱpropresȱdeȱtouteȱnatureȱcomprisȱdansȱlesȱchansonsȱdeȱgesteȱimprimées
(Paris:ȱLibrarireȱEmileȱBouillon,ȱ1904)ȱcitesȱcharactersȱcalledȱBérengerȱinȱaȱwideȱrangeȱofȱchansons
deȱgesteȱincluding,ȱforȱexample,ȱRaoulȱdeȱCambraiȱandȱLeȱCharroiȱdeȱNîmes.ȱ
44
Pearcy,ȱ“AnȱInstanceȱofȱHeroicȱParody”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱ105.
326 PennyȱSimons
theȱlavishȱhospitalityȱofȱHugoȱinȱConstantinople,ȱandȱtheȱpoetȱemphasizesȱthat
theyȱhaveȱbeenȱdrinkingȱplentyȱofȱwine;ȱandȱafterȱtheȱboastsȱhaveȱbeenȱoverheard,
Charlemagneȱ pointsȱ outȱ toȱ Hugoȱ thatȱ theirȱ wordsȱ wereȱ aȱ consequenceȱ of
customaryȱbehaviorȱafterȱgoodȱfoodȱandȱdrinkȱ(laisseȱXL,ȱvv.ȱ652–56).ȱTheȱhusband
ofȱ Bérengerȱ auȱ loncȱ isȱ alsoȱ shown,ȱ inȱ versionȱ II,ȱ asȱ boastfulȱ afterȱ mealsȱ (v.ȱ 11);
whereasȱ versionȱ Iȱ tookȱ theȱ opportunityȱ toȱ stressȱ theȱ husband’sȱ eatingȱ as
exemplifyingȱhisȱcowardice,ȱthisȱversionȱlinksȱitȱtoȱaȱdifferentȱtheme,ȱthatȱofȱmale
boastingȱandȱtheȱdisastrousȱconsequencesȱwhichȱmayȱfollowȱit.
Theȱmostȱimportantȱparallelȱbetweenȱourȱtwoȱtexts,ȱhowever,ȱliesȱinȱtheȱnature
ofȱtheȱboastsȱmade,ȱwhichȱoccurȱatȱtwoȱdifferentȱpointsȱinȱtheȱnarratives.ȱFirstly,
inȱtheȱsceneȱinȱConstantinople,ȱwhichȱfeaturesȱtheȱFrenchȱgaps,ȱtheȱheroȱOliver
boastsȱinȱlaisseȱXXVIIȱthatȱheȱwouldȱbeȱableȱtoȱtakeȱKingȱHugo’sȱdaughterȱone
hundredȱtimesȱinȱaȱsingleȱnightȱifȱheȱwereȱplacedȱinȱtheȱsameȱbedȱasȱher.ȱThisȱis
theȱfirstȱboastȱwhichȱisȱtestedȱoutȱbyȱKingȱHugo,ȱwhoȱisȱremarkablyȱkeenȱtoȱhand
hisȱdaughterȱoverȱtoȱtestȱoutȱtheȱbetȱ(laisseȱXLIII).ȱTheȱmeetingȱofȱthisȱchallengeȱis
unlikeȱtheȱtwoȱwhichȱfollow,ȱbecauseȱOliverȱdoesȱnot,ȱinȱfact,ȱkeepȱtoȱtheȱletterȱof
hisȱgap:ȱheȱonlyȱtakesȱtheȱgirlȱthirtyȱtimesȱ(v.ȱ726),ȱandȱdoesȱnotȱdoȱsoȱuntilȱheȱhas
promisedȱherȱhisȱloveȱandȱservice,ȱtherebyȱsecuringȱherȱcomplicityȱinȱagreeingȱthat
heȱhasȱfulfilledȱtheȱtermsȱofȱtheȱjest.ȱSecondly,ȱthereȱisȱnoȱmentionȱinȱtheȱpowerȱof
Godȱ helpingȱ Oliverȱ toȱ carryȱ outȱ hisȱ boast,ȱ unlikeȱ theȱ subsequentȱ boasters
GuillaumeȱandȱBernardȱwhoȱareȱbothȱexplicitlyȱenabledȱbyȱGodȱtoȱperformȱtheir
miraculousȱjestsȱ(vv.ȱ751,ȱ774).ȱThisȱboastȱofȱsexualȱprowessȱreceivesȱscurrilous
treatmentȱinȱtheȱpervertedȱsexualȱactȱwhichȱ“BérengerȱauȱLoncȱCul”ȱrequiresȱof
theȱhusbandȱinȱbothȱversionsȱofȱtheȱfabliau.
MoreȱsignificantȱforȱourȱfocusȱuponȱversionȱIIȱisȱtheȱpenultimateȱboast,ȱmadeȱby
Bertrand,ȱwhichȱisȱremarkablyȱsimilarȱtoȱthatȱfoundȱinȱbothȱLestoireȱdeȱMerlinȱand
ourȱfabliau:ȱ
‘Gabez,ȱsireȱBertram!’ȱliȱemperereȱadȱdit.
‘Volenters’,ȱdisȱliȱquens,ȱ‘tutȱalȱvostreȱplaisir.
Treisȱescuzȱforzȱeȱroizȱm’empruntezȱleȱmatin,
Puisȱm’emȱirraiȱlaȱforsȱenȱsunzȱcelȱpinȱantif.
Laȱlesȱmeȱverrezȱensembleȱparȱtelȱvertudȱferir
Eȱvolerȱcuntremunt;ȱsiȱm’escrieraiȱsi
Queȱenȱquatreȱliuesȱenvirunȱleȱpais
Neȱremandratȱenȱboisȱcerfȱneȱdaimȱaȱfuir,
Nuleȱbiseȱsalvageȱneȱcheverolȱneȱgupil.’
‘ParȱDeu’,ȱçoȱdistȱliȱescutȱ‘malȱgabementȱadȱci!
QuantȱleȱsaveratȱliȱreisȱHugue,ȱgransȱertȱetȱmaris.’ȱ
[‘Jest,ȱLordȱBertrand’,ȱsaidȱtheȱemperor.
‘Willingly’,ȱsaidȱtheȱcount,ȱ‘justȱasȱyouȱwish.
Getȱmeȱthreeȱstrongȱandȱsturdyȱshieldsȱtomorrowȱmorning.
ThenȱIȱshallȱgoȱupȱtoȱtheȱtopȱofȱthatȱancientȱpineȱoutside,
Andȱthereȱyouȱwillȱseeȱmeȱstrikeȱthemȱtogetherȱsoȱforcibly
Andȱgoȱflyingȱthroughȱtheȱair,ȱshoutingȱsoȱloudly
Thatȱforȱfourȱleaguesȱaroundȱthisȱplace
Noȱstagȱorȱbuckȱwillȱfailȱtoȱfellȱfromȱtheȱwood,
Noȱwoodlandȱhind,ȱnoȱroeȱandȱnoȱfox.’
‘InȱGod’sȱname’,ȱsaidȱtheȱspy,ȱ‘thisȱisȱaȱbadȱjest!
WhenȱKingȱHugoȱhearsȱofȱit,ȱheȱwillȱbeȱvexedȱandȱdistressed.’]45
TheȱkeyȱfeatureȱofȱBertrand’sȱboastȱisȱtheȱnoiseȱthatȱhisȱclashingȱofȱtheȱshieldsȱwill
create.ȱInȱversionȱIIȱofȱBérengerȱauȱloncȱculȱthereȱisȱnoticeablyȱmoreȱemphasisȱonȱthe
noiseȱwhichȱtheȱfakeȱknightȱmakes.ȱInȱtheȱfirstȱwoodlandȱscene,ȱtheȱpoetȱsaysȱhe
makesȱsuchȱaȱclamor,ȱitȱwouldȱhaveȱbeenȱtakenȱforȱthirtyȱknightsȱ(vv.ȱ54–55);ȱthe
husbandȱthenȱmakesȱmuchȱofȱtheȱnumberȱofȱknightsȱheȱhasȱdefeated—whichȱhe
givesȱasȱsevenȱ(vv.ȱ69–76)—braggingȱthatȱheȱhadȱsoȱseriouslyȱinjuredȱfourȱofȱthem,
thatȱtheȱotherȱthreeȱranȱawayȱinȱterror.ȱInȱtheȱsecondȱwoodlandȱscene,ȱweȱlearn
thatȱtheȱwholeȱwoodȱresoundedȱatȱtheȱnoiseȱheȱmadeȱwithȱhisȱlanceȱandȱshieldȱ(vv.
151–2).ȱVersionȱIȱtakesȱaȱsubtly,ȱbutȱimportantlyȱdifferentȱapproach:ȱthereȱisȱno
mentionȱ ofȱ noiseȱ inȱ theȱ firstȱ scene,ȱ whichȱ concentratesȱ insteadȱ onȱ theȱ damage
whichȱ isȱ inflictedȱ onȱ theȱ weapons,ȱ andȱ inȱ theȱ secondȱ scene,ȱ theȱ noiseȱ is
hyperbolicallyȱattributedȱtoȱthatȱwhichȱmightȱbeȱmadeȱbyȱaȱlegionȱofȱdemonsȱ(vv.
183–37);ȱthisȱactuallyȱdrawsȱattentionȱawayȱfromȱtheȱrealityȱofȱtheȱnoiseȱandȱits
effectsȱinȱtheȱwoodȱwhichȱcomesȱoutȱinȱversionȱIIȱandȱonȱtoȱtheȱwreckedȱweapons
whichȱareȱtoȱbeȱtheȱ“evidence”ȱforȱtheȱhusband’sȱsupposedȱbravery.ȱVersionȱII
thusȱremainsȱcloserȱtoȱLeȱPèlerinage,ȱbutȱalsoȱlinksȱtheȱhusband’sȱboastingȱmore
consistentlyȱwithȱitsȱemphasisȱonȱthisȱfaultȱandȱitsȱconsequences.ȱ
TheȱsecondȱimportantȱparallelȱbetweenȱtheȱPèlerinageȱandȱBérengerȱauȱloncȱculȱlies
inȱ theȱ openingȱ sequencesȱ ofȱ theȱ twoȱ texts,ȱ whichȱ involveȱ aȱ boastingȱ husband
respondingȱtoȱhisȱwife’sȱdoubtsȱasȱtoȱhisȱprowess.ȱInȱtheȱPèlerinage,ȱCharlemagne
boastsȱofȱhisȱfineȱmilitaryȱbearingȱandȱhisȱqueenȱunwiselyȱobservesȱthatȱsheȱknows
ofȱoneȱwhoȱisȱevenȱmoreȱimpressive,ȱandȱwhomȱsheȱreluctantlyȱnamesȱasȱKing
Hugoȱ ofȱ Constantinopleȱ (laissesȱ I–III);ȱ thisȱ initiatesȱ hisȱ journeyȱ eastȱ toȱ prove
himselfȱagainstȱtheȱsupposedȱrival.ȱ
TheȱfamilyȱquarrelȱtoposȱpredatesȱLeȱPèlerinageȱinȱtheȱepicȱcorpus,ȱfeaturingȱmost
significantlyȱinȱtheȱChansonȱdeȱGuillaume.46ȱTheȱpoetȱofȱLeȱPèlerinageȱthusȱworksȱa
comicȱrewritingȱofȱtheȱtoposȱinȱhisȱtext,ȱmakingȱaȱmotivationȱforȱactsȱofȱchivalric
braveryȱ againstȱ theȱ Saracensȱ inȱ Laȱ Chansonȱ deȱ Guillaumeȱ intoȱ aȱ subversive
undercuttingȱofȱtheȱepitomeȱofȱepicȱbravery,ȱCharlemagneȱhimself.ȱInȱBérenger,ȱthe
45
Burgess,ȱLeȱPèlerinageȱdeȱCharlemagneȱ(seeȱnoteȱ40),ȱLaisseȱXXXVI,ȱvv.ȱ591–601.
46
RoyȱPearcyȱhasȱnotedȱthatȱthisȱquarrelȱisȱaȱfeatureȱnotȱonlyȱofȱBérenger,ȱLeȱPèlerinage,ȱandȱthe
ChansonȱdeȱGuillaumeȱbutȱalsoȱofȱLaȱGageure.ȱPearcy,ȱ“Chansonsȱdeȱgesteȱandȱtheȱfabliaux”ȱ(seeȱnote
21),ȱ77.
328 PennyȱSimons
narrativeȱalsoȱstartsȱwithȱtheȱquarrelȱbetweenȱhusbandȱandȱwife,ȱwhichȱinitiates
anȱevenȱmoreȱsubversiveȱundercuttingȱofȱknightlyȱbraveryȱinȱtheȱwife’sȱshaming
revenge.ȱGuerinȱtheȱfableorȱthusȱidentifiesȱaȱwayȱinȱwhichȱhisȱintertextȱhadȱitself
reworkedȱanȱearlierȱmotifȱandȱaddsȱhisȱownȱtwist,ȱtrumpingȱtheȱcomicȱeffectȱofȱhis
predecessor.ȱNotȱonlyȱthis,ȱbutȱtheȱthreeȱreferencesȱtoȱboastingȱwhichȱheȱborrows
fromȱLeȱPèlerinageȱareȱcleverlyȱintertwinedȱinȱtheȱordealȱofȱtheȱbaiserȱhonteux.ȱThe
mostȱdevelopedȱformȱofȱthisȱplayȱisȱactuallyȱthatȱfoundȱinȱversionȱII.
Theȱ humorȱ whichȱ isȱ alreadyȱ presentȱ inȱ Leȱ Pèlerinageȱ deȱ Charlemagneȱ isȱ thus
reworkedȱbyȱtheȱpoetȱorȱpoetsȱofȱbothȱversionsȱofȱBérengerȱauȱloncȱculȱinȱwaysȱthat
areȱtypicalȱofȱtheȱmedievalȱpracticeȱofȱaemulatioȱorȱimitativeȱrewriting.47ȱElements
fromȱtheȱPèlerinageȱareȱtakenȱandȱfittedȱintoȱaȱnewȱnarrativeȱstructureȱinȱtheȱfabliau:
thisȱ involvesȱ changesȱ toȱ theȱ originalȱ text,ȱ toȱ makeȱ theȱ materialȱ fitȱ aȱ different
purpose,ȱbutȱnonethelessȱleavesȱsufficientȱcluesȱasȱtoȱtheȱoriginȱofȱtheȱborrowing
toȱalertȱtheȱaudienceȱasȱtoȱtheȱpoet’sȱskilfulȱmanipulationȱofȱhisȱsources.ȱVersions
IȱandȱIIȱdoȱthisȱinȱdifferentȱways.ȱVersionȱIȱmakesȱmuchȱlessȱuseȱofȱtheȱgender
focusȱonȱmaleȱboasting;ȱwhilstȱtheȱhusbandȱisȱshownȱtoȱbeȱaȱbraggartȱinȱv.ȱ55,ȱand
theȱquarrelȱwithȱhisȱwifeȱisȱusedȱtoȱmotivateȱtheȱknight’sȱforaysȱintoȱtheȱwoods,
thisȱ isȱ somethingȱ ofȱ aȱ narrativeȱ deadȱ endȱ asȱ theȱ playȱ withȱ genderȱ rolesȱ and
stereotypesȱ inȱ thisȱ versionȱ isȱ undercutȱ byȱ theȱ playȱ withȱ otherȱ conflicting
dichotomies.
Versionȱ II,ȱ however,ȱ takesȱ theȱ themeȱ ofȱ maleȱ boastingȱ ofȱ theȱ Pèlerinageȱ and
makingȱthisȱtheȱoverarchingȱthemeȱofȱtheȱfabliau.ȱInȱthisȱway,ȱitȱactuallyȱworks
veryȱeffectivelyȱasȱanȱessentialistȱrewritingȱofȱtheȱoriginalȱtext.ȱTheȱboastingȱofȱthe
husbandȱisȱpunishedȱinȱtwoȱways,ȱbothȱofȱwhichȱareȱborrowedȱfromȱtheȱPèlerinage:
theȱsexualȱprowessȱofȱOliver,ȱalreadyȱmarkedȱinȱtheȱPèlerinageȱasȱproblematic,
becauseȱitȱcannot,ȱasȱanȱactȱofȱfornication,ȱbeȱsanctionedȱbyȱGod,ȱinȱcontrastȱtoȱthe
otherȱjests,ȱisȱrewrittenȱasȱaȱsceneȱinȱwhichȱaȱmaleȱsignallyȱfailsȱtoȱtakeȱaȱwoman
andȱ mustȱ thenȱ cedeȱ hisȱ placeȱ toȱ aȱ trueȱ manȱ whoȱ canȱ satisfyȱ her.ȱ Theȱ boastȱ of
BertrandȱisȱalsoȱundercutȱinȱtheȱwoodlandȱscenesȱofȱBérenger:ȱInsteadȱofȱbeingȱa
meansȱ ofȱ demonstratingȱ superlativeȱ strengthȱ inȱ theȱ wieldingȱ ofȱ weapons,ȱ the
damageȱwroughtȱuponȱtheȱshieldȱandȱtheȱnoiseȱitȱgeneratesȱbecomeȱevidenceȱof
theȱexactȱopposite.ȱThisȱparingȱdownȱtoȱtheȱsingleȱelementȱofȱtheȱfollyȱofȱmale
boastingȱcreatesȱaȱtextȱwhichȱhasȱaȱgreaterȱinternalȱconsistencyȱthanȱtheȱPèlerinage:
theȱ latterȱ incorporatesȱ otherȱ parodicȱ andȱ humorousȱ elements,ȱ suchȱ asȱ the
treatmentȱofȱtheȱnotionȱofȱpilgrimageȱorȱofȱtheȱvenerationȱofȱreligiousȱrelicsȱwhich
47
Interestingly,ȱ Léonȱ Gautierȱ referredȱ toȱ theȱ Pèlerinageȱ asȱ aȱ “fabliauȱ épique,”ȱ pointingȱ outȱ the
genericȱcontradictionsȱfoundȱinȱthisȱtext.ȱTheseȱremainȱinȱBérengerȱauȱloncȱcul,ȱbutȱareȱconveyed
inȱtheȱeconomyȱofȱtheȱfabliauȱformat,ȱratherȱthanȱinȱtheȱepicȱformȱusedȱinȱtheȱPèlerinage.ȱLéon
Gautier,ȱLesȱEpopéesȱfrançaises:ȱétudeȱsurȱlesȱoriginesȱetȱl’histoireȱdeȱlaȱlittératureȱnationale.ȱ3ȱvols.ȱ(Paris:
SociétéȱGénéraleȱdeȱLibraireȱCatholique,ȱ1865–1868),ȱII,ȱ260–305;ȱhereȱ260.
atȱtimesȱsitȱuneasilyȱwithȱtheȱepisodeȱofȱtheȱjestsȱinȱtheȱsecondȱpartȱofȱtheȱtext.48
Thisȱversionȱthusȱexemplifiesȱexactlyȱwhatȱmedievalȱpoetsȱattemptedȱtoȱdoȱinȱtheir
practiceȱofȱaemulatioȱorȱ“emulation”:ȱtheȱintegumentumȱorȱ“truth”ȱofȱtheȱoriginalȱis
teasedȱoutȱandȱisȱreworkedȱintoȱaȱnewȱpoeticȱshapeȱwhichȱreflectsȱthatȱtruthȱbetter
thanȱhadȱtheȱoriginal.ȱ
AnalysisȱofȱtheȱruralȱspacesȱinȱBérengerȱauȱloncȱculȱhasȱrevealedȱtwoȱimportant
functionsȱofȱtheseȱspaces:ȱtheyȱareȱtheȱlocationȱinȱwhichȱtheȱtypicalȱdichotomies
uponȱwhichȱtheȱfabliauȱgenreȱreliesȱareȱplayedȱwithȱinȱaȱvarietyȱofȱwaysȱbyȱtheȱpoet
orȱpoetsȱofȱtheȱtwoȱdifferentȱversionsȱweȱhaveȱexamined;ȱand,ȱsecondly,ȱtheyȱare
theȱ spacesȱ inȱ whichȱ theȱ poet/sȱ displayȱ theirȱ skillȱ inȱ rewritingȱ elementsȱ fromȱ a
rangeȱofȱotherȱsources,ȱexploringȱtheȱeffectsȱtoȱbeȱgainedȱbyȱaȱmiscegenationȱof
literaryȱ genresȱ whichȱ parallelsȱ theȱ mésallianceȱ ofȱ aristocratȱ andȱ peasantȱ inȱ the
overallȱstory.ȱInȱversionȱI,ȱtheȱoppositionsȱbetweenȱmaleȱandȱfemaleȱandȱknight
andȱvilainȱcollideȱandȱeachȱworksȱtoȱundercutȱtheȱapparentlyȱblackȱandȱwhiteȱethos
ofȱtheȱother.ȱInȱversionȱII,ȱtheȱundercuttingȱisȱlessȱobviousȱandȱlessȱunsettling,ȱas
theȱ genderȱ themeȱ emergesȱ moreȱ stronglyȱ asȱ theȱ overarchingȱ directionȱ ofȱ the
narrative.ȱThisȱdoesȱnot,ȱhowever,ȱprecludeȱskilfulȱplayȱwithȱgenericȱexpectations
andȱaȱlayeringȱofȱintertextualȱreferencesȱwhichȱaddsȱtoȱtheȱcomicȱrichnessȱofȱthe
tale.ȱSoȱbothȱversionsȱexploitȱaȱvarietyȱofȱotherȱsources,ȱbothȱwithinȱtheȱfabliau
genre,ȱandȱfromȱtheȱcontrastingȱcourtlyȱgenresȱofȱepic,ȱcourtlyȱromanceȱorȱlyricȱin
orderȱ toȱ displayȱ skillȱ inȱ rewritingȱ andȱ combiningȱ “oldȱ matter”ȱ inȱ newȱ and
innovativeȱ ways.ȱ Weȱ canȱ concludeȱ fromȱ thisȱ thatȱ focusingȱ onȱ questionsȱ about
whichȱofȱtheseȱtwoȱversionsȱisȱsuperior,ȱorȱwhichȱprecedesȱtheȱotherȱasȱprevious
criticsȱ haveȱ tendedȱ toȱ do,ȱ isȱ ultimatelyȱ farȱ lessȱ fruitfulȱ thanȱ recognizingȱ the
differentȱ meritsȱ ofȱ each.ȱ Justȱ asȱ Bérengerȱ auȱ loncȱ culȱ rewritesȱ otherȱ textsȱ for
humorousȱpurposes,ȱsoȱitȱinȱturnȱmayȱbeȱrewrittenȱtoȱachieveȱdifferentȱeffects.ȱIf
weȱappreciateȱourȱtwoȱversionsȱasȱexpositionsȱofȱtheȱeffectsȱtoȱbeȱgainedȱfrom
aemulatio,ȱ weȱ comeȱ closerȱ toȱ anȱ appreciationȱ ofȱ theȱ poeticȱ skillsȱ whichȱ are
demonstratedȱinȱbothȱofȱthem.
48
Burgessȱdescribesȱtheȱdifferentȱcomponentsȱofȱtheȱnarrativeȱinȱtheȱ“Introduction”ȱtoȱhisȱedition
ofȱLeȱPèlerinageȱdeȱCharlemagne,ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ40);ȱheȱpointsȱoutȱthatȱthereȱisȱnotȱattemptȱbyȱtheȱpoetȱto
createȱaȱ“numericallyȱbalancedȱstructureȱforȱtheȱtext,ȱevenȱforȱtheȱtwoȱcentralȱepisodes”;ȱhereȱxii.
330 PennyȱSimons
Appendix
VersionȱI
“DeȱBerengierȱauȱLongȱCul”:ȱOldȱFrenchȱtextȱeditedȱbyȱWillemȱNoomenȱandȱNico
vanȱdenȱBoogaard,ȱNouveauȱrecueilȱcompletȱdesȱfabliaux,ȱ(Assen,ȱMaastricht:ȱvan
Gorcum,ȱ1988),ȱIV;ȱ270–77.ȱEnglishȱtranslationȱbyȱPennyȱSimons
Tantȱaiȱditȱcontesȱetȱflabiaus
Queȱjeȱaiȱfait,ȱviezȱetȱnoviaus,
Neȱfinéȱpasséȱaȱunȱan!
FoiȱqueȱdoiȱDeuȱetȱsaintȱJohan,ȱ 4
Neȱcuitȱqueȱj’anȱsacheȱmaisȱnul
ForsȱdeȱBerangierȱauȱloncȱcul
N’avezȱvosȱmieȱeüȱencore.
Maisȱparȱmonȱchief,ȱg’enȱdiraiȱore,ȱ 8
Siȱtostȱqueȱneȱtarderaiȱgaire!ȱ
Orȱoezȱqueȱjeȱvoilȱretraire
QueȱilȱavintȱenȱLombardie,
Oȱlaȱgentȱn’estȱgairesȱhardie,ȱ 12
D’unȱchevalierȱquiȱotȱprisȱfame
—Ceȱm’estȱvis,ȱuneȱgentisȱdame,
Filleȱd’unȱricheȱchastelain.
Etȱcilȱestoitȱfizȱd’unȱvilain,ȱ 16
D’unȱusurierȱricheȱetȱcomblé,
Quiȱmoutȱavoitȱetȱvinȱetȱblé;
Brebizȱetȱvaches,ȱetȱdeniers
Otȱaȱmonciausȱetȱaȱsetiers. ȱ20
Etȱliȱchastelainsȱliȱdevoit
Tantȱqueȱpaierȱneȱleȱpooit,
Ainzȱdonaȱaȱsonȱfilȱsaȱfille.
Ensiȱloȱbonȱlignageȱaville,ȱ 24
Etȱdechietȱtotȱetȱvaȱaȱhonte,
Queȱliȱchastelainȱetȱliȱconte
Seȱmarientȱbasȱporȱavoir;
Siȱdoiventȱgrantȱhonteȱavoirȱ 28
Etȱgrantȱdomage,ȱsiȱontȱil:
Liȱchevalierȱmauvaisȱetȱvil
Etȱcoartȱissentȱdeȱtelȱgent,
Quiȱmiauzȱaimentȱorȱetȱargentȱ 32
Queȱilȱneȱfontȱchevalerie.
Ensiȱestȱlargesceȱperie,
Ensiȱdechietȱenorȱetȱpris!
Maisȱaȱceȱqueȱjeȱaiȱemprisȱ 36
Repaireréȱporȱtraireȱaȱchief.
Liȱchevaliersȱaȱgrantȱmeschief
Mariaȱsaȱfilleȱauȱvilain,
Selȱfistȱchevalierȱdeȱsaȱmain.ȱ 40
Cilȱl’amena,ȱsiȱsontȱensamble
Plusȱdeȱdisȱanzȱsiȱcomȱmoiȱsamble.
Liȱchevaliersȱamoitȱrepos;
Ilȱneȱprisoitȱneȱprisȱneȱlos,ȱ 44
Neȱchevalerieȱdeusȱauz:
Tartresȱamoitȱetȱflaonsȱchauz,
Etȱmotȱdespisoitȱgentȱmenue.
Laȱdameȱs’estȱaperceüe ȱ48
Queȱsesȱsiresȱestȱsiȱmauvais
Queȱpiresȱdeȱluiȱneȱfuȱmaisȱ
porȱarmesȱprendreȱneȱbaillier:
Miausȱenmoitȱestraimȱetȱpaillierȱ 52
Aȱmenoierȱqu’ȱescuȱneȱlance.
Doncȱsetȱeleȱbienȱsanzȱdotance,
Aȱceȱqu’ilȱertȱmoutȱparliers,
Qu’ilȱnȱ‘estȱpasȱnezȱdeȱchevaliersȱ 56
Neȱestraizȱdeȱgentilȱlignaje.
Donȱliȱrementoitȱsonȱparaje
Oȱtantȱaȱvaillanzȱchevaliers,
Etȱasȱarmesȱetȱasȱdestriers:ȱ 60
“Aȱsejournerȱneȱprisȱjeȱrien.”
Doncȱentandiȱliȱvilainsȱbien
Q’eleȱnelȱdistȱseȱporȱluiȱnon.
“Dame,ȱdistȱil,ȱj’éȱtelȱrenon,ȱ 64
N’avezȱnulȱsiȱhardiȱparant
Queȱjeȱn’aieȱplusȱhardemant
Etȱplusȱvalorȱetȱplusȱproece.
Jeȱsuiȱchevaliersȱsanzȱperece,ȱ 68
Loȱmeillorȱdeȱtoz,ȱparȱmaȱmain:
Seviausȱvosȱleȱverroizȱdemain,
Seȱmesȱenemisȱpuisȱtrover!
Demainȱmeȱvoldraiȱesprover,ȱ 72
Qu’iȱm’ontȱdesfiéȱparȱenvie.
Jaȱnusȱn’enȱporteraȱlaȱvie,
Queȱgesȱmetraiȱaȱtelȱmeschief
Queȱchascunsȱiȱperdraȱloȱchief:ȱ 76
Tuitȱserontȱmort,ȱcuiȱqu’ilȱenuit!”
Ensiȱtrespasserentȱlaȱnuit.
Etȱl’andemain,ȱaȱl’ajornant,
Liȱchevaliersȱlevaȱavant,ȱ 80
Siȱfistȱsesȱarmesȱaporter
332 PennyȱSimons
Etȱsonȱcorsȱrichementȱarmer;
Queȱarmesȱavoitȱilȱmoutȱbeles,
Trestotesȱfreschesȱetȱnoveles!ȱ 84
Qantȱliȱchevaliersȱfuȱarmez
Etȱdesusȱsonȱchevalȱmontez,
Siȱseȱporpanseȱqu’ilȱfera,
Commentȱsaȱfameȱdecevra,ȱ 88
Q’elȱleȱtingneȱaȱbonȱchevalier.
Unȱboisȱmoutȱgrantȱetȱmoutȱplenier
Avoitȱmoutȱpresȱdeȱsaȱmaison:
Liȱchevaliersȱaȱesperonȱ 92
S’anȱvet,ȱtotȱdroitȱenȱlaȱforest,
Jusqu’elȱmileuȱneȱfistȱarest.
Qantȱaȱmiȱloȱboisȱfuȱvenuz,
Desozȱunȱchasneȱestȱdescenduz;ȱ 96
Sonȱchevalȱasȱresnesȱestache,
Sonȱescuȱpantȱaȱuneȱestache
D’uneȱbrancheȱsecheȱfechiee.
Aprésȱaȱs’espeeȱsachieeȱ 100
Siȱfiertȱenȱl’escuȱcommeȱfos,
Mienȱesciantȱplusȱdeȱcentȱcous:
Totȱl’aȱtranchiéȱetȱtotȱmalmis.
Puisȱavoitȱsonȱfortȱespiéȱpris,ȱ 104
Selȱbrisaȱenȱquatreȱtroçons.
Aprésȱestȱmontezȱesȱarçons
Deȱlaȱseleȱdeȱsonȱcheval.
Puisȱs’anȱvaitȱpoignantȱtotȱunȱval,ȱ 108
Totȱdroitementȱaȱsaȱmaison.
Deȱsaȱlanceȱtintȱunȱtroçon,
Etȱdeȱl’escuȱn’otȱc’unȱcartier
Qu’ilȱavoitȱportéȱtotȱentier.ȱ 112
Loȱchevalȱparȱlaȱresneȱtint.
Saȱfameȱaȱl’ancontreȱluiȱvint:
Auȱdescendreȱliȱtintȱl’estrié.
Liȱchevaliersȱlaȱfiertȱdelȱpié,ȱ 116
Quiȱmoltȱiertȱfiersȱdeȱgrantȱmeniere.
“Traiezȱvosȱtost,ȱfaitȱil,ȱarrier!
Queȱsachiezȱbien:ȱn’estȱmieȱdroiz
Qu’aȱsiȱbonȱchevalierȱtochoizȱ 120
Conȱjeȱsui,ȱneȱsiȱalosé.
Ilȱn’aȱsiȱpreuȱneȱsiȱossé
Enȱtotȱvostreȱlignage:ȱauȱmains
Neȱsuiȱmieȱtruanzȱvilains,ȱ 124
Ainsȱaiȱlousȱdeȱchevalerie!”
Laȱdameȱfuȱtoteȱesbaïe,
Qantȱelȱvitȱsonȱescuȱpercié
Etȱfraitȱloȱfustȱdeȱsonȱespié.ȱ 128
Seloncȱceȱqu’ilȱliȱfaitȱacroire,
Neȱsetȱqueȱdireȱneȱqueȱcroire:
Neȱsetȱelȱmontȱqueȱeleȱface,
Queȱliȱchevaliersȱlaȱmenaceȱ 132
Queȱverȱluiȱn’autȱneȱqu’elȱn’iȱtoche.ȱ
Laȱdameȱtintȱcloseȱlaȱboche
Onquesȱunȱmotȱneȱrespondi.
Queȱvosȱdiroie?ȱEnsiȱserviȱ 136
Liȱchevaliersȱdeȱcesteȱguille,
Etȱtenoitȱlaȱdameȱmoutȱvile
Etȱdespisoitȱtotȱsonȱlignage
—Donȱeleȱnelȱtenoitȱaȱsage.ȱ 140
Unȱjorȱrefuȱduȱboisȱvenuz
Liȱchevaliers;ȱetȱsesȱescuz
Fuȱestroiezȱetȱdepeciez,
Maisȱilȱn’ertȱcassezȱneȱbleciez, 144
Neȱsesȱhauberzȱn’aȱpointȱdeȱmal.
Etȱvitȱtotȱhaitiéȱsonȱcheval,
Quiȱn’estȱlassezȱneȱrecreüz.
N’estȱpasȱdeȱlaȱdameȱcreüzȱ 148
Aȱceleȱfoisȱliȱchevaliers!
Orȱditȱqu’ilȱaȱmortȱsesȱgerriers
Etȱsesȱenemisȱconfonduz,
Etȱaȱforceȱprisȱetȱpanduz.ȱ 152
Bienȱsetȱlaȱdameȱetȱaperçoitȱ
Queȱparȱsaȱbordeȱlaȱdeçoit;
Etȱpanse,ȱs’ilȱvaȱjaȱmais
Elȱbois,ȱqu’eleȱiraȱaprés,ȱ 156
Etȱsiȱverraȱqanqu’ilȱfera
Etȱcommantȱilȱseȱcontandra.
Ensinȱs’estȱceleȱporpansee,
Etȱqantȱvintȱaȱlaȱmatinee,ȱ 160
Liȱchevaliersȱseȱfistȱarmer,
Etȱditȱqueȱilȱiraȱtuer
Troisȱchevaliersȱquelȱmenaçoient,
Etȱquiȱsonȱmalȱliȱporchaçoient:ȱ 164
Gaitantȱloȱvont,ȱdonȱmoutȱseȱplaint.
Laȱdameȱliȱditȱqueȱilȱmaint
Deȱsergenzȱarmezȱtroisȱoȱquatre,
Siȱporraȱplusȱseürȱcombatre.ȱ 168
“Dame,ȱjeȱn’iȱmanraiȱnelui:
Parȱmoiȱlorȱmovréȱtelȱenui
Queȱjaȱnusȱn’enȱestordraȱvis!”
334 PennyȱSimons
Aȱtantȱs’estȱaȱlaȱvoieȱmis:ȱ 172
Parȱgrantȱaïrȱelȱboisȱseȱfiert.
Etȱlaȱdameȱunesȱarmesȱquiert
Commeȱchevaliersȱs’estȱarmee,
etȱpuisȱsorȱunȱchevalȱmontee. 176
Cele,ȱquiȱn’aȱsoingȱdeȱsejor,
S’anȱvaitȱtostȱaprésȱsonȱseignor,
Quiȱjaȱs’estȱouȱboisȱenbatuz.
Etȱsesȱescuzȱestoitȱpanduzȱ 180
Aȱunȱchasne,ȱetȱilȱiȱferoit:
Aȱl’espeeȱloȱdepeçoit.
Siȱfaitȱtelȱnoiseȱetȱtelȱmartire,
Quiȱl’oïst,ȱilȱpoïstȱbienȱdireȱ 184
Ceȱsontȱcentȱetȱmileȱdeiable.
Neȱloȱtenezȱvosȱmieȱaȱfable:
Grantȱnoiseȱfaitȱetȱgrantȱtampeste!
Etȱlaȱdameȱunȱpetitȱs’areste,ȱ 188
Qantȱeleȱaȱlaȱchoseȱveüe:
Esbaïeȱestȱetȱesperdue.
Etȱqantȱassezȱotȱescouté,
Avantȱaȱloȱchevalȱhurtéȱ 192
Verȱsonȱmari,ȱsiȱliȱescrie:
“Vassaus,ȱvassaus,ȱc’estȱgrantȱfolie
Queȱvosȱmonȱboisȱsiȱdecopez!
Mauvaisȱsuiȱseȱvosȱm’eschapez,ȱ 196
Queȱneȱsoiezȱmisȱenȱunsȱgiez!
Vostreȱescuȱporȱqoiȱpeçoiez,
Quiȱneȱvosȱavoitȱriensȱmesfait?
Moutȱavezȱorȱmeüȱfolȱplait,ȱ 200
Queȱaȱluiȱavezȱgerreȱprise.
Malȱdahazȱaitȱquiȱorȱvosȱprise,
Queȱvosȱestesȱcoarzȱprovez!”
Liȱchevaliersȱs’estȱregardez,ȱ 204ȱ
Qantȱilȱaȱlesȱmozȱentanduz;
Esboïzȱestȱetȱesperduz.
Laȱdameȱn’aȱpasȱconeüe.
Doȱpoinȱliȱchietȱl’espeeȱnueȱ 208
Etȱtrestozȱliȱsansȱliȱfoï.
“Sire,ȱfaitȱil,ȱporȱDeuȱmerci!
Seȱjeȱvosȱaiȱdeȱrienȱmesfait,
Joȱvosȱamanderaiȱsanzȱplait,ȱ 212
Aȱvostreȱgréȱmoutȱvolantiers
Vosȱdonraiȱavoirȱetȱdeniers.”
Laȱdameȱdit:ȱ“SeȱDeusȱmeȱgart,
Vosȱparleroizȱd’autreȱRenartȱ 216
Carȱjeȱvosȱpartiraiȱunȱjeu:
Ainzȱqueȱvosȱmovoizȱdeȱcestȱleu,
Commentȱqueȱvosȱjostoizȱaȱmoi;
Etȱjeȱvosȱcreantȱetȱotroi,ȱ 220
Seȱvosȱcheez,ȱjaȱn’iȱfaudroiz:
Maintenantȱlaȱtesteȱperdroiz,ȱ
Queȱjaȱn’avraiȱdeȱvosȱpitié!
Ouȱjeȱdescendraiȱjusȱaȱpié,ȱ 224
Devantȱvosȱm’iréȱabaissier:
Vosȱmeȱvandroizȱoȱcuȱbaissier
Tresȱoȱmileuȱoȱparȱdelez.
Prenezȱloȱquelȱqueȱvosȱvolezȱ 228
Deȱcezȱjeus,ȱiceȱvosȱcovient!”
Liȱchevaliers,ȱquiȱdoteȱetȱcrient,
Etȱquiȱplainsȱestȱdeȱcoardie,
Ditȱqueȱilȱn’iȱjosteraȱmie.ȱ 232
“Sire,ȱdistȱil,ȱjeȱaiȱvoé,
Neȱjosteraiȱaȱhomeȱné;
Maisȱdescendez,ȱsiȱneȱvosȱgriet,
Etȱjeȱferaiȱqanqueȱvosȱsiet.” 236
Laȱdameȱn’iȱvoltȱrespitȱqerre:
Totȱmaintenantȱdescentȱaȱterre;
Saȱrobeȱprantȱaȱsolever,
Devantȱluiȱprantȱaȱestuper.ȱ 240
Etȱdit:ȱ“Tornezȱçaȱvostreȱface!”
Etȱcilȱesgardeȱlaȱcrevace
Doȱculȱetȱdelȱcon:ȱceȱliȱsanble
Queȱtrestotȱseȱtienentȱensanble. ȱ244
Aȱluiȱmeïsmesȱpanseȱetȱdit
Onquesȱmaisȱsiȱgrantȱculȱneȱvit.
Donȱl’aȱbaiséȱdeȱl’ordeȱpais
Aȱguiseȱdeȱcoartȱmauvais, ȱ248
Moutȱpresȱdeȱtroȱilocȱendroit:
Bienȱl’aȱorȱmenéȱaȱdestroit!
Aȱtantȱlaȱdameȱrestȱmontee.
Liȱchevaliersȱl’aȱapelee:ȱ 252
“Biausȱsire,ȱvostreȱnonȱmeȱdites,
Puisȱsiȱvosȱenȱalezȱtozȱquites!
Vasaus,ȱmesȱnonsȱn’ertȱjaȱcelez!
Onquesȱmaisȱteusȱneȱfuȱnomez,ȱ 256
Deȱmesȱparansȱn’iȱaȱilȱnul:
J’éȱnonȱBerengiersȱauȱloncȱcul,
Quiȱaȱtozȱlesȱcoarzȱfaitȱhonte.”
Aȱceȱmotȱaȱfinéȱsonȱconte, 260
Siȱs’anȱestȱenȱmaisonȱalee;
336 PennyȱSimons
Auȱmiauzȱqueȱpotȱs’estȱdesarmee.
Puisȱaȱmandéȱunȱchevalier
Queȱeleȱamoitȱetȱtenoitȱchier:ȱ 264
Dedanzȱsaȱchanbreȱtotȱaȱaise
L’anȱmoine,ȱsiȱl’acoleȱetȱbaise.
Estesȱvosȱliȱsiresȱrevient
Delȱbois.ȱCele,ȱquiȱpoȱleȱcrient,ȱ 268
Neȱseȱdaignaȱporȱluiȱmovoir;
Sonȱamiȱfaitȱlezȱluiȱseoir.
Liȱchevaliersȱtozȱabosmez
S’anȱestȱdedanzȱlaȱchanbreȱentrez.ȱ 272
Qantȱvitȱlaȱdameȱetȱsonȱami,
Sachiezȱpointȱneȱliȱabeli!
“Dame,ȱfaitȱilȱisnelement,
Vosȱmeȱservezȱvilainement,ȱ 276
Quiȱhomeȱamenezȱceienz.
Vosȱleȱconparroiz,ȱparȱmesȱdanz!
Taisezȱvosȱan,ȱfaitȱel,ȱmalvais!
Orȱgardezȱqueȱnoȱditesȱmais,ȱ 280
Tantostȱdeȱvosȱmeȱclameroie
Porȱleȱdespitȱqueȱj’enȱavroie,
Siȱseriiezȱcousȱetȱjalous.
Aȱcuiȱvosȱclameriiezȱvosȱ 284
Deȱmoi,ȱparȱl’ameȱvostreȱpere?
Aȱcui?ȱAȱvostreȱchierȱcompere,
Quiȱvosȱtintȱjaȱenȱsonȱdongier:
CeȱestȱmesȱsiresȱBerangierȱ 288
Alȱloncȱculȱquiȱvosȱferoitȱhonte!”
Qantȱcilȱoitȱqueȱceleȱliȱconte,
Moutȱenȱotȱgrantȱduelȱetȱgrantȱire;
Onquesȱplusȱneȱliȱosaȱdire,ȱ 292
Desconfitȱseȱsantȱetȱmaté.
Etȱceleȱfaitȱsaȱvolanté,
Quiȱneȱfuȱsoteȱneȱvilaine:
Aȱmolȱpastorȱchieȱlosȱlaine!ȱ 296
[IȱhaveȱtoldȱsoȱmanyȱtalesȱandȱfabliauxȱwhichȱI’veȱcomposed,ȱbothȱoldȱandȱnew,
it’sȱtakenȱmoreȱthanȱaȱyearȱtoȱcompleteȱthem!ȱByȱtheȱfaithȱIȱoweȱGodȱandȱSaint
Johnȱ(4),ȱIȱdon’tȱthinkȱIȱknowȱanyȱmore,ȱsaveȱthatȱofȱLongȬassedȱBérengerȱandȱyou
haven’tȱheardȱitȱyet.ȱButȱIȱswearȱI’llȱtellȱitȱnowȱ(8),ȱstraightȱawayȱandȱwithout
delay!
SoȱhearȱwhatȱIȱhaveȱtoȱtell,ȱhowȱonceȱuponȱaȱtimeȱinȱLombardy,ȱwhereȱpeopleȱare
notȱbraveȱinȱtheȱleastȱ(12),ȱthereȱwasȱaȱknightȱwhoȱhadȱtakenȱaȱwife,ȱsoȱIȱbelieve,
aȱ nobleȱ lady,ȱ theȱ daughterȱ ofȱ aȱ richȱ castellan.ȱ Thisȱ knightȱ wasȱ theȱ sonȱ ofȱ a
commonerȱ(16),ȱaȱrichȱmoneylender,ȱloadedȱwithȱwealth,ȱwhoȱhadȱplentyȱofȱwine
andȱwheat,ȱsheepȱandȱcows,ȱandȱheȱhadȱcoinsȱbyȱtheȱheapȱandȱtheȱsackfulȱ(20).
Andȱtheȱcastellanȱowedȱthisȱmanȱsoȱmuchȱmoneyȱthatȱheȱcouldȱnotȱpayȱhim;ȱso
insteadȱheȱgaveȱhisȱdaughterȱtoȱtheȱson.ȱThusȱgoodȱfamiliesȱdegenerateȱ(24),ȱgo
rightȱdownhillȱandȱcomeȱtoȱaȱbadȱend,ȱforȱcastellansȱandȱcountsȱmarryȱbeneath
themȱforȱmoney.ȱTheyȱshouldȱbeȱashamedȱ(28)ȱandȱsufferȱforȱit,ȱasȱindeedȱtheyȱdo.
Badȱandȱbaseȱknightsȱandȱcowardsȱdescendȱfromȱsuchȱpeople,ȱwhoȱloveȱgoldȱand
silverȱmoreȱ(32)ȱthanȱtheyȱdoȱknightlyȱhonor.ȱThusȱlargesseȱhasȱperished,ȱthus
honorȱandȱworthȱdecline!ȱButȱnowȱIȱwillȱreturnȱtoȱwhatȱIȱhaveȱstartedȱ(36)ȱand
willȱ seeȱ itȱ throughȱ toȱ theȱ end.ȱ Theȱ knightȱ didȱ greatȱ wrongȱ andȱ marriedȱ his
daughterȱtoȱtheȱcommoner,ȱandȱthenȱheȱknightedȱhimȱwithȱhisȱownȱhandȱ(40).ȱThe
baseȱmanȱtookȱherȱasȱhisȱwifeȱandȱIȱbelieveȱtheyȱwereȱtogetherȱforȱmoreȱthanȱten
years.ȱTheȱknightȱlovedȱidleness;ȱheȱdidn’tȱgiveȱaȱfigȱaboutȱhonor,ȱpraiseȱ(44)ȱor
chivalry;ȱ heȱ likedȱ piesȱ andȱ hotȱ custardȱ tarts,ȱ andȱ heȱ treatedȱ lowlyȱ people
scornfully.ȱTheȱladyȱnoticedȱ(48)ȱherȱhusbandȱwasȱsoȱworthlessȱthatȱthereȱwasȱno
oneȱworseȱthanȱhimȱatȱtakingȱupȱandȱdefendingȱarms:ȱheȱpreferredȱtoȱpitchȱstraw
(52)ȱratherȱthanȱwieldȱshieldȱorȱlance.ȱThenȱsheȱknewȱwithoutȱaȱdoubtȱthat,ȱforȱall
hisȱ boasting,ȱ heȱ wasȱ noȱ trueȱ knightȱ (56)ȱ norȱ bornȱ ofȱ aȱ nobleȱ line.ȱ Thenȱ she
rememberedȱherȱownȱfamilyȱlineȱwhereȱthereȱwereȱmanyȱbraveȱknights,ȱskilled
atȱarmsȱandȱonȱhorsebackȱ(60).ȱ“Iȱcareȱnothingȱforȱidleness,”ȱsheȱsaid.ȱ
Theȱknightȱunderstoodȱperfectlyȱwellȱthatȱsheȱmeantȱthisȱforȱhim.ȱ“Myȱlady,”ȱhe
said,ȱ“Iȱhaveȱaȱbrilliantȱreputationȱ(64);ȱandȱnoȱmemberȱofȱyourȱfamilyȱisȱsoȱbrave
thatȱIȱcannotȱoutdoȱhimȱinȱbravery,ȱvalorȱandȱchivalricȱprowess;ȱIȱamȱaȱknight
withoutȱaȱhintȱofȱslothȱ(68),ȱtheȱbestȱinȱtheȱworld,ȱIȱswearȱit!ȱYouȱwillȱseeȱthisȱfor
yourselfȱtomorrow,ȱifȱIȱcanȱfindȱmyȱenemies!ȱTomorrowȱIȱwishȱtoȱproveȱmyself
(72)ȱagainstȱthoseȱwhoȱhaveȱbetrayedȱmeȱthroughȱenvy.ȱNotȱoneȱofȱthemȱwill
comeȱawayȱwithȱhisȱlifeȱforȱIȱshallȱdealȱwithȱthemȱsoȱfiercelyȱthatȱeveryoneȱwill
loseȱhisȱheadȱ(76).ȱThey’llȱallȱbeȱdead,ȱdoȱwhatȱtheyȱwill!”ȱTheyȱleftȱtheȱmatterȱat
thatȱthatȱnight.ȱTheȱnextȱday,ȱasȱdayȱbrokeȱtheȱknightȱroseȱ(80)ȱandȱhadȱhisȱarmor
andȱ weaponsȱ broughtȱ andȱ armedȱ himselfȱ magnificently;ȱ forȱ heȱ hadȱ veryȱ fine
armor,ȱcompletelyȱnewȱandȱundamagedȱ(84)!ȱ
Whenȱtheȱknightȱhadȱarmedȱandȱhadȱmountedȱhisȱhorse,ȱthenȱheȱbeganȱtoȱthink
aboutȱwhatȱheȱwouldȱdoȱandȱhowȱheȱcouldȱdeceiveȱhisȱwifeȱ(88)ȱsoȱthatȱsheȱwould
thinkȱheȱwasȱaȱgoodȱknight.ȱThereȱwasȱaȱbig,ȱthickȱwoodȱwhichȱwasȱnearȱtoȱhis
home;ȱtheȱknightȱrodeȱrapidlyȱoffȱ(92),ȱstraightȱintoȱtheȱforest,ȱnotȱstoppingȱuntil
heȱ reachedȱ theȱ middle.ȱ Whenȱ heȱ hadȱ comeȱ toȱ theȱ centerȱ ofȱ theȱ wood,ȱ he
dismountedȱbeneathȱanȱoakȱ996);ȱheȱtetheredȱhisȱhorseȱbyȱitsȱreinsȱandȱhungȱhis
shieldȱonȱaȱpoleȱofȱboundȱdryȱbranches.49ȱThenȱheȱdrewȱoutȱhisȱswordȱ(100)ȱand
beatȱtheȱshieldȱlikeȱaȱmadman,ȱdealingȱitȱmoreȱthanȱaȱhundredȱblows,ȱI’mȱsure;
heȱslashedȱandȱhackedȱitȱtoȱpieces.ȱNextȱheȱtookȱhisȱsturdyȱlanceȱ(104)ȱandȱbroke
49
Theȱmeaningȱofȱvv.ȱ98–99ȱisȱunclear,ȱandȱNoomenȱandȱBoogaardȱpointȱoutȱthatȱtheȱreadingsȱof
bothȱmssȱBȱandȱDȱareȱsuspectȱatȱthisȱpoint.ȱTheyȱsuggestȱthatȱwhatȱisȱhappeningȱhereȱisȱthatȱthe
knightȱhasȱusedȱdryȱbranchesȱtoȱfashionȱaȱrudimentaryȱquitaineȱtoȱserveȱasȱaȱtargetȱforȱhimȱto
strikeȱwithȱtheȱlance.ȱSeeȱ“Notesȱetȱéclaircissements”ȱtoȱtheȱtextȱofȱBerengierȱauȱloncȱcul,ȱNouveau
recueilȱcomplet,ȱvolȱIV,ȱ418.
338 PennyȱSimons
itȱintoȱfour.ȱThenȱheȱmountedȱontoȱtheȱbowȱofȱhisȱsaddle,ȱand,ȱspurringȱonȱthe
horse,ȱ wentȱ offȱ downȱ aȱ valleyȱ (108),ȱ straightȱ backȱ toȱ hisȱ home.ȱ Heȱ hadȱ one
fragmentȱofȱhisȱlance,ȱandȱhadȱonlyȱaȱquarterȱofȱhisȱshieldȱremainingȱfromȱthe
wholeȱheȱhadȱtakenȱoutȱwithȱhimȱ(112).ȱHeȱheldȱhisȱhorseȱbyȱtheȱreins.ȱHisȱwife
cameȱoutȱtoȱgreetȱhim;ȱsheȱheldȱhisȱstirrupȱsoȱheȱcouldȱdismount.ȱButȱtheȱknight
kickedȱherȱawayȱ(116),ȱusingȱallȱhisȱgreatȱstrength:ȱ“Getȱbackȱatȱonce!”ȱheȱsaid.
“Andȱknowȱthis:ȱitȱisȱnotȱrightȱforȱyouȱtoȱtouchȱsoȱfineȱaȱknightȱ(120)ȱnorȱoneȱas
highlyȱesteemedȱasȱIȱam.ȱThere’sȱnoneȱsoȱbraveȱorȱdaringȱinȱyourȱfamily;ȱatȱleast
Iȱamȱnotȱbaseȱorȱunworthyȱ(124),ȱbutȱhaveȱwonȱknightlyȱpraiseȱinstead!”ȱ
Theȱladyȱwasȱcompletelyȱdumbfoundedȱwhenȱsheȱsawȱtheȱbatteredȱshieldȱandȱthe
shatteredȱwoodȱofȱtheȱlanceȱshaftȱ(128);ȱjudgingȱfromȱwhatȱheȱwouldȱhaveȱher
believeȱsheȱdidȱnotȱknowȱwhatȱtoȱthink;ȱandȱsheȱdidȱnotȱknowȱwhatȱinȱtheȱworld
toȱdo,ȱforȱtheȱknightȱhadȱthreatenedȱherȱ(132)ȱifȱsheȱcameȱnearȱhimȱorȱtouched
him.ȱSoȱtheȱladyȱkeptȱherȱmouthȱshutȱandȱsaidȱnotȱaȱwordȱinȱreply.ȱWhatȱmoreȱcan
Iȱsayȱ(136)?ȱInȱthisȱwayȱtheȱknightȱmadeȱuseȱofȱthisȱtrickȱandȱdespisedȱhisȱwife,
mockingȱallȱherȱfamily,ȱwhichȱsheȱconsideredȱfollyȱonȱhisȱpartȱ(140).ȱOneȱdayȱthe
knightȱagainȱcameȱbackȱfromȱtheȱwood;ȱhisȱshieldȱwasȱbatteredȱandȱfullȱofȱholes,
butȱheȱhadȱnotȱaȱscratchȱonȱhimȱ(144)ȱandȱhisȱhauberkȱshowedȱnoȱsignȱofȱdamage.
Andȱsheȱsawȱhisȱhorseȱwasȱstillȱfreshȱandȱwasȱneitherȱtiredȱnorȱwornȱout.ȱThis
timeȱ theȱ ladyȱ didȱ notȱ believeȱ theȱ knightȱ (148)!ȱ Nowȱ heȱ saidȱ heȱ hadȱ killedȱ his
attackersȱandȱhadȱdefeatedȱhisȱenemies,ȱcapturedȱandȱhangedȱthemȱ(152).ȱThe
ladyȱknewȱwellȱandȱsawȱthatȱheȱwasȱtrickingȱherȱwithȱsomeȱruse;ȱandȱsheȱthought
thatȱifȱheȱwentȱagainȱtoȱtheȱforestȱsheȱwouldȱgoȱafterȱhimȱ(156),ȱandȱsheȱwouldȱsee
whateverȱitȱwasȱheȱwasȱdoing,ȱandȱhowȱheȱacquittedȱhimselfȱinȱbattle.ȱThusȱthe
ladyȱresolvedȱtoȱact.ȱ
Andȱthen,ȱwhenȱdawnȱcameȱ(160),ȱtheȱknightȱcalledȱforȱhisȱarmsȱandȱsaidȱheȱwas
goingȱtoȱkillȱthreeȱknightsȱwhoȱwereȱthreateningȱhimȱandȱwhoȱwereȱcausingȱhim
greatȱ troubleȱ (164)ȱ byȱ ambushingȱ him,ȱ committingȱ aȱ greatȱ offence.ȱ Theȱ lady
suggestedȱtoȱhimȱthatȱheȱshouldȱtakeȱthreeȱorȱfourȱarmedȱmenȱwithȱhim,ȱsoȱthat
heȱwouldȱbeȱbetterȱableȱtoȱdefeatȱthemȱ(168).ȱ“Myȱlady,ȱIȱshallȱtakeȱnoȬoneȱwith
me;ȱsingleȬhandedlyȱIȱwillȱlaunchȱsuchȱanȱassaultȱonȱthemȱthatȱnoneȱwillȱcomeȱout
alive.”ȱWithȱthisȱ heȱ wentȱ(172)ȱchargingȱoffȱtoȱtheȱwood.ȱMeanwhileȱtheȱlady
soughtȱoutȱaȱsetȱofȱarmor;ȱsheȱarmedȱherselfȱlifeȱaȱknightȱandȱthenȱmountedȱa
horseȱ (176).ȱ Sheȱ rodeȱ offȱ withoutȱ delayȱ straightȱ afterȱ herȱ husband,ȱ whoȱ had
alreadyȱrushedȱintoȱtheȱwood.ȱHeȱhadȱhungȱhisȱshieldȱ(180)ȱupȱonȱanȱoakȱtreeȱand
wasȱbeatingȱit;ȱheȱwasȱhackingȱitȱtoȱpiecesȱwithȱhisȱsword.ȱHeȱwasȱmakingȱsuch
aȱnoiseȱandȱsuchȱaȱracketȱthatȱanyoneȱwhoȱheardȱitȱwouldȱhaveȱsaidȱ(184)ȱthatȱa
hundredȱthousandȱdevilsȱwereȱthere.ȱDon’tȱthinkȱ I’mȱmakingȱthisȱup;ȱheȱwas
makingȱaȱmightyȱdinȱandȱtumult!ȱTheȱladyȱpausedȱaȱmomentȱ(188);ȱwhenȱsheȱsaw
thisȱsight,ȱsheȱwasȱdumbfoundedȱandȱhorrified.ȱAndȱwhenȱsheȱhadȱheardȱenough
sheȱurgedȱherȱhorseȱ(192)ȱtowardsȱherȱhusbandȱandȱyelledȱoutȱtoȱhim,ȱ“Vassal,
vassal,ȱyouȱareȱoutȱofȱyourȱmind,ȱslashingȱupȱmyȱwoodȱlikeȱthis!ȱI’llȱbeȱdamned
ifȱyouȱescapeȱfromȱmeȱ(196)ȱwithoutȱbeingȱtiedȱintoȱaȱpairȱofȱfalcon’sȱjesses!ȱAnd
whyȱareȱyouȱabusingȱyourȱshieldȱlikeȱthatȱwhenȱitȱhasȱneverȱdoneȱyouȱanyȱharm?
Youȱ areȱ actingȱ stupidlyȱ (200)ȱ toȱ wageȱ warȱ againstȱ it.ȱ Aȱ curseȱ onȱ anyoneȱ who
valuesȱyou,ȱyouȱprovenȱcoward!”ȱ
Theȱknightȱlookedȱdownȱ(204)ȱwhenȱheȱheardȱtheseȱwords;ȱheȱwasȱstunnedȱand
dismayed.ȱHeȱdidȱnotȱrecognizeȱtheȱlady.ȱHisȱnakedȱswordȱfellȱfromȱhisȱhand
(208)ȱandȱhisȱbloodȱranȱcold.ȱ“ForȱGod’sȱsakeȱmercy,ȱsir!”ȱheȱcried.ȱ“IfȱIȱhave
injuredȱyouȱinȱanyȱway,ȱIȱwillȱmakeȱrestitutionȱwithoutȱdelayȱ(212),ȱIȱwillȱgladly
giveȱyouȱtreasureȱorȱmoney.”ȱTheȱladyȱreplied,ȱ“SoȱhelpȱmeȱGod,ȱyou’llȱsoon
changeȱyourȱtuneȱ(216)ȱbecauseȱI’mȱgoingȱtoȱofferȱyouȱaȱdare:ȱbeforeȱyouȱleaveȱthis
place,ȱIȱcommandȱyouȱtoȱjoustȱwithȱme—andȱIȱswearȱtoȱyouȱ(220)ȱthatȱifȱyouȱfall,
there’llȱbeȱnoȱwayȱout,ȱyou’llȱloseȱyourȱheadȱimmediatelyȱforȱIȱshallȱshowȱyouȱno
mercy!ȱAlternatively,ȱIȱshallȱdismountȱ(224)ȱandȱIȱwillȱbendȱoverȱinȱfrontȱofȱyou
andȱyouȱwillȱcomeȱandȱkissȱmyȱassȱrightȱinȱtheȱmiddleȱorȱtoȱtheȱside.ȱChoose
whicheverȱofȱtheseȱtwoȱdaresȱyouȱpreferȱ(228),ȱthatȱisȱwhatȱyouȱmustȱdo!”ȱThe
knight,ȱ whoȱ wasȱ terrified,ȱ andȱ whoȱ wasȱ aȱ completeȱ coward,ȱ declaredȱ thatȱ he
wouldȱnotȱjoustȱ(232):ȱ“Sir,”ȱheȱsaid,ȱ“IȱhaveȱmadeȱaȱvowȱthatȱIȱwillȱneverȱjoust
withȱanyȱmanȱborn;ȱsoȱgetȱdown,ȱifȱyouȱwouldȱbeȱsoȱkind,ȱandȱIȱwillȱdoȱwhatȱyou
haveȱaskedȱ(236).”ȱTheȱladyȱsawȱnoȱneedȱtoȱdelay,ȱbutȱgotȱstraightȱdown,ȱliftedȱup
herȱgarmentȱandȱbentȱdownȱinȱfrontȱofȱhimȱ(240).ȱ“Sir,ȱputȱyourȱfaceȱrightȱthere,”
sheȱsaid.ȱAndȱheȱgazedȱuponȱtheȱcrackȱofȱherȱcuntȱandȱherȱass;ȱforȱitȱseemedȱto
himȱthatȱtheyȱwereȱbothȱjoinedȱtogetherȱ(244).ȱHeȱthoughtȱtoȱhimselfȱthatȱheȱhad
neverȱseenȱsuchȱaȱhugeȱasshole.ȱThenȱheȱgaveȱitȱtheȱkissȱofȱshameȱasȱbefittedȱsuch
aȱbase,ȱcowardlyȱmanȱ(248),ȱrightȱthereȱbyȱherȱasshole.ȱNowȱsheȱhasȱshamedȱhim
goodȱandȱproper!ȱ
Theȱladyȱthenȱstoodȱbackȱup.ȱTheȱknightȱcalledȱtoȱherȱ(252),ȱ“Fairȱsir,ȱbeȱgood
enoughȱtoȱtellȱmeȱyourȱnameȱsinceȱyouȱleaveȱhavingȱwonȱtheȱgame.”ȱ“Vassal,ȱmy
nameȱshallȱnotȱbeȱkeptȱsecret!ȱNoȬoneȱelseȱhasȱeverȱhadȱsuchȱaȱnameȱ(256)ȱandȱnoȬ
oneȱinȱmyȱfamilyȱsharesȱit:ȱIȱamȱcalledȱLongȬassedȱBérenger,ȱwhoȱbringsȱshame
toȱcowards.”ȱThusȱsheȱendedȱherȱstoryȱ(260),ȱandȱreturnedȱhome;ȱasȱquicklyȱasȱshe
couldȱsheȱdisarmed,ȱandȱthenȱsheȱsentȱforȱaȱknightȱwhomȱsheȱlovedȱandȱgreatly
esteemedȱ (264).ȱ Sheȱ ledȱ himȱ calmlyȱ intoȱ herȱ chamberȱ andȱ sheȱ embracedȱ and
kissedȱhim.ȱAndȱnow,ȱloȱandȱbehold,ȱhere’sȱtheȱknightȱbackȱfromȱtheȱwood.ȱThe
lady,ȱwhoȱwasȱnoȱlongerȱafraidȱofȱhimȱ(268),ȱdidȱnotȱbotherȱtoȱpayȱhimȱtheȱleast
attention,ȱbutȱhadȱherȱ loverȱ sitȱbesideȱher.ȱTheȱknight,ȱdefeatedȱandȱdejected,
enteredȱtheȱroomȱ(272).ȱWhenȱheȱsawȱtheȱladyȱandȱherȱlover,ȱheȱdidȱnotȱlikeȱitȱone
bit,ȱ Iȱ canȱ tellȱ you!ȱ “Myȱ lady,”ȱ heȱ saidȱ immediately,ȱ “you’reȱ behavingȱ badly
towardsȱmeȱ(276)ȱbyȱbringingȱanotherȱmanȱinȱhere.ȱYou’llȱpayȱforȱit,ȱIȱswear.”
“Shutȱup,ȱworthlessȱfool!”ȱsheȱsaid,ȱ“Andȱtakeȱcareȱnotȱtoȱsayȱanyȱmoreȱ(280),ȱfor
Iȱwouldȱimmediatelyȱbringȱaȱcomplaintȱagainstȱyouȱforȱtheȱinsult,ȱandȱthenȱyou
wouldȱbeȱseenȱforȱaȱcuckoldȱandȱaȱjealousȱhusband.”ȱ“Andȱjustȱwhoȱwouldȱyou
complainȱtoȱaboutȱme,ȱifȱyouȱpleaseȱ(284)?”ȱ“Who?ȱI’dȱcomplainȱtoȱyourȱdear
friendȱwhoȱjustȱaȱshortȱwhileȱagoȱhadȱyouȱinȱhisȱpower;ȱthatȱisȱSirȱLongȬassed
Bérengerȱ(288)ȱwhoȱwouldȱbringȱshameȱtoȱyou.”ȱWhenȱtheȱknightȱheardȱwhatȱshe
saidȱheȱwasȱfilledȱwithȱgriefȱandȱanger:ȱheȱwouldȱneverȱdareȱargueȱwithȱherȱagain
(292)forȱheȱknewȱheȱwasȱbeatenȱandȱoutwitted.ȱAndȱsheȱdidȱwhateverȱsheȱwanted,
340 PennyȱSimons
forȱsheȱwasȱneitherȱaȱfool,ȱnorȱdishonorable.ȱWhenȱtheȱshepherd’sȱweak,ȱtheȱwolf
shitsȱwoolȱ(296).]
VersionȱII
“DeȱBerengierȱauȱLongȱCul”:ȱVersionȱA,ȱDiplomaticȱOldȱFrenchȱtextȱbyȱWillem
NoomenȱandȱNicoȱvanȱdenȱBoogaard,ȱNouveauȱrecueilȱcompletȱdesȱfabliaux,ȱvolume
IVȱ(Assen,ȱMaastricht:ȱvanȱGorcum,ȱ1988);ȱ253–69,ȱadditionalȱeditingȱandȱModern
EnglishȱtranslationȱbyȱPennyȱSimons
Puisȱqueȱfabloierȱm’atalente
Etȱjeȱiȱaiȱmiseȱm’entent,
Neȱleraiȱqu’encorȱneȱvousȱdie.
JadisȱavintȱenȱLombardieȱ 4
D’unȱchevalierȱquiȱavoitȱfame;
N’otȱelȱpaïsȱplusȱbeleȱdame,
Neȱplusȱcortoise,ȱneȱplusȱsage,
Etȱsiȱestoitȱdeȱhautȱparage.ȱ 8
Mesȱsonȱmariȱertȱdeȱvillains;
Etȱsiȱertȱpereceusȱetȱvains,
Etȱvanterresȱaprèsȱmengier:
Moutȱseȱfesoitȱbonȱchevalierȱ 12
Parȱparole!ȱEnȱ.iii.ȱouȱenȱ.iiii.ȱ
Voudroitȱilȱparȱsonȱcorsȱabatre,
Etȱchascunȱjorȱaȱl’avesprer
Seȱfesoitȱrichementȱarmer,ȱ 16
Puisȱs’enȱmontoitȱsorȱ.i.ȱdestrier;
Jaȱneȱfinastȱdeȱchevauchier.
Dedanzȱ.i.ȱboisȱtozȱseusȱentroit;
Quantȱdedenzȱert,ȱsiȱs’arestoitȱ 20
Etȱesgardoitȱtoutȱaȱloisir
Queȱnusȱneȱleȱpeüstȱveir.
Siȱaloitȱpendreȱsonȱescu
Aȱ.i.ȱarbreȱgrantȱetȱfoillu.ȱ 24
Deȱl’espeeȱnueȱiȱferoit
Granzȱcops,ȱqueȱtoutȱleȱdepecoit,
S’enȱfesoitȱlesȱpiecesȱvoler,
Etȱdepicierȱetȱestroerȱ 28
Queȱpointȱn’iȱdemoroitȱd’entier.
Puisȱseȱremetoitȱelȱsentier,
L’escuȱauȱcol,ȱlaȱlanceȱfrete,
Comȱs’ilȱeüstȱproëceȱfete.ȱ 32
S’enȱrevenoitȱmoutȱfierement,
Etȱdisoitȱaȱtouteȱlaȱgent
Qu’ilȱavoitȱ.ii.ȱchevaliersȱmors,
Parȱhardementȱetȱparȱesfors:ȱ 36
Moutȱs’iȱestoitȱbienȱcombatuz.
Deȱplusorsȱgensȱestoitȱcreuz,
Etȱdisoientȱqu’ilȱertȱmoutȱprouz—
Ainsiȱlesȱamusoitȱtrestouz.ȱ 40
Parȱmainteȱfoizȱainsiȱservi,
Tantȱc’uneȱautreȱfoizȱs’enȱissi;
Distȱqu’ilȱiroitȱfereȱcembel.
.I.ȱescuȱtoutȱfresȱetȱnovelȱ 44
Liȱavoitȱsaȱfameȱbaillié,
Moutȱbienȱfetȱetȱmoutȱbienȱtaillié,
Etȱuneȱlanceȱlongueȱetȱdroite.
Etȱilȱtantȱdeȱl’allerȱesploiteȱ 48
Qu’ilȱestȱvenuzȱelȱboisȱramu.
Maintenantȱaȱprisȱsonȱescu
Siȱleȱpendiȱaȱ.i.ȱperier.
Puisȱaȱferuȱduȱbrancȱd’acier,ȱ 52
Etȱfesoitȱ.i.ȱsiȱfierȱmartyre,
Quiȱl’oïstȱilȱpeustȱbienȱdire,
Queȱplusȱdeȱ.xxx.ȱenȱiȱeüst.
Etȱporȱceȱqueȱl’enȱleȱcreüstȱ 56
Saȱlanceȱraȱaȱ.ii.ȱpoinsȱprise,
Siȱlaȱfraintȱetȱsiȱlaȱdebrise
Neȱl’enȱremestȱqueȱ.i.ȱtronçon.
Puisȱs’enȱrevientȱenȱsaȱmeson;ȱ 60
Siȱdescentȱetȱseȱdesarma.
Saȱfameȱmoutȱseȱmerveilla
Qu’ilȱestoitȱsiȱtostȱrevenue,
S’ertȱtoutȱdepeciéȱsonȱescuȱ 64
Commeȱsi’ilȱvenistȱd’unȱtornoi.
“Sire,ȱfetȱele,ȱparȱmaȱfoi,
Neȱsaiȱouȱvousȱavezȱesté;
Mesȱvostreȱescuȱl’aȱcomparé!ȱ 68
—Dameȱj’aiȱtrovéȱchevaliers
Plusȱdeȱ.vii.,ȱcorageusȱetȱfiers,
Quiȱmeȱvindrentȱferirȱetȱbatre.
Mesȱj’enȱaiȱsiȱbleciéȱlesȱ.iiii.,ȱ 72
Porȱmonȱescuȱqueȱperciéȱorent,
Queȱpuisȱreleverȱneȱseȱporent.
Etȱliȱautreȱtroiȱs’enȱfuirent
Deȱlaȱpaorȱquantȱilȱceȱvirent.ȱ 76
Onquesȱneȱm’oserentȱatendre!”
Laȱdameȱn’estȱmieȱaȱapprendre:
Maintenantȱsotȱetȱaperçut
342 PennyȱSimons
Commentȱsonȱseignorȱleȱdeçut. 80
Bienȱsotȱqueȱonquesȱenȱsaȱvie
Neȱfistȱparȱsaȱchevalerie
Neȱprouesceȱneȱhardement.
Mesȱainsiȱleȱditȱaȱlaȱgent, ȱ84
Etȱlorȱfetȱtelȱmencongeȱacroire
Dontȱilȱn’iȱaȱparoleȱvoire.
Desȱseȱporpensseȱlaȱdame,
Etȱaȱjuréȱsonȱcorsȱetȱs’ameȱ 88
Queȱs’ilȱfetȱtantȱqueȱmesȱiȱaille,
Eleȱvoudraȱsavoirȱsanzȱfaille
Comfetementȱilȱleȱfera,
Etȱcommentȱilȱs’atornera,ȱ 92
Etȱquiȱsonȱescuȱleȱdepiece
Dontȱilȱn’aporteȱc’uneȱpiece.
Chascuneȱnuitȱquantȱilȱrepere
Ainsiȱporpensseȱsonȱafereȱ 96
Laȱdame,ȱmesȱmotȱneȱsona.
Etȱliȱsiresȱlaȱsalua
Maintenantȱqu’ilȱfuȱrevenuz;
Auȱcolȱliȱaȱsesȱbrazȱtenduzȱ 100
Etȱdis,ȱ“Dame,ȱparȱSaintȱOmer
Vousȱmeȱdevezȱmoutȱbienȱamer
Etȱhonorerȱetȱtenirȱchier,
Queȱilȱn’aȱsiȱbonȱchevalierȱ 104
DeȱmoiȱdesiȱenȱNormendie!
—BiausȱSire,ȱjeȱneȱvousȱhazȱmie;
Etȱencorȱplusȱvousȱameroie
Deȱtoutȱmonȱcuer,ȱseȱjeȱsavoieȱ 108
Queȱtelsȱfussiezȱcomȱditȱm’avez.
—Dame,ȱditȱil,ȱmesȱmieusȱassez!
Etȱplusȱaiȱforceȱetȱhardement
Queȱjeȱneȱdi,ȱmonȱescient.”ȱ 112
Aȱtantȱlessierentȱlaȱparole,
Etȱliȱsiresȱlaȱdameȱacole;
.V.ȱfoisȱlaȱbaise,ȱvoireȱ.vi.
Puisȱseȱsontȱauȱmengierȱassisȱ 116
Queȱl’enȱlorȱavoitȱapresté.
Après,ȱquantȱilȱorentȱsoupé,
Liȱlitȱsontȱfet,ȱsiȱvontȱgesir.
Quantȱlasséȱfurentȱdeȱdormir,ȱ 120
Etȱliȱsolausȱfuȱhautȱmontez,
Liȱchevaliersȱsiȱs’estȱlevez,
Etȱseȱvesti,ȱetȱseȱchauca,
Etȱsesȱarmesȱredemanda.ȱ 124
Quantȱilȱfutȱarmez,ȱbelȱetȱgent
Aȱlaȱdameȱleȱcongiéȱprent.
“Dame,ȱdistȱil,ȱjeȱm’enȱrevois
Querreȱaventuresȱenȱcestȱbois.ȱ 128
Sachiezȱseȱjeȱpuisȱencontrer
Hommeȱquiȱostȱaȱmoiȱjouster,
Jaȱeschaperȱneȱmeȱporraȱ–
Jeȱleȱprendraiȱouȱilȱmorra!ȱ 132
—Sire,ȱfetȱele,ȱorȱenȱpenssez!”
Aȱtantȱestȱleȱdestrierȱmontez,
Siȱs’enȱrevaȱparȱleȱboschage.
Etȱlaȱdame,ȱquiȱmoutȱfuȱsage,ȱ 136
Distȱparȱsoiȱqu’aprésȱveutȱaller
Porȱsavoirȱetȱporȱesprover
Sonȱhardementȱetȱsonȱbarnage,
Siȱqu’elȱn’iȱaitȱpointȱdeȱdomage.ȱ 140
Laȱdameȱs’estȱmoutȱtostȱarmee
Etȱcomeȱchevalierȱadoubee;
Leȱhaubercȱvest,ȱl’espeeȱaȱcainte,
Deȱtostȱarmerȱneȱs’estȱpasȱfainte,ȱ 144
Etȱsusȱsonȱchiefȱl’iaumeȱlaça;
Elȱdestrierȱmonteȱsiȱs’enȱva.
Onquesȱn’iȱotȱresneȱtenue.
Tantȱoirreȱqu’elȱboisȱestȱvenue,ȱ 148
Etȱvitȱsonȱseignorȱdescendu
Quiȱdepieçoitȱtoutȱsonȱescu,
Etȱuneȱtelȱnoiseȱfesoit
Queȱliȱboisȱenȱretentissoit;ȱ 152
Deȱnuluiȱneȱseȱdonoitȱgarde.
Etȱquantȱlaȱdameȱleȱregarde,
Ainzȱmesȱneȱfuȱsiȱesbahie.
Auȱplusȱtostȱqu’eleȱpotȱliȱcrieȱ 156
“Sireȱvassaus,ȱqu’avezȱvousȱquis
Enȱmonȱboisȱneȱenȱmonȱporpris
Quiȱmonȱboisȱsiȱmeȱdepeciez,
Etȱdeȱvostreȱescuȱvousȱvengiezȱ 160
Quiȱneȱvousȱavoitȱrienȱmesfet?
Certes,ȱfetȱele,ȱc’estȱtropȱlet!
Quelȱgerreȱavezȱaȱl’escuȱprise?
Dehezȱaitȱquiȱmieusȱvousȱenȱprise!ȱ 164
Cilȱescuzȱneȱsetȱriensȱentendre;
Jeȱleȱvoudraiȱversȱvousȱdesfendre.
Ilȱvousȱcovientȱaȱmoiȱjouster;
Vousȱn’enȱpoezȱparȱelȱpasserȱ 168
Jaȱn’iȱauraȱlongueȱatendue.”
344 PennyȱSimons
Quantȱilȱaȱlaȱdameȱentendue
Ainzȱmesȱneȱfuȱsiȱtormentez.
Toutȱmaintenantȱestȱarestezȱ 172
Etȱvitȱceleȱquiȱleȱmanace;
Talȱpaorȱaȱneȱsetȱqu’ilȱface,
Quarȱdeȱcombatreȱn’aȱilȱsoing.
L’espeeȱliȱcheiȱduȱpoing,ȱ 176
Deȱmauvestiéȱetȱdeȱperece.
Etȱlaȱdameȱversȱluiȱs’adrece
L’espeeȱtrete,ȱleȱrequiert,
Duȱplatȱsorȱleȱhiaumeȱleȱfiertȱ 180
Telȱcopȱqueȱtoutȱenȱretenti.
Quantȱliȱchevaliersȱl’aȱsenti,
Siȱcuidaȱbienȱestreȱafolez:
Deȱlaȱpaorȱestȱiusȱversez.ȱ 184
Oncȱneȱfuȱtelsȱqu’ilȱseȱmeüst:
.I.ȱpetitȱenfantȱliȱpeüst
Trereȱlesȱieusȱhorsȱdeȱlaȱteste
Autressiȱcommeȱaȱuneȱbeste.ȱ 188
Jaȱneȱliȱosastȱcontredire.
Laȱdameȱliȱcommenceȱaȱdire
“Orȱtostȱvassaus,ȱjoustezȱaȱmi!”
Liȱchevaliersȱcrie,ȱ“Merci,ȱ 192
Sire,ȱsorȱsainzȱvousȱjurerai;
Jaȱmesȱenȱcestȱboisȱn’enterrai,
N’aȱmonȱescuȱneȱferaiȱmal.
Siȱmeȱlessiezȱsorȱmonȱchevalȱ 196
Monterȱetȱm’enȱpuisseȱraler!
—Ilȱvousȱcovendraȱd’elȱparler,
Fetȱele,ȱavantȱqueȱm’eschapez.
Orȱesgardezȱqueȱvousȱferez:ȱ 200
Queȱjeȱvousȱvueilȱ.i.ȱgeuȱpartir.
Orendroitȱvousȱcovientȱmorir
S’ertȱdeȱvousȱfineeȱlaȱgerre.
Jeȱdescendraiȱjusȱaȱlaȱterre,ȱ 204
Devantȱvousȱm’iraiȱabessier;
Siȱvousȱcovientȱmonȱculȱbesier—
Noȱpoezȱgarirȱautrement!
—Sire,ȱvostreȱcommandementȱ 208
Ferai;ȱorȱenȱvenezȱaȱmoi.
—Certes,ȱfetȱele,ȱjeȱl’otroi.”
Eleȱdescent,ȱversȱluiȱs’enȱva,
Saȱrobeȱcontremontȱleva,ȱ 212
Siȱs’estupaȱdevantȱsaȱface.
Etȱcilȱvitȱuneȱgrantȱcrevace
Duȱculȱetȱduȱcon;ȱceȱliȱsamble
Queȱtrestoutȱseȱtenoitȱensamble.ȱ 216
Onquesȱmes,ȱseȱDieusȱliȱait
Ceȱdist,ȱaussiȱloncȱculȱneȱvit!
Lorsȱl’aȱbesiéȱetȱacliné.
Moutȱl’aȱbienȱaȱsonȱdroitȱmenéȱ 220
Celeȱquiȱleȱtientȱaȱbricon!
Etȱcilȱliȱdemandeȱsonȱnon,
Dontȱilȱestȱetȱdeȱqueleȱterre.
“Vassausȱqu‘avezȬvousȱaȱenquerre,ȱ 224
Fetȱele,ȱneȱaȱdemander?
Vousȱneȱporriiezȱpasȱtrover
Telȱnonȱenȱtrestoutȱcestȱpaïs.
Bienȱleȱvousȱraconteȱetȱdevis,ȱ 228
Deȱmesȱparenzȱn’iȱaȱilȱnul.
J’aiȱnonȱBerengierȱauȱloncȱcul;
Aȱtrestozȱlesȱcoarsȱfazȱhonte!”
Aȱtantȱsorȱsonȱchevalȱremonteȱ 232
Laȱdame,ȱetȱenȱmesonȱs’enȱva.
Tantostȱporȱsonȱamiȱmanda,
Quiȱilȱvenistȱaȱliȱparler;
Etȱilȱiȱvintȱsanzȱdemorer.ȱ 236
Grantȱjoieȱliȱfetȱetȱelȱlui,
Siȱseȱsontȱcouchiéȱambedui
Enȱ.i.ȱlitȱporȱlorȱtalentȱfere.
Etȱliȱchevaliersȱs’enȱrepereȱ 240
Duȱboisȱetȱentreȱenȱsaȱmeson.
Saȱgentȱleȱmetentȱaȱreson,
Etȱdemandentȱcomȱliȱesta.
“Certes,ȱdistȱil,ȱmoutȱbienȱmeȱva!ȱ 244
Delivreeȱaiȱtouteȱlaȱterre
Deȱcelsȱquiȱmeȱfesoientȱgerre;
Sesȱaiȱvaincuzȱetȱafolez.”
Aȱtantȱestȱenȱlaȱchambreȱentrez;ȱ 248
Saȱfameȱtrueveȱtouteȱaȱaise,
Ouȱsonȱamiȱl’acoleȱetȱbaise;
Neȱseȱdaignaȱporȱluiȱrepondre.
Liȱchevaliersȱcommenceȱaȱgrondreȱ 252
Quantȱilȱleȱvit—moutȱl’enȱpesa,
Moutȱdurementȱlaȱmaneça:
“Dame,ȱdistȱil,ȱmarȱleȱpenssastes
Quantȱestrangeȱhommeȱoȱvousȱcouchastes!ȱ 256
Vousȱenȱmorrez,ȱporȱvoirȱleȱdi!”
Etȱlaȱdameȱliȱrespondi:
“Tesiezȱvous!ȱenȱdistȱelȱmauvés.
346 PennyȱSimons
Gardezȱqueȱn’enȱparlezȱjaȱmes!ȱ 260
Seȱjeȱvousȱenȱoiȱplusȱparler,
Leȱmatinetȱsanzȱarrester,
Ceȱsachiezȱvous,ȱsanzȱatargier
IraiȱaȱseignorȱBerengierȱ 264
Auȱloncȱcul,ȱquiȱaȱgrantȱpuissance.
Bienȱmeȱferaȱdeȱvousȱvenjance.”
Quantȱliȱchevaliersȱl’aȱoïe
N’otȱmesȱtelȱmerveilleȱenȱsaȱvie.ȱ 268
Orȱsetȱilȱbienȱqu’eleȱsavoit
Toutȱceȱqu’avenuȱliȱestoit;
Onquesȱpuisȱriensȱneȱliȱenȱdist.
Etȱlaȱdameȱtoutȱsonȱbonȱfist,ȱ 272
Queȱporȱluiȱn’enȱlessastȱnoient.
Porȱceȱdesfentȱaȱtouteȱgent,
Quiȱseȱvantentȱdeȱmaintȱafere
Dontȱilȱneȱseventȱaȱchiefȱtrere,ȱ 276
Qu’ilȱlessentȱesterȱlorȱvantance.
Etȱjeȱvousȱdiȱbienȱsanzȱfaillance,
Quantȱilȱs’enȱvantentȱc’estȱfolie.
Iciȱestȱmaȱresonȱfenie.
Explicitȱdeȱberengierȱauȱloncȱcul.
[SinceȱIȱdesireȱtoȱrecountȱaȱfabliauȱandȱIȱhaveȱsetȱmyselfȱtoȱdoȱit,ȱIȱwillȱnotȱdelayȱin
tellingȱyouȱone.ȱOnceȱuponȱaȱtimeȱinȱLombardyȱ(4),ȱitȱhappenedȱthatȱaȱknightȱhadȱa
wife.ȱThereȱwasȱnoȱmoreȱbeautifulȱladyȱinȱtheȱland,ȱnorȱoneȱmoreȱcourtlyȱorȱwise,ȱand
sheȱwasȱnoblyȱbornȱ(8).ȱ
Butȱherȱhusbandȱwasȱofȱbaseȱstock;ȱandȱheȱwasȱlazyȱandȱvain,ȱandȱheȱwouldȱboastȱafter
meals.ȱHeȱmadeȱhimselfȱoutȱtoȱbeȱaȱfineȱknightȱ(12)ȱbyȱhisȱwords!ȱHeȱwantedȱtoȱdoȱfine
physicalȱdeedsȱbyȱmeansȱofȱthreeȱorȱfourȱwords.ȱAndȱeachȱevening,ȱheȱwouldȱget
himselfȱfinelyȱarmedȱ(16)ȱandȱwouldȱmountȱhisȱhorse.ȱHeȱwouldȱrideȱnonȬstopȱand
wouldȱgoȱaloneȱintoȱaȱwood.ȱOnceȱthere,ȱheȱwouldȱhaltȱ(20)ȱandȱlookȱcarefullyȱaround
toȱmakeȱsureȱnoȬoneȱcouldȱseeȱhim.ȱThenȱheȱwouldȱhangȱhisȱshieldȱfromȱaȱlarge,ȱleafy
treeȱ(24).ȱAndȱwithȱhisȱbareȱswordȱheȱwouldȱbeatȱitȱwithȱgreatȱblows,ȱhackingȱitȱto
piecesȱandȱmakingȱsplintersȱflyȱfromȱit,ȱuntilȱheȱhadȱsmashedȱholesȱinȱitȱ(28)ȱandȱitȱwas
allȱslashedȱtoȱbits.ȱThenȱheȱwouldȱgetȱbackȱtoȱtheȱroad,ȱwithȱtheȱshieldȱroundȱhisȱneck
andȱhisȱlanceȱbroken,ȱasȱifȱheȱhadȱcarriedȱoutȱactȱofȱknightlyȱbraveryȱ(32).ȱAndȱhe
wouldȱgoȱhomeȱveryȱproudȱandȱtellȱeveryoneȱthatȱheȱhadȱkilledȱtwoȱknightsȱbyȱhis
braveryȱandȱstrengthȱ(36),ȱandȱthatȱheȱhadȱacquittedȱhimselfȱwithȱhonor.ȱManyȱpeople
believedȱhim,ȱandȱsaidȱheȱwasȱaȱveryȱbraveȱknight.ȱAndȱsoȱheȱtrickedȱthemȱallȱ(40).ȱHe
usedȱthisȱtrickȱmanyȱtimes,ȱuntilȱanotherȱdayȱcameȱwhenȱheȱwentȱout,ȱsayingȱheȱwas
goingȱoutȱtoȱjoust.ȱHisȱwifeȱhadȱbroughtȱhimȱaȱfresh,ȱnewȱshieldȱ(44)ȱwhichȱwasȱwell
madeȱandȱfashioned,ȱandȱsheȱgaveȱhimȱaȱstraight,ȱlongȱlance.ȱAndȱheȱrushedȱoffȱ(48)
untilȱheȱcameȱtoȱtheȱthickȱwood.ȱThenȱheȱtookȱhisȱshieldȱandȱhungȱitȱfromȱaȱpearȱtree.
Thenȱheȱbeatȱitȱwithȱhisȱsteelȱswordȱ(52),ȱandȱinflictedȱsuchȱanȱattackȱuponȱitȱthat
anyoneȱhearingȱitȱwouldȱhaveȱthoughtȱthereȱwereȱthirtyȱknightsȱthere.ȱAnd,ȱsoȱthat
peopleȱ wouldȱ believeȱ himȱ (56),ȱ heȱ alsoȱ tookȱ hisȱ lanceȱ inȱ hisȱ handsȱ andȱ brokeȱ and
splinteredȱitȱuntilȱthereȱwasȱjustȱaȱstumpȱremaining.ȱThenȱheȱwentȱbackȱtoȱhisȱhouse
(60),ȱdismountedȱandȱdisarmed.ȱ
Hisȱwifeȱwasȱamazedȱthatȱheȱhadȱcomeȱbackȱsoȱsoonȱandȱthatȱhisȱshieldȱwasȱallȱhacked
toȱpiecesȱ(64)ȱasȱifȱheȱhadȱcomeȱfromȱaȱtournament.ȱ“Sire,”ȱsheȱsaid,ȱ“byȱmyȱfaith,ȱIȱdo
notȱknowȱwhereȱyouȱhaveȱbeen,ȱbutȱyourȱshieldȱhasȱcertainlyȱsufferedȱdamageȱ(68)!”
“Myȱlady,ȱIȱmetȱmoreȱthanȱsevenȱknights,ȱallȱbraveȱandȱfierce,ȱwhoȱbeatȱandȱattacked
me.ȱButȱIȱwoundedȱfourȱofȱthemȱ(72),ȱforȱdamagingȱmyȱshield,ȱsuchȱthatȱtheyȱcouldn’t
getȱup.ȱAndȱtheȱotherȱthreeȱfledȱinȱfearȱwhenȱtheyȱsawȱitȱ(76).ȱTheyȱdidn’tȱdareȱwait
aroundȱforȱme!”ȱTheȱladyȱwasȱnotȱslowȱtoȱlearn:ȱsheȱnowȱsawȱandȱknewȱhowȱherȱlord
wasȱdeceivingȱherȱ(80).ȱSheȱknewȱwellȱthatȱheȱhadȱneverȱinȱhisȱlifeȱachievedȱanyȱdeed
ofȱprowessȱorȱbraveryȱbyȱhisȱchivalry.ȱButȱthatȱwasȱwhatȱheȱwouldȱtellȱpeopleȱ(84),ȱand
heȱmadeȱthemȱbelieveȱsuchȱliesȱinȱwhichȱthereȱwasȱnotȱoneȱwordȱofȱtruth.ȱ
Fromȱthenȱonȱtheȱladyȱbeganȱtoȱreflectȱandȱsheȱsworeȱbyȱherȱbodyȱandȱherȱsoulȱ(88),
thatȱifȱheȱeverȱwentȱoffȱlikeȱthatȱagain,ȱsheȱwouldȱfindȱoutȱhowȱheȱdidȱitȱandȱhowȱhe
acquittedȱhimselfȱ(92),ȱandȱwhoȱitȱwasȱwhoȱhadȱsmashedȱtheȱshieldȱfromȱwhichȱhe
onlyȱbroughtȱhomeȱaȱfragment.ȱEachȱeveningȱwhenȱheȱreturned,ȱtheȱladyȱponderedȱthe
situationȱ(96),ȱbutȱdidȱnotȱsayȱaȱword.ȱAndȱherȱhusbandȱwouldȱgreetȱherȱuponȱhis
return,ȱandȱheȱputȱhisȱarmsȱaroundȱherȱneckȱ(100)ȱandȱsaid,ȱ“Myȱlady,ȱbyȱSaintȱOmer,
youȱreallyȱshouldȱloveȱandȱhonorȱandȱesteemȱme,ȱforȱthereȱisȱnoȱfinerȱknightȱ(104)ȱthan
meȱbetweenȱhereȱandȱNormandy!”ȱ“Goodȱsir,ȱIȱdoȱnotȱdislikeȱyou;ȱandȱIȱwouldȱlike
youȱevenȱmoreȱwithȱmyȱwholeȱheart,ȱifȱIȱknewȱ(108)ȱthatȱyouȱtrulyȱwereȱsuchȱasȱyou
haveȱtoldȱme.”ȱ“Myȱlady,”ȱheȱsaid,ȱ“Iȱam,ȱandȱevenȱbetterȱbesides!ȱIȱhaveȱevenȱgreater
strengthȱandȱbraveryȱthanȱIȱsay,ȱIȱbelieveȱ(112).”ȱAtȱthatȱtheyȱleftȱtheȱmatterȱandȱthe
knightȱembracedȱhisȱladyȱandȱkissedȱherȱfive,ȱevenȱsixȱtimes.ȱThenȱtheyȱsatȱdownȱto
eatȱ(116)ȱtheȱmealȱpreparedȱforȱthem,ȱandȱafterȱeatingȱtheȱbedsȱwereȱpreparedȱandȱthey
wentȱtoȱsleep.ȱWhenȱtheyȱhadȱsleptȱenoughȱ(120)ȱandȱtheȱsunȱwasȱupȱhigh,ȱtheȱknight
gotȱup,ȱdressed,ȱputȱonȱhisȱshoesȱandȱagainȱcalledȱforȱhisȱarmsȱ(124).ȱWhenȱheȱwas
armed,ȱfairȱandȱfine,ȱheȱtookȱleaveȱofȱtheȱlady.ȱ“Myȱlady,”ȱheȱsaid,ȱ“Iȱamȱgoingȱback
toȱthatȱwoodȱinȱsearchȱofȱadventureȱ(128).ȱYouȱshouldȱknowȱthatȱifȱIȱmeetȱanyȱman
whoȱdaresȱjoustȱwithȱme,ȱheȱwon’tȱbeȱableȱtoȱescapeȱme.ȱEitherȱI’llȱtakeȱhimȱprisoner,
orȱhe’llȱdieȱ(132)!”ȱ“Myȱlord,”ȱsheȱanswered,ȱ“mayȱitȱbeȱso.”ȱSoȱheȱmountedȱhisȱhorse
andȱreturnedȱtoȱtheȱwood.ȱAndȱtheȱlady,ȱwhoȱwasȱveryȱwiseȱ(136),ȱthoughtȱtoȱherself
thatȱsheȱwouldȱgoȱafterȱhim,ȱtoȱknowȱandȱtoȱtestȱoutȱhisȱbraveryȱandȱknightlyȱvalor,
withoutȱcomingȱtoȱanyȱharmȱ(140).ȱ
Theȱladyȱquicklyȱarmedȱherselfȱlikeȱaȱknight:ȱsheȱputȱonȱaȱhauberk,ȱstrappedȱaȱsword
toȱherȱside,ȱarmingȱherselfȱfullyȱwithoutȱdelayȱ(144),ȱandȱthenȱsheȱlacedȱherȱhelmetȱon
herȱhead,ȱmountedȱherȱhorseȱandȱrodeȱoff.ȱSheȱdidȱnotȱstopȱbutȱhastenedȱuntilȱshe
cameȱtoȱtheȱwoodȱ(148),ȱandȱsawȱherȱhusbandȱwhoȱhadȱdismountedȱandȱwasȱslashing
hisȱshieldȱtoȱpieces,ȱandȱwasȱmakingȱsuchȱaȱnoiseȱthatȱtheȱwholeȱwoodȱresoundedȱwith
itȱ(152).ȱHeȱwasȱpayingȱnoȱattentionȱtoȱanyone.ȱAndȱwhenȱtheȱladyȱsawȱhim,ȱsheȱwas
completelyȱdumbfounded.ȱAsȱquicklyȱasȱsheȱcouldȱsheȱcriedȱoutȱtoȱhimȱ(156),ȱ“Sir,
vassal,ȱwhatȱareȱyouȱupȱtoȱinȱmyȱwoodȱandȱonȱmyȱland,ȱcuttingȱupȱmyȱwoodȱlikeȱthat
348 PennyȱSimons
andȱwhyȱareȱyouȱtakingȱitȱoutȱuponȱyourȱshieldȱ(160)ȱwhichȱhasȱneverȱdoneȱyouȱany
harm?ȱ Indeed,ȱ thisȱ isȱ tooȱ bad!ȱ Whatȱ isȱ yourȱ quarrelȱ withȱ yourȱ shield?ȱ Aȱ curseȱ on
anyoneȱwhoȱthinksȱwellȱofȱyouȱ(164)!ȱThatȱshieldȱdoesn’tȱunderstandȱanything,ȱsoȱI
willȱdefendȱitȱagainstȱyou.ȱYouȱwillȱhaveȱtoȱjoustȱwithȱme;ȱthereȱisȱnoȱescapeȱ(168)ȱand
thereȱwillȱbeȱnoȱdelay.”ȱWhenȱheȱheardȱtheȱlady,ȱheȱhadȱneverȱbeenȱsoȱtroubledȱinȱhis
life.ȱHeȱimmediatelyȱstoppedȱwhatȱheȱwasȱdoingȱ(172)ȱandȱlookedȱtoȱseeȱwhoȱwas
threateningȱhim.ȱHeȱwasȱsoȱafraidȱthatȱheȱdidȱnotȱknowȱwhatȱtoȱdo,ȱforȱheȱhadȱnoȱwish
toȱfight.ȱInȱhisȱcowardlyȱlazinessȱheȱletȱhisȱswordȱfallȱfromȱhisȱhandȱ(176).ȱAndȱtheȱlady
turnedȱtowardsȱhim,ȱdrewȱherȱswordȱandȱattackedȱhim;ȱsheȱdealtȱhimȱsuchȱaȱblowȱon
theȱhelmetȱwithȱtheȱflatȱofȱherȱswordȱ(180)ȱthatȱhisȱheadȱrang.ȱWhenȱtheȱknightȱfeltȱthis,
heȱreallyȱthoughtȱheȱhadȱbeenȱwoundedȱandȱheȱfellȱtoȱtheȱgroundȱinȱfearȱ(184).ȱHeȱwas
unableȱtoȱmoveȱandȱaȱsmallȱchildȱcouldȱhaveȱpulledȱhisȱeyesȱoutȱofȱhisȱheadȱasȱfrom
aȱwildȱanimalȱ(188).ȱHeȱdidȱnotȱdareȱcontradictȱher.ȱTheȱladyȱthenȱsaidȱtoȱhim,ȱ“Now,
come,ȱvassal,ȱjoustȱwithȱme!”ȱTheȱknightȱcriedȱ‘”Haveȱmercyȱ(192),ȱsir,ȱIȱwillȱswear
uponȱtheȱsaintsȱthatȱIȱwillȱneverȱcomeȱbackȱintoȱthisȱwood,ȱandȱIȱwillȱneverȱdamage
myȱshieldȱagain.ȱJustȱletȱmeȱgetȱupȱontoȱmyȱhorseȱ(196)ȱandȱgo!”ȱ“Youȱwillȱhaveȱto
changeȱyourȱtune,”ȱsheȱsaid,ȱ“beforeȱyouȱescapeȱfromȱme.ȱNow,ȱhearȱwhatȱyouȱwill
haveȱtoȱdoȱ(200):ȱIȱamȱgoingȱtoȱofferȱyouȱaȱdare.ȱYouȱwillȱhaveȱtoȱdieȱandȱyourȱbattle
willȱbeȱover.ȱIȱwillȱcomeȱdownȱontoȱtheȱgroundȱ(204)ȱandȱIȱwillȱbendȱoverȱinȱfrontȱof
you.ȱYouȱwillȱhaveȱtoȱkissȱmyȱass—thereȱisȱnoȱotherȱwayȱout!”ȱ“Sir,ȱIȱwillȱdoȱ(208)
whatȱyouȱcommand;ȱnow,ȱcomeȱdownȱtoȱme.”ȱ“IndeedȱIȱwill”ȱsheȱreplied.ȱSoȱshe
dismounted,ȱwentȱoverȱtoȱhim,ȱliftedȱherȱgarmentȱ(212)ȱandȱbentȱoverȱinȱfrontȱofȱhis
face.ȱAndȱheȱsawȱaȱgreatȱcrackȱfromȱtheȱcuntȱandȱtheȱass;ȱitȱseemedȱtoȱhimȱthatȱthey
wereȱallȱoneȱthingȱ(216).ȱNever,ȱsoȱGodȱhelpȱhim,ȱheȱthoughtȱtoȱhimself,ȱhadȱheȱseen
suchȱaȱlongȱass!ȱHeȱleantȱtowardsȱitȱandȱkissedȱit.ȱNowȱtheȱwomanȱwhoȱtookȱhimȱfor
aȱfoolȱhadȱwellȱandȱtrulyȱdealtȱwithȱhimȱinȱherȱownȱwayȱ(220)!ȱAndȱheȱaskedȱherȱher
name,ȱwhereȱsheȱwasȱfromȱandȱfromȱwhichȱland.ȱ“Vassal,ȱwhyȱdoȱyouȱaskȱ(224)?”ȱshe
said.ȱ“Youȱwillȱnotȱfindȱsuchȱaȱnameȱinȱallȱthisȱcountry.ȱIȱtellȱyouȱtrulyȱ(228),ȱnoneȱof
myȱfamilyȱsharesȱthisȱname.ȱIȱamȱcalledȱLongȬAssedȱBérenger,ȱandȱIȱbringȱshameȱto
allȱcowards!”ȱ
Withȱ thatȱ theȱ ladyȱ mountedȱ herȱ horseȱ (232)ȱ andȱ wentȱ backȱ toȱ herȱ house.ȱ She
immediatelyȱsentȱforȱherȱloverȱtoȱcomeȱandȱspeakȱwithȱher;ȱandȱheȱcameȱwithoutȱdelay
(236).ȱHeȱgaveȱherȱgreatȱjoy,ȱandȱsheȱhim.ȱAndȱtheyȱbothȱwentȱtoȱbedȱtoȱdoȱwhatȱthey
desired.ȱAndȱtheȱknightȱcameȱbackȱ(240)ȱfromȱtheȱwoodȱandȱenteredȱtheȱhouse.ȱAnd
hisȱhouseholdȱquestionedȱhimȱandȱaskedȱhowȱheȱhadȱfared.ȱ“Indeed,”ȱheȱsaid,ȱ“Allȱis
veryȱwellȱwithȱmeȱ(244)!ȱIȱhaveȱridȱallȱthisȱlandȱofȱthoseȱwhoȱwereȱwagingȱwarȱagainst
me,ȱandȱIȱhaveȱdefeatedȱandȱkilledȱthem.”ȱThenȱheȱwentȱintoȱtheȱchamberȱ(248)ȱand
foundȱhisȱwifeȱcalmlyȱenjoyingȱtheȱembraceȱandȱkissesȱofȱherȱlover;ȱsheȱdidȱnotȱdeign
toȱacknowledgeȱhim.ȱSoȱtheȱknightȱbeganȱtoȱscoldȱ(252)ȱwhenȱheȱsawȱthis—heȱwas
veryȱangryȱandȱheȱthreatenedȱherȱfiercely:ȱ“Myȱlady,”ȱheȱsaid,ȱ“youȱthoughtȱwrong
whenȱyouȱthoughtȱyouȱcouldȱsleepȱwithȱanotherȱmanȱ(256)!ȱYou’llȱdieȱforȱthis,ȱIȱtell
you.”ȱAndȱtheȱladyȱreplied,ȱ“Shutȱup!ȱTakeȱcareȱnotȱtoȱspeakȱofȱthisȱanymoreȱ(260)!”
sheȱsaidȱtoȱtheȱscoundrel.ȱ“IfȱIȱhearȱyouȱmentionȱitȱagain,ȱtheȱveryȱnextȱday,ȱwithout
delay,ȱIȱwillȱgoȱtoȱLordȱBérengerȱ(263)ȱtheȱLongȱAssed,ȱwhoȱisȱveryȱpowerful.ȱHeȱwill
takeȱ vengeanceȱ onȱ youȱ forȱ me.”ȱ Whenȱ theȱ knightȱ heardȱ this,ȱ heȱ wasȱ neverȱ more
surprisedȱinȱhisȱlifeȱ(268).ȱAndȱnowȱheȱknewȱthatȱsheȱknewȱallȱthatȱhadȱhappenedȱto
him;ȱandȱsoȱheȱneverȱdidȱsayȱanyȱmoreȱaboutȱit.ȱAndȱtheȱladyȱdidȱallȱthatȱsheȱwanted
(272),ȱwithoutȱtheȱleastȱconcernȱforȱhim.ȱAndȱsoȱIȱforbidȱeveryoneȱwhoȱboastsȱabout
thingsȱwhichȱtheyȱcannotȱcarryȱoutȱ(276),ȱtoȱgiveȱupȱtheirȱbragging.ȱAndȱIȱtellȱyouȱtruly
thatȱsuchȱboastingȱisȱfolly.ȱThisȱisȱtheȱendȱofȱmyȱcase.ȱHereȱendsȱBerengierȱauȱloncȱcul.]
Chapterȱ8
DanielȱF.ȱPigg
(TheȱUniversityȱofȱTennesseeȱatȱMartin)
LifeȱonȱtheȱManorȱandȱinȱRuralȱSpace:ȱAnsweringȱthe
ChallengesȱofȱSocialȱDecayȱinȱ
WilliamȱLangland’sȱPiersȱPlowman
Writtenȱinȱmultipleȱversions,ȱperhapsȱoverȱsomeȱ40ȱyears,ȱWilliamȱLangland’s
Piersȱ Plowmanȱ presentsȱ readersȱ withȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ mostȱ unusualȱ andȱ multivalent
charactersȱinȱmedievalȱEnglishȱliterature—theȱpersonȱfromȱwhomȱtheȱpoemȱtakes
itsȱname.1ȱDeeplyȱinfluencedȱbyȱanȱapocalypticȱworldviewȱthatȱsawȱtheȱendȱof
humanȱhistoryȱloomingȱonȱtheȱhorizon,ȱPiersȱPlowmanȱdepictsȱaȱsocietyȱfromȱthe
king’sȱcourtȱatȱWestminsterȱtoȱtheȱ“fairȱfieldȱfullȱofȱfolk”ȱrootedȱinȱaȱdangerous
usageȱofȱtheȱenvironmentȱthatȱthreatensȱtheȱmaterialȱandȱspiritualȱwellȱbeingȱofȱthe
day.2ȱReadersȱofȱtheȱpoemȱshouldȱbeȱremindedȱthatȱforȱthisȱpoetȱtheȱmaterialȱand
spiritualȱ aspectsȱ ofȱ lifeȱ areȱ directlyȱ connected,ȱ butȱ thatȱ theȱ poet’sȱ ideologyȱ for
readingȱtheȱeventsȱofȱhisȱdayȱisȱhighlyȱselectiveȱinȱtheȱwayȱthatȱbiblicalȱscholars
haveȱnotedȱwasȱcharacteristicȱofȱtheȱDeuteronomisticȱhistorians’ȱreadingȱofȱthe
historyȱofȱIsraelȱ(i.e.,ȱsinȱbringsȱpunishment).ȱ
Ifȱ theȱ biblicalȱ writerȱ sawȱ allȱ ofȱ historyȱ asȱ connectedȱ withȱ idolatryȱ inȱ the
syncretisticȱ practicesȱ ofȱ Israeliteȱ lifeȱ insteadȱ ofȱ aȱ moreȱ balancedȱ focusȱ that
examinesȱtheȱpoliticalȱandȱeconomicȱinterrelationshipȱofȱIsrael/Judahȱwithȱnearby
1
AllȱquotationsȱfromȱPiersȱPlowmanȱareȱfromȱtheȱBȱTextȱversion.ȱTheȱtranslationsȱareȱmine.ȱSee
GeorgeȱKaneȱandȱE.ȱTalbotȱDonaldson,ȱed.ȱPiersȱPlowman:ȱTheȱBȱVersion:ȱPiersȱPlowman:ȱTheȱThree
Versions,ȱed.ȱGeorgeȱKaneȱ(LondonȱandȱBerkeley:ȱTheȱUniversityȱofȱCaliforniaȱPress,ȱ1988).ȱSee
alsoȱtheȱcommentsȱonȱLangland’sȱPiersȱPlowmanȱbyȱAlbrechtȱClassenȱinȱtheȱIntroductionȱtoȱthe
presentȱvolume.
2
Theȱ notionȱ thatȱ apocalypticȱ thoughtȱ andȱ formȱ haveȱ influencedȱ theȱ poemȱ isȱ aȱ commonplace,
beginningȱ withȱ Mortonȱ Bloomfield,ȱ Piersȱ Plowmanȱ asȱ aȱ FourteenthȬCenturyȱ Apocalypseȱ (New
Brunswick:ȱRutgersȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1961).
352 DanielȱF.ȱPigg
countriesȱandȱtheȱgrowingȱstrugglesȱforȱpowerȱofȱtheȱAssyrianȱandȱBabylonian
empire,ȱWilliamȱLanglandȱsawȱhumanȱhistoryȱthroughȱtheȱprismȱofȱtheȱSeven
DeadlyȱSins.ȱToȱillustrateȱoneȱsuchȱopeningȱmadeȱbyȱscholarsȱaboutȱtheȱlimited
andȱsubjectiveȱnatureȱofȱLangland’sȱvision,ȱweȱneedȱonlyȱciteȱoneȱexampleȱhere.
InȱanȱanalysisȱofȱHunger’sȱroleȱinȱtheȱpoem,ȱRobertȱWorthȱFrankȱhasȱgivenȱreaders
ofȱ theȱ poemȱ aȱ newȱ prismȱ basedȱ onȱ agriculturalȱ knowledgeȱ ofȱ theȱ fourteenth
century.ȱLanglandȱwasȱawareȱofȱtheȱnaturalȱdisastersȱofȱfamineȱinȱhisȱdayȱand
evenȱhasȱhisȱcentralȱcharacterȱPiersȱsayȱthatȱheȱwillȱsupportȱothersȱ“butȱifȱtheȱlonde
fall”ȱ(unlessȱtheȱlandȱfails)ȱ(B.ȱ6.17).3ȱ
IfȱweȱreadȱaroundȱtheȱheavilyȱalmostȱDeuteronomisticȱreadingȱofȱhistoryȱwhich
Langlandȱalsoȱfollows,ȱweȱseeȱaȱvisionȱofȱtheȱageȱwhichȱtellsȱusȱmuchȱaboutȱthe
economicsȱofȱtheȱruralȱworldȱofȱEngland,ȱnotȱitsȱsinsȱthatȱbringȱonȱplague,ȱdisease,
andȱfamine.ȱWhileȱweȱshouldȱbeȱcarefulȱnotȱtoȱdisregardȱtheȱmoralȱreadingsȱof
historyȱfromȱLangland’sȱperspective,ȱweȱfindȱaȱrichȱvisionȱofȱeconomics,ȱclass,ȱand
socialȱcritiqueȱofȱtheȱphysicalȱworldȱofȱhisȱday.ȱAtȱbaseȱweȱcanȱsayȱthatȱLangland
providesȱtheȱreadersȱofȱhisȱdayȱandȱtodayȱaȱvisionȱofȱruralȱethics—anȱethicsȱthat
heȱcontinuesȱtoȱreworkȱthroughoutȱhisȱpoeticȱcareerȱandȱoneȱthatȱcanȱbringȱabout
changeȱinȱtheȱsocialȱorderȱthroughȱaȱkindȱofȱvisionaryȱgleam.
Theȱ implicitȱ questionȱ whichȱ theȱ poemȱ asksȱ isȱ “Doesȱ theȱ ruralȱ worldȱ have
somethingȱ toȱ offerȱ theȱ lateȱ fourteenthȱ century”?ȱ Toȱ thatȱ questionȱ Langland
providesȱaȱtentativeȱ“yes”ȱthroughȱhisȱcentralȱcharacter,ȱPiers,ȱaȱseeminglyȱwellȬtoȬ
doȱpeasant,ȱgivenȱthatȱheȱpossessesȱhisȱownȱplowȱandȱisȱableȱtoȱmarshalȱtheȱmeans
ofȱproductionȱonȱtheȱhalfȱacre.4ȱThroughȱanȱexaminationȱofȱtheȱplowingȱscenesȱin
theȱVisioȱandȱtheȱVita,ȱreadersȱfindȱaȱcharacterȱwhoseȱvirtuesȱareȱrootedȱinȱthe
materialȱandȱspiritualȱpracticesȱofȱaȱworldȱthatȱisȱpassingȱaway.ȱLanglandȱseems
toȱpresentȱhisȱcharacterȱasȱaȱsaviorȱfigureȱofȱtheȱage—oneȱwhoȱhadȱgainedȱpopular
recognitionȱinȱaȱfamousȱsermonȱbyȱJohnȱBallȱduringȱtheȱPeasants’ȱRevoltȱofȱ1381.5
Atȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱhowever,ȱaȱpoetȱwhoseȱliteraryȱproductionȱgaveȱtacitȱsupport
forȱrevoltȱwouldȱhaveȱbeenȱtheȱleastȱlikelyȱpersonȱtoȱsupportȱsuchȱanȱactivity.ȱIn
contrast,ȱLanglandȱseemsȱtoȱassertȱtheȱsocialȱmodelȱofȱsocietyȱdeeplyȱrootedȱinȱthe
3
RobertȱWorthȱFrank,ȱ“Theȱ‘HungerȱGap,’ȱCropȱFailure,ȱandȱFamine:ȱTheȱFourteenthȬCentury
AgriculturalȱCrisisȱandȱPiersȱPlowman,ȱinȱAgricultureȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges:ȱTechnology,ȱPractice,ȱand
Representation,ȱed.ȱDaleȱSweeney.ȱMiddleȱAgesȱSeriesȱ(Philadelphia:ȱUniversityȱofȱPennsylvania
Press,ȱ1995),ȱ227–43.
4
WernerȱRösener,ȱPeasantsȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱtrans.,ȱAlexanderȱStützerȱ(1985;ȱUrbana:ȱUniversity
ofȱIllinoisȱPress,ȱ1992),ȱ107–13.ȱ
5
StevenȱJustice,ȱWritingȱandȱRebellion:ȱEnglandȱinȱ1381.ȱTheȱNewȱHistoricism:ȱStudiesȱinȱCultural
Poeticsȱ27ȱ(BerkeleyȱandȱLondon:ȱUniversityȱofȱCaliforniaȱPress,ȱ1994),ȱ102–39;ȱAndrewȱGalloway,
“Makingȱ Historyȱ Legal:ȱ Piersȱ Plowmanȱ andȱ theȱ Rebelsȱ ofȱ FourteenthȬCenturyȱ England,”ȱ William
Langland’sȱPiersȱPlowman:ȱAȱBookȱofȱEssays,ȱed.ȱKathleenȱM.ȱHewettȬSmith.ȱMedievalȱCasebooks
(NewȱYorkȱandȱLondon:ȱRoutledge,ȱ2001),ȱ7–39.ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱScott
L.ȱTaylor,ȱwhoȱfocusesȱonȱtheȱlegalȱsideȱofȱtheȱpeasantȱuprisings.
WilliamȱLangland’sȱPiersȱPlowman 353
conflictedȱworldȱofȱfeudalism.ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱhowever,ȱheȱwantsȱtoȱbuildȱthat
modelȱfromȱtheȱbottomȱupȱratherȱthanȱfromȱtheȱtopȱdown.ȱHisȱcommunityȱisȱone
thatȱmustȱbeȱbasedȱonȱwill,ȱhoweverȱfallenȱorȱcorruptedȱthatȱwillȱis.ȱWeȱshouldȱnot
beȱsurprisedȱthenȱthatȱtheȱDreamerȱinȱtheȱpoemȱisȱnamedȱ “Will”ȱandȱthatȱthe
poemȱisȱinȱsomeȱsenseȱanȱattemptȱtoȱeducateȱhimȱtoȱaction.ȱ
Byȱ puttingȱ peopleȱ backȱ toȱ workȱ onȱ theȱ halfȱ acreȱ thatȱ heȱ holdsȱ inȱ trustȱ from
Truth,ȱPiersȱrepresentsȱaȱreturnȱtoȱtheȱtraditionalȱsocialȱstructuresȱfoundȱinȱthe
ruralȱworld—inȱfactȱdeeplyȱimprintedȱinȱtheȱveryȱwayȱtheȱlandȱlooks—thatȱwas
beingȱcompromisedȱbyȱtheȱlingeringȱeffectsȱofȱtheȱBlackȱDeath,ȱaȱnumberȱofȱbad
harvestsȱandȱperiodicȱfamine.6ȱYetȱPiersȱisȱnotȱaȱsimpleȱconservativeȱinȱanȱageȱof
aȱgrowingȱmarketȬbasedȱeconomyȱofȱtheȱmanorialȱvillage,ȱcityȱorȱtown.ȱHeȱisȱthe
voiceȱ ofȱ ruralȱ England.ȱ Asȱ theȱ poemȱ developsȱ overȱ Langland’sȱ career,ȱ Piers
becomesȱ moreȱ allusive,ȱ apparentlyȱ becauseȱ theȱ challengesȱ ofȱ theȱ socialȱ order
cannotȱbeȱeasilyȱremediedȱorȱperhapsȱbecauseȱLanglandȱwantedȱtoȱprotectȱhis
visionȱfromȱoversimplifiedȱreadingsȱthatȱledȱtoȱviolence.ȱ
Asȱ F.ȱ R.ȱ H.ȱ Duȱ Boulayȱ astutelyȱ notes,ȱ Piersȱ isȱ aȱ “guide,ȱ workman,ȱ overseer,
contemplative,ȱhalfȬhiddenȱpreacherȱofȱlove,ȱChristȱhimselfȱinȱhumanȱnature,ȱand
perhapsȱ theȱ angelicȱ popeȱ ofȱ medievalȱ yearning.”7Hisȱ multivalenceȱ isȱ bothȱ a
strengthȱandȱproblematicȱrepresentationȱofȱpossibilities.ȱWorkingȱwithȱhisȱplow,
engagingȱallȱtheȱsocialȱestatesȱonȱtheȱhalfȱacre,ȱandȱbecomingȱfrustratedȱwithȱthe
failuresȱofȱhumanȱnatureȱbentȱtowardȱgreedȱandȱradicalȱmisuseȱofȱgoodsȱPiers
becomesȱaȱstableȱentityȱagainstȱchaos.ȱHeȱbecomesȱtheȱonlyȱsatisfactoryȱanswerȱto
theȱsocialȱillsȱofȱtheȱday.ȱ
Theȱking’sȱcourtȱandȱtheȱparliamentȱcannotȱprovideȱthat.ȱInsteadȱofȱtheȱpeaceful
activitiesȱseenȱinȱsuchȱartisticȱpiecesȱasȱprojectedȱinȱtheȱBookȱofȱHoursȱofȱtheȱDuke
deȱBerry,8ȱLanglandȱpresentsȱhisȱreadersȱwithȱaȱsocialȱreformerȱstraightȱfromȱthe
manorȱ whoȱ challengesȱ theȱ societyȱ ofȱ hisȱ day.ȱ Theȱ plowingȱ ofȱ theȱ halfȱ acre,ȱ a
metaphorȱforȱaȱreformedȱEngland,ȱrepresentsȱanȱattemptȱtoȱcorrectȱtheȱdeclining
socialȱorder.ȱThatȱitȱfailsȱisȱlessȱtheȱfaultȱofȱLangland’sȱcentralȱcharacterȱthanȱitȱis
aȱshiftȱinȱtheȱcountrysideȱthatȱproducedȱaȱlateȱmedievalȱsocietyȱlingeringȱonȱthe
brinkȱofȱchaosȱasȱitȱwasȱgivingȱbirthȱtoȱtheȱwhispersȱofȱmodernity,ȱandȱaȱbeginning
movementȱawayȱfromȱtheȱcountrysideȱintoȱtownsȱandȱcities.9
InȱorderȱtoȱunderstandȱLangland’sȱruralȱethicsȱandȱitsȱcrystallizationȱinȱPiersȱthe
Plowmanȱhimself,ȱweȱfirstȱneedȱtoȱdefineȱwhatȱthatȱruralȱethicsȱisȱalongȱwithȱthe
6
Frank,ȱ“TheȱHungerȱGap”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ228–29.
7
F.ȱR.ȱH.ȱDuȱBoulay,ȱTheȱEnglandȱofȱPiersȱPlowman:ȱWilliamȱLanglandȱandȱHisȱVisionȱofȱtheȱFourteenth
Centuryȱ(Cambridge:ȱD.ȱS.ȱBrewer,ȱ1994),ȱ112.
8
SeeȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱAlbrechtȱClassenȱandȱLiaȱB.ȱRoss.
9
Forȱfurtherȱdiscussionsȱonȱtheȱsignificanceȱofȱurbanȱspace,ȱsee,ȱforȱexample,ȱtheȱcontributionsȱto
UrbanȱSpaceȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱEarlyȱModernȱAge,ȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassen.ȱFundamentalsȱof
MedievalȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱCulture,ȱ4ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱWalterȱdeȱGruyter,ȱ2009).
underlyingȱideologyȱofȱtheȱpeasantȱplowmanȱandȱthenȱtoȱexamineȱhisȱroleȱinȱthe
plowingȱofȱtheȱhalfȱacre,ȱhisȱconfrontationȱwithȱaȱpriestȱconcerningȱhisȱpardon,ȱand
theȱallegoricalȱplowingȱsceneȱinȱtheȱVita.
WhatȱisȱaȱruralȱethicsȱinȱPiersȱPlowman?ȱTheȱfollowingȱqualitiesȱseemȱtoȱrepresent
theȱruralȱethicȱasȱPiersȱhimselfȱunderstandsȱthem:
First,ȱ aȱ ruralȱ ethicsȱ reliesȱ onȱ theȱ teachingsȱ thatȱ Conscienceȱ andȱ Kindȱ Wit
provide—theseȱareȱnaturalȱfacultiesȱinȱmedievalȱfacultyȱpsychology.ȱInȱessence,ȱthey
areȱnatural.ȱTheyȱareȱtheȱproduceȱofȱaȱGodȬgivenȱwisdomȱandȱareȱwrittenȱuponȱthe
mindȱbyȱhumanȱexperience.
Second,ȱ aȱ ruralȱ ethicsȱ suggestsȱ thatȱ theȱ performanceȱ ofȱ taskȱ requiresȱ flexibility
accordingȱtoȱvariousȱneeds.ȱPiersȱisȱableȱtoȱfulfillȱmanyȱrolesȱwithinȱtheȱactivityȱof
economicȱandȱagriculturalȱproduction.
Third,ȱ aȱ ruralȱ ethicsȱ suggestsȱ aȱ stableȱ relationshipȱ betweenȱ landlordȱ andȱ tenant
wherebyȱadequateȱwagesȱareȱprovided.
Fourth,ȱaȱruralȱethicsȱsuggestsȱthatȱtruthȱexistsȱasȱaȱtranscendentȱrealityȱofȱGod’sȱvery
selfȱandȱthatȱitȱexistsȱinȱtheȱformȱofȱanȱearthly,ȱplatonicȱmanifestationȱinȱtheȱtraditional
feudalȱstructureȱthatȱhadȱbeenȱoperationalȱinȱsocietyȱfromȱapproximatelyȱ1000ȱC.E.
Fifth,ȱaȱruralȱethicsȱsuggestsȱthatȱoneȱcanȱapproachȱthatȱTruthȱbecauseȱitȱisȱalsoȱlocated
inȱtheȱhumanȱheartȱandȱbecauseȱitȱmotivatesȱallȱactions.
Thereȱisȱlittleȱquestionȱthatȱtheseȱruralȱethicsȱareȱidealistic.ȱManyȱreadersȱfindȱin
PiersȱPlowmanȱanȱoverallȱpessimismȱaboutȱhumanȱnature,ȱbutȱthisȱimageȱmustȱbe
balancedȱwithȱtheȱnotionsȱofȱaȱcomingȱapocalypticȱking,ȱaȱmessianicȱfigure,ȱwho
willȱremoveȱtheȱwrongȱinȱtheȱsocialȱorderȱdepictedȱinȱtheȱspeechesȱofȱConscience
atȱ theȱ king’sȱ courtsȱ inȱ passusȱ 4ȱ ofȱ theȱ Bȱ text.10ȱ Piersȱ himselfȱ existsȱ somewhere
betweenȱtheȱmessianicȱkingȱandȱthoseȱrootedȱinȱconspicuousȱmisuseȱofȱgoods.
FromȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱRomanȱEmpireȱinȱtheȱWestȱtoȱtheȱfourteenthȱcentury,ȱa
considerableȱchangeȱdevelopedȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱtheȱunderstandingȱnotȱonlyȱofȱthe
socialȱorder,ȱbutȱofȱtheȱplaceȱofȱlabor.ȱAsȱJacquesȱLeGoffȱhasȱnoted,ȱaccordingȱto
aȱmonasticȱmodelȱofȱunderstanding,ȱlaborȱwasȱseenȱasȱaȱconsequenceȱofȱsin.ȱWe
areȱveryȱfarȱremovedȱfromȱtheȱideaȱofȱlaborȱasȱone’sȱlotȱinȱlifeȱassignedȱbyȱthe
CreatorȱandȱaȱmeansȱtoȱpraiseȱthatȱCreator.11ȱInȱliteratureȱofȱtheȱearlyȱandȱhigh
MiddleȱAges,ȱpeasantsȱwereȱoftenȱdepictedȱinȱtheȱcountrysideȱasȱ“pagans,”ȱand
suchȱimagesȱwereȱreinforcedȱinȱtheȱwritingsȱofȱCassiodorus,ȱIsidoreȱofȱSeville,ȱand
Sulpiciusȱ Severus.12ȱ Sometimesȱ theȱ peasantȱ wasȱ depictedȱ asȱ littleȱ moreȱ thanȱ a
“barelyȱ humanȱ monster.”13ȱ Othersȱ representedȱ themȱ asȱ theȱ embodimentȱ of
10
Forȱaȱmostȱrevealingȱtreatmentȱofȱthisȱidea,ȱseeȱJ.ȱA.ȱBurrow,ȱ“GodȱtheȱFullnessȱofȱTimeȱinȱPiers
Plowman,”ȱMediumȱAevum,ȱ79.2ȱ(2010):ȱ300–05.
11
JacquesȱLeȱGoff,ȱTime,ȱWork,ȱandȱCultureȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱtrans.ȱArthurȱGoldhammerȱ(1977;
ChicagoȱandȱLondon:ȱTheȱUniversityȱofȱChicagoȱPress,ȱ1980),ȱ53–57,ȱ71–97.
12
LeȱGoff,ȱTime,ȱWorkȱandȱCultureȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱ92–93.
13
LeȱGoff,ȱTime,ȱWork,ȱandȱCultureȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱ93.
lechery,ȱdrunkenness,ȱleprosy,ȱandȱvenerealȱdisease.14ȱReadersȱmayȱfindȱsomeȱof
theȱdepictionsȱofȱtheȱhumanȱbodyȱinȱtheȱrepresentationȱofȱtheȱSevenȱDeadlyȱSins
inȱpassusȱ5ȱofȱtheȱBȱtextȱofȱPiersȱcontinuingȱthisȱassociation.ȱLeGoffȱalsoȱnotesȱthat
theȱpeasantȱwasȱoftenȱassociatedȱwithȱsocialȱrebellionȱandȱaȱbreakingȱdownȱofȱthe
socialȱ fabricȱ ofȱ society.15ȱ Heȱ concludes,ȱ “Theȱ peasant,ȱ then,ȱ hasȱ becomeȱ an
anonymous,ȱnonindividualizedȱcreatureȱwhoȱservesȱmerelyȱtoȱsetȱoffȱtheȱcharacter
ofȱtheȱmilitaryȱandȱcultivatedȱelite,ȱtheȱmainȱburdenȱofȱtheȱChurch.”16ȱ
Ifȱthisȱvoiceȱhadȱbeenȱtheȱonlyȱoneȱavailableȱtoȱrepresentȱtheȱpeasantryȱbyȱthe
lateȱMiddleȱAges,ȱPiersȱtheȱPlowmanȱwouldȱindeedȱhaveȱbeenȱasȱexemplaryȱasȱhe
wouldȱhaveȱbeenȱrare.ȱScholarsȱareȱnotȱclearȱaboutȱwhetherȱLanglandȱinvented
Piersȱorȱsimplyȱincludedȱoneȱofȱsociety’sȱcontemporaryȱmythicȱfigures.17ȱWhoever
heȱis,ȱheȱisȱaboveȱtheȱtypicalȱrepresentationȱofȱtheȱpeasant.ȱTheȱimagesȱofȱWaster,
Glutton,ȱandȱothers,ȱhowever,ȱdoȱcontinueȱthatȱalmostȱanimalisticȱrepresentation
ofȱhumanity,ȱtypicallyȱseenȱinȱtermsȱofȱitsȱconspicuousȱconsumption—oneȱthat
underminesȱ theȱ stabilityȱ ofȱ theȱ order.ȱ Itȱ mayȱ wellȱ beȱ theȱ caseȱ tooȱ thatȱ he
differencesȱinȱtheȱrepresentationȱofȱpeasantȱcultureȱmayȱresultȱfromȱtheȱgrowing
economicȱ variabilityȱ withinȱ peasantȱ communitiesȱ thatȱ Barbaraȱ Hanawaltȱ sees
occurringȱafterȱtheȱBlackȱDeath.ȱSomeȱpeasants,ȱasȱweȱcanȱdetermineȱfromȱtheir
wills,ȱ wereȱ almostȱ upwardlyȱ mobileȱ whileȱ othersȱ fellȱ toȱ evenȱ greaterȱ statesȱ of
poverty.18
Inȱ hisȱ studyȱ ofȱ theȱ backgroundȱ ofȱ theȱ plowmanȱ inȱ theȱ fourteenthȬcentury
WakefieldȱMactacioȱAbel,ȱJamesȱH.ȱMorey,ȱhowever,ȱhasȱuncoveredȱaȱmoreȱpositive
voiceȱwithinȱtheȱdiscoursesȱonȱpeasantsȱinȱtheȱlateȱMiddleȱAges.19ȱDrawingȱonȱthe
“guaranteeȱ ofȱ sanctuary”ȱ forȱ plowmanȱ inȱ canonȱ twoȱ ofȱ theȱ Councilȱ ofȱ Rouen
(1096),ȱandȱfavorableȱconnectionsȱofȱtheȱplow,ȱtemple,ȱandȱcityȱinȱtheȱwritingsȱof
RobertȱManningȱofȱBrunne,ȱRanulfȱHigden,ȱandȱGeoffreyȱofȱMonmouth,ȱMorey
suggestsȱthatȱforȱtheȱlateȱMiddleȱAges,ȱtheȱplowmanȱwasȱanȱimportantȱfigureȱof
authority.ȱHisȱstatusȱinȱtheȱsocietyȱwasȱnotȱonlyȱvalued,ȱbutȱalsoȱprotected.20ȱWhat
doesȱ seemȱ clearȱ thenȱ isȱ thatȱ whileȱ theȱ earlyȱ medievalȱ voiceȱ aboutȱ peasantry
certainlyȱwasȱgovernedȱbyȱanȱelitistȱviewȱofȱsociety,ȱaȱspaceȱwasȱfoundȱtoȱvalueȱthe
14
15
LeȱGoff,ȱTime,ȱWork,ȱandȱCultureȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱ89–97.
16
17
Boulay,ȱTheȱEnglandȱofȱPiersȱPlowmanȱ(seeȱnoteȱ7),ȱ113–14.ȱSeeȱalsoȱElizabethȱD.ȱKirk,ȱ“Langland’s
PlowmanȱandȱtheȱRecreationȱofȱFourteenthȬCenturyȱReligiousȱMetaphor,”ȱTheȱYearbookȱofȱLangland
Studiesȱ2ȱ(1988):ȱ1–21.ȱ
18
BarbaraȱHanawalt,ȱTheȱTieȱThatȱBinds:ȱPeasantȱCommunitiesȱinȱMedievalȱEnglandȱ(NewȱYork:ȱOxford
UniversityȱPress,ȱ1886),ȱ45–63.
19
JamesȱH.ȱMorey,ȱ“Plows,ȱLaws,ȱandȱSanctuaryȱinȱMedievalȱEnglandȱandȱinȱtheȱWakefieldȱMactacio
Abel,”ȱStudiesȱinȱPhilologyȱ95.1ȱ(1998):ȱ41–55.
20
Morey,ȱ“Plows,ȱLaws,ȱandȱSanctuaryȱinȱMedievalȱEngland”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ19),ȱ45–48.
workȱofȱplowmenȱasȱseparateȱfromȱtheirȱpeasantȱcounterparts.21ȱMoreyȱsuggests
thatȱtheȱbiblicalȱreferencesȱtoȱplowingȱmayȱlieȱbehindȱaȱmoreȱpositiveȱattitude
towardȱplowmen,ȱandȱanotherȱscholarȱhasȱnotedȱthatȱtheȱplowȱitselfȱisȱoftenȱa
metaphorȱforȱtheȱpulpit,ȱthusȱconnectingȱtheȱtwoȱimagesȱofȱpeasantȱandȱcleric
togetherȱinȱtheȱpersonȱofȱPiers.22ȱWithoutȱquestion,ȱinȱpassusȱ21ȱofȱtheȱBȱtext,ȱthe
firstȱexpandedȱversionȱofȱLangland’sȱvisionȱofȱtheȱworld,ȱPiersȱhasȱbecomeȱtheȱfirst
Pope,ȱ St.ȱ Peterȱ himself,ȱ whoȱ isȱ plowingȱ withȱ theȱ fourȱ oxenȱ representingȱ the
gospelsȱandȱharrowingȱtheȱnewȱcropȱwithȱtheȱChurchȱFathers.ȱThatȱlaterȱPiers,
however,ȱisȱaȱtransformedȱvisionȱofȱhisȱpredecessorȱwhoȱlaborsȱonȱtheȱhalfȱacreȱto
establishȱjusticeȱandȱtruth.
II
FromȱtheȱopeningȱofȱtheȱpoemȱinȱtheȱPrologueȱwithȱtheȱfairȱfieldȱofȱfolk—theȱscene
ofȱaȱmanorialȱvillageȱwhoseȱoverlordȱisȱTruth—theȱpoetȱrepresentsȱtheȱruralȱworld
inȱsomeȱsenseȱofȱflux.ȱWithȱtheȱplowingȱofȱtheȱhalfȱacreȱsceneȱinȱpassusȱ6ȱofȱtheȱB
text,ȱ theȱ poetȱ presentsȱ readersȱ withȱ theȱ failureȱ ofȱ theȱ ecclesiasticallyȱ driven
tripartiteȱmodelȱofȱsocietyȱthatȱwasȱaȱpartȱofȱfeudalȱempireȱbuilding.ȱFollowingȱon
fromȱtheȱsermonȱofȱReasonȱthatȱsuggestsȱtheȱpilgrimsȱshouldȱseekȱSt.ȱTruth,ȱPiers
isȱtheȱonlyȱpersonȱwhoȱhasȱeverȱheardȱofȱsuchȱaȱsaintȱorȱknowsȱanythingȱabout
followingȱhim.ȱHeȱsuggestsȱheȱhasȱservedȱTruthȱforȱ40ȱyearsȱandȱthatȱ“Iȱhaueȱmyn
hireȱ[ofȱhym]ȱwelȱandȱouþerwhilesȱmoore”ȱ(Iȱhaveȱmyȱpayȱfromȱhimȱwellȱand
sometimesȱevenȱmore)ȱ(B.ȱ5.550).ȱ
MargaretȱGoldsmith,ȱworkingȱfromȱanȱexegeticalȱperspective,ȱsuggestsȱthatȱPiers
isȱhereȱrootedȱinȱanȱOldȱTestamentȱsystemȱofȱjusticeȱandȱpayment,ȱbutȱitȱmay
actuallyȱbeȱtheȱcaseȱthatȱPiersȱseesȱTruthȱmerelyȱprovidingȱpaymentȱforȱworkȱas
aȱproductȱofȱaȱjustȱsociety.23ȱWhatȱitȱdoesȱsuggestȱisȱthatȱinȱservingȱforȱ40ȱyears—a
typicalȱtermȱinȱtheȱHebrewȱBibleȱforȱaȱlongȱperiodȱofȱtime—Piersȱunderstandsȱhis
worldȱwell.ȱWhileȱheȱknowsȱtheȱwayȱtoȱTruth,ȱinȱnoȱwayȱwillȱthatȱmeanȱheȱcan
forsakeȱhisȱworkȱonȱtheȱhalfȱacre.ȱWhatȱtheȱpilgrimsȱseemȱtoȱbeȱunawareȱofȱisȱthat
theȱworkȱonȱtheȱhalfȱacreȱisȱtheȱpilgrimage.ȱ
21
SeeȱalsoȱtheȱfigureȱofȱtheȱPlowmanȱinȱJohannesȱvonȱTeplȱDerȱAckermann,ȱasȱdiscussedȱbyȱAlbrecht
ClassenȱinȱhisȱIntroductionȱtoȱthisȱvolume.ȱHeȱalsoȱrefersȱusȱtoȱtheȱpositiveȱfigureȱofȱtheȱoldȱand
wealthyȱfarmerȱHelmbrechtȱinȱWernherȱderȱGartenære’sȱeponymousȱdidacticȱverseȱnarrative,
whoseȱson,ȱnamedȱafterȱhim,ȱbreaksȱoutȱofȱhisȱoldȱsocietyȱandȱturnsȱintoȱaȱviciousȱrobberȱknight
whoȱis,ȱatȱtheȱend,ȱlynchedȱbyȱtheȱpreviouslyȱvictimizedȱfarmers.ȱ
22
StephenȱBarney,ȱ“TheȱPlowshareȱofȱtheȱTongue:ȱTheȱProgressȱofȱaȱSymbolȱfromȱtheȱBibleȱtoȱPiers
Plowman,”ȱMedievalȱStudiesȱ35ȱ(1973):ȱ261–93.
23
MargaretȱGoldsmith,ȱTheȱFigureȱofȱPiersȱPlowman:ȱTheȱImageȱonȱtheȱCoinȱ(Cambridge:ȱD.ȱS.ȱBrewer,
1981),ȱ43ȱ.
Pier’sȱruralȱethicȱisȱcontainedȱinȱhisȱopeningȱannouncement:
“Iȱhaueȱanȱhalfȱacreȱtoȱerieȱbyȱþeȱhei3eȱweye;
HaddeȱIȱeryedȱþisȱhalfȱacreȱandȱsowenȱitȱafter
Iȱwoldeȱwendeȱwiþȱyowȱandȱþeȱweyȱteche.”
“Thisȱwereȱaȱlongȱlettyng,”ȱquodȱaȱladyȱinȱaȱScleyre.
“Whatȱsholdeȱweȱwomenȱwercheȱþeȱwhile?
“SommeȱshulȱsoweȱþeȱsakȱforȱshedyingȱofȱþeȱWhete.
Andȱyeȱlouelyȱladiesȱwiþȱyoureȱlongeȱfyngres,
ThatȱyeȱhaueȱsilkȱandȱSandelȱtoȱsoweȱwhanȱtymeȱis
ChesiblesȱforȱChapeleynsȱchurchesȱtoȱhonoure.
Wyuesȱandȱwidewesȱwolleȱandȱflexȱspynneþ’
Makeþȱcloþ,ȱIȱcounseilleȱyou,ȱandȱkenneþȱsoȱyoureȱdou3tres.
Theȱnedyȱandȱþeȱnakedȱnymeþȱhedeȱhowȱþeiȱliggeþ
Casteþȱhemȱcloþesȱ[forȱcold]ȱforȱsoȱ[wol]ȱtruþe.
ForȱIȱshalȱlenedȱhemȱliflodeȱbutȱifȱþeȱlondȱfaille
AsȱlongeȱasȱIȱlyue,ȱforȱþeȱlordesȱloueȱofȱheuene.
Andȱallȱmanereȱofȱmenȱþatȱ[byȱþe]ȱmeteȱlibbeþ,
Helpeþȱhymȱwercheȱwi3tlicheȱþatȱwynneþȱyoureȱfoode.”
ȱ (B.6.4–20)
[“Iȱhaveȱaȱhalfȱacreȱtoȱplowȱbyȱtheȱhighway;
IfȱIȱhadȱplowedȱtheȱhalfȱacreȱandȱhadȱsnowȱitȱafterwards
Iȱwouldȱgoȱwithȱyouȱandȱteachȱyouȱtheȱway.”
“Thatȱwouldȱbeȱaȱlongȱdelay,”ȱsaidȱtheȱladyȱinȱaȱveil.
Whatȱshouldȱweȱwomenȱdoȱinȱtheȱmeantime”?
“Someȱshouldȱsowȱtheȱsacksȱforȱsheddingȱofȱtheȱwheat.
Andȱyouȱlovelyȱladiesȱwithȱyourȱlongȱfingers,
Thatȱyouȱhaveȱsilkȱandȱfineȱlinenȱtoȱsewȱwhenȱyouȱhaveȱtime
ChasublesȱforȱpriestsȱtoȱhonorȱtheȱChurch.
Wivesȱandȱwidowsȱshouldȱspinȱflaxȱandȱwool;
Iȱcounselȱyouȱtoȱmakeȱclothȱandȱteachȱyourȱdaughtersȱalso.
Theȱneedyȱandȱtheȱnaked,ȱtakeȱnoticeȱhowȱtheirȱlive;
Makeȱthemȱclothesȱagainstȱtheȱcold,ȱsoȱforȱtruthȱteaches.
ForȱIȱshallȱworkȱforȱthemȱbothȱunlessȱtheȱlandȱfails
AsȱlongȱasȱIȱlive,ȱforȱtheȱLordȱofȱheaven’sȱlove.
Andȱallȱmannerȱofȱmenȱthatȱbyȱtheȱmeatȱlive
Helpȱthemȱworkȱrightlyȱthatȱbringȱyourȱfood.”]
Aȱ numberȱ ofȱ importantȱ pointsȱ surfaceȱ inȱ thisȱ firstȱ reorganizationȱ ofȱ work.ȱ In
Piers’sȱ halfȱ acre,ȱ allȱ socialȱ classesȱ mustȱ workȱ together,ȱ withȱ theȱ effectȱ ofȱ an
idealizedȱsociety.ȱAsȱJamesȱSimpsonȱhasȱobserved,ȱ“Theȱwholeȱfoundationȱofȱthis
trueȱsocietyȱisȱitselfȱpartȱofȱaȱpenitentialȱact,ȱaȱpilgrimageȱtoȱseekȱSt.ȱTruthe.”24
24
Theȱeffortȱdescribedȱisȱoneȱbasedȱonȱanȱoptimisticȱviewȱofȱhumanity,ȱaȱvisionȱthatȱtheȱpoemȱinȱno
Furtherȱheȱnotesȱthatȱ“fullȱspiritualityȱofȱtheȱkindȱthatȱLanglandȱisȱcommittedȱto
canȱbeȱrealizedȱonlyȱthroughȱ‘true’ȱsocialȱrelationshipsȱofȱinterdependentȱlabour.”25ȱ
Womenȱofȱtheȱpeasantȱclassesȱdoȱwhatȱmedievalȱartȱalwaysȱdepictsȱthemȱas
doing—spinningȱ wool.ȱ Thusȱ theyȱ areȱ providingȱ clothing,ȱ aȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ feudal
enterpriseȱforȱwomen,ȱalmostȱaȱcottageȱindustry.ȱTheȱ“louelicheȱladies”ȱ(6.18),
sinceȱtheyȱareȱsociallyȱaboveȱtheȱothers,ȱwillȱembroiderȱecclesiasticalȱgarmentsȱas
theyȱhaveȱdoneȱsinceȱtheȱAngloȬSaxonȱperiod.26ȱWhatȱseemsȱimplicitȱhereȱisȱthat
theȱteachingȱthatȱheȱpromisesȱhasȱalreadyȱbegun.ȱThatȱheȱwouldȱbeȱableȱtoȱmarshal
peasantȱwomenȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱaȱsurprise,ȱbutȱthatȱheȱisȱalsoȱableȱtoȱengageȱnoble
womenȱisȱoneȱofȱtheȱpoem’sȱunexplainedȱmysteries.ȱHeȱdoes,ȱhowever,ȱspeakȱto
themȱcourteously!ȱPiersȱwillȱworkȱforȱallȱofȱthem,ȱunlessȱthereȱisȱcropȱfailure.ȱThe
firstȱaspectsȱofȱrealityȱhaveȱnowȱmadeȱtheirȱwayȱontoȱtheȱhalfȱacre.ȱInȱaȱsense,ȱit
providesȱaȱforebodingȱofȱpotentialȱdisasterȱthatȱmayȱbeȱaccountedȱforȱasȱtheȱscene
developsȱthroughȱanotherȱideologicalȱlens.
Sinceȱ cooperationȱ ofȱ theȱ willfulȱ varietyȱ seemsȱ toȱ characterizeȱ activityȱ inȱ this
microcosmȱofȱtheȱmedievalȱworld,ȱtheȱknightȱstepsȱforwardȱtoȱofferȱhisȱservices.
Theȱ exchangeȱ hereȱ alsoȱ meritsȱ ourȱ attention,ȱ asȱ someoneȱ whoȱ isȱ Piers’sȱ social
betterȱseemsȱtoȱbeȱbeholdenȱtoȱPiers.ȱTheȱknightȱsays,
“Byȱcrist!”ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.”[þow]ȱkenne[st]ȱvsȱþeȱbeste,
Acȱonȱþeȱtemeȱtau3tȱwasȱIȱneuere.
[Ac]ȱkenneȱme,”ȱquodȱþeȱkny3tȱ,ȱ“andȱ[Iȱwoldȱkonneȱerie].”
“ByȱSeintȱPoul!,”ȱquodȱPerkyn,ȱ“[forȱþowȱprofrestȱþeeȱsoȱlowe]
Iȱshalȱswynkeȱandȱsweteȱandȱsoweȱforȱvsȱbothe,
Andȱ[ek]ȱlabour[e]ȱforȱþiȱloueȱalȱmyȱlifȱtyme,
Inȱcouenauntȱþatȱþowȱkepeȱholyȱkirkeȱandȱmyselue
Fromȱwastoursȱandȱwikkedȱmenȱþatȱ[woldeȱmeȱdestuye],
Andȱgoȱhunteȱhardilicheȱtoȱhardsȱandȱtoȱfoxes,
Toȱboresȱandȱtoȱ[bukkes]ȱþatȱbrekenȱmyneȱhegges,
Andȱ[fetteȱþeȱhoom]ȱfauconsȱfowelesȱtoȱkille
Forȱ[þise]ȱcomeþȱtoȱmyȱcroftȱandȱcroppeþȱmyȱwhete.”
(B.ȱ6.ȱ21–32)
[ByȱChrist,ȱyouȱteachȱusȱwhatȱisȱbestȱtoȱdo,
ButȱIȱwasȱneverȱtaughtȱonȱaȱteam.
ByȱSt.ȱPaul,ȱsaidȱPiers,ȱ“sinceȱyouȱofferȱhelpȱsoȱhumbly
Iȱshallȱworkȱandȱsweatȱandȱforȱbothȱofȱus
wayȱseemsȱtoȱsupport.ȱItȱisȱpossibleȱthatȱtheȱpoetȱmayȱbeȱsettingȱupȱaȱchallengeȱthatȱcanȱonlyȱfail,
aȱkindȱofȱmirrorȱofȱtheȱeventsȱofȱtheȱpostȬPlagueȱperiodȱalongȱeconomicȱandȱsocialȱlines.ȱCf.ȱJames
Simpson,ȱPiersȱPlowman:ȱAnȱIntroduction,ȱrevisedȱed.ȱ(1990;ȱExeter:ȱUniversityȱofȱExeterȱPress,
2007),ȱ63.
25
Simpson,ȱPiersȱPlowman:ȱAnȱIntroductionȱ(seeȱnoteȱ24),ȱ64.
26
J.ȱA..W.ȱBennett,ȱed.,ȱPiersȱPlowman:ȱTheȱPrologueȱandȱPassusȱI–VIIIȱofȱtheȱBȱTextȱ(NewȱYorkȱand
Oxford:ȱClarendonȱPress,ȱ1972),ȱ198–99.
Andȱalsoȱlaborȱforȱyourȱloveȱallȱmyȱlifetime
InȱcovenantȱthatȱyouȱwillȱkeepȱHolyȱChurchȱandȱme
Fromȱwastersȱandȱwikkedȱmenȱthatȱwouldȱdestroyȱme,
Andȱgoȱhuntȱhardilyȱharesȱandȱfoxes
Boresȱandȱbucksȱthatȱbreakȱdownȱmyȱhedges,
Andȱhaveȱforȱyourselfȱfalconsȱtoȱkillsȱbirds
Thatȱcomeȱtoȱmyȱcroftȱandȱcropȱmyȱwheat.]
WhatȱisȱinterestingȱatȱfirstȱobservationȱisȱthatȱtheȱknightȱseemsȱtoȱthinkȱthatȱPiers
willȱ requireȱ thatȱ heȱ alsoȱ becomeȱ anȱ agriculturalȱ laborer.ȱ Thatȱ theȱ knightȱ first
suggestsȱthatȱheȱneedsȱinstructionȱinȱplowingȱhintsȱthatȱtheȱsocialȱcontractȱisȱno
longerȱstableȱasȱitȱmightȱhaveȱbeenȱinȱpreȬplagueȱEngland.ȱTheȱhistoricalȱreality,
ofȱcourse,ȱisȱthatȱlaborȱwasȱatȱaȱpremium,ȱandȱtheȱStatutesȱofȱLaborersȱwasȱpassed
inȱ1351ȱtoȱputȱwagesȱforȱlaborersȱbackȱatȱpreȬPlagueȱlevels.27ȱ
Itȱ isȱ hardȱ toȱ imagine,ȱ however,ȱ thatȱ anyȱ nobleȱ personȱ wouldȱ haveȱ ever
consideredȱtheȱpossibilityȱofȱplowing!ȱHunting,ȱaȱchiefȱoccupationȱofȱtheȱnoble
classesȱbothȱinȱrealityȱandȱinȱliteraryȱtextsȱsuchȱasȱSirȱGawainȱandȱtheȱGreenȱKnight,
isȱturnedȱtoȱhelpfulȱendsȱthatȱunderscoreȱtheȱlegitimacyȱofȱtheȱactivity.ȱHunting
willȱcontrolȱtheȱthreatȱofȱanimalsȱwhoȱchallengeȱtheȱeconomicȱviabilityȱofȱtheȱhalf
acre.ȱ Whatȱ alsoȱ seemsȱ intriguingȱ isȱ thatȱ theȱ knightȱ representsȱ theȱ onlyȱ legal
representativeȱinȱthisȱconstructedȱworld.ȱInȱaddition,ȱtheȱknightȱisȱtoȱbeȱhonestȱand
shouldȱdealȱhonorablyȱwithȱhisȱtenants.ȱYetȱitȱisȱtheȱlastȱofȱtheseȱareas—theȱcontact
betweenȱnobilityȱandȱpeasants—thatȱwillȱbringȱaboutȱtheȱdeathȱofȱtheȱhalfȱacreȱas
aȱ modelȱ forȱ understandingȱ stableȱ andȱ idealizedȱ community.ȱ Wereȱ the
relationshipsȱ betweenȱ landlordsȱ andȱ tenantsȱ strained?ȱ Thisȱ seemsȱ hardlyȱ a
rhetoricalȱquestion.ȱ
Byȱ theȱ fourteenthȱ century,ȱ thereȱ wasȱ considerableȱ changeȱ inȱ theȱ traditional
relationshipsȱbetweenȱlordsȱandȱtheirȱtenants.ȱThatȱPiersȱhasȱtoȱwarnȱtheȱknight
aboutȱtheȱtreatmentȱofȱtenantsȱisȱaȱnotȬtooȬsubtleȱreferenceȱtoȱwhatȱmustȱhaveȱbeen
anȱeconomicȱrealityȱasȱmanorialismȱdeclinedȱfurther.ȱGeorgesȱDubyȱwritesȱthatȱ
Theȱsameȱfortuitousȱcrisesȱwhichȱinȱtheȱfourteenthȱcenturyȱstruckȱtheȱmanorialȱestates
withȱ suchȱforceȱthatȱtheyȱwereȱshakenȱtoȱtheirȱveryȱfoundationsȱdidȱnotȱspareȱthe
householdsȱofȱtheȱpoor.ȱTheseȱhouseholdsȱhadȱinȱtheȱfirstȱplaceȱtoȱsufferȱtheȱrepeated
attemptsȱofȱtheȱmastersȱtoȱdealȱwithȱfinancialȱdifficultiesȱbyȱsqueezingȱtheȱlastȱdrop
fromȱmanorialȱrights,ȱandȱbyȱconstantlyȱscalingȱupȱtheirȱdemandsȱonȱdependents.ȱThe
latterȱcouldȱnotȱalwaysȱresist,ȱandȱindeedȱransomsȱwereȱoftenȱpaid,ȱandȱburntȱmanors
andȱdevastatedȱfieldsȱrepaired,ȱoutȱofȱpeasantȱsavings.28
27
Justice,ȱWritingȱandȱRebellionȱ(seeȱnoteȱ5),ȱ37,ȱ175.
28
Georgesȱ Duby,ȱ Ruralȱ Economyȱ andȱ Countryȱ Lifeȱ inȱ theȱ Medievalȱ West,ȱ trans.ȱ Cynthiaȱ Postan
(Columbia:ȱUniversityȱofȱSouthȱCarolineȱPress,ȱ1968),ȱ332–33.ȱSeeȱalsoȱGregoryȱM.ȱSadlek,ȱIdleness
Working:ȱTheȱDiscourseȱofȱLove’sȱLaborȱfromȱOvidȱThroughȱChaucerȱandȱGowerȱ(Washington,ȱDC:ȱThe
Withȱthisȱbackdrop,ȱthen,ȱweȱcanȱcertainlyȱaskȱseveralȱpertinentȱquestions.ȱIsȱthere
aȱreasonȱthenȱthatȱtheȱknightȱrespondsȱ“Curteisly”ȱ(B.6.33)ȱtoȱPiers?
IsȱthereȱsomeȱreasonȱwhyȱPiersȱseemsȱtoȱhaveȱtheȱupperȱhandȱinȱthisȱmeeting?
Isȱtheȱknightȱsimplyȱtryingȱtoȱprotectȱhisȱinterestsȱinȱaȱrapidlyȱchangingȱeconomic
andȱsocialȱlandscape?ȱWeȱmayȱhazardȱaȱtentativeȱ“yes”ȱtoȱallȱofȱtheseȱquestions.
AȱgraciousȱresponseȱisȱaȱrecognitionȱthatȱsocialȱchangeȱhasȱcomeȱtoȱlateȱfourteenthȬ
centuryȱ England,ȱ aȱ changeȱ thatȱ hasȱ placedȱ peasants,ȱ particularlyȱ wellȬtoȬdo
peasants,ȱinȱpositionsȱofȱpower.ȱIfȱPiersȱisȱwillingȱtoȱreassertȱtheȱolderȱmodelȱof
socialȱorganizationȱevenȱifȱheȱseemsȱhimselfȱtoȱhaveȱmovedȱbeyondȱit,ȱthenȱitȱis
clearlyȱinȱtheȱknight’sȱbestȱinterestȱtoȱfollowȱinȱtheȱpathȱwhichȱPiersȱsuggests.ȱHe
willȱ stillȱ maintainȱ theȱ outwardȱ lookȱ ofȱ socialȱ superiority,ȱ evenȱ ifȱ theȱ current
circumstancesȱsuggestȱthatȱtheȱworldȱhasȱchangedȱinȱwaysȱthatȱwillȱneverȱallow
itȱtoȱbeȱtheȱsameȱagain.ȱ
Langland,ȱhowever,ȱthroughȱPiersȱisȱtroubledȱwithȱthatȱkindȱofȱchange,ȱhence
theȱentireȱreasonȱforȱtheȱhalfȱacreȱscene.ȱWhileȱDavidȱAersȱassertsȱthatȱLangland
affirmsȱtheȱ“dominantȱsocialȱmodel,”29ȱatȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱthatȱtraditionalȱmodel
seemsȱunderȱsiegeȱatȱleastȱfromȱtheȱpoet’sȱperspectiveȱasȱheȱtendsȱtoȱscornȱaȱfreeȬ
lanceȱlaborȱthatȱpostȬPlagueȱEnglandȱcameȱtoȱseeȱasȱnormative.ȱThisȱendingȱof
feudalismȱwasȱnotȱonȱtheȱLanglandianȱradar.
Withȱhisȱidealizedȱsocialȱmodelȱofȱruralȱspaceȱinȱplace,ȱPiersȱreadiesȱhimselfȱfor
pilgrimageȱ byȱ acceptingȱ garmentsȱ whoseȱ meaningȱ isȱ governedȱ byȱ theȱ poem’s
sartorialȱ codeȱ system.ȱ Announcingȱ thatȱ heȱ willȱ dressȱ inȱ “pilgrim[ys]ȱ wyse”
(B.6.52),ȱheȱaltersȱtheȱtraditionalȱpilgrim’sȱgarbȱtoȱthatȱofȱaȱsower.ȱThusȱtheȱchange
suggestsȱthatȱpilgrimageȱandȱplowingȱareȱtheȱsame—perhapsȱwhatȱJ.ȱA.ȱBurrow
refersȱ toȱ asȱ aȱ “substitutionaryȱ pilgrimage.”30ȱ Givenȱ theȱ condemnationȱ of
pilgrimageȱactivityȱinȱtheȱpoem’sȱprologue,ȱequatingȱitȱwithȱlyingȱandȱlascivious
behavior,ȱitȱwouldȱbeȱsurprisingȱifȱindeedȱPiersȱactuallyȱdidȱbecomeȱaȱprofessional
pilgrimȱwhoȱwouldȱleadȱtheȱpilgrims.ȱYetȱatȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱtheȱwardrobeȱchange
isȱalsoȱindicativeȱofȱoneȱofȱtheȱChurch’sȱsanctionedȱinstitutionsȱforȱspiritualȱhealing
andȱrenewal.ȱPiersȱisȱclearlyȱredrawingȱtheȱparametersȱofȱactionȱhereȱjustȱasȱheȱis
reorderingȱaȱsocietyȱbasedȱonȱtheȱconceptȱofȱwill.
Afterȱ makingȱ hisȱ willȱ inȱ theȱ traditionalȱ mannerȱ ofȱ theȱ “middleȱ class”ȱ and
nobility,ȱPiersȱbeginsȱhisȱwork.ȱAsȱPiersȱplowsȱtheȱhalfȱacre,ȱothersȱjoinȱinȱthe
effort,ȱandȱheȱwantsȱtoȱsurveyȱhisȱworkȱtoȱdetermineȱtheȱworkersȱheȱwillȱhireȱat
harvestȱtime—noteȱtheȱdeferralȱinȱtimeȱofȱtheȱdepartureȱforȱpilgrimageȱalready.
CatholicȱUniversityȱofȱAmericaȱPress,ȱ2004),ȱ185–86.
29
Davidȱ Aers,ȱ Community,ȱ Gender,ȱ andȱ Individualȱ Identity:ȱ Englishȱ Writingȱ 1360–1430ȱ (London:
Routledge,ȱ1988),ȱ35.
30
J.ȱA.ȱBurrow,ȱ“Words,ȱWorkȱandȱWill:ȱThemeȱandȱStructureȱinȱPiersȱPlowman,”ȱPiersȱPlowman:
CriticalȱApproaches,ȱed.ȱS.ȱS.ȱHusseyȱ(London:ȱMethuen,ȱ1969),ȱ111–24.
Harmony,ȱhowever,ȱisȱquicklyȱdestroyedȱbyȱtheȱwasters,ȱevenȱasȱearlyȱasȱ9:00ȱa.m.
Whatȱseemsȱmostȱinterestingȱhereȱisȱthatȱthoseȱwhoȱsingȱ“heyȱtrollyȱlolly”ȱ(B.6.108)
areȱanȱundifferentiatedȱlotȱofȱpeasants.ȱWhileȱtheyȱareȱnotȱdescribedȱinȱanimalistic
termsȱasȱwouldȱhaveȱbeenȱtypicalȱinȱearlyȱmedievalȱtexts,ȱhereȱtheyȱareȱnotedȱas
“faking”ȱvariousȱkindsȱofȱbodilyȱailmentsȱthatȱwouldȱprohibitȱthemȱfromȱworking.ȱ
Aersȱcontendsȱthatȱ“Langland’sȱconstructionȱofȱwastersȱisȱthusȱanȱideological
andȱpartisanlyȱclassȱterm,”ȱgivenȱthatȱhisȱwarning,ȱreminiscentȱofȱtheȱlanguageȱin
theȱ1351ȱStatueȱofȱLabourersȱseemsȱtoȱembodyȱtheȱveryȱidiomȱofȱtheȱlegalȱtext,31
Piersȱ becomesȱ theȱ voiceȱ ofȱ whatȱ postȬcolonialȱ criticsȱ wouldȱ callȱ theȱ “colonial
dominantȱideology”ȱthatȱintendsȱtoȱforceȱontoȱtheȱcolonializedȱlaborerȱaȱsetȱof
valuesȱ thatȱ areȱ atȱ bestȱ arbitraryȱ andȱ atȱ worstȱ onesȱ thatȱ doȱ notȱ respondȱ toȱ the
requirementsȱofȱaȱgrowingȱmarketȱeconomyȱofȱsupplyȱandȱdemand.ȱ
Theȱidleȱworkers,ȱhowever,ȱdoȱnotȱseemȱintimidatedȱbyȱanyȱthreat;ȱinȱfact,ȱthey
haveȱdevelopedȱstrategiesȱtoȱmimicȱtheȱoppression,ȱalmostȱinȱtheȱsenseȱthatȱHomi
Bahbhaȱsuggestsȱisȱtrueȱofȱpostcolonialȱmimicryȱofȱcolonialȱintentions.32ȱOneȱeven
offersȱtoȱfightȱPiers.ȱAmidstȱtheȱdepersonalizedȱgroupȱisȱoneȱcalledȱ“AȱBretoner,
aȱbragger,ȱ[heȱb]ostedȱPiersȱalsȱ/ȱAndȱbadȱhymȱgoȱpissenȱwithȱhisȱplow3”ȱ(B.6.
154–55).ȱIfȱtheȱplowȱisȱaȱ sanctuaryȱasȱMoreyȱsuggests,ȱthenȱclearlyȱthisȱBreton
braggartȱisȱviolatingȱaȱculturalȱandȱlegalȱnorm.ȱKnowingȱthatȱhisȱventureȱisȱnow
inȱ difficulty,ȱ Piersȱ asksȱ theȱ knightȱ forȱ helpȱ inȱ bringingȱ orderȱ toȱ theȱ laboring
peasants.ȱButȱevenȱtheȱknight,ȱtheȱmostȱpalpableȱrepresentativeȱofȱpower—atȱleast
inȱpreȬPlagueȱEngland—isȱunableȱtoȱreturnȱtheȱworkersȱtoȱtheirȱlabor.ȱCanȱrural
spaceȱacceptȱsuchȱanȱintrusionȱofȱabusiveȱandȱrecalcitrantȱpeasantȱpower?ȱ
Evenȱtheȱknight’sȱ“Orȱþowȱshaltȱabiggeȱbyȱþeȱlawe,ȱbyȱþeȱordreȱþatȱIȱbere”ȱ(Else
youȱshallȱabideȱbyȱtheȱlawȱbyȱtheȱrankȱthatȱIȱhold)ȱ(B.6.166)ȱseemsȱfutile.ȱWaster
simplyȱrefusesȱtoȱwork.ȱAllȱofȱtheȱidealismȱwhichȱwentȱintoȱPiers’sȱfutileȱattempt
justȱasȱtheȱfirmȱlegislationȱofȱ1351ȱdealingȱwithȱwastersȱandȱlaborersȱwhoȱsawȱfree
marketȱpossibilitiesȱforȱtheirȱworkȱprovesȱineffectual.ȱPiersȱhasȱanotherȱweapon,
butȱ itsȱ useȱ isȱ ambiguousȱ toȱ theȱ plotȱ ofȱ theȱ poem,ȱ andȱ evenȱ itsȱ identification
remainsȱinȱquestionȱinȱcriticalȱstudies.ȱ
OnlyȱHungerȱseemsȱtoȱbeȱeffectiveȱinȱgettingȱtheȱwastersȱtoȱbecomeȱproductive,
butȱonlyȱagainȱwithȱmomentaryȱresults.ȱTheyȱworkȱasȱifȱtheirȱveryȱlivesȱdepended
onȱ it!ȱ Attemptsȱ toȱ repairȱ theȱ problemȱ haveȱ thusȱ revealedȱ theȱ weaknessȱ inȱ the
colonialȱandȱfeudalȱmodelȱwhichȱwasȱunderȱattackȱduringȱtheȱreignȱofȱRichardȱII,
particularlyȱseenȱinȱtheȱRebels’ȱcryȱatȱMilesȱEnd.33ȱWhileȱlegislationȱisȱintendedȱto
stopȱtheȱdecenteringȱofȱruralȱspace,ȱLangland’sȱpoemȱinȱallȱofȱitsȱversionsȱshows
thatȱtheȱsameȱforceȱisȱatȱworkȱatȱtheȱdeepestȱlevelȱofȱsocialȱcontract.ȱLangland,ȱit
31
Aers,ȱCommunity,ȱGender,ȱandȱIndividualȱIdentityȱ(seeȱnoteȱ29),ȱ40.
32
HomiȱBhabha,ȱTheȱLocationȱofȱCultureȱ(LondonȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱRoutledge,ȱ1994),ȱ121–31.
33
Justice,ȱWritingȱandȱRebellionȱ(seeȱnoteȱ5),ȱ102–39.
wouldȱseem,ȱsupportsȱtheȱcontinuanceȱofȱtheȱolderȱformsȱofȱsocialȱorganizationȱon
theȱmanor,ȱbutȱearlyȱreadersȱofȱtheȱpoem,ȱparticularlyȱofȱtheȱBȱtext,ȱdidȱnotȱthink
so.34ȱ Itȱ mayȱ beȱ possibleȱ toȱ discoverȱ Langland’sȱ growingȱ ambivalence.ȱ That
Langland’sȱ revisionsȱ ofȱ theȱ poemȱ afterȱ theȱ Peasants’ȱ Revoltȱ producedȱ aȱ less
confrontationalȱ Piersȱ suggestsȱ theȱ poet’sȱ ownȱ awarenessȱ ofȱ aȱ postcolonial
decenteredȱworldȱthatȱevenȱtheȱflowȱofȱhisȱownȱtextȱseemsȱtoȱlegitimate.ȱAȱnew
communityȱinȱruralȱspaceȱwasȱyetȱtoȱbeȱborn.ȱWhatȱisȱstillȱpossible?
Theȱ roleȱ ofȱ Hungerȱ inȱ Passusȱ 6ȱ demandsȱ furtherȱ attentionȱ fromȱ readers,
particularlyȱ becauseȱ Langlandȱ representsȱ itȱ throughȱ hisȱ Deuteronomistic
understandingȱofȱhistoryȱandȱnaturalȱeventsȱ(e.g.,ȱsinȱbringsȱpunishment).ȱHunger
isȱcalledȱinȱbyȱPiersȱtoȱ“Awrekeȱmeȱofȱwastours”ȱ(Avengeȱmeȱofȱwasters)ȱ(B.6.173).
Pierss’ȱstrategyȱthroughȱHungerȱworks,ȱatȱleastȱmomentarily.ȱPeasantsȱwhoseȱvery
bodiesȱshowȱstarvationȱratherȱthanȱslackingȱoffȱfromȱworkȱlitterȱtheȱscene.ȱHunger
itselfȱmustȱbeȱfedȱbeforeȱitȱwillȱleave.ȱTheȱsequenceȱendsȱwithȱtheȱintrusionȱofȱthe
authorialȱvoiceȱwithȱaȱkindȱofȱsomberȱapocalypticȱprediction:
AcȱIȱwarneȱyowȱworkmen,ȱwynneþȱwhileȱyeȱmowe
Forȱhungerȱhiderwardȱhasteþȱhymȱfaste.
Heȱshalȱawakeȱ[þorou]ȱwaterȱwastoursȱtoȱchaste;
Erȱfiveȱ[yet]ȱbeȱfulfilledȱswichȱfamynȱshalȱaryse.
Thorou3ȱfle[od]ȱandȱfoulȱwedresȱfrytesȱshallȱfaille,
Andȱsoȱsei[þ]ȱSaturneȱandȱsenteȱyowȱwarne.
Whanȱyeȱseȱþeȱ[mone]ȱamysȱandȱtwoȱmonkesȱheddes,
Andȱaȱmaydeȱhaueȱþeȱmaistrie,ȱandȱmultiplieȱbyȱei3te,
Thanneȱshalȱdeeþȱwiþdrawe,ȱandȱderþeȱbeȱIustice,
AndȱDaweȱþeȱdykereȱdeyeȱforȱhunger
Butȱ[if]ȱgodȱofȱhisȱgoodnesseȱgraunteȱvsȱaȱtrewe.
(B.6.321–31)
[ButȱIȱwarnȱyouȱworkmen,ȱgainȱaȱlivingȱwhileȱyouȱmay
Forȱhungerȱisȱcomingȱquickly.
Heȱhasȱawakenȱbyȱwaterȱwastersȱtoȱchastise,
Beforeȱfiveȱyearsȱareȱfulfilledȱsuchȱfamineȱshallȱarise
Throughȱfloodingȱandȱfoulȱweatherȱfruitsȱshallȱfail,
AndȱsoȱsaysȱSaturnȱandȱsendsȱyouȱwarning.
Whenȱyouȱseeȱtheȱmoonȱamissȱandȱtwoȱmonksȱheads,
Andȱaȱmaidenȱhaveȱtheȱmastery,ȱandȱmultiplyȱbyȱeights,
ThenȱshallȱdeathȱwithdrawȱandȱDearthȱbyȱjustice,
AndȱDawȱtheȱdikerȱdieȱforȱhunger
UnlessȱGodȱofȱhisȱgoodnessȱgrantȱusȱaȱtruce.]
34
Justice,ȱWritingȱandȱRebellionȱ(seeȱnoteȱ5),ȱ102–39.
Theȱ languageȱ soundsȱ reminiscentȱ ofȱ apocalypticȱ textsȱ fromȱ theȱ Old
Testament/HebrewȱBibleȱandȱfromȱtheȱbookȱofȱRevelation,ȱallȱofȱwhichȱareȱdeeply
rootedȱinȱtheȱDeuteronomisticȱvisionȱthatȱhumanȱfailureȱbringsȱjudgmentȱfrom
God—aȱGodȱwhoȱcanȱalsoȱstopȱthatȱsameȱjudgment.ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱweȱcanȱlook
beyondȱtheȱrhetoricalȱflourishesȱtoȱthisȱapocalypticȱtextȱinȱPiersȱandȱseeȱaȱmore
prevalentȱaspectȱofȱagriculturalȱreality.ȱFearsȱofȱfamineȱwereȱwidespread.ȱWithin
theȱculturalȱmemoryȱofȱtheȱpoem’sȱreadersȱwasȱaȱseriesȱofȱfaminesȱbetweenȱ1315
andȱ1321ȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱ1350sȱandȱ1360s,ȱwhereȱmanyȱdiedȱinȱanȱalmostȱapocalyptic
manner.35ȱ Atȱ theȱ sameȱ time,ȱ withinȱ theȱ productionȱ cycleȱ eachȱ year,ȱ Frankȱ has
notedȱ thatȱ medievalȱ agriculturalȱ practicesȱ createdȱ theirȱ ownȱ scarcityȱ each
summer—whatȱheȱcallsȱtheȱ“hungerȱgap”—betweenȱtheȱtimeȱthatȱgrainsȱfromȱthe
previousȱharvestȱranȱoutȱandȱtheȱnewȱcropsȱareȱstillȱinȱtheȱfieldȱawaitingȱharvest.36
Aȱveryȱpoorȱqualityȱofȱbreadȱmadeȱofȱbeansȱwasȱtypicallyȱconsumedȱinȱthisȱperiod,
andȱ“Suchȱcourseȱfairȱisȱtheȱalternativeȱtoȱlanguishingȱorȱdyingȱfromȱhungerȱthat
Piersȱ offersȱ theȱ ableȬbodied.”37ȱ Theȱ eventsȱ seemȱ thenȱ caughtȱ inȱ naturalȱ cycles
whichȱwereȱinterpretedȱalongȱspiritualȱlines—almostȱaȱpartȱofȱLangland’sȱrural
ethics.
III
Passusȱ7ȱofȱtheȱBȱtextȱ opensȱwithȱtheȱinterrelatedȱeventsȱofȱTruth’sȱgrantingȱa
pardonȱtoȱPiersȱandȱhisȱheirsȱforeverȱandȱTruth’sȱmandateȱtoȱPiersȱtoȱcontinueȱhis
plowing.ȱItȱisȱtheȱconfrontationȱtowardȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱpassusȱbetweenȱPiersȱandȱa
priest,ȱperhapsȱhisȱownȱparishȱpriestȱfromȱhisȱvillage.ȱGivenȱthatȱLanglandȱsoftens
theȱexchangeȱbetweenȱPiersȱandȱtheȱpriestȱinȱtheȱCȱtext,ȱremovingȱPiers’sȱresponse
onȱpureȱangerȱagainstȱtheȱpriest,ȱweȱshouldȱreadȱtheȱversionȱfoundȱinȱbothȱtheȱA
andȱBȱtextsȱcarefullyȱasȱtheyȱrevealȱtheȱearliestȱthinkingȱaboutȱtheȱevent.ȱWeȱcan
seeȱaȱchangeȱinȱtheȱroleȱofȱPiersȱinȱthisȱinterpretiveȱmomentȱasȱheȱbeginsȱtoȱtake
awayȱ fromȱ theȱ authorityȱ figureȱ hisȱ ownȱ abilityȱ toȱ readȱ texts,ȱ namelyȱ theȱ very
wordsȱofȱhisȱpardonȱfromȱPiers.ȱ
Theȱpriestȱannounces,ȱ“Piersȱ.ȱ.ȱ.’þiȱpardonȱmosteȱIȱrede,ȱ‘ForȱIȱ[shal]ȱconstrue
echȱclauseȱandȱkeenȱitȱþeeȱonȱenglissh”ȱ(B.7.107–08).ȱUnfortunatelyȱthisȱparish
priestȱdoesȱnotȱrecognizeȱitȱasȱaȱpardon:ȱ“Iȱkanȱnoȱpardonȱfynde”ȱ(B.7.115).ȱThis
priestȱmayȱnotȱonlyȱhaveȱ“lostȱtouchȱwithȱChristianȱidealism,”ȱbutȱheȱalsoȱhas
givenȱaȱliteralȱreading—aȱcarnalȱreading.38ȱHeȱexchangesȱLatinȱforȱEnglishȱwords.
35
36
37
Frank,”ȱTheȱHungerȱGap”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ229.
38
DonaldȱHoward,ȱTheȱThreeȱTemptations:ȱMedievalȱManȱinȱSearchȱofȱtheȱWorldȱ(Princeton:ȱPrinceton
Piers’sȱreaction,ȱoneȱofȱtheȱmostȱsignificantȱgesturesȱinȱbothȱtheȱAȱandȱBȱtexts,ȱis
aȱreactionȱagainstȱsuchȱreadings.ȱPiersȱwantsȱtoȱshowȱthatȱhisȱpardonȱfunctions
symbolically.ȱToȱinitiateȱhisȱsymbolicȱreadingȱasȱtheȱonlyȱvalidȱinterpretationȱofȱthe
pardonȱPiersȱcitesȱaȱpassageȱofȱscriptureȱandȱthenȱassignsȱnewȱsignificance.ȱPsalm
22:4ȱ (23:4),ȱ “Ifȱ Iȱ walkȱ inȱ theȱ valleyȱ ofȱ theȱ shadowȱ ofȱ death,ȱ Iȱ shallȱ fearȱ noȱ evil
becauseȱyouȱareȱwithȱme”ȱ(B.7.113–14),ȱseemsȱtoȱmakeȱlittleȱliteralȱsenseȱinȱthis
context.ȱInȱtheȱpoem,ȱratherȱthanȱusingȱEnglish,ȱPiersȱquotesȱtheȱtextȱfromȱthe
LatinȱVulgate.ȱ
InȱtheȱpostȬcolonialȱcontextȱofȱsomethingȱ“almostȱalwaysȱalreadyȱexisting,”ȱPiers
usesȱ theȱ traditionȱ ofȱ readingȱ scriptureȱ symbolicallyȱ toȱ defeatȱ someone—a
representativeȱofȱholyȱchurch—anȱexperienceȱsoȱprofoundȱthatȱevenȱtheȱpriest
himselfȱconcludesȱthatȱPiersȱmustȱbeȱaȱcleric!ȱInȱtheȱconfrontation,ȱweȱseeȱpartȱof
theȱdevelopingȱpolemicȱofȱruralȱspaceȱtoȱanswerȱbackȱtoȱtheȱpowerȱstructuresȱof
Langland’sȱday.ȱPiersȱhasȱmerelyȱbecomeȱtheȱmimicȱofȱaȱformȱhere,ȱactingȱasȱa
clericalȱinterpreter,ȱbutȱatȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱitȱhasȱprovidedȱhimȱwithȱtheȱkindȱof
liberatingȱexperienceȱwhichȱsuggestsȱhisȱearlierȱpursuitsȱhaveȱbeenȱinȱvain.ȱHeȱwill
becomeȱ anotherȱ kindȱ ofȱ pilgrim—oneȱ whoseȱ searchȱ fromȱ communityȱ and
wholenessȱbeginȱnotȱexternally,ȱbutȱinternally.ȱInȱaȱsense,ȱLanglandȱhasȱallowed
hisȱcentralȱcharacter,ȱPiers,ȱtoȱfallȱvictimȱtoȱtheȱpoem’sȱsocialȱethicȱwhichȱvalues
theȱinternalȱoverȱtheȱexternal.ȱAfterȱall,ȱTruthȱresidesȱwithinȱtheȱhumanȱheart.
Somewhereȱonȱtheȱhalfȱacre,ȱPiersȱseemsȱtoȱhaveȱforgottenȱthatȱamidstȱtheȱstruggle
toȱplowȱtheȱfield,ȱharvestȱtheȱcrop,ȱandȱthreshȱtheȱgrain.ȱTheȱVisioȱseemsȱtoȱshows
theȱfailuresȱofȱruralȱspaceȱtoȱprovideȱanswersȱtoȱtheȱsocialȱproblemsȱofȱtheȱday,ȱbut
itȱ mayȱ beȱ thatȱ weȱ shouldȱ readȱ someȱ ofȱ theȱ minorȱ voicesȱ hereȱ thatȱ doȱ support
community.ȱ Theȱ womenȱ andȱ theȱ knightȱ respondȱ inȱ obedienceȱ andȱ createȱ a
community;ȱtheȱmalesȱofȱtheȱlowerȱpeasantȱclassȱseemȱtoȱbeȱthoseȱthatȱattemptȱto
tearȱitȱdown.
IV
ScenesȱofȱruralȱspaceȱdotȱtheȱlandscapeȱsoȱtoȱspeakȱthroughȱtheȱVita,ȱtheȱsecond
partȱofȱtheȱpoem,ȱbutȱitȱisȱparticularlyȱanotherȱplowingȱsceneȱthatȱinterestsȱusȱas
weȱ probeȱ theȱ meaningȱ ofȱ ruralȱ space.ȱ Ifȱ theȱ worldȱ ofȱ ruralȱ spaceȱ through
Langland’sȱ Deuteronomisticȱ visionȱ ofȱ theȱ realityȱ becomesȱ radicallyȱ corrupted
becauseȱhumanȱgreedȱisȱleftȱunchecked,ȱthenȱaȱcorrectiveȱplowingȱmightȱsetȱthings
right.ȱRunningȱthroughȱheilsgeschichteȱ(salvationȱhistory)ȱfromȱtheȱtimeȱofȱAbraham
UniversityȱPress,ȱ1966),ȱ177;ȱA.ȱV.ȱC.ȱSchmidt,ȱTheȱClerklyȱMaker:ȱLangland’sȱPoeticȱArtȱ(Cambridge:
D.ȱS.ȱBrewer,ȱ1987),ȱ86.
andȱMosesȱthroughȱtheȱlife,ȱdeath,ȱandȱresurrectionȱofȱChrist,ȱLanglandȱpresents
aȱvisionȱofȱtheȱfoundingȱofȱtheȱChurchȱonȱPentecostȱandȱhasȱPiersȱagainȱtoȱserve
asȱaȱplowman.ȱInȱaȱsequenceȱinȱPassusȱ19ȱofȱtheȱBȱtextȱthatȱisȱclearlyȱintendedȱto
identifyȱtheȱfourteenthȬcenturyȱplowmanȱwithȱtheȱfirstȬcenturyȱapostleȱPeter,ȱPiers
isȱgivenȱfourȱoxen,ȱtheȱevangelists,ȱtoȱplowȱtheȱearth.ȱTheȱChurchȱFathersȱwill
serveȱasȱtheȱ“harrow”ȱtoȱbeȱusedȱlaterȱtoȱintroduceȱscripturalȱinterpretation.ȱPiers
thenȱ sowsȱ theȱ cardinalȱ virtuesȱ amongȱ hisȱ newȱ field.ȱ Theȱ Churchȱ itselfȱ thatȱ is
foundedȱisȱPiers’sȱbarn,ȱintoȱwhichȱtheȱcropsȱwillȱbeȱgatheredȱagainstȱtheȱcoming
onslaught.ȱHereȱagain,ȱPiersȱisȱattackedȱbyȱPrideȱ(B.19.ȱ335–37).ȱUsingȱaȱseriesȱof
attacks,ȱPiersȱandȱhisȱbandȱareȱableȱtoȱsaveȱUnityȱHolyȱChurch.ȱAsȱwithȱtheȱfirst
plowingȱscene,ȱsomeȱbeginȱtoȱdoubtȱPiers,ȱsoȱthatȱtheȱattacksȱcomeȱfromȱwithout
andȱ within.ȱ Theȱ nobleȱ visionȱ ofȱ theȱ spiritualȱ communityȱ builtȱ inȱ ruralȱ space
waversȱonȱtheȱbrinkȱofȱdisaster.ȱ
Afterȱtheȱsacramentȱofȱpenanceȱhasȱbeenȱcorruptedȱbyȱtheȱfriars,ȱConscience
decidesȱtoȱleaveȱtheȱChurchȱinȱsearchȱofȱPiersȱwhoȱwillȱrebukeȱPrideȱandȱrepairȱthe
actionsȱofȱtheȱfriars.ȱExactlyȱwhatȱLanglandȱintendedȱwithȱthisȱconclusionȱhasȱbeen
aȱmatterȱofȱscholarlyȱdebateȱthroughoutȱtheȱhistoryȱofȱPiersȱscholarship.ȱWhatȱdoes
seemȱclearȱisȱthatȱPiersȱstillȱholdsȱtheȱanswer,ȱthisȱmultivalentȱandȱallusiveȱfigure
ofȱleadership.ȱGivenȱthatȱPiersȱisȱnotȱaȱrepresentativeȱofȱtheȱcourt,ȱbutȱlikelyȱa
somewhatȱwellȬtoȬdoȱpeasantȱinȱpostȬPlagueȱEngland,ȱLanglandȱretainsȱPiersȱas
theȱshaperȱofȱsocialȱspace.ȱHeȱseemsȱtoȱbeȱtheȱonlyȱoneȱtoȱdoȱit.ȱ
Barringȱ theȱ interpretationȱ thatȱ “inȱ realityȱ theȱ unityȱ envisionedȱ inȱ theocratic
theoryȱhasȱbeenȱdestroyedȱinȱeveryȱaspect”ȱwithȱtheȱlackȱofȱwillȱmanifestedȱbyȱall
present,39ȱ andȱ theatȱ theȱ poemȱ doesȱ littleȱ moreȱ thanȱ fallȱ apart,ȱ several
interpretationsȱrelatedȱtoȱcolonial/postcolonialȱvisionsȱofȱruralȱspaceȱshouldȱbe
considered.ȱ Inȱ oneȱ ofȱ hisȱ earlyȱ studiesȱ ofȱ theȱ poem,ȱ Aers’sȱ contentionȱ that
Conscience’sȱdepartureȱfromȱUnityȱsignalsȱhisȱrejectionȱofȱorthodoxyȱseemsȱrather
hasty.40ȱAfterȱall,ȱtheȱdreamer,ȱWill,ȱentersȱUnityȱinȱorderȱtoȱlearnȱhowȱtoȱlove.ȱIn
aȱlaterȱarticle,ȱAers,ȱreversingȱhisȱearlierȱposition,ȱnowȱseesȱLanglandȱholdingȱa
qualifiedȱ“yes”ȱpositionȱaboutȱtheȱpossibilityȱforȱtheȱChurchȱcontinuing,ȱforȱaȱ“no”
answerȱwouldȱputȱLanglandȱinȱtheȱcampȱofȱWyclif.41ȱHeȱnotesȱ“ForȱLangland,ȱthe
Churchȱhasȱbecomeȱanȱeschatologicalȱcommunityȱthatȱisȱactingȱinȱmanyȱwaysȱas
anȱimpedimentȱtoȱitsȱmembers’ȱrecognitionȱofȱtheirȱeschatologicalȱsalvation.”42ȱ
39
DavidȱMills,ȱ“TheȱRoleȱofȱtheȱDreamerȱinȱPiersȱPlowman,”ȱPiersȱPlowman:ȱCriticalȱStudies,ȱed.ȱS.ȱS.
Husseyȱ(London:ȱMethuen,ȱ1969),ȱ183.
40
DavidȱAers,ȱChaucer,ȱLangland,ȱandȱtheȱCreativeȱImaginationȱ(London:ȱRoutledgeȱandȱKeganȱPaul,
1980),ȱ78–79.ȱ
41
DavidȱAers,ȱ“VisionaryȱEschatology:ȱPiersȱPlowman,”ȱModernȱTheologyȱ16.1ȱ(2000):ȱ3–17.
42
Aers,ȱ”VisionaryȱEschatology”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ41),ȱ12.
StillȱLanglandȱdoesȱnotȱrejectȱtheȱinstitutionalȱchurch,ȱandȱ byȱtheȱendȱofȱhis
poeticȱenterprise,ȱheȱisȱnoȱlongerȱtheȱangryȱplowmanȱwhoȱconfrontsȱtheȱpriestȱat
theȱreadingȱofȱtheȱpardon.ȱHeȱisȱnoȱlongerȱstagingȱaȱrevoltȱthatȱwillȱanswerȱback.
WhatȱcanȱthenȱbeȱsaidȱaboutȱruralȱspaceȱforȱLangland?ȱGivenȱthatȱLangland
cannotȱalterȱtheȱsocialȱrealitiesȱofȱchangeȱthatȱwereȱatȱworkȱafterȱtheȱBlackȱDeath,
Piersȱseemsȱtoȱprovideȱtheȱonlyȱanswer.ȱWhatȱdoesȱseemȱclear,ȱhowever,ȱisȱthat
whileȱPiersȱrepresentsȱtheȱlastȱgreatȱhope,ȱinȱtheȱcourseȱofȱtheȱpoemȱLanglandȱhas
engagedȱinȱactivitiesȱthatȱmimicȱsocialȱoppressionȱthatȱwereȱaȱpartȱofȱpostȬPlague
England.ȱNoȱwonderȱthereȱisȱsuchȱambivalenceȱthenȱatȱtheȱrootȱofȱtheȱpoem’s
centralȱevents.ȱMimicryȱbreedsȱambivalenceȱevenȱatȱtheȱsiteȱofȱitsȱarticulation.ȱIn
Piers,ȱLanglandȱbringsȱtogetherȱtheȱidealȱandȱtheȱrealȱinȱwaysȱthatȱspeakȱtoȱthe
challengesȱofȱhisȱday.ȱStillȱthereȱisȱaȱgleamȱtoȱtheȱworldȱofȱruralȱspaceȱthatȱsuggests
itȱcanȱanswerȱbackȱtoȱsociety’sȱdeepestȱneeds.
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
Chapterȱ9
AbigailȱP.ȱDowling
(TheȱUniversityȱofȱCalifornia,ȱSantaȱBarbara)
LandscapeȱofȱLuxuries:ȱMahautȱd’Artois’sȱ(1302–1329)
ManagementȱandȱUseȱofȱtheȱParkȱatȱHesdin
GuillaumeȱdeȱMachautȱ(ca.ȱ1300–1377)ȱwroteȱofȱtheȱparkȱatȱHesdinȱinȱhisȱmost
famousȱ poem,ȱ theȱ Remèdeȱ deȱ Fortune:ȱ “Iȱ couldȱ neverȱ describeȱ theȱ marvels,ȱ the
delights,ȱ theȱ artifices,ȱ theȱ automata,ȱ theȱ watercourses,ȱ theȱ entertainments,ȱ the
wondrousȱthingsȱthatȱwereȱenclosedȱwithin.”1ȱTheȱparkȱatȱHesdin,ȱwhoseȱproper
nameȱwasȱjustȱ“liȱparc,”ȱorȱ“theȱpark,”ȱwasȱlocatedȱinȱnortheasternȱFranceȱinȱthe
countyȱofȱArtois.ȱItȱwasȱenclosedȱinȱ1295ȱbyȱtheȱorderȱofȱRobertȱII,ȱCountȱofȱArtois
(1250–1302),ȱandȱcontainedȱnumerousȱgardens,ȱaviaries,ȱfishponds,ȱquarries,ȱrabbit
warrens,ȱstables,ȱandȱfieldsȱinȱadditionȱtoȱtheȱwhimsicalȱelementsȱmemorialized
byȱMachaut.2ȱHowever,ȱitȱisȱHesdin’sȱmarvels—theȱwhimsicalȱautomata,ȱcurious
waterȬspoutingȱdevices,ȱandȱaȱfunȱhouseȱonȱtheȱwater—thatȱhaveȱdrawnȱnobles,
artists,ȱandȱscholarsȱalikeȱsinceȱtheȱpark’sȱinception.3
Scholarsȱ(andȱnotȱjustȱHesdinȱscholars)ȱhaveȱfocusedȱalmostȱexclusivelyȱonȱthe
park’sȱplayfulȱmarvelsȱtoȱtheȱexclusionȱofȱtheȱpark’sȱmanyȱotherȱattributes,ȱoften
utilizingȱtheȱparkȱasȱevidenceȱofȱaȱuniqueȱstyleȱofȱEuropeanȱcourtlyȱromance.4
Untilȱtheȱpublicationȱinȱ1950ȱofȱMargueriteȱCharageat’sȱseminalȱarticle,ȱ“Leȱparc
1
GuillaumeȱdeȱMachaut,ȱLeȱJugementȱduȱRoyȱdeȱBehaigneȱandȱRemédeȱdeȱFortune,ȱed.ȱandȱtrans.ȱJames
I.ȱWimsattȱandȱWilliamȱW.ȱKibler.ȱ(Athens:ȱTheȱUniversityȱofȱGeorgiaȱPress,ȱ1988),ȱ212–13.
2
ArchivesȱDépartementalesȱPasȬdeȬCalaisȱ(ADPdC),ȱArras,ȱFrance.ȱMss.ȱA143.ȱ
3
AnneȱHagopianȱVanȱBuren,ȱ“RealityȱandȱLiteraryȱRomanceȱinȱtheȱParkȱofȱHesdin,”ȱMedieval
Gardens,ȱ ed.ȱ Elisabethȱ Blairȱ MacDougall.ȱ Dumbartonȱ Oaksȱ Colloquiumȱ onȱ theȱ Historyȱ of
LandscapeȱArchitecture,ȱ9ȱ(Washington,ȱDC:ȱDumbartonȱOaksȱResearchȱLibraryȱandȱCollection,
1986),ȱ115–34.
4
E.g.,ȱV.ȱA.ȱKolve,ȱTellingȱImagesȱ(Stanford,ȱCA:ȱStanfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2009),ȱ183–88;ȱandȱLynn
White,ȱJr.ȱMedievalȱTechnologyȱandȱSocialȱChange.ȱSec.ȱed.ȱ(1971;ȱOxford:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,
1972),ȱ125.ȱ
368 AbigailȱP.ȱDowling
d’Hesdin,ȱcréationȱmonumentaleȱduȱXIIIeȱsiècle,”ȱwhichȱdefinitivelyȱprovedȱthat
RobertȱII,ȱnotȱPhilipȱtheȱBoldȱ(r.ȱ1363–1404),ȱwasȱtheȱprogenitorȱofȱHesdin,ȱscholars
commonlyȱ associatedȱ Hesdinȱ withȱ theȱ Burgundianȱ courtȱ andȱ theirȱ notable
penchantȱforȱplayfulnessȱandȱingenuity.5ȱ
SinceȱCharageat,ȱtheȱdistinctiveȱaestheticȱofȱtheȱparkȱatȱHesdinȱhasȱcontinuedȱto
fascinateȱscholarsȱtoȱtheȱexclusionȱofȱtheȱpark’sȱotherȱelements,ȱparticularlyȱthose
concerningȱalimentationȱandȱeconomicȱbenefit.6ȱTheȱscholarlyȱconcentrationȱon
Hesdin’sȱmarvelsȱaltered,ȱevenȱifȱunintentionally,ȱtheȱrepresentationȱofȱtheȱpark
andȱitsȱusesȱbyȱsuggestingȱthatȱitȱwasȱentirelyȱornamental.7ȱTheȱheavyȱfocusȱonȱthe
aestheticȱelementsȱofȱtheȱparkȱatȱHesdinȱisȱnotȱunusual.ȱForȱtheȱlastȱhalfȱcentury,
determiningȱtheȱpurposeȱofȱtheȱeliteȱpark—wasȱitȱfiscallyȱproductiveȱandȱpractical,
forȱ pleasure,ȱ forȱ power,ȱ orȱ someȱ combinationȱ thereof?—hasȱ dominatedȱ and
shapedȱ theȱ studyȱ ofȱ landscapeȱ inȱ medievalȱ Europe.ȱ Inȱ seekingȱ toȱ answerȱ this
question,ȱscholarsȱunintentionallyȱprivilegedȱeitherȱtheȱproductiveȱorȱtheȱaesthetic
elementsȱ ofȱ eliteȱ landscapes,ȱ butȱ neverȱ consideredȱ bothȱ simultaneously,ȱ often
directedȱbyȱtheȱfociȱandȱconventionsȱofȱtheȱscholars’ȱdisciplines.8ȱ
AȱnotableȱexceptionȱtoȱthisȱisȱJohnȱH.ȱHarvey,ȱwhoȱarguedȱinȱMediaevalȱGardens
thatȱtheȱutilitarianȱandȱtheȱaestheticȱpurposesȱwereȱcoȬequalȱinȱtheȱmedievalȱelite
landscape.9ȱMoreȱrecently,ȱBritishȱarchaeologistsȱandȱhistorians,ȱsuchȱasȱOliver
CreightonȱandȱAmandaȱRichardson,ȱhaveȱsuccessfullyȱstartedȱtoȱchallengeȱthe
dominantȱaestheticȬpracticalȱparadigmȱandȱilluminateȱimportantȱinterconnections
5
MargueriteȱCharageat,ȱ“Leȱparcȱd’Hesdin,ȱcréationȱmonumentaleȱduȱXIIIeȱsiècle,”ȱBulletinȱdeȱla
sociétéȱdeȱl’histoireȱdeȱl’artȱfrançaisȱ(1950):ȱ94–106.ȱChargeatȱfurtherȱarguesȱthatȱIslamicȱarchitecture,
technology,ȱandȱtheȱnowȬlostȱgardensȱatȱPalermoȱinspiredȱRobertȱII’sȱdesigners,ȱanȱassertionȱwith
whichȱHagopianȱVanȱBurenȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3)ȱdisagreed.
6
Forȱexample,ȱinȱFrenchȱstudies:ȱHagopianȱVanȱBuren,ȱ“RealityȱandȱLiteraryȱRomance”ȱ(seeȱnote
3),ȱ115–34.ȱInȱBritishȱstudies:ȱOliverȱCreighton,ȱanȱhistorianȬarchaeologist,ȱmentionsȱHesdinȱbriefly
asȱanȱinfluentialȱmodelȱonȱBritishȱestatesȱafterȱtheȱvisitȱofȱKingȱEdwardȱIIȱinȱ1313ȱandȱanȱexample
ofȱtheȱ“LittleȱPark”ȱinȱhisȱrecentȱcomprehensiveȱBritishȱlandscapeȱstudy:ȱOliverȱH.ȱCreighton,
DesignsȱUponȱtheȱLand:ȱEliteȱLandscapesȱofȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(Woodbridge,ȱHampshire,ȱandȱRochester,
NY:ȱTheȱBoydellȱPress,ȱ2009).
7
ThisȱdivisionȱoccursȱoutsideȱofȱnorthernȱEuropeȱinȱbothȱtheȱIslamicȱandȱChristianȱIberianȱcaseȱas
well.ȱExpiraciónȱGarcíaȱSánchez,ȱ“UtilityȱandȱAestheticsȱinȱtheȱGardensȱofȱalȬAndalus:ȱSpecies
withȱMultipleȱUses,”ȱHealthȱandȱHealingȱfromȱtheȱMedievalȱGarden,ȱed.ȱPeterȱDendleȱandȱAlain
Touwaideȱ(Woodbridge,ȱHampshire,ȱandȱRochester,ȱNY:ȱTheȱBoydellȱPress,ȱ2008),ȱ205–27.
8
Forȱexample,ȱevenȱthoughȱtheȱexplicitȱgoalȱofȱGrenvilleȱAstillȱandȱAnnieȱGrant’sȱ1988ȱvolume,ȱThe
CountrysideȱofȱMedievalȱEngland,ȱwasȱtoȱpresentȱanȱinterdisciplinaryȱviewȱofȱtheȱcountryside,ȱthe
articles,ȱ suchȱ asȱ Paulȱ Stamper’sȱ “Woodsȱ andȱ Parks,”ȱ reflectȱ thisȱ divisionȱ withȱ hisȱ heavily
“utilitarian”ȱexampleȱofȱtheȱeliteȱcontrolȱofȱwoodlandȱandȱAnnieȱGrant’sȱargumentȱinȱ“Animal
Resources”ȱthatȱanimalsȱwereȱnotȱusedȱexclusivelyȱforȱfood:ȱPaulȱStamper,ȱ“WoodsȱandȱParks,”
TheȱCountrysideȱofȱMedievalȱEngland,ȱed.ȱGrenvilleȱAstillȱandȱAnnieȱGrantȱ(OxfordȱandȱNewȱYork:
BasilȱBlackwell,ȱ1988):ȱ128–48;ȱandȱAnnieȱGrant,ȱ“AnimalȱResources,”ȱTheȱCountrysideȱofȱMedieval
England,ȱ149–87.
9
JohnȱHarvey,ȱMediaevalȱGardensȱ(London:ȱBatsford,ȱ1981).
ManagementȱandȱUseȱofȱtheȱParkȱatȱHesdin 369
inȱnaturalȱresourcesȱmanagementȱandȱdemonstrationsȱofȱeliteȱpowerȱandȱidentity
onȱeliteȱestatesȱandȱparksȱinȱmedievalȱEngland.ȱSimilarly,ȱFrenchȱarchaeologist
Françoisȱ DuceppeȬLamarreȱ hasȱ appliedȱ thisȱ inȱ totoȱ approachȱ toȱ analyzingȱ the
complexȱhumanȬenvironmentalȱrelationshipsȱofȱanimalȱhusbandry,ȱparticularly
thatȱofȱdeer,ȱonȱeliteȱlandscapesȱinȱfourteenthȬcenturyȱArtoisȱwithȱlikeȱsuccess.10ȱ
FocusingȱexclusivelyȱonȱHesdin’sȱaestheticȱelementsȱmasksȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱthe
park’sȱ landȱ managementȱ notȱ onlyȱ forȱ comitalȱ economicȱ solvencyȱ andȱ the
sustainabilityȱ ofȱ theȱ naturalȱ resources,ȱ butȱ alsoȱ forȱ theȱ roleȱ ofȱ landscapeȱ and
productionȱofȱluxuryȱgoodsȱinȱtheȱlargerȱprocessȱofȱselfȬfashioningȱaristocratic
identity.ȱTheȱunusuallyȱrichȱandȱdetailedȱArtesianȱaccountȱbooksȱofȱRobertȱIIȱand
hisȱ daughter,ȱ Countessȱ Mahautȱ ofȱ Artoisȱ (1302–1329),ȱ whichȱ enumerateȱ daily,
bailliage,ȱandȱworksȱexpenses,ȱmakeȱitȱpossibleȱtoȱexecuteȱaȱdetailedȱeconomicȱand
landscapeȱstudyȱofȱtheȱcount’sȱandȱcountess’sȱincomeȱandȱnaturalȱresourcesȱand
luxuryȱgoodsȱconsumption.ȱTheȱaccountsȱprovideȱsignificantȱinformationȱabout
theȱ managementȱ of—andȱ relationshipȱ with—theȱ widerȱ socialȱ andȱ physical
environment.ȱForȱexample,ȱaȱseeminglyȱrunȬofȬtheȬmillȱexpenseȱforȱtheȱpurchase
ofȱ saltȱ underȱ Countessȱ Mahautȱ alsoȱ informsȱ usȱ ofȱ itsȱ intendedȱ use:ȱ itȱ was
purchasedȱtoȱsaltȱ“theȱvenisonȱthatȱleȱChatȱ[oneȱofȱMahaut’sȱhunters]ȱcaughtȱat
Hesdin.”11ȱ Suchȱ specificityȱ confirmsȱ thatȱ Mahautȱ exploitedȱ Hesdin’sȱ landsȱ for
venisonȱ andȱ canȱ contributeȱ toȱ aȱ calculationȱ ofȱ theȱ costȱ ofȱ saltingȱ atȱ theȱ park.
Further,ȱ aȱ closeȱ readingȱ andȱ statisticalȱ analysisȱ ofȱ theȱ accountsȱ elucidatesȱ the
mechanismsȱofȱtheȱpark’sȱlandȱmanagementȱandȱcanȱanswerȱseveralȱquestions
aboutȱHesdinȱandȱlandscapeȱstudiesȱinȱgeneral:ȱHowȱwasȱeliteȱlandȱused?ȱWasȱit
intentionallyȱmanagedȱforȱhouseholdȱuseȱandȱprofit?ȱHowȱmightȱthoseȱusesȱreflect
aristocraticȱpurposeȱand/orȱenvironmentalȱresources?
Mahaut’sȱ accountȱ booksȱ demonstrateȱ thatȱ manyȱ ofȱ Hesdin’sȱ elementsȱ were
simultaneouslyȱpractical,ȱaestheticallyȱpleasing,ȱandȱsymbolicȱofȱtheȱcountess’s
power.ȱ Herȱ householdȱ demonstratedȱ aȱ markedȱ preferenceȱ forȱ localȱ natural
resources,ȱsuchȱasȱfirewood.ȱMahautȱalsoȱmanagedȱHesdinȱtoȱproduceȱrare,ȱhighly
soughtȬafter,ȱandȱgenerallyȱexpensiveȱfreshȱfoods,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱluxuries,ȱvenison
andȱfish.ȱInȱaddition,ȱtheȱpark’sȱostentatiousȱdisplaysȱofȱwealth,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱoftȬ
mentionedȱfurȬcoveredȱautomataȱandȱcontrolȱoverȱnaturalȱresourcesȱmanifestȱin
theȱpark’sȱwallsȱandȱcarefullyȱnurturedȱdeerȱpopulation,ȱbolsteredȱtheȱcountess’s
perceivedȱpowerȱandȱauthority.ȱMahaut’sȱHesdinȱprovidedȱherȱwithȱnotȱonlyȱraw
naturalȱresources,ȱsuchȱasȱwoodȱandȱgrain,ȱbutȱalsoȱwithȱluxuryȱgoodsȱandȱaȱvenue
10
Françoisȱ DuceppeȬLamarre.ȱ Chasseȱ etȱ pâturageȱ dansȱ lesȱ fôretsȱ duȱ Nordȱ deȱ laȱ France:ȱ pourȱ une
archéologieȱduȱpaysageȱsylvestreȱ(XIe–XVIeȱsiècles)ȱ(Paris:ȱL’Harmattan,ȱ2006).
11
Leȱcompteȱgénéralȱduȱreceveurȱd’Artoisȱpourȱ1303–1304ȱ:ȱéditionȱprécédéeȱd’uneȱintroductionȱàȱl’étudeȱdes
institutionsȱfinancièresȱdeȱl’ArtoisȱauxȱXIIIe–XIVeȱsiècles,ȱed.ȱBernardȱDelmaireȱ(Brussels:ȱPalaisȱdes
Academies,ȱ1977),ȱ23,ȱno.ȱ375.
toȱdemonstrateȱactivelyȱȱherȱeliteȱstatusȱthroughȱhuntingȱandȱentertainingȱ(seeȱthe
excellentȱarticleȱbyȱMarilynȱL.ȱSandidgeȱforȱmoreȱonȱrural,ȱspace,ȱroyalȱhunting,
andȱstatusȱinȱthisȱvolume).12ȱTheȱcountess’sȱaccountsȱconcerningȱHesdinȱconfirm
thatȱ aristocraticȱ parksȱ wereȱ notȱ uniȬpurpose,ȱ eitherȱ ornamentalȱ orȱ practical.
Rather,ȱ Mahaut,ȱ likeȱ Englishȱ elites,ȱ managedȱ herȱ landscapeȱ toȱ maximizeȱ their
naturalȱresourceȱproductionȱasȱwellȱasȱtheirȱimpactȱonȱtheȱviewer.ȱEliteȱdesigned
landscapes,ȱ whichȱ cordonedȱ offȱ largeȱ amountsȱ ofȱ resourceȬrichȱ terrain,
demonstratedȱeliteȱpowerȱandȱwealthȱthroughȱtheirȱveryȱexistence,ȱdesign,ȱand
use.
Forȱthisȱarticle,ȱIȱhaveȱchosenȱtoȱfocusȱonȱaȱselectionȱofȱwood,ȱwater,ȱandȱplant
harvestingȱexamplesȱfromȱtheȱparkȱtoȱdemonstrateȱtheȱimportantȱrelationships
betweenȱ landȱ managementȱ andȱ aristocraticȱ identity.ȱ Iȱ willȱ alsoȱ provideȱ some
evidenceȱfromȱtwoȱotherȱbailliagesȱunderȱtheȱcountess’sȱcontrolȱforȱcomparisonȱof
Hesdin’sȱrelativeȱproductivity:ȱAireȱonȱtheȱFlemishȱborderȱandȱTournehemȱinȱthe
woodedȱnorth.ȱFurther,ȱIȱhaveȱlimitedȱtheȱstudyȱtoȱ1302ȱtoȱ1310,ȱwellȱbeforeȱthe
devastatingȱenvironmentalȱeffectsȱofȱtheȱGreatȱFamineȱinȱ1314,ȱwhichȱchanged
landȱmanagementȱpractices.
TheȱbulkȱofȱtheȱevidenceȱaboutȱMahaut’sȱlandscapeȱmanagementȱderivesȱfrom
theȱ bailliageȱ andȱ generalȱ receiverȱ accounts.ȱ Bothȱ bailliageȱ andȱ generalȱ accounts
recordȱ incomesȱ andȱ expendituresȱ threeȱ timesȱ aȱ yearȱ startingȱ onȱ Allȱ Saints,
CandlemasȱandȱAscension.ȱTheyȱrecordȱincomeȱinȱkindȱandȱinȱcoin;ȱtheȱreceiptȱof
bothȱwheatȱandȱoat,ȱandȱinȱsomeȱcasesȱcoinȱfromȱwood,ȱrabbits,ȱorȱwatercress;ȱand
“esplois,”ȱorȱjudicialȱincome.ȱExpendituresȱcompriseȱaȱmultitudeȱofȱoutlays:ȱwages
forȱvariousȱmanualȱandȱskilledȱlaborers,ȱsuchȱasȱhuntersȱandȱhandymen;ȱmaterial
costsȱforȱparkȱrepair;ȱcostsȱtoȱrepairȱnetsȱandȱboats;ȱandȱcostsȱtoȱpurchaseȱfoodȱfor
theȱdeer,ȱpeacocks,ȱbeavers,ȱandȱhuntingȱdogs.ȱAsȱIȱargueȱthatȱweȱcanȱlearnȱas
much,ȱifȱnotȱmore,ȱfromȱtheȱdescriptiveȱentriesȱinȱtheȱaccountsȱratherȱthanȱtheir
amounts,ȱIȱfocusȱprimarilyȱinȱthisȱpaperȱonȱtheȱlanguageȱofȱtheȱentries,ȱthoughȱI
haveȱprovidedȱsomeȱproportionalȱcostȱanalysisȱtoȱhelpȱdemonstrateȱtheȱparkȱat
Hesdin’sȱrelativeȱimportanceȱinȱtheȱcounty.
Iȱhaveȱclassifiedȱtheȱaccountȱentriesȱintoȱthreeȱroughȱcategories:ȱwood,ȱwater,
andȱland.ȱTheseȱcategoriesȱareȱlooselyȱdefinedȱtoȱaccommodateȱasȱmanyȱentriesȱas
possible;ȱthus,ȱtheȱheuristicȱwoodȱcategoryȱcontainsȱentriesȱonȱwoodȱrents,ȱwood
sales,ȱ wagesȱ forȱ woodȱ sergeants,ȱ andȱ woodȱ bought,ȱ harvested,ȱ andȱ cartedȱ for
rebuilding.ȱTheȱsectionsȱonȱwaterȱincludeȱexpensesȱandȱincomesȱconcerningȱthe
rentingȱofȱwaters,ȱmills,ȱandȱfishingȱrights,ȱentriesȱconcerningȱwaterȱgrassesȱand
watercress,ȱfishingȱboats,ȱwaterfowl,ȱandȱguards.ȱTheȱlandȱsectionsȱwillȱcontain
12
HagopianȱVanȱBuren,ȱ“RealityȱandȱLiteraryȱRomance”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ123ȱandȱfig.ȱ3.ȱ
entriesȱ concerningȱ theȱ cutting,ȱ sale,ȱ andȱ storageȱ ofȱ landȱ grassȱ andȱ associated
expenses,ȱ andȱ theȱ purchase,ȱ maintenance,ȱ and/orȱ saleȱ ofȱ animals.ȱ Assumingȱ a
generallyȱequalȱamountȱofȱincompletenessȱacrossȱtheȱaccountsȱandȱentries,ȱitȱis
possibleȱ toȱ estimateȱ roughlyȱ theȱ importanceȱ ofȱ variousȱ naturalȱ resourcesȱ to
Mahaut’sȱwiderȱmanagementȱplan.
TheȱParkȱatȱHesdin
Theȱ bailliageȱ ofȱ Hesdinȱ wasȱ expansive;ȱ itȱ includedȱ severalȱ smallerȱ holdingsȱ in
additionȱtoȱtheȱparkȱandȱitsȱassociatedȱvillageȱfromȱwhichȱtheȱcountessȱdrewȱrents.
Hesdin’sȱ centerpieceȱ isȱ theȱ eponymousȱ parkȱ ofȱ Hesdin,ȱ whichȱ wasȱ oneȱ ofȱ the
largestȱenclosedȱparksȱinȱfourteenthȬȱcenturyȱnorthernȱEurope,ȱcomprisingȱaround
2,200ȱenclosedȱacresȱwithȱadditionalȱunboundedȱforest.ȱTheȱecologyȱofȱthisȱbailliage
wasȱ primarilyȱ sylvan,ȱ ratherȱ thanȱ agricultural,ȱ andȱ includesȱ severalȱ large,
managedȱ woodedȱ areasȱ outsideȱ ofȱ theȱ forestȱ ofȱ theȱ “emparked”ȱ (meaning
delimitedȱ byȱ wallsȱ ratherȱ thanȱ aȱ freeȱ woodland)ȱ Hesdinȱ proper.13ȱ Theȱ parkȱ of
Hesdinȱ wasȱ highlyȱ productiveȱ andȱ containedȱ ponds,ȱ fields,ȱ woodsȱ (bothȱ for
huntingȱandȱforȱtimber),ȱandȱaȱrabbitȱwarren.ȱDuceppeȬLamarreȱcharacterizesȱthis
mixȱofȱelements,ȱandȱinȱparticularȱtheȱspatialȱconstructionȱofȱHesdin,ȱasȱaȱ“trilogie
cynégétique,”ȱorȱ“huntingȱtrilogy,”ȱbecauseȱitȱcombinesȱanȱenclosedȱhuntingȱpark,
aȱrabbitȱwarren,ȱandȱaȱlargeȱwoodedȱarea.14ȱHesdinȱgeneratesȱmoreȱincomeȱthan
eitherȱTournehemȱorȱAireȱ(althoughȱitȱalsoȱincursȱsignificantlyȱmoreȱcosts,ȱasȱwell).
Theȱaverageȱrentȱincomeȱisȱnearlyȱ1,000ȱlivresȱperȱannumȱatȱHesdinȱwithȱtheȱtotal
incomeȱ(includingȱsaleȱofȱwood,ȱgrains,ȱgrass,ȱetc.)ȱtoppingȱ2,000ȱlivresȱperȱannum;
TournehemȱandȱAireȱeachȱearnȱjustȱunderȱ1,500ȱlivresȱannually.15
TheȱBailliageȱofȱTournehem
TheȱbailliageȱofȱTournehemȱwasȱtheȱlastȱmajorȱestateȱacquisitionȱinȱtheȱcountyȱof
Artois.ȱItsȱownershipȱwasȱcontestedȱfromȱ1280ȱuntilȱ1298ȱwhenȱitȱsettledȱfirmlyȱin
theȱhandsȱofȱRobertȱIIȱafterȱbeingȱwrestedȱfromȱtheȱcountȱofȱGuinesȱatȱtheȱking’s
13
Delmaire,ȱ Leȱ compteȱ généralȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 11),ȱ lxxxiii.ȱ Françoisȱ DuceppeȬLamarre,ȱ “Laȱ fonction
cynégétiqueȱdesȱespacesȱboisésȱmédiéveauxȱàȱtraversȱl’exempleȱdesȱcervidésȱ etȱ lagomorphes
(NordȬPasȬdeȬCalais,ȱXIe–XVeȱsiècles),”ȱAnthropozoologicaȱ28ȱ(1998):ȱ35–41;ȱhereȱ36.ȱ
14
FrançoisȱDuceppeȬLamarre,ȱ“Laȱfonctionȱcynégétique”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ13),ȱ37–38.
15
Theseȱnumbersȱareȱanȱaverageȱofȱyearlyȱincomeȱandȱexpendituresȱfromȱtheȱaccountsȱofȱ1302–1303,
1304–1305,ȱ1306–1307,ȱandȱ1308–1309.
behest.16ȱ Tournehemȱ includedȱ threeȱ majorȱ castledȱ landscapes:ȱ Tournehem,

Mongardin,ȱandȱLaȱMontoire,ȱwhichȱdominateȱtheȱentriesȱofȱtheȱaccountȱbooks.
DelmaireȱreportsȱthatȱtheȱestateȱofȱLaȱMontoireȱhadȱ“laȱhaie,”ȱanȱenclosedȱforest.17
DuceppeȬLamarreȱaddsȱthatȱLaȱMontoireȱwasȱlikelyȱanȱemparkedȱforest,ȱsimilar
inȱ structureȱ toȱ thatȱ atȱ Hesdin,ȱ withȱ woods,ȱ ponds,ȱ aȱ windmill,ȱ andȱ rabbit
warrens.18ȱ Theȱ areaȱ aroundȱ Tournehemȱ wasȱ wellȬwoodedȱ andȱ hadȱ large,
comitallyȬprotectedȱforestsȱatȱGuinesȱandȱTournehem.19ȱTheȱsignificantȱincrease
inȱwoodȱleaseȱincomeȱinȱ1306–1307ȱreflectsȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱwoodȱresourcesȱto
theȱbailliage;ȱhowever,ȱTournehemȱmanagedȱandȱexploitedȱotherȱnaturalȱresources.
TournehemȱincludedȱseveralȱsmallerȱholdingsȱwithȱfishpondsȱthatȱFrenchȱhistorian
A.ȱLoisneȱnotesȱsuppliedȱRobertȱII’sȱtableȱwithȱfishȱandȱfromȱwhichȱgrassȱwas
harvested.20ȱTheȱaccountȱbooksȱalsoȱdemonstrateȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱgrassȱharvests
andȱtheȱeconomicȱpresenceȱofȱaȱwarren.ȱFromȱ1302–1310,ȱthereȱdoesȱnotȱseemȱto
beȱ anyȱ recordȱ ofȱ aristocraticȱ huntingȱ orȱ entertainmentȱ atȱ anyȱ ofȱ theȱ estatesȱ in
Tournehem.
TheȱBailliageȱofȱAire
Aireȱisȱtheȱsmallestȱandȱleastȱfiscallyȱproductiveȱofȱtheȱthreeȱbailliagesȱdiscussedȱin
thisȱ study.ȱ Itȱ wasȱ aȱ ruralȱ districtȱ andȱ containedȱ noȱ emparkedȱ estates.ȱ Unlike
HesdinȱandȱTournehem,ȱAire’sȱprimaryȱincomeȱwasȱfromȱtheȱleaseȱofȱagricultural
land.ȱThoughȱthereȱwereȱatȱleastȱtwoȱfisheriesȱandȱtwoȱwaterȱmills,ȱeachȱgenerated
negligibleȱincome.ȱTheȱbailliageȱboastedȱonlyȱoneȱmajorȱriver,ȱtheȱLys,ȱtheȱendȱof
whichȱwasȱnotȱevenȱnavigable.21ȱKingȱPhilipȱIV’sȱmilitaryȱendeavorsȱinȱtheȱLow
Countriesȱ(theȱmilitaryȱinitiativeȱinȱwhichȱRobertȱIIȱperishedȱinȱ1302)ȱdevastated
muchȱofȱAire’sȱarableȱland.ȱUnfortunately,ȱtheȱaccountȱentriesȱprovideȱnoȱmore
informationȱ thanȱ notingȱ thatȱ someȱ rentsȱ inȱ cropsȱ wereȱ forgivenȱ dueȱ toȱ the
devastationȱofȱwar.22ȱDespiteȱtheȱsmallȱnumberȱofȱtotalȱleasesȱ(25ȱinȱAllȱSaintsȱin
16
Delmaire,ȱLeȱcompteȱgénéralȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱlxxxvii–viii.
17
Delmaire,ȱLeȱcompteȱgénéralȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱlxxxviii.
18
DuceppeȬLamarre,ȱ“Laȱfonctionȱcynégétique”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ13),ȱ37–38.
19
AlbertȱDemangeon,ȱLaȱPicardieȱetȱlesȱrégionsȱvoisines,ȱArtoisȬCambrésisȬBeauvasisȱ(Paris:ȱA.ȱColin,
1905):ȱ433–34;ȱandȱalsoȱseeȱmapsȱinȱDelmaire,ȱLeȱcompteȱgénéralȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11).
20
Delmaire,ȱLeȱcompteȱgénéralȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱlxxxviii.ȱA.ȱLoisne,ȱUneȱcourȱféodaleȱversȱlaȱfinȱduȱXIIIe
siècle:ȱl’hôtelȱdeȱRobertȱII,ȱcomteȱd’Artoisȱ(Paris:ȱImprimerieȱnationale,ȱ1920),ȱ93.ȱ
21
PierreȱLeman,ȱAȱlaȱRechercheȱdesȱvoiesȱromainesȱdansȱleȱNordȬPasȬdeȬCalais:ȱarchéologie,ȱpédagogieȱet
tourismeȱ(Bouvignies:ȱLesȱEditionsȱNordȱAvril,ȱ2011),ȱ11.
22
TheȱonlyȱmentionȱseemsȱtoȱbeȱinȱCandlemasȱinȱ1304ȱwhenȱtheȱaccountȱmentionsȱinȱtheȱfinalȱtotal
thatȱtheyȱpostponed,ȱ“misȱenȱsouffrance,”ȱ10ȱraiseresȱofȱwheatȱfromȱtheȱrentȱofȱComminesȱthatȱthey
cannotȱhaveȱbecauseȱofȱtheȱwar.ȱLeȱcompteȱgeneralȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱ163,ȱno.ȱ2753.
1304,ȱaȱnumberȱwhichȱstaysȱsteady),ȱtheȱaverageȱyearlyȱincomeȱfromȱrentsȱofȱthe
bailliageȱisȱquiteȱhigh,ȱjustȱunderȱ900ȱlivresȱinȱrent,ȱsuggestingȱAireȱproducedȱa
significantȱamountȱofȱcereals.ȱ
Hesdin:ȱWood
WoodȱwasȱHesdin’sȱmostȱplentifulȱresourceȱconstitutingȱnearlyȱ47%ȱofȱtheȱtotal
averageȱyearlyȱincome.23ȱWoodȱincomeȱderivedȱprimarilyȱfromȱrentingȱtheȱwoods
toȱlocalȱwoodsmenȱforȱtimberȱharvestȱ(roughlyȱ97%ȱofȱwoodȱincomeȱandȱnearly
50%ȱofȱallȱincomeȱinȱtheȱbailliage).ȱWoodȱincomeȱalsoȱderivedȱfromȱtheȱsaleȱofȱmort
bois,ȱshortȱdeadȱsticksȱperfectȱforȱfirewood,ȱwhichȱwithȱotherȱwoodȱthatȱ“cannot
beȱ usedȱ forȱ carpentry,”ȱ generatedȱ theȱ remainderȱ ofȱ woodȱ income.24ȱ Aȱ close
analysisȱofȱtheȱexpenditureȱdescriptionsȱforȱtheȱbailliageȱandȱparkȱrevealsȱthatȱthe
countessȱalsoȱutilizedȱwoodȱresourcesȱforȱfuelȱandȱtoȱmakeȱrepairsȱinȱtheȱpark.ȱIn
particular,ȱtheȱaccountsȱindicateȱthatȱHesdin’sȱwoodȱwasȱfrequentlyȱusedȱforȱfuel
whenȱsheȱvisitedȱtheȱpark.25ȱ
Theȱ “woodȱ rent”ȱ isȱ aȱ constantȱ categoryȱ ofȱ incomeȱ forȱ Hesdinȱ calculated
separatelyȱ fromȱ otherȱ rentȱ incomeȱ (e.g.ȱ landȱ orȱ waterȱ leases),ȱ unlikeȱ inȱ the
accountsȱofȱTournehemȱandȱAire,ȱinȱwhichȱwoodȱrentsȱareȱlumpedȱinȱwithȱother
rents.ȱ Hesdinȱ likelyȱ containsȱ aȱ separateȱ administrativeȱ “woodȱ rent”ȱ section
becauseȱitȱgeneratesȱsignificantȱamountsȱofȱincome,ȱwhichȱisȱnotȱtheȱcaseȱinȱeither
TournehemȱorȱAire.ȱWoodȱincomeȱinȱHesdinȱderivedȱprimarilyȱfromȱrentingȱthe
woodsȱbyȱtheȱarpent,26ȱbutȱalsoȱderivedȱfromȱotherȱformsȱofȱwoodȱleasing.ȱThough
notȱexplicitlyȱdescribedȱinȱtheȱentries,ȱtheseȱleasesȱwereȱlikelyȱforȱtheȱrightsȱto
harvestȱcyclicallyȱtheȱlargerȱtrunksȱthroughȱpollardingȱorȱcoppicing,ȱbothȱofȱwhich
wereȱ commonȱ practicesȱ ofȱ cuttingȱ theȱ woodȱ eitherȱ atȱ theȱ midȬtrunkȱ orȱ base,
respectively,ȱtoȱcontrolȱwoodȱgrowthȱforȱoptimalȱtimberȱharvest.ȱTheȱunspecified
rentȱincomeȱmayȱalsoȱhaveȱbeenȱforȱcollectingȱmortȱbois,ȱorȱ“deadȱwood,”ȱwhich
wouldȱhaveȱbeenȱbundledȱandȱsold,ȱlikelyȱforȱkindlingȱorȱfirewood,ȱdependingȱon
theȱsizeȱofȱtheȱwood.27ȱTheȱaccountȱalsoȱrecordsȱtheȱdirectȱsaleȱofȱ4,000ȱbundled
23
Percentagesȱderivedȱfromȱ1303–1304,ȱ1306–1307,ȱandȱ1308–1309ȱtotalsȱwithȱaȱwoodȱaverageȱof
1,115ȱlivresȱaȱyear.ȱ
24
Aȱunitȱofȱmeasureȱequalingȱroughlyȱanȱacre.
25
Leȱcompteȱgénéralȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱ124,ȱno.ȱ2113.ȱ“AȱPatinȱpourȱcopperȱbusceȱpourȱl’ostelȱduȱMarésȱpar
2ȱjours,ȱ18ȱd.”;ȱandȱ124,ȱno.ȱ2114:ȱpaymentȱtoȱaȱdifferentȱmanȱtoȱcartȱitȱin:ȱ“AȱJehanȱOlieteȱpour
akariierȱceleȱbusceȱparȱ1ȱjour:ȱ5ȱs.ȱ6ȱd.”
26
Aȱunitȱofȱmeasureȱequalingȱroughlyȱanȱacre.
27
Thisȱ patternȱ hasȱ alsoȱ beenȱ recordedȱ byȱ Richardȱ Keyser,ȱ “Theȱ Transformationȱ ofȱ Traditional
WoodlandȱManagement:ȱCommercialȱSylvicultureȱinȱMedievalȱChampagne,”ȱFrenchȱHistorical
Studiesȱ32.3ȱ(2009):ȱ353–84;ȱhereȱ372–73.
sticksȱyearlyȱfromȱtheȱforestȱatȱ4ȱl.ȱperȱthousandȱforȱ16ȱl.ȱtotal28ȱandȱaȱsingularȱentry
forȱwoodȱthatȱ“cannotȱbeȱturnedȱforȱcarpentry,”ȱformingȱtheȱ3%ȱ“other”ȱwood
income.29ȱLeasingȱofȱwoodsȱwasȱsignificantlyȱmoreȱprofitableȱthanȱsellingȱwood
bundles,ȱwhichȱwereȱsoldȱandȱusedȱasȱfuel.
Accountȱentriesȱdoȱreportȱregularȱexpensesȱtoȱcutȱfirewoodȱandȱcartȱitȱtoȱthe
Marshȱ Houseȱ inȱ theȱ parkȱ forȱ theȱ countess’sȱ visits,ȱ presumablyȱ forȱ heatingȱ the
house,ȱ andȱ fuelingȱ theȱ kitchenȱ duringȱ herȱ stay.ȱ Theȱ originȱ ofȱ theȱ firewoodȱ is
unspecified,ȱthoughȱmostȱentriesȱnoteȱthatȱitȱhadȱtoȱbeȱ“cutȱandȱfelled,”ȱsoȱitȱwas
likelyȱfromȱwoodlandȱunderȱtheȱcountess’sȱcontrol.ȱItȱisȱalsoȱnotȱtheȱsmallerȱsticks
ofȱmortȱbois,ȱwhichȱareȱalreadyȱdryȱatȱharvest.ȱInȱanotherȱcase,ȱaȱJehanȱPatinȱisȱpaid
forȱeightȱdaysȱofȱ“makingȱlogsȱforȱtheȱhouseȱinȱtheȱMarshes”ȱwhichȱseemsȱtoȱbeȱfor
fuel,ȱnotȱconstruction.30ȱ
Firewoodȱ wasȱ alsoȱ cartedȱ toȱ theȱ Marshesȱ “forȱ theȱ visitȱ ofȱ theȱ signeurȱ de
Vauconlour.”31ȱInȱallȱofȱtheseȱcases,ȱgivenȱtheȱprohibitiveȱnatureȱofȱtransportation
costsȱinȱthisȱperiodȱandȱtheȱlackȱofȱrecordedȱexpenseȱtoȱpurchaseȱwoodȱinȱthe
accounts,ȱtheȱwoodȱwasȱlikelyȱdrawnȱfromȱtheȱcountess’sȱmanagedȱwoodland.32
Theȱaccountsȱalsoȱreportȱthatȱtheȱhouseholdȱoccasionallyȱdrewȱfirewoodȱfromȱthe
countess’sȱstores,ȱsuggestingȱthatȱwoodȱwasȱsetȱasideȱexpresslyȱforȱlaterȱuseȱbyȱthe
countess.33ȱTheȱaccountsȱperiodicallyȱrecordȱextraordinaryȱordersȱtoȱcutȱspecial
wood,ȱforȱaȱtaskȱthatȱisȱ(unfortunately)ȱunspecified.
Theȱonlyȱregularȱwoodȱexpenditureȱwasȱtheȱwageȱforȱtheȱsergeantȱofȱtheȱwoods;
instead,ȱ theȱ accountsȱ areȱ populatedȱ withȱ occasionalȱ expenditures,ȱ suchȱ as
expensesȱtoȱ“survey”ȱtheȱwoods34ȱorȱtoȱcutȱsomeȱspecialȱwood,35ȱorȱevenȱforȱpark
repairs.ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ inȱ theȱ trimesterȱ ofȱ Allȱ Saintsȱ 1303,ȱ theȱ fenceȱ aroundȱ the
watercressȱpondȱwasȱrepaired.36ȱTheȱaccountȱrecordsȱtheȱcuttingȱandȱcartingȱof
(likelyȱ localȱ andȱ countessȬcontrolled)ȱ woodȱ toȱ theȱ watercressȱ pond.37ȱ Though
28
ArchivesȱduȱNord,ȱLille,ȱFranceȱ(ADN)ȱmss.ȱB13597,ȱfol.ȱ6r:ȱ“pourȱiiiiȱmill[ion]sȱdeȱfagotsȱvend[u]
auȱforestelȱp[ar]ȱCol[art]ȱleȱRousȱduȱ[com]m[an]tȱdeȱJeh[an]ȱdeȱlaȱPorte”ȱ
29
Leȱcompteȱgénéralȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱ20,ȱno.ȱ315:ȱ“Deȱchokiaus,ȱentrebus,ȱescais,ȱetȱautresȱpluisseurs
mairiensȱvendusȱauȱforestierȱparȱleȱmainȱJehanȱdeȱHautemaisnil,ȱserjantȱasȱbos,ȱliquelȱneȱpooient
tornerȱaȱcarpenterie:ȱ16ȱl.ȱ3ȱs.ȱ6ȱd.”
30
ADPdCȱmss.ȱA213/1:ȱ“AȱJehanȱPatinȱpourȱfaireȱbuscheȱpourȱl’ostelȱduȱmaresȱparȱviiiȱjours,ȱxviii
d.ȱparȱjour,ȱxiiȱs.”
31
ADPdCȱ mss.ȱ A236/1:ȱ “P[ou]rȱ aidesȱ aȱ sach[er]ȱ lesȱ boisȱ pourȱ leȱ venueȱ duȱ [mon]sign[eu]rȱ de
VauconlourȱaȱHesd[in]”ȱTheȱentryȱgoesȱonȱtoȱincludeȱfishingȱforȱthisȱoccasionȱasȱwell.
32
Keyser,ȱ“Transformation,”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ27),ȱ374–75.
33
ADNȱmss.ȱB13597ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ28),ȱfol.ȱ7r,ȱ“p[ou]rȱbosȱcoup[er]ȱp[ou]rȱleȱgarnisonȱduȱmaresȱ&ȱpour
leȱquisineȱaȱPati[n]ȱp[ar]ȱ12ȱjours,ȱaȱraisonȱdeȱ16ȱd.ȱp[ar]ȱjour,ȱ16ȱs.”ȱ
34
Leȱcompteȱgénéralȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱ23,ȱno.ȱ383.
35
Leȱcompteȱgénéralȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱ25,ȱno.ȱ426:ȱ“Pourȱfaukierȱlesȱausnoisȱ[almȱtrees]ȱenȱtasque,”ȱ4ȱl.ȱ10
s.”
36
ADPdCȱmss.ȱA236/1:ȱ“Pourȱrap[er]eillierȱlesȱc[re]ssonn[ier]esȱ&ȱlesȱboisȱdentourȱixȱs.”
37
Leȱcompteȱgénéralȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱ26,ȱno.ȱ441:ȱ“Pourȱlesȱhaiesȱd’entourȱlesȱcressonnieresȱrefaire,ȱpour
possiblyȱaestheticȱinȱpurpose,ȱtheȱfenceȱwasȱmoreȱlikelyȱtoȱkeepȱtheȱeagerȱmouths
ofȱtheȱdeerȱlivingȱinȱtheȱparkȱfromȱdecimatingȱtheȱwatercressȱharvest,ȱwhichȱwas
likelyȱlaterȱconsumedȱand/orȱsold.ȱWoodȱandȱcordȱwereȱalsoȱfrequentlyȱrequired
toȱrepairȱbothȱfishingȱandȱrabbitȱnetsȱforȱMahaut’sȱhuntersȱbyȱaȱhandymanȱofȱsorts
whoȱalsoȱcleanedȱtheȱlodgesȱandȱdidȱotherȱassortedȱtasks.38ȱAsȱwithȱtheȱfirewood
forȱtheȱMarshȱHouse,ȱtheȱwoodȱwasȱprobablyȱlocalȱandȱcontrolledȱbyȱtheȱcountess
herselfȱasȱthereȱisȱnoȱcostȱforȱtheȱwoodȱrecorded,ȱonlyȱforȱlabor.39ȱThisȱpatternȱof
woodȱmanagementȱandȱuse,ȱwhichȱdrawsȱonȱtheȱbailliage’sȱnativeȱwoodȱresources
toȱmeetȱtheȱpark’sȱrepairȱandȱfuelȱneeds,ȱemphasizesȱtheȱbailliage’sȱstatusȱasȱthe
supplierȱ ofȱ theȱ parkȱ andȱ alsoȱ highlightsȱ theȱ countess’sȱ extensiveȱ usageȱ of
woodlandȱresources.ȱ
Hesdin:ȱWater
Thoughȱheavilyȱsylvan,ȱHesdinȱalsoȱboastedȱabundantȱaqueousȱresources.ȱAsȱwith
theȱwoods,ȱtheȱcountessȱleasedȱharvestingȱrights,ȱbothȱforȱreedsȱandȱforȱfish,ȱwhich
accountȱ forȱ roughlyȱ 15%ȱ ofȱ theȱ bailliage’sȱ totalȱ yearlyȱ income.ȱ Theȱ aqueous
environmentȱandȱresources,ȱmoreȱthanȱwoodland,ȱdemonstrateȱtheȱcomplicated
relationshipȱbetweenȱdirectȱconsumptionȱofȱparkȱresourcesȱandȱtheȱreinforcement
ofȱ aristocraticȱ identity.ȱ Waterȱ wasȱ homeȱ toȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ mostȱ importantȱ dietary
statusȱsymbols,ȱbutȱitȱalsoȱhousedȱwaterfowlȱandȱproducedȱaȱdesirableȱwoody
materialȱcalledȱ“osier.”
WaterȱincomeȱforȱHesdinȱisȱconsistentlyȱ51ȱl.ȱaȱtrimester,ȱorȱ153ȱl.ȱaȱyear,ȱjust
shortȱofȱ16%ȱofȱtheȱaverageȱtotalȱincomeȱinȱtheȱbailliageȱaȱyear,ȱanȱamountȱthat
rarelyȱvaries.ȱThisȱ16%ȱderivesȱfromȱonlyȱtwoȱentries;ȱeveryȱtrimesterȱtheȱ“grass
ofȱtheȱpond”ȱisȱharvestedȱforȱ40ȱl.40ȱandȱtheȱcountessȱletsȱaȱveryȱparticularȱwater
leaseȱcalledȱanȱ“avalison,”ȱwhichȱisȱ“theȱrightȱtoȱfishȱforȱfishȱwhoȱcomeȱfromȱaȱpond
orȱreservoirȱwhenȱthereȱisȱsuchȱaȱsignificantȱriseȱinȱtheȱwaterȱlevelȱthatȱitȱthrows
[theȱfish]ȱinȱtheȱriver”—forȱ11ȱl.ȱaȱtrimester.41ȱHesdin’sȱsaleȱmodelȱcontrastsȱwith
theȱdominantȱrentȱmodelȱofȱtheȱotherȱtwoȱbailliagesȱthatȱderivesȱaȱnearlyȱequal
proportionȱofȱincomeȱfromȱwaterȱleasesȱasȱfromȱwoodȱleases.ȱ
cauperȱbosȱetȱaporterȱaȱlieu,ȱbaillietȱenȱtasque:ȱ27ȱs.”ȱ
38
ADPdCȱmss.ȱ234/3:ȱ“Pourȱrefaireȱlesȱroisȱdesȱgoupilzȱ&ȱdesȱconninsȱ&ȱpourȱIȱdouzaineȱdeȱcauches,
ixȱs.”;ȱandȱADPdCȱA231/1:ȱ“Pourȱleȱcordeȱduȱp[en]iausȱasȱpoisonsȱviȱs.”ȱ
39
Leȱcompteȱgénéralȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11ȱandȱ37),ȱ26,ȱno.ȱ441:ȱ“Pourȱlesȱhaiesȱd’entourȱlesȱcressonnieresȱrefiare,
pourȱcauperȱbosȱetȱaporterȱaȱlieu,ȱbaillietȱenȱtasque:ȱ27ȱs.”
40
Forȱexample,ȱLeȱcompteȱgénéralȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱ118,ȱno.ȱ1998.
41
Leȱcompteȱgénéralȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱ118,ȱno.ȱ1999;ȱandȱ193,ȱno.ȱ3272.ȱDefinitionȱinȱindexȱbyȱDelmaire,
pp.ȱ293:ȱ“droitȱdeȱpêcherȱlesȱpoissonsȱquiȱs’échappaientȱd’unȱétangȱouȱd’unȱréservoirȱlorsȱd’une
crueȱd’eauȱpourȱseȱjeterȱsansȱuneȱrivière.”
DespiteȱtheȱdearthȱofȱwaterȬrelatedȱincome,ȱtheȱaccountȱbooksȱrecordȱaȱplethora
ofȱwaterȬrelatedȱexpenses,ȱespeciallyȱthoseȱassociatedȱwithȱfishing.ȱFishingȱisȱmost
visibleȱthroughȱitsȱincurredȱexpensesȱasȱitsȱproductȱwasȱrarelyȱsold.ȱTheȱpondsȱat
Hesdinȱregularlyȱsuppliedȱtheȱcountess’sȱtableȱwithȱfish.ȱInȱAllȱSaintsȱ1306,ȱseveral
entriesȱ recordȱ aȱ projectȱ toȱ “fixȱ theȱ boatsȱ forȱ theȱ fishery.”42ȱ Pairedȱ withȱ the
referencesȱonȱtheȱuseȱofȱseineȱnets43ȱandȱcostsȱtoȱcarryȱnetsȱtoȱfishȱinȱtheȱMarshes,44
theseȱentriesȱsuggestȱfishingȱofȱtheȱcountess’sȱpondsȱwasȱorganizedȱandȱcould
haveȱproducedȱlargeȱcatchesȱ(seineȱnetsȱtrapȱmoreȱfishȱthanȱfishingȱline),ȱwhen
required.ȱ
Freshȱfishȱwasȱaȱluxuryȱgoodȱreservedȱforȱtheȱeliteȱandȱtheȱcountess’sȱfishȱwere
forȱherȱuseȱratherȱthanȱforȱsale.45ȱBecauseȱfreshȱfishȱwasȱreservedȱforȱtheȱelite,ȱtheir
presentationȱ wouldȱ impress,ȱ andȱ beȱ appropriate,ȱ forȱ theȱ receptionȱ ofȱ the
countess’sȱwealthyȱandȱpowerfulȱguests.46ȱInȱAllȱSaintsȱ1306,ȱextraȱwoodȱwasȱcut
andȱtheȱpondsȱfishedȱforȱtheȱvisitȱofȱMasterȱLouisȱofȱClermontȱandȱ“otherȱrich
men.”47ȱTheȱpondsȱatȱHesdinȱregularlyȱsuppliedȱtheȱcountess’sȱtableȱwhenȱshe
visitedȱtheȱpark—withȱorȱwithoutȱ“richȱmen”ȱvisiting—andȱevenȱgracedȱherȱtable
inȱotherȱbailliages.48ȱInȱAscensionȱ1304,ȱtheȱaccountsȱrecordȱthatȱtheȱpondȱinȱthe
“garenne”ȱatȱtheȱparkȱandȱtheȱcanalsȱofȱtheȱMarésȱwereȱfishedȱforȱsevenȱdaysȱin
preparationȱforȱtheȱarrivalȱofȱtheȱcountess.49ȱTheȱaccountsȱalsoȱshowȱthatȱfishing
occurredȱonȱoccasionȱatȱtheȱcountess’sȱcommand.ȱFishȱalsoȱcameȱfromȱoutsideȱthe
pondsȱinȱtheȱparkȱproper.ȱInȱanȱinterestingȱcaseȱinȱtheȱsameȱterm,ȱfishingȱoccurred
atȱ theȱ Largeȱ Pondȱ inȱ Cercampȱ (aboutȱ 12ȱ milesȱ outsideȱ ofȱ Hesdin)ȱ “before
madame”ȱandȱtheȱfishȱwereȱsentȱ“back”ȱbyȱmeansȱofȱaȱmountedȱvalet,ȱpresumably
42
ADNȱ mss.ȱ B13597ȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 28),ȱ fol.ȱ 7r:ȱ “p[ou]rȱ despensȱ faisȱ p[ar]ȱ leȱ mainȱ Symo[n]ȱ leȱ Buef,
p[aie]mentȱp[ou]rȱrefaireȱlesȱbatiausȱdeȱlaȱpeski[er]eȱpourȱl’ouvrageȱduȱcarpenti[ier]ȱp[ou]rȱ5ȱjours
4ȱs.ȱp[ar]ȱjourȱ20ȱs.ȱpourȱ18ȱl.”
43
44
45
RichardȱC.ȱHoffmann,ȱ“AȱBriefȱHistoryȱofȱAquaticȱResourceȱUseȱinȱMedievalȱEurope,”ȱHelgoland
MarineȱResearchȱ59.1ȱ(SpecialȱIssue:ȱ“EcologicalȱhistoryȱofȱtheȱWaddefnȱSea”)ȱ(Aprilȱ2005),ȱ23.ȱ
46
ADNȱmss.ȱB13597ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ28),ȱfol.ȱ7vȱandȱ8r.
47
ADPdCȱmss.ȱA36/1,ȱfol.8.
48
D.ȱSerjeantsonȱandȱC.M.ȱWoolgar,ȱ“FishȱConsumptionȱinȱMedievalȱEngland,”ȱinȱFoodȱinȱMedieval
England:ȱDietȱandȱNutrition,ȱed.ȱC.M.ȱWoolgar,ȱD.ȱSerjeantson,ȱandȱT.ȱWaldronȱ(Oxford:ȱOxford
UniversityȱPress,ȱ2006),ȱ102–30;ȱandȱChristopherȱC.ȱDyer,ȱ“TheȱConsumptionȱofȱFreshȬWaterȱFish
inȱ Medievalȱ England,”ȱ Medievalȱ Fish,ȱ Fisheries,ȱ andȱ Fishpondsȱ inȱ England,ȱ ed.ȱ Michaelȱ Aston
(Oxford:ȱB.A.R.,ȱ1988),ȱ27–38;ȱandȱRichardȱC.ȱHoffmann,ȱ“EconomicȱDevelopmentȱandȱAquatic
EcosystemsȱinȱMedievalȱEurope,”ȱTheȱAmericanȱHistoricalȱReviewȱ101.3ȱ(1996),ȱ631–69;ȱandȱEdward
Roberts,ȱ“TheȱBishopȱofȱWinchester’sȱFishpondsȱinȱHampshire,ȱ1150–1400:ȱtheirȱDevelopment,
Function,ȱandȱManagement,”ȱProceedingsȱofȱtheȱHampshireȱFieldȱClubȱandȱArchaeologicalȱSocietyȱ42
(1986):ȱ125–38.
49
Leȱcompteȱgénéralȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱ199–200,ȱno.ȱ3401.
toȱbeȱpreparedȱforȱtheȱcountess’sȱconsumption.50ȱThoughȱambiguous,ȱthisȱentry
mayȱmeanȱthatȱtheȱcountessȱenjoyedȱwatchingȱothersȱfish.ȱ
Theȱaccountsȱshowȱnoȱevidenceȱthatȱtheȱpondsȱwereȱdrainedȱinȱbetweenȱfish
harvestsȱorȱplowedȱandȱseededȱwithȱcereals,ȱasȱRichardȱC.ȱHoffmannȱarguesȱwas
consideredȱtheȱ“bestȱpractice”ȱforȱfishȱpondsȱinȱthisȱperiod.51ȱThisȱisȱlikelyȱbecause
theȱpondsȱatȱHesdinȱwereȱnotȱfisheries;ȱMahaut’sȱpondȱproduceȱwasȱintendedȱfor
limitedȱhouseholdȱuseȱandȱnotȱforȱsale.52ȱAdditionally,ȱMahaut’sȱpondsȱwereȱnot
onlyȱforȱfish;ȱtheyȱwereȱhomeȱtoȱcossetedȱheronsȱandȱswans.ȱThisȱhouseholdȱuse
ofȱ fishȱ (andȱ fowl)ȱ caughtȱ fromȱ theȱ park’sȱ pondsȱ complicatesȱ theȱ expenditureȬ
incomeȱbreakdown;ȱitȱisȱimpossibleȱtoȱcountȱtheȱnumberȱofȱfish—orȱevenȱattempt
toȱ calculateȱ theȱ equivalentȱ monetaryȱ valueȱ ofȱ fishȱ caughtȱ fromȱ theȱ park’s
ponds—toȱknowȱifȱraisingȱfishȱwasȱmoreȱeconomicalȱthanȱpurchasing.ȱTheȱponds
wereȱnotȱmaintainedȱjustȱforȱ“practicality”ȱorȱincome,ȱtheyȱwereȱmaintainedȱto
produceȱfreshȱfishȱasȱsymbolicȱrepresentationsȱofȱpowerȱandȱasȱhomesȱforȱequally
symbolicȱbirds.ȱ
TheȱmultiȬpurposeȱnatureȱofȱtheȱpondsȱwouldȱhaveȱbeenȱaȱfurtherȱcomplication
toȱ theȱ drainȬandȬleaveȬfallowȱ methodȱ studiedȱ byȱ Hoffmann.ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ the
accountsȱalsoȱdocumentȱtheȱfrequent,ȱbutȱirregular,ȱcuttingȱofȱtheȱwillowsȱand
osiersȱ(aȱtreeȱinȱtheȱgenusȱSalixȱandȱcloselyȱrelatedȱtoȱtheȱwillow53)ȱinȱtheȱMarés.54
Forȱ aȱ smallȱ cost,ȱ theȱ osierȱ wasȱ cartedȱ upȱ toȱ theȱ castle55ȱ andȱ utilizedȱ byȱ the
household,ȱpossiblyȱforȱmakingȱbasketsȱasȱwithȱmodernȱusage.ȱTheȱaccountsȱalso
indicateȱthatȱtheȱpondsȱofȱHesdinȱwereȱhomeȱtoȱcarefullyȱnurturedȱwaterfowl.
Heronsȱhaveȱaȱmostȱsignificantȱpresenceȱinȱtheȱaccountȱbook.ȱThereȱisȱonlyȱone
passingȱmentionȱofȱswansȱinȱtheȱpondsȱinȱtheȱaccountȱbooksȱinȱtheseȱyears;ȱan
50
51
Hoffmann,ȱ“MedievalȱFishing,”ȱ378.
52
AȱcaseȱofȱlimitedȱprofitȱcanȱbeȱseenȱinȱHoffmann’sȱnearȬcontemporaneousȱstudyȱofȱtheȱducal
pondsȱinȱBurgundy.ȱRichardȱC.ȱHoffmann,ȱ“’CarpesȱpourȱleȱDuc.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ:’ȱTheȱOperationȱofȱFishȱPonds
atȱLaperrièreȬsurȬSaône,ȱBurgundy,ȱ1338–1352,”ȱArcheofauna:ȱRevistaȱdeȱlaȱAsociaciónȱEspañolaȱde
Arqueozoologíaȱ4ȱ(1995):ȱ33–45.
53
Theȱaccountȱbooksȱuseȱtwoȱdifferentȱwordsȱ“saus”ȱforȱwillowȱandȱ“osiere”ȱforȱosier,ȱthoughȱthere
mayȱhaveȱbeenȱnoȱrealȱdistinctionȱinȱpractice.
54
Leȱcompteȱgénéralȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱ128,ȱno.ȱ2108;ȱ128,ȱno.ȱ2109;ȱ200,ȱno.ȱ3403.
55
ADNȱmss.ȱB13597ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ28),ȱfol.ȱ7v.
expenseȱtoȱ“monitorȱtheȱswansȱofȱtheȱMarésȱforȱoneȱday.”56ȱFeedingȱtheȱheronsȱcost
3ȱs.ȱeachȱday,ȱforȱaȱtotalȱofȱ25ȱl.ȱ19ȱs.ȱforȱtheȱtermȱofȱAllȱSaintsȱ1306.57ȱ
Theȱcountessȱalsoȱretainedȱaȱguardȱforȱtheȱheronsȱwhoȱwasȱpaidȱ6ȱd.ȱtournois
eachȱday,ȱforȱaȱtotalȱofȱ4ȱl.ȱ11ȱs.ȱ6ȱd.ȱinȱAllȱSaintsȱ1306.ȱTheȱaccountsȱmentionȱa
“haironniere”ȱasȱaȱgeographicalȱreferenceȱandȱrecordȱtheȱcostsȱforȱphysicalȱsupplies
toȱcarryȱwarmȱwaterȱintoȱtheȱheronry.58ȱClearlyȱtheȱCountessȱexpendedȱgreatȱcare
onȱtheȱherons’ȱupkeep.59ȱTheȱdominanceȱofȱtheȱheronȱinȱtheȱaccountȱlikelyȱrelates
toȱtheirȱimportantȱroleȱinȱtrainingȱfalconsȱforȱtheȱhunt.60ȱMahaut’sȱbiographer,ȱlate
nineteenthȬcenturyȱ directorȱ ofȱ theȱ Archivesȱ departémentalesȱ deȱ PasȬdeȬCalais,
JulesȬMarieȱRichard,ȱreportsȱthatȱMahautȱwasȱfondȱofȱfalconry,ȱthoughȱnoȱknown
documentsȱ attestȱ toȱ herȱ directȱ participationȱ inȱ falconry.61ȱ Otherȱ scholarsȱ have
suggestedȱ thatȱ enclosedȱ parksȱ likeȱ Hesdin,ȱ thoughȱ tooȱ smallȱ forȱ aȱ trueȱ longȬ
rangingȱmountedȱhuntȱàȱforce,ȱcouldȱhaveȱhostedȱfemaleȱhuntingȱpursuits,ȱsuchȱas
falconry.62ȱ Frederickȱ II,ȱ authorȱ ofȱ theȱ medievalȱ treatiseȱ onȱ hawking,ȱ contends
falconryȱwasȱbestȱpracticedȱinȱaȱwateryȱenvironment.63ȱIfȱHesdinȱandȱtheȱMarshes
56
Leȱcompteȱgénéralȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱ27,ȱno.ȱ459.ȱIncidentally,ȱthisȱalsoȱdemonstratesȱtheȱpresenceȱof
swansȱinȱtheȱParkȱthreeȱyearsȱearlierȱthanȱtheȱ1306ȱarrivalȱthatȱHagopianȱvanȱBurenȱposited.ȱVan
Buren,ȱ“RealityȱandȱLiteraryȱRomanceȱinȱtheȱParkȱofȱHesdin,”ȱ129.ȱTheȱrarityȱofȱswansȱdisplayed
inȱtheȱaccountȱbooksȱforȱtheseȱyearsȱisȱsurprisingȱconsideringȱtheȱincreasingȱsignificanceȱofȱswan
asȱ aȱ highȬstatusȱ foodȱ markerȱ inȱ England,ȱ andȱ likelyȱ theȱ otherȱ northernȱ courts,ȱ inȱ theȱ early
fourteenthȱcenturies.ȱSeeȱUmbertoȱAlbarellaȱandȱRichardȱThomas,ȱ“Theyȱdinedȱonȱcrane:ȱbird
consumption,ȱwildfowlingȱandȱstatusȱinȱmedievalȱEngland,”ȱActaȱzoologicaȱcracoviensiaȱ45,ȱspecial
issueȱ(2002):ȱ23–38;ȱhereȱfig.ȱ5,ȱpp.ȱ28.
57
ADNȱmss.ȱB13597ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ28),ȱfol.ȱ8r.
58
AdPdCȱmss.ȱA231/1.
59
Asȱwithȱfishȱandȱtheȱotherȱelementsȱofȱtheȱpark,ȱtheȱkeepingȱandȱeatingȱofȱfowlȱhadȱadditional
symbolicȱconnotations,ȱwhichȱIȱdoȱnotȱaddressȱhere.ȱSee:ȱD.ȱSerjeantson,ȱ“Birds:ȱFoodȱandȱaȱMark
ofȱStatus,”ȱFoodȱinȱMedievalȱEngland:ȱDietȱandȱNutrition,ȱed.ȱC.M.ȱWoolgar,ȱD.ȱSerjeantson,ȱandȱT.
Waldronȱ(Oxford:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2007),ȱ131–47;ȱandȱD.J.ȱStone,ȱ“TheȱConsumptionȱand
SupplyȱofȱBirdsȱinȱlateȱMedievalȱEngland,”ȱFoodȱinȱMedievalȱEngland:ȱDietȱandȱNutrition,ȱed.ȱC.M.
Woolgar,ȱD.ȱSerjeantson,ȱandȱT.ȱWaldronȱ(Oxford:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2007),ȱ148–61.ȱ
60
SharonȱFarmer,ȱ“LandscapesȱofȱPowerȱc.ȱ1300”ȱpresentedȱNov.ȱ2009ȱatȱtheȱUniversityȱofȱMichigan.
Inȱfact,ȱFrederickȱIIȱdevotedȱanȱentireȱbookȱtoȱ“HeronȱHawkingȱwithȱSakersȱandȱotherȱFalcons.”
FrederickȱIIȱofȱHohenstaufen,ȱTheȱArtȱofȱFalconry:ȱBeingȱtheȱDeȱarteȱdeȱvenandiȱcumȱavibusȱofȱFrederick
IIȱofȱHohenstaufen,ȱed.ȱCaseyȱA.ȱWoodȱandȱF.ȱMarjorieȱFyfeȱ(Stanford,ȱCA:ȱStanfordȱUniversity
Press,ȱ1943),ȱ317–57.
61
OtherȱaccountȱbookȱentriesȱsupportȱRichard’sȱconclusion,ȱsuchȱasȱhawkingȱequipmentȱgivenȱas
rentȱ payment.ȱ JulesȬMarieȱ Richard,ȱ Mahaut,ȱ comtesseȱ d’Artoisȱ andȱ deȱ Bourgogneȱ (1302–1329)
(Monein:ȱEditionsȱPyremonde,ȱ2006),ȱ97.ȱThisȱisȱaȱreprintȱofȱRichard’sȱ1887ȱbiography:ȱUneȱpetiteȬ
nièceȱdeȱsaintȱLouis,ȱMahaut,ȱComtesseȱd’ArtoisȱetȱdeȱBourgogneȱ(1302–1329):ȱétudeȱsurȱlaȱvieȱprivée,ȱles
artsȱetȱl’industrieȱenȱArtoisȱetȱàȱParisȱauȱcommencementȱduȱXIVeȱsiècleȱ(Paris:ȱH.ȱChampion,ȱ1887).
Unfortunately,ȱtheȱpaginationȱwasȱnotȱpreservedȱinȱtheȱnewȱedition.
62
NaomiȱSykes,ȱ“AnimalȱBonesȱandȱAnimalȱParks,”ȱTheȱMedievalȱPark:ȱNewȱPerspectives,ȱed.ȱRobert
Liddiardȱ(Macclesfield:ȱWindgatherȱPress,ȱ2007),ȱ49–62;ȱhereȱ53–55.
63
FrederickȱII,ȱTheȱArtȱofȱFalconryȱ(seeȱnoteȱ60),ȱ321–22.
wereȱindeedȱaȱvenueȱforȱMahaut’sȱfalconry,ȱitȱwouldȱaddȱanȱadditionalȱlayerȱtoȱthe
complicatedȱwebȱofȱstatusȱandȱinternalȱresourceȱconsumptionȱandȱperhapsȱexplain
whyȱMahaut’sȱpondsȱwereȱnotȱdrained.
TheȱparkȱatȱHesdinȱhadȱaȱwatercressȱpondȱwhoseȱproductȱwasȱsoldȱoccasionally
butȱlikelyȱalsoȱservedȱanȱaestheticȱpurposeȱasȱwatercressȱpondsȱwereȱrentedȱinȱthe
bailliageȱ ofȱ Langley.64ȱ Theȱ accountȱ bookȱ indicatesȱ thatȱ thereȱ wasȱ someȱ sortȱ of
barrier,ȱ“laȱhaie,”ȱlikelyȱaȱhedge,ȱaroundȱtheȱwatercressȱpondsȱthatȱoccasionallyȱhad
toȱbeȱ“remade.”65ȱBasedȱonȱtheȱadviceȱgivenȱbyȱPieroȱCrescenziȱinȱhisȱca.ȱ1305
manual,ȱRuraliaȱCommoda,ȱonȱconstructingȱaȱpleasureȱpark,ȱprotectionȱofȱponds
fromȱanimalȱpredatorsȱwasȱintegral.ȱHeȱsuggestsȱthatȱsmallȱwallsȱbeȱconstructed
aroundȱpondsȱ“soȱneitherȱotterȱnorȱotherȱnocturnalȱanimalȱisȱableȱtoȱenter,ȱand
ropesȱorȱvinesȱareȱstretchedȱoutȱoverȱtheȱpond,ȱbyȱwhichȱtheȱpredatoryȱbirdsȱare
frightened.”66ȱHedgesȱorȱcoversȱwouldȱhaveȱalsoȱkeptȱtheȱhungryȱdeerȱfromȱeating
produceȱdestinedȱforȱotherȱpurposes.ȱItȱisȱlikelyȱthisȱneedȱforȱprotection,ȱfromȱboth
humanȱandȱanimal,ȱthatȱnecessitatedȱaȱwaterȱguard.ȱInȱfact,ȱtheȱparkȱhadȱtwo
guards,ȱoneȱforȱtheȱ“waters”ȱandȱoneȱforȱtheȱMarés,ȱeachȱearningȱroughlyȱ10ȱd.ȱa
day.ȱTheȱguardingȱofȱtheȱwaters,ȱtheȱmarshes,ȱandȱtheȱheronsȱtogetherȱcostȱ17ȱl.ȱ9
s.ȱ2.8ȱd.ȱaȱtrimester,ȱroughlyȱ52ȱl.ȱperȱannum,ȱ10%ȱofȱtheȱaverageȱnonȬworksȱyearly
expense.ȱTheseȱwaterȱexpensesȱ(allȱfromȱtheȱpark)ȱconstituteȱmoreȱthanȱaȱthirdȱof
theȱ averageȱ yearlyȱ expendituresȱ inȱ theȱ bailliageȱ notȱ recordedȱ inȱ theȱ “Works”
account;ȱmaintainingȱtheȱbeautyȱandȱutilizingȱtheȱwatersȱwasȱanȱintegralȱpartȱof
parkȱmanagement.
Hesdin:ȱLand
Asȱ withȱ theȱ waterȱ sectionȱ andȱ inȱ contradistinctionȱ toȱ thatȱ onȱ wood,ȱ land
expendituresȱfarȱoutstripȱincomeȱinȱthisȱcategory.ȱPartiallyȱthisȱresultsȱfromȱthe
biasȱinȱtheȱaccountȱbookȱagainstȱpaymentȱinȱkindȱandȱinternalȱuse,ȱbutȱprimarily
becauseȱ landȱ expensesȱ areȱ numerousȱ andȱ incomeȱ lowȱ inȱ Hesdinȱ dueȱ toȱ the
aestheticȱandȱentertainmentȱdemandsȱofȱtheȱpark;ȱlandȱwasȱnotȱleasedȱasȱitȱwasȱin
TournehemȱandȱAire.ȱExpensesȱrevolveȱaroundȱfeedingȱandȱstockingȱanimalsȱin
theȱmenagerieȱandȱtheȱlabor,ȱfood,ȱandȱtransportȱcostsȱconcerningȱhuntingȱdeer,
rabbits,ȱandȱunwantedȱpredators.
64
65
ADPdCȱmss.ȱA236/1.
66
“[.ȱ.ȱ.]ȱneȱlodriaȱvelȱaliudȱanimalȱnocensȱintrareȱpossit,ȱetȱfunesȱautȱvitesȱsuperȱeamȱtendantur,
quibusȱavesȱterreanturȱrapaces.”ȱPetrusȱdeȱCrescentiisȱ(PietroȱdeȱCrescenzi),ȱRuraliaȱcommoda:ȱdas
WissenȱdesȱvollkommenenȱLandwirtsȱumȱ1300,ȱed.ȱWillȱRichterȱandȱReinhiltȱRichterȬBergmeier.ȱȱ4
vols.ȱȱEditionesȱHeidelbergenses,ȱ25ȱ(Heidelberg:ȱC.ȱWinter,ȱ1995),ȱvol.ȱ3,ȱ126.ȱ
Despiteȱhay’sȱminorȱrecordedȱfiscalȱimpact,ȱitȱfiguresȱprominentlyȱinȱtheȱaccount
booksȱeachȱAllȱSaintsȱterm.67ȱFromȱtheseȱentriesȱitȱisȱpossibleȱtoȱdetermineȱthatȱhay,
orȱ“fain,”ȱwasȱharvestedȱfromȱtwoȱmainȱlocalesȱwithinȱtheȱparkȱfromȱtheȱ“gardens
aboveȱandȱbelowȱtheȱhouseȱofȱtheȱMarés”ȱandȱfromȱtheȱareaȱ“aboveȱandȱbelowȱthe
gardens.”68ȱ Theseȱ yieldsȱ wereȱ thenȱ cut,ȱ bound,ȱ andȱ takenȱ toȱ barns.69ȱ Thisȱ was
executedȱbyȱoneȱman,ȱwhoȱwasȱpaidȱ10ȱl.ȱ18ȱs.ȱ4ȱd.ȱforȱ164ȱdaysȱofȱcutting.70ȱThe
cutting,ȱbinding,ȱandȱhaulingȱofȱtheȱhayȱcostȱanȱadditionalȱ46ȱl.ȱ13ȱs.,ȱbringingȱthe
costȱforȱtheȱannualȱAllȱSaints’ȱharvestȱandȱstorageȱtoȱroughlyȱ60ȱl.,ȱaboutȱ12%ȱof
theȱaverageȱyearlyȱexpendituresȱwithȱnoȱclearȱelaborationȱofȱitsȱmonetaryȱvalue.71
Wheatȱandȱoatsȱwereȱalsoȱharvested;ȱhowever,ȱtheyȱwereȱprimarilyȱreceivedȱin
rentsȱandȱfromȱtaxesȱinȱkind,ȱreturningȱanȱinsignificantȱincomeȱwhenȱsoldȱ(41ȱl.ȱon
average)ȱwithȱanȱunspecifiedȱamountȱstockpiledȱforȱtheȱcountess’sȱuse.72ȱThus,ȱit
isȱpossibleȱtoȱdemonstrateȱthatȱinternalȱuseȱofȱharvestȱhayȱandȱcerealsȱoccurred,
butȱdueȱtoȱtheȱformȱofȱtheȱaccounts,ȱitȱisȱimpossibleȱtoȱdetermineȱexactlyȱhow
muchȱ wasȱ keptȱ forȱ theȱ countess’sȱ useȱ orȱ howȱ muchȱ itȱ wouldȱ beȱ worthȱ in
comparisonȱtoȱotherȱnaturalȱresources.
HagopianȱVanȱBurenȱnotedȱthatȱtheȱlordsȱofȱHesdinȱmaintainedȱaȱmenagerieȱand
anȱaviary,ȱbutȱdidȱnotȱprovideȱanyȱdetails.73ȱTheȱaccountȱbooksȱcanȱofferȱsome
insightȱ onȱ thisȱ topicȱ withȱ multipleȱ expendituresȱ forȱ animalsȱ andȱ theirȱ feed.
Unspecifiedȱbirdsȱwereȱpurchasedȱtoȱliveȱinȱtheȱaviary.ȱBirdȱfeedȱwasȱpurchased
everyȱtrimester,ȱusuallyȱwheatȱandȱsometimesȱhempȱ(probablyȱseeds,ȱasȱinȱmodern
birdȱfeed,ȱthoughȱitȱisȱunspecified).74ȱTheȱwheatȱcostȱfromȱ9ȱs.75ȱtoȱ110ȱs.,76ȱwhileȱthe
hempȱ generallyȱ costȱ more,ȱ upȱ toȱ 45ȱ s.ȱ aȱ load,77ȱ dependingȱ onȱ theȱ amount
purchasedȱofȱboth.78ȱInȱoneȱcase,ȱtheȱcountessȱevenȱorderedȱaȱretainerȱtoȱseekȱout
67
Forȱexample,ȱcutȱhayȱwasȱcartedȱtoȱtheȱbarnsȱorȱgivenȱasȱfeedȱtoȱanimalsȱinȱtheȱPark,ȱbutȱthe
recordedȱexpenseȱinȱtheȱaccountȱbookȱisȱactuallyȱforȱtheȱlaborȱandȱtoolsȱinvolvedȱinȱtheȱcutting,
notȱforȱtheȱvalueȱofȱtheȱhayȱitself.ȱThisȱleavesȱtheȱspecificsȱ(amount,ȱincome,ȱlength,ȱetc.)ȱofȱtheȱhay
harvestȱaȱmystery.
68
Leȱcompteȱgénéralȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱ25,ȱno.ȱ427;ȱ25,ȱno.ȱ428.
69
70
71
Forȱexample,ȱasȱinȱaȱsimilarȱseriesȱofȱevents,ȱtoȱaȱdifferentȱlaborer,ȱinȱADNȱmss.ȱB13597ȱ(seeȱnote
28),ȱfol.ȱ7v.
72
73
HagopianȱVanȱBuren,ȱ“RealityȱandȱLiteraryȱRomance”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ120.
74
Forȱexample,ȱADNȱmss.ȱB13597ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ28),ȱfol.ȱ8:ȱ“P[ou]rȱoiselesȱacetesȱenȱceȱt[er]meȱp[ou]r
mettreȱenȱleȱgaiole,ȱlxȱs.”ȱandȱ“P[ou]rȱiiȱsest[ier]sȱandȱmineȱdeȱbleȱaceteȱpourȱlesȱoiseles,ȱ110ȱs.”
Also,ȱfol.ȱ95v:”P[ou]rȱkanevuiseȱachateeȱp[ou]rȱlesȱoiselesȱiiiȱs.ȱviiiȱd.”ȱandȱ“P[ou]rȱiiiȱmimesȱde
bleyȱachateȱp[ou]rȱlesȱoiselesȱxxiiiiȱs.ȱiiiȱd.”
75
76
ADNȱmss.ȱB13597ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ28),ȱfol.ȱ8.
77
78
Inȱ1303,ȱ“olivete,”ȱwhichȱDelmaireȱdefinesȱasȱaȱdistilledȱoilȱforȱconsumptionȱwasȱboughtȱtoȱfeed
hempȱinȱtheȱriverȱofȱAuthie,ȱinȱtheȱneighboringȱbailliage,ȱtoȱfeedȱtheȱbirds.79ȱThe
birdsȱthemselvesȱcostȱseveralȱsousȱeachȱatȱpurchase.ȱTheȱcountessȱpaidȱ29ȱs.ȱ8ȱd.ȱfor
purchasedȱbirdsȱinȱ1303,80ȱ5ȱs.ȱforȱ“littleȱbabyȱbirds”ȱinȱ1304,81ȱandȱ15ȱs.ȱforȱthe
purchaseȱofȱbirdsȱinȱ1306.82ȱKeepingȱtheseȱbirds—whichȱhaveȱnoȱspecifiedȱuseȱand
Iȱ canȱ onlyȱ guessȱ wereȱ toȱ enhanceȱ statusȱ andȱ giveȱ pleasureȱ toȱ parkȱ visitors—
requiredȱ someȱ costȱ andȱ effort.ȱ Givenȱ theirȱ significantȱ numerical,ȱ ifȱ notȱ fiscal
presence,ȱinȱtheȱaccount,ȱtheȱbirdsȱexemplifyȱtheȱcloseȱmanagementȱofȱtheȱpark’s
landscape.
Theȱ countessȱ keptȱ peacocks,ȱ inȱ additionȱ toȱ theȱ unnamedȱ aviaryȱ residents,
althoughȱitȱisȱunclearȱifȱtheseȱwereȱ“freeȬrange”ȱorȱconfinedȱtoȱtheȱaviary.ȱTheȱfirst
entryȱconcerningȱtheȱpeacocksȱfallsȱinȱCandlemasȱ1303–1304ȱandȱtheȱentriesȱforȱthe
purchaseȱofȱtheirȱfoodȱappearȱonlyȱoccasionallyȱinȱtheȱaccountsȱcoveredȱinȱthis
study.83ȱOnȱCandlemasȱ1303–1304,ȱ1ȱsestierȱ(roughlyȱ8/10ȱofȱaȱliter)ȱofȱoatsȱwas
purchasedȱ forȱ theȱ peacocksȱ costingȱ 9ȱ s.ȱ Byȱ Ascensionȱ 1307,ȱ theȱ oatsȱ forȱ the
peacocksȱ costȱ 31ȱ s.ȱ 6ȱ d.84ȱ Itȱ isȱ notȱ knownȱ ifȱ theȱ numberȱ ofȱ peacocksȱ increased
(eitherȱthroughȱpurchaseȱorȱselfȬpropagation),ȱorȱifȱtheȱcostȱforȱoatsȱincreased;ȱboth
scenariosȱ areȱ possibleȱ asȱ grainȱ pricesȱ wereȱ increasingȱ inȱ thisȱ period.85ȱ The
peacocks,ȱthoughȱlessȱexpensiveȱthanȱotherȱbirds,ȱconstituteȱanotherȱmanagement
costȱandȱelucidateȱsomeȱbirdȱmanagementȱpractices.ȱPeacocksȱwereȱonlyȱrarely
huntedȱandȱeatenȱandȱtheyȱwereȱnotȱusedȱtoȱmanageȱotherȱanimalȱpopulations;
theirȱpresenceȱreinforcesȱHesdin’sȱstatusȱasȱanȱaestheticȱestate.
Anotherȱanimalȱthatȱappearsȱinȱtheȱaccountȱbookȱthatȱreinforcesȱtheȱestate’s
statusȱasȱaȱ“pleasureȱpark”ȱisȱtheȱcountess’sȱpetȱbeaver.ȱTheȱbeaverȱwasȱregularly
fedȱbread,ȱwhichȱwasȱpurchasedȱeachȱtrimesterȱatȱtheȱcostȱofȱ2ȱd.ȱeachȱday,ȱtotaling
28ȱs.ȱ2ȱd.ȱinȱAllȱSaintsȱ130386ȱandȱ15ȱs.ȱ10ȱd.ȱinȱAscensionȱ1304.87ȱUnfortunately,ȱthe
beaverȱdiedȱonȱDecemberȱ13,ȱ1306ȱandȱdoesȱnotȱseemȱtoȱhaveȱbeenȱreplaced.88ȱIn
RobertȱFossier’sȱmonumentalȱoeuvre,ȱLeȱCommerceȱdesȱFourrureȱenȱOccidentȱàȱlaȱfin
theȱbirdsȱinsteadȱofȱtheȱhemp,ȱalongȱwithȱtheȱwheat,ȱLeȱcompteȱgeneralȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱ304;ȱandȱ27,
no.ȱ456.
79
Leȱcompteȱgénéralȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱ124,ȱno.ȱ2102.ȱ
80
81
82
83
HagopianȱVanȱBuren,ȱ“RealityȱandȱLiteraryȱRomance,”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ129.
84
ADNȱmss.ȱB13597ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ28),ȱfol.ȱ57v.ȱAȱsestier,ȱorȱsetier,ȱwasȱroughlyȱ8/10ȱofȱaȱliterȱaccording
toȱDelmaire,ȱLeȱcompteȱgénéralȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱcxviii.
85
AlainȱDerville,ȱL’agricultureȱduȱnordȱauȱMoyenȱAgeȱ:ȱArtois,ȱCambresis,ȱFlandreȱWallonneȱ(Villeneuve
d’Ascq:ȱPressesȱUniversitairesȱduȱSeptentrion,ȱ1999).
86
87
88
ADPdCȱmss.ȱA221/4:ȱP[ou]rȱleȱpainȱaȱleȱbievreȱduȱjourȱdeȱleȱTouss[ains]ȱjusq[ue]sȱp[ar]ȱtoutȱle
xiii[e]ȱdeȱdecembreȱq[ue]ȱelȱeȱmorutȱq[ui]ȱsontȱxliiiȱjoursȱiiȱd.ȱp[ar]ȱjourȱviiȱs.ȱiiȱd.
duȱMoyenȱAge,ȱheȱnotesȱthatȱEuropeanȱbeaversȱwereȱnotȱasȱpopularȱforȱtheirȱfurȱas
Americanȱbeaversȱwere.89ȱNevertheless,ȱtheyȱwereȱhunted,ȱoftenȱforȱtheirȱmusk,
andȱalsoȱbecauseȱofȱtheirȱdestructiveȱandȱobstructiveȱnature.90ȱThus,ȱtheyȱwere
nearlyȱ extinctȱ inȱ theȱ wildȱ byȱ 1376ȱ whenȱ Fossierȱ reportsȱ thatȱ theȱ Duchessȱ of
Burgundyȱreceivedȱoneȱasȱaȱgiftȱandȱreportedlyȱexclaimedȱsheȱhadȱneverȱseenȱone
before.91ȱMahautȱ(andȱpresumablyȱherȱfatherȱbeforeȱher)ȱkeptȱtheȱbeaverȱasȱpart
ofȱtheȱmenagerieȱbecauseȱofȱitsȱrarity;ȱitȱwasȱaȱmarvelȱandȱaȱdemonstrationȱof
powerȱandȱwealth.
Huntingȱasȱsportȱandȱforȱstatus,ȱtoȱeliminateȱunwantedȱanimalȱpredators,ȱand
forȱ foodȱ andȱ incomeȱ (rabbits)ȱ wereȱ allȱ integralȱ toȱ theȱ managementȱ ofȱ an
aristocraticȱ estate.ȱ Numerousȱ scholarsȱ haveȱ exploredȱ theȱ roleȱ ofȱ hunting92ȱ in
aristocraticȱculture,ȱespeciallyȱinȱEngland,ȱandȱsomeȱhaveȱevenȱarguedȱthatȱitȱwas
theȱprimaryȱpurposeȱofȱtheȱnobleȱpark.93ȱAlthoughȱtheȱsignificantȱnumberȱofȱuses
alreadyȱenumeratedȱbeliesȱhuntingȱasȱtheȱprimaryȱpurposeȱofȱHesdinȱ(orȱtheȱother
estatesȱunderȱtheȱcountess’sȱcontrol),ȱentriesȱandȱexpendituresȱconcerningȱhunting
occurredȱ frequentlyȱ andȱ cementȱ Hesdin’sȱ designedȱ “pleasureȱ park”ȱ status.
Althoughȱnoȱdirectȱreferencesȱtoȱaristocraticȱhuntingȱappearȱinȱtheȱaccountȱbooks
forȱthisȱstudy’sȱyears,ȱmultipleȱentriesȱrecordȱaȱbevyȱofȱdogsȱsupportedȱbyȱthe
countessȱ atȱ Hesdin.94ȱ Dogsȱ wereȱ fundamentalȱ toȱ theȱ aristocraticȱ hunt,ȱ a
requirementȱ thoroughlyȱ expressedȱ byȱ Gastonȱ Phoebus,ȱ Countȱ ofȱ Foix,ȱ inȱ his
masterpiece,ȱLeȱLivreȱdeȱlaȱchasse,ȱwrittenȱinȱlateȱfourteenthȬcentury.ȱ
89
RobertȱFossier,ȱLeȱCommerceȱdeȱFourrureȱenȱOccidentȱàȱlaȱfinȱduȱMoyenȱAge,ȱ2ȱvols.ȱ(Paris:ȱEcole
FrançaiseȱdeȱRome,ȱPalaisȱFarnèse,ȱ1978),ȱvol.ȱ1,ȱpp.ȱ111–12.
90
BryonyȱColes,ȱBeaversȱinȱBritain’sȱPast.ȱWARPȱOccasionalȱPaper,ȱ19ȱ(Oxford:ȱOxbowȱBooksȱand
WARP,ȱ2006).
91
Fossier,ȱLeȱCommerceȱdeȱFourrure,ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ89),ȱ109.
92
JohnȱCummins,ȱ“Veneursȱs’enȱvontȱenȱParadis:ȱMedievalȱHuntingȱandȱtheȱ“Natural”ȱLandscape,”
Inventingȱ Medievalȱ Landscapes:ȱ Sensesȱ ofȱ Placeȱ inȱ Westernȱ Europe,ȱ ed.ȱ Johnȱ Howeȱ (Gainesville:
Universityȱ Pressȱ ofȱ Florida,ȱ 2002),ȱ 33–56;ȱ andȱ Cummins,ȱ Theȱ Houndȱ andȱ theȱ Hawk:ȱ Theȱ Artȱ of
MedievalȱHuntingȱ(London:ȱWeidenfieldȱ&ȱNicolson,ȱ1988);ȱandȱPeterȱHerring,ȱ“CornishȱMedieval
DeerȱParks,”ȱTheȱLieȱofȱtheȱLand:ȱAspectsȱofȱtheȱArchaeologyȱandȱHistoryȱofȱtheȱDesignedȱLandscapesȱin
theȱSouthȱWestȱofȱEngland,ȱed.ȱRobertȱWilsonȬNorthȱ(Exeter:ȱTheȱMintȱPressȱandȱDevonȱGardens
Trust,ȱ 2003),ȱ 34–50;ȱ andȱ Jeanȱ Birrell,ȱ “Whoȱ Poachedȱ theȱ King’sȱ Deer?:ȱ Aȱ Studyȱ inȱ Thirteenth
CenturyȱCrime,”ȱMidlandȱHistoryȱ7ȱ(1982):ȱ9–25.
93
Stephenȱ A.ȱ Mileson,ȱ Parksȱ inȱ Medievalȱ England.ȱ Medievalȱ Historyȱ andȱ Archaeologyȱ ȱ (Oxford:
OxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2009).ȱToȱsomeȱextent,ȱDuceppeȬLamarreȱcharacterizesȱHesdinȱinȱthis
way,ȱwhichȱIȱbelieveȱoversimplifiesȱtheȱcomplexȱnetworkȱofȱinterrelationshipsȱbetweenȱnatural
resources,ȱfood,ȱpower,ȱandȱstatus.
94
Interestingly,ȱthisȱtreatiseȱwasȱdedicatedȱtoȱPhilipȱtheȱBold,ȱDukeȱofȱBurgundyȱ(theȱmanȱtoȱwhom
theȱ designȱ ofȱ theȱ Parkȱ atȱ Hesdinȱ wasȱ originallyȱ attributed),ȱ andȱ aȱ renownedȱ hunter.ȱ Gaston
Phoebus,ȱ Countȱ ofȱ Foix,ȱ Theȱ Huntingȱ Bookȱ ofȱ Gastonȱ Phoebus:ȱ manuscritȱ francaisȱ 616,ȱ Paris,
Bibliothequeȱnationale.ȱManuscriptsȱinȱMiniature,ȱ3ȱ(London:ȱHarveyȱMiller,ȱ1998).
InȱtheȱtermȱofȱAllȱSaintsȱinȱ1303,ȱaȱClambautȱleȱGoupilleurȱ(“theȱGreyhounder”)
wasȱpaidȱtoȱoverseeȱfiveȱgreyhoundsȱandȱthreeȱboarhoundsȱfromȱAscensionȱDay
toȱAllȱSaintsȱDay,ȱ2ȱd.ȱperȱgreyhound,ȱperȱdayȱforȱaȱtotalȱofȱ11ȱl.ȱ5ȱs.ȱ4ȱd,ȱandȱ2ȱd.
perȱboarhound,ȱperȱday,ȱforȱ4ȱl.ȱ4ȱs.ȱ6ȱd,ȱaȱtotalȱofȱ15ȱl.ȱ9ȱs.ȱ10ȱdȱforȱeightȱdogsȱinȱAll
Saintsȱ1303.95ȱTheȱdogsȱalsoȱfrequentlyȱhadȱaȱ“page”ȱnamedȱGuillotȱwhoȱreceived
aȱwageȱofȱ10ȱd.ȱeachȱday,ȱbringingȱtheȱtrimesterȱcostȱtoȱ15ȱl.ȱ10ȱs.ȱandȱtheȱyearly
averageȱ46ȱl.ȱ10ȱs.,ȱ9%ȱofȱtheȱaverageȱyearlyȱexpensesȱjustȱtoȱfeedȱandȱwatchȱthe
dogs.96ȱThisȱdoesȱnotȱincludeȱhousingȱorȱveterinaryȱcosts,ȱwhichȱwouldȱbeȱlisted
separatelyȱonȱaȱcaseȬbyȬcaseȱbasis.ȱMaintainingȱdogsȱforȱtheȱhuntȱwasȱexpensive
andȱ“unproductive”ȱfiscally;ȱhowever,ȱtheȱpurposeȱofȱtheȱaristocraticȱhuntȱ(rather
thanȱ aȱ servant’sȱ hunting)ȱ wasȱ notȱ productivity,ȱ itȱ wasȱ forȱ powerȱ and
entertainment.ȱ Theseȱ canineȱ expensesȱ confirmȱ theȱ park’sȱ statusȱ asȱ an
entertainmentȱratherȱthanȱaȱprofitȱestateȱandȱaccentuateȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱtheȱhunt
toȱaristocraticȱculture.ȱ
Withinȱthisȱstudy’sȱtimeȱrangeȱtheȱsaleȱofȱrabbitsȱoccurredȱonlyȱtwice:ȱAscension
1304ȱandȱAscensionȱ1309.ȱInȱ1304,ȱ835ȱrabbitsȱwereȱsoldȱfromȱtheȱwarrenȱatȱHesdin
atȱ17ȱd.ȱperȱrabbitȱforȱaȱtotalȱofȱ59ȱl.ȱ2ȱs.ȱ11ȱd.ȱInȱthatȱsameȱyear,ȱanotherȱ52ȱrabbits
wereȱsoldȱthatȱ“theȱbailliageȱhadȱinȱthisȱyear”ȱforȱaȱtotalȱofȱ73ȱs.ȱ8ȱd.,ȱalthoughȱthey
cameȱfromȱanȱunspecifiedȱlocationȱinȱtheȱbailliage.97ȱInȱ1309,ȱ800ȱrabbitsȱwereȱsold
fromȱtheȱwarrenȱofȱWillemainȱ(eastȱofȱtheȱpark)ȱatȱ14ȱd.ȱeachȱforȱaȱtotalȱofȱ46ȱl.ȱ13
s.ȱ4ȱd,ȱaboutȱ2%ȱofȱtheȱaverageȱyearlyȱincome.98ȱItȱappearsȱthatȱtheȱcountessȱhadȱat
leastȱtwoȱwarrensȱinȱthisȱbailliageȱandȱthatȱrabbitsȱcomprisedȱpart—albeitȱnotȱa
fiscallyȱsignificantȱone—ofȱtheȱcountess’sȱlandȱmanagement.ȱInȱadditionȱtoȱtheȱsale
ofȱrabbits,ȱanȱentryȱinȱtheȱtermȱofȱCandlemasȱ1304ȱrecordsȱtheȱpurchaseȱofȱstring
“toȱmakeȱnetsȱforȱtheȱrabbitsȱandȱtoȱrepairȱtheȱoldȱones.”99ȱ
Thisȱ passingȱ entryȱ helpsȱ elucidateȱ howȱ theȱ rabbitsȱ wereȱ caught.ȱ Theseȱ nets
wouldȱhaveȱbeenȱusedȱbyȱhuntersȱinȱconjunctionȱwithȱtheȱferretsȱmentionedȱinȱthe
accounts,100ȱasȱinȱtheȱimageȱfromȱPhoebus’ȱhuntingȱtreatise,101ȱandȱwereȱlikelyȱan
importantȱelementȱinȱmanagingȱtheȱpopulationȱofȱtheȱwarrens.102ȱRabbitingȱwas
aȱminorȱelementȱofȱtheȱparkȱandȱtheȱbailliage,ȱbringingȱinȱrelativelyȱsmallȱamounts
95
96
Forȱexample,ȱLeȱcompteȱgénéralȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱ124,ȱno.ȱ2103;ȱandȱADNȱmss.ȱB13597ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ28),ȱfol.
8.ȱ
97
98
99
100
101
Phoebus,ȱTheȱHuntingȱBookȱ(seeȱnoteȱ94),ȱfol.ȱ92.ȱGastonȱPhoebusȱdoesȱnotȱapproveȱofȱusingȱnets
orȱferretsȱandȱdoesȱnotȱreallyȱconsiderȱitȱ“hunting”ȱinȱtheȱritualȱaristocraticȱsense,ȱbutȱnevertheless,
heȱexplainsȱhowȱtoȱcatchȱrabbitsȱusingȱferretsȱandȱtraps.ȱ
102
Cummins,ȱTheȱHoundȱandȱtheȱHawkȱ(seeȱnoteȱ92),ȱ237.
(60ȱl.)ȱofȱincomeȱonlyȱoccasionally,ȱalthoughȱHesdinȱgeneratesȱsignificantlyȱmore
rabbitȱ incomeȱ thanȱ Tournehemȱ andȱ Aire.ȱ Unfortunately,ȱ theȱ accountsȱ doȱ not
mentionȱifȱtheȱrabbitsȱwereȱkilledȱforȱtheȱhousehold’sȱconsumption,ȱthoughȱrabbit
wasȱconsideredȱaȱluxuryȱproteinȱinȱthisȱperiodȱandȱGastonȱPhoebusȱdevotesȱsome
attentionȱtoȱhowȱtoȱkeepȱandȱcaptureȱrabbits.103ȱ
Costȱtoȱmanageȱanimalȱpestsȱoccurȱregularlyȱinȱtheȱaccountȱbooks,ȱparticularly
rewardsȱtoȱcaptureȱottersȱandȱeagles.ȱRousselȱdesȱLoutresȱ(“ofȱOtters”)ȱhuntedȱthe
watersȱforȱottersȱforȱseveralȱdaysȱseveralȱtimesȱaȱyear.ȱHeȱwasȱgrantedȱexpenses
forȱ“theȱbreadȱforȱhisȱdogsȱforȱfourȱdays”ȱandȱtheȱ“expensesȱofȱtheȱsaidȱRoussel
andȱhisȱsonȱforȱ4ȱdays”ȱinȱadditionȱtoȱ20ȱs.ȱforȱcatchingȱanȱotterȱandȱanȱunidentified
animal.104ȱRousselȱreturnedȱonȱAscensionȱ1307ȱwhenȱheȱ“wasȱcommandedȱtoȱhunt
theȱwatersȱofȱtheȱparkȱforȱotters.”105ȱEliminatingȱottersȱfromȱtheȱparkȱwasȱclearly
important—soȱimportantȱthatȱinȱAscensionȱ1304ȱaȱmanȱwasȱorderedȱtoȱlocateȱotter
huntersȱ“nearȱMondidierȱandȱatȱRenevalȱwhereȱtheyȱare”ȱandȱbringȱthemȱbackȱto
Hesdin.106ȱOttersȱlovedȱfishȱandȱwereȱaȱcommonȱmenaceȱtoȱnobleȱfishponds.107
Ottersȱ canȱ overfishȱ orȱ scareȱ theȱ fishȱ outȱ ofȱ anȱ area;ȱ theyȱ poachedȱ fromȱ the
countess’sȱpersonalȱfishȱsupply.ȱBothȱGastonȱPhoebusȱandȱPieroȱCrescenziȱwarned
againstȱ otters.ȱ Characteristically,ȱ Phoebusȱ encouragesȱ aȱ chaseȱ andȱ Crescenzi
advocatesȱpondȱcoversȱtoȱdeterȱtheȱpests.108ȱ
Venisonȱwasȱtheȱeliteȱprotein.ȱEvenȱmoreȱthanȱfishȱorȱrabbits,ȱraisingȱdeerȱon
theirȱownȱlandȱforȱtheirȱownȱconsumptionȱwasȱanȱemblemȱofȱaristocraticȱstatus.
Venisonȱwasȱtheȱultimateȱeliteȱproteinȱandȱtheȱaristocraticȱparkȱwasȱitsȱprimary
meansȱofȱproduction.ȱWeȱknowȱfromȱotherȱparksȱinȱEnglandȱthatȱmeadowȱgrasses
fedȱtheȱdeer.ȱInȱMahaut’sȱaccounts,ȱitȱappearsȱthatȱpurchasedȱgrass,ȱcalledȱvetch,
occasionallyȱsupplementedȱtheȱpark’sȱgrasses.ȱIrregularȱamountsȱofȱvetchȱwere
purchasedȱeachȱtermȱsuggestingȱseveralȱpossibilities,ȱincludingȱchangingȱgrowing
andȱeatingȱpatternsȱofȱtheȱgrassȱandȱdeer.ȱThisȱpatternȱcouldȱalsoȱsuggestȱthatȱthe
countessȱ neededȱ toȱ purchaseȱ vetchȱ becauseȱ sheȱ wasȱ preventingȱ theȱ deerȱ from
feedingȱonȱtheȱpark’sȱplants,ȱwhichȱsheȱmayȱhaveȱusedȱforȱaȱdifferent,ȱinvisible
purpose.ȱ
Deerȱwereȱwellȱknownȱforȱtheirȱabilityȱtoȱtransformȱaȱverdant,ȱwellȬvegetated
areaȱintoȱshortȱgrasslandȱquickly.ȱParkȱcaretakersȱconstructedȱvariousȱtypesȱof
palesȱandȱhedgesȱinȱanȱeffortȱtoȱpreventȱdeerȱfromȱeatingȱtheȱtreesȱandȱdesirable
103
Phoebus,ȱTheȱHuntingȱBookȱ(seeȱnoteȱ94),ȱfol.ȱ92
104
Leȱcompteȱgénéralȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱ197,ȱnos.ȱ3353–55.
105
ADNȱmss.ȱB13597ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ28),ȱfol.ȱ58:ȱ“AȱRousselȱdesȱLoutresȱq[ui]ȱfuȱmandesȱp[ou]rȱcach[er]
esȱyauesȱduȱp[ar]cȱpourȱlesȱlout[re]s,ȱp[ou]rȱlesȱdespensȱdeȱliuȱ&ȱdeȱsesȱchie[n]sȱp[ar]ȱvȱjours,ȱvȱs.
P[ar]ȱjour,ȱxxvȱs.”;ȱandȱ“P[ou]rȱuneȱloutreȱp[ri]seȱxȱs.”
106
107
Cummins,ȱTheȱHoundȱandȱtheȱHawkȱ(seeȱnoteȱ92),ȱ148.
108
Phoebus,ȱTheȱHuntingȱBookȱ(seeȱnoteȱ94),ȱfol.ȱ37.ȱCrescenzi,ȱRuraliaȱCommodaȱ(seeȱnoteȱ67),ȱ26.
plants.109ȱTheȱpurchaseȱofȱsuchȱaȱsignificantȱamountȱofȱfeedȱhighlightsȱthatȱdespite
theȱimpressiveȱproductivityȱofȱtheȱparkȱandȱitsȱselfȬsustainabilityȱinȱtermsȱofȱfish
andȱ wood,ȱ whenȱ itȱ cameȱ toȱ medievalȱ rangeȱ management,ȱ theȱ countessȱ was
partiallyȱdependentȱonȱtheȱmarketȱtoȱmeetȱtheȱsubstantialȱnutritiveȱdemandsȱofȱthe
park’sȱanimalȱtenants.
Inȱ additionȱ toȱ fishpondsȱ thatȱ suppliedȱ fishȱ toȱ theȱ countess’sȱ householdȱ and
guests,ȱtheȱrecordedȱexpensesȱinȱtheȱaccountsȱforȱtheȱtransportȱandȱsaltingȱofȱdeer
caughtȱ inȱ Hesdinȱ confirmȱ theȱ interconnectedȱ relationshipȱ ofȱ parkȱ andȱ the
countess’sȱtable,ȱevenȱifȱtheȱtableȱwasȱinȱotherȱestates.ȱInȱsomeȱcases,ȱitȱisȱclearȱthat
theȱdeerȱwereȱculledȱfromȱtheȱparkȱandȱthenȱsaltedȱforȱlaterȱconsumption.ȱAfter
salting,ȱtheȱvenisonȱwasȱsometimesȱtransportedȱtoȱcastlesȱinȱotherȱbailliagesȱfor
consumptionȱthere.110ȱWeȱalsoȱknowȱthatȱsaltedȱvenisonȱwasȱstoredȱinȱtheȱcellarȱat
Hesdinȱfromȱregularȱwagesȱtoȱaȱcellarȱguard111ȱandȱsentȱtoȱtheȱcountessȱinȱParis.112
Thisȱculling,ȱsalting,ȱandȱstorageȱpatternȱemphasizesȱthatȱaristocraticȱparksȱwere
maintained,ȱatȱleastȱinȱpart,ȱtoȱsupplyȱeliteȱprotein.ȱ
TheȱtransportȱofȱdeerȱandȱvenisonȱcaughtȱatȱHesdinȱbridgesȱtheȱdivideȱbetween
“practical,”ȱ“symbolic,”ȱandȱ“entertainment”ȱpurposes.ȱInȱsomeȱcases,ȱdeerȱwere
caughtȱinȱtheȱparkȱatȱHesdinȱandȱsaltedȱforȱlaterȱconsumptionȱorȱtakenȱtoȱanother
estateȱ forȱ theȱ countess’sȱ consumptionȱ there.ȱ Theȱ termȱ ofȱ Allȱ Saintsȱ 1303ȱ was
particularlyȱactiveȱinȱthisȱregard;ȱtheȱaccountsȱrecordȱtheȱexpendituresȱforȱsaltȱ“for
theȱvenisonȱthatȱleȱChatȱ[oneȱofȱMahaut’sȱhunters]ȱcaughtȱatȱHesdin”ȱandȱalsoȱfor
anȱexpenseȱtoȱ“carryȱvenisonȱtoȱAvesnesȱ[thisȱwasȱanȱimportantȱestateȱandȱbailliage
borderingȱ Hesdin]ȱ toȱ madame.”113ȱ Inȱ anotherȱ case,ȱ thatȱ sameȱ hunter,ȱ leȱ Chat,
earnedȱ coinȱ toȱ “bringȱ venisonȱ toȱ theȱ landȱ ofȱ Guinesȱ [whichȱ isȱ aȱ forestȱ in
Tournehem]ȱinȱaȱcart.”114ȱ
Inȱanotherȱcase,ȱtheȱrecordȱofȱaȱsentȱletterȱprovidesȱfurtherȱinformation:ȱ“for
sendingȱaȱletterȱtoȱmadameȱinȱParisȱforȱJehanȱdeȱCreskiȱwhoȱwentȱhuntingȱinȱthe
huntingȱreserveȱ[garenne]ȱandȱcaughtȱoneȱredȱdeerȱ[cierf].”115ȱInȱthisȱsameȱterm,ȱtwo
redȱdeerȱandȱoneȱfallowȱdeerȱ[dain]ȱwereȱsentȱtoȱtheȱcountessȱinȱParisȱbyȱhorseȱand
valet.116ȱ Inȱ theȱ sameȱ term,ȱ moreȱ venisonȱ wasȱ sentȱ toȱ Parisȱ toȱ theȱ countess.117
109
Creighton,ȱDesignsȱuponȱtheȱLandȱ(seeȱnoteȱ6),ȱ132–34.
110
Leȱcompteȱgénéralȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱ23,ȱno.ȱ375–76.
111
112
113
Leȱcompteȱgénéralȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱ23,ȱno.ȱ374–75.
114
115
116
117
Aristocraticȱhuntingȱreservesȱwereȱnotȱonlyȱmaintainedȱsoȱthatȱnoblesȱcouldȱhunt,
butȱalsoȱtoȱprovideȱvenison.118ȱ
Theseȱ eliteȱ huntingȱ spaces,ȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ “garenne”ȱ fromȱ whichȱ theseȱ deerȱ are
harvestedȱforȱvenison,ȱareȱutilizedȱforȱsimultaneouslyȱpracticalȱandȱentertainment
purposes.ȱThoughȱthereȱisȱnoȱdirectȱreferenceȱtoȱaristocraticȱhuntingȱinȱtheȱaccount
booksȱtheȱmeatȱitselfȱwasȱaȱdemonstrationȱofȱstatusȱandȱanȱimportantȱelementȱin
nobleȱcelebrationsȱandȱentertaining.119ȱAsȱmultipleȱscholarsȱhaveȱsuggested,ȱgame,
dueȱ toȱ huntingȱ restrictionsȱ forȱ nonȬelitesȱ andȱ prohibitiveȱ costs,ȱ wasȱ aȱ luxury
good.120ȱ Thus,ȱ theȱ accountȱ booksȱ recordȱ aȱ guardȱ forȱ theȱ “cellar”ȱ whoȱ was
instructedȱtoȱguardȱtheȱwineȱandȱvenison,ȱevenȱwhenȱitȱwasȱshippedȱfromȱanother
estate.121ȱItȱisȱnotȱexplicitlyȱstatedȱthatȱtheȱvenisonȱwasȱsaltedȱbeforeȱtransport,ȱbut
itȱlikelyȱwas.ȱTransportingȱfreshȱmeatȱwasȱrareȱandȱmoreȱexpensiveȱasȱitȱrequired
additionalȱcostsȱforȱrapidȱtransportȱtoȱpreventȱspoilage.122
SomeȱConclusions:ȱAȱHolisticȱApproachȱtoȱHesdin?
Allȱ ofȱ theseȱ elements—wood,ȱ waters,ȱ andȱ land—highlightȱ Hesdin’sȱ strictly

managedȱandȱmultiȬpurposeȱlandscape,ȱbutȱtheȱaccountȱbooksȱalsoȱemphasizeȱthat
theȱparkȱatȱHesdinȱwasȱaȱpleasureȱpark.ȱItȱwasȱaȱproductiveȱestateȱthatȱdrewȱon
occasionȱfromȱitsȱcountryside,ȱbutȱveryȱrarelyȱfromȱoutsideȱtheȱbailliage.ȱOneȱofȱa
fewȱ integral,ȱ importedȱ foodstuffsȱ wasȱ wine.ȱ Accountsȱ recordȱ itsȱ arrivalȱ and
118
ThereȱareȱmanyȱreferencesȱinȱPhoebus’sȱfourteenthȬcenturyȱmanualȱonȱhuntingȱtoȱretainersȱdoing
theȱactualȱhuntingȱforȱfoodȱpurposes,ȱandȱCumminsȱnotesȱthisȱinȱTheȱHoundȱandȱtheȱHawkȱ(seeȱnote
92);ȱ however,ȱ mostȱ studiesȱ onȱ huntingȱ parksȱ seemȱ toȱ glossȱ overȱ thisȱ element,ȱ suchȱ asȱ S.ȱ A.
Mileson,ȱ“TheȱImportanceȱofȱParksȱinȱFifteenthȬCenturyȱSociety,”ȱOfȱMiceȱandȱMen:ȱImage,ȱBelief,
andȱRegulationȱinȱLateȱMedievalȱEngland,ȱed.ȱLindaȱClarkȱ(Woodbridge,ȱHampshire,ȱandȱRochester,
NY:ȱBoydellȱPress,ȱ2005),ȱ19–38.
119
Thoughȱaȱratherȱextravagantȱexample,ȱtheȱamountȱofȱfoodȱofferedȱatȱtheȱknightingȱofȱPhilipȱthe
Fair’sȱsonsȱisȱdemonstratesȱthis:ȱE.ȱA.ȱR.ȱBrownȱandȱNancyȱFreemanȱRegalado,ȱ“’Leȱgranteȱfeste’:
PhilipȱtheȱFair’sȱCelebrationȱofȱtheȱKnightingȱofȱhisȱSonsȱinȱParisȱatȱPentecostȱofȱ1313,”ȱCityȱand
SpectacleȱinȱMedievalȱEurope,ȱed.ȱBarbaraȱHanawaltȱandȱKathrynȱReyerson.ȱMedievalȱStudiesȱat
Minnesota,ȱ6ȱ(Minneapolis:ȱUniversityȱofȱMinnesotaȱPress,ȱ1994),ȱ56–86.
120
SeeȱAnnieȱGrant,ȱ“Food,ȱStatusȱandȱReligionȱinȱEnglandȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges:ȱanȱArcheozoological
Perspective,”ȱL’animalȱdansȱl’alimentationȱhumaine:ȱlesȱcriteresȱdeȱchoix:ȱActesȱduȱColloqueȱInternational
deȱLiegeȱ(26–29ȱnovembreȱ1986),ȱed.ȱLilianeȱBodson.ȱAnthropozoologica,ȱNuméroȱspécial,ȱ2ȱ(Paris:
Laboratoireȱd’Anatomieȱcomparée,ȱ1988),ȱ149–87.ȱ
121
122
Thisȱissueȱhasȱneverȱbeenȱstudied,ȱbutȱitȱhasȱbeenȱaddressedȱforȱtheȱtransportȱofȱfishȱforȱtheȱKing
ofȱEngland:ȱJ.ȱM.ȱSteane,ȱ“TheȱRoyalȱFishpondsȱofȱMedievalȱEngland,”ȱMedievalȱFish,ȱFisheries,ȱand
FishpondsȱinȱEngland,ȱed.ȱMichaelȱAston.ȱ2ȱvols.ȱBARȱBritishȱSeries,ȱ182ȱ(Oxford:ȱB.A.R.,ȱ1988),ȱvol.
1,ȱ39–68;ȱhereȱ59–60.
subsequentȱstorageȱinȱtheȱcellarȱunderneathȱtheȱhouseȱinȱtheȱMarésȱinȱpreparation
forȱMahaut’sȱvisits.123ȱ
HesdinȱembodiesȱtheȱmultiȬpurposeȱnatureȱofȱmedievalȱaristocraticȱestates,ȱbut
simultaneouslyȱ demonstratesȱ thatȱ itȱ wasȱ aȱ highlyȱ managed,ȱ designed,ȱ and
structuredȱlandscapeȱthatȱexploitedȱtheȱsylvanȱandȱagriculturalȱresourcesȱofȱits
countrysideȱtoȱsupportȱtheȱentertainmentȱelementsȱofȱtheȱestate,ȱwithȱlittleȱlease
ofȱland.ȱInȱthisȱway,ȱHesdinȱdiffersȱfromȱAireȱandȱTournehem,ȱwhoseȱmanagement
centeredȱprimarilyȱonȱtheȱleaseȱofȱland,ȱwaters,ȱandȱwoods.ȱExpensesȱatȱHesdin
alsoȱfarȱoutstripȱthoseȱofȱtheȱotherȱbailliages;ȱHesdin’sȱexpensesȱaverageȱ500ȱl.ȱa
yearȱonȱnonȬconstructionȱcosts,ȱwithȱaroundȱhalfȱofȱthatȱgoingȱtoȱtheȱmaintenance
ofȱanimalsȱinȱtheȱpark.ȱWithȱtheȱexpensesȱfromȱtheȱ“works”ȱincludedȱ(whichȱwere
recordedȱ onȱ anȱ entirelyȱ separateȱ rollȱ asȱ theyȱ wereȱ soȱ numerous)ȱ theȱ bailliage’s
averageȱyearlyȱexpensesȱareȱ1,379ȱl.ȱAireȱandȱTournehemȱaverageȱlessȱthanȱ500ȱl.
aȱyear,ȱincludingȱworksȱ(inȱfact,ȱworksȱcostsȱareȱsoȱminorȱatȱAireȱtheyȱareȱonly
expressedȱasȱaȱlumpȱsum).ȱ
Thisȱsurveyȱdemonstratesȱthatȱtheȱcountessȱmanagedȱandȱutilizedȱherȱlandsȱin
manyȱdifferentȱways,ȱwaysȱoftenȱdependentȱonȱbothȱherȱwishesȱandȱ“purpose”ȱof
theȱland,ȱandȱonȱtheȱresourcesȱofȱtheȱlandscape.ȱScholarlyȱattentionȱhasȱfocused
heavilyȱonȱtheȱestateȱofȱHesdinȱandȱitsȱnobleȱplayground,ȱbutȱasȱthisȱsurveyȱshows
Hesdin’sȱ aestheticȱ managementȱ wasȱ notȱ exclusive;ȱ Mahautȱ alsoȱ exploitedȱ her
landscapeȱforȱnaturalȱresources,ȱsuchȱasȱwithȱtheȱfrequentȱsaleȱofȱwoodȱproducts.
Thisȱstudyȱalsoȱservesȱtoȱhighlightȱtheȱfiscalȱandȱsymbolicȱimportanceȱofȱtheȱother
bailliagesȱunderȱtheȱcountess’sȱcontrol.ȱ
TheseȱfewȱexamplesȱfromȱMahaut’sȱexploitationȱofȱHesdin’sȱwoodland,ȱwaters,
andȱmeadowsȱdemonstrateȱthatȱherȱlandscapeȱwasȱintensivelyȱandȱselfȬconsciously
managedȱforȱinternalȱconsumableȱgoods,ȱforȱincome,ȱandȱforȱentertainmentȱand
prestige.ȱRuralȱaristocraticȱlandscapesȱandȱparksȱlikeȱHesdinȱwereȱdesignedȱtoȱbe
experiencedȱ onȱ multipleȱ levels;ȱ theyȱ wereȱ relaxingȱ retreats,ȱ settingsȱ forȱ the
productionȱ ofȱ luxuryȱ productsȱ andȱ entertainment,ȱ andȱ arenasȱ forȱ the
demonstrationȱofȱpower,ȱwealth,ȱandȱcontrol.ȱScholarshipȱneedsȱtoȱconsiderȱall
elementsȱofȱtheȱaristocraticȱparkȱatȱonce.ȱAnȱinȱtotoȱapproachȱdemonstratesȱthat
landȱ andȱ theȱ ruralȱ landscapeȱ functionedȱ inȱ medievalȱ societyȱ notȱ justȱ asȱ an
invisible,ȱexploitedȱresource,ȱbutȱalsoȱasȱaȱsymbolȱofȱpowerȱandȱanȱintegralȱpartȱof
theȱconstructionȱofȱaristocraticȱidentity.
123
Chapterȱ10
MarilynȱL.ȱSandidge
(WestfieldȱStateȱUniversity,ȱWestfield,ȱMA)
HuntingȱorȱGardening:ȱParksȱandȱRoyalȱRuralȱSpace
Effortsȱ toȱ tameȱ theȱ wildernessȱ and,ȱ perhapsȱ justȱ asȱ importantly,ȱ toȱ gainȱ glory
throughȱtamingȱtheȱwildernessȱareȱatȱtheȱheartȱofȱthisȱstudyȱofȱruralȱspaceȱasȱa
meaningfulȱ culturalȱ scene.ȱ Examiningȱ changesȱ inȱ theȱ wayȱ Englishȱ monarchs
conceptualizedȱandȱusedȱruralȱspacesȱprovidesȱaȱgraphicȱviewȱofȱtheirȱsenseȱof
placeȱinȱtheȱcomplexȱsetȱofȱrelationshipsȱthatȱdefinedȱEnglandȱpolitically,ȱsocially,
andȱeconomicallyȱduringȱtheirȱreigns.ȱMovingȱfromȱtheȱNormans’ȱprivateȱroyal
forestsȱtoȱtheȱStuartȱmonarchs’ȱopenȱpublicȱparks,ȱwhichȱwereȱbuiltȱonȱlandȱthat
earlierȱ hadȱ beenȱ royalȱ huntingȱ grounds,ȱ weȱ canȱ traceȱ theȱ changingȱ natureȱ of
politicalȱ authority,ȱ itsȱ sources,ȱ theȱ extentȱ ofȱ itsȱ powers,ȱ andȱ itsȱ tiesȱ toȱ those
governed.ȱ Highlightingȱ theȱ extentȱ toȱ whichȱ earlyȱ rulersȱ usedȱ thisȱ politically
chargedȱspace,ȱtheȱeighteenthȬcenturyȱpoliticalȱwriterȱThomasȱPaineȱclaimedȱthat
“toȱ readȱ theȱ historyȱ ofȱ kingsȱ [one]ȱ wouldȱ beȱ almostȱ inclinedȱ toȱ supposeȱ that
governmentȱconsistedȱofȱstagȱhunting.”1ȱ
Inȱadditionȱtoȱtheȱobviousȱphysicalȱpleasureȱtheyȱtookȱinȱhunting,ȱtheseȱearly
kingsȱgainedȱpoliticalȱmomentumȱwhenȱtheirȱcitizensȱasȱwellȱasȱforeignȱaudiences
envisionedȱ themȱ heroicallyȱ ridingȱ throughȱ darkȱ wildernessesȱ challenging
dangerousȱcreaturesȱandȱmakingȱtheȱcountryȬsideȱsafeȱforȱall.ȱMoreover,ȱatȱthe
sameȱtime,ȱtheyȱcould,ȱthroughȱritualisticȱceremonyȱinȱtheȱforest,ȱdemonstrate
theirȱspectacular,ȱalmostȱgodlike,ȱcommandȱofȱtheȱnaturalȱworldȱthatȱmanifests
itselfȱinȱgreatȱfertilityȱandȱbeauty,ȱinspiringȱaweȱinȱthoseȱtheyȱgoverned.ȱInȱthe
wordsȱofȱStevenȱDrew,ȱ“Theȱhuntȱservedȱasȱaȱpotentȱritualȱthatȱreinforcedȱvisibly
andȱsymbolicallyȱtheȱnaturalȱandȱsocialȱhierarchies.”2ȱInȱbothȱofȱtheseȱacts,ȱearly
1
Tomȱ Paine,ȱ Theȱ Rightsȱ ofȱ Manȱ (Boston:ȱ Thomasȱ Hall,1794),ȱ 244.ȱ Forȱ anȱ onlineȱ version,ȱ see:
http://www.ucc.ie/social_policy/Paine_Rights_of_Man.pdfȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱOct.ȱ14,ȱ2011).
2
J.ȱDrewȱStephen,ȱ“FalstaffȱandȱtheȱCultureȱofȱtheȱHunt,”ȱUniversityȱofȱTorontoȱQuarterlyȱ74.2ȱ(2005):
390 MarilynȱL.ȱSandidge
Englishȱ monarchsȱ wereȱ partakingȱ inȱ anȱ ancientȱ meansȱ ofȱ displayingȱ absolute
dominationȱoverȱtheirȱterritory.ȱCenturiesȱlater,ȱhowever,ȱwhenȱCharlesȱIIȱisȱseen
byȱhisȱsubjectsȱwalkingȱtheȱpathwaysȱofȱSt.ȱJamesȱPark,ȱtheȱEnglishȱmonarchȱis
ironicallyȱoftenȱhuntingȱtheȱ“heart”ȱinsteadȱofȱtheȱ“hart”ȱinȱaȱspaceȱreworkedȱto
formȱanȱearlyȱmodernȱdisplayȱofȱhisȱroleȱasȱruler.ȱFarȱfromȱprovingȱtheȱstrength
ofȱhisȱmasculineȱpowerȱthroughȱheroicȱfeatsȱinȱtheȱuntamedȱforest,ȱheȱseeksȱto
commandȱtheȱpolitical,ȱreligious,ȱandȱeconomicȱnetworkȱofȱbureaucrats,ȱbankers,
merchants,ȱclerics,ȱandȱMPsȱonȱwhichȱhisȱreignȱdependedȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱsocialȱand
culturalȱrealmsȱthatȱwereȱalsoȱcentralȱtoȱtheȱsuccessȱofȱhisȱreign.
AsȱThomasȱWiedemannȱexplainsȱinȱhisȱbookȱEmperorsȱandȱGladiators,ȱcontrol
overȱtheȱnaturalȱworldȱinȱpreȬindustrialȱsocietiesȱprovedȱtheȱmagnificenceȱofȱthe
rulerȱthroughȱhisȱabilityȱtoȱdominateȱtheȱwilderness;ȱandȱhisȱmasteryȱoverȱanimals,
inȱturn,ȱsymbolizedȱatȱleastȱasȱfarȱbackȱasȱtheȱearlyȱPersianȱkingsȱhisȱdomination
ofȱtheȱsocialȱworld.3ȱInsteadȱofȱsitingȱtheseȱdisplaysȱofȱdominionȱinȱruralȱareas,ȱthe
Romanȱemperors,ȱwhoȱdidȱlittleȱactualȱhuntingȱthemselves,ȱdevelopedȱtheȱarena
toȱsymbolizeȱthroughȱanȱartificialȱdisplayȱ theirȱabilityȱ toȱtameȱandȱcontrolȱthe
terrorȱofȱtheȱwilderness.ȱTheȱarena,ȱthen,ȱbecomesȱforȱthemȱtheȱmarginȱwhere
civilizationȱandȱtheȱwildȱcomeȱtogether.4ȱItȱbecomesȱtheȱ“placeȱwhereȱtheȱcivilized
worldȱconfrontedȱlawlessȱnature.”5ȱToȱcelebrateȱtheirȱabilityȱtoȱtameȱthisȱworld,
emperors,ȱwhoȱdidȱnotȱthemselvesȱbattleȱinȱtheȱarena,ȱorderedȱelaborateȱvenatio
scenesȱtoȱbeȱperformedȱinȱtheirȱhonorȱandȱevenȱsurroundedȱthemselvesȱwithȱexotic
orȱ dangerousȱ animalsȱ inȱ theirȱ householdsȱ toȱ symbolizeȱ theȱ extentȱ ofȱ their
dominance.
InȱpostȬRomanȱEngland,ȱwithȱitsȱheavyȱforestationȱandȱlargeȱsupplyȱofȱgame,
earlyȱrulersȱalsoȱsetȱasideȱspaceȱtoȱdisplayȱsymbolicallyȱtheirȱpreeminenceȱinȱboth
theȱwildernessȱofȱtheȱnaturalȱworldȱandȱinȱhumanȱpolitical,ȱsocial,ȱreligious,ȱand
economicȱcommunitiesȱbyȱassertingȱtheirȱabsoluteȱrightsȱtoȱseizeȱlargeȱtractsȱof
ruralȱlandȱforȱroyalȱforestsȱwhileȱtheyȱalsoȱgainedȱgreatȱpersonalȱpleasureȱfrom
huntingȱonȱtheseȱlands.ȱEvenȱbeforeȱtheȱNormanȱConquest,ȱEnglishȱrulersȱhad
assertedȱtheirȱrightȱtoȱhuntȱonȱanyȱforestedȱlandȱtheyȱdesired,ȱespeciallyȱinȱthe
southȬeasternȱareaȱofȱtheȱcountryȱwhichȱwasȱheavilyȱforestedȱatȱthatȱtime.ȱBoth
CnutȱandȱEdwardȱtheȱConfessorȱhadȱforestȱlawsȱtoȱprotectȱtheȱlandȱonȱwhichȱthey
hunted.ȱ
WhenȱWilliamȱtheȱConquerorȱsetȱupȱtractsȱofȱlandȱlikeȱtheȱNewȱForestȱinȱSussex
Weald,ȱorȱWood,ȱasȱaȱroyalȱpreserve,ȱmanyȱpeasants’ȱlandholdingsȱwereȱtaken
underȱ hisȱ harsherȱ forestȱ laws,ȱ ultimatelyȱ derivedȱ fromȱ thoseȱ issuedȱ by
729–39;ȱhereȱ731.ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱJacquelineȱStuhmiller.
3
ThomasȱWiedemann,ȱEmperorsȱandȱGladiatorsȱ(LondonȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱRoutledge,ȱ1992),ȱ62–64.
4
Wiedemann,ȱEmperorsȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ91.
5
Wiedemann,ȱEmperorsȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ179.
HuntingȱorȱGardening 391
Charlemagne.6ȱ Althoughȱ royalȱ forestsȱ wereȱ oftenȱ heavilyȱ wooded,ȱ theyȱ also
includedȱ manyȱ otherȱ typesȱ ofȱ ruralȱ spaces,ȱ includingȱ wholeȱ villages,ȱ manors,
swamps,ȱ meadows,ȱ andȱ arableȱ fields.ȱ Inȱ lawȱ theȱ ruralȱ forestȱ atȱ thisȱ timeȱ was
definedȱasȱ“territor[ies]ȱofȱwoodyȱgroundsȱandȱfruitfulȱpastures,ȱprivilegedȱfor
wildȱbeastsȱandȱfowlsȱofȱforest,ȱchaseȱandȱwarren,ȱtoȱrestȱandȱabideȱthereȱinȱthe
safeȱprotectionȱofȱtheȱKing,ȱforȱhisȱdelightȱandȱpleasure.”7ȱWhileȱtheȱkingȱmight
ownȱpartȱofȱtheȱlandȱwithinȱtheȱroyalȱforest,ȱheȱdidn’tȱownȱallȱofȱit.ȱOthersȱcould
retainȱownershipȱofȱtheirȱland,ȱbutȱnotȱtheȱuseȱofȱtheȱtreesȱorȱbrushȱonȱit,ȱandȱmost
importantly,ȱtheyȱcouldȱnotȱhuntȱonȱtheirȱownȱlandȱwithoutȱspecialȱgrantsȱfrom
theȱking.ȱDeerȱandȱboarȱwereȱtheȱprimaryȱanimalsȱprotectedȱbyȱtheȱNormanȱforest
laws,ȱbutȱlandownersȱhadȱtoȱseekȱroyalȱpermissionȱevenȱtoȱownȱhuntingȱdogsȱor
toȱ setȱ upȱ aȱ warrenȱ toȱ huntȱ rabbitsȱ andȱ otherȱ smallȱ game.ȱ “Theȱ forestȱ lawsȱ of
Englandȱproduce[d]ȱanȱagonisticȱspaceȱonȱwhichȱtheȱlimitsȱofȱmonarchicalȱpower
[were]ȱplayedȱout.”8
Itȱhasȱbeenȱestimatedȱthatȱbyȱtheȱthirteenthȱcenturyȱoneȱquarterȱofȱtheȱlandȱin
Englandȱhadȱbeenȱtakenȱtoȱformȱroyalȱforestsȱ(andȱthisȱlandȱareaȱhadȱbeenȱlarger
earlier),ȱdemonstratingȱjustȱhowȱextensiveȱtheȱmonarch’sȱcontrolȱofȱthisȱexpansive
areaȱ ofȱ ruralȱ spaceȱ was.9ȱ Inȱ fact,ȱ theȱ Normanȱ kingsȱ establishedȱ aȱ newȱ justice
systemȱseparateȱfromȱtheȱotherȱcourtȱsystemsȱjustȱtoȱhandleȱinfractionsȱwithinȱthe
royalȱforests.ȱWithȱaȱmandateȱtoȱprovideȱforȱandȱprotectȱtheȱking’sȱpleasureȱand
withȱ theȱ kingȱ asȱ itsȱ supremeȱ magistrate,ȱ theȱ forestȱ lawsȱ atȱ workȱ duringȱ the
medievalȱperiodȱensuredȱEnglishȱrulersȱanȱidealȱspaceȱinȱwhichȱtoȱbrandishȱtheir
authority.ȱEvenȱaȱkingȱsuchȱasȱRichardȱI,ȱwhoȱspentȱlessȱthanȱaȱyearȱofȱhisȱreignȱin
England,ȱwouldȱhaveȱbenefitedȱfromȱtheȱdisplayȱofȱdominanceȱprovidedȱbyȱhis
largeȱtractsȱofȱroyalȱforest.ȱ
Inȱanȱarticleȱexploringȱtheȱculturalȱimplicationsȱofȱillegalȱhuntingȱinȱtheȱroyal
forests,ȱ Barbaraȱ Hanawaltȱ statesȱ thatȱ poachingȱ “atȱ itsȱ mostȱ fundamentalȱ .ȱ .ȱ .
powerfullyȱ reinforcedȱ maleȱ genderȱ identity.”10ȱ Althoughȱ writtenȱ fromȱ the
poachers’ȱperspective—whoȱwereȱprimarilyȱnobles,ȱgentry,ȱandȱclerics—herȱstudy
examinesȱtheȱappealsȱthisȱactivityȱhadȱforȱmen:ȱfromȱprovidingȱforȱtheȱ“festive
6
Charlesȱ R.ȱ Young,ȱ Theȱ Royalȱ Forestsȱ ofȱ Medievalȱ England.ȱ Theȱ Middleȱ Agesȱ ([Philadelphia]:
UniversityȱofȱPennsylvania,ȱ1979),ȱ4.
7
CarlȱJ.ȱGriffin.ȱ“MoreȬthanȬHumanȬHistoriesȱandȱtheȱFailureȱofȱGrandȱStateȱSchemes:ȱSylviculture
inȱtheȱNewȱForest,ȱEngland,”ȱCulturalȱGeographiesȱ17.4ȱ(2010):ȱ451Ȭ72;ȱhereȱ453.
8
RandyȱP.ȱSchiff,ȱ“TheȱLonenessȱofȱtheȱStalker:ȱPoachingȱandȱSubjectivityȱinȱTheȱParlementȱofȱthe
ThreȱAge,”ȱTexasȱStudiesȱinȱLiteratureȱandȱLanguageȱ51.3ȱ(2009):ȱ263–93;ȱhereȱ263.
9
Young,ȱRoyalȱForestsȱ(seeȱnote),ȱ5.
10
BarbaraȱA.ȱHanawalt,ȱ“Men’sȱGames,ȱKing’sȱDeer:ȱPoachingȱinȱMedievalȱEngland,”ȱJournalȱof
MedievalȱandȱRenaissanceȱStudiesȱ18.2ȱ(1988):ȱ175–93;ȱhereȱ192.
significanceȱofȱeatingȱvenison”ȱtoȱtheȱ“chiefȱstatusȱsymbolȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱtheȱabilityȱtoȱshoot
well.”11ȱ
Amongȱtheȱlocalȱknightsȱandȱlesserȱnoblemenȱpatternsȱofȱregularȱpoachingȱparties
emerge,ȱindicatingȱthatȱpoachingȱwasȱmoreȱthanȱ aȱsport.ȱInȱadditionȱtoȱfamily,ȱthe
partiesȱincludedȱtheȱlocalȱclergyman,ȱsquires,ȱpages,ȱmembersȱofȱtheȱmeinie,ȱlocalȱroyal
officialsȱandȱevenȱforestȱadministrators.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱInȱallȱcasesȱtheyȱrepairedȱwithȱtheirȱbooty
toȱtheȱcastleȱofȱtheȱmostȱpowerfulȱmanȱamongȱthemȱwhereȱtheyȱheldȱaȱfeast.ȱForȱthe
nobility,ȱtherefore,ȱpoachingȱwasȱnotȱsimplyȱaȱpastimeȱbutȱaȱwayȱofȱstrengtheningȱlocal
alliancesȱandȱloyalties.12ȱ
Althoughȱtheȱking’sȱforestȱofficialsȱwouldȱhaveȱbeenȱtheȱmostȱimmediateȱtargets
forȱtheseȱgroupsȱofȱupperȬclassȱtransgressors,ȱtheyȱwereȱultimatelyȱchallengingȱthe
ruleȱ ofȱ theȱ monarch.ȱ Inȱ fact,ȱ oneȱ groupȱ ofȱ gentlemenȱ inȱ theȱ Westȱ Midlands
celebratedȱtheȱnewsȱofȱtheȱdeathȱofȱHenryȱIIIȱbyȱtakingȱtheirȱdogsȱandȱhunting
weaponsȱ outȱ toȱ rompȱ aroundȱ theȱ royalȱ forestȱ forȱ theȱ day.13ȱ Theȱ Norman
aristocracyȱ normallyȱ didȱ notȱ poachȱ outȱ ofȱ necessity.14ȱ “Poachingȱ reinforced
masculineȱidentityȱbyȱhuntingȱpreyȱthatȱwasȱnotȱonlyȱexpresslyȱforbidden,ȱbutȱthat
alsoȱtechnicallyȱbelongedȱtoȱanotherȱmanȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱHuntingȱbyȱitselfȱencouragedȱmale
camaraderieȱ byȱ itsȱ groupȱ dynamic,ȱ butȱ poachingȱ raisedȱ theȱ barȱ byȱ increasing
risk.”15
AsȱdescribedȱinȱtheȱAngloȬSaxonȱChronicle,ȱWilliamȱtheȱConqueror’sȱconceptȱof
himselfȱasȱmonarch,ȱhisȱrightsȱandȱallȬpowerfulȱruleȱareȱreflectedȱquiteȱclearlyȱin
hisȱcreationȱofȱroyalȱforests:ȱ
Heȱsætteȱmycelȱdeorfriðȱ7ȱheȱlægdeȱlagaȱþærwið,ȱþætȱswaȱhwaȱswaȱslogeȱheortȱoððe
hinde,ȱþætȱhineȱmanȱsceoldeȱblendian.ȱHeȱforbeadȱþaȱheortasȱswylceȱeacȱþaȱbaras,ȱswa
swiðeȱheȱlufodeȱþaȱheadeorȱswilceȱheȱwæreȱheoraȱfæder.ȱEacȱheȱsætteȱbeȱþamȱharan
þætȱhiȱmostenȱfreoȱfaran.ȱHisȱriceȱmenȱhitȱmændonȱ7ȱþaȱearmeȱmenȱhitȱbeceorodan.
Acȱheȱwæsȱswaȱstiðȱþætȱheȱneȱrohteȱheoraȱeallraȱnið,ȱacȱhiȱmostonȱmidȱealleȱþesȱcynges
willeȱfolgian,ȱgifȱhiȱwoldonȱlibbanȱoððeȱlandȱhabban,ȱlandȱoððeȱeahtaȱoððeȱwelȱhis
sehta.ȱWalaȱwa,ȱþætȱænigȱmanȱsceoldeȱmodiganȱswaȱhineȱsylfȱuppȱahebbanȱ7ȱoferȱealle
menȱtellan.16
11
Hanawalt,ȱ“Men’sȱGames”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ10),ȱ180,ȱ182.
12
Hanawalt,ȱ“Men’sȱGames”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ10),ȱ187.ȱAlsoȱseeȱtheȱarticleȱinȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱLiaȱB.ȱRossȱon
aristocraticȱattitudesȱtowardȱtheȱnaturalȱworld.
13
Hanawalt,ȱ“Men’sȱGames”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ10),ȱ190.
14
JeanȱBirrell,ȱ“AristocraticȱPoachersȱinȱtheȱForestȱofȱDean:ȱTheirȱMethods,ȱTheirȱQuarryȱandȱTheir
Companions,”ȱTransactionsȱofȱtheȱBristolȱandȱGloucestershireȱArchaeologicalȱSocietyȱ119ȱ(2001):ȱ147–54;
hereȱ149.
15
Birrell,ȱ“AristocraticȱPoachers”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ14),ȱ149.
16
AngloȬSaxonȱChronicle,ȱ1086.ȱManuscriptȱE:ȱBodleianȱMSȱLaudȱ636ȱTheȱAngloȬSaxonȱChronicle:ȱAn
ElectronicȱEdition,ȱ5.ȱhttp://asc.jebbo.co.uk/e/eȬL.htmlȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱOctoberȱ13,ȱ2011).
[Heȱmadeȱgreatȱprotectionȱforȱtheȱgame
Andȱimposedȱlawsȱforȱtheȱsame,
Thatȱwhoȱsoȱslewȱhartȱorȱhind
Shouldȱbeȱmadeȱblind.ȱ
Heȱpreservedȱtheȱhartsȱandȱboars
Andȱlovedȱtheȱstagsȱasȱmuch
Asȱifȱheȱwereȱtheirȱfather.
Moreover,ȱforȱtheȱharesȱdidȱheȱdecreeȱthatȱtheyȱshouldȱgoȱfree,
Powerfulȱmenȱcomplainedȱofȱitȱandȱpoorȱmenȱlamentedȱit,
Butȱtheyȱhadȱtoȱfollowȱoutȱtheȱking’sȱwillȱentirely
Ifȱtheyȱwishedȱtoȱliveȱorȱholdȱtheirȱland,
Propertyȱorȱestate,ȱorȱhisȱfavourȱgreat.]17ȱ
Insteadȱ ofȱ appearingȱ toȱ overseeȱ theȱ wellȱ beingȱ ofȱ hisȱ people,ȱ Williamȱ the
Conquerorȱwasȱregardedȱasȱaȱprotectorȱonlyȱtoȱforestȱanimalsȱandȱasȱaȱfatherȱonly
toȱhisȱstags.
TheȱsecondȱNormanȱking,ȱWilliamȱII,ȱorȱWilliamȱRufus,ȱalsoȱenjoyedȱthisȱkingly
sportȱofȱhuntingȱinȱtheȱNewȱForestȱcreatedȱbyȱtheȱConqueror,ȱbutȱseemsȱnotȱto
haveȱ wonȱ theȱ symbolicȱ forestȱ battle.ȱ Dependingȱ onȱ whetherȱ weȱ believeȱ the
accountȱofȱWilliamȱofȱMalmesburyȱorȱofȱOrdericȱVitalis,ȱtheȱking’sȱfriend,ȱWalter
Tirel,ȱLordȱofȱPoix,ȱshotȱhimȱaccidentallyȱorȱkilledȱhimȱpurposefullyȱandȱfledȱto
Franceȱ afterȱ theȱ killing,ȱ whileȱ Rufus’sȱ brotherȱ andȱ heir,ȱ Henryȱ I,ȱ madeȱ for
Winchesterȱtoȱclaimȱtheȱroyalȱtreasury.ȱSinceȱRufusȱhadȱtreatedȱtheȱEnglishȱclergy
withȱderision,ȱevenȱrunningȱSt.ȱAnselmȱoutȱofȱtheȱcountry,ȱmanyȱatȱtheȱtimeȱsaw
theȱ deathȱ notȱ asȱ aȱ symbolȱ ofȱ aȱ weakȱ king,ȱ butȱ asȱ aȱ symbolȱ ofȱ aȱ faithlessȱ king
broughtȱdownȱbyȱtheȱhandȱofȱGod.18ȱHeȱclearly,ȱtherefore,ȱdidȱnotȱruleȱbyȱdivine
right.ȱWhenȱweȱlookȱatȱtheȱforestȱactivityȱofȱhisȱsuccessor,ȱHenryȱI,ȱweȱlookȱto
Woodstock,ȱwhichȱwasȱlistedȱinȱtheȱDoomsdayȱBookȱ(1086)ȱasȱaȱroyalȱdeerȱparkȱwith
noȱsettlements.19ȱAroundȱtheȱyearȱ1110,ȱHenryȱIȱ(1068–1135)ȱenclosedȱtheȱpark
withȱaȱsevenȬmileȱstoneȱwall,ȱwhichȱpreservedȱhisȱdeerȱandȱprovidedȱaȱspaceȱfor
hisȱ menagerieȱ ofȱ lions,ȱ lynxes,ȱ leopards,ȱ andȱ camels,ȱ animalsȱ associatedȱ with
classicalȱtalesȱofȱwarriorship,ȱbutȱnotȱseenȱinȱEnglandȱforȱtensȱofȱthousandsȱof
years.ȱJustȱhavingȱtheȱresourcesȱtoȱimportȱtheseȱanimalsȱintoȱEnglandȱinȱtheȱearly
twelfthȱcenturyȱmustȱhaveȱimpressedȱhisȱpeople.20
17
TheȱAngloȬSaxonȱChronicle,ȱed.ȱDorothyȱWhitelockȱ(NewȱBrunswick,ȱNJ:ȱRutgersȱUniversityȱPress,
1961),ȱ165.
18
“Williamȱ II,”ȱ http://www.historybookshop.com/articles/events/williamȬ2ȬdeathȬofȬht.aspȱ (last
accessedȱonȱOct.ȱ14,ȱ2011).
19
“Woodstock,”ȱhttp://www.luminarium.org/encyclopedia/woodstock.htmȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱOct.
4,ȱ2011).
20
Inȱ1252ȱtheȱcollectionȱwasȱtransferredȱtoȱtheȱTowerȱofȱLondonȱandȱfromȱthere,ȱinȱ1835,ȱtoȱRegent’s
Park,ȱwhereȱitȱformedȱtheȱbasisȱofȱLondonȱZoo.
AlthoughȱlaterȱdescendantsȱofȱWilliamȱtheȱConquerorȱmadeȱminorȱchangesȱto
hisȱhuntingȱlaws,ȱsometimesȱsofteningȱtheirȱimpact,ȱasȱlateȱasȱRichardȱI’sȱAssize
inȱ 1198,ȱ theȱ penaltyȱ forȱ killingȱ deerȱ wasȱ physicalȱ mutilation,ȱ pluckingȱ outȱ the
offender’sȱeyesȱandȱcuttingȱoffȱhisȱtesticles.21ȱWhileȱblindingȱtheȱoffenderȱwould
beȱenoughȱtoȱstopȱhisȱinfringingȱinȱtheȱfuture,ȱemasculationȱofȱaȱpersonȱwhoȱdared
challengeȱtheȱking’sȱsoleȱrightȱtoȱhuntȱorȱtoȱdesignateȱwhoȱmayȱhuntȱinȱhisȱforests
symbolicallyȱreassertsȱtheȱextentȱofȱtheȱmonarch’sȱpotencyȱandȱhisȱrightȱtoȱrender
anyoneȱelseȱimpotent.
HenryȱIIȱ(1133–1189)ȱwouldȱoftenȱexileȱoffendersȱofȱtheȱforestȱlaws,ȱmakingȱclear
thatȱtheȱroyalȱforestsȱwereȱnotȱtheȱonlyȱspacesȱoverȱwhichȱheȱhadȱabsoluteȱcontrol.
Furthermore,ȱ afterȱ puttingȱ downȱ theȱ rebellionȱ fosteredȱ byȱ hisȱ sons,ȱ he
demonstratedȱtheȱstrengthȱofȱhisȱholdȱonȱtheȱcountryȱbyȱchargingȱnobles,ȱgentry,
clergyȱandȱcommonersȱwithȱinfractionsȱagainstȱtheȱforestȱlawsȱevenȱthoughȱthe
revoltȱhadȱhadȱnothingȱtoȱdoȱwithȱforests.22ȱKnownȱforȱhisȱalmostȱobsessiveȱlove
ofȱhunting,ȱHenryȱIIȱwouldȱstayȱinȱhisȱhuntingȱlodgesȱratherȱthanȱinȱcastlesȱwhen
heȱtraveledȱaroundȱtheȱcountry.ȱHenryȱIIȱfoundȱtheȱroyalȱparkȱatȱWoodstockȱideal
toȱenjoyȱbothȱhisȱpassionȱforȱhuntingȱandȱforȱladies.ȱHeȱsteadilyȱandȱconsiderably
enlargedȱHenryȱI’sȱhouseȱuntilȱitȱbeganȱtoȱresembleȱaȱroyalȱpalace,ȱwhichȱincluded
aȱbowerȱretreatȱforȱRosamundȱCliffordȱandȱaȱmaze.23ȱ
Theȱchroniclersȱofȱtheȱperiodȱcommentedȱonȱhisȱhunting:ȱinȱGeraldȱofȱWales’s
words,ȱ“Heȱwasȱaddictedȱtoȱtheȱchaseȱbeyondȱmeasure;ȱatȱcrackȱofȱdawnȱheȱwas
offȱ onȱ horseback,ȱ traversingȱ wasteȱ lands,ȱ penetratingȱ forestsȱ andȱ climbingȱ the
mountainȬtops,ȱandȱsoȱheȱpassedȱrestlessȱdays.”24ȱWalterȱMapȱsaidȱheȱwasȱ“aȱgreat
connoisseurȱofȱhoundsȱandȱhawks,ȱandȱmostȱgreedyȱofȱthatȱvainȱsport.”25ȱItȱis
probablyȱnoȱcoincidenceȱthatȱMarieȱdeȱFrance,ȱwritingȱduringȱhisȱreignȱandȱwell
acquaintedȱwithȱhisȱcourt,ȱthoughtȱbyȱsomeȱtoȱbeȱhisȱhalfȱsister,ȱoftenȱnarrates
plotsȱinȱwhichȱaȱkingȱspendsȱhisȱtimeȱinȱtheȱforestȱhunting.ȱInȱherȱlaiȱEquitanȱshe
showsȱusȱaȱkingȱwhoȱsleepsȱwithȱhisȱseneschal’sȱwife,ȱlinkingȱhuntingȱandȱsexual
potency:
Ja,ȱseȱpurȱostïerȱneȱfust,
Purȱnulȱbusuinȱkiȱliȱcreüst
Liȱreisȱneȱlaissastȱsunȱchacier,
Sunȱdeduire,ȱsunȱriveier.
21
Young,ȱRoyalȱForestsȱ(seeȱnoteȱ5),ȱ30.
22
Young,ȱRoyalȱForestsȱ(seeȱnoteȱ5),ȱ24.
23
ForȱaȱdetailedȱbiographyȱofȱHenryȱII,ȱseeȱRichardȱW.ȱBarber,ȱHenryȱPlantagenet:ȱAȱBiographyȱof
HenryȱIIȱofȱEnglandȱ(Woodbridge:ȱBoydell,ȱ2001).
24
QuotedȱinȱYoung,ȱRoyalȱForestsȱ(seeȱnoteȱ5),ȱ24.
25
QuotedȱinȱYoung,ȱRoyalȱForestsȱ(seeȱnoteȱ5),ȱ58.
[Exceptȱforȱwar,ȱnoȱtask,ȱnoȱthing–
ȱ Noȱemergency—couldȱdrawȱtheȱking
Fromȱhisȱhuntingȱandȱhisȱpleasures,
ȱAndȱenjoyingȱtheȱriver’sȱleisures.]ȱ (24–28)
...
ȱ Priveementȱesbanïer
Enȱlaȱcuntreeȱalaȱchacier.
Laȱuȱliȱseneschalȱmaneit,
Elȱchastelȱuȱlaȱdameȱesteit,
[se]ȱherberjatȱliȱreisȱlaȱnuit,
Quantȱrepeiroutȱdeȱsunȱdeduit.26
[Huntingȱpleasureȱofȱaȱprivateȱsort,
Heȱwentȱintoȱtheȱcountryȱforȱsport.
Inȱtheȱmanorȱofȱhisȱseneschal,
Theȱcastleȱwhereȱtheȱladyȱstayed,
Theȱkingȱtookȱshelterȱatȱnightfall;
Heȱneededȱrest,ȱsoȱhardȱhe’dȱplayed.]27ȱ (43–48)
Thisȱ kingȱ isȱ eventuallyȱ punishedȱ forȱ havingȱ aȱ sexualȱ relationshipȱ withȱ his
seneschal’sȱ wife.ȱ Givenȱ Henry’sȱ behavior,ȱ Marie’sȱ laiȱ couldȱ reflectȱ theȱ general
perceptionȱofȱtheȱmonarchȱduringȱHenryȱII’sȱreignȱasȱsomeoneȱwhoȱrecognizedȱno
boundariesȱwhenȱitȱcameȱtoȱhisȱpassions:ȱhuntingȱandȱcourtingȱwomen.
OtherȱearlyȱmedievalȱliteratureȱinȱEnglandȱalsoȱusesȱconductȱinȱtheȱforestȱto
characterizeȱtheȱruler.ȱInȱHavelokȱtheȱDane,ȱforȱexample,ȱaȱromanceȱonȱtheȱMatter
ofȱ Englandȱ writtenȱ aȱ littleȱ laterȱ thanȱ Marie’sȱ lais,ȱ theȱ newȱ rulerȱ Havelokȱ is
celebratedȱforȱtheȱsymbolicȱactionȱofȱcleansingȱtheȱwilderness:
Toȱyemenȱ[control]ȱwildeȱwodesȱandȱpathes
Froȱwickeȱmenȱthatȱwoldeȱdonȱscathesȱ[harm],
Andȱfortoȱhavenȱalleȱ[thereforeȱhaveȱall]ȱatȱhisȱcryȱ[command],
Atȱhisȱwille,ȱatȱhiseȱmercy,
Thatȱnonȱdursteȱbenȱ[noneȱdareȱbe]ȱhimȱageynȱ[against].28ȱ(268–72)
Althoughȱtheȱwildernessȱwasȱsometimesȱconfiguredȱasȱaȱplaceȱofȱpurificationȱfor
hermits,ȱitȱwasȱmoreȱoftenȱseenȱasȱaȱvileȱplace:ȱ
26
MarieȱdeȱFrance,ȱ“Equitan.”ȱWikisource.ȱLaȱbibliothèqueȱlibreȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱOct.ȱ14,ȱ2011).
27
MarieȱdeȱFrance,ȱ“Equitan,”ȱtrans.ȱJudithȱShoaf.ȱ1992.ȱhttp://lecygne.org/Le_Cygne_%28A_PeerȬ
reviewed_Journal%29_and_the_International_Marie_de_France_Societyȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱOct.ȱ14,
2011).
28
“HavelokȱtheȱDane,”ȱMiddleȱEnglishȱVerseȱRomances,ȱed.ȱDonaldȱB.ȱSandsȱ(NewȱYork,ȱChicago,ȱet
al:ȱHolt,ȱRinehartȱ&ȱWinston,ȱInc.,ȱ1966),ȱ58–129;ȱhereȱ65.
[B]estiality,ȱ fallenness,ȱ errancy,ȱ perdition—theseȱ ȱ areȱ theȱ associationsȱ thatȱ accrued

aroundȱforestsȱinȱtheȱChristianȱȱmythology.ȱInȱtheologicalȱtermsȱforestsȱrepresentedȱthe
anarchyȱofȱmatterȱitself,ȱwithȱallȱtheȱdeprivedȱdarknessȱthatȱwentȱwithȱthisȱNeoplatonic
conceptȱadoptedȱearlyȱonȱbyȱtheȱChurchȱfathers.29
Cleansingȱtheȱwildernessȱwasȱalmostȱanȱactȱonȱparȱwithȱrestoringȱtheȱearthȱtoȱits
originalȱgardenȱstate.
Anotherȱearlyȱromanceȱfocusingȱonȱforestȱpropertyȱreversesȱtheȱusualȱpattern
ofȱheroicȱrulerȱtamingȱtheȱwildernessȱtoȱshowȱaȱprincipledȱoutlawȱoverpowering
KingȱJohnȱinȱhisȱlawlessȱland.ȱInȱFoukeȱleȱFitzȱWaryn,ȱextantȱinȱanȱAngloȱNorman
proseȱ romance,ȱ Fulkȱ firstȱ killsȱ aȱ dragon,ȱ provingȱ hisȱ commandȱ ofȱ theȱ natural
world,ȱandȱthenȱcapturesȱKingȱJohnȱinȱtheȱNewȱForest,ȱtheȱroyalȱhuntingȱforest
begunȱbyȱWilliamȱtheȱConqueror.30ȱWhatȱheȱwantsȱisȱthisȱlandȱback,ȱsoȱheȱforces
Johnȱtoȱrestoreȱallȱhisȱandȱhisȱcompanions’ȱlandsȱinȱEngland.ȱShownȱasȱaȱmoral
andȱ legalȱ victory,ȱ Fulk’sȱ forcefulȱ recoveryȱ ofȱ hisȱ landȱ fromȱ theȱ kingȱ isȱ quite
literallyȱ asȱ impressiveȱ asȱ hisȱ killingȱ dragons,ȱ theȱ mostȱ fearedȱ animalȱ inȱ the
wilderness.
Theȱauthorsȱofȱtheseȱworksȱofȱfictionȱappearȱtoȱunderstandȱtheȱroleȱcommand
overȱforestsȱandȱeverythingȱinȱthem,ȱhumanȱandȱanimal,ȱplayedȱinȱshapingȱthe
publicȱimageȱofȱtheȱmonarch.ȱThisȱcommandȱalsoȱhelpedȱfillȱtheȱroyalȱcoffers.
Wheneverȱaȱruler’sȱforeignȱwarsȱgotȱtooȱexpensive,ȱheȱcouldȱalwaysȱfindȱwaysȱto
milkȱ theȱ royalȱ forests.31ȱ Providingȱ incomeȱ whenȱ needed,ȱ theȱ royalȱ forests,
therefore,ȱalsoȱensuredȱthatȱaȱmonarchȱcouldȱaffordȱtoȱlookȱlikeȱtheȱsupremeȱleader
heȱwishedȱtoȱbeȱconsidered.
EarlyȱModernȱRoyalȱSpaces
Asȱweȱmoveȱforwardȱinȱtime,ȱtheȱconceptȱofȱtheȱallȬpowerfulȱrulerȱwhoseȱclaims
toȱlandȱforȱhisȱownȱprivateȱuse,ȱwhetherȱtoȱglorifyȱhimselfȱandȱhisȱreignȱorȱto
amuseȱhimself,ȱgivesȱwayȱtoȱtheȱpubliclyȱengagedȱroyalȱfigureȱwhoȱsharesȱpublic
gardensȱ thatȱ usedȱ toȱ beȱ royalȱ forestsȱ withȱ hisȱ citizensȱ asȱ theyȱ gossip,ȱ conduct
business,ȱandȱestablishȱtheirȱsocialȱhierarchiesȱthroughȱdisplaysȱofȱwealthȱ and
acquaintanceships.ȱ
29
RobertȱP.ȱHarrison,ȱForests:ȱTheȱShadowȱofȱCivilizationȱ(Chicago:ȱUniversityȱofȱChicagoȱPress,ȱ1992),
61.
30
FoukeȱLeȱFitzȱWaryn,ȱed.ȱE.ȱJ.ȱHathaway,ȱP.ȱT.ȱRicketts,ȱC.ȱA.ȱRobson,ȱandȱA.ȱD.ȱWilshere.ȱAngloȬ
NormanȱTextȱSocietyȱ(Oxford:ȱBasilȱBlackwell,ȱ1976).
31
B.ȱM.ȱS.ȱCampbell,ȱ“TheȱAgrarianȱProblemȱinȱtheȱEarlyȱFourteenthȱCentury,”ȱPastȱ&ȱPresentȱ188
(2005):ȱ3–70;ȱhereȱ6.
Ifȱweȱturnȱtoȱtwoȱroyalȱdeerȱparksȱcreatedȱforȱhuntingȱinȱtheȱsixteenthȱcentury,
theȱchangesȱareȱstriking.ȱHydeȱParkȱandȱSt.ȱJamesȱPark,ȱbothȱbuiltȱbyȱHenryȱVIII,
wereȱsetȱupȱonȱruralȱlandȱthenȱoutsideȱofȱLondonȱtoȱallowȱtheȱkingȱtoȱhuntȱsince
heȱspentȱgreaterȱamountsȱofȱtimeȱthereȱthanȱhisȱmedievalȱcounterpartsȱhad.ȱNo
longerȱableȱsimplyȱtoȱtakeȱtheȱtractsȱofȱlandȱwithoutȱaȱjustȱcause,ȱorȱtheȱsemblance
ofȱaȱjustȱcause,ȱtheȱkingȱboughtȱoneȱofȱthese,ȱtheȱlandȱforȱSt.ȱJamesȱPark,ȱandȱseized
theȱ other,ȱ Hydeȱ Park,ȱ fromȱ theȱ monksȱ ofȱ Westminsterȱ Abbeyȱ duringȱ the
Reformation.ȱ Bothȱ wereȱ usedȱ primarilyȱ asȱ royalȱ huntingȱ enclosuresȱ untilȱ the
Stuarts’ȱtime.ȱ
HydeȱPark
AsȱfarȱbackȱasȱtheȱDoomsdayȱBook,ȱtheȱlandȱforȱHydeȱPark,ȱcalledȱtheȱManorȱof
Eia,ȱbelongedȱtoȱmonksȱfromȱWestminsterȱAbbey.ȱInȱ1536,ȱwhenȱKingȱHenryȱVIII
seizedȱtheȱmanor,ȱsomeȱofȱtheȱlandȱwasȱsoldȱforȱmoney,ȱandȱtheȱrestȱwasȱmade
“intoȱ aȱ vastȱ huntingȱ parkȱ thatȱ stretchedȱ fromȱ Kensingtonȱ toȱ Westminster.”32
FencingȱinȱtheȱareaȱandȱdammingȱupȱtheȱWestbourneȱStreamȱtoȱmakeȱwaterȱpools
forȱhisȱdeer,ȱtheȱkingȱmadeȱhimselfȱaȱprivateȱenclosureȱinȱwhichȱtoȱsportȱatȱhis
leisure.ȱMorally,ȱhuntingȱwasȱjustifiedȱasȱaȱmeansȱofȱavoidingȱidleness,ȱbutȱHenry
VIII’sȱfamousȱsongȱ“PastimeȱwithȱGoodȱCompany”ȱletsȱusȱseeȱtheȱjoyȱheȱtookȱin
theȱsport:ȱ“Hunt,ȱsingȱandȱdance,ȱ/ȱMyȱheartȱisȱset.”33ȱ
However,ȱheȱalsoȱputȱonȱroyalȱhuntsȱinȱHydeȱParkȱtoȱentertainȱambassadorsȱand
foreignȱdiplomatsȱwhileȱimportantȱmembersȱofȱcourtȱwatchedȱfromȱgrandstands
andȱfeastedȱinȱtemporaryȱbanquetȱhouses.ȱTherefore,ȱatȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱthatȱitȱwas
usedȱforȱrigorousȱexercise,ȱthisȱspaceȱwasȱalsoȱusedȱforȱdramaticȱpoliticalȱdisplays,
whichȱshiftsȱourȱperspectiveȱonȱroyalȱruralȱspaceȱandȱtheȱmonarchsȱwhoȱcommand
them.ȱWhenȱtheȱrulerȱredirectsȱtheȱflowȱofȱancientȱstreamsȱandȱturnsȱonceȱwild
landȱ onȱ whichȱ deer,ȱ boar,ȱ andȱ wildȱ bullsȱ roamedȱ freelyȱ intoȱ anȱ artificial
entertainmentȱparkȱwithȱgrandstandȱseatsȱandȱbanquetȱhalls,ȱitȱisȱnoȱlongerȱjustȱhis
power,ȱstrength,ȱandȱauthorityȱonȱdisplay;ȱtheseȱentertainmentsȱalsoȱallowedȱthe
kingȱ toȱ showcaseȱ hisȱ magnificenceȱ inȱ socialȱ andȱ culturalȱ termsȱ forȱ foreign
audiencesȱ and,ȱ ofȱ course,ȱ womenȱ viewers.ȱ Theȱ royalȱ forestȱ atȱ Hydeȱ Parkȱ had
becomeȱanȱartificialȱarenaȱforȱtheȱprivilegedȱtoȱviewȱspectacleȱandȱdrama,ȱvictory
andȱ defeat,ȱathleticȱprowess,ȱandȱdeath,ȱandȱasȱsuch,ȱoneȱofȱtheȱmanyȱcourtly
displaysȱHenryȱVIIIȱcommissionedȱtoȱexaltȱhisȱreignȱandȱcelebrateȱitsȱlegitimacy.
32
“HydeȱPark.”ȱLondon’sȱPersonalȱSpace.ȱTheȱRoyalȱParks.ȱwww.royalparks.gov.ukȱ(lastȱaccessed
onȱOct.ȱ14,ȱ2011).
33
HenryȱVIII,ȱ“PastimeȱWithȱGoodȱCompany,”ȱ[BritishȱLibraryȱAdditionalȱMs.ȱ31922,ȱff.14v–15]
Onlineȱat:ȱhttp://www.luminarium.org/renlit/pastime.htmȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱOct.ȱ14,ȱ2011).
St.ȱJamesȱPark
Whenȱ Henryȱ VIIIȱ purchasedȱ theȱ areaȱ ofȱ marshlandȱ throughȱ whichȱ theȱ River
TyburnȱflowedȱtoȱtheȱwestȱofȱYorkȱPlace,ȱrecentlyȱacquiredȱfromȱCardinalȱWolsey,
itȱwasȱlandȱonȱwhichȱaȱwomen’sȱleperȱhospitalȱdedicatedȱtoȱSt.ȱJamesȱtheȱLesser
hadȱoriginallyȱstoodȱinȱtheȱthirteenthȱcentury.ȱWildȱanimals,ȱforests,ȱandȱfarms
filledȱtheȱwastelandȱwhenȱitȱwasȱboughtȱfromȱEtonȱCollegeȱtoȱformȱaȱdeerȱpark
relativelyȱcloseȱtoȱtheȱPalaceȱatȱWestminster.ȱAfterȱHenryȱenclosedȱtheȱlandȱand
stockedȱitȱwithȱdeer,ȱheȱfirstȱhadȱaȱhuntingȱlodgeȱbuiltȱonȱtheȱproperty.ȱThisȱwas
laterȱexpandedȱtoȱbecomeȱSt.ȱJamesȱPalace.ȱKnownȱtoȱbeȱpassionateȱaboutȱthe
chase,ȱitȱwasȱsaidȱthatȱHenryȱVIIIȱgetsȱupȱdailyȱexceptȱforȱholyȱdaysȱ“atȱ4ȱorȱ5
o’clock,ȱandȱhuntsȱtillȱ9ȱorȱ10ȱatȱnight.ȱHeȱsparesȱnoȱpainsȱtoȱconvertȱtheȱsportȱof
huntingȱintoȱaȱmarytyrdom.”34ȱAfterȱheȱreceivedȱaȱgiftȱofȱwildȱboarȱfromȱtheȱKing
ofȱ Franceȱ inȱ 1526,ȱ heȱ describedȱ theȱ experienceȱ ofȱ huntingȱ themȱ asȱ “aȱ King’s
game.”35
Afterȱ heȱ hadȱ madeȱ St.ȱ Jamesȱ Parkȱ intoȱ aȱ royalȱ huntingȱ space,ȱ Henry
commissionedȱ theȱ royalȱ gardensȱ atȱ Whitehallȱ toȱ beȱ builtȱ onȱ theȱ borderȱ ofȱ this
huntingȱspace,ȱinspiredȱbyȱhisȱcompetitionȱwithȱtheȱestatesȱofȱhisȱrival,ȱFrancisȱI,
suchȱasȱFontainebleau.36ȱInȱhisȱexcellentȱstudyȱofȱgardensȱofȱtheȱperiod,ȱRoyȱStrong
explainsȱtheȱpoliticalȱnatureȱofȱHenryȱVIII’sȱbuildingȱcampaign:ȱ“Asȱtheȱchivalrous
warriorȱprinceȱgaveȱwayȱtoȱtheȱpoliticianȱandȱmanȱofȱaffairs,ȱanȱobsessionȱwith
buildingȱsetȱinȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ[T]heȱkingȱofȱEngland,ȱasȱheȱdefiedȱtheȱrestȱofȱChristendom
andȱproclaimedȱhimselfȱtheȱimageȱofȱGodȱonȱearth,ȱneededȱaȱsettingȱworthyȱofȱthe
extremeȱ powersȱ whichȱ wereȱ nowȱ attributedȱ toȱ him.”37ȱ Henry’sȱ gardensȱ at
Whitehallȱwereȱnextȱtoȱtennisȱcourts,ȱaȱtiltȱgalleryȱandȱaȱcockpit,ȱoutdoorȱspaces
stillȱinȱfavorȱinȱaȱcourtȱthatȱappreciatedȱathleticȱcontests.ȱBuiltȱonȱwhatȱhadȱonce
beenȱanȱorchard,ȱthisȱgardenȱfeaturedȱwoodenȱanimalsȱassociatedȱwithȱtheȱTudor
heraldicȱ beasts—Edwardȱ III’sȱ griffin,ȱ theȱ Beaufortȱ yale,ȱ theȱ Richmondȱ white
greyhoundȱandȱwhiteȱhind—perchedȱonȱmarbledȱwoodenȱcolumnsȱthroughout
thisȱspaceȱandȱenclosedȱbyȱgardenȱrailsȱpaintedȱinȱgreenȱandȱwhiteȱstripes,ȱthe
Tudorȱcolors.38ȱMuchȱeasierȱtoȱcareȱforȱthanȱliveȱanimals,ȱtheseȱcarvedȱanimals
34
AlisonȱWeir,ȱHenryȱVIII:ȱTheȱKingȱandȱHisȱCourtȱ(NewȱYork:ȱBallantineȱBooks,ȱ2001),ȱ106.
35
Weir,ȱHenryȱVIIIȱ(seeȱnoteȱ34),ȱ106.
36
SeeȱtheȱarticleȱinȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱAbigailȱP.ȱDowlingȱthatȱdetailsȱtheȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱCountess
Mahautȱd’ArtoisȱusedȱtheȱmedievalȱparkȱatȱHesdinȱforȱpractical,ȱaesthetic,ȱandȱsymbolicȱends.
37
RoyȱStrong,ȱTheȱRenaissanceȱGardenȱinȱEngland,ȱ(London:ȱThames,ȱ1979),ȱ25.
38
Strong,ȱRenaissanceȱGardenȱ(seeȱnoteȱ37),ȱ25ȱforȱdescriptionsȱofȱsimilarȱfeaturesȱthatȱHenryȱhad
installedȱinȱtheȱgardensȱatȱHamptonȱCourt.ȱFeaturesȱofȱtheȱgardenȱcanȱbeȱseenȱbehindȱtheȱfigures
inȱtheȱpaintingȱTheȱFamilyȱofȱHenryȱVIII,ȱc.ȱ1543–1547,ȱbyȱanȱunknownȱartist,ȱafterȱHolbein,ȱnow
inȱHamptonȱCourtȱPalace.ȱ
symbolizedȱinȱaȱmaterialȱwayȱtheȱregalȱcontrolȱofȱtheȱnaturalȱworldȱthatȱHenry
displayedȱphysicallyȱwhenȱhuntingȱinȱhisȱdeerȱparks.ȱ
AlthoughȱElizabethȱIȱcouldȱhuntȱperfectlyȱwell,ȱbeingȱable,ȱamongȱotherȱthings,
toȱtellȱtheȱageȱofȱaȱhartȱfromȱtheȱsizeȱofȱitsȱdropping,ȱsheȱalsoȱindulgedȱherȱloveȱof
pageantryȱandȱpompȱinȱtheȱSt.ȱJamesȱdeerȱpark,ȱandȱfetesȱofȱallȱkindsȱwereȱheld
thereȱ duringȱ herȱ reign.ȱ Accordingȱ toȱ Edwardȱ Walford,ȱ duringȱ theȱ reignsȱ of
Elizabethȱ andȱ theȱ earlyȱ Stuarts,ȱ “theȱ parkȱ wasȱ littleȱ moreȱ thanȱ aȱ nurseryȱ for
deer.”39ȱ Althoughȱ Elizabethȱ wasȱ notȱ aȱ seriousȱ enforcerȱ ofȱ forestȱ law,ȱ she
recognizedȱtheȱsymbolicȱimportanceȱofȱcontrollingȱhuntingȱspace.ȱInȱfact,ȱinȱ1572
sheȱandȱLeicesterȱbrokeȱintoȱLordȱBerkeley’sȱprivateȱdeerȱparkȱandȱslaughtered
twentyȬsevenȱofȱhisȱdeer.40ȱInȱTheȱNobleȱArteȱofȱVenerieȱorȱHunting,ȱca.ȱ1575,ȱthe
writerȱandȱpoetȱGeorgeȱTurbervileȱtellsȱusȱthatȱinȱEnglandȱaȱritualȱtookȱplaceȱat
royalȱhuntsȱwhereȱtheȱhuntsman,ȱ“onȱhisȱknees,ȱhandedȱtheȱhuntingȱknifeȱtoȱthe
King,ȱwhoȱstabbedȱtheȱhart’sȱcarcassȱasȱifȱheȱwereȱkillingȱtheȱhart.ȱThisȱEnglish
practiceȱ wasȱ adoptedȱ wheneverȱ Elizabethȱ Iȱ hunted.”ȱ Sinceȱ weȱ areȱ assured,
however,ȱthatȱtheȱmonarchȱwentȱthroughȱthisȱritualȱafterȱtheȱhartȱwasȱdeadȱforȱthe
safetyȱofȱtheȱmonarch,ȱitȱisȱclearlyȱanȱactȱmoreȱsymbolicȱthanȱheroic.41ȱControlȱof
theȱpark,ȱlongȱassociatedȱwithȱdominionȱoverȱsymbolicȱworlds,ȱgaveȱElizabeth
anotherȱvenueȱandȱmeansȱtoȱprojectȱherȱversionȱofȱroyalȱsplendorȱandȱauthority,
notȱ oneȱ builtȱ onȱ heroicȱ deedsȱ onȱ theȱ battlefield,ȱ butȱ oneȱ foundedȱ onȱ ritual
presentationȱofȱaȱgoddessȬlikeȱfigureȱknownȱforȱitsȱpurity,ȱbeauty,ȱwisdom,ȱand
strength.ȱTheȱfairyȱqueen,ȱafterȱall,ȱlivedȱinȱtheȱforest.
WhenȱweȱturnȱtoȱtheȱfirstȱStuartȱmonarch,ȱJamesȱIȱwasȱaȱmuchȱmoreȱavidȱhunter
andȱ tookȱ aȱ stringentȱ approachȱ toȱ enforcingȱ gameȱ laws,ȱ evenȱ denyingȱ hunting
privilegesȱtoȱminorȱgentry.42ȱAmongȱtheȱmanyȱstoriesȱaboutȱhisȱhuntingȱactivities,
weȱknowȱthatȱJames’sȱfavoriteȱhoundȱwasȱonceȱkidnappedȱandȱreturnedȱwithȱa
noteȱaskingȱforȱtheȱdogȱtoȱintercedeȱwithȱtheȱkingȱsinceȱheȱsawȱmoreȱofȱtheȱking
thanȱhisȱsubjectsȱdid,ȱthatȱJames,ȱalwaysȱtiedȱtoȱhisȱhorse,ȱpissedȱinȱhisȱsaddle
becauseȱ heȱ refusedȱ toȱ getȱ offȱ whileȱ hunting,ȱ andȱ thatȱ hisȱ brotherȬinȬlaw,ȱ King
ChristianȱofȱDenmark,ȱhadȱtoȱwaitȱanȱextraȱdayȱonȱhisȱshipȱbeforeȱbeingȱgreeted
39
EdwardȱWalford,ȱWalterȱThornbury,ȱandȱGeorgeȱWalter,ȱ“Westminster:ȱSt.ȱJames’sȱPark,”Oldȱand
NewȱLondon:ȱAȱNarrativeȱofȱItsȱHistory,ȱItsȱPeople,ȱandȱItsȱPlaces,ȱvol.ȱ4ȱ(London,ȱParis,ȱandȱNew
York:ȱCassell,ȱ1879).ȱSeeȱonline:http://www.britishȬhistory.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=45182ȱ(last
accessedȱonȱOct.ȱ14,ȱ2011).ȱ
40
JeffreyȱTheis,ȱ“Theȱ“illȱkill’d”ȱDeer:ȱPoachingȱandȱSocialȱOrderȱinȱTheȱMerryȱWivesȱofȱWindsor,”
TexasȱStudiesȱinȱLiteratureȱandȱLanguageȱ43.1ȱ(2001):ȱ46–73;ȱhereȱ50.
41
“HuntingȱinȱTudorȱEngland,”ȱhttp://www.tudorplace.com.ar/index.htmȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱOct.ȱ14,
2011).
42
Theis,ȱ“Theȱ‘illȱkill’d’ȱDeer”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ40),ȱ50.
onȱ hisȱ arrivalȱ becauseȱ Jamesȱ wasȱ outȱ hunting,ȱ payingȱ moreȱ attentionȱ toȱ his
personalȱinterestsȱthanȱtoȱpoliticalȱceremoniesȱandȱinternationalȱdiplomatics.43ȱ
Hisȱhunting,ȱhowever,ȱtookȱplaceȱfarȱfromȱcourtȱinȱforestsȱwithȱhuntingȱlodges
whereȱheȱcouldȱavoidȱpublicȱview.ȱInȱSt.ȱJamesȱPark,ȱtherefore,ȱheȱhadȱtheȱland
convertedȱfromȱhuntingȱgroundsȱtoȱgardenȱspace,ȱstill,ȱhowever,ȱroyalȱandȱprivate.
Newlyȱdrainedȱandȱlandscapedȱwithȱmostȱofȱtheȱtreesȱcutȱdown,ȱtheȱparkȱfeatured
aȱlargeȱpoolȱknownȱasȱRosamond’sȱPondȱasȱwellȱasȱseveralȱsmallȱponds,ȱchannels
andȱ islandsȱ usedȱ toȱ lureȱ birdsȱ thatȱ wereȱ shotȱ forȱ theȱ royalȱ kitchens.ȱ Inȱ the
descriptionȱofȱtheȱSt.ȱJamesȱGardenȱinȱ1637ȱbyȱtheȱSieurȱdeȱlaȱSerreȱforȱtheȱQueen’s
mother,ȱ Marieȱ deȱ Medici,ȱ heȱ describesȱ twoȱ mainȱ gardens,ȱ oneȱ anȱ elaborate
embroideredȱparterreȱinȱboxȱwithȱflowersȱinsideȱandȱtheȱotherȱanȱorchardȱwith
walks.ȱSieurȱdeȱlaȱSerreȱcontinues:
[Theȱgardens]ȱareȱboundedȱbyȱaȱgreatȱpark,ȱwithȱmanyȱwalks,ȱallȱcoveredȱbyȱtheȱshade
ofȱ anȱ infiniteȱ numberȱ ofȱ oaks,ȱ whoseȱ antiquityȱ isȱ extremelyȱ agreeable,ȱ asȱ theyȱ are
therebyȱrenderedȱtheȱmoreȱimperviousȱtoȱtheȱraysȱofȱtheȱsun.ȱThisȱparkȱisȱfilledȱwith
wildȱanimals;ȱbut,ȱasȱitȱisȱtheȱordinaryȱwalkȱofȱtheȱladiesȱofȱtheȱcourt,ȱtheirȱ[viz.,ȱthe
ladies’]ȱgentlenessȱhasȱsoȱtamedȱthem,ȱthatȱtheyȱallȱyieldȱtoȱtheȱforceȱofȱtheirȱattractions
ratherȱthanȱtheȱpursuitȱofȱtheȱhounds.44
ThisȱcollectionȱofȱwildȱanimalsȱisȱaȱpartȱofȱtheȱsmallȱzooȱJamesȱcommissionedȱto
beȱbuilt,ȱwhichȱfeaturedȱcamels,ȱcrocodiles,ȱandȱanȱelephant,ȱasȱwellȱasȱaviariesȱof
exoticȱbirdsȱinȱtheȱspaceȱnowȱcalledȱBirdcageȱWalk.ȱTheȱparkȱwasȱnowȱnotȱonlyȱa
recreationȱinȱthisȱformerȱforestȱofȱanȱarrayȱofȱanimalsȱsymbolicȱofȱdominionȱover
landsȱfarȱfromȱAlbion,ȱbutȱalsoȱaȱsiteȱtoȱdisplayȱtheȱgentleȱandȱpeacefulȱwayȱroyals
canȱnowȱ“tame”ȱtheȱwilderness.ȱTheȱwildȱanimalsȱyieldȱtoȱtheȱattractionsȱofȱthe
courtȱladiesȱinsteadȱofȱyieldingȱtoȱtheȱhounds.
Whenȱdiscussingȱtheȱroyalȱgardensȱatȱthisȱtime,ȱElizabethȱEustisȱexplainsȱhow
monarchs’ȱpoliticalȱviewsȱwereȱreflectedȱinȱtheirȱgardenȱstyles:ȱ
TheȱageȱofȱabsoluteȱmonarchyȱinȱEuropeȱproducedȱaȱcorrespondinglyȱabsoluteȱgarden
styleȱthatȱcharacterizedȱcourtlyȱgardensȱofȱtheȱseventeenthȱandȱeighteenthȱcenturies
.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱTheȱabsoluteȱgardenȱservedȱnotȱonlyȱasȱanȱamenityȱbutȱalsoȱasȱaȱmetaphorȱfor
supremeȱrankȱandȱpower,ȱ“absolute”ȱinȱitsȱultimateȱartistry,ȱimpliedȱexpanse,ȱstrict
geometry,ȱandȱespeciallyȱinȱtheȱauthoritarianȱwillȱandȱmeansȱofȱitsȱowner.45ȱ
43
Alvinȱ Kernan,ȱ Shakespeare,ȱ theȱ King’sȱ Playwright:ȱ Theatreȱ inȱ theȱ Stuartȱ Court,ȱ 1603–1613,ȱ (New
Havenȱ andȱ London:ȱ Yaleȱ Universityȱ Press,ȱ 1995),ȱ 108,ȱ 72.ȱ Asȱ toȱ relevanceȱ ofȱ animals,ȱ seeȱ A
CulturalȱHistoryȱofȱAnimalsȱinȱtheȱAgeȱofȱEnlightenment,ȱed.ȱMatthewȱSenior.ȱAȱCulturalȱHistoryȱof
Animals,ȱ4ȱ(Oxford:ȱBerg,ȱ2011).
44
Walford,ȱ“Westminster:ȱSt.ȱJames’sȱPark”(seeȱnoteȱ39).
45
ElizabethȱS.ȱEustis,ȱ“TheȱGardenȱPrintȱasȱPropaganda,ȱ1573–1683,”ȱTheȱChangingȱGarden:ȱFour
Centuriesȱ ofȱ Europeanȱ andȱ Americanȱ Art,ȱ ed.ȱ Betsyȱ G.ȱ Frybergerȱ (Berkeley,ȱ Losȱ Angeles,ȱ and
London:ȱUniversityȱofȱCaliforniaȱPress,ȱ2003),ȱ41–52;ȱhereȱ41.
Symbolizingȱ theȱ prosperityȱ andȱ beneficenceȱ ofȱ theȱ monarch,ȱ displaysȱ of

extravaganceȱwereȱmandatory.46ȱJames’sȱgardenȱinȱSt.ȱJamesȱParkȱwasȱinȱthisȱsense
anȱabsoluteȱgarden.ȱWhatȱwasȱonceȱruralȱhuntingȱspaceȱhadȱbecomeȱaȱworkȱofȱart
symbolizingȱJames’sȱstatusȱasȱaȱculturedȱmanȱwithȱrefinedȱtastesȱwhoȱcouldȱnot
onlyȱcontrolȱtheȱnaturalȱworld,ȱbutȱcouldȱalsoȱrecreateȱaȱbetterȱone,ȱaȱgardenȱfull
ofȱcontainedȱanimals,ȱbeautifulȱlandscapes,ȱandȱwaterways,ȱaȱgardenȱofȱplenty,
anotherȱEdenȱproducedȱbyȱtheȱmanȱwhoȱcalledȱhimselfȱtheȱSunȱKing.ȱ
Jamesȱ I’sȱ sonȱ Charlesȱ I,ȱ theȱ monarchȱ whoseȱ visionȱ ofȱ divineȱ rightsȱ ofȱ kings
endedȱonȱtheȱexecutionȱblock,ȱwasȱaȱgreatȱadvocateȱofȱtheȱarts.ȱHeȱfavoredȱaȱmore
Italianateȱgarden,ȱreflectingȱhisȱgreaterȱappreciationȱofȱandȱpatronageȱforȱtheȱarts,
especiallyȱ Italianȱ ones.ȱ Followingȱ theȱ Florentineȱ Humanists’ȱ steps,ȱ heȱ madeȱ a
museumȱofȱtheȱgardenȱatȱSt.ȱJamesȱPark,ȱplacingȱantiqueȱstatuesȱinȱtheȱnooksȱor
pathwaysȱofȱtheȱgarden.ȱCharlesȱIȱownedȱaȱgreatȱnumberȱofȱtheseȱantiqueȱorȱmock
antiqueȱRomanȱsculpturesȱincludingȱtheȱgladiatorȱwhichȱhadȱearlierȱstoodȱinȱthe
Earlȱ ofȱ Pembroke’sȱ garden,ȱ overȱ 250ȱ havingȱ beenȱ listedȱ inȱ oneȱ inventory.ȱ The
Manneristȱgarden,ȱconsideredȱatȱthatȱtimeȱaȱdominantȱimageȱofȱroyalistȱruleȱ“with
itsȱstatuary,ȱitsȱorderedȱwalks,ȱfountains,ȱgrottosȱandȱautomataȱwasȱeasilyȱadapted
intoȱtheȱoldȱinheritedȱschemaȱofȱtheȱhortusȱconclusus,ȱbutȱwasȱnowȱoverlaidȱwith
theȱglossȱofȱlateȱRenaissanceȱallegoryȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱofȱroyalistȱpersuasion.”47ȱAtȱitsȱheight,
“theȱ ruleȱ ofȱ Charlesȱ andȱ Henriettaȱ wasȱ overtlyȱ laudedȱ asȱ heavenȱ comeȱ down
momentarilyȱtoȱearth,”ȱandȱtheirȱgardenȱatȱSt.ȱJamesȱParkȱreflectedȱinȱitsȱrefined
sensibilitiesȱ andȱ harmoniousȱ beautyȱ theȱ richnessȱ ofȱ Eden.48ȱ However,ȱ this
manneristȱgarden,ȱonceȱaȱdeerȱpark,ȱnowȱwas,ȱalongȱwithȱtheȱdoctrineȱitȱreflected,
shatteredȱbyȱtheȱCivilȱWarȱthatȱfollowedȱtheȱexecutionȱofȱCharles.ȱSt.ȱJamesȱPark
wasȱtakenȱoverȱbyȱParliamentȱforȱuseȱbyȱLondon’sȱcitizensȱduringȱtheȱperiodȱof
Puritanȱruleȱandȱtheȱroyalȱgardensȱwereȱtornȱout.
AfterȱtheȱRestorationȱinȱ1660,ȱJamesȱI’sȱgrandsonȱCharlesȱII,ȱexiledȱinȱFrance
afterȱtheȱexecutionȱofȱhisȱfather,ȱCharlesȱI,ȱtookȱbackȱownershipȱofȱSt.ȱJamesȱPark
andȱhadȱitȱredesignedȱtoȱlookȱlikeȱtheȱmoreȱformalȱgardensȱheȱhadȱseenȱatȱthe
palacesȱofȱtheȱFrenchȱroyals.ȱTheseȱgardensȱhadȱbeenȱinspiredȱbyȱCesareȱRipas’s
Iconologyȱ(1593),ȱwhichȱstatedȱthatȱprunedȱgardensȱwereȱemblematicȱofȱpolitical
reformȱinȱthatȱtheȱneedȱtoȱtrimȱexcessȱgrowthȱonȱtreesȱmirroredȱtheȱneedȱtoȱcontain
fractiousȱmovementsȱinȱsociety.49ȱOneȱchangeȱwasȱtoȱaddȱtheȱlong,ȱstraightȱcanal
2,560–ft.ȱlongȱandȱ125–ft.ȱwideȱthatȱranȱdownȱtheȱcenterȱofȱtheȱpark.ȱAnȱavenueȱof
46
Eustis,ȱ“TheȱGardenȱPrint”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ45),ȱ45.
47
Strong,ȱRenaissanceȱGardenȱ(seeȱnoteȱ37),ȱ202.
48
Strong,ȱRenaissanceȱGardenȱ(seeȱnoteȱ7),ȱ200.
49
GuiliaȱPacini,ȱ“AȱCultureȱofȱTrees:ȱtheȱPoliticsȱofȱPruningȱandȱFellingȱinȱLateȱEighteenthȬCentury
France,”ȱEighteenthȬCenturyȱStudiesȱ41.1ȱ(2007):ȱ1–15;ȱhereȱ4.ȱShakespeareȱechoesȱthisȱthemeȱinȱthe
gardener’sȱspeechȱinȱRichardȱIIȱactȱ3,ȱsceneȱ4.
treesȱandȱwalkwaysȱwasȱplacedȱonȱeachȱside.ȱInsteadȱofȱholdingȱmassiveȱhuntsȱin
hisȱpark,ȱCharlesȱIIȱintroducedȱtheȱgameȱPelleȱMelleȱfromȱFrance,ȱaȱlawnȱgame
playedȱonȱaȱlongȱfencedȱcourtȱinȱwhichȱplayersȱusedȱmalletsȱtoȱhitȱballsȱthrough
hoops,ȱ leadingȱ toȱ theȱ namesȱ Pallȱ Mallȱ andȱ Theȱ Mallȱ usedȱ toȱ describeȱ theȱ area
today.50ȱ
Theȱkingȱandȱhisȱcourtiersȱwereȱoftenȱseenȱplayingȱtheȱgame,ȱandȱtheȱdiarist
SamuelȱPepysȱtellsȱusȱthatȱheȱfirstȱsawȱtheȱgameȱwhenȱtheȱDukeȱofȱYorkȱplayed
thereȱinȱtheȱparkȱinȱAprilȱ1661.ȱPepysȱcouldȱseeȱtheȱDukeȱplayingȱ inȱ theȱpark
becauseȱCharlesȱIIȱtookȱtheȱremarkableȱstepȱofȱopeningȱupȱtheȱnoȱlongerȱexclusive
royalȱ parkȱ toȱ theȱ public.ȱ “Weȱ areȱ toldȱ [Charlesȱ II]ȱ wouldȱ sitȱ forȱ hoursȱ onȱ the
benchesȱinȱtheȱwalk,ȱamusingȱhimselfȱwithȱsomeȱtameȱducksȱandȱhisȱdogs,ȱamidst
aȱcrowdȱofȱpeople,ȱwithȱwhomȱheȱwouldȱtalkȱandȱjoke.”51ȱAmongȱotherȱactivities,
CharlesȱIIȱcouldȱnowȱentertainȱhisȱmistressesȱsuchȱasȱNellȱGwynȱinȱtheȱsecluded
arborsȱwithinȱtheȱpark,ȱasȱweȱknowȱfromȱtheȱencounterȱrecordedȱinȱaȱ1671ȱdiary
entryȱofȱJohnȱEvelyn.52ȱ
MuchȱofȱourȱinformationȱaboutȱtheȱuseȱofȱSt.ȱJamesȱParkȱbyȱCharlesȱIIȱandȱJames
IIȱcomesȱfromȱtheȱremarkableȱdiaryȱkeptȱbyȱSamuelȱPepysȱbetweenȱ1660ȱandȱ1669
mentionedȱabove.ȱAsȱClerkȱofȱtheȱActsȱtoȱtheȱNavyȱBoardȱduringȱtheȱreignȱof
CharlesȱIIȱandȱthenȱasȱSecretaryȱforȱNavalȱAffairsȱunderȱJamesȱII,ȱPepysȱinteracted
withȱeveryoneȱinȱLondon,ȱfromȱtheȱlowestȱdockhands,ȱtoȱtheȱkingȱandȱhisȱfamily.
AsȱaȱfanȱofȱgardensȱbothȱinȱLondonȱandȱatȱgreatȱhousesȱoutsideȱofȱtheȱcity,ȱheȱoften
remarkedȱthatȱtimeȱspentȱinȱaȱgardenȱgaveȱhimȱtheȱgreatestȱpleasureȱpossible.ȱThe
earlyȱmodernȱgardenȱforȱPepysȱandȱhisȱcontemporariesȱwasȱaȱplaceȱinȱwhichȱto
walk—unlikeȱtheȱEuropeanȱonesȱthatȱtheyȱcriticizedȱforȱoverdoingȱtheȱuseȱofȱpots,
statues,ȱandȱflowers,ȱwhichȱspoilȱtheȱwalk—andȱduringȱtheseȱwalksȱmuchȱbusiness
wasȱ conducted,ȱ privateȱ andȱ publicȱ business.ȱ Inȱ hisȱ entryȱ forȱ Julyȱ 18,ȱ 1664,ȱ for
example,ȱPepysȱsaysȱthatȱbeforeȱgoingȱinȱtoȱSt.ȱJamesȱtoȱdiscussȱtheȱupcomingȱwar
betweenȱEnglandȱandȱHollandȱwithȱtheȱDukeȱofȱYork,ȱheȱandȱSirȱGeorgeȱCarteret,
TreasurerȱofȱtheȱNavyȱandȱViceȬChamberlainȱofȱtheȱKing’sȱHousehold,ȱ“didȱtalk
togetherȱinȱtheȱparkeȱaboutȱmyȱLordȱChancellorsȱbusinessȱofȱtheȱtimber.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱAnd
plotsȱnowȱwithȱmeȱhowȱweȱmayȱserveȱmyȱLordȱ[Sandwich]—whichȱIȱamȱmightily
gladȱofȱandȱIȱhopeȱtogetherȱweȱmayȱdoȱit.”53ȱ
50
“TheȱRoyalȱParks,”ȱLondon’sȱPersonalȱSpace.ȱSt.ȱJamesȱPark.http://www.royalparks.gov.uk/ȱ(last
accessedȱonȱOct.ȱ14,ȱ2011).
51
Walford,ȱ“Westminster:ȱSt.ȱJames’sȱPark”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ39).
52
JohnȱEvelyn,ȱTheȱDiaryȱofȱJohnȱEvelyn,ȱ2.ȱEd.ȱWilliamȱBrayȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱLondon:ȱM.ȱWalter
Dunne,1901),ȱ63.ȱSee:ȱ
http://www.archive.org/stream/diaryofjohnevely02eveliala#page/n11/mode/2upȱ(lastȱaccessedȱon
Oct.ȱ14,ȱ2011).
53
Samuelȱ Pepys,ȱ Theȱ Diaryȱ ofȱ Samuelȱ Pepys,ȱ vol.ȱ 5,ȱ ed.ȱ Robertȱ Lathamȱ andȱ Williamȱ Matthews
(BerkeleyȱandȱLosȱAngeles:ȱUniversityȱofȱCaliforniaȱPress,ȱ1971),ȱ212.ȱ
AlthoughȱPepys’sȱdescriptionsȱofȱhisȱencountersȱwithȱCharlesȱIIȱinȱtheȱparkȱare
writtenȱfromȱhisȱownȱperspective,ȱweȱcanȱseeȱtheȱnatureȱofȱtheȱking’sȱactivities,
too.ȱInȱtheȱspringȱofȱ1665,ȱweȱwatchȱtheȱcomicȱsceneȱofȱPepysȱatȱtheȱparkȱwithȱhis
wifeȱavoidingȱbeingȱseenȱbyȱtheȱkingȱwhenȱheȱshouldȱbeȱworking:ȱ“Soȱbyȱcoach
withȱmyȱwifeȱandȱMercerȱtoȱtheȱpark;ȱbutȱtheȱkingȱbeingȱthere,ȱandȱIȱnowadays
beingȱdoubtfulȱofȱbeingȱseenȱinȱanyȱpleasure,ȱdidȱpartȱfromȱtheȱTour,ȱandȱaway
outȱofȱtheȱparkȱtoȱKnightsbridge.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.54ȱThreeȱyearsȱlater,ȱafterȱPepysȱhasȱmadeȱan
eloquentȱspeechȱdefendingȱtheȱNavalȱBoardȱbeforeȱtheȱHouseȱofȱCommons,ȱheȱis
quiteȱhappyȱtoȱfindȱtheȱkingȱandȱdukeȱwalkingȱinȱtheȱpark:
andȱbyȱandȱbyȱovertakingȱtheȱKing,ȱtheȱKingȱandȱDukeȱofȱYorkȱcameȱtoȱmeȱboth,ȱand
heȱsaid,ȱ“Mr.ȱPepys,ȱIȱamȱveryȱgladȱofȱyourȱsuccessȱyesterday”;ȱandȱfellȱtoȱtalkȱofȱmy
wellȱspeaking;ȱandȱmanyȱofȱtheȱLordsȱthereȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱandȱothers,ȱParliament[Ȭmen]ȱthere
aboutȱtheȱKing,ȱdidȱsayȱthatȱtheyȱneverȱheardȱsuchȱaȱspeechȱinȱtheirȱlivesȱdeliveredȱin
thatȱmannerȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.55ȱ
TheȱonlyȱdeerȬtakingȱinȱthisȱformerȱdeerȱparkȱisȱdescribedȱbyȱPepysȱasȱaȱprankȱby
twoȱyoungȱaristocrats:
ThisȱdayȱforȱaȱwagerȱbeforeȱtheȱKing,ȱmyȱLordsȱofȱCastlehavenȱandȱAranȱ(aȱsonȱofȱmy
LordȱofȱOrmonds),ȱtheyȱtwoȱaloneȱdidȱrunȱdownȱandȱkillȱaȱstoutȱBuckeȱinȱSt.ȱJames
parke.56ȱ
AlthoughȱbothȱCharlesȱIIȱandȱJamesȱIIȱdoȱhuntȱelsewhere,ȱPepysȱandȱhisȱfellow
businessmenȱareȱnotȱimpressedȱbyȱthisȱroyalȱactivity.ȱNumerousȱtimesȱheȱrecords
thatȱheȱhasȱgoneȱtoȱtheȱpalaceȱtoȱconductȱworkȱwithȱtheȱLordȱHighȱAdmiral,ȱthe
duke,ȱonlyȱtoȱfindȱthatȱtheȱDukeȱofȱYork,ȱandȱfrequentlyȱCharlesȱII,ȱtoo,ȱwereȱout
hunting.ȱInȱhisȱentryȱforȱNovemberȱ28,ȱ1666,ȱPepysȱcomplainsȱthatȱheȱhadȱgoneȱ“to
Whitehall,ȱwhere,ȱthoughȱitȱblowsȱhardȱandȱrainsȱhard,ȱyetȱtheȱDukeȱofȱYorkȱis
goneȱaȬhunting.ȱWeȱthereforeȱlostȱourȱlabour,ȱandȱsoȱbackȱagain.”57ȱ
ThreeȱmonthsȱearlierȱPepysȱhadȱfoundȱtheȱDukeȱatȱSt.ȱJamesȱPalaceȱwithȱseveral
patchesȱonȱhisȱnoseȱandȱaroundȱhisȱrightȱeyeȱfromȱanȱinjuryȱduringȱaȱhunting
outingȱwhenȱaȱtreeȱbranchȱhadȱstruckȱhimȱinȱtheȱface.ȱPepysȱrecordsȱthatȱtheyȱcan
doȱlittleȱbusinessȱwithȱhimȱnowȱbecauseȱ“theȱwantȱofȱmoneyȱbeingȱsuchȱasȱleaves
usȱlittleȱtoȱdoȱbutȱtoȱanswerȱcomplaintsȱofȱtheȱwantȱthereof,ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱtheȱrepresenting
ofȱourȱwantsȱofȱmoneyȱbeingȱnowȱbecomeȱuseless.”58ȱInȱanȱearlierȱentry,ȱPepysȱand
Johnȱ Creed,ȱ anotherȱ navalȱ administrator,ȱ walkȱ inȱ St.ȱ Jamesȱ parkȱ aȱ longȱ time
54
SamuelȱPepys,ȱTheȱShorterȱPepys,ȱed.ȱRobertȱLathamȱ(BerkeleyȱandȱLosȱAngeles:ȱUniversityȱof
CaliforniaȱPress,ȱ1974),ȱ485.
55
Pepys,ȱTheȱShorterȱPepysȱ(seeȱnoteȱ54),ȱ886.
56
Pepys,ȱTheȱDiary,ȱ5ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ54),ȱ239.
57
58
waitingȱforȱtheȱDukeȱtoȱcomeȱhomeȱfromȱhuntingȱonlyȱtoȱwaitȱmoreȱonceȱheȱgets
backȱbecauseȱheȱhasȱtoȱchange,ȱ“heȱhavingȱinȱhisȱhunting,ȱratherȱthenȱgoȱabout,
lightȱ[alighted]ȱandȱledȱhisȱhorseȱthroughȱaȱRiverȱupȱtoȱhisȱbreast,ȱandȱcameȱso
home.”59ȱ
Theȱfutureȱking’sȱloveȱofȱhuntingȱseemsȱtoȱPepysȱjustȱanotherȱobstacleȱtoȱhis
attendingȱ toȱ affairsȱ ofȱ theȱ state.ȱ Afterȱ anotherȱ walkȱ inȱ theȱ garden,ȱ thisȱ one
accompaniedȱbyȱtheȱkingȱandȱduke,ȱwho,ȱafterȱaskingȱPepysȱquestionsȱaboutȱnaval
business,ȱthenȱlingerȱaȱgreatȱwhileȱtoȱlaughȱatȱaȱgooseȱandȱganderȱmating,ȱPepys
andȱanȱM.P.ȱnamedȱColonelȱReamesȱstayȱtoȱwalkȱtheȱgardenȱtoȱlamentȱtheȱaffairs
ofȱtheȱcountry:ȱ“Weȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱseeȱnothingȱdoneȱlikeȱmenȱlikeȱtoȱdoȱwellȱwhileȱtheȱKing
mindsȱhisȱpleasuresȱsoȱmuch.”60ȱDuringȱanotherȱwalk,ȱPepysȱandȱCaptainȱGeorge
Cocke,ȱaȱnavalȱcontractor,ȱdiscussȱtheȱpoorȱgovernmentȱofȱtheȱcountryȱwithȱthe
“Kingȱ himselfȱ mindingȱ nothingȱ butȱ hisȱ ease.”61ȱ Althoughȱ huntingȱ isȱ not
specificallyȱmentionedȱinȱtheseȱconversations,ȱitȱwouldȱsurelyȱhaveȱbeenȱoneȱof
theseȱwastefulȱpleasuresȱlamentedȱbyȱprominentȱLondonersȱduringȱtheȱlateȱstages
ofȱ theȱ Stuarts’ȱ reign.ȱ Theseȱ relativelyȱ seriousȬmindedȱ gentlemenȱ undertake
discussionsȱofȱstateȱbusinessȱwhileȱexercisingȱtheirȱnewȱrightsȱtoȱenjoyȱleisureȱin
anȱopenȱbutȱsecureȱroyalȱspace,ȱnowȱprovidingȱthemȱprivacyȱasȱitȱhadȱforȱroyals
forȱseveralȱcenturies.ȱ
InȱaȱstudyȱofȱnationalismȱandȱearlyȱmodernȱEngland,ȱLiahȱGreenfeldȱdiscusses
theȱslowȱbutȱperceptibleȱchangesȱinȱwhichȱnobleȱbirthȱwasȱlosingȱimportanceȱand
societyȱwasȱmovingȱtowardȱ“anȱaristocracyȱofȱabilityȱandȱmerit.”62ȱAlthoughȱstill
supportingȱanȱactiveȱroleȱforȱtheȱmonarchy,ȱpoliticalȱthoughtȱinȱtheȱearlyȱmodern
periodȱalsoȱembracedȱ“tendencyȱtowardȱequalityȱofȱconditionȱamongȱdifferent
socialȱstrata”ȱthatȱweȱseeȱreflectedȱinȱtheȱchangesȱinȱroyalȱspace.63ȱInȱthisȱearly
modernȱ Englishȱ society,ȱ withȱ itsȱ humanistȱ educatedȱ population,ȱ includingȱ an
especiallyȱ largeȱ numberȱ ofȱ lawyers,ȱ itsȱ veryȱ activeȱ printȱ culture,ȱ andȱ aȱ large
wealthyȱmerchantȱandȱbankingȱclass,ȱtheȱexcessesȱofȱtheseȱStuartȱmonarchsȱand
theirȱneglectȱofȱgovernment,ȱitȱhasȱbeenȱargued,ȱhelpȱshiftȱtheȱsiteȱofȱauthority
fromȱtheȱmonarchȱtoȱtheȱgentleman.ȱInȱAlastairȱFowler’sȱwords,ȱ“theȱchivalricȱhero
wasȱreplacedȱbyȱaȱnewȱcivilȱideal,ȱtheȱ‘gentleman.’”64ȱInȱhisȱstudyȱofȱtheȱconnection
betweenȱcivicȱtruthȱandȱscientificȱtruthȱinȱseventeenthȬcenturyȱEngland,ȱSteven
59
Pepys,ȱTheȱDiaryȱ(seeȱnoteȱ54),ȱ289.
60
61
62
LiahȱGreenfeld,ȱNationalism:ȱFiveȱRoadsȱtoȱModernityȱ(Cambridge,ȱMA:ȱHarvardȱUniversityȱPress,
1992),ȱ36.
63
Greenfeld,ȱNationalismȱ(seeȱnoteȱ62),ȱ47.
64
AlastairȱFowler,ȱ“GeorgicȱandȱPastoral:ȱLawsȱofȱGenreȱinȱtheȱSeventeenthȱCentury,”ȱCultureȱand
CultivationȱinȱEarlyȱModernȱEngland:ȱWritingȱandȱtheȱLand,ȱed.ȱMichaelȱLeslieȱandȱTimothyȱRaylor
(Leicester:ȱLeicesterȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1992),ȱ81–88;ȱhereȱ87.
Shapinȱ explainsȱ thatȱ theȱ qualitiesȱ attributedȱ toȱ gentlemenȱ wereȱ basedȱ onȱ “the
conceptȱandȱpracticeȱofȱtruth”ȱcontainedȱwithinȱ“theȱheartȱofȱtraditionalȱhonor
culture.”ȱInȱhisȱmostȱnotableȱfeatures,ȱtheȱgentlemanȱwasȱsaidȱtoȱembodyȱcivility:
credibility,ȱ reliability,ȱ truth,ȱ andȱ disinterestedȱ actions.65ȱ Pepysȱ andȱ hisȱ fellow
gentlemenȱsuchȱasȱtheȱfoundingȱmembersȱofȱtheȱRoyalȱSocietyȱbelieveȱthatȱthey
haveȱaȱbetterȱunderstandingȱofȱtheȱrunningȱofȱtheȱgovernmentȱthanȱtheȱkingȱhas
and,ȱthus,ȱinȱaȱmetonymicȱsense,ȱhaveȱequalȱstatureȱinȱSt.ȱJamesȱPark.ȱ
IfȱweȱturnȱfromȱtheȱconcernsȱofȱdiaryȱwritersȱlikeȱPepysȱtoȱlookȱatȱtheȱsocial
viewsȱrepresentedȱonȱstageȱbyȱtheȱReformationȱdramatists,ȱplaysȱsuchȱasȱJames
Shirley’sȱHydeȱParkȱandȱWilliamȱCongreve’sȱTheȱWayȱofȱtheȱWorldȱshowȱtheȱchanges
inȱmoralȱandȱpoliticalȱauthorityȱthatȱareȱreflectedȱinȱtheȱuseȱofȱroyalȱspaceȱatȱthe
centerȱofȱthisȱanalysis.ȱMuchȱofȱTheȱWayȱofȱtheȱWorld,ȱinȱfact,ȱtakesȱplaceȱwithinȱSt.
JamesȱPark,ȱandȱtheȱmannerismsȱofȱthoseȱwhoȱwalkȱthereȱareȱsharplyȱsatirized.
Thereȱ isȱ muchȱ talkȱ aboutȱ howȱ toȱ recognizeȱ aȱ “gentleman,”ȱ theȱ figureȱ whoȱ is
supposedȱtoȱbeȱtheȱnewȱcivicȱideal.ȱInȱtheseȱplays,ȱhowever,ȱtheȱgentlemenȱtalkȱof
walkingȱ inȱ theȱ parkȱ toȱ teaseȱ orȱ flirtȱ withȱ women,ȱ andȱ theȱ womenȱ goȱ toȱ meet
anyoneȱexceptȱtheirȱhusbands.ȱAlthoughȱtheȱplaywrightsȱdoȱnotȱincludeȱthemȱin
theirȱ scenes,ȱ theȱ kingȱ andȱ hisȱ women,ȱ sometimesȱ theȱ queenȱ andȱ sometimesȱ a
mistress,ȱwhoȱareȱalsoȱoftenȱseenȱwalkingȱinȱthisȱsameȱpublicȱspace,ȱengagingȱin
theȱsameȱbehaviorsȱasȱhisȱsubjects,ȱappearȱtoȱdifferȱlittleȱfromȱtheȱotherȱparkȱgoers.
TheȱLondonȱparksȱwereȱcentralȱtoȱtheȱRestorationȱplaysȱofȱEtherege,ȱShadwell,
Wycherley,ȱ Pix,ȱ Congreve,ȱ Centlivre,ȱ andȱ others,ȱ accordingȱ toȱ Cynthiaȱ Wall,
becauseȱ theyȱ offeredȱ anȱ eliteȱ audienceȱ duringȱ theȱ immediateȱ distressesȱ ofȱ late
Stuartȱ London,ȱ “aȱ retreatȱ intoȱ theȱ known,ȱ theȱ secure,ȱ theȱ greenȱ spacesȱ of
uninterruptedȱsocialȱlife.”66ȱ
TheȱRestorationȱstage’sȱpreoccupationȱwithȱtheȱmannersȱofȱtheȱgentlemanȱand
hisȱ womenȱ foundȱ aȱ perfectȱ backdropȱ inȱ theseȱ spacesȱ thatȱ representȱ atȱ onceȱ a
lesseningȱofȱoldȱhierarchicalȱstructuresȱandȱtheȱriseȱofȱtheȱmodernȱstate.ȱThisȱwas,
inȱ fact,ȱ theȱ sameȱ period,ȱ fromȱ Jamesȱ Shirley’sȱ Hydeȱ Parkȱ inȱ 1632ȱ toȱ George
Etherege’sȱ Theȱ Manȱ ofȱ Modeȱ inȱ 1676,ȱ inȱ whichȱ theȱ parksȱ underwentȱ aȱ setȱ of
transformationsȱmirroringȱthatȱofȱtheȱcountryȱasȱaȱwhole,ȱasȱtheyȱwereȱseizedȱby
theȱParliamentaryȱforcesȱunderȱCromwell,ȱusedȱasȱpublicȱspacesȱunassociatedȱwith
leisureȱorȱbeauty,ȱandȱthenȱrestoredȱtoȱparklandȱinȱaȱwholeȱnewȱstyle.ȱ“TheȱKing’s
walksȱ andȱ arborsȱ wereȱ aȱ weaponȱ inȱ aȱ broaderȱ politicalȱ struggle;ȱ thereȱ tooȱ the
65
Stevenȱ Shapin,ȱ Aȱ Socialȱ Historyȱ ofȱ Truth:ȱ Civilityȱ andȱ Scienceȱ inȱ SeventeenthȬCenturyȱ England
(Chicago:ȱUniversityȱofȱChicagoȱPress,ȱ1994),ȱ67ȱandȱ238.ȱInȱTwoȱTreatisesȱofȱGovernment,ȱJohn
Lockeȱestablishedȱtheȱrights,ȱabilities,ȱandȱobligationsȱofȱcitizensȱtoȱparticipateȱinȱgovernmentȱat
thisȱtime.ȱSeeȱJohnȱLocke,ȱTwoȱTreatisesȱofȱGovernment,ȱed.ȱPeterȱLaslett.ȱ(Cambridge:ȱCambridge
UniversityȱPressȱ1988).
66
DavidȱRoberts,ȱ“Caesar’ȱGift:ȱPlayingȱtheȱParkȱinȱtheȱLateȱSeventeenthȱCentury,”ȱEnglishȱLiterary
Historyȱ71.1ȱ(2004):ȱ115–39;ȱhereȱ117.
freedomȱofȱrecreationȱhadȱbeenȱestablishedȱbyȱroyalȱorder,ȱallowingȱtheȱupwardly
mobileȱtoȱwalkȱabroadȱasȱwellȱasȱanyoneȱelse;ȱthereȱtooȱnewȬplantedȱorchards
wouldȱcomeȱtoȱbeȱrecognizedȱasȱsymbolsȱofȱpoliticalȱvindication.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.”67ȱ
Afterȱ thisȱ pointȱ inȱ time,ȱ bothȱ landownersȱ andȱ kingsȱ hadȱ toȱ takeȱ onȱ another
responsibility:ȱtheȱresponsibilityȱofȱmanagingȱnature,ȱnotȱjustȱtoȱprojectȱanȱimage
orȱtoȱpromoteȱleisure,ȱbutȱalsoȱtoȱprovideȱforȱtheȱcarefulȱmanagementȱofȱstate
resources.68ȱTheȱwholeȱconceptȱofȱlandȱis,ȱthus,ȱredefinedȱasȱaȱvaluableȱresource
toȱ provideȱ woodȱ andȱ otherȱ goodsȱ necessaryȱ toȱ theȱ modernȱ stateȱ andȱ the
responsibilityȱ forȱ maintainingȱ theseȱ landsȱ belongedȱ toȱ bothȱ theȱ crownȱ andȱ its
citizens.ȱ
ȱ
Asȱarguedȱthroughoutȱthisȱstudy,ȱroyalȱruralȱspaceȱcanȱserveȱasȱaȱusefulȱmetaphor
forȱtheȱchangingȱEnglishȱstate,ȱwhichȱshiftsȱ“fromȱtheȱprotectionȱofȱtheȱinterests,
andȱtheȱterritory,ȱofȱtheȱMonarchȱinȱNormanȱEnglandȱtoȱtheȱfiscalȬinstitutional
managementȱ ofȱ theȱ nationȱ andȱ theȱ resourcesȱ ofȱ theȱ Crownȱ inȱ Hanoverian
England.”69ȱTheȱlateȱStuartȱmonarchȱmightȱseekȱtoȱavoidȱtheȱlaboriousȱdutiesȱof
overseeingȱroyalȱcourtsȱandȱambitiousȱcourtiers,ȱmaintainingȱanȱequilibriumȱwith
aȱ fractiousȱ Parliament,ȱ appeasingȱ adherentsȱ ofȱ conflictingȱ religiousȱ views,
increasingȱEngland’sȱprestigeȱandȱinfluenceȱinȱEuropeanȱaffairs,ȱandȱsecuringȱthe
fundsȱtoȱachieveȱallȱofȱthis;ȱbutȱretreatingȱonȱhorsebackȱintoȱlargeȱprivateȱforests
forȱweeksȱorȱmonthsȱatȱaȱtimeȱwasȱsimplyȱnotȱpossibleȱanymore.ȱAtȱbestȱheȱmight
settleȱforȱshortȱwalkȱinȱSt.ȱJamesȱPark.ȱ
67
Roberts,ȱ“Caesar’sȱGift”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ66),ȱ122.
68
SeeȱaȱdiscussionȱofȱthisȱinȱPacini,ȱ“AȱCultureȱofȱTrees”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ49),ȱ3.
69
CarlȱJ.ȱGriffin,ȱ“MoreȬthanȬHumanȬHistoriesȱandȱtheȱFailureȱofȱGrandȱStateȱSchemes:ȱSylviculture
inȱtheȱNewȱForest,ȱEngland,”ȱCulturalȱGeographiesȱ17.4ȱ(2010):ȱ451–72;ȱhereȱ454.
Chapterȱ11ȱ
PennyȱSimons
(TheȱUniversityȱofȱSheffield,ȱUnitedȱKingdom)
TheȱSignificanceȱofȱRuralȱSpaceȱinȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerne
TheȱOldȱFrenchȱromanceȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerne,1ȱpreservedȱinȱaȱsingleȱms,ȱParis,
Bibliothèqueȱ deȱ l’Arsenalȱ 6565,ȱ wasȱ composedȱ byȱ anȱ anonymousȱ poetȱ who
probablyȱlivedȱandȱworkedȱinȱandȱaroundȱPicardyȱandȱtheȱIleȱdeȱFrance.2ȱTheȱpoet
dedicatesȱhisȱworkȱtoȱ“laȱcontesseȱYolent,/Laȱboineȱdame,ȱlaȱloial”ȱ(theȱCountess
Yolande,ȱtheȱgoodȱandȱtrueȱladyȱ(vv.ȱ9656–57),ȱidentifiedȱasȱYolande,ȱCountessȱof
HainautȱandȱauntȱofȱIsabelle,ȱfirstȱwifeȱofȱKingȱPhilippeȱAugusteȱofȱFrance,ȱwho
seemsȱtoȱhaveȱlivedȱaȱmagnificentȱ92ȱyearsȱfromȱ1131–1223.3ȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerne
datesȱfromȱaroundȱtheȱturnȱofȱtheȱtwelfthȱandȱthirteenthȱcenturies,4ȱandȱthusȱforms
partȱofȱtheȱcorpusȱofȱ“secondȱgeneration”ȱverseȱromances,ȱwrittenȱinȱtheȱdecades
followingȱpoetsȱsuchȱasȱChrétienȱdeȱTroyesȱorȱtheȱanonymousȱpoetȱofȱPartonopeus
1
Thereȱ areȱ twoȱ editionsȱ ofȱ thisȱ romance:ȱ Guillaumeȱ deȱ Palerneȱ publieыȱ dȇapreъsȱ leȱ manuscritȱ deȱ la
BibliotheъqueȱdeȱlȇArsenalȱaъȱ Parisȱed.ȱbyȱH.ȱMichelant.ȱSocieыteыȱ desȱanciensȱtextesȱfrançaisȱ(Paris:
FirminȱDidotȱetȱcompagnie,ȱ1876);ȱandȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerne,ȱRomanȱduȱXIIIeȱsiècle,ȱed.ȱbyȱAlexandre
Micha.ȱTextesȱlitteыrairesȱfrançais,ȱ384ȱ(Geneva:ȱDroz,ȱ1990).ȱAllȱquotationsȱinȱthisȱchapterȱareȱto
theȱsecondȱofȱtheseȱeditions.
2
SeeȱMicha,ȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerneȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1),ȱ18.
3
ȱ Seeȱ Anthimeȱ Fourrier,ȱ “Laȱ ‘Contesseȱ Yolent’ȱ deȱ Guillaumeȱ deȱ Palerne,”ȱ Eыtudesȱ deȱ langueȱ etȱde
litteыratureȱduȱmoyenȱâge,ȱoffertesȱaъȱFeыlixȱLecoyȱparȱsesȱcolleъgues,ȱsesȱeыleъvesȱetȱsesȱamisȱ(Paris:ȱChampion,
1973),ȱ 115–23;ȱ Charlesȱ W.ȱ Dunn,ȱ Theȱ Foundlingȱ andȱ theȱ Werwolf:ȱ Aȱ LiteraryȬHistoricalȱ Studyȱ of
“Guillaumeȱ deȱ Palerne”.ȱ Universityȱ ofȱ Torontoȱ Departmentȱ ofȱ English,ȱ Studiesȱ andȱ Texts,ȱ 8
(TorontoȱUniversityȱofȱTorontoȱPress,ȱ1960),ȱ31–38;ȱMicha,ȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerneȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1),ȱ23.
4
TheȱdatingȱofȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerneȱremainsȱonlyȱapproximate.ȱReferencesȱtoȱcontemporaryȱevents
inȱtheȱ1190sȱwhichȱcanȱbeȱdiscernedȱinȱtheȱtextȱareȱlistedȱbyȱCharlesȱW.ȱDunn,ȱTheȱFoundlingȱand
theȱWerwolfȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ141.ȱAȱmoreȱrestrictedȱdateȱrangeȱofȱ1194–1197ȱisȱsuggestedȱbyȱF.ȱM.
Warren,ȱ“TheȱWorksȱofȱJeanȱRenart,ȱPoet,ȱandȱTheirȱRelationȱtoȱGaleranȱdeȱBretagne,”ȱModern
LanguageȱNotesȱ23ȱ(1908):ȱ69–73,ȱ97–100;ȱhereȱ97.ȱAȱlaterȱterminusȱadȱquemȱofȱtheȱearlyȱ1220sȱis
suggestedȱbyȱAnthimeȱFourrier,ȱ“Laȱ‘ContesseȱYolent’ȱdeȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerneȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3).ȱMicha
acceptsȱtheȱbroadȱrangeȱofȱmidȱ1190sȬearlyȱ1220s;ȱMicha,ȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerneȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1),ȱ23.ȱ
408 PennyȱSimons
deȱBlois,ȱwhoȱbroughtȱverseȱromanceȱinȱFranceȱtoȱtheȱforefrontȱofȱliteraryȱactivity.
Theȱromanceȱtellsȱtheȱstoryȱofȱtheȱabductionȱofȱtheȱeponymousȱyoungȱheroȱfrom
Palermoȱbyȱaȱwerewolf,ȱhisȱdiscoveryȱbyȱtheȱEmperorȱofȱRome,ȱhisȱfallingȱinȱlove
andȱelopementȱwithȱtheȱEmperor’sȱdaughterȱMeliorȱ(aidedȱbyȱtheȱwerewolf)ȱand
hisȱeventualȱreturnȱhomeȱandȱrecognitionȱbyȱhisȱmother,ȱalongsideȱtheȱrevelation
ofȱtheȱwerewolf’sȱtrueȱidentity.ȱItȱisȱdifficultȱtoȱjudgeȱtheȱreceptionȱofȱtheȱworkȱin
theȱ MiddleȱAges,ȱsinceȱonlyȱoneȱmanuscriptȱsurvives.5ȱItȱclearlyȱdrawsȱonȱthe
popularȱthemeȱofȱtheȱwerewolfȱandȱrepresentsȱaȱrewritingȱofȱMarieȱdeȱFrance’s
Bisclavret;ȱ itȱ mayȱ wellȱ inȱ turnȱ haveȱ influencedȱ theȱ earlyȬthirteenthȬcentury
werewolfȱstoryȱtheȱLaiȱdeȱMelion,6ȱitselfȱalsoȱaȱderivativeȱofȱBisclavret.7ȱGuillaume
alsoȱclearlyȱinfluencedȱtheȱfirstȱsegmentȱofȱtheȱmidȬthirteenthȬcenturyȱromance,
FloriantȱetȱFlorete,8ȱandȱK.ȱV.ȱSinclairȱsuggestsȱthatȱitȱmayȱbeȱoneȱofȱtheȱsourcesȱfor
theȱfourteenthȬcenturyȱFrenchȱepicȱTristanȱdeȱNanteuil.9ȱLikeȱmanyȱotherȱFrench
romances,ȱGuillaumeȱwasȱtranslatedȱintoȱMiddleȱEnglishȱinȱtheȱmidȱfourteenth
century,ȱandȱproseȱversionsȱinȱEnglishȱandȱinȱFrenchȱsurviveȱfromȱtheȱearlyȬmid
5
ThereȱisȱaȱsculptureȱonȱoneȱofȱtheȱcapitalsȱofȱtheȱBenedictineȱcloisterȱofȱMonrealeȱCathedralȱin
Palermoȱ whichȱ bearsȱ strongȱ resemblanceȱ toȱ theȱ storyȱ ofȱ Guillaumeȱ deȱ Palerne.ȱ Sinceȱ these
sculpturesȱdateȱfromȱaroundȱ1174–1189,ȱtheyȱwouldȱappearȱtoȱpredateȱourȱromance,ȱbutȱtheyȱmay
perhapsȱofferȱevidenceȱofȱanȱearlierȱversionȱofȱtheȱstoryȱcirculatingȱpriorȱtoȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱtwelfth
century.ȱSeeȱCharlesȱW.ȱDunn,ȱ“GuillaumeȱdeȱPalerneȱandȱaȱMonrealeȱSculpture,“ȱMediaevalȱStudies
10ȱ(1948):ȱ215–16.
6
Forȱanȱoverviewȱofȱdiscussionsȱonȱtheȱrelationshipsȱbetweenȱwerewolfȱtalesȱinȱtheȱtwelfthȱand
thirteenthȱcenturies,ȱseeȱtheȱintroductionȱtoȱAmandaȱHopkins,ȱMelionȱandȱBiclarel:ȱTwoȱOldȱFrench
WerwolfȱLaysȱ(Liverpool:ȱLiverpoolȱOnlineȱSeries,2005).ȱSeeȱonlineȱat:
http://www.liv.ac.uk/soclas/los/Werwolf.pdfȱ (lastȱ accessedȱ onȱ 12thȱ Octoberȱ 2011);ȱ here
Introduction,ȱ 7–50;ȱ Leslieȱ A.ȱ Sconduto,ȱ Metamorphosesȱ ofȱ theȱ Werewolf:ȱ Aȱ Literaryȱ Studyȱ from
Antiquityȱ throughȱ theȱ Renaissanceȱ (Jefferson,ȱ NC:ȱ McFarlandȱ &ȱ Co.,ȱ 2008),ȱ 90–126;ȱ hereȱ 90–92.
ChristineȱFerlampinȬAcherȱnotes,ȱhowever,ȱthatȱ”onȱneȱrelèveȱaucuneȱrepriseȱpréciseȱdeȱBisclavret
ouȱMelion”ȱ(thereȱisȱnoȱdiscernibleȱexactȱreferenceȱtoȱBisclavretȱorȱMelion).ȱSeeȱChristineȱFerlampinȬ
Acherȱ“GuillaumeȱdeȱPalerne:ȱuneȱparodie?”ȱCahiersȱdeȱrecherchesȱmédiévalesȱetȱhumanistesȱ15ȱ(2008):
59–71;ȱhereȱ61.
7
TheȱgeneralȱcriticalȱviewȱisȱthatȱMelionȱdrawsȱuponȱGuillaume:ȱsee,ȱforȱexample,ȱHopkinsȱMelion
andȱBiclarelȱ(seeȱnoteȱ6),ȱ21;ȱDunn,ȱTheȱFoundlingȱandȱtheȱWerwolfȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3,ȱ9–10.ȱHowever,ȱgiven
theȱlikelyȱchronologicalȱproximityȱofȱtheȱtwoȱtexts—PrudenceȱTobinȱdatesȱMelionȱtoȱsomewhere
betweenȱ1190ȱandȱ1204—Iȱwouldȱsuggestȱthatȱthisȱstillȱanȱopenȱquestion,ȱandȱthatȱtheȱinfluence
mightȱ beȱ inȱ eitherȱ direction.ȱ Seeȱ Prudenceȱ Maryȱ O’Haraȱ Tobin,ȱ “L’Elémentȱ bretonȱ etȱ lesȱ lais
anonymes,”ȱ Mélangesȱ deȱ langueȱ etȱ littératureȱ françaisesȱ duȱ Moyenȱ Ageȱ offertsȱ àȱ CharlesFoulon,ȱ II.
MarcheȱRomane,ȱ30ȱ(Mediaevalia,ȱ80)ȱ(1980),ȱ277–86;ȱhereȱ291–92.ȱSeeȱfurtherȱdiscussionȱonȱthis
below.
8
SeeȱIreneȱPettitȱMcKeehan,ȱ“GuillaumeȱdeȱPalerne:ȱAȱMedievalȱ‘BestȱSeller’,”ȱPMLA:ȱPublications
ofȱtheȱModernȱLanguageȱAssociationȱofȱAmericaȱ41ȱ(1926):ȱ785–809.ȱMcKeehanȱbelievesȱthatȱtheȱtwo
worksȱstemȱfromȱaȱcommonȱancestor;ȱhere,ȱ790.ȱThisȱassertionȱisȱsupported,ȱifȱslightlyȱnuanced,
byȱSaraȱSturmȬMaddox,ȱ“ArthurianȱEvasions:ȱTheȱEnd(s)ȱofȱFictionȱinȱFloriantȱetȱFlorete,ȱ“Porȱleȱsoie
amisté”:ȱEssaysȱinȱHonorȱofȱNorrisȱJ.ȱLacy,ȱed.ȱKeithȱBusbyȱandȱCatherineȱM.ȱJones.ȱFauxȱTitre,ȱ183
(AmsterdamȱandȱAtlanta:ȱRodopi,ȱ2000),ȱ475–89
9
K.ȱV.ȱSinclair,ȱ“GuillaumeȱdeȱPalerne,ȱaȱSourceȱforȱTristanȱdeȱNanteuil,“ȱMediaevalȱStudiesȱ25ȱ(1963):
362–66.
RuralȱSpaceȱinȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerne 409
sixteenthȱcentury.10ȱInȱrecentȱtimes,ȱhowever,ȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerne,ȱlikeȱmanyȱother
“secondȱgeneration”ȱromancesȱhasȱbeenȱrelativelyȱneglectedȱbyȱcritics,ȱalthough
thanksȱlargelyȱtoȱtheȱworkȱofȱLeslieȱSconduto,11ȱthereȱhasȱbeenȱaȱminiȱrenaissance
ofȱ interestȱ inȱ Guillaumeȱ inȱ theȱ lastȱ tenȱ toȱ fifteenȱ years.12ȱ Theȱ textȱ hasȱ beenȱ the
subjectȱofȱoneȱfullȬlengthȱcriticalȱstudy,ȱthatȱofȱCharlesȱDunn13;ȱhowever,ȱthisȱis
againstȱaȱbackgroundȱofȱpreviousȱneglectȱofȱtheȱtext,ȱapartȱfromȱtheȱstudyȱbyȱIrene
McKeehan,ȱwhoȱarguedȱstronglyȱforȱtheȱintrinsicȱinterestȱofȱthisȱromance.14ȱIndeed
McKeehanȱandȱDunnȱareȱnoticeableȱforȱtheirȱfocusȱuponȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerneȱasȱa
workȱ worthyȱ ofȱ studyȱ inȱ itsȱ ownȱ right,ȱ ratherȱ thanȱ concentratingȱ uponȱ this
primarilyȱasȱanȱexampleȱofȱaȱwerewolfȱtale.
Myȱaimȱinȱthisȱchapterȱisȱtoȱopenȱupȱtheȱromanceȱinȱsomeȱdifferentȱdirections
thanȱthoseȱtakenȱbyȱearlierȱcriticsȱbyȱlookingȱatȱtheȱwayȱitȱisȱstructuredȱaround
notionsȱofȱspace,ȱwithȱparticularȱemphasisȱonȱtheȱuseȱofȱruralȱspaces.ȱThisȱanalysis
willȱfocus,ȱfirstly,ȱonȱtheȱroleȱofȱtheseȱspacesȱwithinȱtheȱnarrativeȱstructureȱofȱthe
romanceȱitself;ȱthen,ȱsecondly,ȱuponȱtheȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱtheseȱspacesȱlinkȱGuillaume
deȱPalerneȱintoȱaȱnetworkȱofȱintertextualȱdialoguesȱwithȱotherȱromances.ȱInȱdoing
this,ȱtheȱworkȱofȱDunnȱandȱFourrierȱonȱtheȱhistoricalȱcontextȱofȱtheȱworkȱwillȱbe
combinedȱwithȱmoreȱrecentȱscholarshipȱonȱtheȱpracticeȱofȱrewritingȱasȱaȱkeyȱfacet
ofȱtheȱcompositionalȱapproachȱandȱpracticeȱofȱpoetsȱatȱthisȱtime.15ȱInȱthisȱwayȱIȱwill
aimȱtoȱshowȱhowȱtheȱpoetȱofȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerneȱindulgesȱinȱaȱplayfulȱrewriting
ofȱ others—andȱ indeedȱ hisȱ own—themesȱ andȱ motifsȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ suggestȱ that,
10
SeeȱtheȱsummaryȱofȱtheȱvariousȱversionsȱofȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerneȱinȱDunn,ȱTheȱFoundlingȱandȱthe
Werwolfȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ2–7.
11
Leslieȱ A.ȱ Sconduto,ȱ Metamorphosesȱ ofȱ theȱ Werewolf:ȱ Aȱ Literaryȱ Studyȱ fromȱ Antiquityȱ throughȱ the
Renaissanceȱ(seeȱnoteȱ6);ȱ“RewritingȱtheȱWerewolfȱinȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerne,”ȱCygne:ȱBulletinȱofȱthe
InternationalȱMarieȱdeȱFranceȱSocietyȱ6ȱ(2000):ȱ23–35;ȱ“BlurredȱandȱShiftingȱIdentities:ȱTheȱWerewolf
asȱOtherȱinȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerne,”ȱRomanceȱLanguagesȱAnnualȱ11ȱ(1999):ȱ121–26.
12
Otherȱ importantȱ recentȱ worksȱ includeȱ Alainȱ Corbellari,ȱ “Onirismeȱ etȱ bestialité:ȱ Leȱ Romanȱ de
GuillaumeȱdeȱPalerne,”ȱNeophilologusȱ86ȱ(2002):ȱ353–62;ȱHansȬErichȱKellerȱ“LiteraryȱPatronageȱin
theȱTimeȱofȱPhilipȱAugustus—ȱTheȱSpiritȱofȱtheȱCourt,ȱed.ȱbyȱGlynȱBurgessȱandȱRobertȱTaylor
(Cambridge:ȱDȱSȱBrewer,ȱ1985),ȱ196–207;ȱCristinaȱNoacco,ȱ“LaȱDéȬmesureȱduȱloupȬgarou:ȱun
instrumentȱ deȱ connaissance,”ȱ Revueȱ desȱ Languesȱ Romanesȱ 111ȱ (2007);ȱ 31–50;ȱ Randyȱ P.ȱ Schiff,
“CrossȬChannelȱBecomings–Animal:ȱPrimalȱCourtlinessȱinȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerneȱandȱWilliamȱof
Palerne,”ȱExemplariaȱ21ȱ(2009):ȱ418–38.
13
Dunn,ȱTheȱFoundlingȱandȱtheȱWerwolfȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3).
14
IreneȱPettitȱMcKeehan,ȱ“GuillaumeȱdeȱPalerne:ȱAȱMedievalȱ‘BestȱSeller’”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ8).
15
TheȱkeyȱstudiesȱinȱthisȱfieldȱareȱDouglasȱKelly’s,ȱTheȱArtȱofȱMedievalȱFrenchȱRomanceȱ(Madisonȱand
London:ȱUniversityȱofȱWisconsinȱPress,ȱ1992),ȱandȱTheȱConspiracyȱofȱAllusion:ȱDescription,ȱRewriting
andȱAuthorshipȱfromȱMacrobiusȱtoȱMedievalȱRomance,ȱStudiesȱinȱtheȱHistoryȱofȱChristianȱThought,
97ȱ(Leiden:ȱBrillȱ1999).ȱIȱwillȱalsoȱdrawȱuponȱtheȱnotionȱofȱtheȱfusionȱofȱdifferentȱnarrativeȱmodels,
initiallyȱsuggestedȱbyȱMatildaȱBrucknerȱinȱherȱstudyȱofȱPartonopeusȱdeȱBlois,ȱ“FromȱGenealogyȱto
RomanceȱandȱContinuationȱinȱtheȱFabulousȱHistoryȱofȱPartonopeuȱdeȱBlois,”ȱL’EspritȱCréateurȱ33
(1993):ȱ 27–39;ȱ thisȱ approachȱ hasȱ beenȱ developedȱ moreȱ fullyȱ inȱ theȱ recentȱ studyȱ ofȱ theȱ same
romanceȱbyȱPennyȱEley,ȱ“PartonopeusȱdeȱBlois”:ȱRomanceȱinȱtheȱMaking.ȱGallicaȱ21ȱ(Woodbridge,
Suffolk:ȱBoydellȱ&ȱBrewer,ȱ2011).
410 PennyȱSimons
althoughȱthisȱisȱaȱworkȱwhichȱmayȱhaveȱbeenȱneglectedȱinȱtheȱpast,ȱitȱoneȱwhich
isȱwellȱworthȱourȱfurtherȱattention.
ȱ
AsȱoneȱcanȱseeȱfromȱtheȱfollowingȱsummaryȱofȱtheȱplotȱofȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerne,ȱthis
isȱ aȱ ‘courtly’ȱ narrativeȱ inȱ whichȱ aȱ significantȱ amountȱ ofȱ spaceȱ isȱ dedicatedȱ to
action/episodesȱthatȱtakeȱplaceȱawayȱfromȱtheȱworldȱofȱtheȱcourt,ȱandȱoneȱinȱwhich
theȱprincipalȱprotagonistsȱmoveȱacrossȱaȱwideȱgeographicalȱrange,ȱcomprising
manyȱdifferentȱtypesȱofȱspace:
Guillaumeȱ isȱ theȱ sonȱ ofȱ Kingȱ Embronsȱ ofȱ Apuliaȱ andȱ hisȱ queen,ȱ Felise.ȱ The
King’sȱbrotherȱdevisesȱaȱplotȱtoȱmurderȱGuillaumeȱandȱhisȱfatherȱandȱseizeȱthe
throne;ȱtoȱthisȱendȱheȱbribesȱtheȱboy’sȱnursesȱtoȱpoisonȱhim.ȱJustȱbeforeȱthisȱplan
canȱbeȱcarriedȱout,ȱtheȱfourȬyearȬoldȱGuillaumeȱisȱtakenȱbyȱaȱwerewolfȱwhilstȱhe
isȱplayingȱinȱhisȱfather’sȱparkȱwhereȱtheȱfamilyȱareȱtakingȱtheirȱleisure.ȱTheȱwolf
carriesȱoffȱtheȱchild,ȱevadingȱallȱattemptsȱbyȱtheȱKing’sȱmenȱtoȱcatchȱhim,ȱreaches
theȱ Straitsȱ ofȱ Messinaȱ andȱ swimsȱ across,ȱ stillȱ carryingȱ theȱ boy.ȱ Heȱ continues
northward,ȱreachingȱaȱlargeȱforestȱnearȱRome;ȱhereȱtheȱchildȱisȱdiscoveredȱbyȱa
cowherd.ȱHeȱandȱhisȱwifeȱraiseȱhimȱasȱtheirȱownȱson.ȱTheȱpoetȱrevealsȱthatȱthe
werewolfȱisȱactuallyȱAlphonse,ȱsonȱofȱtheȱKingȱofȱSpain,ȱwhoȱhasȱbeenȱcursedȱby
hisȱstepmother.
Sevenȱyearsȱlater,ȱtheȱEmperorȱofȱRomeȱisȱhuntingȱinȱtheȱforestȱandȱisȱseparated
fromȱhisȱhuntingȱpartyȱduringȱtheȱpursuitȱofȱaȱboar.ȱHeȱseesȱaȱwolfȱinȱpursuitȱof
aȱdeerȱand,ȱfollowingȱit,ȱcomesȱuponȱGuillaume;ȱheȱisȱimmediatelyȱstruckȱbyȱthe
child’sȱbeauty.ȱFurtherȱinquiryȱrevealsȱthatȱheȱisȱnotȱtheȱrealȱsonȱofȱtheȱcowherd
butȱaȱfoundling.ȱTheȱEmperorȱpersuadesȱtheȱcowherdȱtoȱallowȱhimȱtoȱtakeȱtheȱboy
backȱtoȱcourtȱinȱRome,ȱsinceȱheȱisȱclearlyȱofȱnobleȱbirth.
InȱRome,ȱtheȱEmperorȱgivesȱGuillaumeȱasȱaȱcompanionȱtoȱhisȱdaughter,ȱMelior,
andȱheȱisȱbroughtȱupȱasȱaȱyoungȱaristocrat.ȱWhenȱheȱreachesȱtheȱageȱofȱfourteen,
heȱ isȱ handsomeȱ andȱ wellȱ mannered.ȱ Meliorȱ thenȱ startsȱ toȱ beȱ troubledȱ byȱ love
pangsȱforȱtheȱyouthȱandȱherȱsufferingȱisȱnoticedȱbyȱherȱcousinȱandȱconfidante,
Alixandrine,ȱwhoȱpromisesȱtoȱtryȱandȱfindȱaȱremedy.ȱMeanwhileȱGuillaumeȱisȱalso
preyȱtoȱloveȱsicknessȱforȱMeliorȱandȱtakesȱtoȱspendingȱhisȱdaysȱbeneathȱanȱapple
treeȱinȱtheȱEmperor’sȱorchard,ȱfromȱwhereȱheȱcanȱobserveȱMelior’sȱroom.ȱFinally,
MeliorȱandȱAlixandrineȱfindȱhimȱhereȱasȱtheyȱtakeȱtheirȱwalkȱinȱtheȱorchardȱand
theȱtwoȱeventuallyȱmakeȱaȱmutualȱdeclarationȱofȱlove.
NewsȱthenȱcomesȱtoȱRomeȱthatȱtheȱDukeȱofȱSaxonyȱhasȱinvadedȱimperialȱlands.
GuillaumeȱpetitionsȱtheȱEmperorȱtoȱbeȱmadeȱaȱknightȱsoȱthatȱheȱcanȱjoinȱinȱthe
defense,ȱandȱtheȱEmperorȱreadilyȱagrees.ȱGuillaumeȱperformsȱmarvelouslyȱinȱthe
battle,ȱdefeatingȱtheȱDuke’sȱnephewȱandȱroutingȱtheȱSaxonȱforces.ȱNoȱsoonerȱhas
heȱ returnedȱ inȱ triumphȱ toȱ Rome,ȱ however,ȱ thanȱ anȱ envoyȱ comesȱ from
Constantinople,ȱ requestingȱ theȱ handȱ ofȱ Meliorȱ forȱ theȱ sonȱ ofȱ theȱ Emperorȱ of
Greece.ȱ Theȱ proposalȱ isȱ acceptedȱ byȱ Melior’sȱ father,ȱ toȱ theȱ dismayȱ ofȱ theȱ two
lovers,ȱwhoȱdecideȱtoȱfleeȱtogether.
AidedȱbyȱAlixandrine,ȱGuillaumeȱandȱMeliorȱsewȱthemselvesȱintoȱtheȱhidesȱof
twoȱwhiteȱbearsȱwhichȱhaveȱbeenȱkilledȱbyȱhuntsmen.ȱTheyȱslipȱintoȱtheȱpark
surroundingȱ theȱ palaceȱ andȱ fromȱ thereȱ outȱ intoȱ theȱ forestȱ beyond;ȱ however,
unbeknownstȱtoȱthem,ȱtheyȱareȱobservedȱbyȱaȱyoungȱGreekȱwhoȱhadȱbeenȱinȱthe
park.ȱWhenȱtheȱflightȱofȱtheȱloversȱisȱdiscovered,ȱnewsȱisȱsentȱoutȱtoȱbeȱonȱthe
lookoutȱforȱtwoȱwhiteȱbears.
Theȱtwoȱyoungȱloversȱfindȱthemselvesȱoutȱinȱtheȱwild;ȱasȱsoonȱasȱtheyȱhaveȱleft
theȱ palace,ȱ however,ȱ theȱ werewolfȱ picksȱ upȱ theirȱ trailȱ andȱ followsȱ them.
GuillaumeȱandȱMeliorȱproveȱunableȱtoȱfendȱforȱthemselvesȱinȱtheȱwild,ȱandȱare
resignedȱtoȱeatingȱwildȱshootsȱandȱberries,ȱbutȱtheȱwerewolfȱforagesȱforȱthem:ȱhe
stealsȱaȱjointȱofȱcookedȱmeatȱfromȱaȱpeasantȱandȱaȱbarrelȱofȱwineȱfromȱaȱpriest.
Similarȱprovisionȱisȱmadeȱeachȱdayȱasȱtheȱwerewolfȱguidesȱthemȱsouthȱtowards
Apulia,ȱGuillaume’sȱhomeȱland.
EnȱrouteȱtheyȱcomeȱtoȱBeneventoȱwhereȱthereȱareȱstoneȱquarries.ȱTheȱyoung
lovers,ȱtiredȱfromȱtheirȱjourney,ȱdecideȱtoȱsleepȱinȱoneȱofȱtheȱquarryȱcaves.ȱThey
areȱspottedȱbyȱtheȱquarryȱworkers,ȱwhoȱhaveȱheardȱtheȱnewsȱofȱtheȱtwoȱwhite
bears;ȱtheyȱsendȱaȱmessengerȱbackȱtoȱBeneventoȱtoȱalertȱtheȱtownȱgovernorȱand
bringȱhelp.ȱTheȱimminentȱcaptureȱofȱtheȱloversȱisȱavertedȱbyȱtheȱwerewolfȱwho
appears,ȱseizesȱtheȱtwelveȬyearȬoldȱsonȱofȱtheȱgovernorȱandȱrunsȱoffȱwithȱhimȱto
drawȱawayȱtheȱworkers.ȱGuillaumeȱandȱMeliorȱescapeȱfromȱtheȱcave,ȱand,ȱonce
theyȱareȱsafe,ȱtheȱwerewolfȱreleasesȱtheȱgovernor’sȱsonȱunharmed.
GuillaumeȱandȱMelior,ȱaloneȱagainȱinȱtheȱwild,ȱoverhearȱtwoȱpeasantsȱreferring
toȱ theȱ pursuitȱ ofȱ theȱ twoȱ whiteȱ bearsȱ andȱ realizeȱ theirȱ disguiseȱ hasȱ been
recognized.ȱOnceȱagainȱtheȱwerewolfȱcomesȱtoȱtheirȱrescue,ȱbringingȱinȱfirstȱaȱstag
andȱthenȱaȱhind,ȱsoȱthatȱtheyȱcanȱuseȱtheȱhidesȱforȱaȱnewȱcamouflage.ȱ
Meanwhile,ȱweȱlearnȱthatȱinȱApuliaȱKingȱEmbronsȱisȱdeadȱandȱQueenȱFeliseȱin
PalermoȱisȱbeingȱbesiegedȱbyȱtheȱKingȱofȱSpainȱwhoȱwishesȱtoȱhaveȱtheȱhandȱof
herȱdaughter,ȱFlorence,ȱforȱhisȱson,ȱBrandin.ȱTheȱqueenȱisȱinȱdireȱstraitsȱandȱhas
sentȱ toȱ herȱ father,ȱ theȱ Emperorȱ ofȱ Greeceȱ forȱ help,ȱ whichȱ hasȱ soȱ farȱ not
materialized.
GuillaumeȱandȱMeliorȱreachȱReggio;ȱtheȱwerewolfȱindicatesȱtoȱthemȱthatȱthey
shouldȱboardȱaȱshipȱwhichȱisȱtoȱcrossȱtheȱStraitsȱofȱMessina.ȱTheyȱhideȱonȱboard
and,ȱwhenȱtheyȱreachȱtheȱotherȱsideȱtheȱwolfȱleapsȱintoȱtheȱseaȱtoȱdistractȱtheȱcrew
soȱ thatȱ theȱ loversȱ canȱ slipȱ offȱ unseen.ȱ Theȱ wolfȱ isȱ attackedȱ byȱ theȱ sailorsȱ and
repeatedlyȱnearlyȱdrowns.ȱGuillaumeȱandȱMeliorȱreachȱPalermoȱandȱtakeȱrefuge
inȱtheȱorchard,ȱnowȱlaidȱwasteȱbyȱtheȱforagingȱSpanishȱarmy.ȱTheȱQueenȱhasȱa
dreamȱinȱwhichȱtwoȱdeerȱandȱaȱwolfȱcomeȱtoȱherȱrescue;ȱwhenȱsheȱcatchesȱsight
ofȱGuillaumeȱandȱMeliorȱinȱtheȱorchard,ȱsheȱremembersȱtheȱdreamȱandȱapproaches
them,ȱdiscoveringȱthatȱbeneathȱtheȱhidesȱareȱtwoȱyoungȱpeople.
412 PennyȱSimons
GuillaumeȱandȱMeliorȱareȱbroughtȱintoȱtheȱpalaceȱandȱGuillaumeȱimmediately
requestsȱ armsȱ soȱ thatȱ heȱ canȱ defendȱ theȱ kingdom.ȱ Underȱ hisȱ leadership,ȱ the
Spanishȱareȱdefeated;ȱasȱpeaceȱisȱbeingȱnegotiated,ȱtheȱwerewolfȱleapsȱintoȱtheȱhall
andȱmakesȱobeisanceȱtoȱtheȱKingȱofȱSpain,ȱlickingȱhisȱfeet.ȱTheȱKingȱrealizesȱthis
isȱ hisȱ longȱ lostȱ sonȱ Alphonseȱ andȱ summonsȱ hisȱ wifeȱ toȱ liftȱ theȱ spell.ȱ Aȱ triple
weddingȱ follows:ȱ Guillaumeȱ andȱ Meliorȱ areȱ unitedȱ alongsideȱ Alphonseȱ and
Florence,ȱ andȱ Alixandrineȱ andȱ Brandin.ȱ Guillaumeȱ succeedsȱ toȱ hisȱ landsȱ in
Palermo,ȱandȱbecomesȱEmperorȱofȱRomeȱalso,ȱwhenȱMelior’sȱfatherȱdies.ȱAlphonse
succeedsȱhisȱfatherȱasȱKingȱofȱSpain.
Weȱthusȱfindȱkeyȱelementsȱofȱtheȱnarrativeȱtakingȱplaceȱawayȱfromȱtheȱworldȱof
theȱcourt:ȱtheȱraisingȱofȱtheȱheroȱinȱtheȱforestȱandȱtheȱelopementȱofȱtheȱloversȱfrom
Rome,ȱtoȱgiveȱtheȱtwoȱmostȱsignificantȱexamples.ȱTogetherȱthoseȱtwoȱepisodes
constituteȱapproximatelyȱ2000ȱlines,ȱequivalentȱtoȱsomeȱtwentyȱpercentȱofȱtheȱtotal
ofȱ theȱ romance.ȱ Itȱ isȱ alsoȱ apparentȱ thatȱ thereȱ areȱ veryȱ preciseȱ andȱ accurate
referencesȱ toȱ geographicalȱ locations—forȱ example,ȱ Benevento,ȱ Reggioȱ andȱ the
StraitsȱofȱMessina—whichȱareȱjuxtaposedȱwithȱmoreȱfantasticȱelementsȱderived
fromȱtheȱBretonȬtypeȱtraditionȱofȱtheȱmerveilleux.ȱIsȱthisȱfocusȱonȱspace,ȱandȱin
particularȱonȱexteriorȱspaceȱawayȱfromȱtheȱcourt,ȱsimplyȱaȱlogicalȱconsequenceȱofȱ
theȱcombinationȱofȱtheȱtwoȱstoryȱmodelsȱwhichȱunderlieȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerne—the
foundlingȱ storyȱ andȱ theȱ werewolfȱ tale—orȱ isȱ itȱ partȱ ofȱ aȱ moreȱ deliberate
compositionalȱtechnique?ȱ
AnȱanalysisȱofȱtheȱtypesȱofȱspacesȱinȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerneȱshowsȱthatȱtheyȱdo
indeedȱformȱaȱsignificantȱpattern.ȱTheȱworldȱofȱtheȱcourtȱisȱpredominantlyȱlocated
inȱinternalȱspaces,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱcourtsȱatȱRomeȱorȱPalermo;ȱthisȱworldȱonlyȱmoves
intoȱexternalȱspacesȱwhenȱmilitaryȱconflictsȱoccurȱsuchȱasȱthoseȱbetweenȱRomeȱand
theȱSaxons,ȱorȱwhenȱtheȱSpanishȱbesiegeȱPalermo.ȱAsȱsuch,ȱthisȱisȱnoȱdifferentȱfrom
theȱuseȱofȱspaceȱtoȱbeȱfoundȱinȱmostȱromanceȱorȱepicȱtexts.ȱThenȱweȱhaveȱthe
worldȱwhichȱisȱdefinitelyȱbeyondȱtheȱcourtlyȱsphere,ȱandȱwhichȱweȱfindȱinȱwhat
canȱbeȱtermedȱ“wild”ȱspaces;ȱtheseȱcompriseȱtheȱforestȱnearȱRomeȱandȱtheȱlong
stretchesȱofȱlandȱbetweenȱRomeȱandȱPalermo.ȱBut,ȱmostȱinterestingly,ȱthereȱisȱalso
aȱseriesȱofȱintermediateȱspaces,ȱwhichȱlieȱbetweenȱtheȱcourtȱandȱtheȱwildȱspaces
beyondȱandȱmakeȱtakeȱonȱcharacteristicsȱbelongingȱtoȱeitherȱtypeȱofȱspace;ȱthese
areȱ threeȱ vergiers,ȱ locatedȱ inȱ Palermo,ȱ Romeȱ andȱ returningȱ toȱ theȱ firstȱ oneȱ in
Palermo.ȱ
TheȱtermȱvergierȱinȱOldȱFrenchȱdenotesȱnotȱjustȱanȱorchardȱasȱitsȱModernȱFrench
equivalentȱdoes,ȱbutȱalsoȱcoversȱtheȱwiderȱsenseȱofȱaȱpark,ȱoftenȱwithȱdeerȱinȱit;
suchȱenclosuresȱprovidedȱimportantȱfoodȱandȱotherȱresourcesȱtoȱlargeȱestatesȱin
theȱMiddleȱAges.ȱTheseȱcourtly,ȱwildȱandȱintermediateȱspacesȱinterlockȱtoȱformȱa
structureȱtoȱtheȱnarrativeȱofȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerne.ȱThereȱareȱthreeȱcourtlyȱlocations,
arrangedȱinȱaȱcycle—Palermo,ȱtoȱRomeȱandȱback;ȱthenȱthereȱareȱthreeȱdistinctȱwild
spaces—theȱforestȱnearȱRome,ȱtheȱmoorlandȱbeyondȱRomeȱandȱPalermo,ȱandȱthe
quarryȱatȱBenevento,ȱwhichȱconstitutesȱaȱparticularȱinstanceȱofȱspaceȱwithinȱthe
largerȱmoorlandȱlocation.ȱTheseȱwildȱspacesȱlieȱbetweenȱtheȱcourtlyȱspaces,ȱsoȱthat
theȱnarrativeȱtraversesȱthemȱasȱitȱmovesȱinȱtheȱbroadȱoverallȱcycleȱofȱPalermoȬ
RomeȬPalermo.ȱSo,ȱmovingȱfromȱPalermoȱtoȱRome,ȱweȱencounterȱtheȱforestȱin
whichȱGuillaumeȱisȱraised;ȱmovingȱfromȱRomeȱtoȱPalermo,ȱtheȱloversȱmustȱcross
aȱlarge,ȱuncultivatedȱareaȱawayȱfromȱcivilization,ȱwithȱaȱseparateȱepisodeȱinȱthe
specificȱareaȱofȱBenevento.ȱTheȱintermediateȱspacesȱareȱpositionedȱbetweenȱthe
courtȱlocationsȱandȱtheȱwildȱspaces.ȱGuillaumeȱmovesȱthroughȱtheseȱintermediate
spacesȱthreeȱtimes,ȱtheȱfirstȱtwoȱonȱaȱjourneyȱawayȱfromȱtheȱcourtȱandȱtowardsȱthe
wild,ȱandȱtheȱthirdȱtime,ȱonȱtheȱreturnȱjourneyȱbackȱtoȱPalermoȱandȱtheȱworldȱof
theȱ courtȱ atȱ theȱ close;ȱ significantlyȱ heȱ encountersȱ theȱ werewolfȱ eitherȱ inȱ these
intermediateȱ spaces,ȱ orȱ shortlyȱ afterȱ leavingȱ them,ȱ andȱ hasȱ theȱ wolfȱ asȱ his
companion/protectorȱinȱhisȱtimeȱinȱtheȱwildȱspaces.ȱ
Theȱintermediateȱspaceȱofȱtheȱvergierȱthusȱoccupiesȱaȱparticularȱprominenceȱin
aȱclearȱnarrativeȱpatternȱconstructedȱfromȱtheȱdifferentȱtypesȱofȱspacesȱinȱGuillaume
deȱPalerne.ȱButȱthereȱisȱaȱfurtherȱcorrelationȱbetweenȱwhatȱhappensȱinȱtheseȱspaces
andȱ theȱ contentȱ ofȱ theȱ narrative.ȱ Theȱ intermediateȱ spacesȱ areȱ allȱ alsoȱ lociȱ of
transformation—charactersȱundergoȱsomeȱkindȱofȱmetamorphosisȱbeforeȱentering
theseȱ spaces.ȱ So,ȱ thereȱ areȱ threeȱ transformations:ȱ Alphonseȱ isȱ turnedȱ intoȱ a
werewolfȱbyȱhisȱstepmother,ȱpriorȱtoȱenteringȱtheȱvergierȱwhereȱheȱrescuesȱthe
infantȱ Guillaume;ȱ Guillaumeȱ andȱ Meliorȱ disguiseȱ themselvesȱ asȱ animalsȱ by
donningȱtheȱskins,ȱfirstly,ȱofȱtwoȱwhiteȱbearsȱand,ȱsecondly,ȱofȱtwoȱdeerȱbefore
entering,ȱfirst,ȱtheȱvergierȱinȱRomeȱand,ȱsecondly,ȱtheȱoneȱinȱPalermo;ȱandȱfinally
Guillaume’sȱmotherȱadoptsȱtheȱposeȱandȱbehavior,ȱifȱnotȱtheȱskinȱofȱaȱdeer,ȱsoȱthat
sheȱ canȱ approachȱ theȱ loversȱ inȱ theȱ vergierȱ atȱ Palermo,ȱ leadingȱ toȱ their
retransformationȱ backȱ intoȱ humanȱ form,ȱ andȱ subsequentlyȱ alsoȱ thatȱ ofȱ the
werewolfȱAlphonse.ȱ
So,ȱ thereȱ isȱ aȱ clearȱ structuralȱ significanceȱ toȱ theȱ differentȱ typesȱ ofȱ spaceȱ in
GuillaumeȱdeȱPalerne.ȱTheȱspacesȱconstituteȱaȱkindȱofȱarchitecturalȱinfrastructureȱto
theȱ narrative,ȱ andȱ theyȱ seemȱ toȱ alignȱ inȱ someȱ waysȱ withȱ theȱ themesȱ of
metamorphosisȱandȱidentityȱthatȱareȱclearlyȱatȱtheȱheartȱofȱthisȱromance.ȱTheseȱare
notionsȱtoȱwhichȱweȱwillȱreturnȱlater,ȱbutȱforȱnowȱIȱwishȱtoȱfocusȱmoreȱcloselyȱon
theȱ particularȱ natureȱ ofȱ theȱ ruralȱ spacesȱ inȱ Guillaumeȱ deȱ Palerneȱ inȱ orderȱ to
investigateȱtheirȱfurtherȱsignificanceȱinȱtheȱlightȱofȱtheȱsecondȱthemeȱofȱthisȱpaper,
thatȱofȱtheȱsourcesȱofȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerne,ȱandȱtheirȱrewritingȱandȱrecombination
byȱtheȱanonymousȱpoet.ȱ
TheȱwerewolfȱelementȱofȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerneȱisȱusuallyȱtakenȱtoȱbeȱaȱrewriting
ofȱpopularȱmotifsȱseenȱmostȱnotablyȱinȱMarieȱdeȱFrance’sȱBisclavret,ȱbutȱwhich
414 PennyȱSimons
haveȱaȱlongȱtraditionȱbeforeȱtheȱMiddleȱAges.16ȱTheȱparallelȱbetweenȱtheȱnoble
werewolfȱ ofȱ Marie’sȱ lai,ȱ transformedȱ byȱ hisȱ spitefulȱ wifeȱ butȱ retainingȱ his
courtlinessȱ beneathȱ hisȱ beast’sȱ shapeȱ andȱ Alphonse,ȱ transformedȱ byȱ aȱ wicked
stepmotherȱyetȱactingȱatȱallȱtimesȱinȱtheȱinterestsȱofȱjusticeȱandȱtheȱprotectionȱofȱthe
weak,ȱisȱclearȱtoȱsee.ȱByȱcontrast,ȱtheȱsourceȱofȱtheȱfoundlingȱelementȱofȱGuillaume
deȱPalerneȱisȱlessȱeasyȱtoȱidentify.ȱBothȱDunnȱandȱMcKeehanȱlinkȱthisȱtoȱtheȱfolklore
modelȱ ofȱ theȱ Fairȱ Unknown,ȱ andȱ Dunnȱ providesȱ anȱ exhaustiveȱ studyȱ ofȱ the
variousȱmanifestationsȱofȱthisȱstoryȱformȱinȱCeltic,ȱLatinȱandȱEasternȱtraditions.17
Heȱ concludesȱ thatȱ Guillaumeȱ derivesȱ fromȱ aȱ Romulusȱ storyȱ model,ȱ which
obviouslyȱ alsoȱ liesȱ behindȱ theȱ famousȱ legendȱ ofȱ Romulusȱ andȱ Remusȱ andȱ the
foundingȱofȱRome.ȱ
ThisȱlinksȱtoȱoneȱsourceȱchronologicallyȱcloseȱtoȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerne,ȱtheȱvery
popularȱOldȱFrenchȱromanȱd’antiquité,ȱLeȱRomanȱd’Enéas,ȱwrittenȱinȱaroundȱ1160;18
andȱthereȱisȱevidenceȱofȱtheȱGuillaumeȱpoetȱlinkingȱhisȱownȱworkȱtoȱthisȱfamous
legend.ȱFirstly,ȱtheȱwerewolf,ȱhavingȱabductedȱtheȱchildȱGuillaume,ȱarrivesȱnear
Rome.ȱThisȱisȱgeographicallyȱratherȱimplausible,ȱgivenȱheȱhasȱtraveledȱallȱtheȱway
fromȱ Palermo,ȱ carryingȱ aȱ fourȬyearȬoldȱ boyȱ allȱ theȱ way;ȱ andȱ thereȱ isȱ noȱ other
necessityȱinȱtheȱplotȱtoȱlocateȱtheȱEmperorȱwhoȱisȱtoȱfindȱtheȱheroȱinȱthisȱparticular
partȱofȱItaly.ȱSecondly,ȱtheȱwolfȱdoesȱeverythingȱnecessaryȱtoȱcareȱandȱprovideȱfor
theȱ child,ȱ exceptȱ suckleȱ it;ȱ theȱ ideaȱ ofȱ theȱ sucklingȱ wolfȱ motherȱ is,ȱ however,
retainedȱinȱtheȱdescriptionȱofȱtheȱwolfȱcurlingȱroundȱtheȱchildȱtoȱprotectȱhimȱinȱa
poseȱreminiscentȱofȱaȱnursingȱsheȬwolf:
Laȱnuitȱleȱcoucheȱjosteȱsoi
Liȱleusȱgarousȱleȱfilȱleȱroi,
L’acoleȱdeȱsesȱ.IIII.ȱpiés.ȱ (vv.ȱ181–83)
[AtȱnightȱtheȱwerewolfȱlayȱdownȱwithȱtheȱKing’sȱsonȱnextȱtoȱhim,ȱandȱtuckedȱhisȱfour
pawsȱallȱaroundȱhim.]
Thirdly,ȱwhenȱtheȱchildȱisȱfinallyȱspottedȱbyȱtheȱcowherd,ȱtheȱpoetȱtellsȱusȱheȱis
hidingȱinȱaȱclumpȱofȱlaurels:
16
SeeȱDunn,ȱTheȱFoundlingȱandȱtheȱWerwolfȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3)ȱandȱSconduto,ȱMetamorphosesȱofȱtheȱWerewolf:
AȱLiteraryȱStudyȱfromȱAntiquityȱthroughȱtheȱRenaissanceȱ(seeȱnoteȱ6).ȱEditor’sȱnote:ȱSeeȱalsoȱKeith
Roberts,ȱ“EineȱkleineȱKulturgeschichteȱdesȱWerwolfs,”ȱDämonen,ȱMonster,ȱFabelwesen,ȱed.ȱUlrich
Müllerȱ andȱ Wernerȱ Wunderlich.ȱ Mittelalterȱ Mythen,ȱ 2ȱ (St.ȱ Gallen:ȱ UVKȱ Fachverlagȱ für
Wissenschaftȱ undȱ Studium,ȱ 1ȱ 999),ȱ 565–81;ȱ Stephenȱ O.ȱ Glosecki,ȱ “Wolfȱ [Canisȱ lupus]ȱ and
Werewolf,”ȱMedievalȱFolklore:ȱAnȱEncyclopediaȱofȱMyths,ȱLegends,ȱTales,ȱBeliefs,ȱandȱCustoms,ȱed.ȱCarl
Lindahl,ȱJohnȱMcNamara,ȱandȱJohnȱLindow,ȱvol.ȱ2ȱ(ȱSantaȱBarbara,ȱCA,ȱDenver,ȱandȱOxford:
CLIO,ȱ2000),ȱ1057–61.
17
Dunn,ȱTheȱFoundlingȱandȱtheȱWerwolfȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ86–111.
18
ForȱtheȱdatingȱofȱLeȱRomanȱd’EnéasȱseeȱtheȱIntroductionȱtoȱLeȱRomanȱdȇEneыas,ȱeыditionȱcritiqueȱdȇapreъs
leȱmanuscritȱB.N.ȱfr.ȱ60,ȱed.ȱandȱtrans.ȱbyȱAiméȱPetit.ȱLettresȱGothiquesȱ(Paris:ȱLivreȱdeȱPoche,
1997),ȱ7,ȱ9.
Quantȱliȱvachiersȱententȱl’enfant,
Celeȱpartȱestȱalésȱcourant,
Otȱleȱplorerȱenȱlaȱloriere,
Merveilleȱsoiȱdeȱgrantȱmanière.ȱ (vv.ȱ203–06)
[Whenȱtheȱcowherdȱheardȱtheȱchild,ȱheȱranȱoverȱinȱthatȱdirection;ȱheȱheardȱhimȱcrying
inȱtheȱlaurelsȱandȱwasȱgreatlyȱamazed.]
Hereȱagain,ȱthereȱisȱnoȱnarrativeȱmotivationȱorȱnecessityȱofȱrhymeȱ(“manière”ȱis
notȱaȱdifficultȱwordȱtoȱrhyme)ȱthatȱwouldȱdetermineȱtheȱchoiceȱofȱlaurelȱasȱthe
hidingȱ placeȱ forȱ theȱ foundlingȱ child;ȱ butȱ itȱ doesȱ functionȱ asȱ aȱ meansȱ bothȱ of
alertingȱtheȱaudienceȱtoȱtheȱlegendȱofȱRome,ȱandȱmarksȱtheȱfutureȱcrowningȱof
GuillaumeȱasȱEmperorȱofȱRomeȱatȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱstory.19ȱIndeed,ȱtheȱRomanȱlink
withȱtheȱimperialȱlaurelȱofȱv.ȱ205ȱisȱreiteratedȱatȱv.ȱ4901,ȱwhenȱGuillaumeȱand
MeliorȱtakeȱrefugeȱinȱtheȱvergierȱofȱPalermo:ȱ“Illuecȱensambleȱseȱdormoient/Sosȱ.I.
lorier,ȱenȱ.I.ȱprael”ȱ(Theyȱwereȱsleepingȱtogetherȱbeneathȱaȱlaurelȱinȱaȱmeadow,ȱvv.
4901–02).ȱ Thisȱ occursȱ atȱ theȱ startȱ ofȱ theȱ dénouementȱ ofȱ theȱ taleȱ whichȱ willȱ see
GuillaumeȱeventuallyȱcrownedȱEmperorȱofȱRomeȱthroughȱhisȱmarriageȱtoȱMelior,
daughterȱofȱtheȱcurrentȱEmperor.
ButȱitȱisȱalsoȱpossibleȱtoȱfindȱotherȱparallelsȱinȱtheȱexistingȱOldȱFrenchȱromance
traditionȱuponȱwhichȱtheȱpoetȱappearsȱtoȱhaveȱdrawnȱforȱtheȱfoundlingȱelement
ofȱhisȱromance.ȱTheseȱareȱtheȱromancesȱLeȱConteȱduȱGraalȱbyȱChrétienȱdeȱTroyes20
andȱGuillaumeȱd’Angleterre,ȱattributedȱtoȱaȱpoetȱwhoȱalsoȱcallsȱhimselfȱChrétien.21
Theȱ sceneȱ inȱ whichȱ theȱ Emperorȱ discoversȱ Guillaumeȱ sharesȱ manyȱ common
featuresȱwithȱtheȱsceneȱinȱwhichȱPercevalȱfirstȱencountersȱknightsȱinȱtheȱGaste
ForestȱofȱLeȱConteȱduȱGraal.ȱFirstly,ȱtheȱEmperorȱisȱstruckȱbyȱtheȱastonishingȱbeauty
ofȱGuillaume:
L’enfantȱregarde,ȱs’arresta,
Aȱgrantȱmerveilleȱseȱseigna
Deȱsaȱbiauté,ȱdeȱsaȱsamblance
Etȱdeȱsaȱnobleȱcontenance:
Merveilleȱsoiȱquiȱilȱpuetȱestre,
Neȱdeȱquelȱgentȱneȱdeȱquelȱestre,
Cuideȱchoseȱfaëeȱsoit.ȱ (vv.ȱ415–23)
19
Iȱamȱgratefulȱtoȱmyȱcolleague,ȱProfessorȱPennyȱEley,ȱforȱherȱkindȱcontributionȱofȱthisȱparticular
observation.
20
ChrétienȱdeȱTroyes,ȱLeȱConteȱduȱGraal,ȱinȱLesȱRomansȱdeȱChrétienȱdeȱTroyes,ȱed.ȱbyȱFélixȱLecoy,
volumesȱ5–6.ȱLesȱClassiquesȱFrançaisȱduȱMoyenȱAgeȱ(Paris:ȱChampion,ȱ1972).
21
Chrétien,ȱGuillaumeȱd’Angleterre,ȱed.ȱbyȱA.ȱJ.ȱHolden.ȱTextesȱlittérairesȱfrançais,ȱ360ȱ(Geneva:ȱDroz
1988).ȱTheȱeditorȱrefersȱtoȱtheȱlongȱdebateȱasȱtoȱtheȱattributionȱofȱthisȱtextȱtoȱtheȱpoetȱChrétienȱde
TroyesȱinȱhisȱforewordȱtoȱtheȱeditionȱandȱinȱtheȱIntroduction,ȱ31–35.ȱTheȱpoetȱsimplyȱrefersȱto
himselfȱasȱ“Chrestiens”ȱinȱtheȱopeningȱlineȱofȱhisȱromance,ȱandȱHoldenȱconcludesȱthatȱitȱisȱsafest
toȱkeepȱsimplyȱtoȱthisȱnameȱandȱnotȱriskȱidentifyingȱitȱanyȱmoreȱspecificallyȱwithȱChrétienȱde
Troyes.
416 PennyȱSimons
[TheȱEmperorȱstoppedȱandȱlookedȱatȱtheȱchild;ȱheȱcrossedȱhimselfȱinȱamazementȱatȱhis
beauty,ȱhisȱappearanceȱandȱcountenance.ȱHeȱwonderedȱwhoȱheȱcouldȱbe,ȱfromȱwhat
people,ȱorȱwhatȱheȱwas:ȱheȱthoughtȱheȱmustȱbeȱsomeȱbeingȱfromȱanotherȱworld.]
Here,ȱtheȱideaȱofȱPercevalȱmistakingȱtheȱknightsȱforȱangelsȱinȱhisȱencounterȱis
rewrittenȱasȱtheȱEmperorȱmistakingȱGuillaumeȱforȱaȱfairyȱbeing.22ȱTheȱsceneȱin
Guillaumeȱ deȱ Palerneȱ continuesȱ withȱ aȱ seriesȱ ofȱ questions,ȱ whichȱ againȱ echo
Perceval’sȱquestioningȱofȱtheȱknights,ȱbutȱisȱreversedȱhereȱwithȱtheȱEmperorȱtrying
toȱquestionȱGuillaume;ȱandȱoneȱofȱtheseȱquestionsȱinȱparticularȱevokesȱPerceval
asȱtheȱEmperorȱasks,ȱ“Etȱcuiȱfixȱestesȱvos?”ȱ(Andȱwhoseȱsonȱareȱyou?),ȱechoing
Perceval’sȱanswerȱaboutȱhisȱownȱname:
“Mesȱorȱteȱpriȱqueȱtuȱm’anseignes
parȱquelȱnonȱjeȱt’apelerai.
–ȱSire,ȱfetȱil,ȱjelȱvosȱdirai.
J’aiȱnonȱBiaxȱfilz.ȱ (vv.ȱ342–45)ȱ
[“ButȱnowȱIȱbegȱyouȱtoȱtellȱmeȱbyȱwhatȱnameȱIȱshouldȱcallȱyou.”ȱ“Sir”,ȱheȱanswered,
“Iȱwillȱtellȱyou;ȱIȱamȱcalledȱFairȱSon.”]
Weȱ beginȱ toȱ seeȱ theȱ hallmarksȱ ofȱ theȱ Guillaumeȱ poet’sȱ approachȱ toȱ hisȱ source
material:ȱheȱreshapesȱtheȱechoesȱofȱearlierȱtextsȱintoȱnewȱformsȱandȱpatternsȱinȱhis
ownȱtext.ȱChristineȱFerlampinȬAcherȱobservesȱthatȱtheȱgriefȱandȱpartingȱadviceȱof
Guillaume’sȱadoptedȱfather,ȱtheȱcowherd,ȱechoȱtheȱfarewellȱofȱPerceval’sȱmother,
butȱ hereȱ theȱ poetȱ hasȱ reversedȱ theȱ genderȱ ofȱ theȱ parent,ȱ andȱ madeȱ himȱ an
adoptive,ȱratherȱthanȱaȱbiologicalȱrelation.ȱ23
Inȱ Guillaumeȱ d’Angleterre,ȱ itselfȱ aȱ reworkingȱ ofȱ theȱ legendȱ ofȱ St.ȱ Eustace,24
Guillaume,ȱtheȱKingȱofȱEnglandȱisȱorderedȱbyȱGodȱtoȱrenounceȱtheȱlifeȱofȱthis
worldȱandȱabandonsȱhisȱpalaceȱforȱlifeȱinȱtheȱwildȱforest.ȱHereȱhisȱwifeȱgivesȱbirth
toȱtwinȱsonsȱandȱisȱseparatedȱfromȱherȱhusband.ȱTheȱboysȱareȱraisedȱbyȱmerchants
andȱnamedȱLovelȱandȱMarin,ȱbecauseȱtheȱfirstȱwasȱfoundȱafterȱbeingȱcarriedȱoffȱby
aȱwolf,ȱtheȱsecondȱonȱboardȱaȱship;ȱeventuallyȱtheyȱrunȱawayȱtogetherȱandȱare
foundȱbyȱaȱforesterȱwhoȱbringsȱthemȱtoȱtheȱKingȱofȱCaithness,ȱwhoȱrecognisesȱtheir
22
ThisȱechoȱrecursȱinȱaȱformȱcloserȱtoȱitsȱoriginalȱinȱLeȱConteȱduȱGraalȱatȱv.ȱ449,ȱwhenȱGuillaume
reportsȱtheȱarrivalȱofȱtheȱEmperorȱtoȱhisȱfosterȱfather:ȱ“’onquesȱplusȱbelȱdeȱluiȱneȱvi.’”ȱ(‘Iȱnever
sawȱanyoneȱmoreȱfairȱthanȱhe’).
23
SeeȱChristineȱFerlampinȬAcherȱ“GuillaumeȱdeȱPalerne:ȱuneȱparodie?”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ6),ȱ61;ȱsheȱalsoȱnotes
thatȱtheȱskillȱofȱtheȱyoungȱGuillaumeȱatȱhuntingȱparallelsȱthatȱofȱtheȱyoungȱPerceval.ȱSeeȱfurther
discussionȱonȱthisȱpointȱbelow,ȱ11–12.
24
InȱhisȱstudyȱofȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerneȱasȱaȱsourceȱforȱTristanȱdeȱNanteuil,ȱK.ȱV.ȱSinclairȱnotesȱthatȱthe
motifȱofȱaȱbeastȱsucklingȱanȱanimalȱisȱcommonȱinȱtalesȱofȱtheȱEustachiusȱCycle.ȱK.ȱV.ȱSinclair,
“Guillaumeȱ deȱ Palerne,ȱ aȱ Sourceȱ forȱ Tristanȱ deȱ Nanteuil“ȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 9),ȱ 362.ȱ Althoughȱ Christine
FerlampinȱAcherȱalsoȱnotesȱtheȱparallel,ȱtheȱlinksȱbetweenȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerneȱandȱtheȱEustachius
materialȱremainȱtoȱbeȱexploredȱinȱdetail.ȱSeeȱChristineȱFerlampinȬAcherȱ“GuillaumeȱdeȱPalerne:ȱune
parodie?”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ6),ȱ59.
nobilityȱandȱhasȱthemȱtrainedȱandȱeducatedȱasȱyoungȱnoblemen,ȱandȱfromȱhere
theyȱareȱeventuallyȱreunitedȱwithȱtheirȱfatherȱandȱmother.ȱInȱthisȱstoryȱweȱagain
haveȱaȱfoundlingȱcarriedȱawayȱbyȱaȱwolf,ȱandȱweȱalsoȱhaveȱtheȱcontrastȱbetween
theȱ upbringingȱ bestowedȱ byȱ aȱ nonȬaristocratȱ uponȱ aȱ nobleȱ child,ȱ andȱ the
appropriateȱ educationȱ atȱ aȱ royalȱ court.ȱ Bothȱ ofȱ theseȱ areȱ clearlyȱ visibleȱ inȱ the
cowherd’sȱ raisingȱ ofȱ Guillaume,ȱ althoughȱ thisȱ figureȱ provesȱ ratherȱ more
beneficentȱ thanȱ theȱ surlyȱ andȱ churlishȱ merchantsȱ whoȱ raiseȱ Lovelȱ andȱ Marin.
Thereȱisȱalsoȱaȱspecificȱechoȱofȱtheȱtornȱpiecesȱofȱfineȱclothȱwithȱwhichȱtheȱtwinsȱof
Guillaumeȱ d’Angleterreȱ areȱ found;ȱ inȱ Guillaumeȱ deȱ Palerneȱ theȱ Emperorȱ asksȱ the
cowherdȱtheȱratherȱoddȱquestionȱ“’Maisȱorȱmeȱdiȱenȱquelȱator/Estoitȱilȱquantȱtuȱle
trouvas,/C’avoitȱvestuȱneȱcomȱfaisȱdras’”ȱ(“Nowȱtellȱmeȱwhatȱheȱwasȱwearing
whenȱyouȱfoundȱhim,ȱandȱwhatȱsortȱofȱfabricsȱheȱwasȱdressedȱin”).25ȱAgain,ȱthere
isȱ noȱ narrativeȱ necessityȱ forȱ thisȱ question;ȱ ratherȱ itȱ seemsȱ toȱ beȱ thereȱ toȱ draw
attentionȱtoȱtheȱpoet’sȱmodelȱforȱtheȱscene.26
Theȱ twinsȱ inȱ Guillaumeȱ d’Angleterreȱ refuseȱ theȱ trainingȱ inȱ tradeȱ whichȱ their
merchantȱ fathersȱ propose,ȱ unlikeȱ Guillaumeȱ whoȱ adaptsȱ wellȱ toȱ ruralȱ life,
althoughȱevenȱhere,ȱhisȱnobleȱbirthȱshinesȱthroughȱinȱhisȱpreferenceȱforȱcertain
skillsȱandȱactivities:
Emȱchampȱaloitȱliȱdamoisaix
Avoecȱsonȱpèreȱleȱvachier
Quiȱmoltȱl’amoitȱetȱtenoitȱchier.
Bienȱsetȱjaȱsesȱbestesȱgarder,
Chacierȱavantȱetȱretorner
Etȱmenerȱenȱmillorȱpaisson;
Deȱl’arcȱsavoitȱplusȱqueȱnusȱhom
Berserȱetȱarchoierȱetȱtraire.
Laȱnuitȱquantȱaȱl’ostelȱrepaire,
Vientȱtosȱchargiésȱliȱdamoisiax
Deȱlievres,ȱdeȱconnins,ȱd’oisiax
Etȱdeȱpertrisȱetȱdeȱfaisans.
Moltȱertȱamésȱdeȱtosȱenfans,
Carȱquantȱsesȱoisiaxȱavoitȱpris
Porȱsonȱdeduitȱetȱporȱsonȱpris
Sesȱcompaignonsȱlesȱdonoitȱlues,
Jaȱn’enȱretenistȱaȱsonȱues
Desiȱqueȱtotȱcilȱenȱavoient
Quiȱenȱsaȱcompaignieȱestoient. (vv.ȱ362–80)
25
ForȱanȱanalysisȱofȱtheȱfoundlingȱandȱrecognitionȱtopoiȱinȱGuillaumeȱd’Angleterre,ȱinȱparticularȱthe
useȱofȱfabricȱasȱtheȱrecognitionȱdevice,ȱseeȱtheȱveryȱinterestingȱdiscussionȱinȱMonicaȱL.ȱWright,
WeavingȱNarrative,ȱClothingȱinȱTwelfthȬCenturyȱRomance,ȱPennȱStateȱRomanceȱStudiesȱ(PennsylȬ
vania:ȱUniversityȱofȱPennsylvaniaȱPress,ȱ2009),ȱ155–66.
26
Theȱ questionȱ alsoȱ echoesȱ anotherȱ ofȱ Marieȱ deȱ France’sȱ Lais,ȱ Fresne,ȱ inȱ whichȱ twinȱ girlsȱ are
separatedȱatȱbirthȱandȱreunitedȱthroughȱrecognitionȱofȱaȱrichȱclothȱinȱwhichȱtheyȱareȱswaddled.
418 PennyȱSimons
[Theȱyoungȱmanȱwentȱoutȱintoȱtheȱfieldsȱwithȱhisȱfatherȱtheȱcowherdȱwhoȱlovedȱhim
dearlyȱandȱtenderly.ȱHeȱknewȱhowȱtoȱlookȱafterȱhisȱcattle,ȱhowȱtoȱdriveȱthemȱout,ȱbring
themȱbackȱandȱleadȱthemȱintoȱnewȱpasture.ȱWhenȱitȱcameȱtoȱarchery,ȱheȱwasȱbetter
thanȱanyoneȱatȱhuntingȱorȱdrawingȱhisȱbow.ȱAtȱnightȱwhenȱheȱcameȱbackȱhome,ȱthe
youngȱmanȱwouldȱbeȱladenȱwithȱhares,ȱrabbitsȱandȱgameȱbirds,ȱwithȱpartridgesȱand
pheasants.ȱAndȱheȱwasȱpopularȱwithȱallȱtheȱchildrenȱbecauseȱwhenȱheȱhadȱtakenȱbirds
forȱtheȱpleasureȱofȱhuntingȱandȱprovingȱhisȱskill,ȱheȱwouldȱimmediatelyȱgiveȱthem
awayȱtoȱhisȱfriendsȱandȱwouldȱnotȱkeepȱanyȱforȱhimselfȱuntilȱeveryoneȱelseȱhadȱhad
some.]27
TheȱgenerosityȱofȱtheȱyoungȱGuillaumeȱshinesȱthroughȱinȱhisȱdistributionȱofȱhis
huntingȱspoils,ȱaȱreworkingȱofȱtheȱdisinclinationȱofȱLovelȱandȱMarinȱtoȱengageȱin
moneyȬmakingȱmercantilism.
Itȱisȱapparent,ȱtherefore,ȱfromȱaȱstudyȱofȱtheȱtwoȱprincipalȱstoryȱmodelsȱupon
whichȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerneȱisȱbased,ȱthatȱtheȱanonymousȱpoetȱadoptsȱaȱpoeticsȱof
rewritingȱcharacterizedȱbyȱtheȱfusingȱofȱtwoȱdifferentȱstoryȱmodels,ȱweavingȱinto
thisȱbasicȱformulaȱreferencesȱtoȱotherȱexamplesȱofȱtheȱromanceȱcanonȱandȱtheȱlai
traditionȱwhichȱprecededȱhisȱwork.ȱAsȱheȱincorporatesȱtheseȱreferences,ȱtheyȱare
reshapedȱ toȱ fitȱ hisȱ newȱ narrativeȱ pattern,ȱ butȱ alwaysȱ inȱ suchȱ aȱ wayȱ thatȱ the
originalȱformȱisȱdiscernible.ȱInȱthisȱway,ȱhisȱrewritingȱfunctionsȱalmostȱasȱaȱselfȬ
reflexiveȱcommentaryȱonȱtheȱprocessȱofȱrewritingȱitself.ȱWeȱthereforeȱneedȱnowȱto
investigateȱ otherȱ textsȱ whichȱ mayȱ beȱ rewritten,ȱ andȱ toȱ doȱ soȱ withȱ particular
referenceȱtoȱtheȱruralȱspacesȱwhichȱweȱhaveȱseenȱareȱkeyȱtoȱtheȱarchitectureȱofȱthe
romance.ȱInȱdoingȱthis,ȱweȱwillȱfocusȱfirstlyȱuponȱoneȱofȱtheȱimportantȱcriterial
propertiesȱofȱtheȱruralȱscenes,ȱtheȱpoet’sȱuseȱofȱcomedy,ȱand,ȱsecondlyȱweȱwill
examineȱtwoȱgeographicalȱproblemsȱthatȱariseȱfromȱtheȱspecificȱlocationsȱofȱthe
ruralȱspaces.
TheȱGuillaumeȱpoetȱhasȱaȱdeftȱhandȱatȱcomedy,ȱwhichȱheȱdeploysȱtoȱtheȱmost
engagingȱeffectȱduringȱtheȱtellingȱofȱtheȱlongȱjourneyȱthatȱGuillaumeȱandȱMelior
makeȱfromȱRomeȱtoȱPalermo.ȱDuringȱthisȱtime,ȱthey,ȱasȱyoungȱaristocrats,ȱare
dependentȱuponȱtheȱbenevolentȱofficesȱofȱtheȱwerewolf,ȱtoȱprovideȱforȱandȱprotect
them.28ȱTheȱloversȱareȱinitiallyȱpreparedȱtoȱeatȱwildȱplantsȱandȱfruitsȱ(vv.ȱ3232–35),
27
Forȱaȱhumorousȱvariationȱonȱtheȱnotionȱofȱinnateȱqualitiesȱofȱgenerosityȱinȱaȱyoungȱnobleman,ȱsee
theȱromanceȱOctavianȱinȱwhichȱtheȱyoungȱheroȱimpressivelyȱfailsȱatȱmerchantȱtradingȱbecauseȱhe
alwaysȱseeksȱtoȱgiveȱawayȱwhatȱheȱhasȱearned.ȱOctavian:ȱaltfranzösischerȱRomanȱnachȱderȱOxforder
HandschriftȱBodl.ȱHattonȱ100,ȱed.ȱbyȱKarlȱVollmöller.ȱAltfranzösischeȱBibliothek,ȱ3ȱ(Heilbronn:
Henninger,ȱ1883)
28
Leslieȱ Scondutoȱ notesȱ thatȱ Guillaumeȱ cannotȱ simultaneouslyȱ beȱ loverȱ andȱ knight,ȱ theȱ two
oppositeȱsidesȱofȱhisȱidentity.ȱWhenȱheȱisȱinȱtheȱruralȱcontext,ȱheȱisȱseparatedȱfromȱhisȱidentityȱas
knight,ȱandȱthereforeȱcannotȱbutȱfailȱtoȱactȱasȱprovider/protectorȱforȱhimselfȱandȱMelior.ȱLeslie
Sconduto,ȱ“BlurredȱandȱShiftingȱIdentities”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱ121.
butȱtheȱwerewolfȱknowsȱtheyȱneedȱbetterȱsustenanceȱandȱsetsȱaboutȱsecuringȱit;29
inȱaȱsceneȱworthyȱofȱaȱfabliau,30ȱheȱspringsȱuponȱanȱunsuspectingȱvilain:
Gardeȱuȱchemin,ȱvoitȱ.I.ȱvilain
Quiȱportoitȱblancȱpainȱetȱcharȱcuite:
Jaȱert,ȱs’ilȱpuet,ȱd’ausȱ.II.ȱlaȱluite.
Enȱ.I.ȱsachetȱl’otȱestoïe,
Siȱleȱportoitȱaȱsaȱmaisnie.
Liȱvilainsȱvintȱetȱliȱlusȱsaut;
Cilȱvoitȱlaȱbesteȱetȱcrieȱenȱhaut:
“Aidiés,ȱbiauȱperesȱglorious!
Huiȱmeȱdeffent,ȱqueȱcisȱgarous
Deȱmoiȱocireȱn’aitȱpoissance.”
Etȱliȱgarousȱversȱluisȱs’avance,
Asȱdensȱl’aertȱetȱsautȱd’encoste,
Tresȱbienȱleȱtientȱparȱleȱhargote;
Totȱestenduȱleȱvilainȱrue,
Laȱviandeȱliȱaȱtolue
Queȱilȱportoitȱaȱsaȱmaisnie.
Maisȱseȱsaȱfemeȱenȱertȱirie,
Deȱceȱn’ertȱgairesȱaȱlaȱbeste.ȱ (vv.ȱ3256–73)
[Theȱwolfȱlayȱinȱwaitȱbyȱtheȱroadȱuntilȱheȱsawȱaȱvilainȱcarryingȱwhiteȱbreadȱandȱcooked
meat;ȱ heȱ willȱ fightȱ toȱ secureȱ bothȱ ofȱ theseȱ ifȱ heȱ can.ȱ Theȱ vilainȱ hadȱ securedȱ the
provisionsȱinȱaȱsmallȱbagȱandȱwasȱcarryingȱthemȱhome.ȱHeȱcameȱbyȱandȱtheȱwolfȱleapt
outȱonȱhim.ȱWhenȱtheȱvilainȱsawȱtheȱanimal,ȱheȱcriedȱout,ȱ”Helpȱme,ȱdearȱFatherȱof
Glory!ȱDefendȱmeȱnowȱandȱkeepȱthisȱwolfȱfromȱkillingȱme!”ȱAndȱtheȱwolfȱadvanced
uponȱhim,ȱleaptȱuponȱhimȱfromȱtheȱsideȱandȱgraspedȱhimȱinȱhisȱteeth,ȱgrippingȱhim
firmlyȱbyȱhisȱclothes.ȱHeȱthrewȱtheȱvilainȱfullȱlengthȱonȱtheȱground,ȱandȱstoleȱtheȱfood
whichȱheȱwasȱtakingȱhome.ȱItȱwasȱnothingȱtoȱtheȱwolfȱifȱtheȱvilain’sȱwifeȱshouldȱbe
angryȱatȱherȱhusband.]
Havingȱsecuredȱfood,ȱtheȱbusyȱwolfȱthenȱrealizesȱthatȱdrinkȱisȱalsoȱneeded,ȱsoȱback
heȱrushesȱtoȱtheȱroadȱandȱleapsȱuponȱaȱclerkȱwhoȱisȱcarryingȱaȱbarrelȱofȱwine
whichȱheȱalsoȱdeliversȱtoȱtheȱloversȱ(vv.ȱ3331–50).ȱThisȱisȱthenȱcomicallyȱdrunk
straightȱfromȱtheȱbarrel,ȱsinceȱtheyȱhaveȱnoȱcupsȱ(vv.ȱ3366–68).ȱTheseȱdescriptions
combineȱremarkablyȱrealisticȱdetails,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱsackȱusedȱtoȱcarryȱtheȱpeasant’s
provisions,ȱtheȱwolf’sȱgrippingȱofȱhisȱclothesȱorȱtheȱlackȱofȱdrinkingȱvessels,ȱwith
theȱfantasticȱelementsȱofȱaȱwerewolfȱwhoȱisȱableȱtoȱtransportȱaȱbarrelȱofȱwineȱsafely
29
Theȱwolfȱhasȱbeenȱaȱconstantȱproviderȱofȱfood,ȱnurturingȱandȱfeedingȱtheȱyoungȱGuillaumeȱinȱthe
forestȱwhenȱheȱfirstȱrescuedȱhim.ȱThisȱcontrastsȱwithȱtheȱlamentȱofȱQueenȱFeliseȱwhoȱfearsȱthat
theȱwolfȱwillȱeatȱherȱson:ȱ“’Orȱesȱaȱlouȱgaroulȱpeuture’”ȱ(‘Nowȱyouȱwillȱbeȱfoodȱforȱaȱwerewolfȱ‘–
v.ȱ151.)
30
Christineȱ FerlampinȬAcher,ȱ “Guillaumeȱ deȱ Palerne:ȱ uneȱ parodie?”ȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 6)ȱ observesȱ the
similarityȱbetweenȱthisȱsceneȱandȱLeȱRomanȱdeȱRenart,ȱ62.
420 PennyȱSimons
backȱtoȱhisȱcharges.31ȱTheȱimageȱofȱtheȱwolfȱasȱsomeȱkindȱofȱsquireȱwhoȱmustȱserve
appropriateȱaristocraticȱprovenderȱtoȱhisȱlordȱandȱladyȱisȱalsoȱhighlyȱcomical.
Thisȱ comicȱ incongruityȱ whichȱ blendsȱ theȱ stronglyȱ realisticȱ withȱ theȱ clearly
improbableȱisȱseenȱatȱitsȱbestȱinȱtheȱsceneȱatȱtheȱquarryȱatȱBenevento.ȱTheȱtwo
loversȱreachȱBeneventoȱonȱtheirȱjourneyȱsouthȱandȱtheȱtownȱisȱdescribedȱinȱsome
detail:
Parȱ.Iȱmatinȱontȱesgardé,
Voientȱlesȱtorsȱd’uneȱcité,
Lesȱfermetésȱetȱlesȱmuraus,
Lesȱaiglesȱetȱlesȱcerclesȱhaus,
Lesȱevesȱetȱlesȱpescheries;
Maisȱlesȱforestȱlorȱsontȱfaillies,
N’iȱvoientȱseȱchampaigneȱnon.
Bounivensȱotȱlaȱcitésȱnon,
Siȱestoitȱl’apostoileȱlige
Forsȱqueȱlaȱsouvraineȱjustice
Enȱestoitȱaȱl’empereor.ȱ
ȱ……
Regardéȱontȱlesȱ.I.ȱgrantȱtertre,
Jousteȱleȱmontȱaȱlaȱcostiere
Voientȱleȱblancȱd’uneȱquarriere.ȱ (vv.ȱ3881–91,ȱ3896–98)
[Theyȱlookedȱoutȱoneȱmorningȱandȱsawȱtheȱtowersȱofȱaȱcity,ȱitsȱfortificationsȱandȱwalls,
theȱeagleȱandȱtheȱhighȱcircus,32ȱtheȱriversȱandȱfishponds;ȱbutȱnowȱtheyȱnoȱlongerȱhad
theȱcoverȱofȱtheȱforestȱandȱcouldȱseeȱonlyȱfields.ȱTheȱcityȱwasȱcalledȱBeneventoȱandȱit
wasȱaȱPapalȱfief,ȱalthoughȱsovereignȱjusticeȱwasȱstillȱmaintainedȱbyȱtheȱemperor.ȱThey
lookedȱtoȱtheȱsideȱofȱaȱlargeȱhill,ȱandȱnearȱtheȱhill,ȱbesideȱtheȱriver,ȱtheyȱsawȱtheȱwhite
stoneȱofȱaȱquarry.]
Theȱdetailȱisȱaccurate,ȱforȱBeneventoȱwasȱindeedȱpapalȱterritoryȱinȱtheȱlateȱtwelfth
century,ȱandȱhadȱbeenȱsinceȱ1053ȱwhenȱitȱhadȱ“embracedȱpapalȱlordshipȱtoȱescape
Normanȱoccupation.”33ȱTheȱreferenceȱtoȱimperialȱjurisdictionȱinȱvv.ȱ3890–91ȱmay
reflectȱaȱmuchȱmoreȱimmediateȱpoliticalȱcircumstance,ȱthatȱofȱtheȱvisitȱbyȱHoly
RomanȱEmperorȱHenryȱVIȱinȱ1191,ȱduringȱwhichȱheȱgrantedȱnewȱprivilegesȱtoȱthe
31
TheȱcomedyȱofȱthisȱsceneȱisȱnotedȱbyȱSconduto,ȱMetamorphosesȱofȱtheȱWerewolfȱ(seeȱnoteȱ6),ȱ104.ȱ
32
Theȱtranslationȱofȱ“cerclesȱhaus“ȱ(v.ȱ384)ȱasȱ“circus”ȱisȱsuggestedȱbyȱToblerȬLommatzsch’sȱgloss
inȱtheȱAltfranzæzischesȱWærterbuchȱ(Berlin:ȱWeidmannscheȱBuchhandlung,ȱ1925–1976);ȱseeȱunder
theȱheadwordȱ“cercle.”ȱDunnȱpointsȱoutȱthatȱBeneventoȱdoesȱnotȱhaveȱtheȱremainsȱofȱaȱcircus,ȱbut
anȱancientȱtheatre,ȱtoȱwhichȱtheȱpoetȱmayȱbeȱreferringȱhere,ȱandȱthereȱisȱalsoȱtheȱpossibilityȱheȱhad
Trajan’sȱtriumphalȱarchȱinȱmind.ȱInȱanyȱevent,ȱitȱisȱclearȱthatȱtheȱpoetȱhadȱdetailedȱknowledgeȱof
Beneventoȱandȱitsȱsurroundingȱarea.ȱSeeȱDunn,ȱTheȱFoundlingȱandȱtheȱWerwolfȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ81.
33
DonaldȱMatthew,ȱTheȱNormanȱKingdomȱofȱSicily.ȱCambridgeȱMedievalȱTextbooksȱ(Cambridge:
CambridgeȱUniversityȱPressȱ1992),ȱ15.
cityȱofȱBenevento.34ȱTheȱreferenceȱtoȱmarbleȱquarriesȱisȱalsoȱaccurateȱand,ȱeven
today,ȱtheȱareaȱisȱstillȱfamousȱasȱaȱsourceȱofȱmarble.ȱTheȱdescriptionȱofȱtheȱcaves
andȱquarryȱworkingsȱalsoȱincludesȱhighlyȱrealisticȱdetails:
.ȱ.ȱ.ȱvenuȱsontȱaȱlaȱquarriere
Quiȱmoltȱestoitȱgransȱetȱpleniere.
Mainteȱgrantȱgoveȱiȱotȱdedens
Queȱfaiteȱiȱavoientȱlesȱgens
Quinȱavoientȱlaȱpierreȱtraite.
Uneȱenȱiȱotȱnoveleȱfaite
Etȱprendoientȱtotȱdeȱnouvel
Cilȱdeȱlaȱvileȱleȱquarrel.ȱ (vv.ȱ3905–12)
[.ȱ.ȱ.ȱTheyȱcameȱtoȱtheȱquarryȱwhichȱwasȱlargeȱandȱcontainedȱmuchȱstone.ȱThereȱwere
manyȱlargeȱtunnelsȱinsideȱit,ȱwhichȱpeopleȱhadȱmadeȱasȱtheyȱextractedȱtheȱstone.ȱThere
wasȱaȱnewȱoneȱwhichȱtheyȱhadȱformedȱandȱfromȱwhichȱtheȱtownspeopleȱwereȱnow
quarryingȱtheȱstone.]
Thisȱrealismȱis,ȱhowever,ȱabruptlyȱjuxtaposedȱwithȱfantasy,ȱfor,ȱwhenȱtheȱlovers
areȱdiscoveredȱhidingȱinȱtheȱquarryȱworkings,ȱtheȱwerewolfȱreappearsȱjustȱinȱtime
toȱ saveȱ themȱ fromȱ captureȱ byȱ theȱ townsfolk.ȱ Theȱ werewolf’sȱ stratagemȱ for
distractingȱtheirȱpursuersȱinvolvesȱleapingȱuponȱtheȱtownȱgovernor’sȱtwelveȬyearȬ
oldȱsonȱandȱrunningȱoffȱwithȱhimȱinȱhisȱmouth.ȱThisȱisȱnotȱjustȱincredible;ȱitȱis
clearlyȱimpossible,ȱandȱalsoȱextremelyȱamusing.ȱTheȱcomedyȱderivesȱfromȱthe
incongruityȱ ofȱ theȱ humanȱ beingsȱ whoȱ areȱ soȱ disastrouslyȱ unableȱ toȱ keep
themselvesȱoutȱofȱdangerȱjuxtaposedȱwithȱtheȱresourcefulnessȱofȱwerewolfȱwho
rescuesȱthem,ȱasȱwellȱasȱfromȱtheȱwayȱinȱwhichȱthisȱsceneȱreplaysȱtheȱrescueȱof
Guillaumeȱfromȱtheȱvergierȱatȱtheȱstartȱofȱtheȱromance.ȱ
Inȱthatȱepisode,ȱtheȱaudience’sȱcredibilityȱisȱstretchedȱasȱtheyȱmustȱacceptȱthe
wolf’sȱabilityȱtoȱcarryȱaȱfourȬyearȬoldȱchild,ȱswimȱtheȱStraitsȱofȱMessinaȱwhich,
evenȱatȱtheirȱnarrowestȱareȱnearlyȱtwoȱmilesȱacross,ȱandȱthenȱtravelȱallȱtheȱway
northȱtoȱRome;ȱitȱisȱonlyȱtheȱreturnȱtoȱhighlyȱdetailedȱrealismȱonceȱtheȱwolfȱreaches
theȱforestȱthatȱenablesȱtheȱaudienceȱtoȱsuspendȱtheirȱdisbeliefȱatȱthisȱpoint.ȱButȱin
Benevento,ȱ theȱ moveȱ isȱ inȱ reverse,ȱ fromȱ realismȱ toȱ exaggeratedȱ fantasy,ȱ and
disbeliefȱcanȱnoȱlongerȱbeȱsuspended.ȱIndeed,ȱthisȱpreposterousȱepisodeȱrepresents
aȱchallengeȱtoȱtheȱaudienceȱtoȱreflectȱbackȱtoȱtheȱearlierȱepisodeȱandȱquestionȱtheir
ownȱabilityȱtoȱacceptȱunhesitatinglyȱtheȱnarrativeȱelementsȱwhichȱtheȱpoetȱplaces
beforeȱthem.
34
SeeȱDunn,ȱTheȱFoundlingȱandȱtheȱWerwolfȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ126–27.ȱDunnȱalsoȱpointsȱoutȱthatȱHenryȱhad
laidȱtheȱareaȱofȱCampaniaȱwaste,ȱasȱtheȱFrenchȱdiscoveredȱwhenȱtheyȱarrivedȱonȱtheȱwayȱback
fromȱtheȱThirdȱCrusade,ȱsomeȱfourȱmonthsȱlater.ȱThisȱmayȱwellȱbeȱreflectedȱinȱtheȱdescriptions
ofȱtheȱravagesȱofȱwarȱsouthȱofȱRomeȱwhichȱGuillaumeȱandȱMeliorȱencounterȱafterȱtheirȱadventures
inȱBenevento.
422 PennyȱSimons
Comedyȱresultingȱfromȱaȱdifferentȱkindȱofȱincongruousȱjuxtaposition,ȱoneȱwhich
operatesȱbothȱliterallyȱandȱmetatextually,ȱisȱtoȱbeȱfoundȱatȱtheȱstartȱofȱtheȱyoung
lovers’ȱjourneyȱfromȱRome.ȱTheyȱmakeȱgoodȱtheirȱescapeȱbyȱsewingȱthemselves
intoȱ theȱ skinsȱ ofȱ twoȱ whiteȱ bearsȱ whichȱ theyȱ takeȱ fromȱ theȱ kitchen.ȱ Theȱ poet
devotesȱsomeȱconsiderableȱtimeȱtoȱdescribingȱthisȱstratagem,ȱincludingȱtheȱprocess
byȱwhichȱtheyȱdonȱtheirȱdisguise:
[Alixandrine]ȱaȱpriseȱlaȱmenorȱpel.
Parȱleȱcommantȱauȱdamoisel
SorȱMeliorȱl’aȱestendue;
Ensiȱcommeȱeleȱestoitȱvestue
Deȱsesȱgarnemensȱlesȱmillors
L’aȱencousueȱenȱlaȱpiauȱd’ors.
Quantȱenȱlaȱpuelȱfuȱenfermee,
Alixandrineȱaȱapelee:
“Bele,ȱqueȱteȱsambleȱdeȱmoi?
–ȱDame,ȱparȱDieuȱleȱsouvrainȱroi,
S’enȱcesteȱpelȱneȱteȱsavoie,
Porȱ.C.ȱmarsȱd’orȱneȱt’atendroie,
Siȱsamblesȱorsȱetȱfiereȱbeste
Deȱcors,ȱdeȱmenbresȱetȱdeȱteste.“
Aprèsȱaȱpriseȱl’autreȱpel;
Parȱleȱcommantȱauȱdamoisel
Aȱcoroiesȱlongesȱetȱfors
Liȱestendiȱdesusȱleȱcors:
Sorȱlaȱrobeȱqu’ilȱotȱvestue
Liȱaȱlaȱpelȱestroitȱcousue.
Quantȱdeȱlaȱpelȱfuȱrevestis
Etȱbienȱfuȱensȱlaciésȱetȱmis,
S’aȱapeléȱsaȱdouceȱamie:
“Bele,ȱfaitȱil,ȱneȱcelésȱmie,
Ditesȱdeȱmoiȱqueȱvosȱenȱsamble.
–ȱCertes,ȱsireȱliȱcuersȱmeȱtramble,
Quantȱvosȱesgart,ȱsiȱsamblésȱfier.
–ȱBele,ȱpensonsȱdeȱl’esploitier.“ (vv.ȱ3073–100)
[Alixandrineȱtookȱtheȱsmallerȱhideȱand,ȱfollowingȱtheȱyoungȱman’sȱcommand,ȱshe
stretchedȱ itȱ aroundȱ Melior;ȱ whenȱ sheȱ wasȱ thusȱ dressedȱ inȱ herȱ bestȱ garments,
Alixandrineȱsewedȱherȱintoȱtheȱbearȱskin.ȱWhenȱsheȱwasȱenclosedȱinȱtheȱhide,ȱMelior
calledȱ toȱ Alixandrine,ȱ “Dear,ȱ howȱ doȱ youȱ thinkȱ Iȱ look?”ȱ “Myȱ lady,ȱ byȱ Godȱ the
sovereignȱking,ȱifȱIȱdidn’tȱknowȱyouȱwereȱinȱthatȱskin,ȱIȱwouldn’tȱbeȱexpectingȱtoȱsee
youȱforȱaȱhundredȱgoldȱmarks;ȱyourȱbody,ȱlimbsȱandȱheadȱareȱjustȱlikeȱthoseȱofȱaȱbear
orȱaȱfierceȱbeast.”ȱThenȱAlixandrineȱtookȱtheȱsecondȱhideȱand,ȱatȱtheȱyoungȱman’s
command,ȱstretchedȱitȱaroundȱhisȱbodyȱwithȱlong,ȱstrongȱthongsȱandȱsheȱsewedȱthe
skinȱtightlyȱoverȱtheȱclothesȱheȱwasȱwearing.ȱWhenȱheȱwasȱclothedȱinȱtheȱhideȱandȱwas
firmlyȱlacedȱupȱinsideȱit,ȱheȱcalledȱhisȱbeloved,ȱ“Dear”,ȱheȱsaid,ȱ“Tellȱmeȱhonestly,ȱhow
doȱyouȱthinkȱIȱlook?”ȱ“Indeed,ȱsir,ȱmyȱheartȱtremblesȱwhenȱIȱlookȱatȱyou,ȱyouȱlookȱso
fierce.”ȱ“Myȱdear,ȱletȱusȱlookȱtoȱcarryȱoutȱourȱplan.”]
TheȱincongruityȱofȱMeliorȱputtingȱonȱtheȱhideȱasȱifȱitȱwereȱaȱnewȱdressȱandȱthe
echoȱofȱanȱarmingȱsceneȱinȱtheȱdescriptionȱofȱGuillaumeȱdonningȱhisȱareȱamusing,
asȱisȱtheirȱinappropriateȱandȱnaiveȱconcernȱaboutȱtheirȱappearance;ȱbutȱtheȱhumor
alsoȱdrawsȱattentionȱtoȱtheȱjuxtapositionȱofȱincongruousȱelementsȱasȱtheȱhidesȱare
specificallyȱplacedȱonȱtopȱofȱtheȱlovers’ȱnormalȱclothingȱ(seeȱvv.ȱ3076–77ȱandȱ3091),
suchȱthatȱitȱisȱcovered,ȱbutȱnotȱreplaced.ȱThisȱisȱanȱoddȱdetail,ȱbutȱoneȱtoȱwhichȱthe
poetȱreturnsȱlaterȱwhenȱQueenȱFeliseȱrealizesȱthatȱtheȱtwoȱdeerȱwhoȱappearȱinȱher
vergierȱareȱhumansȱinȱdisguiseȱbecauseȱsheȱcanȱseeȱrichȱclothingȱunderneathȱthe
skinsȱwhichȱhaveȱshrunkȱinȱtheȱheatȱ(vv.ȱ5094–101).ȱTheȱpoetȱisȱatȱpainsȱtoȱsuggest
thatȱ theȱ transformationsȱ ofȱ hisȱ heroȱ andȱ heroineȱ areȱ noȱ moreȱ thanȱ skinȱ deep,
whichȱinvitesȱusȱtoȱreflectȱuponȱtheȱnatureȱofȱotherȱtransformationsȱinȱtheȱtext.
Thereȱisȱindeedȱanotherȱtransformationȱtakingȱplaceȱinȱtheȱdescriptionȱofȱthe
donningȱofȱtheȱskins,ȱandȱthisȱinvolvesȱtheȱtransformationȱorȱrewritingȱofȱanother
romanceȱmodel.ȱTheȱfussȱoverȱtheȱlovers’ȱappearanceȱisȱaȱreworkingȱofȱaȱscene
whichȱ occursȱ atȱ theȱ endȱ ofȱ oneȱ veryȱ importantȱ versionȱ ofȱ theȱ earlierȱ twelfthȬ
centuryȱromanceȱPartonopeusȱdeȱBlois,ȱthatȱpreservedȱinȱmanuscriptȱA.35ȱThis,ȱthe
earliestȱversionȱofȱtheȱromance,ȱendsȱwithȱaȱtripleȱwedding,ȱincludingȱthatȱofȱthe
heroȱandȱheroine.ȱTheȱmarriageȱsceneȱisȱprefacedȱbyȱaȱdelightfulȱdescriptionȱofȱthe
threeȱwomenȱpreparingȱtheirȱtoiletteȱandȱfussingȱaboutȱtheȱfoldsȱofȱtheirȱdresses
andȱsetȱofȱtheirȱhair;ȱtheȱsceneȱclosesȱwithȱoneȱofȱtheȱlesserȱladiesȱaskingȱforȱan
opinionȱaboutȱherȱappearanceȱfromȱoneȱofȱtheȱattendants:ȱ
”Queȱt’enȱsamble,ȱseȱDexȱt’ament?
–ȱDameȱn’iȱsaiȱtantȱesgarder
Queȱplusȱiȱvoieȱaȱamender.
Certesȱseȱjeȱl’osoieȱdire,
Maȱdameȱenȱavraȱmoltȱgrantȱire.”ȱ (vv.ȱ11912–16)36
[“InȱtheȱnameȱofȱGod,ȱtellȱmeȱwhatȱyouȱthinkȱofȱthis.”ȱ“Myȱlady,ȱhoweverȱIȱlookȱIȱcan
seeȱnothingȱthatȱneedsȱimproving.ȱIndeed,ȱifȱIȱmightȱbeȱsoȱbold,ȱmyȱladyȱtheȱEmpress
[ieȱtheȱheroine,ȱMelior]ȱoughtȱtoȱbeȱjealous.”]
Theȱechoȱofȱtheȱquestionȱ“queȱt’enȱsemble”ȱ(PartonopeusȱdeȱBloisȱv.11912)ȱnotȱonce,
butȱ twiceȱ inȱ theȱ descriptionȱ inȱ Guillaumeȱ deȱ Palerneȱ (v.ȱ 3081,ȱ v.ȱ 3097)ȱ draws
35
Forȱdiscussionsȱofȱtheȱdifferentȱversions,ȱtheirȱrelativeȱdatesȱandȱtheȱrelationshipsȱbetweenȱthem,
seeȱLeȱRomanȱdeȱPartonopeuȱdeȱBlois,ȱed.ȱandȱtrans.ȱbyȱOlivierȱColletȱandȱPierreȬMarieȱJoris.ȱLettres
Gothiquesȱ(Paris:ȱLivreȱdeȱPoche,ȱ2005),ȱ7–8,ȱ11–22;ȱPennyȱEley,ȱ“PartonopeusȱdeȱBlois”:ȱRomance
inȱtheȱMakingȱ(seeȱnoteȱ15),ȱ2,ȱ11;ȱPennyȱSimons,ȱ“AȱRomanceȱRevisited:ȱReopeningȱtheȱQuestion
ofȱtheȱManuscriptȱTraditionȱofȱPartonopeusȱdeȱBlois,”ȱRomaniaȱ115ȱ(1997):ȱ368–405.
36
ȱ LeȱRomanȱdeȱPartonopeuȱdeȱBlois,ȱed.ȱandȱtrans.ȱbyȱOlivierȱColletȱandȱPierreȬMarieȱJorisȱ(seeȱnote
34).
424 PennyȱSimons
attentionȱtoȱtheȱborrowing.ȱTheȱaudienceȱofȱGuillaumeȱhaveȱalreadyȱbeenȱprepared
toȱ respondȱ toȱ Partonopeusȱ deȱ Bloisȱ asȱ aȱ narrativeȱ modelȱ inȱ theȱ veryȱ obvious
borrowingȱofȱnameȱofȱtheȱheroineȱMeliorȱwhichȱisȱuniqueȱtoȱtheseȱtwoȱromances;37
hereȱ theȱ allusionȱ toȱ theȱ weddingȱ sceneȱ inȱ Partonopeusȱ takesȱ onȱ particular
significanceȱ andȱ introducesȱ aȱ seriesȱ ofȱ allusionsȱ whichȱ suggestȱ thatȱ thisȱ isȱ an
importantȱintertextȱtoȱexamineȱforȱitsȱrelationshipȱwithȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerne.
WeȱhaveȱalreadyȱnotedȱthatȱtheȱAȱversionȱofȱPartonopeusȱendsȱwithȱtheȱtriple
weddingȱofȱtheȱheroine,ȱherȱsisterȱandȱherȱcousin.ȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerneȱwillȱalso
endȱwithȱtheȱtripleȱunionȱofȱGuillaumeȱandȱMelior,ȱAlphonseȱandȱFlorence,ȱand
AlixandrineȱandȱBrandin.ȱTheȱGuillaumeȱpoet,ȱhowever,ȱplaysȱaȱnumberȱofȱsubtle
variationsȱuponȱtheȱtripleȱweddingȱidea,ȱinȱwhichȱhisȱtrademarkȱrelocatingȱand
refashioningȱ strategyȱ isȱ clearlyȱ visible.ȱ Firstly,ȱ hisȱ referenceȱ toȱ Partonopeus’s
weddingȱsceneȱcomesȱnotȱduringȱhisȱownȱfinalȱtripleȱunion,ȱbutȱearlier,ȱonȱthe
eveningȱ beforeȱ theȱ abortiveȱ weddingȱ betweenȱ Meliorȱ andȱ theȱ Greekȱ prince
Laertenidon.ȱSecondly,ȱtheȱMeliorȱofȱPartonopeusȱisȱtheȱEmpressȱofȱByzantium,ȱbut
inȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerneȱMeliorȱcanȱattainȱthatȱstatusȱonlyȱbyȱmarriageȱtoȱtheȱGreek
prince,ȱinȱcontrastȱtoȱherȱownȱstatusȱasȱdaughterȱofȱtheȱEmperorȱofȱRome.ȱ
Theȱnameȱofȱtheȱprinceȱhimselfȱisȱalsoȱhighlyȱsuggestive,ȱifȱslightlyȱproblematic.
AsȱDunnȱexplains,ȱitȱisȱrenderedȱvariouslyȱinȱtheȱsingleȱmsȱofȱGuillaume,ȱincluding,
atȱv.ȱ8690ȱ“Departenidon”ȱ(whichȱMichaȱrendersȱasȱ“deȱparȱTenidon”);38ȱhowever,
comparisonȱwithȱlaterȱversionsȱofȱtheȱstoryȱsuggestȱthatȱitȱisȱplausibleȱtoȱreadȱthis
asȱ aȱ referenceȱ toȱ theȱ Greekȱ nameȱ “Partonopeus”—knownȱ inȱ twelfthȬcentury
Franceȱ notȱ onlyȱ fromȱ Partonopeusȱ deȱ Blois,ȱ butȱ alsoȱ fromȱ theȱ earlierȱ Romanȱ de
Thèbes.39ȱIfȱthisȱisȱtheȱcase,ȱthenȱweȱhaveȱanotherȱpointerȱtoȱPartonopeusȱdeȱBloisȱas
theȱtargetȱofȱaȱrewritingȱstrategyȱbyȱtheȱGuillaumeȱpoet.
ThisȱsceneȱhasȱfurtherȱintertextualȱlinksȱtoȱPartonopeusȱinȱtheȱskinsȱchosenȱforȱthe
lovers’ȱdisguise.ȱTheȱchoiceȱofȱtheȱbearȱasȱtheȱanimalȱfromȱwhichȱtheȱskinsȱare
takenȱ recallsȱ theȱ Continuationȱ ofȱ Partonopeusȱ inȱ whichȱ aȱ greyhoundȱ killsȱ a
maraudingȱbearȱinȱSardinia.40ȱThisȱoccursȱinȱtheȱnarrativeȱbyȱtheȱcharacterȱAnselot,
whoȱfunctionsȱasȱaȱdouble,ȱorȱmiseȱenȱabîmeȱofȱtheȱheroȱfigure,ȱofȱhisȱadventures
priorȱ toȱ beingȱ reunitedȱ withȱ theȱ heroȱ Partonopeus.ȱ Anselotȱ acquiresȱ aȱ white
greyhound,ȱNoon,ȱwhomȱheȱrescuesȱfromȱaȱshipwreck;ȱlaterȱNoonȱandȱAnselot
37
ThisȱparallelȱwasȱnotedȱbyȱNicolaȱZingarelliȱ“IlȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerneȱeȱiȱsuoiȱdatiȱdiȱlougoȱeȱdi
tempo,”ȱ Miscellaneaȱ diȱ archeologia,ȱ storiaȱ eȱ filologicaȱ dedicataȱ alȱ Prof.ȱ Antoninoȱ Salinasȱ nelȱ LX
anniversarioȱdelȱsuoȱinsegnamentoȱaccademicoȱ(Palermo:ȱVirziȱ1907),ȱ256–72;ȱhereȱ261.ȱForȱfurther
discussionȱofȱtheȱsignificanceȱofȱtheȱnameȱofȱtheȱheroineȱofȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerne,ȱseeȱbelow
38
Michelantȱemendsȱ“Departenidon”ȱtoȱ“Laertenidon,”ȱtheȱformȱwhichȱoccursȱjustȱ20ȱversesȱlater
atȱv.ȱ8710ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1).
39
Dunn,ȱTheȱFoundlingȱandȱtheȱWerwolfȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ72.
40
ForȱaȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱdatingȱofȱtheȱdifferentȱportionsȱofȱtheȱContinuationȱtoȱPartonopeusȱdeȱBlois,
seeȱPennyȱEleyȱ“PartonopeusȱdeȱBlois”:ȱRomanceȱinȱtheȱMakingȱ(seeȱnoteȱ15),ȱ181–91.ȱTheȱAnselot
episodeȱwouldȱpredateȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerne.
assistȱtheȱEmperorȱofȱRomeȱbyȱkillingȱtheȱbearȱwhichȱisȱrampagingȱinȱSardinia.ȱThe
bearȱisȱeventuallyȱdestroyedȱinȱaȱskirmishȱinȱtheȱseaȱinȱwhichȱitȱattemptsȱtoȱdrown
Noon,ȱwhoȱisȱrescuedȱagainȱbyȱAnselot.ȱ
HereȱagainȱweȱseeȱaȱseriesȱofȱparallelsȱbetweenȱPartonopeusȱandȱGuillaume:ȱa
whiteȱanimal,ȱaȱbear,ȱtheȱassociationȱwithȱtheȱEmperorȱofȱRome,ȱbutȱinȱeachȱcase
theȱnarrativeȱplaceȱorȱfunctionȱofȱtheȱoriginalȱisȱreworkedȱintoȱaȱdifferentȱpattern
inȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerne.ȱPennyȱEleyȱpointsȱoutȱtheȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱAnselot’sȱstory
involvesȱaȱseriesȱofȱnarrativeȱdoublings41;ȱmostȱinterestingly,ȱsheȱobservesȱofȱthe
Sardinianȱepisodeȱthatȱitȱ“includesȱaȱrepriseȱofȱtheȱinitialȱrescueȱscene,ȱasȱAnselot
swimsȱoutȱtoȱhelpȱNoonȱwhoȱisȱrepeatedlyȱbeingȱdraggedȱdownȱbyȱtheȱbearȱand
thenȱ resurfacing,ȱ justȱ asȱ heȱ wasȱ beingȱ submergedȱ andȱ tossedȱ upȱ againȱ byȱ the
wavesȱduringȱtheȱstorm.”42ȱThisȱlinksȱtoȱanotherȱdoubledȱmotifȱinȱGuillaumeȱde
Palerne,ȱtheȱtwoȱcrossingsȱofȱtheȱStraitsȱofȱMessinaȱmadeȱbyȱtheȱwerewolf.ȱInȱthe
firstȱheȱswimsȱacross,ȱcarryingȱtheȱheroȱtoȱsafety;ȱinȱtheȱsecond,ȱheȱhidesȱwithȱthe
loversȱonȱboardȱaȱshipȱand,ȱuponȱarrivalȱinȱMessina,ȱleapsȱintoȱtheȱwaterȱasȱa
diversionȱtoȱletȱthemȱescape.ȱHeȱisȱspottedȱbyȱtheȱcrewȱwhoȱattemptȱtoȱdrownȱhim
andȱ theȱ sceneȱ closesȱ withȱ bothȱ loversȱ andȱ audienceȱ uncertainȱ whetherȱ heȱ has
survivedȱ(vv.ȱ4598–632).43ȱAgainȱtheȱpoetȱreworksȱtheȱfocusȱandȱfunctionȱofȱthese
episodesȱfromȱtheȱoriginalȱtext;ȱhereȱitȱisȱtheȱanimalȱwhoȱassistsȱtheȱhumans,ȱrather
thanȱ viceȱ versa,ȱ andȱ theȱ scenesȱ inȱ Guillaumeȱ haveȱ aȱ comicȱ dimensionȱ toȱ them
whichȱisȱabsentȱinȱPartonopeus.44
TheȱruralȱscenesȱinȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerneȱthusȱprovideȱtheȱpoetȱwithȱopportunities
toȱdeployȱhisȱcomedicȱskills,ȱwhichȱareȱusedȱtoȱdrawȱattentionȱtoȱhisȱplayȱwith
motifsȱ andȱ narrativeȱ elementsȱ fromȱ otherȱ texts.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ respect,ȱ hisȱ useȱ of
Partonopeusȱ deȱ Bloisȱ hasȱ provedȱ toȱ beȱ particularlyȱ wellȱ developedȱ and
sophisticated.ȱ Furtherȱ investigationȱ ofȱ theȱ waysȱ inȱ whichȱ theȱ Guillaumeȱ poet
rewritesȱPartonopeusȱwillȱhelpȱusȱtoȱresolveȱtwoȱproblemsȱwhichȱtheȱportrayalȱof
ruralȱ spacesȱ poses.ȱ Theȱ firstȱ isȱ theȱ presenceȱ ofȱ theȱ Ardennesȱ forestȱ inȱ the
41
PennyȱEleyȱ“PartonopeusȱdeȱBlois”:ȱRomanceȱinȱtheȱMakingȱ(seeȱnoteȱ15),ȱ139–46.
42
PennyȱEleyȱ“PartonopeusȱdeȱBlois”:ȱRomanceȱinȱtheȱMakingȱ(seeȱnoteȱ15),ȱ140–41
43
Thereȱisȱanotherȱveryȱinterestingȱintertextualȱlinkȱhere;ȱtheȱwolfȱleapingȱintoȱtheȱseaȱtoȱprotect
passengersȱaboardȱtheȱshipȱechoesȱtheȱBiblicalȱstoryȱofȱJonah,ȱwhoȱhadȱtoȱallowȱhimselfȱtoȱbe
thrownȱoutȱofȱtheȱshipȱinȱwhichȱheȱwasȱattemptingȱtoȱescapeȱtheȱcommandȱandȱwillȱofȱGod.
GuillaumeȱdeȱPalerneȱcontainsȱanȱearlierȱreferenceȱtoȱtheȱstoryȱofȱJonahȱinȱtheȱprayerȱutteredȱby
Alixandrine,ȱ invokingȱ theȱ aidȱ ofȱ Godȱ onȱ theȱ elopingȱ lovers.ȱ Herȱ wordsȱ focusȱ bothȱ uponȱ the
Incarnation,ȱtheȱtakingȱofȱhumanȱformȱbyȱtheȱDivine,ȱandȱonȱtheȱenvelopingȱofȱJonahȱwithinȱthe
animalȱ formȱ ofȱ theȱ whaleȱ whichȱ swallowedȱ himȱ (vv.ȱ 3132–41):ȱ bothȱ examplesȱ ofȱ oneȱ form
concealedȱtemporarilyȱwithinȱoneȱofȱaȱlesserȱorder.ȱSeeȱChristineȱFerlampinȬAcherȱ“Guillaumeȱde
Palerne:ȱuneȱparodie?”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ6),ȱ67.
44
TheȱepisodeȱofȱtheȱshipȱappearsȱalsoȱtoȱhaveȱbeenȱtakenȱupȱandȱmodifiedȱinȱMelionȱandȱinȱthe
Middleȱ Englishȱ Williamȱ ofȱ Palerneȱ withȱ theȱ additionȱ inȱ theȱ formerȱ ofȱ oneȱ sailorȱ strikingȱ the
werewolfȱMelionȱwithȱaȱspar,ȱandȱinȱtheȱsecondȱwithȱallȱtheȱcrewȱgrabbingȱatȱweaponsȱwithȱwhich
toȱstrikeȱtheȱbeast.ȱSeeȱDunn,ȱTheȱFoundlingȱandȱtheȱWerwolfȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ9–10.
426 PennyȱSimons
immediateȱvicinityȱofȱRome,ȱaȱtravestyȱofȱgeographicalȱfactȱwhichȱcannotȱreadily
beȱexplainedȱbyȱtheȱpoet’sȱrecourseȱtoȱelementsȱofȱtheȱmerveilleuxȱinȱhisȱtext;ȱand
theȱsecondȱisȱtheȱfactȱthatȱtheȱinvadingȱforceȱinȱPalermoȱinȱtheȱlatterȱpartȱofȱthe
narrativeȱcomesȱfromȱSpain,ȱaȱhistoricalȱfallacyȱwhichȱstandsȱinȱmarkedȱcontrast
toȱtheȱcarefulȱaccuracyȱofȱhistoricalȱandȱpoliticalȱdetailȱsurroundingȱtheȱdescription
ofȱBenevento.ȱ
Theȱ forestȱ inȱ whichȱ theȱ werewolfȱ leavesȱ theȱ infantȱ Guillaumeȱ isȱ notȱ named
duringȱtheȱnarrationȱofȱthisȱepisode:ȱweȱareȱsimplyȱtoldȱthatȱisȱisȱ‘presȱdeȱRoume
enȱlaȱcontree’ȱ(inȱtheȱcountrysideȱnearȱRome—v.ȱ170),ȱandȱitȱisȱsufficientlyȱcloseȱto
theȱcityȱtoȱactȱasȱaȱhuntingȱgroundȱforȱtheȱEmperor.ȱTheȱhuntingȱsceneȱintroduces
aȱseriesȱofȱallusionsȱtoȱPartonopeus,ȱtheȱfirstȱthatȱweȱencounterȱinȱtheȱromance.ȱThe
EmperorȱinȱGuillaumeȱhasȱbeenȱinȱpursuitȱofȱwildȱboar,ȱjustȱlikeȱtheȱyoungȱhero
andȱhisȱuncle,ȱtheȱKingȱofȱFrance,ȱinȱPartonopeus;ȱinȱthatȱepisodeȱtheȱyoungȱhero,
duringȱ aȱ boarȱ huntȱ inȱ theȱ Ardennes,ȱ pursuesȱ hisȱ huntingȱ dogsȱ whichȱ have
foolishlyȱsetȱoffȱafterȱaȱprizeȱboar,ȱbecomingȱseparatedȱfromȱtheȱrestȱofȱhisȱparty;
heȱwanders,ȱfrightenedȱandȱalone,ȱuntilȱheȱcomesȱuponȱaȱboatȱwhichȱmagically
transportsȱhimȱtoȱtheȱsecretȱkingdomȱofȱtheȱheroine,ȱMelior.ȱTheȱdescriptionȱofȱthe
huntȱinȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerneȱhasȱclearȱechoesȱofȱitsȱpredecessor:
.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱl’emperere
QuiȱdoncȱotȱRomeȱaȱjusticier
Vintȱenȱceleȱforestȱchacier.
Moltȱamenaȱcelleȱfoiie
Ensambleȱoȱluiȱgenteȱmaisnie,
Maisȱtrestotȱseulȱl’orentȱguerpi
Porȱunȱsenglerȱqu’orentȱchoisi
Queȱliȱchienȱacuelliȱavoient
Quiȱenȱceleȱforestȱchaçoient.
Deȱluiȱs’ierentȱtuitȱeslongié
Cilȱaȱchevalȱetȱcilȱaȱpié,
Queȱd’ausȱneȱpeutȱriensȱnulȱoïr
Neȱchie[n]*ȱcrier,ȱneȱcorȱtentir.ȱ
Ensiȱparȱlaȱforestȱaloitȱ
Toutȱescoutantȱseȱjaȱorroit
Neȱcriȱdeȱchient,ȱneȱmoienel,
Carȱneȱliȱestoitȱmieȱbel
Qu’ensiȱestoitȱtosȱseusȱremés:
Enȱuneȱvoieȱestȱarrestés.
Siȱcommeȱiluecȱestoitȱtosȱsous,
Atantȱesȱvosȱqueȱliȱgarous
Vientȱdevantȱlui.I.ȱcerfȱchaçant:
Deȱprenȱenȱprenȱlaȱvaȱsivant
Etȱl’emperesȱcortȱaprès;
Tantȱl’aȱsuïȱtotȱaȱeslés
Queȱsorȱl’enfantȱs’estȱembatus.ȱ (vv.388–413)
45
*ȱMyȱemendation
[TheȱEmperorȱwho,ȱinȱthoseȱdays,ȱruledȱoverȱRome,ȱcameȱhuntingȱinȱthisȱforest.ȱOn
thisȱoccasionȱheȱbroughtȱwithȱhimȱaȱlargeȱhuntingȱparty,ȱbutȱtheyȱhadȱdesertedȱhim
becauseȱtheyȱhadȱspottedȱaȱboarȱwhichȱtheȱhuntingȱdogsȱhadȱscentedȱandȱpursued.
Everyone,ȱ thoseȱ onȱ footȱ andȱ onȱ horsebackȱ hadȱ allȱ goneȱ awayȱ andȱ heȱ couldȱ hear
nothingȱofȱthem,ȱneitherȱtheȱbayingȱofȱtheȱhoundsȱnorȱtheȱsoundȱofȱtheȱhorns.ȱSoȱhe
wanderedȱinȱtheȱ forest,ȱlisteningȱoutȱtoȱseeȱifȱheȱcouldȱhearȱeitherȱtheȱdogsȱorȱthe
horns,ȱforȱheȱwasȱanxiousȱatȱbeingȱleftȱallȱonȱhisȱown.ȱHeȱcameȱtoȱaȱhaltȱonȱaȱtrackȱand
asȱheȱstoodȱthereȱalone,ȱtheȱwerewolfȱcrossedȱinȱfrontȱofȱhim,ȱchasingȱaȱdeer;ȱtheȱwolf
wasȱhotȱuponȱtheȱtrackȱofȱtheȱdeerȱandȱtheȱEmperorȱranȱafterȱit.ȱHeȱfollowedȱitȱsoȱfar
atȱtopȱspeedȱthatȱheȱhappenedȱuponȱtheȱchild.]
Hereȱweȱcanȱseeȱtheȱfirstȱexamplesȱofȱtheȱrewritingȱandȱrepositioningȱofȱnarrative
elementsȱwhichȱmarkedȱtheȱpoet’sȱapproachȱtoȱotherȱborrowingsȱfromȱPartonopeus.
InȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerneȱitȱisȱtheȱEmperor,ȱtheȱolderȱadultȱmale,ȱnotȱtheȱyounger
adolescent,ȱwhoȱbecomesȱseparatedȱfromȱtheȱrestȱofȱtheȱhuntingȱparty;ȱandȱitȱisȱnot
he,ȱbutȱeveryoneȱelseȱinȱtheȱpartyȱwhoȱhasȱsetȱoffȱinȱpursuitȱofȱtheȱboar,ȱleaving
himȱalone.
Butȱthisȱisȱalsoȱmoreȱcomplexȱthanȱaȱreworkingȱofȱideasȱfromȱanȱearlierȱtext;ȱit
alsoȱinvolvesȱaȱrecognitionȱofȱtheȱbothȱintertextȱandȱtheȱfactȱthatȱthisȱintertextȱis
oneȱwhichȱitselfȱrewritesȱandȱreworksȱelementsȱfromȱotherȱnarratives,ȱcombining
andȱfusingȱtheseȱdisparateȱelementsȱintoȱaȱnewȱform.ȱTheȱopeningȱhuntingȱscene
inȱPartonopeusȱisȱaȱclearȱreworkingȱofȱtheȱstartȱofȱMarieȱdeȱFrance’sȱGuigemar,ȱin
whichȱtheȱeponymousȱheroȱisȱwoundedȱinȱtheȱhuntȱforȱaȱwhiteȱstag,ȱandȱwanders
aloneȱuntilȱheȱfindsȱaȱboatȱwhichȱmagicallyȱtakesȱhimȱtoȱaȱlandȱwhereȱheȱmeetsȱthe
womanȱheȱisȱdestinedȱtoȱlove.46ȱTheȱopeningȱpartȱofȱPartonopeusȱinȱparticularȱis
markedȱbyȱtheȱjuxtapositionȱofȱelementsȱclearlyȱderivedȱfromȱtheȱtraditionȱofȱthe
Bretonȱlai,ȱalongsideȱClassicalȱsourcesȱandȱstructuresȱwhichȱclearlyȱbelongȱtoȱthe
romanceȱtradition;ȱitȱevenȱincorporatesȱtheȱtraditionȱofȱtheȱcourtlyȱlyricȱalongside
these,ȱinȱaȱbrilliantȱfusionȱofȱitsȱliteraryȱantecedents.47ȱ
TheȱsceneȱinȱGuillaumeȱprovidesȱaȱcommentaryȱonȱthisȱrewriting,ȱbyȱputting
backȱtheȱdeerȱwhichȱhadȱbeenȱtheȱpreyȱanimalȱinȱGuigemar,ȱandȱaddsȱtoȱitȱaȱwolf,
45
Michaȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1)ȱrendersȱthisȱwordȱ“chier”ȱwhichȱmakesȱnoȱsense;ȱMichelantȱgivesȱ“chien,”ȱand
Iȱfollowȱhisȱreadingȱhere.ȱ
46
Onȱ theȱ linksȱ withȱ Guigemar,ȱ seeȱ Colleenȱ P.ȱ Donagher,ȱ “Socializingȱ theȱ Sorceress:ȱ Theȱ Fairy
MistressȱThemeȱinȱLanval,ȱLeȱBelȱInconnuȱandȱPartonopeuȱdeȱBlois,”ȱEssaysȱinȱMedievalȱStudiesȱ4
(1987):ȱ69–90;ȱSebastianȱI.ȱSobecki,ȱ“AȱSourceȱforȱtheȱMagicalȱShipȱinPartonopeuȱdeȱBloisandȱMarie
deȱFranceȇsGuigemar,”ȱNotesȱandȱQueriesȱ48ȱ(2001):ȱ220–22.
47
ThomasȱH.ȱBrown,ȱ“TheȱRelationshipȱBetweenȱPartonopeusȱdeȱBloisȱandȱtheȱCupidȱandȱPsyche
Tradition,”ȱBrighamȱYoungȱUniversityȱStudiesȱ5ȱ(1964):ȱ193–202;ȱKatalinȱHalász,ȱImagesȱd’auteurȱdans
leȱromanȱmédiéval,ȱXIIe–XIIIeȱsièclesȱ(Debrecen:ȱKossuthȱLajosȱTudományegyetem,ȱ1992).ȱ
428 PennyȱSimons
borrowedȱ fromȱ anotherȱ ofȱ Marie’sȱ stories,ȱ theȱ werewolfȱ taleȱ Bisclavret.ȱ So,ȱ in
GuillaumeȱdeȱPalerne,ȱweȱhaveȱaȱboarȱhuntȱpunctuatedȱbyȱtheȱsuddenȱappearance
ofȱaȱwolf,ȱchasingȱaȱdeer.ȱTheȱchoiceȱofȱtheȱinitialȱhuntingȱsceneȱinȱPartonopeus
alongsideȱ itsȱ ownȱ antecedentȱ Guigemarȱ asȱ theȱ modelȱ forȱ theȱ discoveryȱ ofȱ the
foundlingȱGuillaumeȱsignalsȱthisȱpoet’sȱengagementȱwithȱmedievalȱnarrativeȱas
aȱprocessȱofȱbringingȱtogetherȱmaterialȱfromȱaȱrangeȱofȱsourcesȱandȱrecombining
them,ȱbutȱinȱsuchȱaȱwayȱasȱtoȱleaveȱtheȱoriginalsȱrecognizableȱinȱtheirȱnewȱsetting.
Theȱinitialȱforestȱepisodeȱthusȱbecomesȱaȱnarrativeȱspaceȱinȱwhichȱaȱparticular
notionȱ ofȱ rewritingȱ isȱ introduced,ȱ andȱ thatȱ isȱ theȱ combinationȱ ofȱ twoȱ separate
models—theȱ laiȱ andȱ theȱ romance—intoȱ aȱ hybridȱ form.ȱ Thisȱ hybridizationȱ is
highlightedȱbyȱtwoȱveryȱclearȱfeaturesȱinȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerne:ȱfirstly,ȱtheȱcentral
figureȱ werewolfȱ functionsȱ asȱ aȱ concretizationȱ ofȱ thisȱ technique,48ȱ retainingȱ the
elementsȱofȱmanȱandȱbeast,ȱofȱfolkloreȱfigureȱandȱcourtlyȱhero;ȱsecondly,ȱthereȱare
allusionsȱtoȱtwoȱspecificȱintertextsȱinȱtheȱnameȱofȱtheȱheroine.ȱ“Melior”ȱisȱbothȱa
referenceȱtoȱtheȱMeliorȱofȱtheȱromanceȱPartonopeusȱdeȱBlois,ȱbutȱisȱalsoȱveryȱsimilar
theȱnameȱofȱMelion,ȱanotherȱwerewolfȱandȱheroȱofȱtheȱlaiȱthatȱbearsȱhisȱname.49
Theȱ poetȱ thenȱ buildsȱ uponȱ thisȱ processȱ ofȱ fusionȱ inȱ subsequentȱ allusionsȱ to
Partonopeusȱinȱhisȱromance,ȱlinkingȱthemȱbackȱtoȱthisȱopeningȱscene.ȱTheȱdisguise
ofȱtheȱheroȱandȱheroineȱasȱwhiteȱbears,ȱanotherȱtransformationȱintoȱaȱhybridȱform,
containsȱaȱrepriseȱofȱtheȱhuntingȱsceneȱandȱitsȱallusionsȱtoȱtheȱBretonȱlaisȱinȱtheȱfact
thatȱtheȱskinsȱofȱtheȱbearsȱareȱwhite,ȱlikeȱtheȱhideȱofȱtheȱdeerȱhuntedȱinȱGuigemar.
TheȱContinuationȱofȱPartonopeusȱhadȱreworkedȱthatȱideaȱintoȱtheȱwhiteȱcoatȱof
Noonȱ theȱ greyhoundȱ whoȱ killsȱ theȱ Sardinianȱ bear.ȱ Guillaumeȱ deȱ Palerneȱ then
recombinesȱtheseȱelementsȱinȱyetȱanotherȱwayȱtoȱgiveȱhisȱloversȱtheȱskinsȱofȱtwo
whiteȱbears,ȱlaterȱtheȱskinsȱofȱtwoȱdeerȱandȱaȱfriendlyȱwolfȱtoȱaccompanyȱthemȱas
Noonȱdidȱhisȱmaster.ȱ
Theȱdoublingȱofȱtheȱanimalȱskinsȱisȱreminiscentȱofȱtheȱdoublingȱtechniqueȱwhich
Pennyȱ Eleyȱ hasȱ notedȱ asȱ characteristic,ȱ bothȱ ofȱ theȱ mainȱ narrative,ȱ andȱ the
ContinuationȱofȱPartonopeusȱdeȱBlois.ȱTheȱwhiteȱgreyhoundȱNoonȱisȱaȱrepetitionȱof
theȱ twoȱ blackȱ huntingȱ dogsȱ whichȱ affordȱ companionshipȱ toȱ theirȱ master
Partonopeusȱinȱtheȱmainȱpartȱofȱtheȱnarrative,50ȱtheȱchangeȱinȱcolourȱfromȱblack
toȱwhiteȱfunctioningȱasȱaȱreminderȱofȱtheȱpotentiallyȱsinisterȱovertonesȱofȱMelior’s
kingdomȱandȱherȱretentionȱofȱtheȱyoungȱPartonopeusȱthere.
Theȱfinalȱlinkȱinȱthisȱchainȱofȱreferencesȱcomesȱatȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱromanceȱwhen
theȱnameȱofȱtheȱforestȱasȱArdennesȱisȱgiven;ȱtheȱwerewolf,ȱonceȱheȱisȱreturnedȱto
48
ScondutoȱseesȱAlphonse/theȱwerewolfȱasȱtheȱheroȱofȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerne,ȱratherȱthanȱGuillaume
himself.ȱLeslieȱSconduto,ȱ“BlurredȱandȱShiftingȱIdentities”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11).
49
ChristineȱFerlampin–Acherȱ“GuillaumeȱdeȱPalerne:ȱuneȱparodie?”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ6)ȱnotesȱthisȱnaming
similarity,ȱalthoughȱsheȱseesȱitȱasȱevidenceȱthatȱthereȱisȱonlyȱtransitoryȱreferenceȱtoȱPartonopeuȱde
BloisȱinȱGuillaume,ȱandȱthatȱnamesȱandȱtheirȱborrowingȱareȱdeceptive,61.
50
PennyȱEley,ȱ“PartonopeusȱdeȱBlois”:ȱRomanceȱinȱtheȱMakingȱ(seeȱnoteȱ15),ȱ140.
hisȱhumanȱformȱofȱtheȱSpanishȱprinceȱAlphonse,ȱrecallsȱhisȱactionsȱinȱrescuing
Guillaume,ȱwhichȱincludeȱcarryingȱhimȱtoȱtheȱforestȱnearȱRome:
‘Tantȱtingȱensambleȱoȱtoiȱmaȱvoie
Queȱt’enportaiȱdroitȱenȱArdaine,
Uneȱforestȱdeȱbestesȱplaine
QuiȱaȱuneȱlieueȱestȱdeȱRoume’ȱ (vv.ȱ8190–93)
[IȱkeptȱonȱgoingȱwithȱyouȱuntilȱIȱbroughtȱyouȱrightȱtoȱtheȱArdaine,ȱwhichȱisȱaȱforestȱfull
ofȱwildȱbeastsȱaȱleagueȱawayȱfromȱRome.]
Scholarsȱhaveȱtendedȱtoȱtieȱthemselvesȱinȱgeographicalȱknotsȱtryingȱtoȱexplainȱthe
obviousȱ correspondenceȱ ofȱ “Ardaine”ȱ andȱ theȱ forestȱ ofȱ Ardennesȱ whichȱ is
demonstrablyȱnotȱ“aȱleagueȱawayȱfromȱRome.”ȱZingarelliȱassumedȱtheȱpoetȱwas
ignorantȱofȱtheȱlocationȱofȱtheȱforest,ȱandȱDunnȱtriesȱtoȱseeȱitȱasȱaȱreferenceȱtoȱthe
districtȱofȱArdea,ȱlocatedȱaboutȱtwentyȱmilesȱsouthȱofȱRome.51ȱHowever,ȱifȱweȱread
thisȱasȱaȱreferenceȱtoȱtheȱopeningȱsceneȱofȱPartonopeusȱitȱmakesȱmuchȱmoreȱsense.
Thatȱ huntingȱ expeditionȱ tookȱ placeȱ inȱ theȱ Ardennes,ȱ aȱ locationȱ whichȱ has
structuralȱimportanceȱnotȱonlyȱatȱtheȱstart,ȱbutȱelsewhereȱinȱPartonopeusȱandȱits
Continuation.52ȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerneȱthenȱrewritesȱtheȱopeningȱhuntingȱepisode,
addingȱtoȱitȱanotherȱintertextualȱlayerȱinȱtheȱreferenceȱtoȱtheȱRomanȱfoundling
motif.ȱThisȱgivesȱriseȱtoȱaȱnewȱsetȱofȱjuxtapositions,ȱcapturedȱinȱtheȱtopological
solecismȱ atȱ theȱ closeȱ ofȱ Guillaume;ȱ andȱ thisȱ inȱ itsȱ turnȱ becomesȱ lessȱ glaring
geographicalȱinaccuracyȱandȱmoreȱaȱpointerȱtoȱtheȱrewritingȱstrategyȱofȱtheȱpoet.
Itȱisȱalsoȱsignificantȱthatȱthisȱnamingȱcomesȱfromȱtheȱmouthȱofȱtheȱwerewolfȱwho,
weȱhaveȱseen,ȱfunctionsȱasȱanȱinterdiegeticȱmetaphorȱforȱthatȱveryȱstrategy.ȱAtȱthis
pointȱ inȱ theȱ romance,ȱ Alphonse,ȱ nowȱ restoredȱ toȱ humanȱ form,ȱ becomesȱ an
inscribedȱ authorȱ figureȱ asȱ heȱ retellsȱ theȱ poet’sȱ taleȱ ofȱ theȱ adventuresȱ of
Guillaume.53
Thisȱbringsȱusȱtoȱourȱsecondȱhistorico–geographicalȱproblemȱinȱGuillaumeȱde
Palerne,ȱ theȱ choiceȱ ofȱ aȱ Spanishȱ invasionȱ forceȱ toȱ invadeȱ Guillaume’sȱ landsȱ in
PalermoȱandȱalsoȱtheȱchoiceȱofȱaȱSpanishȱprinceȱtoȱbeȱtheȱcentralȱcharacterȱofȱthe
romance,ȱtheȱwerewolf.ȱHistorically,ȱSouthernȱItalyȱandȱSicilyȱwereȱneverȱattacked
byȱ theȱ Spanish,ȱ eitherȱ Muslimȱ orȱ Christianȱ inȱ theȱ twelfthȱ orȱ earlyȱ thirteenth
centuries.ȱSoȱwhyȱdoesȱtheȱpoetȱmakeȱtheȱSpanishȱroyalȱhouseȱsignificantȱplayers
inȱaȱromanceȱaboutȱaȱheroȱfromȱPalermo?ȱOnceȱagain,ȱPartonopeusȱdeȱBloisȱprovides
usȱwithȱsomeȱpossibleȱanswers.ȱPartonopeusȱfeaturesȱaȱcharacterȱcalledȱUrraque,
51
Zingarelli,ȱ“IlȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerne”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ36),ȱ262;ȱDunn,ȱTheȱFoundlingȱandȱtheȱWerwolfȱ(see
noteȱ3),80–81.
52
InȱtheȱContinuation,ȱpartȱofȱtheȱadventuresȱrelatedȱbyȱAnselotȱtakeȱplaceȱinȱtheȱArdennes;ȱsoȱthere
isȱalsoȱaȱreferenceȱbackȱtoȱtheȱpresenceȱofȱtheȱwhiteȱbearȱskinsȱandȱtheirȱrewritingȱofȱPartonopeus
inȱthisȱfinalȱnamingȱofȱtheȱArdennesȱforest.
53
Cf.ȱScondutoȱMetamorphosesȱofȱtheȱWerewolfȱ(seeȱnoteȱ6),ȱ104.
430 PennyȱSimons
whoȱisȱtheȱsisterȱofȱtheȱheroineȱMeliorȱandȱplaysȱaȱsignificantȱroleȱinȱunitingȱthe
loversȱinȱtheȱsecondȱpartȱofȱtheȱromance.ȱ
HerȱveryȱunusualȱnameȱisȱofȱSpanishȱoriginȱandȱitsȱpresenceȱinȱtheȱromanceȱcan
beȱexplainedȱinȱtwoȱways.ȱFirstly,ȱtheȱPartonopeusȱpoetȱshowsȱaȱsignificantȱinterest
in,ȱandȱaccurateȱknowledgeȱofȱSpainȱinȱtheȱsecondȱthirdȱofȱtheȱtwelfthȱcentury.54
Secondly,ȱ thereȱ wereȱ aȱ seriesȱ ofȱ marriageȱ linksȱ betweenȱ Castileȱ andȱ northern
FranceȱandȱEnglandȱinȱtheȱperiodȱ1150–1170.55ȱUrracaȱwasȱaȱcommonȱnameȱinȱthe
royalȱ houseȱ ofȱ Castile.ȱ Theȱ Urracaȱ mostȱ likelyȱ toȱ haveȱ beenȱ knownȱ toȱ the
PartonopeusȱpoetȱwasȱtheȱdaughterȱofȱKingȱAlfonsoȱIȱofȱPortugalȱwhoȱmarried
FernandoȱIIȱofȱLeonȱandȱboreȱhimȱaȱson,ȱtheȱfutureȱAlfonsoȱIXȱofȱLeon;ȱhowever,
sheȱwasȱrepudiatedȱbyȱFernandoȱwhoȱlaterȱhadȱaȱliaisonȱwith,ȱandȱsubsequently
marriedȱaȱsecondȱUrraca.ȱThisȱUrracaȱalsoȱboreȱaȱsonȱandȱdisputedȱtheȱsuccession
ofȱtheȱfirstȱUrraca’sȱsonȱinȱfavourȱofȱherȱown.56ȱ
ThisȱisȱallȱveryȱsimilarȱtoȱtheȱpatternȱofȱmarriagesȱandȱsuccessionsȱinȱGuillaume
deȱPalerne’sȱSpanishȱhouses:ȱAlphonseȱofȱSpainȱhasȱaȱfirstȱwifeȱwhoȱgivesȱhimȱa
son,ȱanotherȱAlphonse;ȱhisȱsecondȱwife,ȱdaughterȱofȱtheȱKingȱofȱPortugal,ȱdisputes
theȱinheritanceȱinȱfavorȱofȱherȱsonȱbyȱturningȱherȱstepsonȱintoȱaȱwerewolf.ȱThe
parallelsȱbetweenȱthisȱhistoricalȱbackgroundȱtoȱaȱstrikingȱnameȱinȱPartonopeus,ȱand
theȱpatternȱofȱmarriagesȱinȱGuillaume’sȱSpanishȱroyalȱhouseȱstronglyȱsuggestȱboth
aȱ recognitionȱ ofȱ theȱ wayȱ inȱ whichȱ Partonopeusȱ deȱ Bloisȱ rewritesȱ notȱ onlyȱ other
romances,ȱbutȱalsoȱcontemporaryȱhistory,57ȱandȱanȱengagementȱwithȱthatȱrewriting
inȱaȱsubsequentȱrewritingȱbyȱtheȱGuillaumeȱpoet.ȱAndȱhereȱagain,ȱthatȱrewritingȱis
typifiedȱbyȱaȱrepositioningȱandȱreattributionȱofȱelementsȱfromȱtheȱoriginalȱinȱtheir
newȱnarrativeȱsetting.ȱReferencesȱtoȱPartonopeusȱdeȱBloisȱandȱitsȱrewritingȱtechnique
whichȱtheȱpoetȱofȱGuillaumeȱdeȱPalerneȱseeksȱtoȱsurpassȱinȱaȱsophisticatedȱdisplay
ofȱmedievalȱaemulatio—theȱreworkingȱofȱsourceȱelementsȱintoȱaȱnewȱandȱbetter
form—are,ȱsignificantly,ȱlocatedȱpreciselyȱinȱthoseȱruralȱspacesȱthatȱconstituteȱthe
mostȱnoticeableȱfeatureȱofȱtheȱromance’sȱspatialȱarchitecture.
Soȱ what,ȱ inȱ conclusion,ȱ canȱ weȱ sayȱ aboutȱ theȱ significanceȱ ofȱ ruralȱ spaceȱ in
GuillaumeȱdeȱPalerne?ȱFirstȱofȱall,ȱweȱhaveȱseenȱthatȱruralȱspacesȱformȱaȱkeyȱpartȱof
aȱstructureȱtoȱtheȱromanceȱwhichȱisȱbasedȱuponȱpatternsȱofȱspatialȱtypes.ȱMore
54
SeeȱAnthimeȱFourrier,ȱLeȱCourantȱréalisteȱdansȱleȱromanȱcourtoisȱenȱFranceȱauȱMoyenȱAge,ȱVolumeȱI
Lesȱdébutsȱ(XIIeȱsiècle),ȱ(Paris:ȱNizet,ȱ1960),ȱ404–10;ȱMiltonȱA.ȱBuchanan,ȱ“PartinuplésȱdeȱBles.ȱAn
EpisodeȱinȱTirso’sȱAmarȱporȱSeñas.ȱLope’sȱLaȱvuidaȱvalenciana,“ȱModernȱLanguageȱNotesȱ21ȱ(1906):
3–8;ȱ Pennyȱ Eley,ȱ “Lesȱ Toponymesȱ espagnolsȱ dansȱ Partonopeusȱ deȱ Blois,“ȱ Romaniaȱ 126ȱ (2008):
497–506.
55
SeeȱPennyȱEley,ȱ“PartonopeusȱdeȱBlois”:ȱRomanceȱinȱtheȱMakingȱ(seeȱnoteȱ15),ȱ187–88.
56
Seeȱ Bernardȱ F.ȱ Reilly,ȱ Theȱ Medievalȱ Spains.ȱ Cambridgeȱ Medievalȱ Textbooksȱ (Cambridge:
CambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1993)ȱ108–33.
57
Seeȱ Pennyȱ Simonsȱ andȱ Pennyȱ Eley,ȱ “Theȱ Prologueȱ toȱ Partonopeusȱ deȱ Blois:ȱ Text,ȱ Contextȱ and
Subtext,”ȱFrenchȱStudiesȱ49ȱ(1995):1–16;ȱPennyȱEleyȱandȱPennyȱSimons,ȱ“PartonopeusȱdeȱBloisȱand
ChrétienȱdeȱTroyes:ȱAȱRe–assessment,”ȱRomaniaȱ121ȱ(2003):ȱ329–47.
importantly,ȱ theyȱ areȱ theȱ keyȱ toȱ theȱ themeȱ ofȱ theȱ romance,ȱ aȱ workȱ inȱ which
nothingȱ isȱ asȱ itȱ seems,ȱ asȱ epitomizedȱ byȱ theȱ centralȱ figureȱ ofȱ theȱ beneficent
werewolf.ȱLocatedȱ betweenȱtheȱcourtȱandȱtheȱwild,ȱjustȱ likeȱtheȱwerewolf,ȱthe
intermediateȱruralȱspaceȱofȱtheȱvergierȱcontainsȱelementsȱofȱcourtlyȱpleasureȱand
ofȱdanger;ȱandȱsoȱitȱisȱtheȱnaturalȱhabitatȱforȱtheȱtransformedȱhybridȱversionsȱof
Alphonse,ȱ Guillaumeȱ andȱ Meliorȱ whoȱ compriseȱ bothȱ morallyȱ goodȱ courtly
humansȱandȱalsoȱpotentiallyȱdangerousȱwildȱanimals.ȱ
Butȱtheȱveryȱtextȱitselfȱisȱnotȱallȱthatȱitȱseems.ȱItȱmayȱappearȱtoȱbeȱaȱwerewolf
narrativeȱlikeȱtheȱlaisȱofȱBisclavretȱorȱMelion,ȱbothȱofȱwhichȱcontributeȱfeaturesȱto
theȱ romance;ȱ butȱ intermixedȱ withȱ thisȱ areȱ elementsȱ ofȱ romance,ȱ mostȱ notably
Partonopeusȱ deȱ Blois,ȱ itselfȱ aȱ hybridȱ ofȱ rewriting.ȱ Theȱ practiceȱ ofȱ rewriting,
fundamentalȱtoȱtheȱprocessȱofȱmedievalȱcomposition,ȱcreatesȱnewȱhybridsȱinȱwhich
bothȱ newȱ andȱ oldȱ areȱ discernible,ȱ justȱ asȱ theȱ trueȱ naturesȱ ofȱ allȱ threeȱ major
protagonistsȱremainȱvisibleȱbeneathȱtheȱvariousȱ“beastly”ȱouterȱformsȱtheyȱadopt.
Andȱ itȱ isȱ inȱ theȱ wildȱ spacesȱ ofȱ theȱ forestȱ andȱ theȱ landsȱ betweenȱ Romeȱ and
Benevento,ȱandȱbeyond,ȱthatȱtheȱGuillaumeȱpoetȱleavesȱusȱtracesȱofȱthatȱrewriting
toȱfollow,ȱinvitingȱusȱtoȱseeȱtheȱstoriesȱthatȱlieȱbeneathȱtheȱskinȱofȱhisȱtale.
Chapterȱ12
RosaȱA.ȱPerez
(SouthernȱUtahȱUniversity,ȱCedarȱCity)
TheȱForestȱasȱLocusȱofȱTransitionȱandȱTransformationȱin
theȱEpicȱRomanceȱBerteȱasȱgransȱpiés1
InȱLiȱRoumansȱdeȱBerteȱasȱgransȱpiés,ȱaȱromanceȬepicȱwrittenȱinȱ12732ȱbyȱtheȱminstrel
AdenetȱleȱRoi,ȱtheȱforestȱoccupiesȱaȱcentralȱpositionȱandȱplaysȱaȱsignificantȱroleȱin
theȱformationȱofȱtheȱlegendaryȱfigureȱofȱBerthe,ȱtheȱfutureȱqueenȱofȱFrance,ȱmother
ofȱtheȱfutureȱEmperorȱCharlemagneȱ(crownedȱinȱ800).ȱAdenet’sȱversionȱofȱthis
popularȱlegendȱcombinesȱhistoricalȱelementsȱandȱfolkloricȱmotifs,ȱinȱparticularȱthe
wellȬknownȱtaleȬtypeȱofȱtheȱsubstitutedȱbride.3ȱHisȱreinterpretationȱofȱtheȱcultural
materialȱofȱtheȱpastȱisȱpunctuated,ȱatȱkeyȱmomentsȱofȱtheȱnarration,ȱwithȱfestival
datesȱmarkingȱtheȱcourseȱofȱtheȱyear,ȱanchoringȱthusȱtheȱepicȱpoemȱinȱaȱpopular
andȱliturgicalȱcalendar.4ȱWithinȱsuchȱaȱcontext,ȱIȱwillȱexamineȱinȱthisȱstudyȱhow
theȱprimevalȱspaceȱofȱtheȱforest,ȱbothȱrealȱandȱsymbolic,ȱembodiesȱtheȱlocusȱof
Berthe’sȱresilienceȱandȱpersonalȱtransformationȱthroughoutȱherȱtransitionalȱperiod
1
AdenetȱleȱRoi,ȱBerteȱasȱgransȱpiés,ȱed.ȱAlbertȱHenryȱ(Geneva:ȱDroz,ȱ1982).ȱThisȱthirteenthȬcentury
epicȱpoemȱinspiredȱaȱproseȱversionȱinȱtheȱfifteenthȱcentury,ȱveryȱsimilarȱtoȱAdenet’s.ȱSeeȱHistoire
deȱlaȱreineȱBertheȱetȱduȱroyȱPépin,ȱed.ȱPiotrȱTylus.ȱTextesȱlittérairesȱfrançais,ȱ536ȱ(Genève:ȱDroz,
2001).ȱȱ
2
SeeȱAlbertȱHenry,ȱBerteȱasȱgransȱpiésȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1),ȱ9–12,ȱforȱaȱthoroughȱdescriptionȱofȱtheȱexisting
manuscriptsȱofȱBerthe’sȱlegend.
3
StithȱThompson,ȱMotifȬIndexȱofȱFolkȬLiterature:ȱAȱClassificationȱofȱNarrativeȱElementsȱinȱFolktales,
Ballads,ȱ Myths,ȱ Fables,ȱ Mediaevalȱ Romances,ȱ Exempla,ȱ Fabliaux,ȱ JestȬBooks,ȱ andȱ Localȱ Legends
(Bloomington:ȱIndianaȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1955–1958),ȱtaleȬtypeȱnumberȱ405.ȱForȱtheȱcycleȱofȱthe
banishedȱwoman,ȱseeȱHansȬJörgȱUther,ȱTheȱTypesȱofȱInternationalȱFolktales:ȱAȱClassificationȱand
BibliographyȱBasedȱonȱtheȱSystemȱofȱAnttiȱAarneȱandȱStithȱThompson,ȱ3ȱvols.ȱ(Helsinki:ȱAcademia
ScientiarumȱFennica,ȱ2004),ȱvol.ȱ1;ȱtypeȱ403,ȱ236–38,ȱtypeȱ450,ȱ265–67,ȱandȱtypeȱ533,ȱ312–13.
4
PhilippeȱWalter,ȱMythologieȱchrétienne:ȱRitesȱetȱmythesȱduȱMoyenȱAge.ȱCollectionȱMythologiesȱ(Paris:
EditionsȱEntente,ȱ1992),ȱ15–17.
434 RosaȱA.ȱPerez
inȱthisȱinhospitableȱplace.ȱHiddenȱfromȱtheȱworld,ȱasȱsheȱknowsȱit,ȱtheȱbetrayed
youngȱprincess,ȱabandonedȱandȱstrippedȱofȱherȱidentityȱandȱsocialȱstatus,ȱembarks
onȱaȱquestȱasȱaȱnewȱpersona,ȱkeepingȱherȱnameȱasȱtheȱonlyȱlinkȱtoȱherȱpast.ȱThis
periodȱofȱisolationȱrepresentsȱherȱinitiation:ȱherȱriteȱofȱpassageȱintoȱadulthoodȱuntil
theȱschemeȱaimedȱagainstȱherȱisȱuncoveredȱandȱtheȱculpritsȱareȱconvicted.ȱOnly
thenȱwillȱherȱencounterȱwithȱtheȱking,ȱinȱtheȱpropitiousȱenvironmentȱofȱtheȱforest,
paveȱtheȱwayȱtowardȱherȱreintegrationȱandȱreinstatementȱasȱtheȱrightfulȱqueen.
Theȱ frighteningȱ spaceȱ ofȱ theȱ forestȱ thatȱ hauntedȱ theȱ medievalȱ mind,ȱ andȱ yet
representedȱatȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱanȱimportantȱelementȱofȱtheȱmedievalȱimaginary,
becomesȱ aȱ refuge,ȱ aȱ placeȱ ofȱ regenerationȱ andȱ growthȱ forȱ theȱ futureȱ queen.
Subsequently,ȱitȱisȱunderȱtheȱauspicesȱofȱitsȱspringȱfoliageȱthatȱtheȱreunitedȱroyal
coupleȱ willȱ initiateȱ theȱ mythicalȱ beginningsȱ ofȱ Charlemagne’sȱ genealogy.
Ultimately,ȱtheȱforestȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱinstrumentalȱinȱtheȱtransformationȱofȱBerthe,
fromȱvictimȱtoȱheroine,ȱthereforeȱcontributingȱtoȱherȱpopularityȱandȱlegendary
dimension.ȱ
Theȱ legendȱ ofȱ Bertheȱ theȱ Debonair,ȱ daughterȱ ofȱ Floireȱ andȱ Blanchefleur5ȱ of
Hungary,ȱisȱtheȱsourceȱofȱmoreȱthanȱtwentyȱdifferentȱaccountsȱinȱvariedȱgenres,
lengths,ȱandȱlanguagesȱfromȱsouthernȱGermanyȱtoȱtheȱNetherlands,ȱItaly,ȱFrance,
Spain,ȱ andȱ England.6ȱ Itsȱ successȱ andȱ inspirationȱ stretchesȱ fromȱ theȱ endȱ ofȱ the
twelfthȱcenturyȱtoȱtheȱbeginningȱofȱtheȱseventeenthȱcentury.7ȱTheȱwideȱcirculation
ofȱtheȱlegendȱinȱitsȱdifferentȱmanifestationsȱattestsȱtoȱtheȱpopularity8ȱandȱtheȱheroic
statusȱofȱBerthe,ȱaȱnaiveȱandȱinexperiencedȱyoungȱgirlȱwho,ȱanxiousȱaboutȱher
upcomingȱmarriageȱwithȱPepinȱtheȱBrief,ȱplansȱtoȱdeceiveȱtheȱkingȱbyȱhavingȱher
maidservantȱexchangeȱplacesȱwithȱherȱduringȱtheȱweddingȱnight,ȱaȱveryȱcommon
folktaleȱmotifȱthatȱappearsȱinȱaȱnumberȱofȱtales.9ȱSheȱisȱsimplyȱafraidȱofȱtheȱpain
associatedȱwithȱtheȱfirstȱnightȱofȱsexualȱintercourse,ȱbutȱasȱaȱconsequenceȱsheȱsoon
fallsȱvictimȱtoȱtheȱschemeȱofȱherȱservants,ȱaȱmotherȱandȱherȱdaughter,ȱisȱbetrayed,
drivenȱoutȱofȱtheȱpalace,ȱandȱabandonedȱinȱtheȱwoods.ȱHerȱordealȱinȱtheȱforest—a
5
ForȱaȱthoroughȱstudyȱofȱtheȱPanȬEuropeanȱnarrativeȱofȱFloireȱandȱBlancheflor,ȱseeȱPatriciaȱE.
Grieve,ȱFloireȱandȱBlancheflorȱandȱtheȱEuropeanȱRomance.ȱCambridgeȱStudiesȱinȱMedievalȱLiterature,ȱ
32ȱ(Cambridge:ȱCambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1997).
6
Henry,ȱ Berteȱ asȱ gransȱ piésȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 1),ȱ 31–32.ȱ Someȱ ofȱ theȱ versionsȱ are:ȱ theȱ FrancoȬVenetian
compositionȱofȱBertaȱdaȱliȱpèȱgrandi,ȱandȱinȱbookȱVIȱofȱRealiȱdiȱFrancia;ȱinȱFrance;ȱtheȱlegendȱisȱalso
foundȱinȱtheȱChroniqueȱriméeȱ(midȱthirteenthȱcentury)ȱbyȱPhilippeȱMousket,ȱandȱLeȱMiracleȱdeȱBerte
inȱCharlemagneȱ(1300–1308)ȱbyȱGirardȱd’Amiens.ȱȱ
7
Gustavȱ Adolfȱ Beckmann,ȱ “Bertheȱ au(x)ȱ grand(s)ȱ pied(s)ȱ ouȱ plutôt:ȱ lesȱ enfancesȱ d’unȱ ‘faux
batard’,”ȱCahiersȱdeȱCivilisationȱMédiévaleȱ51ȱ(2008):ȱ31–328;ȱhereȱ314.
8
Berthe’sȱpopularityȱhasȱcrossedȱtheȱliteraryȱrealmȱandȱenteredȱtheȱeverydayȱlanguageȱevenȱtoday
withȱtheȱexpressionȱ“AuȱtempsȱoùȱBertheȱfilait”ȱ(AtȱtheȱtimeȱwhenȱBertheȱwasȱspinning)ȱtoȱconvey
thatȱanȱeventȱtookȱplaceȱaȱvery,ȱveryȱlongȱtimeȱago.
9
Seeȱ Wendyȱ Doniger,ȱ Theȱ Bedtrick:ȱ Talesȱ ofȱ Sexȱ andȱ Masqueradeȱ (Chicagoȱ andȱ London:ȱ The
UniversityȱofȱChicagoȱPress,ȱ2000).
TheȱForestȱasȱLocusȱofȱTransitionȱandȱTransformation 435
spaceȱdefinedȱbyȱthreateningȱelements,ȱbothȱnaturalȱandȱhuman—lastsȱnineȱand
aȱ halfȱ yearsȱ (1426)ȱ untilȱ theȱ plotȱ isȱ uncoveredȱ andȱ Bertheȱ isȱ reinstatedȱ asȱ the
legitimateȱqueen.ȱ
Adenet’sȱthirteenthȬcenturyȱliteraryȱrenderingȱofȱthisȱlegendȱincorporatesȱaȱrich
oralȱtraditionȱofȱbeliefsȱandȱfolkȱcustomsȱthatȱsurroundȱtheȱobscureȱoriginsȱofȱthe
spouseȱofȱPepinȱtheȱBrief,ȱaȱlegendȱthatȱemergesȱanewȱinȱhisȱepicȱpoem.ȱFollowing
theȱconventionalȱpracticeȱofȱtheȱtime,ȱheȱclaimsȱthatȱaȱmonkȱatȱtheȱabbeyȱofȱSt.
DenisȱshowedȱhimȱtheȱmanuscriptȱcontainingȱBertheȱandȱPepin’sȱstories.10ȱThe
poetȱutilizesȱtheȱstrategyȱofȱtheȱfoundȱtext,ȱthusȱemphasizingȱtheȱveracityȱofȱthe
story,ȱyetȱproposingȱatȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱhisȱownȱversion.ȱItȱhasȱbeenȱwellȱestablished
thatȱmedievalȱauthorsȱdidȱnotȱinventȱtheȱmaterialȱtheyȱusedȱforȱtheirȱwork;ȱrather,
theyȱembellishedȱandȱadaptedȱexistingȱtextsȱforȱtheȱpublicȱofȱtheirȱtime.11ȱAdenet’s
choiceȱisȱaȱstoryȱheȱclaimsȱheȱreadȱinȱtheȱlibraryȱofȱtheȱpowerfulȱBenedictineȱorder
atȱtheȱabbeyȱofȱSt.ȱDenisȱnearȱtheȱcityȱofȱParis:ȱ
Aȱunȱmoineȱcourtois,ȱc’onȱnommoitȱSavari,
M’acointaiȱtelement,ȱDamedieuȱenȱgraci,
Queȱleȱlivreȱasȱestoiresȱmeȱmoustraȱetȱg’iȱvi
L’estoireȱdeȱBertain12ȱetȱdeȱPepinȱaussi.ȱ (8–11)13
[Withȱaȱcourtlyȱmonk,ȱnamedȱSavari,
Iȱacquaintedȱmyselfȱthus,ȱIȱthankȱtheȱLordȱourȱGod,
ThatȱheȱshowedȱmeȱtheȱbookȱofȱstoriesȱandȱIȱsaw
TheȱstoryȱofȱBertain,ȱandȱPepinȱtoo.]
AsȱtheȱkeepersȱandȱchroniclersȱofȱtheȱannalsȱofȱtheȱKingdomȱofȱFrance,ȱtheȱmonks
ofȱSt.ȱDenisȱhadȱaȱvestedȱinterestȱinȱroyalȱgenealogies.14ȱAndȱbeingȱinȱpossession
ofȱaȱvastȱlibrary,ȱtheȱreligiousȱofȱthisȱmonasticȱcommunityȱwereȱthusȱtheȱconduits
forȱ spreadingȱ legendsȱ orȱ elementsȱ ofȱ legendsȱ regardingȱ membersȱ ofȱ royal
dynasties,ȱstoriesȱthatȱwereȱofȱgreatȱinterestȱforȱfeudalȱsociety.ȱAdenet’sȱuseȱofȱthe
wordȱestoireȱ(story)ȱinȱtheȱincipitȱofȱhisȱlongȱpoemȱcouldȱbeȱunderstoodȱtoȱmean,
asȱPhilippeȱWalterȱsuggestsȱinȱhisȱanalysisȱofȱtheȱTristanȱmyth,ȱthatȱtheȱtextȱthe
poetȱusesȱasȱtheȱsourceȱofȱhisȱworkȱwasȱperhapsȱcomposedȱofȱdiverseȱepisodesȱthat
10
SeeȱHenry,ȱBerteȱasȱgransȱpiésȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1);ȱtheȱversionȱofȱtheȱlegendȱAdenetȱclaimsȱtoȱhaveȱused,
asȱmodelȱforȱhisȱlyricȱpoem,ȱhasȱinȱfactȱbeenȱlostȱtoȱus,ȱifȱitȱeverȱexisted,ȱ30.
11
PhilippeȱWalter,ȱ“MythȱandȱTextsȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges:ȱFolkloreȱasȱLiteraryȱ“Source,”ȱTellingȱTales:
MedievalȱNarrativesȱandȱtheȱFolkȱTradition,ȱed.ȱFrancescaȱCanadéȱSautman,ȱDianaȱConchado,ȱand
GiuseppeȱCarloȱDiȱScipioȱ(NewȱYork:ȱSt.ȱMartinȱPress,ȱ1998):ȱ59–75;ȱhereȱ61.
12
BertainȱisȱaȱdiminutiveȱofȱtheȱnameȱBerthe.
13
Henry,ȱBerteȱasȱgransȱpiésȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1);ȱallȱfurtherȱcitationsȱwillȱbeȱtakenȱfromȱthisȱtextȱedition.ȱAll
translationsȱofȱtheȱpoemȱareȱtheȱproductȱofȱmyȱcollaborationȱwithȱaȱcolleague,ȱDr.ȱEliseȱLeahy,
SouthernȱUtahȱUniversity.
14
St.ȱDenisȱisȱalsoȱtheȱroyalȱburialȱplaceȱofȱkingsȱandȱqueensȱofȱFrance.ȱSeeȱLesȱGrandesȱChroniques
deȱFrance,ȱed.ȱJulesȱViard.ȱ8ȱvols.ȱ(Paris:ȱSociétéȱdeȱl’HistoireȱdeȱFrance,ȱ1920).
436 RosaȱA.ȱPerez
wereȱ notȱ yetȱ organizedȱ intoȱ structuredȱ narratives.15ȱ Since,ȱ accordingȱ toȱ the
folkloristȱ Vladimirȱ Propp,ȱ aȱ veryȱ closeȱ connectionȱ existsȱ betweenȱ folkloreȱ and
literature,16ȱtheȱmaterialȱAdenetȱinheritedȱfromȱtheȱoralȱtradition,ȱcombinedȱwith
theȱstoryȱheȱread,ȱtransitedȱtoȱliteracyȱthroughȱhisȱselectiveȱandȱcreativeȱprocess
whenȱheȱtranslatedȱthoseȱpiecesȱintoȱanȱepicȱinȱwhichȱnumerousȱfolktaleȱnarratives
areȱinterwovenȱwithȱtheȱmainȱplot.ȱ
Adenet’sȱepicȱromanceȱofȱoneȱhundredȱandȱfortyȱcoupletsȱinȱalexandrinesȱis
consideredȱaȱlateȱchansonȱdeȱgeste,ȱaȱgenreȱthatȱbyȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱthirteenthȱandȱthe
beginningȱofȱtheȱfourteenthȱcenturyȱhadȱbecomeȱaȱhybridȱone,ȱincludingȱelements
ofȱromance.17ȱWhileȱhisȱportrayalȱofȱBertheȱcorrespondsȱinȱmanyȱwaysȱtoȱother
versions,ȱdepictingȱherȱasȱaȱsensitiveȱandȱnaïveȱyoungȱwoman,ȱtheȱportraitȱalso
includesȱfeaturesȱmoreȱcharacteristicȱofȱtheȱcourtlyȱlady,ȱanȱinfluenceȱofȱProvencal
andȱBretonȱliterature.ȱUndeniablyȱhisȱtravelsȱwithȱhisȱpatronȱGuiȱofȱDampierre,
CountȱofȱFlanders,ȱbroughtȱhimȱintoȱcontactȱwithȱaȱfecundȱintellectualȱatmosphere
notablyȱatȱtheȱFrenchȱcourts.18ȱȱ
Whereasȱtheȱmedievalȱstoryȱtellerȱexploitsȱnatureȱand,ȱinȱparticular,ȱtheȱforest
asȱanȱimaginaryȱspaceȱthatȱframesȱtheȱadventure,ȱAdenet’sȱtreatmentȱofȱthisȱspace
goesȱ beyondȱ theȱ symbolicȱ andȱ stylizedȱ backgroundȱ typicalȱ ofȱ anyȱ chansonȱ de
geste:19ȱhisȱforestȱalsoȱmirrorsȱBerthe’sȱemotionalȱturmoilȱandȱsubsequentȱserenity.
However,ȱhisȱepicȱpoemȱstillȱlimitsȱnature’sȱdescriptionȱtoȱcertainȱaspectsȱofȱthe
surroundings,ȱusingȱsymbolsȱratherȱthanȱmetaphors;ȱtheȱpoemȱalsoȱincorporates
mostȱofȱtheȱformularityȱofȱtheȱepicȱgenreȱsuchȱasȱhyperboleȱandȱrepetition,ȱwhich
aboundȱthroughoutȱtheȱtext.20ȱAdenet’sȱrepresentationȱofȱfemaleȱcharacters,ȱmainly
Berthe,ȱdoesȱnotȱsuccumb,ȱusingȱJoanȱW.ȱScott’sȱwords,ȱtoȱ‘theȱnotionȱofȱfixity,’21
butȱ ratherȱ presentsȱ usȱ withȱ aȱ moreȱ complexȱ explorationȱ ofȱ gender.ȱ Ifȱ Berthe
displaysȱ atȱ firstȱ theȱ stereotypicalȱ signsȱ ofȱ herȱ gender—passivity,ȱ tears,ȱ and
complains—ȱherȱcharacterizationȱisȱlaterȱcounterbalancedȱbyȱtheȱdisplayȱofȱsigns
15
Walter,ȱ“MythȱandȱTextsȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱ69.ȱ
16
VladimirȱPropp,ȱTheoryȱandȱHistoryȱofȱFolklore,ȱtrans.ȱAriadnaȱY.ȱMartinȱandȱRichardȱP.ȱMartin.
TheoryȱandȱHistoryȱofȱLiterature,ȱ5ȱ(1971;ȱMinneapolis:ȱUniversityȱofȱMinnesotaȱPress,ȱ1997),ȱ5.ȱ
17
MichelȱZink,ȱIntroductionȱàȱlaȱlittératureȱfrançaiseȱduȱMoyenȱAge:ȱLatinȱetȱlangueȱvulgaire;ȱchansonȱde
geste,ȱhistoire,ȱromanȱ;ȱamourȱcourtoisȱetȱrêveȱchevaleresqueȱ;ȱallégorie,ȱrhétorique,ȱherméneutiqueȱ.ȱLeȱlivre
deȱpoche,ȱ500ȱ(Paris:ȱPressesȱUniversitairesȱdeȱNancyȱetȱLibrairieȱGénéraleȱdeȱFrance,ȱ1993),ȱ43.
18
Henry,ȱBerteȱasȱgransȱpiésȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1),ȱ21.ȱ
19
WhenȱBertheȱisȱabandonedȱinȱtheȱforest,ȱsheȱsitsȱunderȱanȱoliveȱtree,ȱaȱspeciesȱcommonȱinȱthe
biblicalȱnarrativesȱandȱusedȱsymbolicallyȱinȱtheȱchansonsȱdeȱgeste.ȱItȱgoesȱwithoutȱsayingȱthatȱolive
treesȱhaveȱneverȱgrownȱinȱmedievalȱforestsȱnorthȱofȱtheȱAlps.
20
Jeanȱ Rychner,ȱ Laȱ Chansonȱ deȱ geste:ȱ Essaiȱ surȱ l’artȱ épiqueȱ desȱ jongleurs.ȱ Publicationsȱ Romanesȱ et
Françaises,ȱ53ȱ(Geneva:ȱDroz,ȱ1955),ȱ71.
21
JoanȱW.ȱScott,ȱ“AȱUsefulȱCategoryȱofȱHistoricalȱAnalysis,”ȱTheȱAmericanȱHistoricalȱReviewȱ91ȱ(1986):
1053–75;ȱhereȱ1068.
ofȱtheȱ“femmeȱforte,”22ȱwhichȱinȱherȱcaseȱisȱnotȱtheȱdisplayȱofȱphysicalȱstrengthȱthat
someȱheroinesȱinȱtheȱchansonsȱacquireȱbyȱdisguisingȱthemselvesȱasȱmen,ȱbutȱrather
aȱ transformationȱ fromȱ passiveȱ toȱ activeȱ character.ȱ Determinedȱ toȱ survive,ȱ she
plays,ȱassuredly,ȱanȱactiveȱroleȱinȱtheȱepic,ȱrelegatingȱkingȱPepinȱtheȱBriefȱtoȱaȱnot
alwaysȱflatteringȱsecondaryȱposition.ȱ
Mostȱcertainly,ȱtheȱfragmentaryȱnatureȱofȱtheȱsocioȬhistoricalȱevidenceȱofȱPepin’s
reign,ȱaȱreignȱmarkedȱbyȱstrainedȱrelationsȱwithȱhisȱvassals,ȱwasȱmoreȱpropitious
toȱtheȱformationȱofȱtheȱqueenȱBerthe’sȱlegend,ȱmaterialȱofȱgreatȱinterestȱ toȱthe
feudalȱaudience.ȱSinceȱtheȱchansonsȱdeȱgesteȱservedȱasȱaȱvehicleȱtoȱexplore,ȱamong
otherȱthings,ȱtheȱcomplexitiesȱofȱculturalȱcontactȱandȱtheȱcontradictionsȱofȱfeudal
society,ȱ asȱ Sharonȱ Kinoshitaȱ argues,ȱ theirȱ vitalityȱ wasȱ linkedȱ toȱ theȱ historical
conjunctureȱinȱwhichȱtheyȱappeared.23ȱHowever,ȱAdenet’sȱepicȱromanceȱdiverts
fromȱtheȱtraditionalȱchansonsȱinȱtheȱsenseȱthatȱmostȱofȱtheȱearlierȱepicsȱareȱreputed
forȱtheirȱextendedȱandȱdetailedȱdescriptionsȱofȱbattlesȱsinceȱsocietyȱmadeȱfighting
aȱcentralȱoccupationȱforȱmen.ȱTheseȱscenesȱareȱabsent,ȱorȱratherȱbarelyȱmentioned
byȱBertheȱsinceȱAdenet’sȱplot,ȱonȱtheȱcontrary,ȱfocusesȱalmostȱexclusivelyȱonȱtwo
dualisticȱ pairsȱ ofȱ womenȱ inȱ conflictȱ withȱ eachȱ other;ȱ Bertheȱ andȱ herȱ mother
Blanchefleur,ȱbothȱofȱnobleȱlineage,ȱandȱtheirȱmalevolentȱcounterpart,ȱAlisteȱand
herȱmotherȱMargiste,ȱbothȱofȱserfȱorigin.ȱ
AlthoughȱBerthe’sȱlegendȱoriginatesȱinȱtheȱeighthȱcenturyȱ(Pepinȱwasȱcrowned
inȱ751),ȱAdenetȱLeȱRoi,ȱfamiliarȱwithȱtheȱFrenchȱcourt,ȱsituatesȱhisȱversionȱofȱthe
storyȱ inȱ theȱ midstȱ ofȱ theȱ courtsȱ ofȱ Louisȱ IXȱ andȱ Philipȱ theȱ Boldȱ inȱ thirteenthȬ
centuryȱ France.ȱ Theȱ anachronismȱ isȱ apparentȱ inȱ hisȱ descriptionȱ ofȱ Paris,ȱ seen
throughȱ theȱ dazzledȱ eyesȱ ofȱ Berthe’sȱ mother,ȱ theȱ Queenȱ Blanchefleur:ȱ the
topographyȱofȱcityȱappearsȱmuchȱmoreȱdevelopedȱthanȱtheȱcityȱwasȱinȱPepin’s
time.
LaȱdameȱertȱaȱMontmartre,ȱs’esgardaȱlaȱvalee,
VitȱlaȱcitȱdeȱParis,ȱquiȱestȱetȱlongueȱetȱlee,
Mainteȱtour,ȱmainteȱsaleȱetȱmainteȱcheminee;ȱ (1962–64)
[TheȱdameȱwasȱinȱMontmartre,ȱcontemplatingȱtheȱvalley.
SawȱtheȱcityȱofȱParis,ȱwhichȱisȱlongȱandȱwide,
Manyȱtowers,ȱmanyȱhallsȱandȱmanyȱchimneys;]
Butȱfarȱmoreȱimportantȱthanȱtheȱcity,ȱtheȱforestȱtakesȱaȱlifeȱofȱitsȱownȱinȱtheȱpoem.
AsȱtheȱJacquesȱLeȱGoffȱfamouslyȱstates,ȱalthoughȱtheȱforestsȱofȱtheȱHighȱMiddle
22
SeeȱFrancescaȱSautman,ȱ“L’Epopéeȱtaisible’:ȱStructuresȱsocialesȱdeȱl’imaginaireȱépique.ȱ(Essaiȱsur
laȱformeȱetȱlaȱfonctionȱdeȱl’épopéeȱmédiévaleȱfrançaise),”ȱdiss.ȱUCLAȱ1978,ȱ240–75.ȱForȱexample:
IdeȱinȱIdeȱetȱOlive,ȱEliénorȱinȱBaudouinȱdeȱSebourq,ȱandȱAyeȱinȱTristanȱdeȱNanteuil.
23
SharonȱKinoshita,ȱMedievalȱBoundaries:ȱRethinkingȱDifferenceȱinȱOldȱFrenchȱLiterature.ȱTheȱMiddle
AgesȱSeriesȱ(Philadelphia:ȱUniversityȱofȱPennsylvaniaȱPress,ȱ2006),ȱ115.
438 RosaȱA.ȱPerez
Ages,ȱimpenetrableȱandȱwidespread,ȱcoveredȱtheȱmedievalȱwesternȱworldȱwithȱa
denseȱcanopyȱandȱrepresentedȱtheȱfrighteningȱhorizonȱofȱmedievalȱsociety,24ȱthis
isȱ noȱ longerȱ trueȱ byȱ theȱ endȱ ofȱ theȱ thirteenthȱ century.ȱ Indeed,ȱ theȱ intensive
deforestationȱeffortȱcarriedȱoutȱthroughoutȱWesternȱEuropeȱtoȱexpandȱtheȱarable
landsȱandȱfeedȱtheȱsteadilyȱgrowingȱpopulation25ȱparalleledȱtheȱrapidȱgrowthȱand
developmentȱofȱtheȱcities.26ȱButȱtheȱcontinuedȱexpansionȱofȱtheȱagriculturalȱspace
toȱ theȱ detrimentȱ ofȱ theȱ forestȱ startedȱ toȱ slow,ȱ asȱ Georgesȱ Dubyȱ notes,ȱ byȱ the
beginningȱofȱtheȱfourteenthȱcentury.27ȱByȱAdenet’sȱtime,ȱtheȱprimitiveȱforestȱstill
hadȱanȱimportantȱimprintȱinȱtheȱmedievalȱimaginary,ȱandȱwasȱcertainlyȱaȱsource
ofȱinspirationȱforȱpoets:ȱitȱwasȱaȱplaceȱofȱnostalgiaȱandȱtheȱrealmȱofȱadventure.
InȱAdenet’sȱpoemȱtwoȱgeographicalȱforestsȱframeȱBerthe’sȱtravelsȱandȱtrials:ȱthe
forestȱofȱtheȱArdennes,ȱborderingȱtheȱkingdomȱofȱFrance,ȱandȱtheȱforestȱofȱMaine,
wellȱknownȱbyȱtheȱminstrel,ȱwhereȱherȱordealȱtakesȱplace.ȱFollowingȱaȱcommon
poeticalȱconvention,ȱtheȱpoemȱbeginsȱinȱtheȱmonthȱofȱApril,ȱtheȱmonthȱofȱrenewal
andȱanticipationȱparȱexcellence,ȱbutȱthisȱidyllicȱbackdropȱisȱdrasticallyȱtransformed
byȱtheȱtimeȱBertheȱisȱtakenȱtoȱtheȱwoodsȱtoȱbeȱabandoned:ȱtheȱforestȱisȱnoȱlonger
theȱwelcomingȱgreenȱcanopy,ȱbutȱinsteadȱaȱdeserted,ȱsinisterȱandȱcoldȱplaceȱwhere
Bertheȱfindsȱherselfȱpowerless:
EnȱlaȱforestȱdouȱMansȱfuȱlaȱroÿneȱBerte
Etȱlaȱnuisȱestoitȱmoltȱetȱorribleȱetȱdesperte;ȱ (882–83)ȱ
[InȱtheȱforestȱofȱLeȱMansȱwasȱtheȱqueenȱBerte
Andȱtheȱnightȱwasȱveryȱhorribleȱandȱharsh;]
.ȱ.ȱ.ȱBerteȱdortȱenzȱelȱboisȱdesusȱlaȱterreȱdure,
Etȱlaȱnuisȱestoitȱmoltȱetȱhideuseȱetȱoscure
Etȱmoltȱestoitȱliȱairsȱdeȱfroideȱtempreure;
Etȱlaȱdameȱn’otȱpasȱassezȱdeȱvesteüre,ȱ (1010–14)
[.ȱ.ȱ.ȱBertheȱsleepsȱinȱtheȱwoodsȱonȱtheȱhardȱground,
Andȱtheȱnightȱwasȱveryȱhideousȱandȱdark
Andȱtheȱairȱwasȱveryȱcoldȱandȱdamp;
Andȱtheȱladyȱdidȱnotȱhaveȱenoughȱclothes]
24
JacquesȱLeȱGoff,ȱLaȱCivilisationȱdeȱl’occidentȱmédiévalȱ(Paris:ȱFlammarion,ȱ1982),ȱ106.
25
MoniqueȱBourinȬDerruau,ȱTempsȱd’équilibres,ȱtempsȱdeȱrupturesȱ(XIIIeȱsiècle).ȱNouvelleȱHistoireȱde
laȱFranceȱMédiévale,ȱ4ȱ(Paris:ȱEditionsȱduȱSeuil,ȱ1990),ȱ83–93.ȱSeeȱalsoȱDominiqueȱBarthélemy,
L’Ordreȱseigneurialȱ(XIe–XIIeȱsiècle).ȱNouvelleȱHistoireȱdeȱlaȱFranceȱMédiévale,ȱ3ȱ(Paris:ȱEditions
duȱSeuil,ȱ1990),ȱ119–21.
26
SeeȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱUrbanȱSpaceȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱEarlyȱModernȱAge.ȱed.ȱAlbrecht
Classen,ȱFundamentalsȱofȱMedievalȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱCultureȱ4ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱWalter
DeȱGruyter,ȱ2009).
27
GeorgesȱDuby,ȱL’Economieȱruraleȱetȱlaȱvieȱdesȱcampagnesȱdansȱl’occidentȱmédiévalȱ(France,ȱAngleterre,
Empire,ȱIXe–XVeȱsiècles)ȱ(Paris:ȱFlammarion,ȱ1977),ȱ174.ȱ
Whenȱ Bertheȱ findsȱ herselfȱ abandoned,ȱ disoriented,ȱ andȱ withoutȱ shelterȱ inȱ the
unfamiliarȱsurroundingsȱofȱtheȱforest,ȱnature,ȱinȱAdenet’sȱdepiction,ȱreflectsȱand
atȱ theȱ sameȱ timeȱ highlightsȱ herȱ physicalȱ andȱ emotionalȱ distress.ȱ Theȱ sudden
removalȱ fromȱ societyȱ symbolicallyȱ occursȱ inȱ autumn,ȱ aȱ timeȱ ofȱ transitionȱ and
divisionȱbetweenȱseasonsȱthatȱprefigures,ȱatȱtheȱonsetȱofȱtheȱlongȱwinterȱmonths,
aȱmetaphoricalȱdeathȱorȱhibernation.ȱȱTheȱbrutalȱseveranceȱfromȱherȱprotective
environmentȱandȱsocialȱgroupȱthrowsȱherȱintoȱaȱvoid,ȱaȱlongȱintervalȱofȱnineȱand
aȱhalfȱyearsȱduringȱwhichȱsheȱwillȱleadȱaȱsimpleȱandȱanonymousȱlifeȱamongȱthe
commonȱpeopleȱlivingȱandȱworkingȱwithinȱorȱinȱtheȱvicinityȱofȱtheȱforest.
Adenet’sȱdescriptionȱofȱtheȱforestȱisȱoneȱinheritedȱfromȱdifferentȱtraditions:ȱitȱis
firstȱandȱforemostȱtheȱunformedȱspaceȱasȱtypeȱofȱtheȱprimevalȱwoodȱinherited
fromȱtheȱGrecoȬLatinȱtradition,ȱbutȱitȱisȱalsoȱtheȱforestȱofȱtheȱCelticȱtraditionȱand
itsȱfecundȱimaginary.ȱInȱspiteȱofȱtheȱterrorȱitȱinspired,ȱtheȱselvaȱoscuraȱ(theȱdark
forest),ȱ asȱ Danteȱ callsȱ it,ȱ theȱ ambivalentȱ realmȱ outsideȱ ofȱ theȱ boundariesȱ of
civilizationȱbecame,ȱinȱtheȱmedievalȱimaginary,ȱaȱspaceȱinhabitedȱbyȱmarvelous
andȱfearsomeȱcreatures.ȱItȱisȱtheȱforestȱfromȱwhichȱtheȱwanderingȱknightsȱmust
extricateȱthemselvesȱafterȱventuringȱintoȱitsȱdepthsȱinȱsearchȱofȱtheirȱtrueȱidentity
orȱsimplyȱinȱsearchȱofȱadventureȱpropitiousȱinȱthisȱperilousȱsetting:ȱitȱisȱtheȱforest
ofȱPerceval,ȱYvain,ȱandȱTristan,ȱamongȱothers.28ȱ
Locatedȱ onȱ theȱ marginsȱ ofȱ society,ȱ theȱ forestȱ isȱ omnipresentȱ notȱ onlyȱ inȱ the
imaginationȱofȱtheȱpoets,ȱbutȱalsoȱinȱtheȱlivesȱofȱallȱmedievalȱsociety.ȱItȱsurrounds
theȱruralȱspace,ȱmarkingȱtheȱlimitsȱofȱtheȱcultivatedȱlands,ȱandȱoftenȱconstitutesȱa
naturalȱborder,ȱtheȱfrontierȱbetweenȱtwoȱadjacentȱterritories.ȱIfȱtheȱforestȱis,ȱfirst
andȱforemost,ȱtheȱexclusiveȱhuntingȱgroundsȱofȱtheȱfeudalȱlordsȱwithȱitsȱlargeȱwild
gameȱpopulation,29ȱitȱisȱalso,ȱinȱitsȱeverydayȱcondition,ȱaȱspaceȱopenȱandȱaccessible
toȱall.ȱInȱtheȱdomesticȱeconomy,ȱtheȱforestȱprovidesȱaȱsourceȱofȱadditionalȱincome
forȱanȱarrayȱofȱhumbleȱandȱpoorȱlaborers:ȱpeasantsȱcollectȱthereȱtheȱindispensable
firewoodȱforȱheatingȱandȱcooking,30ȱandȱsendȱtheirȱpigsȱtoȱgrazeȱinȱtheȱunderȬ
brush.31ȱ
Theȱforestȱalsoȱrepresentsȱanȱimportantȱcomplementaryȱresourceȱforȱtheȱmeager
peasants’ȱdiet,ȱsinceȱharvestsȱwereȱofȱanȱunpredictableȱnature.ȱIndeed,ȱpeasants
oftenȱlivedȱunderȱtheȱconstantȱmenaceȱofȱfoodȱshortage.32ȱInȱaȱpredominantlyȱrural
28
SeeȱalsoȱtheȱvariousȱcommentsȱonȱtheȱmedievalȱforestȱbyȱAlbrechtȱClassenȱinȱtheȱIntroductionȱto
theȱpresentȱvolume.
29
SeeȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱAbigailȱP.ȱDowlingȱandȱMarilynȱL.ȱSandidge.
30
JacquesȱLeȱGoff,ȱLaȱCivilisationȱ(seeȱnoteȱ24),ȱ106–09.
31
Duby,ȱL’Economieȱruraleȱ(seeȱnoteȱ27),ȱ247–60.
32
Duby,ȱ L’Economieȱ ruraleȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 27),ȱ 93.ȱ Seeȱ alsoȱ Sophieȱ CassagnesȬBrouquetȱ andȱ Vincent
Chambarlhac,ȱL’Ageȱd’orȱdeȱlaȱforêtȱ(Rodez:ȱEditionsȱduȱRouergue,ȱ1995),ȱ17.ȱTheseȱhumbleȱpeople
pickȱinȱtheȱwoodsȱaȱnumberȱofȱthings,ȱsuchȱasȱchestnuts,ȱaȱbasicȱstapleȱinȱtheȱpeasants’ȱdiet,ȱas
wellȱasȱmushrooms,ȱwatercress,ȱnettle,ȱfruits,ȱnuts,ȱandȱtheȱhoneyȱofȱwildȱbees.
440 RosaȱA.ȱPerez
economy,ȱinȱwhichȱaȱhighȱyieldȱagriculturalȱproductionȱwasȱnotȱyetȱmastered,
farmersȱwereȱregularlyȱexpandingȱtheȱfieldsȱtoȱincreaseȱcerealȱproduction,ȱbutȱby
theȱbeginningȱofȱtheȱthirteenthȱcenturyȱtheȱclearingȱofȱforestsȱandȱthereforeȱthe
advanceȱofȱcultivatedȱlandȱcameȱtoȱaȱstandstill.ȱHoweverȱsinceȱtheȱlandȱwasȱa
sourceȱofȱwealth,ȱsubsistence,ȱandȱaȱsourceȱofȱpowerȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱaȱperiod
inȱwhichȱmoneyȱwasȱscarce,33ȱaȱgreatȱeffortȱwasȱmade,ȱstartingȱinȱtheȱlastȱdecades
ofȱtheȱtwelfthȱcentury,ȱtowardȱregulation,ȱexploitation,ȱand,ȱthereforeȱpreservation
ofȱtheȱremainingȱforests.ȱTheȱlords’ȱrepresentativesȱinȱparticularȱsupervisedȱthe
cuttingȱofȱtrees,ȱwhichȱrepresentedȱaȱsignificantȱpercentageȱofȱtheȱrevenueȱinȱthe
royalȱdomain.34ȱ
Asȱ theȱ sixteenȬyearȬoldȱ Bertheȱ embarksȱ onȱ aȱ journeyȱ thatȱ takesȱ herȱ from
HungaryȱtoȱFrance,ȱcrossingȱtwoȱimportantȱforestsȱtoȱbringȱherȱtoȱtheȱlandȱofȱher
futureȱhusband,ȱherȱoldȱservant,ȱMargiste,ȱtakesȱadvantageȱofȱtheȱignoranceȱofȱthe
inexperiencedȱgirl,ȱbyȱdescribingȱtheȱweddingȱnightȱasȱaȱfrightfulȱexperience,ȱand
presentingȱtheȱfirstȱsexualȱencounterȱasȱaȱviolentȱact.ȱSinceȱBertheȱandȱAliste,ȱthe
serf’sȱ daughter,ȱ shareȱ aȱ greatȱ physicalȱ resemblance,ȱ Margisteȱ proposesȱ the
substitutionȱofȱherȱdaughterȱforȱtheȱbrideȱduringȱtheȱnuptialȱnight,ȱinȱorderȱto
alleviateȱtheȱsexualȱanxietiesȱofȱtheȱadolescentȱprincess.ȱMotherȱandȱdaughterȱof
serfȱ originȱ willȱ exploitȱ theȱ youngȱ girl’sȱ fearȱ byȱ partneringȱ toȱ bringȱ aboutȱ an
immediateȱchangeȱinȱtheirȱsocialȱstatus.ȱ
Theȱ followingȱ morning,ȱ afterȱ theȱ marriageȱ hasȱ beenȱ consummated,ȱ Berthe’s
claimȱtoȱtheȱthroneȱisȱendangered.ȱTheȱopenȱrivalryȱthatȱnowȱopposesȱtheȱtwo
identicalȱ youngȱ women,ȱ Alisteȱ representingȱ Berthe’sȱ darkerȱ side,ȱ isȱ swiftly
resolvedȱasȱtheȱnewȱqueenȱselfȬinflictsȱaȱwoundȱtoȱherȱthighȱandȱaccusesȱBertheȱof
theȱassault.ȱTheȱlocationȱofȱtheȱwoundȱisȱeuphemisticallyȱsexual.ȱVictimȱofȱaȱsordid
machination,ȱ theȱ youngȱ Berthe,ȱ stillȱ posingȱ asȱ aȱ servant,ȱ succumbsȱ toȱ theȱ old
servant’sȱwrathȱandȱboundlessȱambitionȱforȱherȱdaughterȱandȱherself.ȱBerthe’s
removalȱfromȱtheȱcourtȱfollowsȱtheȱnarrativeȱofȱaȱpopularȱtale,ȱassociatingȱherȱfate
withȱ Snowȱ Whiteȱ fromȱ theȱ fairyȬtaleȱ traditionȱ asȱ establishedȱ byȱ theȱ Brothers
Grimmȱinȱ1812ȱbutȱdrawingȱfromȱmuchȱolderȱsources,ȱanotherȱnaiveȱyoungȱgirl
dispossessedȱofȱeverything.ȱ
Inȱherȱnewȱloweredȱsocialȱstatusȱandȱdressedȱinȱaȱwhiteȱpetticoatȱasȱaȱreminder
ofȱherȱinnocence,ȱBertheȱisȱtakenȱtoȱtheȱforestȱofȱLeȱMansȱtoȱbeȱkilled,ȱaȱmotifȱfound
inȱnumerousȱtales,ȱbut,ȱasȱinȱSnowȱWhite’sȱtale,ȱtheȱhenchmen,ȱoutȱofȱpity,ȱand
puzzledȱbyȱtheȱfineȱgarmentsȱofȱtheȱsoȬcalledȱservant,ȱabandonȱBetheȱinȱtheȱwoods.
And,ȱasȱproofȱofȱherȱdeath,ȱaȱpiglet’sȱhartȱisȱpresentedȱtoȱMargiste,ȱtheȱmastermind
33
SeeȱCarloȱM.ȱCipolla,ȱMoney,ȱPricesȱandȱCivilizationȱinȱtheȱMediterraneanȱWorldȱ(FifthȱtoȱSeventeenth
Century)ȱ(NewȱYork:ȱGordianȱPressȱInc.,ȱ1967),ȱ9–12.
34
Duby,ȱL’Economieȱruraleȱ(seeȱnoteȱ27),ȱ247–60.
ofȱ theȱ plot.ȱ Leftȱ aloneȱ inȱ theȱ forest,ȱ Berthe’sȱ capacityȱ forȱ endurance,ȱ andȱ her
characterȱstrengthȱareȱimmediatelyȱputȱtoȱtheȱtest:ȱ
Parȱleȱboisȱvaȱlaȱdame,ȱquiȱgrantȱpaourȱavaitȱȱ
Ceȱn’estȱpasȱgrantȱmerveilleȱseȱliȱcuersȱilȱdoloit
(.ȱ.ȱ.)ȱAȱdestreȱetȱaȱsenestreȱmoltȱsouventȱregardoit,
(.ȱ.ȱ.)ȱQuantȱs’estoitȱarrestee,ȱmoltȱtenrementȱploroit.ȱ (745–50)
[Throughȱtheȱwoodsȱgoesȱtheȱladyȱwhoȱwasȱveryȱfrightened
Itȱisȱnotȱaȱgreatȱmarvelȱifȱherȱheartȱwasȱaching
(.ȱ.ȱ.)ȱToȱtheȱrightȱandȱtoȱtheȱleftȱsheȱwasȱlookingȱoften,
(.ȱ.ȱ.)ȱWhenȱsheȱstopped,ȱsheȱcriedȱtenderly.]
ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
Whileȱherȱbehaviorȱinȱtheȱfirstȱthirdȱofȱtheȱverseȱnarrativeȱȱfitsȱtheȱepicȱidealȱofȱthe
youngȱwoman,ȱtimidȱandȱpassive,ȱandȱBertheȱaccordingȱtoȱherȱage,ȱgender,ȱand
socialȱstatusȱshowsȱclearȱsignsȱofȱfittingȱtheȱstereotype,ȱtheȱepisodeȱinȱtheȱforest
veryȱquicklyȱtriggersȱanȱimportantȱtransformation:ȱBertheȱundergoesȱaȱprofound
psychologicalȱandȱmoralȱdevelopment.ȱButȱonȱtheȱfirstȱdayȱinȱtheȱforest,ȱsheȱhas
toȱ findȱ waysȱ ofȱ reassuringȱ andȱ empoweringȱ herselfȱ byȱ counteractingȱ the
overwhelmingȱterrorȱtheȱforestȱinducesȱinȱherȱwithȱprayersȱandȱtheȱinvocationȱof
saintsȱtoȱprotectȱherȱandȱintercedeȱinȱherȱfavor:ȱ
Dame,ȱsiȱvraiementȱcomȱj’enȱaiȱgrantȱmestier.”
Lorsȱseȱmetȱaȱgenous,ȱlaȱterreȱvaȱbaisier,
“SainsȱJuliens,”ȱfaitȱele,ȱ“vueilliezȱmoiȱherbergier!”
Saȱpaternostreȱaȱdite,ȱqueȱn’iȱvoltȱdetriier,
Surȱsonȱdestreȱcostéȱs’estȱaleeȱcouchier,ȱ (972–76)
[Lady,ȱsinceȱIȱamȱreallyȱinȱgreatȱneed.
Then,ȱsheȱkneelsȱdown,ȱsheȱkissesȱtheȱground,
“SaintȱJulian,”ȱsheȱsays,ȱ“provideȱmeȱshelter!”
SheȱsaidȱtheȱOurȱFather,ȱnotȱwantingȱtoȱpostponeȱit,
Onȱherȱrightȱside,ȱsheȱwentȱtoȱsleep.]
Spontaneously,ȱtheȱterrifiedȱandȱdefenselessȱyoungȱgirlȱrespondsȱtoȱtheȱsituation
notȱonlyȱwithȱtears,ȱbutȱalsoȱwithȱprayers,ȱfindingȱrefugeȱandȱsolaceȱinȱreligion.
SheȱimploresȱtheȱVirginȱMaryȱtoȱbeȱherȱintercessor,ȱand,ȱconformingȱtoȱaȱcommon
popularȱpractice,ȱsheȱinvokesȱseveralȱsaintsȱtoȱreassureȱherself:ȱSaintȱJulianȱthe
Hospitaller,ȱpatronȱsaintȱofȱpilgrimsȱandȱtravelers,ȱandȱlaterȱSaintȱBarbȱandȱSaint
Katherine,ȱbothȱvirginȱmartyrsȱtoȱtheirȱfaith:
SainteȱBarbeȱreclaime,ȱquiȱfuȱvraieȱconverte,
EtȱsainteȱKaterineȱ–ȱchascuneȱfuȱofferte
PourȱDieuȱaȱgrantȱmartire,ȱs’enȱorentȱtelȱdesserteȱ (890–92)
[SheȱcallsȱforȱSaintȱBarbara,ȱwhoȱwasȱaȱtrueȱconvert,
AndȱSaintȱKatherineȱ–ȱeachȱofȱthemȱwasȱoffered
ToȱGodȱinȱgreatȱmartyrdom,ȱprayingȱforȱsuchȱreward]ȱ
442 RosaȱA.ȱPerez
Inȱ theȱ faceȱ ofȱ adversity,ȱ sheȱ turnsȱ toȱ twoȱ womenȱ saints,ȱ modelsȱ ofȱ strength,
courage,ȱ andȱ determination.ȱ Saintȱ Barb,ȱ laterȱ renamedȱ Barbaraȱ toȱ eraseȱ the
androgynousȱaspectȱofȱherȱname,ȱinterestinglyȱenoughȱattemptedȱinȱherȱownȱway
toȱ avoidȱ marriage;ȱ sheȱ isȱ invokedȱ againstȱ suddenȱ death,ȱ accidents,ȱ andȱ death
withoutȱconfession.ȱManifestly,ȱalthoughȱBertheȱagreedȱtoȱmarryȱPepinȱtheȱBrief,
sheȱ hasȱ passivelyȱ resistedȱ thatȱ union.ȱ Theȱ otherȱ saint,ȱ Saintȱ Katherine,ȱ always
presentedȱ inȱ theȱ iconographyȱ withȱ herȱ wheel,ȱ wasȱ enormouslyȱ reveredȱ inȱ the
Middleȱ Ages;ȱ sheȱ was,ȱ amongȱ otherȱ attributes,ȱ theȱ patronȱ saintȱ ofȱ unmarried
women.35ȱ
TheȱinvocationȱofȱsaintsȱisȱnotȱonlyȱBerthe’sȱprerogative;ȱonȱtheȱcontrary,ȱevery
characterȱinȱtheȱepicȱromanceȱrefersȱtoȱaȱsaintȱorȱseveral,ȱaȱpracticeȱwhichȱwas,
accordingȱtoȱPeterȱBrown,ȱwidespreadȱinȱEuropeȱalreadyȱbyȱtheȱmidȬfifthȱcentury.
Heȱ affirmsȱ thatȱ theȱ cultȱ ofȱ theȱ saintsȱ “ringedȱ theȱ populationȱ withȱ intimate
friends,”36ȱmenȱandȱwomenȱthatȱhadȱsuffered,ȱhadȱovercomeȱobstacles,ȱandȱhad
finallyȱtriumphedȱinȱtheȱnameȱofȱreligion.ȱByȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱthirteenthȱcentury,ȱa
veneratedȱlegionȱofȱsaintsȱhadȱbecomeȱnotȱonlyȱtheȱmediatorsȱbetweenȱGodȱand
humans,ȱ butȱ alsoȱ betweenȱ menȱ andȱ theȱ elementsȱ ofȱ theȱ naturalȱ world.ȱ Inȱ her
forcedȱ solitude,ȱ Bertheȱ comfortsȱ andȱ surroundsȱ herselfȱ spirituallyȱ withȱ three
particularȱvirgins:ȱMary,ȱBarb,ȱandȱKatherine.
Atȱthisȱpointȱofȱtheȱnarrative,ȱBerthe’sȱplightȱandȱanguishȱareȱnotȱonlyȱdirectly
relatedȱtoȱtheȱdangersȱlurkingȱinȱtheȱwoods,ȱbutȱafterȱtheȱincidentȱinȱtheȱthieves’
den,ȱtheȱriskȱofȱbeingȱrapedȱsupplantsȱallȱherȱfears.ȱForȱaȱwoman,ȱand,ȱsheȱisȱonly
sixteenȱyearsȱofȱage,ȱtoȱwanderȱinȱtheȱforestȱisȱtoȱexposeȱherselfȱtoȱmen’sȱlust,ȱand
rapeȱisȱaȱbrutalȱrealityȱsheȱwillȱfaceȱtwice.37ȱTheȱfirstȱoccurrenceȱtakesȱplaceȱinȱthe
robbers’ȱhideoutȱwhereȱsheȱfindsȱshelterȱfromȱtheȱinclementȱweather.ȱWhileȱthe
twoȱmenȱfightȱagainstȱeachȱotherȱforȱherȱpossession,ȱsheȱisȱfortunateȱenoughȱto
escapeȱunscathed.ȱTheȱsecondȱtimeȱsheȱwouldȱalmostȱhaveȱbeenȱrapedȱisȱyears
laterȱwhenȱsheȱencountersȱtheȱkingȱinȱtheȱforest.ȱInȱtheȱmeantime,ȱtheȱnecessityȱof
protectingȱherȱvirginityȱdrivesȱherȱtoȱhideȱherȱtrueȱidentity,ȱtheȱtwoȱaspectsȱbeing
closelyȱlinkedȱwithȱeachȱotherȱsinceȱtheȱlossȱofȱtheȱvirginityȱwouldȱdirectlyȱaffect
herȱfuture:ȱ
Puisqu’ilȱvousȱplaist,ȱbiauȱsire,ȱqueȱj’aieȱaȱendurer,
Jeȱvueilȱpourȱvousȱmonȱcorsȱtraveillierȱetȱpener;
Orȱmeȱvueilliezȱbiauȱsire,ȱdeȱceȱperillȱgeter.
35
GastonȱDuchetȬSuchauxȱandȱMichelȱPastoureau,ȱTheȱBibleȱandȱtheȱSaintsȱ(ParisȱandȱNewȱYork:
Flammarion,ȱ1994),ȱ56–57,ȱ76–77.
36
PeterȱBrown,ȱTheȱCultȱofȱtheȱSaints:ȱItsȱRiseȱandȱFunctionȱinȱLatinȱChristianity.ȱTheȱHaskellȱLectures
onȱHistoryȱofȱReligions,ȱNewȱSeries,ȱ2ȱ(Chicago:ȱTheȱUniversityȱofȱChicagoȱPress,ȱ1982),ȱ50.ȱ
37
ForȱmostlyȱGerman,ȱbutȱalsoȱEuropeanȱperspectivesȱonȱthisȱtopic,ȱseeȱAlbrechtȱClassen,ȱSexuality
andȱ Rapeȱ inȱ theȱ Middleȱ Ages:ȱ Aȱ Criticalȱ Discourseȱ inȱ Premodernȱ Germanȱ andȱ Europeanȱ Literature.
FundamentalsȱofȱMedievalȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱCulture,ȱ7ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱDeȱGruyter,ȱ2011).
Jeȱvueilȱpourȱvostreȱamourȱiciȱendroitȱvouer
Unȱveuȱqueȱjeȱtenraiȱaȱtousȱjoursȱsansȱfausser,
Queȱjaȱmaisȱneȱdirai,ȱtantȱcomȱporraiȱdurer,
Queȱsoieȱfilleȱaȱroiȱneȱk’aȱPepinȱleȱber
Soieȱfemmeȱespousee,ȱjaȱmaisȱn’enȱquierȱparler,ȱ
(.ȱ.ȱ.)ȱQueȱdouȱcorsȱmeȱlaissasseȱhonnirȱneȱvergonder;
MaȱvirginitéȱvueilȱseȱDieuȱplaist,ȱbienȱgarder,
Carȱquiȱpertȱpucelage,ȱceȱestȱsansȱrecouvrer.ȱ (1046–53;ȱ1057–59)ȱ
[SinceȱitȱpleasesȱyouȱdearȱLordȱthatȱIȱhaveȱtoȱendure,
Iȱwantȱmyȱbodyȱtoȱlaborȱandȱtoilȱforȱyou;
ThusȱsweetȱLord,ȱsaveȱmeȱfromȱthisȱdanger.
ForȱyourȱloveȱIȱwantȱtoȱmakeȱaȱpromiseȱhereȱandȱnowȱ
AȱpromiseȱthatȱIȱwillȱalwaysȱkeepȱandȱnotȱbetray,
ThatȱIȱwillȱneverȱsayȱasȱlongȱasȱIȱamȱableȱtoȱresist,
ThatȱIȱamȱaȱkings’ȱdaughterȱandȱbelongȱtoȱPepinȱtheȱbaron
ThatȱIȱamȱaȱmarriedȱwoman,ȱIȱwillȱneverȱsay,
(.ȱ.ȱ.)ȱIȱwillȱnotȱallowȱmyȱbodyȱtoȱbeȱdishonoredȱorȱshamed;
IfȱitȱpleasesȱGodȱtoȱprotectȱmyȱvirginityȱ,
Becauseȱwhoȱlosesȱherȱvirginity,ȱcannotȱgetȱitȱback.]
Exiled,ȱBertheȱconsentsȱtoȱaȱnewȱlifeȱofȱworkȱandȱsorrow,ȱcomparingȱherselfȱtoȱthe
biblicalȱEve,ȱandȱwithȱtheȱhardshipȱsheȱforesees,ȱsheȱvowsȱtoȱprotectȱherȱvirginity
atȱallȱcosts.ȱTheȱinclusionȱofȱthisȱfactȱbyȱtheȱminstrelȱAdenetȱisȱanȱoriginalȱaddition
toȱBerthe’sȱlegend,ȱandȱconcernsȱtheȱimportanceȱgivenȱinȱtheȱtextȱtoȱherȱchastity
andȱ itsȱ safeguard.38ȱ Whileȱ marriageȱ isȱ aȱ transitionȱ fromȱ theȱ stateȱ ofȱ virginȱ to
spouse,ȱBertheȱhasȱremainedȱuntouchedȱandȱvirginal.ȱSheȱhasȱrelinquishedȱher
placeȱinȱtheȱroyalȱbedȱtoȱherȱservantȱAliste,ȱunderestimatingȱtheȱconsequencesȱof
aȱdecisionȱthatȱaltersȱtheȱcourseȱofȱherȱlife.ȱInȱspiteȱofȱherȱmisjudgment,ȱsheȱis
neverthelessȱconsciousȱthatȱsheȱhasȱtoȱremainȱaȱvirginȱasȱsheȱwasȱpromisedȱto
Pepin.ȱ
Theȱ queen’sȱ bodyȱ isȱ symbolicallyȱ linkedȱ toȱ itsȱ integrityȱ andȱ protection,ȱ and
becauseȱmattersȱofȱsexualityȱandȱreproductionȱ areȱoneȱofȱtheȱfewȱareasȱwhere
womenȱcanȱexerciseȱcontrol,ȱitȱisȱthereforeȱcrucialȱthatȱBertheȱremainsȱphysically
intactȱduringȱherȱyearsȱawayȱfromȱtheȱcourt.ȱLosingȱherȱvirginityȱtoȱaȱmanȱother
thanȱtheȱking,ȱvoluntarilyȱorȱnot,ȱwouldȱbeȱconsidered,ȱinȱherȱcase,ȱaȱcrimeȱofȱlèseȬ
majesté.ȱ Furthermore,ȱ itȱ wouldȱ makeȱ impossibleȱ herȱ returnȱ toȱ theȱ court,ȱ and
alienateȱherȱfromȱherȱkin.ȱTheȱqueen’sȱpositionȱatȱtheȱcourtȱofȱFrance,ȱasȱaȱrule,ȱwas
definedȱbyȱherȱmarriageȱtoȱtheȱking,ȱandȱherȱfidelityȱwasȱaȱwarrantȱinȱmattersȱof
reproduction.ȱ Herȱ positionȱ wasȱ aȱ precariousȱ andȱ vulnerableȱ one,ȱ andȱ her
dependenceȱonȱherȱhusbandȱwasȱaȱcompleteȱoneȱuntilȱtheȱninthȱcenturyȱmarking
38
Henry,ȱBerteȱasȱgransȱpiésȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1),ȱ38.
444 RosaȱA.ȱPerez
aȱturnȱinȱqueen’sȱincreasedȱvisibilityȱandȱprominenceȱatȱcourt.39ȱAlthoughȱqueens
hadȱ noȱ actualȱ powerȱ atȱ theȱ court,ȱ thereȱ is,ȱ asȱ Peggyȱ McCrackenȱ argues,ȱ an
equationȱ betweenȱ theȱ queen’sȱ bodyȱ andȱ royalȱ sovereignty.40ȱ Surroundedȱ by
treacherousȱservantsȱsinceȱherȱdepartureȱfromȱHungary,ȱBertheȱis,ȱbyȱcontrast,
surprisinglyȱprotectedȱinȱtheȱforest;ȱthisȱotherwiseȱdangerousȱenvironmentȱactsȱas
barrierȱ shieldingȱ herȱ fromȱ humanȱ andȱ animalȱ violence:ȱ firstȱ sheȱ avertsȱ being
raped,ȱandȱlaterȱaȱfatalȱattackȱbyȱaȱbear.ȱ
Inȱtheȱdepthsȱofȱtheȱforest,ȱtheȱanimalsȱthatȱcrossȱBerthe’sȱpathȱareȱnotȱdescribed
byȱmedievalȱpoetsȱaccordingȱtoȱtheirȱphysicalȱappearance,ȱbutȱratherȱinȱrelation
toȱtheirȱsymbolicȱrepresentation.ȱTheȱplaceȱanimalsȱoccupyȱinȱtheȱchansonȱdeȱgeste
increases,ȱ asȱ Michelȱ Zinkȱ notes,ȱ asȱ theȱ epicȱ becomesȱ moreȱ romanesque,
accumulatingȱ theȱ adventuresȱ andȱ givingȱ moreȱ roomȱ forȱ theȱ emotions.41ȱ For
instance,ȱtheȱowlȱsheȱhearsȱhootingȱisȱfrighteningȱbecauseȱtheȱanimalȱisȱlinkedȱin
theȱ medievalȱ bestiaryȱ toȱ nocturnalȱ fears,ȱ andȱ representsȱ theȱ sinnersȱ andȱ the
numerousȱoutlawsȱwhoȱ fleeȱtheȱ lightȱofȱjustice,ȱseekingȱrefugeȱinȱtheȱforests.42
Later,ȱtheȱterrifyingȱapparitionȱofȱaȱsheȬbearȱembodiesȱtheȱimageȱofȱuncontrolled
angerȱcrystallizingȱallȱtheȱyoungȱgirl’sȱfears:ȱpowerless,ȱsheȱfallsȱtoȱtheȱgroundȱand
faints:
Uneȱourseȱaȱencontreeȱestȱuneȱgrantȱvalee,
Quiȱversȱliȱs’enȱvenoitȱcorantȱgueuleȱbaee.
QuantȱBerteȱl’aȱveüe,ȱmoltȱfuȱespoentee:
“AïdeȱDieus,”ȱfaitȱele,ȱ“quiȱfistȱlaȱmerȱsalee;
Pereȱdeȱparadis,ȱorȱestȱmaȱvieȱoutree!”
Deȱlaȱpaourȱqu’eleȱotȱestȱcheüeȱpasmee,ȱ (1149–54)
[Aȱbearȱsheȱencounteredȱinȱaȱbigȱvalley,
WhoȱwasȱrunningȱtowardsȱherȱwithȱherȱmouthȱwideȬopen.ȱ
WhenȱBertheȱsawȱher,ȱsheȱwasȱveryȱfrightened:
“Helpȱme,ȱGod,”ȱsheȱsaid,ȱ“whoȱmadeȱtheȱsea;
39
GenevieveȱBühlerȬThierry,ȱ“Laȱreineȱadultère,”ȱCahiersȱdeȱCivilisationȱMédiévaleȱ35ȱ(1992):ȱ299–312;
hereȱ300–01.ȱForȱtheȱfirstȱtime,ȱaȱqueen’sȱnameȱ(Judith,ȱtheȱsecondȱwifeȱofȱLouisȱtheȱPious)ȱappears
inȱseveralȱinstancesȱinȱofficialȱdocumentsȱ(betweenȱ828–33)ȱattestingȱthusȱtoȱanȱincreasedȱroleȱin
governmentȱaffairs.ȱ
40
Peggyȱ McCracken,ȱ Theȱ Romanceȱ ofȱ Adultery:ȱ Queenshipȱ andȱ Sexualȱ Transgressionȱ inȱ Oldȱ French
Literature.ȱTheȱMiddleȱAgesȱSeriesȱ(Philadelphia:ȱUniversityȱofȱPennsylvaniaȱPress,ȱ1998),ȱ3.ȱSee
alsoȱJanetȱL.ȱNelson,ȱ“QueensȱasȱJezebels:ȱTheȱCareersȱofȱBrunhildȱandȱBalthildȱinȱMerovingian
History,”ȱMedievalȱWomen,ȱed.ȱDerekȱBakerȱ(Oxford:ȱBlackwell,ȱ1978):ȱ31–79;ȱDouglasȱD.ȱR.ȱOwen,
EleanorȱofȱAquitaine:ȱQueenȱandȱLegendȱ(Oxford:ȱBlackwell,ȱ1993);ȱMiriamȱShadis,ȱBerenguelaȱof
Castileȱ(1180–1246)ȱandȱPoliticalȱWomenȱinȱtheȱHighȱMiddleȱAges.ȱTheȱNewȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(NewȱYork:
PalgraveȱMacmillan,ȱ2009).
41
MichelȱZink,ȱIntroductionȱàȱlaȱlittératureȱduȱMoyenȱAgeȱ(seeȱnoteȱ17),ȱ50.
42
ClaudeȱGaignebetȱandȱDominiqueȱLajoux,ȱArtȱprofaneȱetȱreligionȱpopulaireȱauȱMoyenȱAgeȱ(Vendôme:
PressesȱUniversitairesȱdeȱFrance,ȱ1985),ȱ285.
FatherȱinȱHeaven,ȱmyȱlifeȱisȱover!”
Sheȱwasȱsoȱfrightened,ȱthatȱsheȱfell,ȱunconscious,]
Theȱ bear,ȱ symbolȱ ofȱ extremeȱ savagery,ȱ willȱ appearȱ twiceȱ inȱ theȱ epic:ȱ first
physicallyȱmenacingȱBerthe’sȱlife,ȱandȱlaterȱattackingȱherȱmotherȱinȱaȱdream.ȱThis
creature,ȱ darkȱ andȱ hairy,ȱ likeȱ theȱ wildȱ man,ȱ wasȱ aȱ centralȱ figureȱ inȱ cultȱ and
mythologiesȱinȱpaganȱEurope,ȱbutȱhadȱbecomeȱduringȱtheȱfeudalȱperiod,ȱaccording
toȱMichelȱPastoureau,ȱtheȱ“theȱmostȱdiabolicalȱofȱallȱanimals.”43ȱConsideredȱthe
lordȱofȱtheȱforestȱandȱofȱallȱwildȱbeasts,ȱthisȱonceȱveneratedȱcreatureȱwasȱdeposed
byȱtheȱadventȱofȱChristianity.ȱSaintȱAugustineȱandȱtheȱChurchȱFathers,ȱthreatened
byȱ paganȱ legendsȱ ofȱ theȱ bear’sȱ power,ȱ demonizedȱ theȱ animalȱ thatȱ wasȱ later
markedȱforȱdeathȱbyȱtheȱclergy.ȱTheȱbearȱwasȱthenȱsupplantedȱinȱtheȱbestiaryȱfirst
byȱtheȱlion,ȱcrownedȱwithȱtheȱsymbolȱofȱnobility,ȱandȱlaterȱbyȱtheȱeagle.44
Berthe’sȱ onlyȱ positiveȱ encounterȱ inȱ theȱ forestȱ isȱ withȱ aȱ hermitȱ livingȱ nearȱ a
fountain,45ȱ anotherȱ recurrentȱ tropeȱ inȱ medievalȱ literature.ȱ Theȱ presenceȱ ofȱ a
religiousȱmanȱinȱtheȱspaceȱofȱtheȱforestȱreassuresȱBerthe,ȱbutȱtheȱrecluseȱdeniesȱher
entranceȱtoȱhisȱsimpleȱhut,ȱsinceȱherȱpresenceȱwouldȱbeȱaȱsourceȱofȱpollutionȱand
temptationȱinȱaȱlifeȱofȱsolitudeȱandȱcontemplation.ȱNonetheless,ȱheȱfeedsȱher,ȱand
indicatesȱtheȱpathȱbackȱtoȱcivilization,ȱaȱpathȱonȱwhichȱsheȱwillȱmeetȱSymon,ȱa
royalȱofficer.ȱWhileȱtheȱmaleȱheroȱentersȱtheȱforestȱofȱhisȱownȱwill,ȱinȱsearchȱof
adventureȱtoȱtestȱhisȱcourageȱandȱskillsȱinȱsolitaryȱcombat,ȱhisȱvictoryȱsignalsȱthe
endȱofȱtheȱquest,ȱandȱhisȱreturnȱandȱreintegrationȱtoȱtheȱcourt.ȱ
Berthe’sȱwanderings,ȱtheȱresultȱofȱaȱforcedȱexile,ȱareȱaboutȱselfȬdiscoveryȱand
transformationȱfromȱaȱyoungȱgirlȱunpreparedȱforȱmarriageȱtoȱaȱmatureȱwoman
readyȱtoȱassumeȱherȱdutiesȱasȱspouseȱandȱqueen.ȱTheȱintenseȱepisodeȱinȱtheȱforest
endsȱwithȱtheȱvisitȱtoȱtheȱhermit,ȱtheȱholyȱmanȱwhoȱputsȱherȱbackȱonȱtheȱright
path.ȱHerȱquestȱisȱaboutȱenduranceȱandȱpatience,ȱtwoȱqualitiesȱsheȱwillȱapplyȱto
herȱnewȱdomesticȱlifeȱinȱSymon’sȱhouse,ȱwhereȱsheȱwillȱassumeȱtheȱtraditional
femaleȱroleȱbyȱspinningȱandȱmakingȱembroidery.ȱ
Symonȱ andȱ hisȱ familyȱ liveȱ onȱ theȱ fringeȱ ofȱ theȱ forest,ȱ whichȱ evokesȱ byȱ its
geographicalȱ locationȱ aȱ noȬman’sȱ landȱ betweenȱ cityȱ andȱ nature.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ rural
settingȱ thatȱ constitutesȱ herȱ newȱ abode,ȱ theȱ transformedȱ Bertheȱ noȱ longer
complainsȱaboutȱherȱfate,ȱbutȱinsteadȱmakesȱgoodȱuseȱofȱherȱskillsȱasȱaȱspinnerȱand
embroidererȱtoȱearnȱaȱlivingȱandȱgainȱaȱcertainȱindependence.ȱHerȱmasteryȱinȱthese
skills—thisȱisȱalsoȱanȱimportantȱelementȱofȱherȱlegend—placesȱherȱinȱaȱpositionȱof
43
MichelȱPastoureau,ȱTheȱBear:ȱHistoryȱofȱaȱFallenȱKing,ȱtrans.ȱGeorgeȱHolochȱ(2007;ȱTheȱBelknap
PressȱofȱHarvardȱUniversityȱPress:ȱCambridge,ȱMA,ȱandȱLondon,ȱ2011),ȱ115.
44
Pastoureau,ȱTheȱBearȱ(seeȱnoteȱ43),ȱ127.ȱ
45
Sautman,ȱ“L’Epopéeȱtaisible’ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ22),ȱ59.ȱWaterȱoftenȱsignalsȱtheȱdomainȱofȱtheȱotherȱworld
orȱtheȱunderworldȱinȱtheȱCelticȱtradition;ȱsee,ȱforȱinstanceȱtheȱpresenceȱofȱtheȱfountainȱinȱChrétien
deȱTroyes,ȱYvain,ȱleȱchevalierȱauȱlion.
446 RosaȱA.ȱPerez
authorityȱ sinceȱ Symon’sȱ twoȱ daughtersȱ becomeȱ herȱ apprentices.ȱ Spinningȱ isȱ a
commonȱandȱexclusiveȱwomen’sȱoccupationȱofȱallȱagesȱandȱsocialȱcondition,ȱand
thusȱsymbolizesȱwoman’sȱwork.46ȱButȱtheȱtoolsȱofȱtheȱtradeȱandȱwoman’sȱmotion
asȱsheȱspinsȱareȱsexuallyȱchargedȱasȱtheȱdistaffȱhasȱaȱsuggestiveȱfeminineȱformȱand
theȱspindleȱaȱdefinitivelyȱmasculineȱone.ȱInȱadditionȱtoȱtheȱeroticismȱassociated
withȱ thisȱ femaleȱ occupation,ȱ spinningȱ isȱ alsoȱ associatedȱ inȱ folkloreȱ withȱ the
utteranceȱ ofȱ harmfulȱ words.ȱ Undeniably,ȱ theȱ longȱ eveningsȱ womenȱ spend
spinningȱandȱgossipingȱareȱresponsibleȱforȱthatȱdarkȱaspectȱofȱtheirȱunceasing
work.ȱFromȱthatȱperspective,ȱBertheȱandȱtheȱtwoȱgirlsȱformȱaȱsingularȱspinningȱtrio
thatȱcanȱbeȱperceivedȱasȱtheȱmythologicalȱFates,ȱwhichȱcastsȱaȱnegativeȱshadowȱon
theirȱfemaleȱlabor.
WhileȱBertheȱtoilsȱinȱherȱnewȱlife,ȱherȱmother,ȱafterȱlongȱyearsȱwithoutȱnewsȱof
her,ȱhasȱaȱpremonitoryȱdream,ȱinvolvingȱtwoȱhighlyȱsymbolicȱanimals,ȱtheȱbear
andȱtheȱeagle:
Enȱdormantȱliȱsembloitȱqueȱuneȱourseȱsauvage
Liȱmenjoitȱleȱbrasȱdestre,ȱleȱcostéȱetȱlaȱnage
Etȱunsȱaiglesȱvenoitȱseoirȱseurȱsonȱvisage.ȱ (1679–81)
[Whileȱsleeping,ȱitȱseemedȱtoȱherȱthatȱaȱwildȱfemaleȱbear
Wasȱeatingȱherȱrightȱarm,ȱherȱsideȱandȱherȱbuttock
Andȱanȱeagleȱwasȱsittingȱonȱherȱface.]
Blanchefleur’sȱviolentȱdreamȱechoesȱBerthe’sȱbearȱencounterȱinȱtheȱforest.ȱInȱher
interpretationȱ ofȱ theȱ dream,ȱ sheȱ establishesȱ aȱ parallelȱ betweenȱ theȱ animals’
behaviorȱ andȱ herȱ ownȱ distressȱ regardingȱ herȱ daughter’sȱ silence.ȱ The
aggressivenessȱofȱtheȱbearȱisȱoftenȱcausedȱbyȱtheȱlossȱofȱherȱcubs,ȱthusȱindirectly
suggestingȱtheȱdisappearanceȱorȱdeathȱofȱherȱownȱdaughter.ȱDreams,ȱfollowing
theȱGrecoȬLatinȱtradition,ȱareȱusedȱasȱliteraryȱdevicesȱinȱsaints’ȱvitae,ȱandȱkings’
visions.47ȱ Certainly,ȱ likeȱ Charlemagne’sȱ fourȱ dreamsȱ inȱ theȱ epicȱ Laȱ Chansonȱ de
Roland,48ȱBlanchefleur’sȱdreamȱfunctionsȱasȱaȱpremonition.ȱTheȱsecondȱanimalȱin
herȱdream,ȱtheȱeagle,ȱsuggestsȱvigilance,ȱwhichȱisȱaȱcommonȱsymbolismȱinȱclassical
andȱ medievalȱ literature,ȱ associatedȱ withȱ thisȱ predator’sȱ acuteȱ eyesight.49ȱ The
warningȱsheȱsensesȱinȱtheȱdreamȱinducesȱBlanchefleurȱtoȱtakeȱactionȱtoȱsaveȱher
daughterȱfromȱaȱgreatȱdanger.ȱAccompaniedȱbyȱoneȱhundredȱarmedȱknights,ȱthe
queenȱofȱHungaryȱleavesȱatȱEaster;ȱherȱparentalȱmissionȱhasȱtheȱappearanceȱofȱa
militaryȱcampaign.
46
DominiqueȱCardon,ȱ“Arachnéȱligotée:ȱlaȱfileuseȱduȱMoyenȱAgeȱfaceȱauȱdrapier,”ȱMédiévalesȱ30
(1996):ȱ13–22;ȱhereȱ14–15.
47
JacquesȱLeȱGoff,ȱPourȱunȱautreȱMoyenȱAge:ȱTemps,ȱtravailȱetȱcultureȱenȱOccident,ȱ18ȱessaisȱ(Paris:
EditionsȱGallimard,ȱ1977),ȱ299–306.
48
SeeȱJosephȱBédierȱed.,ȱLaȱChansonȱdeȱRolandȱ(Paris:ȱUnionȱGénéraleȱd’Editions,ȱ1982).
49
IsidorusȱHispalensis,ȱEtymologiaeȱXII,ȱed.ȱJacquesȱAndréȱ(Paris:ȱLesȱBellesȱLettres,ȱ1986),ȱVII,ȱ101.
Inȱ thisȱ epic,ȱ theȱ activeȱ roleȱ inȱ theȱ twoȱ royalȱ couples,ȱ BertheȬPepinȱ and
BlanchefleurȬFloire,ȱisȱassignedȱtoȱwomen,ȱleavingȱtheȱkingsȱinȱtheȱbackground.
Berthe’sȱ motherȱ displaysȱ evidentȱ signsȱ ofȱ anȱ independentȱ character:ȱ “Etȱ bien
creansȱenȱDieuȱetȱdeȱtresȱbonȱcorage”ȱ(1677)ȱ[AndȱbelievingȱinȱGodȱandȱbeingȱof
greatȱ courage].ȱ ȱ Sheȱ isȱ theȱ forceȱ behindȱ theȱ searchȱ effortȱ undertakenȱ onceȱ her
suspicionȱisȱconfirmedȱthatȱsomethingȱhasȱhappenedȱtoȱBerthe.ȱTheȱfirstȱsignsȱare
theȱnegativeȱcommentsȱsheȱhearsȱaboutȱtheȱnewȱspouseȱofȱPepin,ȱandȱonceȱsheȱis
introducedȱtoȱtheȱFrenchȱcourt,ȱsheȱisȱrepeatedlyȱbarredȱfromȱseeingȱtheȱbedridden
queen.ȱ Theȱ greatȱ resemblanceȱ betweenȱ theȱ falseȱ queenȱ andȱ Bertheȱ isȱ notȱ an
obstacleȱforȱBlanchefeurȱsinceȱtwoȱimportantȱphysicalȱsignsȱwillȱbetrayȱAliste,ȱthe
impostor.ȱ
Theȱ obviousȱ signȱ ofȱ Aliste’sȱ duplicityȱ is,ȱ first,ȱ herȱ acknowledgmentȱ thatȱ her
facialȱcomplexionȱhasȱturnedȱyellow,ȱlightȱyellowȱasȱwax:ȱ
“.ȱ.ȱ.ȱMere,”ȱceȱdistȱlaȱserve,ȱ“jeȱsuefreȱtelȱmartire
Queȱj’enȱsuiȱaussiȱjauneȱdevenueȱcomȱcireȱ.ȱ.ȱ.”ȱ (2116–17)
[Mother,”ȱsaidȱtheȱserf,ȱ“Iȱsufferȱsuchȱmartyrdom
ThatȱIȱhaveȱbecomeȱasȱyellowȱasȱwaxȱ]
Theȱcolorȱyellowȱinȱmedievalȱsymbolismȱisȱhighlyȱchargedȱsinceȱitȱwasȱusedȱin
ChristianȱiconographyȱtoȱrepresentȱJudas,ȱtheȱtraitor,ȱandȱwasȱlaterȱassignedȱto
Jewsȱasȱaȱbadgeȱofȱrecognition.50ȱAccordingȱtoȱMichelȱPastoureau,ȱthisȱcolorȱcame
toȱrepresentȱnotȱonlyȱtreason,ȱbutȱinȱitsȱlighterȱshades,ȱwhichȱisȱtheȱoneȱAdenet
choosesȱtoȱdescribeȱAliste,ȱembarrassment,ȱdisorder,ȱhypocrisy,ȱandȱenvy.51ȱItȱis
considered,ȱalongȱwithȱredȱandȱgreen,ȱtoȱbeȱtheȱmostȱambivalentȱcolor,ȱindicating
aȱsocialȱtransgression.52
Theȱsecond,ȱandȱmostȱvisibleȱsignȱofȱAliste’sȱusurpationȱofȱsocialȱstatusȱand
power,ȱ andȱ thereforeȱ beingȱ guiltyȱ ofȱ highȱ treason,ȱ liesȱ inȱ theȱ sizeȱ ofȱ herȱ feet.
50
Seeȱ Rosaȱ Alvarezȱ Perez,ȱ “NextȬDoorȱ Neighbors:ȱ Aspectsȱ ofȱ JudeoȬChristianȱ Cohabitationȱ in
MedievalȱFrance,”ȱUrbanȱSpaceȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱEarlyȱModernȱAgeȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassen,
Fundamentalsȱ ofȱ Medievalȱ andȱ Earlyȱ Modernȱ Culture,ȱ 4ȱ (Berlinȱ andȱ Newȱ York:ȱ Walterȱ De
Gruyter,ȱ2009),ȱ309–29;ȱhereȱ315ȱn.ȱ31,ȱ32.ȱSeeȱSolomonȱGrayzel,ȱTheȱChurchȱandȱtheȱJewsȱinȱthe
XIIIthȱCenturyȱ(NewȱYork:ȱHermonȱPress,ȱ1966),ȱ65–70.ȱAfterȱtheȱFourthȱLateranȱCouncilȱinȱ1215,
Jewsȱwereȱforcedȱtoȱwearȱtheȱrouelle,ȱaȱuniqueȱpieceȱofȱclothȱtoȱdistinguishȱthemȱfromȱChristians.
ByȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱtheȱcolorȱyellowȱwasȱlinkedȱtoȱdisorderȱandȱmadness:ȱtheȱbuffoons
andȱmadmenȱwereȱclothedȱinȱyellow.ȱForȱaȱdetailedȱlistȱofȱdecreesȱtoȱenforceȱtheȱJewishȱbadgeȱor
otherȱmarksȱofȱdistinction,ȱseeȱUlysseȱRobert,ȱLesȱSignesȱd’infamieȱauȱmoyenȱâge:ȱjuifs,ȱSarrasins,
hérétiques,ȱlépreux,ȱcagotsȱetȱfillesȱpubliques.ȱMémoiresȱdeȱlaȱSociétéȱNationaleȱdesȱAntiquairesȱde
France,ȱ49ȱ(Paris:ȱH.ȱChampion,ȱ1891).ȱ112–27.ȱForȱJewsȱandȱruralȱspace,ȱseeȱtheȱcontributionsȱto
thisȱvolumeȱbyȱBirgitȱWiedlȱandȱEvelineȱBrugger.
51
MichelȱPastoureau,ȱ“Formesȱetȱcouleursȱduȱdésordreȱ:ȱleȱjauneȱavecȱleȱvert,”ȱMédiévalesȱ4ȱ(1983):
62–73;ȱhereȱ69.
52
MichelȱPastoureau,ȱ“Formesȱetȱcouleursȱduȱdésordre”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ51),ȱ69–70.ȱ
448 RosaȱA.ȱPerez
Accordingȱtoȱtheȱmostȱpopularȱaspectȱofȱherȱlegend,ȱBerthe,ȱtheȱfairȱmaiden,ȱhad
veryȱlongȱfeet,ȱorȱwebbedȱfeet.ȱThisȱelementȱofȱherȱphysicalȱappearanceȱvariesȱin
accordanceȱ withȱ theȱ provenanceȱ ofȱ theȱ tale.ȱ Adenetȱ favorsȱ theȱ oversizedȱ feet,
signalingȱBerthe’sȱdefectȱveryȱdiscreetlyȱandȱinȱaȱveryȱpositiveȱwayȱsinceȱthisȱsign
willȱallowȱherȱmotherȱtoȱdifferentiateȱherȱfromȱAlisteȱwhoȱhasȱsmallȱfeet.ȱTheȱpoet
mentionsȱherȱimperfectionȱatȱthreeȱkeyȱmomentsȱofȱtheȱnarrative:ȱtheȱfirstȱmention
ofȱthisȱdetailȱoccursȱwhenȱsheȱisȱabandonedȱinȱtheȱforest:
ȱȱ
ParȱlaȱforestȱdouȱMans,ȱsiȱqu’ilȱfutȱajorné,
S’enȱvaȱBerteȱasȱgransȱpiez,ȱn’iȱaȱplusȱdemoré:ȱ (1075–76)
[ThroughȱtheȱForestȱofȱLeȱMans,ȱjustȱafterȱsunrise,
GoesȱtheȱbigȱfootedȱBerte,ȱwhoȱdidȱnotȱhesitate:]
Inȱhisȱportrayalȱofȱaȱcourtlyȱlady,ȱAdenetȱisȱmoreȱinclinedȱtoȱchooseȱtheȱoldest
versionȱofȱtheȱlegendȱinȱwhichȱBerthe’sȱfeetȱareȱmerelyȱlongerȱthanȱaverage.ȱIn
laterȱversions,ȱlikeȱtheȱSpanishȱone,53ȱwebbedȱfeetȱareȱprefered,ȱaddingȱaȱsomber
aspectȱtoȱtheȱQueenȱBertheȱsinceȱinȱpopularȱloreȱitȱisȱtheȱsignȱofȱdemonization,
relegatingȱherȱtoȱtheȱcreaturesȱofȱtheȱunderworld.ȱThoseȱversionsȱmayȱexplainȱthe
frequentȱassociationȱmadeȱwithȱtheȱQueenȱPedauque,ȱtheȱgooseȬfootedȱqueen.54
Butȱ inȱ Adenet’sȱ poemȱ noȱ negativeȱ emphasisȱ isȱ madeȱ aboutȱ herȱ feet;ȱ Berthe’s
imperfectionȱmatchesȱPepin’s.ȱHeȱisȱdescribedȱasȱshortȱandȱugly;ȱlaterȱinȱlife,ȱhe
willȱsufferȱfromȱgout,ȱaȱpainfulȱailmentȱthatȱisȱaccompaniedȱbyȱtheȱswellingȱofȱthe
foot,ȱ55ȱthusȱsharingȱaȱcommonȱaspectȱwithȱBerthe.
AsȱBlanchefleur’sȱarrivalȱinȱParisȱbecomesȱimminent,ȱAliste’sȱdesperationȱgrows
sinceȱsheȱisȱwellȱawareȱthatȱtheȱqueenȱwillȱquicklyȱuncoverȱtheȱplot.ȱSheȱpleads
withȱherȱmotherȱtoȱflee,ȱacknowledgingȱherȱpartȱinȱtheȱbetrayalȱthatȱhasȱcastȱaway
theȱyoungȱprincess:ȱ
Bienȱsaiȱqueȱparȱmesȱpiezȱconneüesȱserons,
N’aiȱpasȱdeȱlaȱmoitiéȱtésȱpiezȱneȱtésȱtalons
CommeȱotȱBerteȱnoȱdameȱqueȱnousȱtraÿeȱavons,ȱ (1839–41)
[Iȱknowȱveryȱwellȱthatȱbyȱmyȱfeetȱweȱwillȱbeȱrecognized,
Myȱfeetȱareȱnotȱhalfȱtheȱsizeȱofȱyourȱfeetȱorȱyourȱheels
noȱotherȱladyȱhasȱfeetȱlikeȱBerthe,ȱwhoȱweȱhaveȱbetrayed,]
53
JoséȱGómezȱPérez,ȱ“LeyendasȱdelȱcicloȱcarolingioȱenȱEspaña,”ȱRevistaȱdeȱliteraturaȱXXVIIIȱ(1965):
5–18;ȱhereȱ17.ȱSeeȱalsoȱThéodoreȱBachelet,ȱDictionnaireȱgénéralȱdesȱlettres,ȱdesȱbeauxȬartsȱetȱdesȱsciences
moralesȱetȱpolitiquesȱ(Paris:ȱDezobry,ȱ1862),ȱ335;ȱseveralȱchurchesȱinȱFranceȱhaveȱstatuesȱofȱBerthe
(oftenȱassimilatedȱtoȱtheȱqueenȱPédauque)ȱinȱwhichȱsheȱisȱrepresentedȱwithȱwebbedȱfeet:ȱfor
instanceȱonȱtheȱportalȱofȱtheȱchurchesȱofȱLeȱMans,ȱNevers,ȱandȱSaintȱBénigneȱofȱDijon.ȱ
54
GaignebetȱandȱLajoux,ȱArtȱProfaneȱ(seeȱnoteȱ42),ȱ102,ȱ128.ȱ
55
GaignebetȱandȱLajoux,ȱArtȱProfaneȱ(seeȱnoteȱ42),ȱ102.
Consciousȱthatȱtheȱsubterfugeȱisȱaboutȱtoȱbeȱuncovered,ȱMargiste,ȱpresentedȱasȱan
archetypalȱsorceress,ȱaȱstockȱdeviceȱinȱmedievalȱliterature,ȱrevealsȱtoȱherȱdaughter
thatȱsheȱhadȱtheȱintentionȱofȱpoisoningȱBlanchefleurȱandȱPepinȱtheȱBrief,ȱandȱthat
herȱknowledgeȱofȱpoisonsȱwasȱtransmittedȱtoȱherȱbyȱaȱJewishȱwoman,ȱanother
recurrentȱ tropeȱ inȱ Frenchȱ literature,ȱ implyingȱ thatȱ Jewishȱ negativeȱ influence
permeatedȱtheȱsocialȱfabricȱthroughȱwomen:ȱ
“.ȱ.ȱ.ȱAȱenherberȱm’apristȱjadisȱuneȱjuise,
MieusȱleȱsaiȱneȱsetȱfemmeȱquiȱdusquesȱenȱFrise;
Blancheflourȱtraÿraiȱenȱpoireȱouȱenȱcerise,
Douȱveninȱseraiȱtostȱpourveüeȱetȱpourquise.”ȱ (1830–34)
[ToȱmakeȱpoisonsȱaȱlongȱtimeȱagoȱaȱJewessȱtaughtȱme
NoȱwomanȱknowsȱhowȱtoȱbetterȱthanȱmeȱfromȱhereȱtoȱFrise
Blancheflourȱwillȱturnȱintoȱaȱpearȱorȱcherry
OfȱvenomȱIȱwillȱsoonȱbeȱtheȱpurchaserȱandȱpurveyor]
Sheȱ indirectlyȱ representsȱ theȱ stereotypicalȱ Jewess,whoȱ isȱ aȱ brewerȱ ofȱ poison.56
WhileȱinȱotherȱchansonsȱJewsȱappearȱasȱstockȱliminalȱcharactersȱembodyingȱevil
andȱtreason,ȱAdenetȱintroducesȱthemȱinȱhisȱepicȱinȱanȱimplicitȱmanner,ȱthroughȱa
serfȱwoman.ȱAliste,ȱtheȱdaughter,ȱambitiousȱbutȱmoreȱpragmatic,ȱwillȱbeȱspared
sinceȱsheȱboreȱtheȱkingȱtwoȱchildren;ȱsheȱwillȱinsteadȱbeȱsentȱtoȱaȱconventȱwith
them.
Afterȱtheȱintervalȱofȱtheȱcourtȱscene,ȱitȱisȱinȱtheȱforestȱthatȱtheȱstoryȱunfoldsȱand
Berthe’sȱexileȱcomesȱtoȱanȱend.ȱPepin,ȱabsentȱfromȱaȱsubstantialȱpartȱofȱtheȱepic,
entersȱtheȱstageȱtoȱcorrectȱtheȱinjusticeȱdoneȱtoȱBerthe.ȱTheȱreunionȱofȱtheȱroyal
coupleȱisȱmadeȱpossibleȱthroughȱtheȱdeer,ȱaȱroyalȱemblem,ȱandȱaȱprovidential
animalȱinȱtheȱCelticȱtradition.ȱInȱthisȱallegoricalȱrepresentation,ȱitȱwillȱguideȱPepin
toȱ Berthe.ȱ Longȱ afterȱ Christianityȱ hadȱ beenȱ firmlyȱ established,ȱ mergingȱ pagan
beliefsȱandȱcentersȱofȱworshipȱwithȱChristianȱdoctrineȱandȱchurches,57ȱstorytellers,
andȱpoetsȱstillȱreturnȱtoȱtheȱoldȱculturalȱtraditionsȱforȱinspirationȱandȱimagery.58
Whileȱ theȱ forestȱ inȱ theȱ Middleȱ Agesȱ stillȱ belongsȱ toȱ theȱ worldȱ ofȱ theȱ pagan
heritage,ȱtheȱmarginsȱofȱthatȱworldȱareȱmarkedȱwithȱlittleȱchapelsȱandȱoratories
thatȱleaveȱnumerousȱChristianȱimprints.ȱHermitsȱalsoȱelectȱtoȱliveȱinȱthisȱvegetal
desert,ȱaȱcounterpartȱtoȱtheȱbiblicalȱone.ȱ
Inȱthisȱlastȱepisodeȱtakingȱplaceȱinȱtheȱforest,ȱAdenetȱcombinesȱtwoȱgenres,ȱthe
pastourelle,ȱnamelyȱtheȱencounterȱofȱaȱknightȱandȱaȱyoungȱgirlȱofȱlowerȱsocialȱstatus
inȱaȱnatureȱscene,ȱwhereinȱbothȱhideȱtheirȱtrueȱidentity,ȱandȱaȱvariantȱofȱtheȱtale
56
Perez,ȱ”NextȬDoorȱNeighbors”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ50),ȱ328.ȱ
57
LeȱGoff,ȱPourȱunȱautreȱMoyenȱAgeȱ(seeȱnoteȱ47),ȱ229.
58
H.ȱR.ȱEllisȱDavidson,ȱMythsȱandȱSymbolsȱinȱPaganȱEurope:ȱEarlyȱScandinavianȱandȱCelticȱReligions
(Syracuse,ȱNY:ȱSyracuseȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1988),ȱ12.
450 RosaȱA.ȱPerez
ofȱ“theȱmanȱinȱsearchȱofȱhisȱdisappearedȱspouse.”59ȱTheȱreunionȱtakesȱplaceȱinȱthe
Spring,ȱ andȱ moreȱ specificallyȱ atȱ Pentecost,60ȱ anotherȱ conventionalȱ tropeȱ inȱ the
literatureȱ ofȱ theȱ period.ȱ Berthe,ȱ aboutȱ toȱ beȱ rapedȱ byȱ theȱ king,ȱ divulgesȱ her
identity,ȱandȱbyȱdoingȱsoȱbringsȱtheȱstoryȱtoȱitsȱend:ȱ
K’aȱlaȱfemmeȱPepinȱneȱpuissiezȱadeser:
FilleȱsuiȱleȱroyȱFloire,ȱdeȱceȱn’estuetȱdouter,
EtȱfilleȱBlancheflour,ȱqueȱDieusȱpuistȱhonnorer.”ȱ (2732–34)
[Pepin’sȱwifeȱyouȱcouldȱnotȱtouch;
DaughterȱofȱtheȱkingȱFloireȱIȱam,ȱdoȱnotȱdoubtȱit,
AndȱdaughterȱofȱBlancheflour,ȱmayȱGodȱhonorȱher.”]
Conclusion
Bertheȱemergesȱtriumphantlyȱfromȱherȱlongȱexileȱandȱherȱlifeȱawayȱfromȱtheȱcourt.
Indeed,ȱthisȱobscureȱhistoricalȱfigureȱthatȱbecameȱtheȱmaterialȱofȱaȱcaptivating
legendȱbyȱtheȱtwelfthȱcentury,ȱandȱtheȱobjectȱofȱnumerousȱversionsȱofȱtheȱstoryȱin
severalȱcountriesȱhasȱgainedȱaȱpopularityȱthatȱveryȱfewȱcharactersȱinȱtheȱchansons
deȱgesteȱlikeȱRoland,ȱCharlemagne’sȱnephew,ȱwouldȱattain.ȱUndoubtedly,ȱherȱyears
ofȱaȱhumbleȱlivingȱinȱaȱruralȱsetting,ȱworkingȱandȱsharingȱtheȱhardshipsȱandȱjoys
ofȱsimpleȱpeople,ȱlargelyȱcontributedȱtoȱtheȱpopularity61ȱofȱtheȱfutureȱqueen.ȱHer
trialȱinȱtheȱforestȱrepresentsȱaȱkeyȱelementȱofȱtheȱlegend,ȱtriggeringȱaȱseriesȱof
adventuresȱpertainingȱtoȱthisȱwildȱandȱdarkȱworld,ȱandȱinȱwhichȱBertheȱwillȱbe
associatedȱwithȱaȱnumberȱofȱfolkȱtalesȱthatȱwillȱenrichȱherȱownȱlegend.ȱTheȱforest,
personifiedȱbyȱAdenetȱleȱRoi,ȱcontributesȱtoȱtheȱinitiationȱandȱtransformationȱof
theȱyoungȱprincess,ȱrevealingȱaȱnewȱBertheȱreadyȱtoȱassumeȱherȱrightfulȱplaceȱin
society.ȱ
59
Thompson,ȱMotifȬIndexȱofȱFolkȱLiteratureȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱTaleȬtypeȱ400.
60
Pentecostȱrepresentsȱanȱimportantȱreligiousȱfeast,ȱbutȱitȱisȱalsoȱaȱtraditionalȱdateȱforȱtheȱdubbing
ofȱyoungȱmenȱasȱknights.
61
Seeȱnoteȱ8.
Chapterȱ13
MariaȱCeciliaȱRuiz
(UniversityȱofȱSanȱDiego)
JuanȱManuel’sȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱ(1325?)
JuanȱManuelȱ(1282–1348)ȱshowsȱlittleȱinterestȱinȱcitiesȱandȱcityȱlifeȱinȱhisȱbooks,
andȱ especiallyȱ notȱ inȱ hisȱ Libroȱ deȱ laȱ cazaȱ (1325?).ȱ Itȱ isȱ known,ȱ inȱ fact,ȱ from
biographicalȱsourcesȱandȱautobiographicalȱreferences,ȱthatȱheȱpreferredȱlifeȱinȱthe
country.ȱ Thatȱ heȱ didȱ notȱ describeȱ theȱ citiesȱ thatȱ wereȱ growingȱ andȱ becoming
importantȱeconomicȱandȱculturalȱcentersȱunderscoresȱwhatȱisȱknownȱaboutȱhim,
thatȱheȱwasȱafraidȱofȱanyȱchangeȱthatȱthreatenedȱhisȱpositionȱasȱaȱwealthyȱnoble
landowner.ȱHeȱwasȱhappiestȱwhenȱheȱwasȱinȱtheȱcountry,ȱwhereȱnobleȱlandowners
ofȱ theȱ oldȱ orderȱ likeȱ himȱ couldȱ stillȱ holdȱ onȱ toȱ traditionsȱ andȱ customsȱ that
protectedȱtheirȱstatus.ȱAsȱaȱwealthyȱlandowner,ȱheȱrootedȱhimselfȱfirmlyȱonȱthe
landȱ thatȱ heȱ owned.ȱ Heȱ traveledȱ butȱ neverȱ outsideȱ ofȱ Spain.ȱ Inȱ oneȱ ofȱ his
autobiographicalȱreferencesȱheȱstatesȱthatȱthereȱisȱnoȱbiggerȱpleasureȱaȱmanȱcan
haveȱthanȱtoȱliveȱinȱtheȱcountryȱofȱwhichȱheȱisȱaȱnative.1ȱ
Inȱanotherȱautobiographicalȱreferenceȱheȱboastsȱthatȱheȱisȱsoȱwealthyȱthatȱhe
couldȱtraverseȱSpainȱandȱeachȱnightȱsleepȱinȱoneȱofȱhisȱcastles.2ȱJuanȱManuel’s
1
In chapter XXVI of Libro del cauallero et del escudero, he writes, “Cada vna de las plazenteras cosas que en el mundo
ha [es] bevir omne en la tierra do es natural, et mayor mente si Dios li faze tanta merçed que puede bebir en ella
onrado et preçiado” (Obras completas I, ed. José Manuel Blecua (Madrid: Editorial Gredos, 1982), 55: 10–13.
(“One of the most enjoyable experiences in the world for a man is to live in his native land, especially if God
grants him the favor of living there with honor and love.”) The edition I use of Libro de la caza is also in Obras
completas I, 509–96. All quotes are from this edition. All translations of quotes are mine, unless otherwise stated.
2
InȱLibroȱenfenidoȱheȱwritesȱtoȱhisȱson,ȱ“Etȱotrosiȱdeȱlaȱvuestraȱheredatȱ[podedes]ȱmantenerȱçercaȱde
millȱcaualleros,ȱsinȱbienȱfechoȱdelȱrey,ȱetȱpodedesȱyrȱdelȱreynoȱdeȱNauar[r]aȱfastaȱelȱreynoȱde
Granada,ȱ queȱ cadaȱ nocheȱ posedesȱ enȱ villaȱ çercadaȱ oȱ enȱ castiellosȱ deȱ llosȱ queȱ yoȱ he”ȱ (Obras
completasȱ Iȱ [seeȱ noteȱ 1],ȱ 162:ȱ 14–17).ȱ (“Andȱ aboutȱ yourȱ inheritance,ȱ youȱ areȱ ableȱ toȱ support
financiallyȱoneȱthousandȱknights,ȱwithoutȱtheȱking’sȱhelp,ȱandȱyouȱareȱableȱtoȱtravelȱfromȱthe
kingdomȱofȱNavarraȱtoȱtheȱkingdomȱofȱGranadaȱandȱeveryȱnightȱsleepȱinȱaȱwalledȱtownȱorȱinȱa
452 MariaȱCeciliaȱRuiz
identityȱwasȱtiedȱtoȱhisȱbeingȱaȱCastilianȱlandownerȱwhoȱenjoyedȱhisȱlifestyleȱin
theȱcountryside,ȱandȱhuntingȱforȱhimȱwasȱtheȱbestȱwayȱtoȱenjoyȱtheȱoutdoors.ȱIn
fact,ȱ theȱ author,ȱ anȱ avidȱ andȱ experiencedȱ hunter,ȱ wasȱ happiestȱ whenȱ heȱ was
hunting,ȱasȱheȱstatesȱinȱhisȱownȱhuntingȱmanual,ȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza.ȱ3
InȱthisȱarticleȱIȱdiscussȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱinȱfourȱparts.ȱInȱtheȱfirstȱpartȱIȱprovide
anȱ introductionȱ toȱ Juanȱ Manuel,ȱ hisȱ interestȱ inȱ hunting,ȱ andȱ theȱ problems
concerningȱtheȱbookȱthatȱtheȱcriticsȱhaveȱaddressed.ȱInȱtheȱsecondȱpartȱIȱdevelop
aȱnumberȱofȱtheseȱproblemsȱwithȱmoreȱdetail,ȱmainlyȱtheȱproblemȱofȱtheȱmethod
ofȱcomposition.ȱAsȱhasȱbeenȱdiscussedȱbyȱmanyȱcritics,ȱitȱisȱnotȱcertainȱatȱallȱthat
Juanȱ Manuelȱ wroteȱ theȱ booksȱ thatȱ heȱ authored.ȱ Asȱ demonstratedȱ byȱ Dennis
Sennif,ȱ thisȱ bookȱ itselfȱ showsȱ signsȱ thatȱ theȱ bookȱ makingȱ processȱ entailed
dictation.4ȱ Thereȱ areȱ indeed,ȱ accordingȱ toȱ Reynaldoȱ AyerbeȬChaux,ȱ numerous
possibleȱscenariosȱofȱhowȱhisȱbooksȱwereȱcomposed,ȱbutȱforȱtheȱpurposesȱofȱthis
studyȱIȱtakeȱitȱforȱgrantedȱthat,ȱthoughȱJuanȱManuelȱmostȱlikelyȱdidȱnotȱwriteȱthe
Libroȱ deȱ laȱ cazaȱ withȱ hisȱ ownȱ hand,ȱ heȱ isȱ theȱ authorȱ whoȱ wasȱ involvedȱ inȱ the
compositionȱofȱtheȱbookȱatȱmostȱstagesȱifȱnotȱevery.5ȱIȱalsoȱaddressȱtheȱproblemȱof
JuanȱManuelȱasȱaȱreaderȱandȱaȱwriter,ȱasȱcanȱbeȱgleanedȱfromȱtheȱbookȱitself.ȱIn
castleȱthatȱIȱown.”)
3
BesideȱBlecua’sȱeditionȱofȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza,ȱwhichȱIȱamȱusing,ȱthereȱareȱaȱfewȱothers,ȱwhichȱIȱlist
inȱchronologicalȱorder:ȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱinȱLosȱlibrosȱdeȱcetreríaȱdeȱelȱPríncipeȱyȱelȱCanciller,ȱed.ȱJosé
GutierrezȱdeȱlaȱVegaȱ(Madrid:ȱM.ȱTello,ȱBibliotecaȱVenatoriaȱEspañolaȱ3,ȱ1879),ȱ137–44;ȱLibroȱde
laȱcaza,ȱed.ȱGottfriedȱBaist,ȱ(Halle:ȱMaxȱNiemeyer,ȱ1880);ȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza,ȱed.ȱJoséȱMaríaȱCastroȱy
Calvoȱ(Barcelona:ȱConsejoȱSuperiorȱdeȱInvestigacionesȱCientíficas,ȱ1945);ȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱinȱCinco
Tratados,ȱ ed.ȱ Reinaldoȱ AyerbeȬChauxȱ (Madison,ȱ Wisconsin:ȱ Hispanicȱ Seminaryȱ ofȱ Medieval
Studies,ȱ1989),ȱ177–251;ȱDonȱJuanȱManuelȱyȱelȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza,ȱed.ȱJoséȱManuelȱFradejasȱRueda
(Tordesillasȱ andȱ Valladolid:ȱ Institutoȱ deȱ Estudiosȱ deȱ Iberoaméricaȱ yȱ Portugal,ȱ Seminarioȱ de
FilologíaȱMedieval,ȱ2001).ȱ
4
SeeȱDennisȱSennif’sȱarticle,ȱ“’Asíȱfizȱyoȱdeȱloȱloȱqueȱoy’:ȱOrality,ȱAuthority,ȱandȱExperienceȱinȱJuan
Manuel’sȱ Libroȱ deȱ laȱ caza,ȱ Libroȱ infinido,ȱ andȱ Libroȱ deȱ lasȱ armas,”ȱ Josepȱ Maríaȱ SolàȬSolé:ȱ Homage,
homenaje,ȱhomenatge:ȱmiscellaneaȱdeȱestudiosȱdeȱamigosȱyȱdiscípulos,ȱed.ȱAntonioȱTorresȬAlcalá,ȱJosep
M.ȱ SolaȬSolé,ȱ ȱ Victorioȱ G.ȱ Agüera,ȱ andȱ Nathanielȱ Bȱ Smith.ȱ Bibliotecaȱ universitariaȱ Puvill,ȱ V.
Estudiosȱmisceláneos,ȱ1ȱ(Barcelona:ȱPuvill,ȱ1984),ȱ1:ȱ91–109.ȱReprintedȱinȱNobleȱPursuits:ȱLiterature
andȱtheȱHunt.ȱSelectedȱArticlesȱbyȱDennisȱSennif,ȱed.ȱDianeȱM.ȱWrightȱandȱConnieȱL.ȱScarborough
(Newark,ȱDE:ȱJuanȱdeȱlaȱCuesta,ȱ1992),ȱ33–58.ȱManuelȱCardenalȱdeȱIrachetaȱalsoȱsuggestedȱJuan
Manuel’sȱdictationȱprocedureȱinȱ1948ȱinȱhisȱarticle,ȱ“LaȱgeografíaȱconquenseȱdelȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza,”
RevistaȱdeȱArchivos,ȱBibliotecasȱyȱMuseosȱ54ȱ(1948):ȱ27–49;ȱreprintedȱinȱDonȱJuanȱManuelȱyȱelȱLibroȱde
laȱcazaȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ11–30;ȱhereȱ12:ȱ“EsȱmuyȱprobableȱqueȱdonȱJuanȱManuelȱyaȱcompusieraȱsus
obrasȱ dictándolas,ȱ loȱ queȱ seȱ desprendeȱ inclusoȱ deȱ algunosȱ pasajesȱ deȱ lasȱ mismas,ȱ yȱ muy
particularmenteȱenȱelȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza.”ȱ(“ItȱisȱveryȱprobableȱthatȱJuanȱManuelȱcomposedȱhisȱbooks
byȱdictation,ȱwhichȱcanȱbeȱobservedȱinȱaȱnumberȱofȱpassagesȱinȱtheȱbooks,ȱespeciallyȱinȱLibroȱde
laȱcaza.”)ȱ
5
SeeȱReynaldoȱAyerbeȬChauxȱinȱCincoȱTratadosȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱxliii–xlvi.ȱAyerbeȬChauxȱalsoȱrejects
theȱpossibilityȱthatȱJuanȱManuelȱwroteȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱbyȱhimselfȱandȱdelineatesȱfourȱdifferent
possibleȱcompositionȱmethodsȱthatȱheȱcouldȱhaveȱfollowed.ȱInȱtheȱsecondȱpartȱofȱthisȱarticleȱ(notes
25ȱandȱ36)ȱIȱreferȱwithȱmoreȱdetailȱtoȱAyerbeȬChaux’sȱopinionȱonȱthisȱsubject.
JuanȱManuel’sȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱ(1325?) 453
addition,ȱIȱalsoȱtakeȱintoȱaccountȱtheȱscribeȱorȱscribesȱwhoȱwereȱmostȱprobably
involvedȱinȱtheȱprocess.ȱInȱtheȱthirdȱpartȱofȱtheȱarticle,ȱIȱfocusȱonȱwhatȱFradejas
Ruedasȱ calledȱ theȱ anecdotalȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ treatise,ȱ theȱ thirdȱ personȱ interjections
(proofȱforȱCardenalȱdeȱIracheta,ȱDennisȱSennif,ȱandȱAyerbeȬChauxȱofȱtheȱorality
ofȱ theȱ text)ȱ inȱ whichȱ Juanȱ Manuel’sȱ recallsȱ personalȱ experiencesȱ relatingȱ to
hunting.6ȱIȱconcludeȱwithȱsomeȱgeneralȱcommentsȱaboutȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱin
relationȱ toȱ theȱ projectȱ ofȱ educationȱ forȱ aristocraticȱ malesȱ thatȱ Juanȱ Manuel
embarkedȱonȱwhenȱheȱbeganȱcomposingȱbooks.
ȱ
I.ȱIntroduction
Byȱ composingȱhisȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱ(ca.ȱ1325?)ȱJuanȱManuelȱgaveȱtestimonyȱ that

beingȱ aȱ man,ȱ anȱ aristocrat,ȱ aȱ hunterȱ andȱ aȱ composerȱ ofȱ booksȱ wereȱ forȱ him
inseparableȱ andȱ dependentȱ onȱ oneȱ another.ȱ Thereȱ were,ȱ inȱ fact,ȱ aȱ numberȱ of
factorsȱ inȱ placeȱ thatȱ contributedȱ toȱ theȱ makingȱ ofȱ theȱ book,ȱ likeȱ gender,ȱ class,
literaryȱgenre,ȱbookȱmakingȱpracticesȱandȱtheȱauthor’sȱownȱlifeȱexperiences.ȱ
AmongȱCastilianȱnoblesȱofȱtheȱfirstȱhalfȱofȱtheȱfourteenthȱcentury,ȱheȱalone,ȱas
farȱasȱweȱknow,ȱcomposedȱbooks.ȱAsȱheȱmentionsȱinȱhisȱbookȱLibroȱenfinido,ȱmost
ofȱhisȱfellowȱnoblemenȱpreferredȱtoȱplayȱdartsȱinȱtheirȱfreeȱtime.ȱHeȱchoseȱtoȱmake
books.7ȱ Hisȱ fellowȱ noblemenȱ alsoȱ huntedȱ asȱ theirȱ birthright,ȱ yetȱ sinceȱ they
preferredȱplayingȱdartsȱtoȱinteractingȱwithȱbooksȱ(readingȱorȱwriting,ȱorȱbeingȱread
toȱorȱdictating),ȱaȱwrittenȱmanualȱonȱhuntingȱwasȱprobablyȱnotȱtoȱbeȱexpected
fromȱthem.ȱ
Inȱotherȱwords,ȱifȱthereȱwasȱgoingȱtoȱbeȱaȱmanualȱonȱhuntingȱwrittenȱinȱCastile
inȱtheȱfirstȱhalfȱofȱtheȱfourteenthȱcentury,ȱthisȱmanȱwhoȱlikedȱtoȱinteractȱwithȱbooks
wasȱlikelyȱtoȱcomposeȱoneȱ(orȱhaveȱoneȱcomposed),ȱbecauseȱheȱalsoȱlovedȱthe
sportȱofȱhunting.ȱCertainlyȱitȱwasȱhighlyȱunlikely,ȱifȱnotȱoutȱofȱtheȱquestion,ȱthat
aȱnoblewomanȱwouldȱwriteȱorȱcomposeȱone.ȱItȱisȱbelievedȱthatȱnoblewomenȱdid
participateȱinȱhuntingȱexpeditions,ȱbutȱitȱwasȱpredominantlyȱaȱsportȱforȱmales.8ȱ
6
SeeȱJoséȱManuelȱFradejasȱRueda,ȱLiteraturaȱCetreraȱdeȱlaȱEdadȱMediaȱyȱdelȱRenacimiento,ȱ(London:
QueenȱMaryȱandȱWestfieldȱCollege,ȱDepartmentȱofȱHispanicȱStudies,ȱ1998),ȱ25:ȱ“Sinȱembargo,ȱlos
textosȱ castellanosȱ introducenȱ otraȱ novedad:ȱ laȱ anécdota.ȱ Conȱ ellaȱ aligeranȱ laȱ pesadezȱ deȱ la
doctrinaȱ venatoriaȱ yȱ farmacológicaȱ porȱ medioȱ deȱ laȱ introduccciónȱ deȱ hechosȱ acaecidosȱ aȱ los
autoresȱaȱloȱlargoȱdeȱsuȱexperienciaȱcomoȱcazadoresȱyȱcetreros.”ȱ(“However,ȱtheȱCastilianȱtexts
introduceȱ aȱ novelty,ȱ theȱ anecdote.ȱ Theȱ anecdotesȱ conteractȱ theȱ seriousnessȱ ofȱ theȱ doctrinal
materialȱonȱcynegeticsȱandȱpharmacologyȱbyȱintroducingȱexperiencesȱthatȱtheȱauthorsȱhadȱas
huntersȱandȱfalconers.”)ȱ
7
ObrasȱcompletasȱIȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1),ȱ182–83:ȱ28–31.
8
SeeȱJohnȱCummins,ȱTheȱHoundȱandȱtheȱHawk:ȱtheȱArtȱofȱMedievalȱHuntingȱ(NewȱYork:ȱSt.ȱMartin’s
Press,ȱ 1988),ȱ 8.ȱ Cumminsȱ writes,ȱ “Clearlyȱ thereȱ wasȱ femaleȱ participationȱ inȱ certainȱ formsȱ of
Whatȱ doesȱ setȱ theȱ authorȱ apartȱ fromȱ otherȱ noblesȱ wasȱ thatȱ heȱ didȱ dedicate
himselfȱtoȱcomposingȱbooks,ȱoneȱafterȱtheȱother.ȱWhatȱfactorsȱcontributedȱtoȱthis
developmentȱbesideȱtheȱpersonalȱwillȱtoȱdoȱso?ȱPerhapsȱtheȱnumberȱoneȱfactorȱwas
that,ȱasȱweȱsuggestedȱabove,ȱheȱlikedȱtoȱinteractȱwithȱbooks,ȱespeciallyȱhisȱuncle’s,
AlfonsoȱXȱtheȱWise.ȱ
AlfonsoȱXȱdiedȱinȱ1284,ȱwhenȱJuanȱManuelȱwasȱalmostȱtwoȱyearsȱold,ȱsoȱheȱdid
notȱgetȱtoȱknowȱhimȱpersonally.ȱAtȱsomeȱstageȱinȱhisȱlifeȱ(probablyȱasȱanȱadult),
heȱmostȱprobablyȱinvolvedȱhimselfȱintenselyȱ(readingȱorȱlisteningȱto)ȱ withȱ his
uncle’sȱencyclopedicȱbooksȱonȱlaw,ȱtheȱsciences,ȱhistoryȱandȱrecreationalȱactivities
likeȱindoorȱgamesȱsuchȱasȱchessȱandȱdiceȱandȱoutdoorȱsportsȱsuchȱasȱhuntingȱand
fishing.9ȱ(Iȱsayȱ“probably”ȱbecauseȱweȱdoȱhaveȱtoȱkeepȱinȱmindȱthatȱtheȱ“learned”
aspectsȱofȱtheȱbooksȱmightȱnotȱallȱnecessarilyȱbeȱofȱManuelineȱinput,ȱbutȱratherȱthe
scribe’sȱorȱscribes’.ȱThatȱis,ȱtheȱscribe(s)ȱcouldȱhaveȱbeen,ȱofȱtheȱtwo,ȱtheȱmore
learnedȱparty,ȱnotȱnecessarilyȱJuanȱManuel.)
Juanȱ Manuel’sȱ firstȱ bookȱ wasȱ indeedȱ Crónicaȱ abreviada,ȱ whichȱ is,ȱ chapterȱ by
chapter,ȱaȱsummaryȱofȱaȱversionȱofȱAlfonsoȱX’sȱchronicle,ȱEstoriaȱdeȱEspaña,ȱwhich
isȱknownȱasȱCrónicaȱmanuelina,ȱaccordingȱtoȱDiegoȱCatalán.ȱThisȱCrónicaȱmanuelina
whichȱJuanȱManuelȱhandledȱisȱnowȱlostȱandȱcanȱonlyȱbeȱreconstruedȱwithȱthe
Crónicaȱabrreuiada.10ȱWritingȱonȱtheȱCrónicaȱabreuiada,ȱDiegoȱCatalánȱshowedȱhow
JuanȱManuelȱcomposedȱhisȱbookȱforȱautoȬdidacticȱpurposes.ȱItȱisȱasȱifȱJuanȱManuel
hunting,ȱespeciallyȱfalconry,ȱandȱfemaleȱinterestȱinȱotherȱforms,ȱbutȱforȱwomenȱtoȱtakeȱpartȱinȱthe
rigoursȱofȱclassicȱparȱforceȱhunting,ȱasȱopposedȱtoȱitsȱsocialȱpreliminariesȱandȱaftermath,ȱmustȱhave
beenȱaȱrarity.”ȱSeeȱalsoȱJuanȱManuelȱFradejasȱRueda,ȱ“Laȱcazaȱenȱelȱpalacioȱdeȱlosȱreyesȱcatólicos,”
Filologíaȱyȱlingüística:ȱestudiosȱofrecidosȱaȱAntonioȱQuilis,ȱVol.IIȱ(MadridȱandȱValladolid:ȱConsejo
SuperiorȱdeȱInvestigacionesȱSuperiores,ȱ2005),ȱ1953–64;ȱhereȱ1955.ȱFradejasȱRuedaȱshowsȱthat
womenȱinȱtheȱcourtȱofȱIsabelȱlaȱCatólicaȱparticipatedȱinȱtheȱsportȱofȱfalconry.ȱ
9
SeeȱGermánȱOrduna,ȱ“LosȱprólogosȱaȱlaȱCrónicaȱabreviadaȱyȱalȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza:ȱLaȱtradiciónȱalfonsí
yȱlaȱprimeraȱépocaȱenȱlaȱobraȱliterariaȱdeȱdonȱJuanȱManuel,”ȱCuadernosȱdeȱHistoriaȱdeȱEspaña,ȱLI–LII
(1970):ȱ123–44;ȱhereȱ133.ȱReprintedȱinȱDonȱJuanȱManuelȱyȱelȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ105–20.
AccordingȱtoȱGermánȱOrduna,ȱinȱtheȱlibraryȱthatȱJuanȱManuelȱpossessedȱorȱhadȱaccessȱtoȱthere
wereȱnotȱonlyȱbooksȱcomposedȱbyȱhisȱuncleȱtheȱking,ȱbutȱalsoȱcopiesȱofȱAlphonsineȱeditionsȱthat
predatedȱtheȱking’sȱdeath,ȱandȱthatȱareȱnowȱlost:ȱ“LaȱCrónicaȱabreviadaȱyȱelȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱhan
tomadoȱhoy,ȱparaȱlaȱcríticaȱhistóricaȱyȱliteraria,ȱunȱvalorȱdelȱqueȱoriginalmenteȱestabanȱexentos.
Sonȱdocumentosȱqueȱpermitenȱconocerȱciertosȱlibrosȱdeȱcreaciónȱalfonsí—hoyȱperdidos—enȱla
formaȱmásȱpróximaȱaȱlaȱqueȱhabríanȱtenidoȱenȱtiemposȱdeȱAlfonso.ȱLaȱbibliotecaȱqueȱdonȱJuan
Manuelȱposeíaȱoȱpodíaȱconsultarȱcontaba—aȱjuzgarȱporȱloȱqueȱconocemos—conȱcopiasȱtomadas
deȱversionesȱanterioresȱaȱlaȱmuerteȱdeȱAlfonso.”ȱ(“TheȱCrónicaȱabreuiadaȱandȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza
haveȱanȱimportanceȱtodayȱforȱliteraryȱcriticsȱandȱhistoriansȱwhichȱtheyȱdidȱnotȱhaveȱoriginally.
Theyȱareȱdocumentsȱthatȱallowȱusȱtoȱknowȱaboutȱearlierȱversions,ȱnowȱlost,ȱofȱcertainȱbooksȱthat
wereȱcomposedȱinȱtheȱAlphonsineȱworkshops.ȱJuanȱManuel’sȱlibrary,ȱorȱtheȱlibraryȱthatȱheȱhad
accessȱto,ȱcontained,ȱtoȱtheȱbestȱofȱourȱknowledge,ȱcopiesȱofȱeditionsȱofȱbooksȱthatȱwereȱcomposed
beforeȱAlfonsoȱX’sȱdeath.”)ȱ
10
Diegoȱ Catalán,ȱ “Donȱ Juanȱ Manuelȱ anteȱ elȱ modeloȱ alfonsí,”ȱ Juanȱ Manuelȱ Studies,ȱ ed.ȱ Ian
MacPhersonȱ(London:ȱTamesisȱPress,ȱ1977),ȱ17–51;ȱhereȱ20.
decidedȱtoȱlearnȱtheȱhistoryȱofȱSpainȱbyȱreadingȱ(orȱlisteningȱtoȱaȱreadingȱof)ȱhis
uncle’sȱbook;ȱwritingȱorȱdictatingȱsummariesȱofȱtheȱchaptersȱhelpedȱhimȱsecureȱthe
learningȱprocess.ȱItȱcouldȱbeȱalsoȱthatȱheȱwantedȱaȱmoreȱabbreviatedȱversionȱthat
wouldȱbeȱeasierȱtoȱhandle.ȱThat’sȱwhatȱ“crónicaȱabreuiada”ȱmeans,ȱabbreviated
chronicle.11ȱAgain,ȱconsideringȱtheȱmethodȱofȱtheȱcompositionȱitȱisȱnotȱcertainȱhow
muchȱorȱhowȱlittleȱJuanȱManuelȱparticipatedȱinȱtheȱcompositionȱofȱtheȱbook.ȱWhat
mattersȱ forȱ usȱ isȱ thatȱ Juanȱ Manuelȱ didȱ participateȱ inȱ itsȱ creationȱ byȱ wayȱ of
interactingȱmoreȱpersonallyȱwithȱtheȱmaterialȱandȱbyȱorderingȱaȱscribeȱtoȱcopy
downȱhisȱthoughtsȱandȱideas.ȱ
JuanȱManuel’sȱsecondȱsurvivingȱbookȱisȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza.ȱThereȱhasȱbeenȱsome
debateȱ aboutȱ whetherȱ itȱ doesȱ belongȱ toȱ theȱ firstȱ stageȱ ofȱ theȱ author’sȱ literary
career,ȱwhetherȱitȱisȱindeedȱoneȱofȱtheȱfirstȱbooks.ȱGermánȱOrdunaȱaddressesȱthis
questionȱand,ȱrefutingȱGimenezȱSoler’sȱopinionȱthatȱtheȱbookȱwasȱwrittenȱlateȱin
theȱauthor’sȱcareer,ȱheȱconcludesȱconvincinglyȱthatȱtheȱbookȱwentȱthroughȱtwo
mainȱstagesȱofȱcomposition,ȱanȱearlyȱstageȱcharacterizedȱbyȱadmirationȱforȱand
emulationȱofȱhisȱuncleȱAlfonsoȱX,ȱandȱaȱlaterȱstageȱofȱmoreȱindependenceȱand
maturity.12ȱ
Theȱ prologueȱ beginsȱ withȱ praiseȱ forȱ Alfonsoȱ Xȱ andȱ hisȱ books.ȱ Theȱ narrator
explainsȱ thatȱ Juanȱ Manuelȱ (discussedȱ belowȱ isȱ thisȱ relationshipȱ betweenȱ the
narratorȱandȱJuanȱManuel)ȱfoundȱhisȱuncle’sȱwritingsȱonȱhuntingȱtoȱbeȱparticularly
interestingȱandȱusefulȱtoȱhim,ȱbecauseȱheȱhimselfȱlovesȱtoȱhunt,ȱsoȱheȱdecidedȱto
composeȱhisȱownȱbookȱonȱtheȱsubject,ȱborrowingȱtheȱtheoryȱthatȱheȱfoundȱinȱhis
uncle’sȱtexts,ȱthatȱisȱusefulȱtoȱhimȱandȱcouldȱbeȱalsoȱusefulȱtoȱotherȱhuntersȱofȱhis
generationȱwhoȱhaveȱnoȱknowledgeȱofȱthisȱtheory,ȱandȱaddingȱtoȱtheȱtheory,ȱin
orderȱtoȱbackȱitȱupȱorȱcontradictȱit,ȱhisȱownȱfirstȱhandȱexperience,ȱalongȱwithȱthe
firstȱhandȱexperienceȱofȱhisȱteachersȱandȱfellowȱcompanionsȱinȱtheȱsport.
Likeȱ withȱ manyȱ medievalȱ writers,ȱ Juanȱ Manuelȱ (andȱ hisȱ scribes)ȱ wasȱ not
concernedȱwithȱclarifyingȱwhatȱhisȱexactȱsourcesȱwereȱandȱwhereȱandȱhowȱheȱuses
them.ȱHeȱonlyȱstatesȱthatȱheȱusedȱsomeȱofȱhisȱuncle’sȱmaterial.ȱHeȱprovidesȱno
titles,ȱexceptȱforȱCrónicasȱdeȱEspañaȱandȱaȱbookȱonȱchivalry.ȱHeȱalsoȱaffirmsȱthatȱhis
uncleȱwroteȱmanyȱbooksȱinȱwhichȱheȱdescribedȱhuntingȱbigȱgame,ȱfalconryȱand
fishing.ȱTheȱquestionȱis,ȱwhatȱbooksȱareȱthese?ȱWeȱcanȱbelieveȱhimȱandȱidentifyȱthe
chroniclesȱasȱtheseȱbooks.ȱWeȱcanȱalsoȱincludeȱwhereȱtheȱkingȱwroteȱonȱchivalry,
11
SeeȱDiegoȱCatalán,ȱ“DonȱJuanȱManuelȱanteȱelȱmodeloȱalfonsí”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ10),ȱ26:ȱ“Vemosȱtambién
que,ȱenȱunȱprincipio,ȱelȱpropósitoȱdeȱdonȱJuan,ȱalȱ“sacar’ȱdeȱlaȱCrónicaȱoȱEstoriaȱdeȱEspañaȱde
AlfonsoȱXȱ‘vnaȱobraȱmenor’,ȱfueȱsoloȱhacerȱmásȱfácilȱsuȱtareaȱdeȱlector,ȱpoderȱasimilarȱmejorȱel
contenidoȱdeȱlaȱobraȱ‘cumplida’.”ȱ(“Weȱalsoȱseeȱthatȱatȱtheȱbeginning,ȱJuanȱManuel’sȱpurposeȱfor
extractingȱfromȱAlfonsoȱX’sȱChronicleȱorȱEstoriaȱdeȱEspañaȱaȱ“smallerȱbook”ȱwasȱtoȱmakeȱreading
anȱeasierȱtaskȱsoȱheȱcouldȱbetterȱassimilateȱtheȱcontentȱofȱtheȱbiggerȱbook.”)
12
SeeȱGermánȱOrduna,ȱ“LosȱprólogosȱaȱlaȱCrónicaȱabreviadaȱyȱalȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza:ȱLaȱtradiciónȱalfonsí
yȱlaȱprimeraȱépocaȱenȱlaȱobraȱliterariaȱdeȱdonȱJuanȱManuel”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ9);ȱhereȱ119.ȱ
inȱTitleȱ22ȱofȱtheȱSecondȱPartidaȱ“Deȱlosȱcavallerosȱetȱdeȱlasȱcosasȱqueȱlesȱconviene
fazer.”ȱ
Whatȱareȱtheseȱpossibleȱbooksȱonȱhuntingȱbyȱ(orȱusedȱby)ȱAlfonsoȱXth?ȱJosé
ManuelȱFradejasȱRuedaȱidentifiedȱoneȱofȱtheseȱbooks,ȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱlasȱanimaliasȱque
cazan,ȱorȱLibroȱdeȱMoamímȱ(BookȱonȱAnimalsȱthatȱHuntȱorȱMoamym’sȱBook).13ȱThis
bookȱisȱactuallyȱaȱtranslationȱofȱanȱArabicȱmanual,ȱKitabȱalȬYawarihȱbyȱMuhamad
ibnȱ Habdallahȱ Ibnȱ Humarȱ alȬBayzar,ȱ aȱ writerȱ onȱ manyȱ subjectsȱ whoȱ livedȱ in
Baghdadȱaroundȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱninthȱcentury.ȱAccordingȱtoȱFradejasȱRueda,ȱthe
CastilianȱkingȱhadȱtheȱArabicȱbookȱtranslatedȱwhenȱheȱwasȱstillȱaȱprince.ȱAnthony
Cardenas,ȱhowever,ȱafterȱaȱdetailedȱanalysisȱofȱtheȱtwoȱmanuscriptsȱinȱSpanish
andȱ anȱ examinationȱ ofȱ theȱ proofsȱ providedȱ byȱ Seniffȱ andȱ Fradejasȱ Rueda,
concludesȱ that,ȱ “Theȱ reasonsȱ thusȱ farȱ adducedȱ forȱ claimingȱ Alphonsine
sponsorshipȱ forȱ theȱ superbȱ codexȱ RESȱ 270ȱ areȱ notȱ convincing.ȱ Dateȱ and
sponsorshipȱofȱthisȱcodexȱremainȱunsolvedȱproblemsȱandȱchallengesȱforȱtoday’s
scholars.”14
Bothȱbooks,ȱtheȱtranslationȱfromȱtheȱArabicȱandȱJuanȱManuel’sȱownȱbook,ȱare
actuallyȱ notȱ manualsȱ onȱ huntingȱ inȱ general,ȱ butȱ moreȱ precisely,ȱ manualsȱ on
falconry.ȱFalconryȱisȱtheȱhuntingȱofȱwildȱquarryȱinȱitsȱnaturalȱstateȱandȱhabitat
withȱ trainedȱ birdsȱ ofȱ prey.ȱ Libroȱ deȱ lasȱ animaliasȱ deȱ laȱ cazaȱ isȱ theȱ firstȱ bookȱ on
falconryȱinȱSpain.ȱJuanȱManuel’sȱbookȱisȱtheȱsecondȱone.ȱTheȱthirdȱoneȱisȱLibroȱde
laȱcazaȱdeȱlasȱaves,ȱwrittenȱinȱ1385ȱorȱ1386ȱbyȱPeroȱLópezȱdeȱAyala,ȱwhoȱreadȱand
citedȱJuanȱManuel’sȱmanual.ȱAndȱtheȱfourthȱoneȱisȱViscountȱRocabertí’sȱLlibreȱde
cetreria,ȱ whichȱ wasȱ writtenȱ inȱ Catalanȱ aroundȱ 1390.ȱ Theȱ Libroȱ deȱ Montería,
composedȱpossiblyȱbyȱKingȱAlfonsoȱXIȱaroundȱ1345ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ14),ȱisȱnotȱaȱmanual
onȱfalconryȱbutȱonȱhuntingȱinȱgeneral,ȱespecially,ȱtheȱhuntingȱofȱbigȱgameȱlikeȱbear
andȱwildȱboar.15
13
SeeȱJoséȱManuelȱFradejasȱRueda,ȱ“LasȱfuentesȱdelȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱdeȱdonȱJuanȱManuel,”ȱDonȱJuan
ManuelȱyȱelȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ63–68.ȱFradejasȱRuedaȱidentifiesȱfiveȱbooksȱonȱfalconryȱthat
areȱtheȱ“munchosȱlibrosȱbuenos”ȱofȱAlfonsoȱXȱthatȱJuanȱManuelȱrefersȱto,ȱbutȱonlyȱoneȱofȱthem
isȱFradejasȱcertainȱaboutȱasȱaȱsourceȱthatȱJuanȱManuelȱused,ȱtheȱmentionedȱLibroȱdeȱlosȱanimalesȱque
cazan.ȱTheȱotherȱfourȱbooksȱare:ȱLibroȱdeȱcetreríaȱbyȱtheȱfalconerȱGerardoȱ(lost?),ȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱcetrería
byȱtheȱkingȱDancosȱ(Sicilia),ȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱlosȱhalconesȱbyȱmasterȱGuillermoȱ(fromȱSicilia),ȱandȱthe
Libroȱdeȱlosȱazoresȱ(anonymous,ȱpartȱofȱitȱisȱofȱArabicȱorigenȱandȱpartȱofȱ itȱ isȱofȱLatinȱorigin).
FradejasȱRuedaȱalsoȱstatesȱthatȱthereȱareȱechoesȱofȱkingȱDancos’ȱLibroȱdeȱcetreríaȱinȱJuanȱManuel’s
Libroȱdeȱlaȱcaza.ȱ
14
ȱAnthonyȱCardenas,ȱ“AȱMedievalȱSpanishȱVersionȱofȱtheȱBookȱofȱMoamin:ȱObservationsȱonȱDate
andȱSponsorship.”ȱManuscriptaȱ31ȱ(1987):ȱ166–80;ȱhereȱ180.
15
ThereȱisȱaȱlongstandingȱdebateȱaboutȱtheȱauthorshipȱofȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱMontería.ȱSomeȱcriticsȱbelieve
itȱwasȱcomposedȱduringȱAlfonsoȱX’sȱreign.ȱOthersȱbelieveȱthatȱitȱwasȱcomposedȱduringȱAlfonso
XI’sȱreign.ȱStillȱothersȱsupportȱtwoȱcompositionȱstages,ȱoneȱduringȱeachȱreign.ȱImportantȱtoȱthis
articleȱonȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱisȱtheȱpossibilityȱthatȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱMonteríaȱbeȱindeedȱtheȱTratadoȱde
venaciónȱ byȱ Alfonsoȱ X,ȱ whichȱ isȱ theȱ opinionȱ ofȱ Joséȱ Amadorȱ deȱ losȱ Ríosȱ andȱ Felipeȱ Benicio
Navarro.ȱForȱaȱsummaryȱofȱtheȱdebate,ȱseeȱMariaȱIsabelȱMontoyaȱRamirez’sȱintroductionȱtoȱher
GuiseppeȱdiȱStefanoȱhasȱsuggestedȱanotherȱpossibleȱconnection,ȱoneȱbetween
JuanȱManuel’sȱbookȱandȱanotherȱearlierȱmanualȱonȱfalconry,ȱpossiblyȱtheȱgreatest
manualȱ ofȱ all,ȱ theȱ oneȱ producedȱ byȱ theȱ Germanȱ emperorȱ Frederickȱ von
Hohenstaufenȱinȱ1241,ȱArteȱvenandiȱcumȱavibusȱ(TheȱArtȱofȱHuntingȱwithȱBirds.)16
(Thisȱmanualȱhasȱbeautifulȱillustrations.ȱTheȱmarginaliaȱhasȱ170ȱhumanȱfigures,
moreȱ thanȱ 900ȱ speciesȱ ofȱ birds,ȱ 12ȱ horsesȱ andȱ 36ȱ otherȱ animalsȱ plusȱ allȱ the
paraphernaliaȱneededȱforȱfalconry.)17ȱAlfonsoȱX’sȱmother,ȱBeatrizȱofȱSwabia,ȱand
FrederickȱIIȱ(1194–1250)ȱwereȱcousins.18
Thereȱareȱindeedȱquestionsȱthatȱhaveȱnotȱbeenȱentirelyȱansweredȱconcerningȱthe
relationshipȱ betweenȱ Moamym’sȱ book,ȱ Frederickȱ ‘sȱ bookȱ Deȱ arteȱ venandiȱ cum
avibus,ȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱlasȱanimaliasȱdeȱlaȱcaçaȱ(whichȱmayȱorȱmayȱnotȱbeȱofȱAlphonsine
sponsorship)ȱandȱJuanȱManuel’sȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza.ȱMoamym’sȱbookȱwasȱtranslated
intoȱ Latinȱ atȱ theȱ courtȱ ofȱ Frederickȱ IIȱ byȱ Masterȱ Theodoreȱ ofȱ Antioch,ȱ the
criticalȱeditionȱofȱtheȱbook,ȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱMonteríaȱ(Granada:ȱPublicacionesȱdeȱlaȱCátedraȱdeȱHistoria
deȱlaȱLenguaȱEspañola,ȱUniversidadȱdeȱGranada,ȱ1992),ȱpp?.ȱ
16
SeeȱGuiseppeȱdiȱStefano,ȱ“DonȱJuanȱManuelȱnelȱsuoȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza,”ȱQuaderniȱIberoȬAmericani,ȱ31
(1965):ȱ379–90;ȱhereȱ382,ȱn.ȱ12.ȱ“Maȱeȱprobabileȱcheȱesseȱrisalgano,ȱdirettamenteȱoȱperȱmediazione
degliȱscrittiȱalfonsiniȱoȱdiȱaltraȱfonte,ȱalȱtrattatoȱDeȱarteȱvenandiȱcumȱavibusȱdeȱFedericoȱIIȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.”
ArticleȱreprintedȱinȱSpanish,ȱ“DonȱJuanȱManuelȱenȱsuȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza,”ȱinȱDonȱJuanȱManuelȱyȱel
Libroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ49–56;ȱhereȱ51,ȱn.ȱ6:ȱ“Peroȱesȱprobableȱqueȱseȱremontenȱdirectamente
oȱaȱtravésȱdeȱlosȱescritosȱalfonsíesȱoȱdeotraȱfuente,ȱalȱtratadoȱDeȱarteȱvenandiȱcumȱavibusȱdeȱFederico
IIȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.”ȱ
17
Seeȱ “Translator’sȱ Introduction,”ȱ Theȱ Artȱ ofȱ Falconryȱ Beingȱ theȱ Deȱ Arteȱ Venandiȱ cumȱ Avibusȱ of
FrederickȱIIȱofȱHohenstaufen,ȱed.ȱCaseyȱA.ȱWoodȱandȱF.ȱMarjorieȱFyfeȱ(Stanford:ȱStanfordȱUniversity
Press,ȱ1943),ȱxxxix.ȱ“Theȱimperialȱauthor,ȱinȱwritingȱandȱcompilingȱtheȱDeȱArteȱVenandi,ȱutilized
severalȱsourcesȱofȱknowledge,ȱamongȱthemȱworksȱonȱnaturalȱhistory,ȱtreatisesȱonȱfalconry,ȱand,
lastȱbutȱnotȱleast,ȱhisȱownȱobservations,ȱexperiments,ȱandȱpersonalȱinquiries.ȱTheȱmostȱimportant
literaryȱsourceȱavailableȱforȱhisȱpurposesȱ(inȱtheȱtwelfthȱandȱthirteenthȱcenturies)ȱwasȱAristotle’s
nineteenȱ booksȱ onȱ animalȱ life,ȱ hisȱ Deȱ Animalibusȱ Historia,ȱ hisȱ Partibusȱ Animalium,ȱ andȱ hisȱ De
GenerationeȱAnimalium.ȱFrederick’sȱreferencesȱtoȱzoologicalȱauthorityȱareȱalmostȱentirelyȱconfined
toȱ Aristotle,ȱ whomȱ heȱ generallyȱ mentionsȱ byȱ name.”ȱ Seeȱ alsoȱ Deȱ Arteȱ Venandiȱ cumȱ Avibusȱ of
Frederickȱ IIȱ ofȱ Hohenstaufen,ȱ ed.ȱ C.ȱ A.ȱ Willemsenȱ (Graz,ȱ Austria:ȱ Akademischeȱ DruckȬȱ und
Verlagsanstalt,ȱ1969)ȱforȱaȱmoreȱmodernȱfacsimile.ȱTheȱtextȱisȱinȱLatinȱandȱtheȱcommentaryȱisȱin
German.ȱForȱaȱgoodȱcollectionȱofȱarticlesȱonȱscienceȱandȱsocietyȱduringȱtheȱreignȱofȱFrederickȱII,
seeȱNatura,ȱscienzeȱeȱsocietàȱmedievaliȱII,ȱLeȱscienzeȱallaȱcorteȱdiȱFedericoȱIIȱ/ȱSciencesȱatȱtheȱCourtȱof
FrederickȱIIȱ(Tavarnuzze,ȱFirenze:ȱEdizioniȱdelȱGalluzzo,ȱ1994).ȱ
18
FederickȱIIȱwasȱtheȱsonȱofȱHenryȱVIȱ(1165–1197)ȱandȱConstanceȱofȱHautevilleȱ(1154–1198).ȱHenry
VIȱ wasȱ Holyȱ Romanȱ emperorȱ 1191–1197,ȱ Kingȱ ofȱ Germanyȱ 1169–ȱ 1191,ȱ andȱ Kingȱ ofȱ Sicily
1194–1197.ȱElizabethȱofȱHohenstaufenȱ(BeatrizȱdeȱSuavia),ȱAlfonsoȱX’sȱmother,ȱwasȱdaughterȱof
PhilipȱofȱHohenstaufenȱ(KingȱofȱGermanyȱ1198–1208,ȱDukeȱofȱSwabiaȱ1196–1208,ȱandȱDukeȱof
Spoletoȱ fromȱ 1195)ȱ andȱ Ireneȱ Angelaȱ (Maria),ȱ daughterȱ ofȱ Isaacȱ IIȱ Angelus,ȱ Emperorȱ of
Byzantium,ȱandȱhisȱfirstȱwifeȱIreneȱKomnena,ȱdaughterȱofȱemperorȱAndronicusȱ Iȱ Komnenus
(1183–1185).ȱHenryȱVIȱandȱPhilipȱofȱHohenstaufenȱwereȱbrothers.ȱOnline:ȱ“TheȱDescendantsȱof
FrederickȱBarbarossa,”ȱhttp://abitofhistory.net/html/descendants/frederick_barbarossa.htmȱ(last
accessedȱonȱJan.ȱ3,ȱ2012).
emperor’sȱinterpreter,ȱandȱwasȱcalledȱtheȱDeȱScientiaȱVenandiȱperȱAves.19ȱWhere
doesȱthisȱLatinȱtranslationȱfitȱin,ȱifȱatȱall,ȱwithȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱlasȱanimaliasȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱand
theȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza?ȱInȱeitherȱevent,ȱMoamym’sȱbookȱisȱaȱsourceȱtwiceȱremovedȱor
threeȱ timesȱ removedȱ inȱ theȱ sequenceȱ ofȱ translations,ȱ fromȱ theȱ Arabicȱ toȱ the
Spanish,ȱorȱfromȱtheȱArabic,ȱtoȱtheȱLatinȱtoȱtheȱSpanish.ȱ
JuanȱManuel’sȱownȱbookȱisȱincomplete.ȱAsȱitȱstandsȱnow,ȱitȱhasȱtwelveȱchapters
onȱfalconry.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱauthor’sȱoriginalȱintentȱwasȱtoȱaddȱaȱsecondȱpartȱon
huntingȱbigȱgame.ȱ“Peroȱtodaȱlaȱarteȱdelȱbenarȱponerȱseȱaȱenȱesteȱlibroȱdespuesȱque
fuereȱacabadoȱ(el)ȱdelȱarteȱdeȱcaçar.“20ȱ(“Butȱallȱthatȱpertainsȱtoȱtheȱartȱofȱhunting
bigȱgameȱwillȱbeȱputȱinȱthisȱbookȱafterȱfinishingȱtheȱpartȱdedicatedȱtoȱtheȱartȱof
falconry.”)ȱTheȱbookȱonȱfalconryȱitselfȱisȱalsoȱincomplete,ȱendingȱabruptlyȱatȱthe
momentȱtheȱauthorȱstatesȱthatȱheȱisȱnowȱgoingȱtoȱdescribeȱtheȱriverbanksȱinȱOsma,
whichȱisȱinȱSoria.ȱHowȱtoȱexplainȱthisȱincompletion?ȱDidȱJuanȱManuelȱcompose
aȱbookȱonȱhuntingȱbigȱgameȱorȱnot?ȱWhyȱisȱtheȱbookȱonȱfalconryȱitselfȱincomplete?
Iȱaddressȱthisȱproblem,ȱalongȱwithȱtheȱproblemȱofȱtheȱscribe,ȱinȱtheȱsecondȱpartȱof
thisȱarticle.
Theȱauthor’sȱinterestȱinȱcomposingȱtheȱbookȱwasȱindeedȱstronglyȱrelatedȱtoȱhis
interestȱinȱhisȱownȱeducationȱandȱinȱeducationȱforȱaristocraticȱmalesȱinȱgeneral.
Huntingȱbigȱgameȱandȱfalconryȱwereȱsportsȱthatȱwereȱprescribedȱforȱtheȱyoung
aristocraticȱmale’sȱeducation.21JuanȱManuelȱcomposedȱaȱbookȱlaterȱon,ȱLibroȱdeȱlos
estados,ȱpartȱofȱwhichȱresemblesȱaȱMirrorȱofȱPrinces,ȱaȱdistinctȱmedievalȱgenreȱthat
19
“Translator’sȱIntroduction,”ȱTheȱArtȱofȱFalconryȱ(seeȱnoteȱ17),ȱxlix.
20
ObrasȱcompletasȱIȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1),ȱ521:ȱ76–78.
21
JuanȱManuel’sȱownȱaversionȱtoȱlazinessȱcanȱbeȱseenȱinȱvariousȱpassagesȱonȱeducation.ȱHunting,
asȱwellȱasȱotherȱpastimes,ȱlikeȱtournaments,ȱprovidesȱphysicalȱexerciseȱthatȱwardȱoffȱlaziness.
FrederickȱIIȱhimselfȱstatedȱthatȱlazinessȱandȱhuntingȱdidȱnotȱmix:ȱ“Theȱsuccessfulȱfalconer,ȱsays
Frederick,ȱcannotȱbeȱcarelessȱnorȱlazy,ȱbecauseȱhisȱartȱdemandsȱmuchȱstudyȱandȱmuchȱlabor.ȱIt
isȱwithȱprideȱinȱhisȱmasteryȱofȱthisȱsportȱinȱitsȱhigherȱaspectsȱandȱnotȱasȱaȱmereȱboastȱthatȱheȱsays,
inȱtheȱprefaceȱtoȱhisȱmonograph,ȱ“nosȱsemperȱdileximusȱetȱexercuimus.”ȱ“Translator’sȱIntroduction,”
TheȱArtȱofȱFalconryȱ(seeȱnoteȱ17),ȱxlii.ȱAlsoȱseeȱJohnȱCummins,ȱhisȱintroductionȱtoȱTheȱHoundȱand
theȱHawk:ȱtheȱArtȱofȱMedievalȱHuntingȱ(NewȱYork:ȱSt.ȱMartin’sȱPress,ȱ1988),ȱ173.ȱCumminsȱquotes
aȱpassageȱinȱPedroȱLópezȱdeȱAyala’sȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱdeȱlasȱavesȱinȱwhichȱtheȱChancellorȱalsoȱviews
huntingȱasȱanȱessentialȱpastimeȱtoȱwardȱoffȱidleness:ȱAllȱmenȱ“shouldȱavoidȱidleness,ȱforȱitȱcauses
sin;ȱwhenȱmanȱisȱnotȱoccupiedȱinȱgoodȱandȱhonestȱthings,ȱthoughtsȱareȱbornȱinȱhisȱheartȱfrom
whichȱariseȱmiseryȱandȱmortification,ȱandȱfromȱthisȱmiseryȱcomesȱdesperation,ȱwhichȱisȱtheȱroot
ofȱdamnation.ȱItȱalsoȱbringsȱevilȱtoȱtheȱbody,ȱforȱwhenȱaȱmanȱisȱidle,ȱwithoutȱexercisingȱhisȱlimbs
andȱexperiencingȱchangesȱofȱair,ȱhisȱbodilyȱhumoursȱgrowȱstaleȱandȱheȱisȱsubjectȱtoȱsicknessȱand
diseases.ȱ.ȱ.Toȱavoidȱtheseȱevils,ȱthoseȱengagedȱinȱtheȱeducationȱofȱtheȱsonsȱofȱkingsȱandȱprinces
thoughtȱitȱgoodȱthatȱtheyȱshouldȱgoȱthroughȱtheȱcountrysideȱforȱaȱfewȱhoursȱeveryȱday,ȱtaking
freshȱairȱandȱexercise.”ȱAccordingȱtoȱCummins,ȱthereȱisȱatȱtheȱotherȱoppositeȱendȱtheȱdangerȱof
developingȱanȱobsessionȱwithȱhuntingȱthatȱleadsȱinȱturnȱtoȱneglectingȱduties.ȱJuanȱManuelȱwrites
aboutȱthisȱdanger,ȱandȱsoȱdoȱAlfonsoȱXȱandȱJohnȱofȱPortugalȱinȱhisȱLivroȱdaȱmontaria.ȱ
intendsȱ toȱ teachȱ wisdomȱ toȱ futureȱ menȱ ofȱ power,ȱ whetherȱ theyȱ beȱ kingsȱ or
aristocrats.22ȱ
JuanȱManuelȱalsoȱexplainsȱhowȱaȱyoungȱprinceȱorȱaristocratȱshouldȱbeȱeducated.
Inȱfact,ȱitȱisȱtheȱeducationȱthatȱheȱhimselfȱreceivedȱgrowingȱupȱthatȱheȱputsȱforth
asȱaȱmodel,ȱandȱhuntingȱisȱanȱessentialȱpartȱofȱthisȱeducation.ȱHeȱstartedȱhunting
asȱaȱlittleȱboy.ȱHeȱwritesȱinȱchapterȱLXVIIȱthatȱasȱsoonȱasȱaȱboyȱisȱstrongȱenough
heȱshouldȱrideȱaȱhorseȱeveryȱdayȱnoȱmatterȱhowȱbadȱtheȱweatherȱis.ȱHeȱshould
wearȱtheȱnecessaryȱheavyȱclothingȱnoȱmatterȱhowȱsmallȱheȱis,ȱsoȱheȱwillȱbecome
accustomedȱtoȱit.ȱInȱhisȱrightȱhandȱheȱshouldȱcarryȱtheȱspearȱorȱrod,ȱandȱinȱtheȱleft
handȱ heȱ shouldȱ carryȱ aȱ falconȱ orȱ aȱ goshawk,ȱ soȱ hisȱ armsȱ willȱ becomeȱ strong.
Huntingȱwillȱalsoȱprepareȱtheȱboyȱtoȱfightȱinȱbattlesȱasȱsoonȱasȱheȱisȱableȱto.ȱThe
authorȱparticipatedȱinȱhisȱfirstȱbattleȱagainstȱtheȱMoorsȱwhenȱheȱwasȱtwelveȱyears
old.ȱ
AlfonsoȱX’sȱSecondȱPartidaȱalsoȱresemblesȱaȱMirrorȱofȱPrincesȱinȱthatȱitȱdetailsȱthe
responsibilitiesȱandȱprivilegesȱofȱtheȱking.ȱLawȱ10ȱ(TitleȱVII)ȱdetailsȱtheȱmannerȱin
whichȱtheȱking’sȱmaleȱchildrenȱshouldȱbeȱeducated.ȱRidingȱhorses,ȱhuntingȱand
playingȱgamesȱandȱsportsȱareȱallȱnecessary.23ȱInȱLawȱ20ȱ(TitleȱV)ȱhuntingȱisȱdefined
asȱtheȱartȱorȱknowledgeȱofȱwagingȱwarȱandȱconquering.ȱ(“Laȱcazaȱesȱelȱarteȱo
sabiduríaȱdeȱguerrearȱyȱdeȱvencer.”)ȱInȱthisȱsameȱlawȱitȱisȱstatedȱthatȱtheȱking
shouldȱbeȱanȱableȱhunterȱbecauseȱitȱisȱgoodȱexercise,ȱaȱhealthyȱpastimeȱandȱan
effectiveȱdistractionȱfromȱresponsibilitiesȱandȱproblems.24
Noȱ doubtȱ Juanȱ Manuelȱ participatedȱ inȱ huntingȱ andȱ falconryȱ becauseȱ itȱ was
expectedȱ ofȱ himȱ asȱ aȱ memberȱ ofȱ theȱ Castilianȱ royalȱ family.ȱ Hisȱ grandfather
FernandoȱIII,ȱhisȱuncleȱAlfonsoȱX,ȱandȱhisȱfatherȱDonȱManuelȱwereȱableȱandȱavid
falconers.ȱ Theȱ author,ȱ aȱ fewȱ yearsȱ afterȱ writingȱ theȱ Libroȱ deȱ laȱ caza,ȱ wroteȱ his
famousȱcollectionȱofȱstories,ȱtheȱElȱCondeȱLucanor,ȱofȱwhichȱstoryȱ33ȱisȱbasedȱonȱa
huntingȱexperienceȱofȱhisȱfather,ȱ“Deȱloȱqueȱcontesçioȱaȱvnȱfalconȱsacreȱdelȱinfante
donȱManuelȱconȱvnaȱaguilaȱetȱconȱvnaȱgarça,”ȱ(“Ofȱthatȱwhichȱhappenedȱtoȱa
FalconȱandȱaȱHeron,ȱand,ȱmoreȱparticularly,ȱtoȱaȱcunningȱFalcon,ȱwhichȱbelonged
toȱtheȱInfantȱDonȱManuel.”)ȱYet,ȱasȱweȱmentionedȱearlier,ȱhuntingȱforȱhimȱwas
moreȱthanȱpartȱofȱhisȱaristocraticȱupbringing,ȱmoreȱthanȱanȱaristocraticȱpastime;
itȱwasȱaȱpassionȱandȱaȱskillȱinȱwhichȱheȱexcelled.ȱ
22
SeeȱAdelineȱRucquoiȱandȱHugoȱO.ȱBizarri,ȱ“LosȱEspejosȱdeȱPríncipeȱenȱCastilla:ȱentreȱOrienteȱy
Occidente,”ȱCuadernosȱdeȱHistoriaȱdeȱEspañaȱ(online)ȱ79.1ȱ(2005):ȱ7–30;ȱlastȱaccessedȱonȱJan.ȱ6,ȱ2012.
Forȱaȱgeneralȱarticleȱonȱtheȱgenre,ȱseeȱCristianȱBratu,ȱ“MirrorsȱforȱPrincesȱ(Western),”ȱHandbook
ofȱMedievalȱStudies:ȱTermsȱ–ȱMethodsȱ–ȱTrends,ȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassen,vol.ȱIIIȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:
DeȱGruyter,ȱ2010),ȱ1921–50.
23
LasȱsieteȱpartidasȱdelȱreyȱdonȱAlfonsoȱelȱSabioȱcotejadasȱconȱvariosȱcodicesȱantiguosȱporȱLaȱRealȱAcademia
deȱlaȱHistoria,ȱTomoȱII.ȱPartidaȱSegundaȱyȱTerceraȱ(Madrid:ȱMadridȱenȱlaȱImprentaȱReal,ȱ1807),ȱ52.
24
LasȱsieteȱpartidasȱdelȱreyȱdonȱAlfonsoȱelȱSabioȱ(seeȱnoteȱ23),ȱ40.
Givenȱ thisȱ passionȱ andȱ expertise,ȱ itȱ isȱ notȱ surprisingȱ thatȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ longest
chaptersȱ(chapterȱXXXXI)ȱinȱaȱsubsequentȱbookȱheȱwrote,ȱLibroȱdelȱcaualleroȱetȱdel
escudero,ȱisȱtheȱoneȱonȱbirds.ȱHeȱdividesȱtheȱbirdsȱandȱtwoȱcategories,ȱthoseȱthat
huntȱandȱthoseȱthatȱareȱhunted,ȱandȱenthusiasticallyȱdescribesȱthemȱinȱdetail.ȱThe
author’sȱknowledgeȱofȱbirdsȱisȱimpressive,ȱespeciallyȱcomparedȱtoȱhisȱknowledge
ofȱherbsȱinȱanotherȱchapter,ȱofȱwhichȱheȱconfessesȱtoȱknowȱveryȱlittle.ȱInȱeffect,ȱthis
chapterȱ(XXXXIII)ȱisȱforȱthatȱreasonȱveryȱshort.
Letȱ usȱ returnȱ toȱ theȱ Libroȱ deȱ laȱ caza.ȱ Withȱ theȱ majorityȱ ofȱ theȱ thirdȱ person
referencesȱ toȱ himselfȱ inȱ whichȱ heȱ quotesȱ himselfȱ (orȱ isȱ quoted)ȱ Juanȱ Manuel
interjectsȱexamplesȱofȱpersonalȱexperiencesȱwithȱfalconry.ȱThisȱisȱnotȱtoȱsayȱthat
theȱ restȱ ofȱ theȱ materialȱ isȱ notȱ alsoȱ basedȱ onȱ personalȱ experience.ȱ Inȱ fact,ȱ itȱ is
difficultȱtoȱknowȱwhatȱisȱnot.ȱInȱanyȱevent,ȱtheȱinterjectionsȱtestifyȱtoȱtheȱauthor’s
expertiseȱinȱallȱaspectsȱofȱfalconry.ȱThereȱareȱevenȱplacesȱwhereȱtheȱauthorȱcan’t
refrainȱfromȱboasting.ȱInȱchapterȱIXȱheȱboastsȱthatȱheȱcanȱtrainȱinȱonlyȱtwoȱmonths
aȱfalconȱtoȱkillȱitsȱpreyȱonȱitsȱown;ȱheȱhasȱdoneȱsoȱmanyȱtimes.25ȱHeȱremembersȱin
particularȱaȱfalconȱthatȱwasȱnamedȱ“Picardit”ȱthatȱheȱtrainedȱandȱgaveȱasȱaȱgiftȱto
kingȱFernandoȱIV.
AnotherȱaspectȱofȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱthatȱisȱinterestingȱisȱhowȱitȱportraysȱthe
maleȱbondingȱthatȱtakesȱplaceȱinȱtheȱsportȱofȱfalconry.ȱWeȱhaveȱmalesȱbondingȱin
huntingȱparties.ȱTheȱauthorȱremembersȱspecificȱhuntingȱexpeditionsȱandȱnames
theȱindividualsȱwhoȱparticipated.ȱThenȱthereȱisȱtheȱbondingȱbetweenȱtheȱhunters
ofȱtheȱpast,ȱtheȱhuntersȱinȱtheȱpresentȱandȱtheȱhuntersȱofȱtheȱfuture.ȱTheȱbookȱitself
isȱviewedȱasȱaȱspaceȱwhereȱtheyȱcanȱallȱmeet.ȱItȱisȱnotȱsurprisingȱthatȱdonȱJuan
Manuelȱrecountsȱhuntingȱexperiencesȱofȱfamilyȱmembersȱwhoȱhadȱdiedȱwhenȱhe
wroteȱtheȱbook:ȱhisȱgrandfatherȱFernandoȱIII,ȱhisȱuncleȱAlfonsoȱX,ȱhisȱuncleȱDon
Enrique,ȱhisȱownȱfatherȱDonȱManuel,ȱandȱhisȱcousinȱdonȱJuan,ȱtheȱbestȱhunterȱof
themȱall.ȱIfȱhisȱfatherȱdiedȱwhenȱheȱwasȱnotȱevenȱtwoȱyearsȱold,ȱhowȱdidȱheȱhear
theseȱstories?ȱOlderȱhuntersȱwhoȱknowȱhisȱfatherȱpersonallyȱtoldȱhimȱtheȱstories.
Theȱauthorȱlearnedȱfalconryȱwithȱtheirȱpricelessȱinstructionȱandȱstories.
Perhapsȱtheȱkeyȱwordȱtoȱunderstandȱtheȱbookȱisȱchange.ȱInȱaȱkeyȱpassageȱJuan
Manuelȱstatesȱthatȱtheȱpracticesȱofȱfalconryȱchangeȱfromȱoneȱgenerationȱtoȱthe
next.ȱHeȱhopesȱthatȱheȱhasȱdoneȱaȱgoodȱjobȱofȱdescribingȱtheȱhuntingȱpracticesȱof
hisȱfather’sȱgenerationȱandȱthoseȱofȱhisȱownȱgeneration.ȱHeȱaddsȱthatȱifȱheȱbecomes
awareȱofȱanyȱotherȱchangesȱinȱtheȱpresentȱgenerationȱofȱyoungerȱhuntersȱheȱwill
haveȱthemȱaddedȱtoȱtheȱbook.ȱ
25
Accordingȱ toȱ Robinȱ S.ȱ Oggins,ȱ itȱ wasȱ veryȱ rareȱ thatȱ aȱ noblemanȱ trainedȱ hisȱ ownȱ hawks:
“Consequently,ȱupperȬclassȱownersȱdelegatedȱtrainingȱofȱtheirȱhawksȱtoȱothers,ȱandȱnotȱallȱmen
whoȱflewȱfalconsȱknewȱhowȱtoȱtameȱandȱtrainȱthem.”ȱTheȱKingsȱandȱTheirȱHawks:ȱ Falconryȱ in
MedievalȱEnglandȱ(NewȱHavenȱandȱLondon:ȱYaleȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2004),ȱ10.
DevelopingȱhisȱownȱvoiceȱofȱauthorityȱinȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱ(eitherȱbyȱwriting
orȱ dictating)ȱ gaveȱ Juanȱ Manuelȱ confidenceȱ toȱ developȱ furtherȱ hisȱ careerȱ asȱ a
composerȱofȱbooks.ȱHeȱdiscoveredȱthatȱwhatȱheȱhadȱtoȱcontributeȱwasȱhisȱpersonal
knowledgeȱofȱlifeȱasȱaȱCastilianȱnobleman:ȱhisȱknowledgeȱonȱhuntingȱandȱfalconry,
nature,ȱastrology,ȱeducationȱforȱmales,ȱknighthood,ȱestateȱmanagement,ȱpolitics,
warfare,ȱpowerȱstruggles,ȱheraldry,ȱproblemȱsolvingȱandȱstorytelling.
II.ȱTheȱScribeȱandȱJuanȱManuel:ȱCompositionȱMethods
TheȱproblemȱofȱtheȱmethodsȱthatȱwereȱfollowedȱinȱtheȱcompositionȱofȱtheȱLibroȱde
laȱcazaȱcanȱbeȱaddressedȱbyȱlookingȱatȱhowȱJuanȱManuelȱisȱrepresentedȱinȱtheȱvery
sameȱ bookȱ asȱ participantȱ inȱ theȱ compositionȱ ofȱ theȱ book.ȱ Heȱ participatedȱ by
reading,ȱ conversingȱ withȱ huntersȱ andȱ falconers,ȱ writing,ȱ andȱ dictatingȱ toȱ the
scribe(s).ȱ Lookingȱ atȱ thisȱ problemȱ requiresȱ thatȱ weȱ lookȱ atȱ theȱ prologueȱ asȱ a
separateȱtextȱfromȱtheȱbook.ȱIndeed,ȱtheȱprologue,ȱasȱweȱshallȱsee,ȱwasȱcomposed
inȱaȱdifferentȱfashion.ȱLookingȱatȱtheȱproblemȱofȱtheȱmethodsȱofȱcompositionȱalso
requiresȱthatȱweȱagainȱdiscussȱtheȱproblemȱofȱtheȱincompleteȱnatureȱofȱtheȱbook,
becauseȱtheyȱareȱrelated.ȱ
WhileȱtheȱreaderȱcanȱsenseȱJuanȱManuelȱdictatingȱinȱtheȱbodyȱofȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱla
cazaȱ(thisȱwillȱespeciallyȱbeȱevidentȱinȱtheȱthirdȱandȱfouthȱpartsȱofȱthisȱarticle),ȱin
theȱprologueȱtheȱreaderȱisȱpresentedȱwithȱimagesȱofȱJuanȱManuelȱasȱaȱreaderȱand
aȱwriter.ȱHowever,ȱitȱisȱlikely,ȱifȱnotȱcertain,ȱthatȱJuanȱManuelȱdidȱnotȱwriteȱthe
prologueȱbutȱratherȱaȱscribeȱ(orȱscribes)ȱdid.26ȱInȱthisȱevent,ȱitȱisȱtheȱscribeȱwho,
remainingȱanonymous,ȱpaintsȱJuanȱManuelȱasȱaȱreaderȱandȱwriter.ȱTheȱprologue
thenȱgivesȱusȱsufficientȱinformationȱtoȱknowȱ1)ȱthatȱJuanȱManuelȱdidȱnotȱwriteȱthe
26
SeeȱReynaldoȱAyerbeȬChaux,ȱCincoȱTratadosȱdeȱdonȱJuanȱManuelȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱhereȱxliii–xliv.ȱItȱis
AyerbeȬChaux’sȱopinionȱthatȱJuanȱManuelȱdidȱnotȱwriteȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱ(orȱanyȱofȱhisȱbooks,
exceptȱone)ȱbyȱhisȱownȱhand,ȱbutȱratherȱheȱcommissionedȱitȱandȱdictatedȱit:ȱ“Enȱprimerȱlugarȱse
debeȱexcluirȱlaȱposibilidadȱdeȱqueȱdonȱJuanȱManuelȱescribieraȱelȱtratadoȱdirectamenteȱélȱmismo,
enȱlaȱsoledadȱyȱsilencioȱdeȱsuȱmesaȱdeȱtrabajo,ȱdistanciandoȱsuȱyoȱhastaȱelȱpuntoȱdeȱconvertirse
élȱenȱelȱescribaȱanónimo.ȱComoȱseȱdijoȱarriba,ȱlosȱnoblesȱnoȱescribíanȱellosȱdirectamenteȱsinoȱque
dictaban;ȱparaȱesoȱteníanȱunaȱcancillería.ȱSóloȱelȱLibroȱdeȱlosȱproverbios,ȱverdaderoȱejercicioȱde
retórica,ȱdebióȱserȱescritoȱdirectamenteȱporȱdonȱJuanȱManuel.ȱEnȱlaȱricaȱcolecciónȱdiplomáticaȱque
deȱélȱnosȱqueda,ȱsóloȱhayȱunaȱcartaȱescritaȱdeȱsuȱpuñoȱyȱletra.”ȱ(“Inȱtheȱfirstȱplaceȱweȱneeedȱto
rejectȱtheȱpossibilityȱthatȱdonȱJuanȱManuelȱwroteȱtheȱtreatiseȱhimself,ȱinȱsilentȱsolitudeȱsittingȱat
hisȱdesk,ȱdistancingȱhisȱ“I”ȱfromȱhimselfȱtoȱtheȱpointȱofȱbecomingȱanȱanonymousȱscribe.ȱAsȱwas
mentionedȱabove,ȱnoblesȱdidȱnotȱwriteȱthemselves,ȱratherȱtheyȱdictatedȱtheirȱmaterial;ȱthisȱisȱwhy
theyȱhadȱaȱchancellery.ȱTheȱonlyȱbookȱthatȱdonȱJuanȱManuelȱmostȱprobablyȱwroteȱhimselfȱwas
Libroȱdeȱlosȱproverbios,ȱwhichȱisȱaȱveritableȱexerciseȱinȱrhetoric.ȱFromȱtheȱrichȱcollectionȱofȱhisȱletters
thatȱhaveȱsurvived,ȱonlyȱoneȱwasȱwrittenȱbyȱhisȱownȱhand.”
prologueȱ andȱ 2)ȱ whatȱ compositionȱ methodsȱ Juanȱ Manuelȱ andȱ hisȱ scribe(s)
followedȱinȱcomposingȱtheȱbook.
Theȱnarrator/scribeȱwritesȱthatȱJuanȱManuelȱlikesȱtoȱreadȱhisȱuncle’sȱbooksȱ(“se
pagaȱmuchoȱdeȱleerȱenȱlosȱlibrosȱqueȱfallaȱqueȱconpusoȱelȱdichoȱrey”)ȱandȱheȱhas
readȱhisȱchronicles,ȱhisȱbookȱonȱknighthoodȱandȱhisȱbooksȱonȱhuntingȱwithȱfalcons,
huntingȱbigȱgameȱandȱfishing.ȱInȱchapterȱXIIȱJuanȱManuelȱisȱagainȱrepresentedȱas
aȱreader.ȱTheȱnarratorȱstatesȱthatȱJuanȱManuelȱcomposedȱthisȱpartȱofȱtheȱbook
whereȱheȱ(JuanȱManuel)ȱnamesȱandȱdescribesȱtheȱplacesȱthatȱareȱgoodȱorȱbadȱfor
hunting,ȱsoȱthatȱheȱcanȱreadȱtheȱnamesȱofȱplacesȱinȱcaseȱheȱdoesȱforgetȱthem:ȱ
EtȱestoȱfizoȱdonȱIohanȱporȱqueȱquandoȱelȱacesçieseȱenȱalgunasȱdeȱlasȱtierrasȱqueȱenȱeste
libroȱsonȱescriptasȱetȱseȱnonȱacordareȱdeȱlosȱnonbresȱdeȱlasȱriberasȱoȱdeȱlosȱpasosȱoȱde
losȱlugares,ȱqueȱlosȱpuedaȱsaberȱleyendoȱenȱesteȱlibroȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.27
[AndȱdonȱJuanȱdidȱthisȱsoȱthatȱheȱcouldȱuseȱtheȱbookȱhimself.ȱIfȱheȱfoundȱhimselfȱin
anyȱofȱtheseȱlandsȱandȱcouldȱnotȱrememberȱtheȱnamesȱofȱtheȱriverbanksȱorȱtheȱspots
orȱplaces,ȱheȱcouldȱrecallȱthemȱbyȱreadingȱthisȱbook.]
WhatȱdoesȱtheȱnarratorȱsayȱaboutȱJuanȱManuelȱasȱtheȱwriterȱofȱtheȱbook?ȱThereȱare
twoȱinstancesȱinȱwhichȱtheȱnarratorȱstatesȱthatȱJuanȱManuelȱhadȱitȱwritten,ȱweȱcan
assume,ȱ byȱ another:ȱ “fizoȱ escribir,”28ȱ “fizoȱ laȱ escriuirȱ enȱ esteȱ libro.”29ȱ Yet,ȱ as
mentionedȱabove,ȱlaterȱinȱtheȱsameȱparagraphȱtheȱnarratorȱstatesȱthatȱJuanȱManuel
wroteȱdownȱ(“escriuiolo”)ȱtheȱinformationȱonȱhuntingȱbigȱgameȱthatȱheȱgathered
fromȱhisȱconversationsȱwithȱotherȱhunters.ȱOneȱcanȱunderstandȱthatȱJuanȱManuel
wouldȱindeedȱhaveȱwantedȱtoȱbeȱpaintedȱasȱaȱmanȱwhoȱreadsȱandȱwrites,ȱyetȱone
isȱleftȱconfused.ȱWhatȱisȱoneȱtoȱbelieve?ȱHowȱindeedȱdidȱJuanȱManuelȱparticipate
inȱwritingȱtheȱbook?
Inȱ orderȱ toȱ helpȱ answerȱ theȱ problemȱ ofȱ Juanȱ Manuel’sȱ participationȱ inȱ the
compositionȱofȱtheȱbookȱentailingȱpossiblyȱwriting,ȱIȱreturnȱtoȱtheȱmatterȱofȱthe
incompleteȱbook.ȱGuiseppeȱdiȱStefanoȱbelievesȱthatȱJuanȱManuelȱdidȱnotȱwriteȱ(or
dictate)ȱaȱsecondȱpartȱonȱhuntingȱbigȱgame,ȱbecauseȱheȱhadȱnoȱinterestȱinȱhunting
bigȱgame.30ȱThisȱisȱdefinitelyȱtheȱcaseȱforȱfishing,ȱwhichȱJuanȱManuelȱdidȱnotȱseem
27
28
ObrasȱcompletasȱIȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1),ȱ520:ȱ47.
29
30
“DonȱJuanȱManuelȱenȱsuȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza,”ȱDonȱJuanȱManuelȱyȱelȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3ȱandȱ16);
hereȱ50:ȱ“Noȱesȱfácilȱcomprobarȱsiȱtratóȱlaȱmontería:ȱelȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱnosȱhaȱllegadoȱincompleto
yȱseȱinterrumpeȱaproximadamenteȱenȱelȱmedioȱdeȱunȱcapítuloȱqueȱpareceríaȱelȱúltimoȱdeȱlaȱparte
sobreȱlaȱhalconería,ȱcomoȱunȱapéndiceȱdedicadoȱaȱlaȱdescripciónȱdeȱlosȱlugaresȱidóneosȱparaȱla
cetrería.ȱ Laȱ imprecisiónȱ delȱ Prólogoȱ llevaȱ aȱ suponerȱ unaȱ exclusiónȱ deȱ laȱ montería:ȱ donȱ Juan
escribeȱenȱunȱpasajeȱqueȱlaȱhaȱtratadoȱy,ȱmásȱadelante,ȱqueȱlaȱtrataráȱdespuésȱdeȱlaȱcetreríaȱ(Baist,
1880:ȱ3–25ȱandȱ4–3);ȱhastaȱqueȱtampocoȱestáȱclaroȱsiȱlaȱelaboraciónȱdelȱPrólogoȱprecedióȱoȱsiguió
aȱlaȱdeȱlaȱobrita.ȱEsȱverosímilȱqueȱlaȱcazaȱmayorȱnoȱhayaȱprovocadoȱmuchoȱentusiasmoȱenȱdon
JuanȱManuel,ȱaȱjuzgarȱporȱlaȱescasezȱdeȱreferenciasȱaȱellaȱenȱsusȱescritos,ȱmientrasȱqueȱrecuerda
toȱ like,ȱ andȱ forȱ whichȱ reasonȱ heȱ didȱ notȱ includeȱ anyȱ materialȱ onȱ fishing:ȱ “Et
quantoȱ deȱ laȱ arteȱ delȱ pescarȱ nonȱ loȱ fizoȱ escriuirȱ porȱ queȱ touoȱ queȱ nonȱ fazia
mengua.”31ȱ(“Andȱasȱtoȱfishing,ȱheȱdidȱnotȱorderȱanythingȱwrittenȱonȱthisȱsport,
becauseȱheȱdidȱnotȱdeemȱitȱnecessary.”)ȱAsȱtoȱwhyȱtheȱfirstȱpartȱonȱfalconryȱis
incomplete,ȱDenisȱMenjotȱbelievesȱitȱwasȱaȱboundlessȱworkȱinȱprogress:ȱ“qui’lȱn’a
peutȬêtreȱjamaisȱterminéȱcarȱelleȱdépassaitȱsesȱmoyens.”32ȱDennisȱSeniff,ȱonȱthe
otherȱhand,ȱbelievesȱthatȱtheȱonlyȱavailableȱmanuscriptȱisȱincomplete,ȱbutȱthatȱthe
sourceȱ(theȱoriginalȱmanuscript)ȱwasȱcomplete:
DespiteȱtheȱindicationȱinȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱthatȱthereȱisȱlittleȱroomȱforȱitsȱimprovement
(p.ȱ46),ȱtheȱonlyȱextantȱversionȱofȱtheȱworkȱis,ȱironically,ȱincomplete.ȱChapterȱxiiȱofȱBib.
Nac.ȱMSȱ6376ȱwasȱtoȱhaveȱprovidedȱcompleteȱinformationȱforȱfalconryȱlocationsȱinȱthe
bishopricsȱofȱCartagena,ȱCuenca,ȱSigüenza,ȱOsma,ȱPalencia,ȱBurgos,ȱCalahorra,ȱLeón,
Salamanca,ȱ Avila,ȱ Segovia,ȱ Toledo,ȱ Jaén,ȱ Cordoba,ȱ Sevilla;ȱ andȱ inȱ theȱ landsȱ ofȱ the
OrderȱofȱSantiago,ȱ“queȱellosȱllamanȱtierraȱdeȱLeón”ȱ(p,ȱ68).ȱInȱreality,ȱonlyȱtheȱfirst
threeȱbishopricsȱareȱexamined,ȱandȱtheȱcodexȱendsȱ(fol.ȱ217r)ȱonȱaȱnoteȱwhichȱpreviews
materialȱofȱaȱchapterȱthatȱclearlyȱexistedȱinȱanȱearlierȱsourceȱtext:ȱ“Diraȱdaquiȱadelante
deȱ lasȱ riberasȱ queȱ elȱ /ȱ Donȱ Juan/ȱ sabeȱ enȱ elȱ obispdoȱ deȱ Osma”ȱ (p.ȱ 89).ȱ Asȱ a
consequence,ȱhundredsȱofȱtoponymicȱreferencesȱhaveȱbeenȱlost,ȱandȱourȱknowledge
ofȱwhatȱmustȱhaveȱbeenȱtheȱbulkȱofȱJuanȱManuel’sȱfalconryȱmanualȱhasȱbeenȱgreatly
limited.33
Dennisȱ Sennifȱ refersȱ hereȱ toȱ theȱ falconryȱ manual.ȱ Aboutȱ theȱ secondȱ partȱ on
huntingȱ bigȱ game,ȱ doȱ Iȱ agreeȱ withȱ Guiseppeȱ diȱ Stefanoȱ thatȱ thisȱ materialȱ was
neverȱdeveloped?ȱWhyȱisȱitȱstatedȱthenȱinȱtheȱprologueȱthatȱincludedȱinȱtheȱbook
isȱwhatȱJuanȱManuelȱwroteȱonȱhuntingȱbigȱgame,ȱmaterialȱthatȱisȱbasedȱonȱhis
conversationsȱ withȱ experiencedȱ huntersȱ ofȱ bigȱ game,ȱ Sanchoȱ Ximenesȱ de
Lanchares,ȱGarcyȱAlvarezȱandȱhisȱsonȱFerrantȱGomez,ȱRoyȱXimenesȱdeȱMesco,ȱand
conȱfrecuenciaȱlaȱcetrería.”ȱ(“Itȱisȱnotȱeasyȱtoȱproveȱifȱtheȱauthorȱincludedȱmaterialȱonȱhuntingȱbig
gameȱorȱnot:ȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱhasȱcomeȱtoȱusȱincompleteȱandȱitȱisȱinterruptedȱapproximatelyȱin
theȱmiddleȱofȱaȱchapterȱthatȱlooksȱlikeȱtheȱlastȱchapterȱpertainingȱtoȱfalconry,ȱaȱchapterȱthatȱlooks
likeȱanȱappendixȱinȱwhichȱareȱdescribedȱtheȱrecommendedȱplacesȱforȱtheȱsport.ȱTheȱprologueȱitself
isȱimpreciseȱaboutȱtheȱexclusionȱorȱinclusionȱofȱtheȱmaterialȱonȱhuntingȱbigȱgame.ȱInȱoneȱpassage
donȱJuanȱstatesȱthatȱheȱhasȱincludedȱitȱandȱinȱanotherȱpassageȱheȱstatesȱthatȱheȱwillȱincludeȱitȱafter
theȱmaterialȱonȱfalconryȱ(Baist,ȱ1880:ȱ3–25ȱandȱ4–3);ȱit’sȱnotȱevenȱclearȱifȱtheȱcompositionȱofȱthe
prologueȱtookȱplaceȱbeforeȱorȱafterȱtheȱcompositionȱofȱtheȱlittleȱbook.ȱItȱisȱveryȱpossibleȱthatȱthe
subjectȱofȱhuntingȱbigȱgameȱdidȱnotȱelicitȱaȱlotȱofȱenthusiasmȱinȱdonȱJuanȱManuel,ȱjudgingȱbyȱhow
fewȱ referencesȱ heȱ makesȱ toȱ theȱ sportȱ inȱ allȱ hisȱ books,ȱ comparedȱ toȱ theȱ frequencyȱ heȱ finds
opportunitiesȱtoȱwriteȱaboutȱfalconry.”)
31
32
“JuanȱManuel:ȱauteurȱcynégétique”,ȱDonȱJuanȱManuel:ȱVIIȱcentenarioȱ(Murcia:ȱUniversidadȱde
Murcia,ȱAcademiaȱAlfonsoȱXȱelȱSabio,ȱ1982),ȱ199–213,ȱ213.ȱSpanishȱversionȱofȱarticleȱisȱfoundȱin
DonȱJuanȱManuelȱyȱelȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ91–104.ȱ
33
“AllȱtheȱKing’sȱMenȱandȱallȱtheȱKing’sȱLands:ȱtheȱNobilityȱandȱGeographyȱofȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza
andȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱmontería,”ȱNobleȱPursuits:ȱLiteratureȱandȱtheȱHuntȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ1–14;ȱhereȱ9.ȱ
otherȱhuntersȱfromȱGaliciaȱandȱCastile?34ȱTheseȱareȱthreeȱdifferentȱassertions:ȱthat
JuanȱManuelȱhadȱconversationsȱwithȱbigȱgameȱhunters,ȱthatȱheȱdidȱrecaptureȱthese
conversationsȱ inȱ writing,ȱ andȱ thatȱ theyȱ areȱ includedȱ inȱ thisȱ book.ȱ Thisȱ is
contradictedȱaȱfewȱlinesȱdownȱwhenȱtheȱnarratorȱwritesȱthatȱtheȱpartȱofȱhunting
bigȱgameȱwillȱbeȱputȱinȱtheȱbookȱafterȱtheȱbookȱonȱfalconryȱisȱcompleted:ȱ“Pero
todaȱlaȱarteȱdelȱbenarȱponerȱseȱaȱenȱesteȱlibroȱdespuesȱqueȱfuereȱacabadoȱ(el)ȱdel
arteȱdeȱcaçar.”35ȱ(“Butȱeverythingȱpertainingȱtoȱtheȱsortȱofȱhuntingȱbigȱgameȱwill
beȱ putȱ inȱ theȱ bookȱ afterȱ finishingȱ whatȱ pertainsȱ toȱ theȱ sportȱ ofȱ huntingȱ with
falcons.”)ȱ
RecallingȱGermanȱOrduna’sȱtheoryȱthatȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱwasȱwrittenȱinȱatȱleast
twoȱdifferentȱstagesȱ(separatedȱbyȱyears)ȱinȱtheȱauthor’sȱliteraryȱcareer,ȱIȱseeȱthese
contradictionsȱinȱtheȱprologueȱasȱproofȱthatȱtheȱnarrator/scribeȱhadȱdifferentȱtexts
beforeȱhimȱthatȱwereȱcomposedȱatȱdifferentȱtimesȱandȱthatȱheȱnowȱhadȱtheȱtaskȱof
puttingȱtogether.ȱOneȱcouldȱunderstandȱthemȱasȱnotes.ȱThatȱis,ȱJuanȱManuelȱdid
writeȱdownȱnotesȱonȱhisȱconversationsȱwithȱhunters.ȱAtȱanotherȱtime,ȱorȱasȱaȱwork
inȱ progress,ȱ heȱ hadȱ aȱ scribeȱ (orȱ scribes)ȱ writeȱ notesȱ onȱ hisȱ uncle’sȱ materialȱ on
hunting,ȱ withȱ hisȱ participationȱ andȱ input.ȱ Thisȱ wouldȱ explainȱ “fizoȱ escriuir
algunasȱcosas.”ȱ
Perhapsȱitȱisȱtheȱediting,ȱtheȱcementingȱandȱarrangementȱofȱtheȱpartsȱandȱthe
fillingȱinȱtheȱgaps,ȱthatȱtheȱscribeȱhasȱnotȱcompletedȱwhenȱheȱstatesȱthatȱtheȱbook
onȱ huntingȱ bigȱ gameȱ willȱ beȱ includedȱ (thatȱ is,ȱ editedȱ andȱ perfected)ȱ afterȱ he
completesȱtheȱpartȱonȱfalconry.ȱJuanȱManuelȱhasȱalreadyȱdoneȱhisȱpart,ȱinȱterms
ofȱwriting.ȱ(Iȱdiscussȱtheȱdictationȱprocessȱlaterȱinȱthisȱarticle.)ȱThisȱwouldȱmean
thatȱtheȱprologueȱwasȱnotȱwrittenȱafterȱtheȱbookȱwasȱcompleted,ȱbutȱwhileȱthe
scribeȱandȱJuanȱManuelȱwereȱstillȱworkingȱonȱcompletingȱit.ȱPerhapsȱtheyȱdidȱnot
finishȱputtingȱitȱallȱtogether,ȱwhichȱwouldȱmeanȱthatȱthereȱisȱnoȱlostȱmanuscript
34
OnȱthisȱsubjectȱseeȱGuisseppeȱDiȱStefano,ȱ“DonȱJuanȱManuelȱenȱsuȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza,”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ16),
50.ȱ Fromȱ theȱ prologueȱ Iȱ quoteȱ theȱ passage:ȱ “Etȱ loȱ queȱ elȱ entendioȱ etȱ acordoȱ conȱ losȱ mejores
caçadoresȱconȱquienȱelȱdepartioȱmuchasȱvegadasȱsobreȱesto,ȱetȱotrosiȱloȱqueȱfalloȱenȱlaȱarteȱde
venar,ȱqueȱquiereȱdezirȱlaȱcacaȱdeȱlosȱvenadosȱqueȱseȱcaçanȱeȱelȱmonte,ȱescriuioloȱenȱesteȱlibro
segundȱloȱacordoȱconȱSanchoȱXimenesȱdeȱLancharesȱetȱconȱGarcyȱAluarezȱetȱconȱRoyȱXimenesȱde
MescoȱetȱconȱFerrantȱGomes,ȱfijoȱdelȱdichoȱGarcyȱAluarez,ȱetȱconȱotrosȱcauallerosȱdeȱGaliçiaȱque
sabenȱmuchoȱdestaȱarteȱetȱcoȱotrosȱmonterosȱqueȱandanȱenȱcasaȱdelȱreyȱnuestroȱsennorȱetȱconȱdon
Iohanȱetȱconȱestosȱomnesȱbonosȱdichosȱqueȱsabenȱdestarȱarte.ȱPeroȱtodaȱlaȱarteȱdelȱbenarȱponerȱse
aȱenȱesteȱlibroȱdespuesȱqueȱfuereȱacabadoȱ[el]ȱdelȱarteȱdeȱcaçar”ȱ(521:ȱ69–80).ȱ“Andȱaboutȱtheȱsport
ofȱhuntingȱwithȱfalcons,ȱheȱwroteȱdownȱinȱthisȱbookȱwhatȱheȱconferredȱwithȱtheȱbestȱhunters,
whomȱheȱhadȱmanyȱconversationsȱwithȱaboutȱtheȱsport;ȱheȱalsoȱwroteȱdownȱinȱthisȱbookȱwhatȱhe
foundȱoutȱaboutȱvenery,ȱwhichȱisȱtheȱsportȱofȱhuntingȱgameȱanmalsȱinȱtheȱhillsȱandȱmountains,
inȱhisȱconversationsȱwithȱSanchoȱXimenesȱdeȱLanchares,ȱGarcyȱAluarez,ȱRoyȱXimenesȱdeȱMesco,
FerrantȱGomes,ȱGarcyȱAluarez’sȱson,ȱandȱotherȱknightsȱfromȱGaliciaȱwhoȱknowȱaȱlotȱaboutȱthis
sport,ȱandȱwithȱotherȱbigȱgameȱhuntersȱwhoȱfrequentȱtheȱhouseholdsȱofȱourȱlordȱtheȱkingȱandȱdon
Juanȱandȱwithȱtheseȱgoodȱmenȱthatȱhaveȱbeenȱmentionedȱwhoȱknowȱaboutȱthisȱsport.”ȱ
35
thatȱisȱcomplete.ȱ(Thereȱwereȱnotes.)ȱInȱanyȱevent,ȱtheȱincompletionȱofȱtheȱtextȱin
theseȱtwoȱwaysȱ(theȱfalconryȱmanualȱandȱtheȱmanualȱonȱbigȱgameȱhunting)ȱisȱa
questionȱthatȱremainsȱforȱnowȱunanswered.ȱ(Iȱdiscussȱitȱagainȱlater.)
Juanȱ Manuelȱ isȱ citedȱ inȱ thirdȱ personȱ atȱ leastȱ thirtyȱ times,ȱ mostȱ citations
beginningȱwithȱ“Etȱ diceȱ donȱ JuanȱManuelȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.”ȱForȱDennisȱSeniffȱ theseȱthird
personȱreferencesȱtestifyȱtoȱtheȱoralityȱinȱtheȱbookȬmakingȱprocess.ȱInȱeffect,ȱas
indicatedȱabove,ȱitȱcouldȱbeȱthatȱJuanȱManuelȱwasȱnotȱtheȱoneȱwhoȱwroteȱtheȱbook
byȱhand,ȱbutȱratherȱheȱdictatedȱtheȱcontentȱ(orȱpartsȱofȱtheȱcontent)ȱtoȱaȱscribe.ȱWe
couldȱevenȱimagineȱthisȱprocessȱtakingȱplaceȱinȱdifferentȱsettings,ȱindoorsȱwithȱthe
textsȱ thatȱ servedȱ asȱ sources,ȱ andȱ outdoorsȱ duringȱ huntingȱ expeditions.ȱ An
additionalȱcomplicationȱwouldȱbeȱtheȱtimeȱfactor.ȱDidȱJuanȱManuelȱdictateȱthe
materialȱonȱtheȱspotȱtoȱtheȱscribe?ȱOrȱwasȱtheȱmaterialȱrecalledȱbyȱtheȱscribeȱand
putȱinȱwritingȱatȱaȱlaterȱdate?ȱInȱthisȱrespect,ȱtheȱprologueȱisȱdefinitelyȱdifferent
fromȱtheȱbodyȱofȱtheȱbook.ȱTheȱnarrator/scribeȱisȱprobablyȱmoreȱofȱanȱauthorȱhere
thanȱheȱisȱinȱtheȱtwelveȱchapters.ȱAccordingȱtoȱGermanȱOrduna,ȱhowever,ȱmost
ofȱitȱwasȱwrittenȱearlierȱonȱinȱtheȱfirstȱstageȱofȱitsȱcomposition.36ȱ
Iȱbelieve,ȱasȱexplainedȱabove,ȱthatȱtheȱprologueȱwasȱwrittenȱwhileȱtheȱbookȱwas
beingȱputȱtogether,ȱandȱlikeȱOrduna,ȱinȱdifferentȱstages.ȱEitherȱway,ȱJuanȱManuel
isȱmentionedȱinȱthirdȱpersonȱinȱtheȱpastȱtense,ȱwhereasȱinȱtheȱbookȱitselfȱheȱis
mentionedȱforȱtheȱmostȱpartȱinȱtheȱpresentȱtense.ȱCompare:ȱ“ley(o)ȱmuchoȱenȱellos
etȱfallo”ȱ(inȱtheȱprologue)ȱwithȱ“EtȱdizeȱdonȱIohanȱqueȱyalȱcontesçioȱaȱelȱesto”
(chapterȱIV).ȱInȱtheȱprologueȱJuanȱManuelȱisȱnotȱthereȱbyȱtheȱscribe’sȱside;ȱinȱthe
bookȱheȱisȱ(orȱseemsȱtoȱbe).37ȱ
Importantȱinformationȱaboutȱtheȱnarrator/scribeȱinȱtheȱprologueȱcanȱbeȱgathered
fromȱtheȱfirstȱparagraph.ȱItȱcanȱbeȱsaidȱthatȱheȱwas,ȱlikeȱJuanȱManuel,ȱalsoȱan
admirerȱofȱAlfonsoȱX.ȱInterestingȱisȱwhatȱAlphonsineȱaccomplishmentsȱheȱchooses
36
Seeȱ“LosȱprólogosȱaȱlaȱCrónicaȱabreviadaȱyȱalȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza,”ȱDonȱJuanȱManuelȱyȱelȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza
(seeȱnoteȱ9),ȱ119.ȱ“ElȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza,ȱenȱlaȱformaȱenȱqueȱhoyȱloȱconocemos,ȱprocedeȱdeȱesaȱmisma
etapa,ȱ deȱ laȱ queȱ seguramenteȱ conservaȱ laȱ mayorȱ parteȱ delȱ prólogo;ȱ peroȱ elȱ texto,ȱ aun
fragmentario,ȱ muestraȱ unaȱ elaboraciónȱ porȱ laȱ queȱ laȱ fuenteȱ alfonsíȱ desaparece,ȱ hábilmente
entretejidaȱyȱdispuesta,ȱconȱartificioȱtalȱqueȱhoyȱresultaȱmuyȱdifícilȱdeȱdiscernir.”ȱ(“TheȱLibroȱde
laȱcaza,ȱinȱtheȱformȱthatȱitȱhasȱcomeȱdownȱtoȱus,ȱbelongsȱtoȱthisȱfirstȱstageȱofȱtheȱauthor’sȱcareer,
andȱalmostȱcertainlyȱtheȱmajorityȱofȱtheȱprologueȱwasȱalsoȱwrittenȱinȱthisȱfirstȱstage;ȱtheȱtext,
however,ȱstillȱfragmentaryȱandȱunfinished,ȱshowsȱaȱlaterȱstageȱofȱwritingȱinȱwhichȱtheȱalphonsine
sourceȱisȱexpertlyȱweavedȱinȱandȱarrangedȱsoȱthatȱitȱdisappearsȱartfully,ȱsoȱmuchȱsoȱthatȱnowȱit
isȱveryȱdifficultȱtoȱpinpoint.”)
37
AsȱtoȱtheȱpossibleȱmethodsȱofȱcompositionȱofȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza,ȱmyȱopinionȱdiffersȱfromȱReinaldo
AyerbeȬChaux’sȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 3)ȱ onlyȱ inȱ twoȱ importantȱ ways.ȱ Iȱ believeȱ thatȱ bothȱ methodsȱ of
compositionȱwereȱused:ȱthatȱJuanȱManuelȱdictatedȱtheȱmaterialȱtoȱtheȱscribeȱandȱthatȱtheȱscribe
recalledȱwhatȱJuanȱManuelȱtoldȱhimȱonȱdifferentȱoccasions.ȱIȱalsoȱdifferȱinȱthatȱIȱbelieveȱthatȱJuan
Manuelȱdidȱhaveȱnotesȱwrittenȱdownȱbasedȱonȱhisȱconversationsȱinȱtheȱpastȱwithȱfamilyȱmembers.
AyerbeȬChauxȱcitesȱbothȱDennisȱSennifȱandȱVicenteȱCantarinoȱonȱthisȱsubject.
toȱfocusȱon.ȱAfterȱaȱgeneralȱpraise—AlfonsoȱXȱdidȱmoreȱthanȱanyȱotherȱkingȱ(since
Ptolomeo)ȱ toȱ fomentȱ knowledgeȱ andȱ cultureȱ inȱ hisȱ kingdoms,ȱ andȱ he
commissionedȱtranslationsȱinȱallȱtheȱareasȱofȱknowledge—heȱapplaudsȱtheȱkingȱfor
havingȱ translatedȱ “todaȱ laȱ sectaȱ deȱ losȱ moros”ȱ (sacredȱ Muslimȱ texts)ȱ andȱ the
sacredȱJewishȱtextsȱofȱtheȱTalmudȱandȱtheȱCabala.ȱTheȱnarratorȱidentifiesȱhimselfȱas
aȱChristianȱwhenȱheȱaddsȱthatȱtheȱkingȱhadȱtheseȱtranslationsȱdoneȱsoȱthatȱthey
wouldȱ proveȱ thatȱ theȱ Jewishȱ andȱ theȱ Muslimȱ religionsȱ areȱ mistakenȱ andȱ the
Christianȱreligionȱthatȱ“losȱchristianosȱavemos”ȱ(“weȱChristiansȱhave”)ȱisȱtheȱtrue
faith.ȱ
ThisȱisȱaȱconnectionȱtoȱtheȱconversionȱdiscourseȱthatȱweȱfindȱinȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱlos
estados,ȱinȱwhichȱJulioȱconvincesȱtheȱprinceȱthatȱtheȱChristianȱreligionȱisȱsuperior
toȱtheȱMuslimȱandȱtheȱJewishȱreligions.ȱ(SeeȱespeciallyȱchapterȱIIIȱinȱsecondȱpart).
AfterȱadmiringȱtheȱkingȱforȱtranslatingȱintoȱRomanceȱtheȱsecularȱandȱecclesiastical
laws,ȱheȱaddressesȱGodȱdirectlyȱinȱaȱprayerȱinȱwhichȱheȱbasicallyȱsummarizesȱthe
reasonȱforȱtheȱexistenceȱofȱhumankind:ȱtoȱgetȱtoȱknowȱhim,ȱtoȱpraiseȱhim,ȱandȱto
striveȱtoȱbeȱlikeȱhim,ȱbyȱdoingȱgoodȱdeeds,ȱusingȱgoodwillȱwithȱtheȱfacultyȱof
reason.ȱInȱtheȱlastȱbitȱofȱtheȱprayerȱtheȱwordȱ“maravilloso”ȱisȱrepeatedȱtwice.ȱ
TheȱnarratorȱsaysȱthatȱGod’sȱjudgmentsȱareȱjustȱandȱmarvelous.ȱTheȱlastȱtwo
sentencesȱofȱtheȱprayerȱareȱhermetic.ȱ(Toȱbeȱhermeticȱonceȱinȱaȱwhile,ȱasȱweȱknow,
isȱtypicalȱofȱJuanȱManuelȱorȱhisȱscribeȱorȱscribes.)ȱWhatȱisȱsecret?ȱWhateverȱitȱis,
itȱisȱ“maravilloso”,ȱandȱitȱisȱsomethingȱconcerningȱAlfonsoȱXȱthatȱweȱareȱnotȱmade
privyȱto,ȱofȱcourse.ȱWeȱseeȱtheȱwordȱ“contra”ȱ(“contraȱesteȱtanȱnobleȱrey.”)ȱThen
theȱfinalȱshutdown:ȱ“Tu,ȱSennor,ȱsabesȱloȱqueȱfeziste,ȱbenditoȱseasȱporȱquanto
fezisteȱ etȱ quantoȱ fazesȱ etȱ porȱ quantoȱ faras.”38ȱ (“Godȱ youȱ knowȱ whatȱ youȱ did.
Blessedȱareȱthouȱforȱwhatȱyouȱdid,ȱwhatȱyouȱdoȱandȱwhatȱyouȱwillȱdo.”)ȱTheȱtwo
peopleȱwhoȱknowȱtheȱsecretȱareȱtheȱnarratorȱandȱGod.ȱ
Whatȱweȱhaveȱtoȱrealizeȱaboutȱtheȱscribeȱisȱthatȱheȱneverȱwantsȱtoȱhaveȱorȱat
leastȱshowȱanyȱpersonalȱinterestsȱorȱopinions.ȱHeȱneverȱwantsȱtoȱshowȱhimselfȱas
anȱindividual.ȱForȱexample,ȱheȱneverȱcontradictsȱJuanȱManuel.ȱHisȱmainȱinterest
isȱrepresentingȱJuanȱManuel.ȱYet,ȱIȱventureȱtoȱsayȱthatȱitȱisȱsomeone’sȱpersonal
interestȱthatȱisȱtheȱsecretȱhere.ȱItȱcanȱeitherȱbeȱ“his”ȱ(theȱscribe’s)ȱorȱJuanȱManuel’s.
IsȱtheȱscribeȱaȱconvertȱwhoȱisȱsecretlyȱthankingȱGodȱforȱhisȱconversion,ȱandȱthat
isȱwhyȱheȱfocusesȱonȱtheȱmistakenȱtwoȱfaiths,ȱgoingȱtoȱtheȱlengthȱofȱmentioningȱthe
TalmudȱandȱCabalaȱofȱtheȱJewishȱfaithȱandȱidentifyingȱhimselfȱasȱChristian?ȱ
IsȱtheȱscribeȱaȱDominicanȱfriarȱattachedȱtoȱtheȱDominicanȱMonasteryȱofȱPeñafiel
thatȱJuanȱManuelȱisȱtheȱpatronȱof?ȱAsȱweȱknow,ȱDominicansȱdedicatedȱthemselves
toȱ theȱ conversionȱ enterprise.ȱ Isȱ theȱ Dominicanȱ thankingȱ Godȱ forȱ aȱ marvelous
favor?ȱ Onȱ theȱ otherȱ hand,ȱ theȱ secretȱ couldȱ beȱ theȱ wellȬknownȱ Manueline
38
maneuverȱtoȱallyȱGod’sȱwillȱwithȱhisȱpoliticalȱambitionsȱagainstȱtheȱroyalȱlineage.
Theȱscribeȱhasȱnoȱpersonalȱinterestȱhere,ȱandȱhisȱidentityȱisȱcompletelyȱfusedȱwith
JuanȱManuel’s.ȱThisȱwouldȱexplainȱtheȱphrase,ȱ“contraȱesteȱtanȱnobleȱrey.”ȱThe
prologueȱtoȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱcouldȱhaveȱbeenȱwrittenȱaroundȱtheȱtimeȱLibroȱdeȱlas
armasȱwasȱwritten,ȱwhereȱJuanȱManuel’sȱpoliticalȱambitionsȱareȱtheȱmotivations
behindȱthreeȱskilledȱnarrativesȱ(“razones”)ȱthatȱuseȱreligiousȱandȱheraldicȱimagery
andȱsophisticatedȱnarrativeȱtechniquesȱtoȱdemonstrateȱthatȱAlfonsoȱX’sȱlineageȱis
cursedȱ whileȱ hisȱ ownȱ lineageȱ hasȱ beenȱ chosenȱ byȱ Godȱ toȱ inheritȱ theȱ Castilian
throne.39ȱ
Thereȱ isȱ noȱ wayȱ toȱ knowȱ ifȱ theȱ scribeȱ himselfȱ accompaniedȱ Juanȱ Manuelȱ in
huntingȱexpeditionsȱnorȱifȱheȱparticipatedȱinȱhuntingȱhimselfȱnorȱhowȱmuchȱhe
knew,ȱifȱanything,ȱaboutȱfalconry.ȱCertainlyȱhisȱparticipationȱinȱtheȱcomposition
ofȱtheȱbookȱgaveȱhimȱanȱeducationȱonȱtheȱsubject.ȱWeȱcanȱventureȱtoȱsayȱthatȱhe
knewȱ Juanȱ Manuelȱ andȱ hisȱ familyȱ veryȱ well.ȱ Heȱ workedȱ asȱ aȱ scribeȱ inȱ the
household.ȱJuanȱManuelȱpossiblyȱdictatedȱhisȱlettersȱtoȱhimȱ(asȱwellȱasȱtoȱothers).
Heȱbelongedȱtoȱtheȱimportantȱprofessionȱofȱ“escriuanos”ȱthatȱwereȱemployedȱin
theȱ householdsȱ ofȱ theȱ royaltyȱ andȱ theȱ nobilityȱ (andȱ increasinglyȱ forȱ other
professionalsȱandȱsocialȱclasses).40ȱ
Itȱ isȱ likelyȱ thatȱ Juanȱ Manuel,ȱ becauseȱ heȱ wasȱ continuouslyȱ concernedȱ with
jugglingȱhisȱmanyȱresponsibilitiesȱandȱpastimesȱ(usingȱhisȱtimeȱwellȱandȱgetting
thingsȱdone)ȱdidȱtakeȱhisȱscribeȱwithȱhimȱonȱhisȱhuntingȱexpeditions.ȱTheyȱcould
workȱ togetherȱ (compose)ȱ duringȱ breaksȱ andȱ inȱ theȱ evenings.ȱ Aȱ hintȱ ofȱ the
professionȱ ofȱ theȱ scribeȱ isȱ foundȱ inȱ chapterȱ Vȱ ofȱ theȱ Libroȱ deȱ laȱ cazaȱ inȱ aȱ very
importantȱ contextȱ thatȱ happensȱ toȱ beȱ anȱ essentialȱ connectingȱ themeȱ thatȱ runs
39
JuanȱManuel,ȱorȱJuanȱManuel’sȱfaithfulȱscribe,ȱcannotȱturnȱoffȱtheȱpoliticalȱagenda,ȱnotȱevenȱinȱthis
manualȱ onȱ falconry.ȱ Iȱ believeȱ thatȱ theȱ hermetismȱ inȱ theȱ prologue,ȱ whichȱ showsȱ justȱ enough
animosityȱtowardȱkingȱAlfonsoȱXI,ȱisȱproofȱthatȱtheȱprologueȱwasȱcomposedȱinȱdifferentȱstages,
possiblyȱinȱmoreȱstagesȱthanȱtheȱtwoȱsuggestedȱbyȱGermanȱOrduna.ȱWeȱshouldȱdefinitelyȱnot
rejectȱtheȱlaterȱstagesȱofȱcompositionȱ(whenȱJuanȱManuelȱwasȱatȱtheȱpeakȱofȱhostility,ȱevenȱwar,
withȱtheȱking,ȱbetweenȱ1327ȱandȱ1330,ȱorȱwhenȱheȱlaterȱwasȱstillȱnursingȱhisȱresentmentsȱforȱthe
king’sȱsuccessȱinȱalienatingȱhimȱfromȱhisȱcourtȱandȱtakingȱawayȱhisȱadministrativeȱpositionȱinȱthe
kingdomȱofȱMurcia)ȱinȱfavorȱofȱanȱearlierȱoneȱonly.ȱAnȱevenȱlaterȱstageȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱdiscarded,
asȱIȱsuggest,ȱrightȱaboutȱtheȱtimeȱofȱtheȱcompositionȱofȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱlasȱarmas,ȱafterȱ1335.ȱPolitical
isȱalsoȱwhoȱheȱchoosesȱtoȱmentionȱinȱtheȱbookȱamongȱbothȱfalconersȱandȱhunters.ȱForȱexample,
heȱmentionsȱhisȱcousinȱdonȱJuan,ȱbecauseȱpoliticallyȱtheyȱwereȱallies,ȱyetȱheȱdoesȱnotȱmentionȱdon
Felipe,ȱSanchoȱIV’sȱson,ȱwithȱwhomȱheȱwasȱenemies.ȱOnȱtheȱanimosityȱbetweenȱJuanȱManuelȱand
donȱFelipeȱseeȱMaríaȱdeȱlosȱLlanosȱMartínezȱCarrillo,ȱ“ElȱobispadoȱdeȱSigüenzaȱenȱelȱLibroȱdeȱla
caza:ȱUnȱitinerarioȱgeográfico,”ȱDonȱJuanȱManuel:ȱVIIȱcentenarioȱ(seeȱnoteȱ32),ȱ187–98;ȱhereȱ189.
40
SeeȱLasȱsieteȱpartidasȱdelȱreyȱdonȱAlfonsoȱelȱSabioȱ(seeȱnoteȱ22),ȱ298.ȱTitleȱXIXȱinȱAlfonsoȱX’sȱTercera
Partidaȱ isȱ dedicatedȱ toȱ describingȱ theȱ professionȱ ofȱ theȱ scribe:ȱ “Deȱ losȱ escriuanos,ȱ eȱ quantas
manerasȱsonȱdellos,ȱeȱqueȱproȱnasceȱdeȱsuȱoficioȱquandoȱloȱfizierenȱlealmente.”ȱ(“Concerningȱthe
scribesȱandȱtheirȱclassificaton,ȱandȱtheȱbenefitsȱthatȱtheirȱprofessionȱprovidesȱifȱperformedȱwith
loyalty.”)ȱ
throughoutȱtheȱbook,ȱtheȱneedȱforȱtheȱfalconerȱtoȱuseȱhisȱownȱcriteria,ȱinȱthisȱcase,
forȱ feedingȱ theȱ falcon:ȱ ”Etȱ porȱ ende,ȱ cuantosȱ escriuanosȱ enȱ elȱ mundoȱ sonȱ non
podrianȱescriuirȱquantasȱcosasȱsonȱmester,ȱsiȱelȱfalconeroȱnonȱhaȱentendimientoȱde
suyoȱparaȱconosçerȱlaȱmaneraȱdelȱfalconȱetȱloȱquellȱcunpleȱfazer.”41ȱ“Notȱallȱthe
scribesȱinȱtheȱworldȱcouldȱwriteȱaboutȱallȱtheȱvariablesȱconcerningȱthisȱmatter;ȱthe
falconerȱ needsȱ toȱ useȱ hisȱ ownȱ judgmentȱ basedȱ onȱ hisȱ familiarityȱ withȱ each
individualȱfalcon.”ȱ
Thisȱisȱtheȱonlyȱmentionȱofȱtheȱprofessionȱofȱscribesȱinȱtheȱbook.ȱTheȱconnecting
themeȱisȱtheȱdifferentiationȱbetweenȱtheoryȱandȱpractice.ȱItȱseemsȱtoȱmeȱthatȱitȱis
thisȱthemeȱthatȱweȱcanȱseeȱbothȱJuanȱManuelȱandȱtheȱscribeȱworkingȱoutȱtogether.
Itȱisȱtheȱthemeȱthatȱunitesȱtheȱprologueȱwithȱtheȱbodyȱofȱtheȱwork,ȱtheȱthemeȱthat
unitesȱtheȱchapters,ȱandȱtheȱthemeȱthatȱprovidesȱcontinuityȱtoȱtheȱcontent.ȱIȱbelieve
bothȱJuanȱManuelȱandȱhisȱscribeȱareȱinvestedȱinȱdevelopingȱthisȱtheme.ȱItȱisȱnotȱtoo
farȱ fetchedȱ toȱ imagineȱ theȱ scribeȱ readingȱ toȱ Juanȱ Manuelȱ outȱ loudȱ fromȱ texts,
writtenȱ sources,ȱ evenȱ notesȱ thatȱ Juanȱ Manuelȱ hasȱ jottedȱ downȱ onȱ different
occasions,ȱ discussingȱ theȱ content,ȱ decidingȱ whatȱ toȱ putȱ inȱ theȱ bookȱ theyȱ are
composing,ȱandȱJuanȱManuelȱadding,ȱdictatingȱmoreȱinformationȱbasedȱonȱhis
ownȱexperiences.ȱThereȱareȱtheoriesȱonȱfalconryȱandȱdifferentȱpractices,ȱincluding
JuanȱManuel’s.ȱHowever,ȱrepeatedȱcontinuouslyȱisȱthatȱtheȱreader/falconerȱneeds
toȱuseȱhisȱownȱjudgmentȱinȱeveryȱsituation.
InȱtheȱprologueȱtheȱnarratorȱemphasizesȱthatȱbothȱAlfonsoȱXȱandȱJuanȱManuel
combinedȱtheoryȱwithȱpracticeȱinȱtheirȱwritingsȱonȱhunting.ȱAboutȱAlfonsoȱXȱhe
writes,ȱ“Etȱpusoȱmuyȱconplidaȱmenteȱlaȱteoricaȱetȱlaȱpracticaȱcommoȱconuieneȱa
estaȱarte.”42ȱ(“Andȱheȱputȱinȱtheȱbookȱbothȱtheȱdifferentȱtheoriesȱandȱtheȱdifferent
practicesȱthatȱconcernȱthisȱsport.”)ȱTheȱnarratorȱaddsȱthatȱhisȱaccomplishmentȱis
soȱoutstandingȱandȱcomplete,ȱthatȱnoȱoneȱcanȱmakeȱcorrectionsȱorȱaddȱanything
new.ȱNevertheless,ȱthisȱisȱexactlyȱwhatȱJuanȱManuelȱandȱhisȱscribeȱsetȱoutȱtoȱdo,
writeȱaȱmoreȱcontemporaryȱbookȱ(onȱfalconry,ȱatȱleast).ȱ
Theȱnarratorȱdefinesȱwhatȱtheoryȱisȱandȱwhatȱpracticeȱis:ȱ“Etȱteoricaȱquiereȱdezir
saberȱomneȱlaȱrayzȱetȱlaȱentençionȱdeȱlaȱarteȱconplidaȱmente,ȱetȱpraticaȱquiereȱdezir
saberȱ omneȱ vsarȱ enȱ aquellaȱ arteȱ enȱ guisaȱ queȱ trayaȱ acabamientoȱ aquelloȱ que
quiere.”43ȱ(“Theoryȱisȱtheȱcompleteȱknowledgeȱofȱtheȱhistoryȱ(roots)ȱandȱtheȱgoals
ofȱtheȱsport;ȱpracticeȱmeansȱtheȱabilityȱtoȱsetȱgoalsȱinȱtheȱsportȱandȱperformȱthem
successfully.”)ȱJuanȱManuelȱdecidedȱthatȱtheȱpresentȱgenerationȱofȱhuntersȱneeded
moreȱtheoreticalȱknowledge,ȱlikeȱwhatȱheȱreadȱinȱhisȱuncle’sȱbooks,ȱsoȱtheyȱwould
makeȱ fewerȱ mistakes,ȱ andȱ heȱ wouldȱ beȱ theȱ oneȱ toȱ passȱ itȱ on.ȱ Theȱ practice
componentȱofȱhisȱownȱbookȱisȱhisȱownȱrecollectionsȱandȱexperiencesȱinȱtheȱsport,
41
42
43
whichȱ includeȱ necessarilyȱ theȱ experiencesȱ ofȱ otherȱ huntersȱ fromȱ hisȱ father’s
generationȱandȱfromȱhisȱown.ȱ
Finally,ȱthereȱisȱtheȱ“entendimiento”ȱ(judgment)ȱofȱeachȱ“falconero”ȱwhoȱneeds
toȱknowȱtheȱidiosyncrasiesȱofȱtheȱfalcon(s)ȱheȱtrainsȱbetterȱthanȱanyoneȱelse:ȱ“Et
porȱqueȱlosȱfalconesȱnonȱsonȱtodosȱdeȱvnȱtalante,ȱfincaȱenȱelȱentendimientoȱdel
falconeroȱ queȱ entiendaȱ elȱ talanteȱ etȱ laȱ maneraȱ delȱ falconȱ qualȱ es,ȱ etȱ assiȱ sabra
commoȱdeueȱpenssarȱdel.”44ȱ(“Becauseȱnotȱallȱfalconsȱareȱtheȱsame,ȱitȱisȱupȱtooȱthe
trainerȱtoȱgetȱtoȱknowȱtheȱpreferencesȱandȱtheȱidiosyncrasiesȱofȱtheȱfalconȱheȱis
training,ȱandȱthatȱwayȱheȱwillȱknowȱwhatȱtoȱthink.”)ȱAsȱweȱcanȱsee,ȱthereȱareȱthree
generationsȱ ofȱ falconersȱ andȱ huntersȱ involved:ȱ theȱ youngerȱ generation,ȱ Juan
Manuel’sȱ generationȱ andȱ hisȱ father’sȱ generation.ȱ (Laterȱ Iȱ willȱ addȱ twoȱ more
generations.)
BothȱJuanȱManuelȱandȱtheȱscribeȱareȱdictatingȱandȱwritingȱaȱbookȱforȱreaders,
whichȱ areȱ identifiedȱ inȱ theȱ prologueȱ asȱ menȱ whoȱ huntȱ withȱ falconsȱ (orȱ are
interestedȱinȱdoingȱso),ȱandȱfalconers,ȱtheȱmenȱwhoȱtrainȱ(orȱwantȱtoȱlearnȱtoȱtrain)
theȱfalcons.ȱInȱtheȱbookȱitselfȱtheseȱreadersȱareȱ1)ȱimpliedȱinȱeveryȱinstance,ȱ2)
addressedȱindirectlyȱ(whereȱitȱisȱsaidȱthatȱtheȱfalconerȱhasȱtoȱuseȱhisȱownȱgood
judgment),ȱandȱ3)ȱidentifiedȱdirectlyȱasȱreadersȱinȱchapterȱXI,ȱ“EtȱdizeȱdonȱIohan
queȱsepanȱtodosȱlosȱqueȱesteȱlibroȱleeyerenȱ.ȱ.ȱ.”45ȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱtheȱbookȱwas
composedȱorallyȱandȱinȱwriting,ȱbutȱtheȱreceptorsȱareȱnecessarilyȱreadersȱwhoȱwill
readȱ theȱ book.ȱ (Ofȱ course,ȱ theȱ reader(s)ȱ canȱ inȱ turnȱ readȱ theȱ bookȱ outȱ loudȱ to
literateȱandȱilliterateȱlisteners.)ȱThisȱdescriptionȱofȱreadersȱreadingȱtheȱbookȱindeed
persuadesȱusȱtoȱseeȱJuanȱManuelȱasȱaȱreaderȱhimself.ȱ
TheȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱJuanȱManuelȱandȱtheȱreaderȱisȱoftenȱestablishedȱinȱa
veryȱdirectȱway,ȱinȱmanyȱofȱtheȱplacesȱinȱwhichȱJuanȱManuelȱtalksȱaboutȱhisȱown
personalȱ experiencesȱ (inȱ someȱ casesȱ contradictingȱ theȱ theory).ȱ Iȱ discussȱ these
personalȱexperiencesȱinȱdetailȱinȱtheȱthirdȱpartȱofȱthisȱarticle;ȱwhatȱisȱimportant
hereȱisȱtheȱrelationshipȱIȱamȱreferringȱto.ȱTheȱpatternȱisȱthis:ȱaȱdescriptionȱofȱa
theoryȱorȱaȱpractice,ȱfollowedȱbyȱoneȱofȱJuanȱManuel’sȱinterjections,ȱ“Etȱdizeȱdon
Iohanȱqueȱ.ȱ.ȱ.,”ȱwhichȱisȱinȱturnȱfollowedȱeitherȱimmediatelyȱorȱafterȱanȱanecdote
byȱ theȱ warningȱ thatȱ theȱ falconerȱ hasȱ toȱ useȱ hisȱ ownȱ judgment.ȱ Ifȱ theȱ warning
followsȱimmediately,ȱtheȱanecdoteȱgenerallyȱcomesȱbehind:ȱ
Etȱelȱfalconeroȱqueȱelȱfalconȱsennolareȱdeuelȱsennolarȱ estandoȱdeȱbestiaȱetȱtraerȱel
sennueloȱenderredor,ȱmasȱnonȱdarȱvozȱfastaȱqueȱelȱfalconȱsalgaȱdeȱlaȱmano,ȱetȱdesque
saliere,ȱmientreȱveniereȱporȱelȱcamino,ȱdarleȱmuyȱgrandesȱvozes,ȱetȱessoȱmismoȱdesque
llegareȱalȱsennueloȱetȱenȱquantoȱcomiere.ȱPeroȱdizeȱdonȱIohanȱqueȱtodoȱestoȱhaȱde
fincarȱenȱelȱentendimientoȱdelȱfalconero:ȱcaȱyaȱvioȱlosȱfalconesȱqueȱelȱprimerȱdiaȱfueron
44
45
alȱsennueloȱsueltosȱsinȱcordelȱninguno,ȱetȱotrosȱqueȱlosȱsennolauanȱçincoȱoȱseysȱdias
anteȱqueȱlosȱosassenȱsoltar.46
[Theȱ falconerȱ whoȱ luresȱ theȱ falconȱ shouldȱ doȱ soȱ whileȱ ridingȱ onȱ hisȱ horseȱ and
swingingȱtheȱlure,ȱbutȱheȱwhouldȱnotȱcallȱoutȱuntilȱtheȱfalconȱleavesȱtheȱfist,ȱandȱas
soonȱasȱitȱdoes,ȱandȱwhenȱitȱisȱonȱitsȱwayȱback,ȱitȱisȱtimeȱtoȱyellȱatȱit,ȱandȱcontinueȱto
doȱsoȱuntilȱitȱreturnsȱtoȱtheȱlureȱandȱstartsȱtoȱeat.ȱButȱdonȱJuanȱsaysȱthatȱtheȱfalconer
shouldȱuseȱhisȱownȱjudgmentȱinȱhowȱtoȱlureȱtheȱfalcon,ȱbecauseȱheȱhasȱseenȱfalcons
thatȱonȱtheȱfirstȱdayȱreturnedȱtoȱtheȱlureȱwithoutȱbeingȱleashed,ȱandȱothersȱthatȱhadȱto
beȱtrainedȱwithȱtheȱlureȱforȱfiveȱtoȱsixȱdaysȱbeforeȱtheyȱwereȱletȱloose.]
TheȱmostȱfamousȱpassageȱinȱwhichȱJuanȱManuel’sȱvoiceȱwarnsȱthatȱtheoretical
knowledgeȱisȱinsufficientȱisȱfoundȱinȱchapterȱVI.ȱTheȱfalconerȱcannotȱrelyȱonȱwhat
heȱ canȱ readȱ inȱ theȱ book.ȱ First,ȱ thereȱ areȱ soȱ manyȱ occasionsȱ whenȱ theȱ written
instructionsȱdon’tȱapplyȱtoȱtheȱproblemsȱandȱtheȱoutcomes.ȱSecond,ȱwhatȱhappens
ifȱitȱrainsȱandȱtheȱbookȱgetsȱwet?ȱIfȱtheȱfalconerȱdependsȱonȱtheȱbookȱtooȱmuch,ȱhe
isȱinȱtrouble.ȱ
Peroȱdizeȱqueȱtodoȱestoȱaȱdeȱfincarȱenȱelȱentendimientoȱdelȱfalconero:ȱcaȱyaȱelȱvio
falconesȱqueȱsinȱtodasȱestasȱcosasȱfueronȱmuyȱbuenosȱgarçeros,ȱetȱavnȱqueȱmataron
nuncaȱlesȱechandoȱtrayna,ȱetȱotrosȱqueȱfaziendoȱlesȱtodasȱestasȱcosas,ȱnuncaȱquisieran
serȱ buenos.ȱ Etȱ assiȱ porȱ fuerçaȱ aȱ deȱ fincarȱ enȱ elȱ entendimientoȱ delȱ falconero.ȱ Que
commoȱquieraȱqueȱtodoȱestaȱaquiȱescriptoȱcommoȱseȱdeueȱfazer,ȱpocasȱvezesȱseȱguisa
queȱseȱpuedeȱfazerȱassi;ȱetȱsiȱelȱfalconeroȱnonȱsopiesseȱnadaȱdeȱsuyo,ȱsiȱnonȱloȱqueȱesta
escriptoȱenȱelȱlibro,ȱtardeȱfaraȱbuenȱfalcon;ȱcaȱsiȱquierȱquandoȱlloviesseȱoȱquandoȱse
aguasseȱlaȱgarçaȱenȱelȱrio,ȱsiȱentonçeȱoviesseȱdeȱabrirȱelȱlibroȱparaȱleerȱle,ȱmojarȱseȱya
etȱ seriaȱ perdidoȱ elȱ libro,ȱ etȱ dendeȱ adelanteȱ nonȱ sabri(a)ȱ commoȱ caçar.ȱ Porȱ endeȱ a
mesterȱqueȱelȱfalconeroȱayaȱtalȱentendimientoȱqueȱdeȱsuyoȱsepaȱponerȱconsejoȱpara
afeytarȱsuȱfalcon;ȱqueȱsiȱbuenȱentendimientoȱoviere,ȱavnȱqueȱalgunasȱcosasȱmengüen
queȱseȱnonȱpuedenȱfazerȱcommoȱaquiȱestaȱescripto,ȱaȱtodasȱsabraȱdarȱrecabdoȱetȱ(non)
dexaraȱporȱessoȱdeȱfazerȱbuenoȱelȱfalconȱqueȱtroxiere.47
[Butȱheȱsaysȱthatȱforȱallȱthisȱtheȱfalconerȱshouldȱrelyȱonȱhisȱownȱjudgment;ȱbecauseȱhe
hasȱseenȱfalconsȱthatȱwereȱgoodȱkillersȱofȱcranesȱwithoutȱallȱthisȱtraining,ȱandȱsome
thatȱevenȱkilledȱwithoutȱusingȱfirstȱaȱpracticeȱprey,ȱandȱotherȱfalconsȱthatȱwithȱallȱthe
trainingȱpossibleȱneverȱbecameȱgoodȱhunters.ȱThisȱisȱwhyȱtheȱfalconerȱhasȱtoȱrelyȱon
hisȱownȱjudgment.ȱEvenȱthoughȱallȱtheȱinstructionsȱonȱwhatȱtoȱdoȱareȱwrittenȱinȱthis
book,ȱveryȱfewȱtimesȱdoesȱitȱhappenȱthatȱfollowingȱtheȱinstructionsȱisȱsufficient.ȱIfȱthe
falconerȱdoesȱnotȱknowȱanythingȱonȱhisȱownȱandȱreliedȱonlyȱonȱtheȱbook,ȱheȱmight
neverȱtrainȱaȱgoodȱfalcon.ȱIfȱitȱhappenedȱtoȱrainȱorȱifȱtheȱcraneȱsplashedȱinȱtheȱriver,
howȱridiculousȱtoȱthenȱatȱthatȱmomentȱopenȱtheȱbookȱtoȱread,ȱwhichȱwouldȱmostȱlikely
getȱwetȱandȱruined.ȱTheȱfalconerȱwouldȱnotȱknowȱhowȱtoȱhunt.ȱItȱisȱnecessaryȱthatȱthe
falconerȱrelyȱonȱhisȱownȱgoodȱjudgmentȱinȱorderȱtoȱknowȱhowȱtoȱtrainȱhisȱfalcon,ȱso
46
47
whenȱconditionsȱareȱnotȱidealȱorȱthingsȱdoȱnotȱturnȱoutȱasȱtheyȱareȱdescribedȱinȱthe
book,ȱheȱcanȱbeȱsuccessfulȱinȱtrainingȱaȱfalconȱtoȱbeȱaȱgoodȱhunter.]
Thisȱ combinationȱ ofȱ theoryȱ orȱ generalȱ practice,ȱ interjectionȱ byȱ Juanȱ Manuel,
anecdoteȱandȱwarning,ȱisȱrepeatedȱinȱchaptersȱIVȱtoȱXȱ(butȱnotȱinȱchaptersȱI–IIIȱand
X–XI),ȱinȱsomeȱchaptersȱtwiceȱorȱmore,ȱandȱeachȱtimeȱinȱanȱoriginalȱandȱdifferent
way.48
AtȱcertainȱpointsȱinȱtheȱcompositionȱofȱtheȱbookȱtheȱscribeȱquotesȱJuanȱManuel’s
decisionsȱonȱwhatȱtoȱputȱinȱtheȱbookȱandȱwhatȱtoȱleaveȱout,ȱmostȱofȱwhichȱisȱbased
onȱJuanȱManuel’sȱtastes,ȱpreferences,ȱexperiencesȱandȱknowledge.ȱForȱexample
becauseȱfalconsȱareȱsuperiorȱtoȱ“azores”ȱ(goshawksȱorȱsparrowhawks),ȱaccording
toȱJuanȱManuel,ȱfalconsȱwillȱbeȱdiscussedȱfirst.ȱHeȱwillȱdiscussȱtheȱ“azores”ȱwhen
heȱfinishesȱdiscussingȱtheȱfalcons,ȱwhichȱheȱneverȱdoes.ȱTheȱfirstȱpartȱofȱtheȱbook
isȱ dedicatedȱ toȱ describingȱ theȱ fiveȱ typesȱ ofȱ falconsȱ thereȱ are,ȱ andȱ theyȱ tooȱ are
discussedȱinȱorderȱofȱtheirȱsuperiorityȱ(theirȱnobility).ȱ
Whenȱ itȱ isȱ timeȱ toȱ discussȱ theȱ fifthȱ type,ȱ theȱ “bornis”ȱ (theȱ Westernȱ Marsh
Harrier),ȱtheȱnarratorȱtellsȱusȱthatȱJuanȱManuelȱdidȱnotȱwantȱtoȱtalkȱaboutȱthis
type,ȱbecauseȱheȱdoesȱnotȱlikeȱhuntingȱwithȱthem:ȱ“Deȱlosȱbornisȱnonȱquisoȱdon
Iohanȱ fablarȱ muchoȱ porȱ queȱ seȱ nonȱ pagaȱ muchoȱ deȱ laȱ suȱ caçaȱ ninȱ deȱ lasȱ sus
maneras.”49ȱNoteȱthatȱhereȱJuanȱManuelȱwasȱtalking/ȱdictatingȱ(“fablar”),ȱthough
notȱtalkingȱaboutȱ“bornis.”ȱAtȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱfollowingȱchapterȱ(IV),ȱtheȱnarrator
againȱexplainsȱthatȱJuanȱManuelȱsaysȱthatȱheȱdoesȱnotȱwantȱtoȱtalkȱaboutȱanything
concerningȱtheȱWesternȱMarshȱHarrier.
ȱHowever,ȱifȱhisȱinstructionsȱinȱtrainingȱtheȱGammalȱHaneȱwereȱfollowedȱforȱthe
WesternȱMarshȱHarrier,ȱtheirȱvalueȱwouldȱrise.ȱDiscussingȱtheȱmethodsȱofȱtaming
andȱ trainingȱ theȱ falcons,ȱ theȱ narratorȱ statesȱ thatȱ theȱ Cherrugȱ falconȱ thatȱ is
importedȱinȱboatsȱwillȱnotȱbeȱdiscussedȱ“enȱesteȱlibro”ȱ(“inȱthisȱbook”),ȱbecause
theseȱbirdsȱofȱpreyȱareȱtooȱtameȱbyȱtheȱtimeȱtheyȱarrive.50ȱChapterȱXIȱisȱdedicated
toȱ theȱ illnessesȱ ofȱ falconsȱ andȱ theirȱ cures.ȱ Juanȱ Manuelȱ explainsȱ (throughȱ the
narrator)ȱthatȱitȱisȱimpossibleȱthatȱheȱandȱotherȱfalconersȱknowȱcompletelyȱallȱthe
theoryȱinvolved,ȱso,ȱexceptȱforȱtheȱtheoryȱthatȱisȱapplicable,ȱheȱleftȱitȱoutȱofȱthe
book.ȱHeȱfocusedȱinsteadȱonȱwhatȱheȱandȱotherȱfalconersȱofȱhisȱtimeȱknowȱand
practice.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ passageȱ weȱ findȱ theȱ combinationȱ ofȱ speakingȱ (“fablar”)ȱ and
writingȱ(“escriuir”):
48
Theȱpassagesȱthatȱwarnȱtheȱfalconerȱtoȱuseȱhisȱjudgmentȱareȱtheȱfollowing:ȱchapterȱIVȱ(535:ȱ79–81,
536:ȱ96–98),ȱchapterȱVȱ(538:33–39,ȱ540:ȱ90–94),ȱchapterȱVIȱ(543:ȱ115–31,ȱ546:ȱ201–12),ȱchapterȱVII
(549:ȱ94–109),ȱchapterȱVIIIȱ(551:ȱ50–57,ȱ553:105–18,ȱ555:ȱ183–88,ȱ556:ȱ215–24),ȱchapterȱIXȱ(562:
69–72),ȱandȱinȱchapterȱXȱ(564–66:ȱ43–54).
49
50
Etȱestasȱcosasȱtodasȱpertenesçenȱaȱlaȱteoricaȱetȱmuchasȱmasȱdeȱquantasȱaquiȱseȱdizen.
Etȱporqueȱlaȱteoricaȱdelȱarteȱdeȱlaȱcaçaȱesȱmuyȱgraueȱdeȱseȱsaberȱverdaderaȱmente,ȱdize
donȱIohanȱqueȱnonȱseȱatreuioȱelȱaȱfablarȱenȱellaȱningunaȱcosa,ȱsaluoȱendeȱquantoȱtanne,
aȱloȱqueȱallegaȱlaȱteorica,ȱaȱloȱqueȱseȱagoraȱvsaȱenȱlasȱenfermedadesȱdeȱlosȱfalcones.ȱEt
porȱ queȱ elȱ ninȱ losȱ otrosȱ falcone[ro]sȱ nonȱ sabenȱ estaȱ teoricaȱ verdaderaȱ mente,ȱ non
puedenȱvsarȱdella.ȱEtȱpuesȱqueȱelȱninȱellosȱnonȱlaȱsaben,ȱnonȱquisoȱdonȱIohanȱfablar
dellaȱenȱesteȱlibro,ȱmasȱquisoȱescriuirȱaquelloȱqueȱagoraȱvsanȱelȱetȱlosȱotrosȱenȱlas
enfermedadesȱqueȱaȱenȱlosȱcuerpos,ȱetȱotrosiȱenȱlasȱmenguasȱqueȱanȱporȱque,ȱavnȱque
seanȱsanos,ȱnonȱpuedenȱcaçarȱcommoȱdeuen.51ȱ
[Andȱtheseȱthingsȱbelongȱtoȱtheȱcategoryȱofȱtheoryȱandȱmanyȱmoreȱthingsȱthatȱareȱnot
mentionedȱhere.ȱAndȱbecauseȱtheoryȱpertainingȱtoȱtheȱsportȱofȱhuntingȱisȱveryȱdifficult
toȱknowȱwell,ȱdonȱJuanȱsaysȱthatȱheȱdidȱnotȱdareȱtalkȱanythingȱaboutȱit,ȱbutȱonlyȱwhen
itȱ wasȱ applicableȱ toȱ today’sȱ practicesȱ regardingȱ theȱ diseasesȱ ofȱ theȱ falcons.ȱ And
becauseȱnotȱevenȱtheȱfalconersȱknowȱthisȱtheoryȱwell,ȱtheyȱcan’tȱapplyȱit.ȱAndȱsinceȱnot
evenȱtheyȱknowȱtheȱtheory,ȱdonȱJuanȱdidȱnotȱwantȱtoȱtalkȱaboutȱitȱinȱthisȱbook,ȱbut
choseȱratherȱtoȱwriteȱaboutȱhowȱheȱandȱothersȱhandleȱtheȱdiseasesȱthatȱtheȱfalcons
sufferȱinȱtheirȱbodies,ȱandȱalsoȱaboutȱotherȱconditionsȱthatȱpreventȱotherwiseȱhealthy
falconsȱfromȱreachingȱtheirȱpotentialȱinȱhunting.]
Thisȱ passageȱ marksȱ aȱ clearȱ divisionȱ betweenȱ theȱ previousȱ chaptersȱ andȱ this
chapterȱonȱillnesses.ȱWeȱareȱtoldȱthatȱtheoryȱ(otherȱsources)ȱinȱpartȱwasȱusedȱinȱthe
previousȱchaptersȱ(withȱtheȱexceptionȱperhapsȱofȱchapterȱVI),ȱwhereasȱtheȱmaterial
inȱchapterȱXIȱisȱbasedȱprimarilyȱonȱJuanȱManuel’sȱownȱpersonalȱexperience.52ȱThe
sameȱisȱtrueȱforȱtheȱnextȱchapter,ȱtheȱfinalȱoneȱofȱtheȱincompleteȱmanuscript,ȱwhich
namesȱandȱdescribesȱtheȱplacesȱthatȱareȱgoodȱforȱhunting.ȱItȱisȱclarifiedȱthatȱthese
areȱplacesȱthatȱJuanȱManuelȱhasȱexploredȱandȱhuntedȱin.ȱAsȱaȱwealthyȱlandowner,
JuanȱManuelȱoftenȱhuntedȱonȱhisȱownȱ lands.ȱTheȱlastȱ partȱofȱtheȱbookȱindeed
soundsȱ likeȱ aȱ travelȱ guide;ȱ Juanȱ Manuelȱ statesȱ thatȱ theseȱ namesȱ ofȱ places,
descriptionsȱandȱdirectionsȱcouldȱbeȱusefulȱtoȱhimȱinȱtheȱfuture,ȱsinceȱheȱcould
easilyȱforgetȱthem,ȱandȱusefulȱtoȱotherȱhuntersȱnowȱandȱinȱtheȱfuture:
51
52
Itȱisȱtrulyȱdifficultȱtoȱdistinguish,ȱasȱIȱhaveȱsaid,ȱwhatȱisȱtheoryȱandȱwhatȱisȱexperience.ȱTheȱmore
timesȱIȱreadȱtheȱbookȱtheȱmoreȱIȱseeȱthatȱthereȱisȱmoreȱexperienceȱ(oralȱsources)ȱthanȱtheory
(writtenȱsources).ȱNotȱonlyȱdoȱweȱhaveȱJuanȱManuel’sȱvoiceȱcomingȱintoȱtheȱnarrativeȱfrequently,
thisȱvoiceȱdoesȱnotȱseemȱorȱfeelȱveryȱdifferentȱoftenȱtimesȱfromȱtheȱsurroundingȱnarrative.ȱIn
addition,ȱthatȱthroughoutȱtheȱtextȱtheȱnarratorȱoftenȱusesȱtheȱwordȱ“agora”ȱtoȱdescribeȱpresent
practices,ȱtastesȱandȱpreferencesȱinȱtheȱartȱofȱfalconryȱpoints,ȱinȱmyȱopinion,ȱtoȱnewȱmaterialȱnot
old.ȱMaybeȱtheȱsourcesȱwereȱusedȱasȱguidesȱinȱorderȱtoȱknowȱwhatȱsubjectȱmatterȱtoȱcover,ȱand
theȱsubjectȱmatterȱwasȱactualizedȱwithȱtheȱinputȱofȱtheȱteam,ȱtheȱscribe,ȱJuanȱManuelȱandȱpossibly
aȱprofessionalȱfalconerȱorȱtwo.ȱInȱanyȱevent,ȱJuanȱManuel’sȱvoiceȱstatesȱhereȱthatȱthisȱisȱnew
material,ȱbasedȱmoreȱonȱexperienceȱthanȱtheȱpreviousȱmaterial.ȱChaptersȱVIȱandȱVIII,ȱhowever,
seemȱasȱoralȱandȱpersonalȱasȱchaptersȱXȱandȱXI.ȱIndeed,ȱtheȱsameȱcanȱbeȱsaid,ȱasȱIȱstated,ȱforȱmost
ofȱtheȱmaterial.
Puesȱenȱelȱcapituloȱanteȱdesteȱdizeȱloȱqueȱagoraȱvsanȱfazerȱaȱlasȱenfermedadesȱqueȱlos
falconesȱha[n]ȱ,ȱdiraȱenȱesteȱqueȱcaçasȱhaȱetȱqueȱlugaresȱparaȱlaȱcaçarȱenȱlasȱtierrasȱque
donȱIohanȱaȱandado.ȱEtȱestoȱfizoȱdonȱIohanȱporȱqueȱcuandoȱelȱacaesçieseȱenȱalgunas
deȱlasȱtierrasȱqueȱenȱesteȱlibroȱsonȱescriptasȱetȱseȱnonȱacordareȱdeȱlosȱnonbresȱdeȱlas
riberasȱoȱdeȱlosȱpasosȱoȱdeȱlosȱlugares,ȱqueȱlosȱpuedaȱsaberȱleyendoȱenȱesteȱlibro,ȱpor
queȱ puedaȱ fallarȱ laȱ caçaȱ masȱ çiertaȱ etȱ masȱ sinȱ trabajoȱ etȱ laȱ puedaȱ caçarȱ masȱ aȱ su
voluntad;ȱetȱestoȱmesmoȱpodranȱfazerȱtodosȱlosȱqueȱesteȱlibroȱtouierenȱetȱleyerenȱtan
bienȱenȱsuȱvidaȱdeȱdonȱIohanȱcommoȱdespues.53
[Sinceȱ theȱ previousȱ chapterȱ discussedȱ whatȱ treatmentsȱ areȱ usedȱ nowadaysȱ forȱ the
diseasesȱandȱailmentsȱthatȱfalconsȱcanȱsuffer,ȱthisȱchapterȱwillȱdescribeȱtheȱplacesȱfor
huntingȱthatȱdonȱJuanȱhimselfȱhasȱhuntedȱin.ȱAndȱdonȱJuanȱdidȱthisȱsoȱthatȱheȱcould
useȱ theȱ bookȱ himself.ȱ Ifȱ heȱ foundȱ himselfȱ inȱ anyȱ ofȱ theseȱ landsȱ andȱ couldȱ not
rememberȱtheȱnamesȱofȱtheȱriverbanksȱorȱtheȱspotsȱorȱplaces,ȱheȱcouldȱrecallȱthemȱby
readingȱ thisȱ book.ȱ Thisȱ wayȱ heȱ couldȱ beȱ moreȱ relaxedȱ andȱ focusȱ hisȱ attentionȱ on
huntingȱwithoutȱthisȱdifficulty;ȱandȱthisȱisȱhowȱthisȱbookȱcouldȱbeȱusedȱbyȱallȱothers
whoȱhaveȱandȱreadȱthisȱbookȱduringȱdonȱJuan’sȱlifetimeȱandȱafter.]
Inȱ thisȱ chapterȱ Juanȱ Manuel,ȱ writesȱ theȱ narrator,ȱ saysȱ thatȱ heȱ didȱ notȱ wantȱ to
includeȱinȱtheȱbookȱtheȱsubjectȱofȱhuntingȱrabbitsȱandȱpigeons,ȱbecauseȱitȱisȱnotȱas
nobleȱasȱhuntingȱbirds:ȱ
OtrosiȱdizeȱdonȱIohanȱqueȱporȱqueȱlaȱcacaȱdeȱlasȱperdizesȱetȱdeȱlasȱliebresȱnonȱesȱcaça
tanȱnobleȱninȱtanȱapuestaȱcommoȱlaȱdeȱlaȱribera,ȱqueȱnonȱquisoȱfazerȱenȱesteȱlibro
mençionȱdeȱlosȱlugaresȱdoȱhaȱestasȱcaças.54
[Inȱaddition,ȱdonȱJuanȱManuelȱsaysȱthatȱbecauseȱtheȱhuntȱofȱpigeonsȱandȱharesȱisȱnot
asȱnobleȱorȱattractiveȱasȱtheȱhuntȱofȱbirdsȱthatȱliveȱonȱorȱaroundȱwater,ȱheȱdidȱnotȱwant
toȱmentionȱinȱthisȱbookȱtheȱplacesȱforȱthisȱtypeȱofȱhunting.]
Forȱ theȱ mostȱ part,ȱ Juanȱ Manuel’sȱ geographicalȱ knowledgeȱ isȱ remarkable;ȱ itȱ is
detailedȱandȱvivid.ȱOnȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱonȱaȱfewȱoccasionsȱheȱshowsȱnoȱreluctance
toȱadmitȱtoȱnotȱhavingȱhuntedȱinȱsomeȱplacesȱorȱtoȱadmitȱtoȱnotȱremembering
names:ȱ“Elȱarroyoȱdeȱ(.ȱ.ȱ.),ȱdelȱdizeȱdonȱIohanȱqueȱnuncaȱandidoȱaȱcaçaȱenȱelȱetȱque
porȱestoȱnonȱsabeȱqueȱcaçasȱyȱhaȱoȱqueȱlugarȱparaȱlasȱcaçar.”55ȱ(“Aboutȱtheȱstream
ofȱ.ȱ.ȱ.,ȱdonȱJuanȱsaysȱthatȱheȱhasȱneverȱhuntedȱthereȱandȱforȱthatȱreasonȱheȱdoes
notȱknowȱwhatȱisȱthereȱtoȱhuntȱthereȱorȱwhereȱexactlyȱtoȱgo.”)ȱCloseȱtoȱtheȱendȱof
theȱchapterȱtheȱnarratorȱwrites,ȱ“EtȱdizeȱdonȱIohanȱqueȱnonȱseȱacuerdaȱdeȱlos
no[n]bresȱ deȱ losȱ lugaresȱ doȱ nasçen,ȱ masȱ laȱ vnaȱ esȱ unȱ ar[r]oyoȱ queȱ passaȱ por
Balbazilȱetȱesȱmuyȱbuenȱar[r]oyoȱdeȱcaça.”56ȱ(“AndȱdonȱJuanȱsaysȱthatȱheȱdoesȱnot
53
ObrasȱcompletasȱIȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1),ȱ577–78:ȱ1–12.ȱ
54
55
56
rememberȱtheȱnamesȱofȱtheȱplacesȱwhereȱtheȱpointsȱofȱoriginȱofȱtheȱstreamsȱare
located,ȱbutȱoneȱofȱthemȱisȱaȱstreamȱthatȱpassesȱthroughȱBalbazil,ȱandȱitȱisȱaȱvery
goodȱstreamȱforȱhunting.”)ȱHeȱalsoȱreliesȱonȱhearsay:ȱ
“Etȱ[en]ȱtierraȱdeȱMolina,ȱsiȱnonȱesȱelȱrioȱqueȱpasaȱporȱMolina,ȱdizeȱdonȱIohanȱqueȱnon
sabeȱelȱyȱbuenaȱriberaȱninguna,ȱcommoȱquierȱquellȱdixieronȱqueȱcontraȱelȱcanpoȱque
auiaȱbuenasȱriberasȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.”57
[“AndȱJuanȱManuelȱsaysȱthatȱexceptȱforȱtheȱriverȱthatȱpassesȱthroughȱMolina,ȱheȱdoes
notȱknowȱofȱanyȱgoodȱstreamsȱinȱtheȱterritoryȱofȱMolina,ȱevenȱthoughȱheȱhasȱbeenȱtold
thatȱthereȱareȱgoodȱsreamsȱinȱtheȱcountryȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.”]
Backȱtoȱtheȱsubjectȱofȱdivisionsȱmadeȱinȱtheȱbook,ȱIȱwouldȱlikeȱtoȱrecallȱtheȱonesȱwe
haveȱidentified.ȱTheȱfirstȱdivisionȱweȱidentifiedȱwasȱtheȱbookȱonȱfalconryȱandȱthe
bookȱonȱhuntingȱbigȱgame,ȱtheȱlatterȱofȱwhichȱweȱdon’tȱknowȱthatȱitȱwasȱever
written.ȱ Theȱ secondȱ divisionȱ isȱ theȱ materialȱ onȱ falconsȱ andȱ theȱ materialȱ on
“azores.”ȱTheȱmaterialȱonȱ“azores”ȱisȱalsoȱabsent.ȱTheȱthirdȱdivisionȱisȱchapterȱXII
itself.ȱItȱisȱincomplete.ȱTheȱgeographicalȱdescriptionsȱareȱsaidȱtoȱinclude,ȱbesideȱthe
bishopricsȱofȱCartagena,ȱCuencaȱandȱCiguença,ȱwhichȱareȱindeedȱincluded,ȱalso
theȱ bishopricsȱ ofȱ Osma,ȱ Palencia,ȱ Burgos,ȱ Calahorra,ȱ León,ȱ Astorga,ȱ Zamora,
Salamanca,ȱ Avila,ȱ Segovia,ȱ Toledo,ȱ Jaen,ȱ Cordobaȱ andȱ Sevilla,ȱ whichȱ areȱ not
included,ȱeitherȱbecauseȱtheȱmaterialȱisȱlostȱorȱbecauseȱitȱwasȱneverȱdeveloped.ȱ
TheȱfourthȱdivisionȱisȱtheȱoneȱIȱidentifiedȱbetweenȱtheȱmaterialȱinȱtheȱfirstȱten
chapters,ȱinȱwhichȱthereȱisȱmoreȱtheoryȱ(sources),ȱandȱtheȱmaterialȱinȱtheȱlastȱtwo
chapters,ȱbasedȱentirelyȱonȱpersonalȱexperience,ȱifȱweȱareȱtoȱbelieveȱtheȱnarrator.
Theȱchaptersȱthemselvesȱareȱdivisionsȱthatȱareȱdiscussedȱandȱarrangedȱbetween
theȱscribeȱandȱJuanȱManuelȱinȱtheȱprocessȱofȱcomposition.ȱChapterȱIȱdescribesȱthe
typesȱofȱfalcons.ȱChapterȱIIȱprovesȱtheȱsuperiorityȱofȱtheȱfalconsȱoverȱtheȱ“azores.”
ChapterȱIIIȱdescribesȱtheȱphysicalȱcharacteristicsȱofȱtheȱdifferentȱtypesȱofȱfalcons.
Chapterȱ IVȱ discussesȱ theȱ methodsȱ ofȱ tamingȱ andȱ trainingȱ falcons.ȱ Chapterȱ V
explainsȱ howȱ toȱ trainȱ theȱ falconȱ toȱ returnȱ toȱ hisȱ postȱ afterȱ flight.ȱ Chapterȱ VI
focusesȱ onȱ trainingȱ theȱ falconȱ toȱ likeȱ theȱ huntȱ byȱ pittingȱ himȱ againstȱ herons.
ChapterȱVIIȱdiscussesȱhowȱtheȱmerlinȱcanȱbeȱtrainedȱtoȱhuntȱcranes.ȱChapterȱVIII
givesȱ instructionsȱ onȱ theȱ generalȱ careȱ ofȱ falcons.ȱ Chapterȱ IXȱ describesȱ the
conditionsȱthatȱareȱneededȱtoȱsupportȱtheȱyoungȱfalcon’sȱtransitionȱintoȱadulthood
whenȱheȱacquiresȱnewȱplumage,ȱwhichȱsubsequentlyȱhappensȱeveryȱyear.ȱChapter
Xȱgivesȱinstructionsȱonȱhowȱtheȱfalconsȱshouldȱbeȱtakenȱoffȱfasting.ȱAsȱmentioned
above,ȱchapterȱXIȱdescribesȱailments,ȱinjuriesȱandȱdiseasesȱthatȱcanȱbefallȱfalcons
andȱ theirȱ cures,ȱ andȱ chapterȱ XIIȱ givesȱ anȱ accountȱ ofȱ placesȱ thatȱ Juanȱ Manuel
knowsȱareȱgoodȱplacesȱtoȱhunt.ȱ
57
AnotherȱdivisionȱtakesȱplaceȱinȱchapterȱXI.ȱItȱisȱextremelyȱimportantȱforȱour
discussionȱonȱtheȱmethodȱofȱcompositionȱofȱtheȱbook.ȱTheȱnarrator/ȱscribeȱstates
thatȱafterȱJuanȱManuelȱmadeȱtheȱbook,ȱheȱdiscoveredȱanotherȱwayȱtoȱmakeȱthe
falconsȱvomitȱifȱtheyȱareȱsickȱtoȱtheirȱstomach.ȱThisȱstatementȱindicatesȱanother
laterȱmomentȱinȱtheȱcompositionȱofȱtheȱbook.ȱItȱwasȱfinished,ȱandȱtheȱscribeȱand
JuanȱManuelȱaddedȱmoreȱmaterialȱtoȱtheȱchapterȱbecauseȱofȱtheȱnewȱdiscovery:ȱ“Et
despuesȱqueȱdonȱIohanȱfizoȱesteȱlibro,ȱfalloȱotraȱmaneraȱparaȱfazerȱaȱlosȱfalcones
purgarȱdeȱlosȱvondejos.”58ȱ(“AndȱafterȱdonȱJuanȱmadeȱthisȱbook,ȱheȱdiscovered
anotherȱwayȱtoȱmakeȱtheȱfalconsȱvomitȱsoȱasȱtoȱcleanȱtheirȱstomach.”)ȱ
Theȱstatementȱindicatesȱthatȱtheȱbookȱwasȱfinished.ȱThisȱcouldȱleadȱusȱtoȱbelieve
thatȱchapterȱXIIȱwasȱlongerȱandȱdidȱincludeȱtheȱbishopricsȱnamedȱatȱtheȱbeginning
ofȱtheȱchapter.ȱInȱanyȱevent,ȱtheȱstatementȱsupportsȱOrduna’sȱopinionȱofȱdifferent
stagesȱofȱcomposition.ȱWhatȱweȱdoȱnotȱknowȱisȱhowȱmuchȱtimeȱelapsedȱbetween
“finishingȱtheȱbook”ȱandȱreturningȱtoȱitȱtoȱaddȱmoreȱmaterial.ȱInȱaddition,ȱweȱdo
notȱknowȱwhatȱ“finishing”ȱtheȱbookȱmeans,ȱwhatȱmaterialȱitȱentails,ȱhowȱlongȱit
took,ȱnorȱhowȱmanyȱstagesȱwereȱinvolved.
Thereȱisȱanotherȱdivisionȱinȱtheȱbookȱthatȱisȱmoreȱsubtleȱbutȱequallyȱimportant
forȱourȱunderstandingȱbothȱofȱtheȱauthorshipȱandȱtheȱreadership.ȱTheȱfocusȱon
huntingȱasȱaȱnobleȱsport,ȱintroducedȱasȱsuchȱinȱtheȱprologueȱandȱinȱchapterȱI,ȱgets
quicklyȱdroppedȱinȱfavorȱofȱgivingȱinstructionsȱonȱtheȱcareȱofȱfalcons.ȱItȱisȱonly
untilȱtheȱendȱofȱchapterȱXIȱthatȱtheȱsportȱisȱagainȱframedȱexplicitlyȱagainȱasȱan
aristocraticȱ pastime.ȱ Indeed,ȱ theȱ impliedȱ readersȱ throughoutȱ theȱ bookȱ areȱ the
falconersȱthatȱcareȱforȱandȱtrainȱtheȱfalcons.ȱ(Asȱexplainedȱabove,ȱtheȱfalconersȱare
alsoȱaddressedȱdirectlyȱasȱreaders.)ȱTheȱfocusȱchangesȱatȱtheȱendȱofȱchapterȱXI.ȱThe
protagonistȱisȱtheȱaristocraticȱhunterȱwithȱfalcons,ȱnotȱonlyȱtheȱfalconerȱanymore.
Heȱisȱtheȱ“grantȱsennor”ȱwhoȱnowȱhasȱtrainedȱandȱwellȱcaredȱforȱfalconsȱtoȱhunt
with.ȱHeȱisȱtheȱleaderȱofȱtheȱhuntingȱpartyȱwhoȱisȱfamiliarȱwithȱorȱneedsȱtoȱbe
familiarȱwithȱtheȱplacesȱthatȱareȱgoodȱforȱhuntingȱthatȱareȱdescribedȱinȱchapterȱXII.
Iȱwillȱshowȱthisȱsubtleȱbutȱimportantȱtransitionȱwithȱmoreȱdetail.
Theȱfalconer’sȱfunctionȱisȱsummarizedȱatȱtheȱendȱofȱchapterȱXI:ȱ
.ȱ.ȱ.ȱetȱqueȱayaȱmuyȱbuenosȱfalconerosȱqueȱsepanȱmuyȱbienȱafeytarȱlosȱfalconesȱetȱcaçar
muyȱbienȱconȱellosȱetȱguaresçerȱdeȱlasȱenfermedadesȱqueȱovieren;ȱetȱfazerȱlesȱtodasȱlas
cosasȱasiȱcommoȱovierenȱmeester.”59
[.ȱ.ȱ.ȱandȱitȱisȱnecessaryȱtoȱhaveȱveryȱgoodȱfalconersȱwhoȱknowȱtoȱtrainȱtheȱfalcons,ȱhunt
withȱthemȱwithȱexpertise,ȱandȱcureȱtheirȱdiseases;ȱallȱtheseȱthingsȱasȱdescribedȱare
necessary.]
58
59
Nowȱtheȱfocusȱisȱputȱonȱtheȱ“sennor”,ȱwhoseȱobligationȱisȱtoȱgiveȱtheȱfalconer
creditȱandȱcompensationȱforȱhisȱarduousȱwork:
ȱ
Etȱqueȱfagaȱelȱsennorȱtantoȱbienȱaȱlosȱfalconerosȱporȱqueȱellosȱayanȱtalanteȱdeȱlazdrar
conȱlosȱfalconesȱporȱlesȱfazerȱtanȱbuenosȱqueȱelȱsennorȱtomeȱmuyȱgrantȱplazerȱconȱellos
enȱ veyendoȱ losȱ etȱ caçandoȱ conȱ ellos;ȱ etȱ conȱ elȱ bienȱ fechoȱ queȱ elȱ sennorȱ lesȱ fiziere,
sufranȱetȱoluidenȱelȱmuyȱgrantȱlazerioȱetȱtrabajoȱqueȱlieuanȱenȱamansarȱlosȱfalconesȱet
enȱafeytarȱlosȱetȱenȱcaçarȱconȱellos.60
[Andȱtheȱnoblemanȱneedsȱtoȱcompensateȱtheȱfalconersȱwellȱsoȱthatȱtheyȱbeȱwillingȱto
workȱwithȱtheȱfalconsȱtoȱmakeȱthemȱexcellentȱsoȱthatȱtheȱnoblemanȱcanȱtakeȱpleasure
seeingȱthemȱandȱhuntingȱwithȱthem;ȱandȱwithȱtheȱnobleman’sȱgenerosityȱtheȱfalconers
willȱforgetȱtheȱlaborȱandȱhardshipȱtheyȱgoȱthroughȱinȱtamingȱandȱtrainingȱtheȱfalcons
andȱinȱhuntingȱwithȱthem.]
InȱtheȱnextȱparagraphȱJuanȱManuel’sȱvoiceȱenumeratesȱtheȱbirdsȱofȱpreyȱthatȱthe
“sennor,”ȱ theȱ aristocrat,ȱ shouldȱ takeȱ withȱ himȱ onȱ hisȱ huntingȱ expeditions.ȱ He
shouldȱhaveȱwithȱhimȱatȱleastȱseventeenȱbirds:ȱtwoȱgyrfalcons,ȱorȱoneȱgyrfalcon
andȱ oneȱ charghȱ (orȱ charghelaȱ ifȱ male),ȱ bothȱ ofȱ whichȱ shouldȱ beȱ goodȱ heron
hunters,ȱ fourȱ peregrineȱ falcons,ȱ sixȱ merlinȱ falcons,ȱ threeȱ differentȱ typesȱ of
goshawksȱ(eachȱwithȱaȱdifferentȱhuntingȱfunction),ȱoneȱwesternȱmarshȱharrierȱto
killȱrabbits,ȱandȱoneȱsparrowhawk.ȱJuanȱManuelȱdrawsȱaȱclearȱpictureȱofȱwhatȱit
takesȱtoȱhuntȱlikeȱaȱnobleman,ȱaȱ“grantȱsennor.”ȱOtherwise,ȱweȱareȱtalkingȱabout
aȱcommonȱman,ȱnotȱaȱnobleman,ȱheȱsays:ȱ“Etȱsiȱnonȱloȱfazen,ȱcaçarianȱcom[mo]
otroȱomne,ȱmasȱnonȱcommoȱpertenesçeȱcaçarȱalȱgrantȱsennor.”61ȱHeȱaddsȱthatȱit
wouldȱbeȱembarrassingȱforȱtheȱnoblemanȱtoȱencounterȱpreyȱtoȱhuntȱandȱnotȱhave
theȱadequateȱequipmentȱ(theȱbirdsȱofȱprey)ȱtoȱdoȱso:ȱ“EtȱavnȱdizeȱdonȱIohanȱque
tieneȱqueȱesȱmenguaȱalȱgrantȱsennor,ȱpuesȱquiereȱserȱcaçador,ȱsiȱfallaȱningunaȱcaça
porȱlaȱtierraȱqueȱpassareȱetȱnonȱtraeȱrecabdoȱparaȱlaȱtomar.”62
Theȱimportantȱqualifierȱforȱtheȱ“grantȱsennor”ȱisȱ“puesȱquiereȱserȱcazador.”ȱThe
readerȱ is,ȱ besideȱ theȱ falconer,ȱ theȱ noblemanȱ whoȱ huntsȱ orȱ wantsȱ toȱ hunt.ȱ The
followingȱchapter,ȱasȱweȱhaveȱsaid,ȱprovidesȱvaluableȱgeographicalȱinformation
forȱtheȱnoblemanȱhunterȱwhoȱusesȱfalcons.ȱTheȱreaderȱis,ȱonȱtheȱoneȱhand,ȱJuan
Manuelȱhimself,ȱtheȱ“grantȱsennor.”ȱAsȱheȱstatesȱinȱchapterȱXII,ȱheȱcanȱreadȱthis
informationȱwhenȱheȱcan’tȱrelyȱonȱhisȱmemory.ȱAllȱtheȱinformationȱthatȱhasȱbeen
writtenȱ down,ȱ inȱ fact,ȱ couldȱ serveȱ thisȱ purpose,ȱ toȱ keepȱ theȱ informationȱ and
knowledgeȱaccessibleȱandȱtoȱaidȱhisȱmemory.ȱTheȱotherȱhunters/ȱreadersȱwereȱalso
identifiedȱinȱtheȱprologueȱasȱtheȱ“caçadoresȱquaȱagoraȱson”ȱwhoȱcouldȱbeȱbetter
60
ObrasȱcompletasȱIȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1),ȱ577:ȱ386Ȭ92.
61
62
huntersȱwithȱmoreȱtheoreticalȱknowledgeȱandȱmoreȱgoodȱpracticalȱadviceȱfrom
experiencedȱhuntersȱlikeȱtheȱauthorȱandȱtheȱgreatȱhuntersȱheȱhasȱknown.
IȱbelieveȱthatȱaȱproblemȱthatȱtheȱbookȱpresentsȱisȱtheȱdualȱdimensionȱofȱJuan
Manuelȱasȱfalconerȱwhoȱtakesȱcareȱofȱfalconsȱandȱasȱaristocraticȱhunter.ȱAȱgood
partȱofȱtheȱbookȱasȱitȱcameȱdownȱtoȱusȱisȱdedicatedȱtoȱtheȱcareȱandȱtrainingȱof
falcons.ȱAsȱweȱmentionedȱearlier,ȱitȱwasȱrareȱthatȱaȱnoblemanȱtrainedȱandȱcared
forȱhisȱownȱfalcons.ȱWasȱJuanȱManuelȱasȱinvolvedȱasȱthisȱbookȱleadsȱusȱtoȱbelieve?
Chapterȱ XIȱ isȱ especiallyȱ interestingȱ inȱ thisȱ respect,ȱ containingȱ theȱ medicinal
knowledgeȱforȱdiagnosingȱandȱcuringȱailmentsȱandȱdiseases.ȱAsȱIȱnotedȱabove,
JuanȱManuelȱclarifiesȱthatȱthereȱisȱtooȱmuchȱtheoryȱonȱthisȱsubject,ȱandȱthatȱheȱhas
chosenȱtoȱtalkȱonlyȱaboutȱwhatȱheȱandȱotherȱcontemporaryȱfalconersȱknowȱand
practice.ȱ Noticeȱ thatȱ heȱ callsȱ himselfȱ aȱ falconer:ȱ “etȱ porȱ queȱ elȱ ninȱ losȱ otros
falcone[ro]s.”63ȱInȱtheȱprologueȱheȱidentifiesȱhimselfȱasȱaȱhunterȱprimarily:ȱ“elȱet
losȱotrosȱcaçadores.”64ȱ
WasȱtheȱteamȱthatȱcomposedȱtheȱbookȱJuanȱManuelȱandȱhisȱscribe,ȱorȱcouldȱit
haveȱalsoȱincludedȱanotherȱfalconer,ȱaȱpersonȱinȱhisȱownȱhouseholdȱdedicatedȱto
theȱcareȱofȱtheȱfalconsȱandȱtoȱarranging,ȱpreparingȱandȱparticipatingȱinȱtheȱhunting
excursions.ȱCouldȱthisȱfalconerȱbeȱSanchoȱMartines,ȱwhoȱisȱidentifiedȱinȱchapter
III?ȱWhatȱisȱimportantȱaboutȱSanchoȱMartinesȱinȱthisȱmomentȱofȱtheȱnarrativeȱis
thatȱheȱinterjectsȱinȱtheȱpresentȱtenseȱjustȱlikeȱJuanȱManuelȱdoes.ȱThatȱis,ȱSancho
MartinesȱisȱnotȱintroducedȱbyȱJuanȱManuel’sȱvoiceȱbutȱbyȱtheȱnarrator’s/scribe’s:
“PeroȱdizeȱSanchoȱMartines,ȱqueȱesȱdeȱlosȱmejoresȱfalcone[r]osȱqueȱdonȱIohan
nuncaȱvioȱetȱqueȱmasȱsepaȱdestaȱarteȱetȱqueȱmejoresȱfalconesȱfazeȱ.ȱ.ȱ.”65ȱ(“But
SanchoȱMartines,ȱwhoȱisȱamongȱtheȱbestȱfalconersȱdonȱIohanȱhasȱeverȱmetȱand
whoȱknowsȱtheȱmostȱaboutȱthisȱsportȱandȱwhoȱtrainsȱtheȱbestȱfalcons,ȱsaysȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.”)ȱ
Asȱalreadyȱstated,ȱstoriesȱthatȱotherȱhuntersȱinȱhisȱfamilyȱenvironmentȱtoldȱhim
areȱpartȱofȱtheȱnarrative.ȱSomeȱofȱtheseȱincludeȱfalconers’ȱinput,ȱ“etȱaȱfalconeros
queȱfueronȱdelȱreyȱdonȱAlfonsoȱetȱdelȱinfanteȱdonȱManuel.”66ȱ(“.ȱ.ȱ.ȱandȱfalconers
whoȱworkedȱforȱtheȱkingȱdonȱAlfonsoȱandȱtheȱprinceȱdonȱManuel.”)
AsȱtoȱtheȱhuntersȱwhoȱpassedȱonȱknowledgeȱtoȱJuanȱManuel,ȱitȱisȱintriguingȱto
observeȱisȱhowȱmuchȱJuanȱManuel’sȱcousin,ȱDonȱJuanȱ(AlfonsoȱX’sȱson,ȱwhoȱdied
inȱtheȱbattleȱofȱVegaȱinȱ1319),ȱcouldȱhaveȱcontributedȱinȱspirit,ȱbesideȱtheȱcontent
thatȱisȱexplicitlyȱascribedȱtoȱhim.ȱJuanȱManuelȱstatesȱinȱchapterȱVIIIȱthatȱDonȱJuan
wasȱtheȱbestȱhunterȱheȱeverȱknew:ȱ“queȱfueȱelȱmejorȱcaçadorȱqueȱelȱnuncaȱvio.”67
InȱtheȱthirdȱpartȱofȱthisȱarticleȱIȱfocusȱonȱwhatȱFradejasȱRuedaȱcallsȱtheȱanecdotal
63
ObrasȱcompletasȱIȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1),ȱ567:70.
64
65
66
67
ObrasȱcompletasȱIȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1),ȱ154:138.
componentȱofȱtheȱtreatisesȱonȱfalconry,ȱforȱwhichȱJuanȱManuel’sȱbookȱisȱalways
thoughtȱofȱasȱtheȱmostȱlivelyȱandȱinterestingȱinȱthisȱrespect.
PartȱThree.ȱ“EtȱdizeȱdonȱIohanȱqueȱyalȱcontesçioȱaȱelȱesto”:ȱ“And
JuanȱManuelȱsaysȱthisȱhappenedȱtoȱhim”
TheȱplacesȱinȱtheȱnarrativeȱinȱwhichȱJuanȱManuel’sȱvoiceȱcomesȱinȱcanȱbeȱdivided
intoȱfourȱcategoriesȱthatȱoftenȱoverlap:ȱ1)ȱthoseȱthatȱexpressȱprimarilyȱanȱopinion
orȱaȱpreference;ȱ2)ȱthoseȱthatȱareȱprefacedȱorȱfollowedȱbyȱaȱwarningȱtoȱtheȱfalconer
toȱuseȱhisȱownȱjudgmentȱforȱtheȱreasonȱthatȱthereȱareȱexceptionsȱtoȱtheȱrulesȱ(here
JuanȱManuelȱmightȱdescribeȱexceptionsȱthatȱheȱhimselfȱhasȱwitnessed);ȱ3)ȱspecific
pastȱmemoriesȱ(theseȱmightȱbeȱshortȱorȱlong,ȱandȱtheyȱareȱoftenȱattachedȱtoȱthe
secondȱcategory);ȱandȱ4)ȱmemoriesȱthatȱinvolveȱmemoriesȱandȱexperiencesȱofȱother
familyȱmembersȱandȱfalconers.ȱ
Theȱ instancesȱ inȱ theȱ narrativeȱ ofȱ theȱ firstȱ kindȱ areȱ quiteȱ simple.ȱ Theyȱ are
interestingȱbecauseȱtheyȱgiveȱusȱinformationȱaboutȱJuanȱManuel’sȱthinkingȱand
feelingȱaboutȱfalconry.ȱTheyȱattestȱtoȱbondingȱwithȱtheȱsportȱandȱwithȱtheȱfalcons.
Theyȱmightȱincludeȱaȱreferenceȱtoȱanȱexperience.ȱIȱwillȱdiscussȱthisȱcategoryȱfirst.
Theȱsecondȱcategoryȱisȱtheȱthemeȱofȱtheȱbookȱthatȱunitesȱallȱtheȱchaptersȱandȱthe
material,ȱasȱweȱexplainedȱinȱtheȱsecondȱpartȱofȱthisȱarticle.ȱ
Theȱthirdȱandȱfourthȱcategoriesȱareȱmoreȱcomplex,ȱbecauseȱtheyȱinvolveȱmore
history.ȱThoughȱtheȱnarrativeȱinȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱisȱnotȱorganizedȱaccordingȱtoȱa
chronologyȱofȱevents,ȱbutȱaccordingȱtoȱsubjectȱmatter,ȱJuanȱManuel’sȱvoiceȱtalking
aboutȱhisȱpersonalȱexperiencesȱ(andȱnotȱjustȱhisȱopinion),ȱintroducedȱbyȱtheȱthird
personȱ “Etȱ dizeȱ donȱ Iohan,”ȱ isȱ ofȱ timeȱ andȱ memory.ȱ Weȱ canȱ experienceȱ Juan
Manuelȱrememberingȱandȱrelivingȱpastȱexperiences,ȱrecentȱandȱmoreȱremoteȱin
time,ȱasȱheȱdictatedȱtoȱhisȱscribe.ȱTheȱrememberingȱandȱrelivingȱreinforcedȱthe
bondingȱ experienceȱ forȱ Juanȱ Manuelȱ betweenȱ himselfȱ andȱ otherȱ maleȱ hunters
(deadȱandȱalive)ȱinȱtheȱfamilyȱandȱinȱtheȱcircleȱofȱaccompanyingȱfriends,ȱhired
professionalsȱandȱservants.ȱ
Theȱbondingȱthatȱisȱrecreatedȱinȱtheȱbookȱisȱbetweenȱfalconers,ȱonȱtheȱoneȱhand,
asȱweȱhaveȱexplained,ȱwhoȱareȱnotȱnecessarilyȱofȱtheȱnobleȱclass,ȱandȱhuntersȱin
theȱ royalȱ familyȱ andȱ inȱ theȱ royalȱ retinue,ȱ andȱ betweenȱ theȱ twoȱ groups.ȱ Other
recreatedȱbondingȱoccursȱbetweenȱtheȱmenȱandȱfavoriteȱorȱmemorableȱfalcons,ȱand
betweenȱtheȱmenȱandȱtheȱtopographyȱthatȱisȱdescribed.ȱ
AnȱexampleȱofȱtheȱfirstȱcategoryȱisȱfoundȱinȱchapterȱIIIȱwhereȱJuanȱManuel’s
voiceȱstatesȱthatȱitȱisȱnotȱwarrantedȱthatȱtheȱPeregrineȱfalconȱisȱvaluedȱmoreȱthan
theȱGammalȱhaneȱ(“bahari”).ȱThereȱareȱthreeȱmainȱdifferencesȱbetweenȱtheȱtwo
birds:ȱ1)ȱtheȱPeregrineȱfalconȱisȱwhiteȱandȱtheȱGammalȱhane’sȱcolorȱisȱbetweenȱred
andȱyellow;ȱtheȱPeregrineȱfalconȱisȱcaughtȱinȱtheȱwild,ȱandȱtheȱGammalȱhaneȱis
firstȱcaughtȱinȱtheȱnest;ȱandȱ3)ȱtheȱPeregrineȱfalconȱisȱlargerȱinȱsize.ȱJuanȱManuel’s
oralȱdefenseȱofȱtheȱGammalȱhaneȱwasȱlongerȱthanȱwhatȱheȱandȱtheȱscribeȱdecided
toȱincludeȱinȱtheȱbook:ȱ“Etȱparaȱprouarȱestoȱporniaȱelȱmuchasȱrazones,ȱsiȱnonȱque
nonȱtanneȱmasȱaȱlaȱteoricaȱestaȱarteȱqueȱnonȱaȱlaȱpractica.”68ȱ(“Andȱtoȱdemonstrate
thisȱheȱgaveȱmanyȱreasons,ȱbutȱbecauseȱthisȱartȱinvolvesȱmoreȱtheoryȱthanȱpractice,
heȱdidȱnotȱcontinue.”)ȱ
Heȱendsȱhisȱdefenseȱdefendingȱhimselfȱforȱwantingȱtoȱdefendȱthisȱfalcon;ȱhe
wantedȱtoȱhonorȱitȱbecauseȱitȱisȱnaturalȱtoȱtheȱregion,ȱ“susȱnaturales.”ȱJuanȱManuel
isȱindeedȱoftenȱpartialȱtoȱwhatȱisȱlocalȱandȱhomegrown.ȱOnȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱheȱdoes
notȱwantȱtoȱtalkȱaboutȱtheȱWesternȱMarshȱHarrier,ȱwhichȱheȱdoesȱnotȱlike,ȱasȱwe
mentionedȱabove.69ȱInȱchapterȱIVȱJuanȱManuel’sȱvoiceȱcontinuesȱhisȱdefenseȱofȱthe
Gammalȱhane,ȱfocusingȱnowȱonȱtheȱcorrectȱwayȱtoȱraiseȱtheseȱfalcons.ȱThoughȱthis
correctȱwayȱisȱfirstȱdescribedȱwithoutȱinterferenceȱfromȱJuanȱManuel’sȱvoice,ȱhis
influenceȱneverthelessȱisȱfeltȱwithȱtheȱclarificationȱ“enȱestaȱtierra”,ȱ“inȱthisȱland.”
HisȱinputȱfollowsȱwithȱhisȱvoiceȱstatingȱthatȱheȱhimselfȱhasȱraisedȱtheȱGammal
haneȱinȱtheȱmannerȱjustȱdescribed:ȱ“EtȱdizeȱdonȱIohanȱqueȱenȱestaȱguisaȱlosȱcrio
muchasȱvezes.”70ȱThisȱchapterȱendsȱwithȱJuanȱManuel’sȱrefusalȱagainȱtoȱtalkȱabout
theȱWesternȱMarshȱHarrier.ȱNeverthelesss,ȱheȱstatesȱthatȱevenȱtheȱWesternȱMarsh
Harrier,ȱifȱraisedȱinȱtheȱmannerȱdescribedȱinȱthisȱchapter,ȱwouldȱbeȱaȱbetterȱfalcon
thanȱallȱtheȱotherȱsuperiorȱfalconsȱthatȱareȱraisedȱincorrectly.ȱ
InȱchapterȱIXȱJuanȱManuelȱexpressesȱhisȱopinionȱaboutȱbathingȱandȱfeedingȱthe
falconȱduringȱtheȱmoultingȱofȱitsȱfeathers.ȱHeȱbelievesȱthatȱit’sȱsafeȱforȱtheȱfalcon
toȱbatheȱduringȱthisȱstage.ȱForȱfood,ȱheȱrecommendsȱcow,ȱrabbitȱorȱchicken.ȱIn
chapterȱXIȱJuanȱManuelȱgivesȱhisȱopinionȱwithȱregardȱtoȱtheȱbestȱmedicineȱforȱthe
diseaseȱ“aguas”,ȱeitherȱ“habarraz”ȱ(LiceȬBaneȱorȱStavesacre)ȱorȱ“ramosȱdeȱruda”
68
69
InȱthisȱchapterȱJuanȱManuel’sȱtalksȱaboutȱanotherȱpreferenceȱheȱhas.ȱHeȱandȱSanchoȱMartines
preferȱthatȱtheȱPeregrineȱfalconȱhaveȱshort,ȱfatȱandȱthickȱtoes.ȱHeȱalsoȱconcursȱwithȱgeneralȱtaste,
andȱprefersȱthatȱtheȱPeregrineȱfalconȱbeȱveryȱlarge,ȱhaveȱaȱroundȱandȱlargeȱhead,ȱbigȱeyes,ȱaȱbig
beak,ȱaȱbigȱmouth,ȱaȱbigȱjaw,ȱaȱlongȱneck,ȱetc.ȱObrasȱcompletasȱIȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1),ȱ528–59:ȱ27–38.
70
(twigsȱofȱtheȱrueȱplant).71ȱTheȱformerȱisȱbetter,ȱbecauseȱtheȱtwigsȱofȱtheȱrueȱplant
harmȱtheȱfalcon:ȱ
Peroȱestaȱmelezinaȱfazȱmuyȱgrandȱdannoȱaȱlosȱfalconesȱeȱlesȱfazeȱenegresçerȱlaȱcolor
deȱlasȱmanosȱetȱdeȱlaȱçeraȱdelȱpico,ȱ[et]ȱestoȱesȱsennalȱqueȱlesȱquemaȱlaȱsangreȱetȱles
corropmpeȱlosȱvmores.72
[Thisȱmedicineȱharmsȱfalconsȱveryȱmuch;ȱitȱblackensȱtheȱbeakȱandȱtheȱclaws,ȱwhichȱis
signȱthatȱtheȱbloodȱisȱburningȱandȱtheȱhumorsȱareȱbeingȱcorrupted.]73ȱ
Forȱtheȱtreatmentȱofȱ“güermezes”ȱ(trichomoniasis,ȱanotherȱparasiticȱinfection),
JuanȱManuelȱrecommendsȱtoȱapplyȱtheȱpoopȱofȱaȱbabyȱhumanȱwhoȱisȱnursing:
ȱ
Otrosiȱdizeȱqueȱlaȱmejorȱetȱmasȱçiertaȱmelezinaȱqueȱfallaȱparaȱestoȱesȱtomarȱelȱestiercol
delȱmoçoȱchicoȱqueȱmamaȱetȱdeuenȱloȱponerȱenȱvnaȱcucharȱdeȱfierroȱetȱponerȱloȱenȱel
fornoȱoȱsobreȱelȱfuegoȱetȱdesqueȱfuereȱsecoȱenȱgusiaȱqueȱloȱpuedenȱfazerȱpoluos,ȱdeuen
leȱecharȱenȱlaȱllagaȱdellos.ȱ74
[Inȱaddition,ȱheȱsaysȱthatȱtheȱbestȱandȱmostȱeffectiveȱmedicineȱforȱthisȱconditionȱisȱthe
excrementȱofȱaȱhumanȱbabyȱwhoȱisȱnursing.ȱItȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱpreparedȱfirstȱbyȱputtingȱit
onȱaȱsteelȱspoon,ȱthenȱinȱtheȱovenȱorȱonȱtopȱofȱaȱfire,ȱtillȱitȱdriesȱandȱcanȱbeȱmadeȱinto
aȱpowderȱwhichȱcanȱthenȱbeȱappliedȱtoȱtheȱwound.]
Oneȱ ofȱ theȱ mostȱ interestingȱ passagesȱ whereȱ Juanȱ Manuelȱ offersȱ hisȱ personal
opinionȱ isȱ foundȱ inȱ chapterȱ VIII.ȱ Hisȱ voiceȱ interjectsȱ toȱ referȱ toȱ theȱ varying
opinionsȱamongȱfalconersȱasȱtoȱtheȱbestȱwayȱforȱaȱfalconȱtoȱhuntȱitsȱpreyȱ(heron).
Heȱgivesȱfourȱdifferentȱopinions.ȱTheȱfourthȱisȱhisȱlateȱcousin’sȱdonȱJuanȱ(heȱagrees
withȱ thisȱ one),ȱ whichȱ heȱ describesȱ inȱ detail.ȱ Thisȱ passageȱ hasȱ anȱ emotional
intensityȱ(IȱreferȱtoȱitȱagainȱwhenȱIȱdiscussȱtheȱfourthȱcategoryȱofȱinterjections)
71
AccordingȱtoȱJuanȱManuelȱtheȱsymptomsȱofȱthisȱdiseaseȱareȱheavyȱeyelids,ȱsadȱlookingȱeyes.ȱThe
nasalȱpassagesȱcanȱexcreteȱmucous:ȱ“Etȱlasȱsennalesȱparaȱconosçerȱestasȱenfermedadesȱsonȱque
quandoȱanȱagua,ȱtienenȱlosȱojosȱmasȱçerradosȱdeȱloȱqueȱdeuenȱetȱmasȱtristes,ȱetȱaȱlasȱvezesȱcorre
lesȱaguaȱporȱlasȱventanas”ȱ(ObrasȱcompletasȱI,ȱ567:ȱ811–84).ȱ“Andȱtheȱsymptomsȱofȱthisȱdiseaseȱare
heavyȱeyelidsȱthatȱmakeȱtheȱeyesȱlookȱsadȱandȱsometimesȱexcretionȱofȱmucousȱfromȱtheȱnasal
passages.”ȱThisȱmightȱbeȱaȱconditionȱdescribedȱinȱtheȱappendixȱ“DiseasesȱofȱandȱAccidentsȱto
Hawks,ȱ andȱ theirȱ Treatment”ȱ ofȱ Theȱ Artȱ ofȱ Falconryȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 17),ȱ hereȱ 428:ȱ “Anotherȱ more
formidableȱparasiticȱinsectȱisȱaȱspeciesȱofȱacarusȱthatȱburrowsȱintoȱtheȱmucousȱmembraneȱofȱthe
nasalȱpassagesȱandȱattacksȱalsoȱtheȱeyelids.ȱIncreasingȱrapidlyȱinȱnumbers,ȱtheyȱmayȱinvadeȱthe
wholeȱbody.”ȱ
72
ObrasȱcompletasȱIȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1),ȱ568:ȱ92–95.ȱ
73
JuanȱManuelȱshowsȱanȱavidȱinterestȱinȱmedicine.ȱHisȱknowledgeȱ(ifȱitȱisȱhis)ȱisȱnotȱconfinedȱtoȱthe
placesȱwhereȱhisȱvoiceȱinterjects.ȱTheȱentireȱnarrativeȱrevolvesȱaroundȱtheseȱinterjections.ȱFor
example,ȱinȱthisȱpassageȱJuanȱManuel’sȱvoiceȱproceedsȱtoȱexplainȱhowȱtheȱrecommendedȱmedicine
(“habarraz”)ȱshouldȱbeȱapplied.ȱHisȱinstructions,ȱasȱthoseȱthroughoutȱtheȱchapter,ȱareȱdetailed,
descriptiveȱandȱthorough.
74
becauseȱofȱJuanȱManuel’sȱadmirationȱforȱhisȱcousinȱasȱaȱhunter.ȱIndeedȱtheȱpassage
createsȱtwoȱcampsȱofȱ“falconeros”,ȱJuanȱManuelȱandȱhisȱcousinȱdonȱJuan,ȱand
otherȱ falconeros,ȱ whoȱ comparedȱ toȱ donȱ Juan,ȱ areȱ notȱ asȱ knowledgeableȱ and
experienced.ȱDonȱJuanȱwasȱindeedȱJuanȱManuel’sȱmostȱlovedȱteacherȱinȱmatters
ofȱhunting,ȱasȱweȱshallȱsee.ȱ
Examplesȱofȱtheȱsecondȱcategoryȱofȱinterjectionsȱareȱfoundȱinȱallȱtheȱchapters,
butȱIȱwillȱonlyȱfocusȱonȱchaptersȱV,ȱVIȱandȱVII,ȱenoughȱinȱorderȱtoȱseeȱtheȱvariety
inȱtheȱnumberȱofȱoccurrencesȱwithinȱtheȱchapter,ȱandȱinȱtheȱcontentȱandȱlengthȱof
theȱutterances.ȱ
JuanȱManuel’sȱvoiceȱappearsȱonlyȱonceȱinȱchapterȱV,ȱatȱtheȱend.ȱHeȱmakesȱtwo
statements:ȱ1)ȱtheȱfalconerȱhasȱtoȱpayȱattentionȱtoȱeachȱfalconȱduringȱtrainingȱwith
theȱcreance;ȱ2)ȱheȱhasȱseenȱsomeȱfalconsȱthatȱwithoutȱtheȱuseȱofȱaȱleashȱflewȱand
returnedȱtoȱtheȱcreanceȱonȱtheȱfirstȱday,ȱandȱotherȱfalconsȱthatȱneededȱtoȱremain
leashedȱwhileȱtakingȱupȱtoȱfiveȱtoȱsixȱdaysȱtoȱtrainȱtoȱreturnȱtoȱtheȱcreance.ȱ
InȱchapterȱVIȱJuanȱManuel’sȱvoiceȱcomesȱinȱtheȱnarrativeȱfourȱtimes.ȱHowever,
weȱcanȱneverȱbeȱcertain,ȱespeciallyȱinȱthisȱchapterȱwhereȱJuanȱManuelȱseemsȱvery
involved,ȱifȱJuanȱManuelȱisȱnotȱspeaking/dictatingȱthroughout.ȱAsȱweȱmentioned
inȱtheȱfirstȱpartȱofȱthisȱarticle,ȱtheȱproblemȱisȱnotȱknowingȱwhenȱJuanȱManuel’s
voiceȱstops.ȱJuanȱManuel’sȱvoiceȱhere,ȱwhereȱitȱisȱindicated,ȱfirstȱcommentsȱthatȱit
isȱaȱbadȱsignȱwhenȱtheȱfalconȱdoesȱnotȱwantȱtoȱattackȱaȱheronȱthatȱhasȱbeenȱplaced
inȱfrontȱofȱitȱduringȱtheȱtrainingȱprocess.ȱLaterȱheȱenumeratesȱsixȱconditionsȱthat
needȱ toȱ beȱ inȱ placeȱ forȱ theȱ falconȱ toȱ beȱ aȱ goodȱ hunterȱ ofȱ herons.ȱ Thereȱ are
exceptions,ȱheȱwarns.ȱHeȱhimselfȱhasȱseenȱfalconsȱthatȱareȱgoodȱheronȱhunters
withoutȱhavingȱallȱtheseȱconditionsȱinȱplaceȱaidingȱthem,ȱand,ȱonȱtheȱotherȱhand,
heȱhasȱseenȱfalconsȱthat,ȱhavingȱallȱtheȱadvantagesȱdescribed,ȱhadȱdisappointing
results.ȱHeȱaddsȱsomewhatȱlaterȱthatȱitȱisȱaȱbadȱsignȱifȱtheȱfalconȱdoesȱnotȱwantȱto
separateȱfromȱtheȱfalconer.ȱJuanȱManuel’sȱvoiceȱroundsȱoutȱtheȱchapterȱrepeating
theȱaboveȱusingȱdifferentȱphrasesȱandȱexamples.ȱTheȱlastȱparagraphȱlooksȱlikeȱthis:
Donȱ Juanȱ Manuel’sȱ voiceȱ interjectsȱ (“Etȱ dizeȱ donȱ Iohan...”)ȱ toȱ makeȱ these
statements:
Theȱfalconerȱneedsȱtoȱuseȱhisȱownȱjudgment.
Heȱhasȱseenȱmanyȱfalconsȱthatȱwereȱgoodȱhuntersȱandȱwereȱnotȱtrainedȱunderȱallȱthese
complicatedȱconditionsȱandȱheȱhasȱseenȱbadȱfalconsȱthatȱwereȱhardȱtoȱtrainȱdespiteȱthe
bestȱtraining.
Theȱfalconerȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱaȱgoodȱoneȱandȱpayȱattentionȱtoȱeverything.
Itȱisȱimpossibleȱtoȱputȱinȱwritingȱallȱtheȱvariablesȱpertainingȱtoȱfalcons.
Someȱfalconsȱascendȱwellȱbutȱdescendȱbadly.ȱOtherȱfalconsȱdoȱbothȱpoorly.ȱOthersȱtake
offȱtooȱsoonȱandȱdoȱnotȱwantȱtoȱreturnȱandȱothersȱflyȱwellȱbutȱdoȱnotȱwantȱtoȱreturn
toȱtheȱcreance.ȱOthersȱdoȱeverythingȱpoorlyȱandȱothersȱdoȱeverythingȱwell.
Forȱallȱtheseȱreasonsȱtheȱfalconerȱneedsȱtoȱrelyȱonȱhisȱownȱjudgment.
InȱchapterȱVIIȱJuanȱManuel’sȱvoiceȱweavesȱintoȱtheȱnarrativeȱinȱtwoȱplaces,ȱatȱthe
endȱofȱtheȱfirstȱparagraphȱandȱatȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱchapter.ȱTheȱfirstȱpassageȱisȱshort
andȱtheȱsecondȱisȱlonger.ȱTheȱsubjectȱisȱtrainingȱtheȱGammalȱhaneȱtoȱhuntȱcrane.
JuanȱManuelȱexplainsȱthatȱtheȱfalconerȱneedsȱtoȱuseȱhisȱownȱjudgment,ȱbecauseȱhe
himselfȱhasȱseenȱexceptionsȱtoȱtheȱrule,ȱfalconsȱwhoȱwithoutȱgoingȱthroughȱallȱthe
stepsȱinȱtrainingȱwereȱdaringȱenoughȱtoȱkillȱtheȱcrane,ȱotherȱfalconsȱwhoȱinstead
killȱheron,ȱothersȱwhoȱkillȱcraneȱmistakingȱtheȱpreyȱforȱheron,ȱandȱothersȱwhoȱjust
don’tȱmeetȱanyȱexpectations.ȱTheȱlastȱparagraphȱhasȱallȱtheȱcomponentsȱthatȱthe
lastȱparagraphȱinȱchapterȱVIȱhas,ȱonlyȱwithȱdifferentȱcontent.ȱIȱwillȱseparateȱthe
statementsȱforȱcomparison.ȱJuanȱManuel’sȱvoiceȱinterjectsȱ(“EtȱdizeȱdonȱIohan...”)
andȱmakesȱtheseȱstatements:
Everythingȱdependsȱonȱtheȱfalconer’sȱownȱexperienceȱhunting.
Thoughȱtheȱproceduresȱthatȱshouldȱbeȱfollowedȱareȱwrittenȱinȱthisȱbook,ȱthereȱare
manyȱtimesȱwhenȱtheyȱdoȱnotȱapply.
Manyȱtimesȱmenȱdoȱnotȱfindȱtheȱpreyȱwhenȱandȱhowȱtheyȱwantȱto,ȱorȱtheyȱfindȱitȱwhen
theȱfalconsȱhaveȱnotȱbeenȱmadeȱready.ȱByȱchance,ȱwhenȱtheȱfalconsȱareȱready,ȱthey
don’tȱfindȱtheȱprey.ȱIfȱtheȱfalconsȱareȱmadeȱreadyȱeveryȱday,ȱitȱisȱdangerousȱforȱthey
canȱdieȱofȱhungerȱwaitingȱforȱprey.ȱThenȱitȱisȱnecessaryȱtoȱfeedȱthem,ȱwhichȱmeans
againȱthayȱtheyȱareȱnotȱreadyȱforȱtheȱhuntȱifȱitȱisȱfound.ȱThereȱareȱotherȱvariables:ȱbad
weather,ȱimpatienceȱandȱbadȱtiming,ȱmistakesȱthatȱtheȱfalconsȱmakeȱorȱtheȱhunters,ȱor
manyȱotherȱpossibleȱmishaps.ȱ
Forȱtheseȱreasonsȱitȱisȱnotȱenoughȱtoȱrelyȱonlyȱonȱwhatȱisȱwrittenȱinȱthisȱbook.
Theȱfalconerȱneedsȱtoȱrelyȱonȱhisȱownȱjudgmentȱconcerningȱhowȱbestȱtoȱgetȱthe
falconȱreadyȱtoȱhunt.
Asȱ weȱ canȱ see,ȱ theȱ themeȱ ofȱ theȱ book,ȱ Juanȱ Manuel’sȱ insistenceȱ thatȱ the
falconer/readerȱnotȱrelyȱentirelyȱonȱtheȱbookȱandȱthatȱheȱuseȱhisȱownȱjudgment,ȱis
repeatedȱ inȱ everyȱ chapter,ȱ andȱ inȱ manyȱ chaptersȱ twiceȱ orȱ threeȱ times.ȱ This
definitelyȱ lendsȱ aȱ repetitiveȱ qualityȱ toȱ theȱ content,ȱ yetȱ atȱ theȱ sameȱ timeȱ every
repetitionȱofȱtheȱthemeȱisȱoriginalȱandȱunique.ȱ
JuanȱManuelȱalsoȱremembersȱspecificȱexperiencesȱ(thirdȱcategory).ȱInȱchapterȱIV,
heȱexplainsȱthatȱitȱisȱdangerousȱtoȱfeedȱfalconsȱthatȱareȱnotȱtameȱyetȱ“plumada”,
whichȱcanȱbeȱaȱmixtureȱofȱallȱkindsȱofȱfoods,ȱlikeȱteeth,ȱbones,ȱinsects,ȱhair,ȱbeaks,
andȱvegetables,ȱbecauseȱtheyȱcanȱchokeȱwhileȱeatingȱifȱtheyȱcatchȱsightȱofȱaȱhuman
being,ȱwhichȱmakesȱthemȱangry.ȱJuanȱManuelȱthenȱstatesȱthatȱthisȱhasȱhappened
toȱhimȱbefore:ȱ“EtȱdizeȱdonȱIohanȱqueȱyalȱcontesçioȱaȱelȱesto.”75ȱ
Inȱ chapterȱ VIIIȱ Juanȱ Manuelȱ bragsȱ aboutȱ hisȱ huntingȱ skillsȱ withȱ asȱ much
modestyȱasȱheȱcan,ȱawareȱthatȱheȱmightȱbeȱcriticizedȱforȱbeingȱaȱbragger.ȱHeȱstates
75
thatȱmanyȱtimesȱheȱhasȱtrainedȱaȱfalconȱtoȱkillȱaȱcraneȱveryȱhighȱupȱinȱtheȱsky
withoutȱtheȱaidȱofȱanotherȱfalconȱorȱaȱdog.ȱHeȱevenȱtrainedȱoneȱparticularȱGammal
haneȱnamedȱPicarditȱ(whichȱheȱlaterȱgaveȱasȱgiftȱtoȱkingȱFernandoȱIV)ȱtoȱkillȱcrane
onȱhisȱown.ȱInȱchapterȱIXȱJuanȱManuelȱremembersȱseeingȱ15ȱtoȱ20ȱGammalȱhanes
allȱinȱoneȱspaceȱ(duringȱtheȱmoultingȱofȱtheirȱfeathers)ȱbeingȱcaredȱforȱbyȱoneȱman,
andȱevenȱthoughȱtheyȱwereȱlooseȱtheyȱwereȱtrainedȱtoȱcomeȱtoȱtheirȱmealȱoneȱby
oneȱafterȱtheȱfalconȱleadersȱ(563:ȱ90–94).ȱ
InȱchapterȱXIȱthereȱareȱsixȱspecificȱpersonalȱexperiencesȱthatȱtheȱauthorȱinterjects
intoȱtheȱnarrative.ȱThoughȱallȱequallyȱimportantȱandȱinteresting,ȱforȱtheyȱattest
mostȱprobablyȱtoȱtheȱauthor’sȱinterestȱandȱknowledgeȱinȱmedicineȱforȱfalcons’
diseases,ȱtheȱoneȱthatȱstandsȱoutȱisȱhisȱdiscoveryȱofȱtheȱointment,ȱdescribedȱabove,
madeȱofȱtheȱexcrementȱofȱaȱnursingȱbaby.ȱForȱteachingȱhimȱaboutȱthisȱointmentȱhe
givesȱcreditȱtoȱaȱfalconerȱbyȱtheȱnameȱofȱ“Johannette”ȱwhoȱheȱhuntedȱwithȱinȱthe
pastȱandȱwhoȱwasȱemployedȱbyȱhisȱcousinȱdonȱJuan:ȱ“Etȱdizeȱqueȱestaȱmelezina
leȱmostroȱJohannete,ȱvnȱsuȱfalconeroȱqueȱandauaȱconȱel,ȱqueȱsoliaȱbeuirȱconȱel
infanteȱ donȱ Iohan.”76ȱ (“Andȱ heȱ saysȱ thatȱ itȱ wasȱ Johannete,ȱ aȱ falconerȱ whoȱ he
huntedȱwithȱandȱwhoȱwasȱemployedȱbyȱhisȱcousinȱdonȱJuan,ȱwhoȱtaughtȱhim
aboutȱthisȱmedicine.”)ȱ
InȱtheȱchapterȱthisȱspecialȱointmentȱbecomesȱJuanȱManuel’sȱmiraculousȱwhite
ointment,ȱwhichȱheȱrecommendsȱforȱotherȱailments,ȱforȱexampleȱwoundsȱfrom
violentȱencountersȱwithȱcranesȱorȱherons.ȱIfȱtheȱfalconerȱcan’tȱavailȱhimselfȱofȱthis
ointment,ȱthereȱareȱotherȱmedicinesȱthatȱcanȱbeȱapplied,ȱforȱexample,ȱhotȱwine
withȱ saltȱ orȱ powderȱ madeȱ fromȱ dragon’sȱ bloodȱ andȱ incense,ȱ butȱ onlyȱ ifȱ Juan
Manuel’sȱointmentȱcan’tȱbeȱobtained.77ȱJuanȱManuelȱbacksȱupȱhisȱrecommendation
76
77
“Otrosiȱquandoȱanȱalgunaȱferidaȱdeȱgarçaȱoȱdeȱgrua,ȱdeuenȱleȱmelezinarȱenȱestaȱmanera:ȱsiȱfuere
laȱferidaȱdeȱgarçaȱporȱlosȱpechos,ȱenȱguisaȱqueȱreçeleȱomneȱentrarȱadentroȱenȱelȱcuerpo,ȱnonȱle
deuenȱecharȱningunosȱpoluosȱconȱqueȱseȱçierreȱlaȱllaga,ȱmasȱdeuenȱleȱmesarȱlasȱpennolasȱderredor
deȱlaȱllagaȱetȱponerȱleȱdelȱvngüentoȱblancoȱqueȱfazeȱdonȱIohan,ȱetȱluegoȱseraȱsanoȱetȱguarido.ȱEt
avnȱdizeȱdonȱIohanȱqueȱyaȱvioȱelȱfalconȱqueȱaviaȱelȱalaȱquebradaȱenȱelȱsomizoȱetȱqueȱguaresçioȱcon
esteȱungüentoȱetȱcobroȱsuȱbueloȱtanȱbienȱcommoȱanteȱquellȱquebrasseȱelȱala.ȱEtȱsiȱfuereȱlaȱferida
deȱgarçaȱporȱlasȱpiernasȱoȱporȱlasȱalas,ȱqueȱpasseȱdeȱlaȱvnaȱparteȱaȱlaȱotraȱoȱqueȱnonȱpasse,ȱpara
laȱferidaȱqueȱfuereȱenȱtalȱlugar,ȱdeuenȱgelaȱsalmorarȱconȱvinoȱcalienteȱetȱconȱsal,ȱetȱnonȱhaȱmester
otraȱmelezina.ȱEtȱsiȱfuereȱferidoȱdeȱgrua,ȱporȱqueȱlaȱferidaȱdeȱlaȱgruaȱrasgaȱetȱnonȱentraȱmuy
fonda,ȱdeuenȱgelaȱsalmorarȱcommoȱdichoȱes,ȱetȱdespuesȱcoserȱlaȱferida,ȱsiȱfuereȱtamannaȱqueȱlo
ayaȱmester,ȱetȱecharȱleȱençmaȱdeȱlaȱllagaȱpoluosȱdeȱsangreȱdeȱdragonȱetȱençiençoȱetȱalmazaque
tantoȱdelȱvnoȱcommoȱdelȱotro.ȱEstoȱloȱdeuenȱfazer,ȱsiȱnonȱpudierenȱaverȱdelȱvngüentoȱdeȱdon
Iohan;ȱmasȱsiȱdeȱaquelȱpudierenȱauer,ȱparaȱqualȱquierȱmaneraȱqueȱlaȱferidaȱoȱquebraduraȱsea,ȱsol
queȱnonȱseaȱsalidura,ȱdizeȱdonȱIohanȱqueȱnonȱhaȱmesterȱotraȱmaestria,ȱcaȱsinȱdubdaȱconȱaquell
vngüentoȱluegoȱseraȱguarida.ȱEtȱsiȱfuereȱlaȱferidaȱdeȱhumidatȱdeȱotroȱfalconȱoȱdeȱotraȱave,ȱdeuen
gelaȱsalmorarȱcommoȱdichoȱes”ȱ(ObrasȱcompletasȱIȱ[seeȱnoteȱ1],ȱ575–576:ȱ346–69).ȱ(“Andȱalsoȱifȱthe
falconȱhasȱaȱwoundȱcausedȱbyȱaȱheronȱorȱaȱcrane,ȱitȱshouldȱbeȱtreatedȱinȱthisȱmanner:ȱifȱtheȱwound
isȱfromȱaȱaȱheronȱandȱisȱaroundȱtheȱchest,ȱwhichȱwouldȱmakeȱsurgeryȱdangerous,ȱit’sȱbestȱnotȱto
(heȱisȱmakingȱpropagandaȱofȱhisȱointment)ȱwithȱhisȱownȱalmostȱmiraculousȱresults
withȱtheȱointmentȱwhenȱheȱhasȱusedȱit:ȱ
EtȱavnȱdizeȱdonȱIohanȱqueȱyaȱvioȱelȱfalconȱqueȱaviaȱelȱalaȱquebradaȱenȱelȱsomizoȱetȱque
guaresçioȱconȱesteȱünguentoȱetȱcobroȱsuȱbueloȱtanȱbienȱcommoȱanteȱquellȱquebrasse
elȱala.78ȱ
[AndȱdonȱJuanȱsaysȱthatȱheȱalreadyȱsawȱaȱfalconȱthatȱhadȱhisȱwingȱbrokenȱatȱtheȱtorso
curedȱwithȱthisȱointmentȱsoȱthatȱitȱwasȱableȱtoȱflyȱagainȱasȱwellȱasȱitȱdidȱbeforeȱitȱbroke
itsȱwing.]
Evenȱ beforeȱ theȱ ointmentȱ isȱ mentioned,ȱ theȱ narratorȱ andȱ Juanȱ Manuelȱ are
preparingȱtoȱpraiseȱitsȱpowerȱbyȱrememberingȱaȱfalconȱthatȱbelongedȱtoȱtheȱauthor
thatȱwasȱveryȱsickȱwithȱtrichomoniasis:ȱ“EtȱdizeȱdonȱIohanȱqueȱyalȱcontesçioȱque
vnȱsuȱgirifalteȱaviaȱtantosȱgüermezesȱqueȱporȱmuchosȱquellȱsacabanȱsienpreȱtenia
lasȱllagasȱllenas.”79ȱ(“AndȱdonȱJuanȱsaysȱthatȱitȱhappenedȱtoȱhimȱthatȱheȱhadȱa
Gyrfalconȱthatȱhadȱsoȱmanyȱparasitesȱ(trichomoniasis)ȱthatȱnoȱmatterȱhowȱmany
wereȱextractedȱtheȱwoundȱremainedȱinfected.”)ȱJuanȱManuelȱdecidedȱtoȱapplyȱa
riskyȱtreatment:ȱ“EtȱdonȱIohanȱaventuroloȱetȱquemolȱlasȱllagasȱconȱfuegoȱetȱllego
elȱfalconȱaȱpeligroȱdeȱmuerte,ȱcaȱporȱrazonȱdelȱfuegoȱqueȱtenieȱenȱlaȱvocaȱnon
podieȱcomer.”80ȱ(“AndȱdonȱJuanȱtookȱtheȱriskȱandȱburntȱtheȱwoundsȱwithȱfire,
puttingȱtheȱfalconȱatȱriskȱofȱdying,ȱbecauseȱitȱcouldȱnotȱeatȱwithȱaȱburntȱmouth.”)
Theȱgyrfalconȱsurvived,ȱandȱJuanȱManuelȱaddsȱhereȱthatȱtheȱbestȱmedicineȱfor
curingȱburntȱwingsȱisȱtheȱmedicineȱthatȱheȱthenȱdescribesȱforȱtheȱfirstȱtime.ȱJuan
Manuelȱpraisesȱtheȱointmentȱbyȱstatingȱthatȱheȱneverȱsawȱaȱfalconȱthatȱdidȱnotȱget
curedȱofȱtrichomosiasisȱwithȱtheȱapplicationȱofȱthisȱointmentȱ(barringȱtheȱspread
ofȱtheȱinfectionȱtoȱtheȱears):ȱ
applyȱpowderȱtoȱtryȱtoȱcloseȱtheȱwound,ȱbutȱinsteadȱmassageȱtheȱfeathersȱaroundȱtheȱwoundȱen
putȱonȱtheȱwoundȱtheȱwhiteȱointmentȱthatȱdonȱJuanȱmakes,ȱandȱthisȱmethodȱwillȱcureȱandȱsave
theȱfalcon.ȱAndȱdonȱJuanȱsaysȱthatȱheȱalreadyȱsawȱaȱfalconȱthatȱhadȱhisȱwingȱbrokenȱatȱtheȱtorso
curedȱwithȱthisȱointmentȱsoȱthatȱitȱwasȱableȱtoȱflyȱagainȱasȱwellȱasȱitȱdidȱbeforeȱitȱbrokeȱitsȱwing.
Andȱifȱtheȱwoundȱfromȱaȱheronȱisȱonȱtheȱlegsȱorȱonȱtheȱwings,ȱwhetherȱorȱnotȱitsȱlengthȱreaches
theȱotherȱside,ȱitȱshouldȱbeȱtreatedȱwithȱaȱmixtureȱofȱhotȱwineȱandȱsalt,ȱandȱthereȱisȱnoȱneedȱfor
anyȱotherȱmedicine.ȱIfȱtheȱwoundȱisȱfromȱaȱcrane,ȱwhichȱisȱtypicallyȱnotȱasȱdeepȱandȱmoreȱlikeȱa
scratch,ȱitȱshouldȱbeȱtreatedȱwithȱtheȱhotȱwineȱandȱtheȱsaltȱalso;ȱifȱtheȱwoundȱisȱbigȱitȱshouldȱbe
stitchedȱup,ȱandȱthenȱtreatedȱwithȱaȱpowderȱmadeȱfromȱequalȱamountsȱofȱdragon’sȱbloodȱand
incenseȱmadeȱfromȱresinȱofȱtheȱmastikȱtree.ȱThisȱshouldȱbeȱdoneȱonlyȱifȱdonȱJuan’sȱointment
cannotȱ beȱ obtained;ȱ ifȱ itȱ isȱ available,ȱ thisȱ ointment,ȱ withoutȱ needȱ ofȱ furtherȱ medicationȱ or
treatment,ȱwillȱcureȱwithoutȱfailȱanyȱwoundsȱorȱfractures,ȱnoȱmatterȱwhatȱkind,ȱasȱlongȱasȱthey
areȱnotȱbeyondȱsaving.ȱAndȱifȱtheȱfalcon’sȱwoundȱwasȱcausedȱbyȱanotherȱfalconȱorȱanotherȱtype
ofȱbird,ȱtheȱwoundȱshouldȱalsoȱbeȱtreatedȱwithȱtheȱsameȱointment.”)
78
79
80
Etȱconȱestaȱmelezinaȱnuncaȱvioȱfalconȱaȱqueȱlosȱechassenȱqueȱnonȱguaresçiesse,ȱsaluo
siȱlosȱgüermezesȱeranȱllegadosȱaȱlasȱorejas:ȱcaȱdesqueȱyȱllegan,ȱpocosȱoȱningunosȱson
losȱqueȱendeȱescapan.81
[Andȱheȱneverȱsawȱaȱfalconȱthatȱhadȱparasitesȱ(trichomoniasis)ȱthatȱwasȱnotȱcuredȱwith
theȱapplicationȱofȱthisȱmedicine,ȱwithȱtheȱexceptionȱofȱwhenȱtheȱparasitesȱspreadȱtoȱthe
ears,ȱinȱwhichȱcaseȱthereȱwasȱalmostȱcertianlyȱnoȱcure.]
Inȱ chapterȱ XII,ȱ dedicatedȱ toȱ describingȱ theȱ goodȱ andȱ badȱ placesȱ toȱ huntȱ with
falcons,ȱJuanȱManuel’sȱvoiceȱalsoȱmakesȱreferencesȱtoȱpersonalȱexperiencesȱtoȱback
upȱtheȱgeneralȱassertions.ȱThereȱisȱtheȱexampleȱofȱVillenaȱinȱMurcia,ȱwhichȱwas
JuanȱManuel’sȱproperty,ȱwhichȱheȱinheritedȱfomȱhisȱfather.82ȱBothȱtheȱnarratorȱand
JuanȱManuelȱcoincideȱinȱtheseȱstatementsȱconcerningȱVillena:ȱ“EnȱVillenaȱayȱmejor
lugarȱdeȱtodasȱlasȱcaçasȱqueȱenȱtodoȱelȱregnoȱdeȱMurçia,ȱetȱavnȱdizeȱdonȱIohanȱque
pocosȱlugaresȱvioȱelȱnuncaȱtanȱbueno[s]ȱdeȱtodasȱlaȱcaçasȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.”83ȱ(“Villenaȱisȱthe
bestȱplaceȱinȱtheȱkingdomȱofȱMurciaȱforȱhunting,ȱandȱdonȱJuanȱevenȱsaysȱthatȱhe
hasȱseenȱveryȱfewȱplacesȱasȱgoodȱasȱVillenaȱforȱhunting.ȱ.ȱ.”).ȱFollowingȱisȱJuan
Manuel’sȱdescriptionȱofȱhuntingȱactionȱthatȱaȱmanȱcanȱseeȱfromȱtheȱtopȱofȱthe
alcazarȱofȱVillena:
.ȱ.ȱ.ȱcaȱdeȱçimaȱdelȱalcaçarȱveraȱomneȱcaçarȱgarçasȱetȱanadesȱetȱgruasȱconȱfalconesȱetȱcon
açoresȱetȱperdizesȱetȱcodornizes,ȱetȱaȱotrasȱauesȱ[que]ȱllamanȱflamenques,ȱqueȱson
fermosasȱauesȱetȱmuyȱligerasȱparaȱcaçar,ȱsiȱnonȱporȱqueȱsonȱmuyȱgrauesȱdeȱsacarȱdel
agua,ȱcaȱnuncaȱestanȱsinonȱenȱmuyȱgrantȱlagunaȱdeȱaguaȱsalada;ȱetȱliebresȱetȱconejosȱ
Otrosiȱdelȱalcaçarȱmismoȱveranȱcorrerȱmontesȱdeȱjaualisȱetȱdeȱçieruosȱetȱdeȱcabras
montesas.84
[.ȱ.ȱ.ȱfromȱtheȱtopȱofȱtheȱalcazarȱaȱmanȱwillȱseeȱfalconsȱandȱgoshawksȱhuntingȱcranes,
mallardsȱ(wildȱducks),ȱherons,ȱpartridges,ȱquailsȱandȱotherȱbirdsȱcalledȱflamingos,ȱthat
areȱveryȱbeautifulȱbirdsȱandȱveryȱeasyȱtoȱhunt,ȱexceptȱthatȱitȱisȱveryȱhardȱtoȱgetȱthem
outȱofȱtheȱwater,ȱbecauseȱtheyȱstayȱputȱinȱbigȱlagoonsȱofȱsaltȱwater;ȱandȱharesȱand
rabbits.ȱ
Inȱaddition,ȱfromȱtheȱsameȱalcazarȱoneȱcanȱseeȱrunningȱfreelyȱaroundȱtheȱhillsȱwild
boars,ȱdeerȱandȱmountainȱgoats.]
ThisȱdescriptionȱgetsȱmoreȱpersonalȱwhenȱJuanȱManuelȱstatesȱimmediatelyȱthatȱhe
himselfȱhasȱgoneȱhuntingȱsoȱcloseȱtoȱtheȱalcazarȱthatȱheȱcouldȱseeȱit,ȱmeaningȱthat
81
82
SeeȱFranciscoȱDiezȱdeȱRevenga’sȱandȱAngelȱLuisȱMolinaȱMolina’sȱarticleȱ“DonȱJuanȱManuelȱyȱel
reinoȱdeȱMurcia:ȱnotasȱalȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza”ȱforȱaȱsummaryȱofȱJuanȱManuel’sȱaffiliationsȱ(historical
andȱpolitical)ȱwithȱtheȱkingdomȱofȱMurciaȱandȱforȱanȱexplanationȱofȱhowȱMurciaȱisȱdescribedȱin
theȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza.ȱFirstȱpublishedȱinȱMisceláneaȱMedievalȱMurcianaȱIȱ(1973):ȱ9–47;ȱreprintedȱinȱDon
JuanȱManuelȱyȱelȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ39–48.
83
84
thereȱisȱnoȱneedȱtoȱgoȱfarȱfromȱtheȱalcazarȱtoȱenjoyȱhuntingȱofȱeveryȱvariety,ȱwith
oneȱcaveat,ȱthereȱareȱspotsȱthatȱareȱdangerous:
EtȱdizeȱdonȱIohanȱqueȱtodasȱestasȱcaçasȱfizoȱelȱyendoȱaȱojoȱdelȱalcaçar,ȱetȱdizeȱqueȱtan
açercaȱmatauaȱlosȱjaualis,ȱqueȱdelȱalcaçarȱpodianȱmuyȱbienȱconosçerȱporȱcaraȱelȱque
anteȱllegauaȱaȱel.ȱEtȱdizeȱqueȱsiȱnonȱporȱqueȱayȱmuchasȱaguilasȱetȱqueȱaȱlugaresȱenȱla
huertaȱ[do]ȱayȱmuyȱmalosȱpasos,ȱqueȱelȱdiriaȱqueȱeraȱelȱmejorȱlugarȱdeȱcaçaȱqueȱel
nuncaȱbiera.85
[AndȱdonȱJuanȱsaysȱthatȱheȱhasȱhuntedȱallȱtheseȱpreyȱwithȱtheȱalcazarȱinȱsight,ȱandȱhe
saysȱthatȱheȱhasȱkilledȱwildȱboarȱsoȱcloseȱtoȱtheȱalcazarȱthatȱanybodyȱlookingȱonȱfrom
theȱalcazarȱcouldȱrecognizeȱeverybody’sȱfacesȱwayȱbeforeȱreturning.ȱHeȱalsoȱsaysȱthat
ifȱitȱwereȱnotȱforȱtheȱallȱtheȱeaglesȱallȱoverȱandȱforȱtheȱdangerousȱspotsȱinȱtheȱarea,ȱhe
wouldȱsayȱthatȱthisȱisȱtheȱbestȱplaceȱtoȱhuntȱthatȱheȱhasȱeverȱseen.]
AnotherȱmemoryȱofȱaȱpersonalȱexperienceȱinȱMurciaȱoccursȱwhenȱtheȱnarrator
focusesȱonȱtheȱriverȱSeguraȱandȱobservesȱthatȱthereȱareȱmanyȱheronsȱinȱtheȱriver
aroundȱOrihuela;ȱandȱheronsȱcanȱevenȱbeȱfoundȱinȱanȱ“acequia”ȱ(irrigationȱditch)
thatȱisȱlocatedȱatȱtheȱstartȱofȱtheȱroadȱthatȱleadsȱtoȱMurcia.ȱJuanȱManuel’sȱvoiceȱat
thisȱpointȱremembersȱtheȱtimeȱheȱhuntedȱhereȱinȱtheȱ“acequia”ȱandȱinȱtheȱchaseȱhis
muleȱ fell:ȱ “Etȱ dizeȱ donȱ Iohanȱ queȱ yaȱ laȱ falloȱ elȱ y,ȱ etȱ costoȱ muyȱ cara,ȱ queȱ en
queriendoȱ acorrerȱ aȱ losȱ falcones,ȱ cayoȱ conȱ elȱ vnȱ muloȱ enȱ guisaȱ queȱ loȱ oviera
matar.”86ȱ “Andȱ Juanȱ saysȱ thatȱ heȱ alreadyȱ foundȱ thisȱ place,ȱ butȱ itȱ wasȱ aȱ costly
experience.ȱHotȱinȱtheȱchaseȱbehindȱhisȱfalcons,ȱhisȱmuleȱfellȱdownȱandȱheȱhadȱto
killȱit.”ȱLaterȱinȱtheȱnarrativeȱtheȱnarratorȱdescribesȱhuntingȱspotsȱinȱCuenca.87
FocusingȱonȱtwoȱlagoonsȱbetweenȱElȱCañavateȱandȱCastilloȱdeȱGarciȱMuñozȱthat
85
ObrasȱcompletasȱIȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1),ȱ579:47–53.
86
87
SeeȱManuelȱCardenalȱdeȱIracheta,ȱ“LaȱgeografiaȱconquenseȱdelȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza,”ȱDonȱJuanȱManuel
yȱelȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ11–30;ȱhereȱ12.ȱManuelȱCardenalȱdeȱIrachetaȱexplainsȱthatȱJuan
Manuel’sȱdescriptionȱofȱgoodȱandȱbadȱhuntingȱspotsȱinȱCuencaȱfocusesȱonȱtheȱriverbanksȱand
followsȱaȱgeneralȱorganizationalȱplan:ȱ“EnȱelȱobispadoȱdeȱCuencaȱhaceȱlaȱdescripciónȱporȱriberas,
loȱcualȱdaȱunȱsingularȱinterésȱgeográficoȱyȱhastaȱcientíficoȱaȱsuȱrelato.ȱEnumera,ȱenȱefecto,ȱenȱeste
obispado,ȱlasȱriberasȱsiguiendoȱunȱordenȱperfectamenteȱclaroȱyȱdefinido:ȱcomienzaȱporȱelȱnoroeste
deȱlaȱprovinciaȱ–sistemaȱhidrográficoȱdelȱTajoȱyȱdelȱGuadiela—yȱsigue,ȱdescribiendoȱunȱarcoȱdel
OesteȱaȱEsteȱyȱdeȱNorteȱaȱSur,ȱporȱJúcarȱyȱCabriel;ȱcontinuaȱcerrandoȱelȱarcoȱdeȱEsteȱaȱOeste,ȱpor
ZáncaraȱyȱGigüela,ȱarcoȱqueȱacabaȱdeȱcerrarȱdeȱSurȱaȱNorte,ȱtraspasandoȱlaȱdivisoriaȱdelȱGuadiana
yȱ deȱ susȱ afluentes,ȱ hastaȱ laȱ delȱ Tajo.”ȱ (“Inȱ theȱ bishopricȱ ofȱ Cuenca,ȱ theȱ authorȱ organizesȱ his
descriptionȱfocusingȱonȱriverbanks,ȱwhichȱgivesȱgeographicalȱandȱscientificȱvalueȱtoȱhisȱnarrative.
Heȱenumerates,ȱinȱeffect,ȱtheȱriverbanks,ȱfollowingȱanȱorderȱthatȱisȱperfectlyȱclearȱandȱdefined.ȱHe
beginsȱinȱtheȱnortheastȱpartȱofȱtheȱprovinceȱ–ȱtheȱhydographicȱsystemȱofȱtheȱTajoȱandȱGuadiana
riversȱandȱtheirȱtributaries—andȱcontinuesȱbyȱclosingȱthatȱarcȱfromȱEastȱtoȱWest,ȱthroughȱZáncara
andȱGigüela,ȱwhichȱclosesȱtheȱarcȱfromȱNorthȱtoȱSouth,ȱpassingȱtheȱdivisionȱlineȱofȱtheȱGuadiana
riverȱandȱitsȱtributaries,ȱuntilȱreachingȱtheȱTajoȱriver.”)ȱIȱusedȱIracheta’sȱarticle,ȱwhichȱprovides
anȱalphabeticalȱlistȱofȱtheȱplacesȱinȱCuencaȱthatȱareȱmentionedȱinȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza,ȱforȱmatching
theȱmodernȱplaceȱnamesȱtoȱtheȱOldȱSpanishȱplaceȱnames.ȱ
areȱtooȱbigȱforȱhuntingȱwithȱfalconsȱbutȱgoodȱforȱhuntingȱbustards,ȱaccordingȱto
JuanȱManuel,ȱtheȱsameȱJuanȱManuelȱrecallsȱaȱhuntingȱexcursionȱthere,ȱwithȱmen
andȱfalcons,ȱinȱwhichȱheȱkilledȱatȱleastȱfourȱhundredȱbustards,ȱandȱotherȱtimesȱin
whichȱheȱkilledȱfortyȱorȱfiftyȱofȱtheȱbirds:ȱ
masȱparaȱlaȱcaçaȱdeȱlosȱgallaronesȱdizeȱdonȱIohanȱqueȱesȱmuyȱapuestaȱetȱsabrosa,ȱet
queȱelȱmatoȱyȱenȱvnȱdiaȱconȱauesȱetȱconȱomnesȱ[mas]ȱdeȱquatroȱçientosȱgallarones,ȱet
otrasȱvezesȱmuchasȱqueȱviniaȱporȱyȱdeȱpassada,ȱqueȱmatauaȱquarentaȱoȱçinquenta.88
[JuanȱManuelȱsaysȱthatȱtheyȱareȱgoodȱplacesȱforȱhuntingȱbustards,ȱandȱheȱ himself
killedȱatȱleastȱfourȱhundredȱofȱthemȱinȱoneȱday,ȱinȱtheȱcompanyȱofȱmenȱandȱfalcons;
otherȱtimes,ȱwhenȱonȱhisȱwayȱsomewhereȱelse,ȱheȱstoppedȱtoȱkillȱfortyȱofȱfifty.]89ȱ
JuanȱManuel’sȱvoiceȱaddsȱthatȱinȱtheȱFallȱheȱhasȱalsoȱhuntedȱcranesȱinȱArroyoȱde
laȱFuenteȱdeȱMizoperesȱ(588:ȱ330–37);ȱinȱaȱlagoonȱbetweenȱZancaraȱandȱVillarȱde
laȱ Encinaȱ heȱ hasȱ huntedȱ ducksȱ andȱ bustardsȱ (588:ȱ 338–43);ȱ andȱ inȱ aȱ lagoonȱ in
Montalvoȱ heȱ killedȱ twoȱ flamingoesȱ withȱ aȱ Peregrineȱ falconȱ thatȱ hisȱ falconer
SanchoȱMartinezȱbroughtȱwithȱhimȱ(589:ȱ379–83).ȱ
Forȱtheȱexamplesȱinȱtheȱfourthȱcategoryȱtheȱmemoryȱprocessȱisȱimbeddedȱlike
aȱChineseȱbox.ȱWhileȱJuanȱManuelȱremembersȱhisȱownȱexperiencesȱinȱfalconry,
theseȱ experiencesȱ oftenȱ includeȱ otherȱ people’sȱ experiencesȱ andȱ stories,ȱ for
example,ȱhisȱfather’sȱ(DonȱManuel)ȱexperiences.ȱJuanȱManuelȱwasȱonlyȱtwoȱyears
oldȱwhenȱhisȱfatherȱdied.ȱHisȱknowledgeȱofȱhisȱfatherȱasȱaȱhunterȱhadȱtoȱbeȱpassed
onȱtoȱhimȱasȱstoriesȱbyȱpeopleȱinȱhisȱfamilyȱwhoȱknewȱhimȱandȱwhoȱexperienced
huntingȱwithȱhim.ȱItȱisȱnotȱtooȱexaggerated,ȱinȱfact,ȱifȱweȱunderstandȱthisȱbookȱas
primarilyȱaȱbondingȱexperienceȱbetweenȱtheȱauthorȱandȱhisȱfatherȱandȱhisȱfather’s
brothersȱandȱnephews,ȱsomeȱwhoȱJuanȱManuelȱknewȱmoreȱthanȱothers,ȱsomeȱwho
JuanȱManuelȱneverȱmetȱorȱrememberȱmeeting,ȱbecauseȱheȱwasȱtooȱyoungȱwhen
theyȱdied.ȱ
Itȱappearsȱthatȱtheȱauthor’sȱprimaryȱcontactȱandȱsourceȱforȱstoriesȱwasȱhisȱcousin
donȱJuan,ȱtheȱoneȱwhoȱinȱtheȱbookȱisȱqualifiedȱasȱaȱgreatȱhunterȱ(inȱtheȱprologue)
orȱasȱtheȱgreatestȱhunterȱheȱeverȱ knewȱ (inȱchapterȱVIII).ȱInȱtheȱprologueȱheȱis
mentionedȱfirstȱamongȱhisȱoralȱsources:ȱ“etȱ[por]ȱloȱqueȱoyoȱdezirȱalȱinfanteȱdon
Johan,ȱqueȱfueȱmuyȱgrantȱcaçador.”90ȱ
Followingȱhim,ȱfalconersȱareȱmentionedȱwhoȱworkedȱforȱeitherȱbrother,ȱtheȱking
Alfonsoȱ Xȱ orȱ hisȱ fatherȱ donȱ Manuel:ȱ “etȱ aȱ falconerosȱ queȱ fueronȱ delȱ reyȱ don
88
89
IȱhaveȱgivenȱtheȱmostȱavailableȱtranslationȱthatȱIȱhaveȱfoundȱofȱtheȱtermȱ“gallarones.”ȱHowever,
FradejasȱRuedaȱexplainsȱthatȱthereȱhasȱbeenȱnoȱconsensusȱregardingȱtheȱidentificationȱofȱthisȱbird.
DonȱJuanȱManuelȱyȱelȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ197,ȱn.ȱ393.
90
AlfonsoȱetȱdelȱinfanteȱdonȱManuel,ȱsuȱpadre.”91ȱTheȱcousinsȱdidȱnotȱbelongȱtoȱthe
sameȱgenerationȱforȱDonȱJuanȱwasȱ22ȱyearsȱolderȱthanȱJuanȱManuel.ȱDonȱJuanȱ(as
wellȱasȱSanchoȱIV,ȱanotherȱcousin)ȱwasȱtheȱbridgeȱforȱJuanȱManuelȱthatȱhelpedȱhim
connectȱtoȱtheȱgenerationȱofȱtheirȱfathersȱandȱuncles.ȱTheȱidentificationȱprocess,
however,ȱgoesȱbeyondȱbothȱpreviousȱgenerationsȱtoȱincludeȱthatȱofȱJuanȱManuel’s
grandfather,ȱFernandoȱIII,ȱwhoȱisȱmentionedȱtwiceȱinȱchapterȱVIII.ȱ
Theȱbondingȱexperienceȱisȱreinforcedȱbyȱactionsȱthatȱtheȱbookȱinȱpartȱreproduces
andȱ thatȱ tookȱ placeȱ firstȱ amongȱ theȱ malesȱ whileȱ hunting:ȱ directȱ experience
(bondingȱwithȱmalesȱfromȱtheȱsameȱsocialȱclassȱandȱfromȱdifferentȱsocialȱclasses,
bondingȱwithȱtheȱhistoryȱofȱhuntingȱinȱtheȱroyalȱfamily,ȱbondingȱwithȱtheȱbirdsȱof
prey,ȱbondingȱwithȱtheȱtopography,ȱandȱbondingȱviaȱtheȱactualȱhunt,ȱtheȱkilling
ofȱ prey),ȱ andȱ storytellingȱ (whichȱ involvesȱ remembering,ȱ naming,ȱ counting,
describing,ȱ sharingȱ informationȱ andȱ braggingȱ orȱ boasting).ȱ Duringȱ hunting
excursionsȱtheȱhuntersȱtellȱeachȱotherȱstoriesȱrelatedȱtoȱhunting.ȱStorytellingȱisȱan
integralȱpartȱofȱtheȱexperienceȱofȱhunting.ȱ
Storytellingȱ requiresȱ rememberingȱ eventsȱ ofȱ theȱ pastȱ andȱ cannotȱ takeȱ place
withoutȱnaming,ȱnaming,ȱforȱexample,ȱkindsȱofȱfalcons,ȱproperȱnamesȱofȱfalcons,
falconers,ȱ companionsȱ inȱ theȱ hunt,ȱ familyȱ members,ȱ equipment,ȱ different
practices,ȱdifferentȱprey,ȱplaces,ȱetc.ȱThereȱisȱcounting,ȱtoo,ȱforȱexampleȱwhenȱthe
hunterȱ countsȱ howȱ manyȱ birdsȱ ofȱ preyȱ heȱ hasȱ killed,ȱ ofȱ whichȱ weȱ haveȱ seen
examples.ȱThereȱisȱsharingȱinformationȱinȱtheȱprocessȱofȱteachingȱandȱlearning.ȱFor
theȱmostȱpart,ȱtheȱolderȱhuntersȱteachȱtheȱyoungerȱhunters,ȱforȱexample,ȱDonȱJuan
taughtȱwhatȱheȱknewȱtoȱhisȱcousin,ȱtheȱauthor.ȱ
Thereȱ isȱ boastingȱ inȱ hunters’ȱ stories.ȱ Thisȱ boastingȱ amongȱ huntersȱ isȱ well
exemplifiedȱbyȱJuanȱManuel,ȱforȱheȱbragsȱinȱtheȱbook,ȱasȱweȱhaveȱseen,ȱandȱhe
describesȱbraggingȱasȱaȱcommonȱpracticeȱamongȱhunters.ȱInȱchapterȱVIII,ȱafter
describingȱhowȱquicklyȱheȱtrainedȱtheȱPeregrineȱfalconȱnamedȱPicarditȱtoȱkillȱcrane
onȱitsȱown,ȱJuanȱManuelȱbragsȱaboutȱanotherȱexploit,ȱandȱthenȱrefrainsȱhimself
fromȱ boastingȱ aboutȱ moreȱ ofȱ hisȱ prowessȱ becauseȱ heȱ knowsȱ thatȱ heȱ willȱ be
criticizedȱforȱboasting,ȱbecauseȱhuntersȱareȱknownȱforȱboasting.ȱTheȱverbȱinȱOld
Spanishȱisȱ“chufar”ȱandȱtheȱnounȱforȱbraggerȱisȱ“chufador”:ȱ“Peroȱnonȱloȱquiereȱel
aquiȱnonbrarȱporȱqueȱnonȱloȱtenganȱporȱmuyȱchufador;ȱcaȱestaȱesȱvnaȱcosaȱque
aponenȱ muchoȱ aȱ losȱ cacadores.”92ȱ (“ȱ Butȱ heȱ doesȱ notȱ wantȱ toȱ mentionȱ itȱ here,
becauseȱ peopleȱ willȱ thinkȱ thatȱ heȱ isȱ aȱ bragger,ȱ whichȱ huntersȱ areȱ knownȱ and
criticizedȱfor”).ȱHeȱaddsȱemphaticallyȱthatȱheȱisȱnotȱboasting,ȱthatȱeverythingȱhe
hasȱsaidȱisȱtrue:ȱ“PeroȱdizeȱdonȱIohanȱqueȱenȱtodoȱquantoȱaȱdichoȱfastaȱaquiȱque
91
92
deȱbuenaȱverdatȱnonȱaȱdichoȱchufaȱninguna.”93ȱ(“ButȱdonȱJuanȱsaysȱthatȱeverything
heȱhasȱsaidȱupȱtoȱnowȱisȱtheȱhonestȱtruthȱandȱnoneȱofȱitȱisȱboasting.”)ȱ
TheȱmarvelousȱisȱaȱdimensionȱinȱtheȱhuntingȱexperienceȱthatȱJuanȱManuelȱrefers
toȱaȱnumberȱofȱtimesȱinȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza.ȱTheȱdilemmaȱisȱhowȱtoȱdescribeȱthe
marvelousȱexperienceȱwithoutȱbeingȱaccusedȱofȱexaggeratingȱandȱbragging?ȱThis
isȱwhyȱJuanȱManuelȱinsistsȱthatȱheȱisȱtellingȱtheȱtruth.ȱTheȱmarvelousȱisȱnotȱjust
aboutȱskillsȱandȱprowess,ȱbutȱalsoȱaboutȱallȱtheȱvariablesȱworkingȱandȱcoming
togetherȱtoȱcreateȱaȱgreat,ȱoneȱofȱaȱkindȱandȱunforgettableȱexperience.ȱForȱexample,
theȱ specificȱ memoryȱ thatȱ Juanȱ Manuelȱ recallsȱ afterȱ talkingȱ aboutȱ Picarditȱ is
describedȱasȱmiraculous;ȱmoreȱmiraculousȱexperiencesȱcouldȱhaveȱhappened,ȱifȱthe
authorȱhadȱnotȱlostȱtheȱtwoȱMerlinsȱwhoȱperformedȱsoȱwell.94ȱJuanȱManuelȱplaces
allȱtheȱresponsibilityȱonȱtheȱinterlocutorȱandȱreader,ȱwhoȱneedȱtoȱbelieve.ȱ
InȱtheȱfamousȱparagraphȱinȱchapterȱXIIȱaboutȱtheȱreputationȱthatȱhuntersȱhave
forȱbeingȱliarsȱ(braggers,ȱboasters),ȱtheȱfingerȱisȱpointedȱatȱtheȱlistenersȱandȱthe
readers.ȱ Theȱ thirdȱ personȱ narratorȱ praisesȱ huntingȱ asȱ anȱ experienceȱ inȱ which
marvelousȱandȱamazingȱthingsȱcanȱandȱdoȱhappen.ȱTheseȱmarvelousȱandȱamazing
thingsȱareȱtrue.ȱTheȱlistenersȱandȱreadersȱareȱdividedȱinȱtwoȱcamps,ȱthoseȱwho
believeȱthatȱtheȱstoriesȱareȱtrueȱandȱthoseȱwhoȱdon’t.ȱTheȱlatterȱareȱmakingȱaȱbig
mistakeȱandȱareȱsinning.ȱJuanȱManuel’sȱvoiceȱinterjectsȱwithȱaȱquoteȱinȱLatinȱin
orderȱtoȱcriticizeȱtheȱunbelievers:
ȱ
EtȱdizeȱdonȱIohanȱqueȱaȱestoȱacaesçeȱsegundȱdizeȱunȱphilosophoȱqueȱfueȱdeȱÇerdenna
queȱdizeȱasi:ȱ“Vituperatorȱsçiençieȱtestisȱestȱygnorançie.”ȱEtȱestoȱquiereȱdezirȱqueȱelȱmal
traedorȱdeȱlaȱsçiençiaȱqueȱesȱtestigoȱdeȱlaȱneçedat.95
[AndȱdonȱJuanȱsaysȱthatȱheȱcanȱapplyȱtoȱtheseȱunbelieversȱaȱquoteȱbyȱaȱphilosopher
fromȱSardiniaȱthatȱgoesȱlikeȱthis:ȱ“Vituperatorȱsçiençieȱtestisȱestȱygnorançie.”ȱAndȱitȱmeans
thatȱtheȱpersonȱwhoȱdoesȱnotȱunderstandȱscienceȱisȱwitnessȱtoȱignorance.]
JuanȱManuelȱcreatesȱanȱauraȱofȱtheȱmarvelousȱaroundȱtheȱmemoryȱofȱhisȱcousin
donȱJuanȱfromȱtheȱveryȱbeginningȱofȱtheȱbook.ȱHeȱwasȱbothȱaȱgreatȱhunterȱ(the
prologue)ȱandȱtheȱgreatestȱhunterȱtheȱauthorȱhasȱeverȱknownȱ(chapterȱVIII).ȱInȱthis
chapterȱaȱmemoryȱwithȱdonȱJuanȱisȱprefacedȱbyȱJuanȱManuelȱwithȱtheȱwordsȱ“et
93
94
“Otrosiȱdizeȱqueȱfizoȱdosȱesmerejonesȱqueȱacorriessenȱ[et]ȱenpennolauanȱenȱlaȱgrua,ȱetȱcadaȱque
laȱgruaȱmuria,ȱfallauanȱaȱellosȱenȱellaȱassiȱcommoȱaȱlosȱotrosȱfalcones,ȱetȱtiene,ȱsinonȱporȱqueȱlos
perdioȱvnaȱvezȱqueȱlosȱlançoȱaȱvnaȱguardarnizȱenȱelȱcampoȱdeȱXorqueraȱetȱseȱfueronȱperderȱcon
ellaȱenȱguisaȱqueȱlosȱnuncaȱfallo,ȱ[et]ȱcuydaȱqueȱporȱventuraȱfizieraȱtalȱcosaȱqueȱfueraȱmarabilla
deȱdezir”ȱ(557:ȱ249–54).ȱ(“ȱAndȱheȱalsoȱsaysȱthatȱheȱmadeȱtwoȱMerlinsȱattackȱandȱbringȱdown
(withoutȱcarrying)ȱtheȱcrane,ȱandȱasȱtheȱcraneȱwasȱdying,ȱtheȱMarlinsȱreturnedȱtoȱitȱbravelyȱasȱdid
theȱotherȱfalcons,ȱandȱheȱbelievesȱhadȱheȱnotȱlostȱtheȱtwoȱbirdsȱinȱJorqueraȱwhenȱheȱthrewȱthem
upȱtoȱattackȱaȱstork,ȱtheyȱwouldȱhaveȱperformedȱotherȱunbelievableȱandȱmarvelousȱfeats.”)
95
cuentaȱloȱporȱmuyȱgrantȱmarabilla”ȱ(“andȱheȱtellsȱitȱasȱaȱmiracle”).ȱTheȱmemory
isȱalsoȱclosedȱwithȱtheȱwordȱ“marabilla”:ȱ“masȱlaȱgrandȱmarabillaȱnonȱfueȱsinon
enȱtanȱpocoȱratoȱpudoȱandarȱtanȱgrandȱcamino.”96ȱ(“Whatȱwasȱmarvelousȱabout
itȱwasȱthatȱtheȱPeregrineȱfalconȱwasȱableȱtoȱflyȱsoȱfarȱinȱsoȱlittleȱtime”).ȱAȱgreat
hunterȱhasȱgreatȱfalcons,ȱlikeȱthisȱmarvelousȱfalconȱnamedȱPerladoȱthatȱbelonged
toȱDonȱJuan’sȱandȱthatȱisȱtheȱprotagonistȱofȱtheȱmiraculousȱstory.ȱJuanȱManuelȱwas
thereȱtoȱwitnessȱtheȱunforgettableȱevent:
PeroȱdizeȱdonȱIohan,ȱetȱcuentaȱloȱporȱmuyȱgrantȱmarabilla,ȱqueȱvioȱaȱvnȱfalconȱsacre
queȱtrayaȱelȱynfanteȱdonȱIohan,ȱqueȱllamauanȱPerladoȱetȱtrayaȱunȱfalconeroȱqueȱdizien
PeroȱNuñes,ȱqueȱandandoȱvnȱdiaȱentreȱdonȱIohan,ȱelȱynfante,ȱetȱaȱlaȱcaçaȱcaboȱdeȱLeon,
enȱelȱrioȱdeȱBernesga,ȱqueȱfallaronȱdosȱgarçasȱayuntadasȱetȱqueȱlesȱlançaronȱvnȱfalcon
sacreȱmalo97ȱqueȱtrayaȱvnȱfalconeroȱqueȱdizianȱGarcyaȱFerrandiz;ȱetȱdesqueȱfueronȱmuy
altos,ȱqueȱlançaronȱunȱnebliȱdeȱdonȱIohanȱqueȱtrayaȱvnȱfalconeroȱqueȱdizianȱFerrant
Gomesȱetȱqueȱsubioȱconȱellasȱtantoȱqueȱquandoȱlasȱovoȱvençidas,ȱqueȱparesçiaȱelȱfalcon
muyȱabesȱetȱtraxoȱlaȱvnaȱetȱdesqueȱfueȱenȱtierraȱconȱella,ȱqueȱlaȱotraȱqueȱfincauaȱmuy
pocoȱmayorȱqueȱvnaȱpalloma;ȱetȱdesqueȱlançaronȱentonçeȱaquelȱfalconȱsacreȱdelȱinfante
donȱIohan,ȱqueȱlaȱvençioȱtanȱaynaȱqueȱanteȱfueȱ|ȱconȱellaȱqueȱlaȱperdiesse[n]ȱdeȱvista;
etȱsiȱomneȱloȱpudiesseȱasmarȱporȱçierto,ȱbienȱdirieȱdonȱIohanȱqueȱsiȱlaȱgarçaȱandauaȱa
quinzeȱmillȱestados,ȱqueȱlaȱovoȱelȱfalconȱalcançadaȱanteȱqueȱllegasseȱaȱmill’ȱestados
mas,ȱqueȱfuessenȱporȱtodosȱXVIȱmill’ȱestados,ȱetȱdizeȱqueȱanteȱninȱdespuesȱnuncaȱtal
marabillaȱelȱvieraȱfazerȱaȱfalconȱninȱaȱgirifalteȱninȱaȱsacreȱninȱaȱnebli;ȱ[que]ȱbienȱbi[o]
queȱmuchosȱfalconesȱfueronȱlançadosȱaȱgarçaȱmuyȱaltaȱetȱqueȱlaȱmataronȱtanȱaltaȱque
nonȱparesçiaȱelȱfalconȱninȱlaȱgarça,ȱmasȱlaȱgrandȱmarabillaȱnonȱfueȱsinonȱenȱtanȱpoco
ratoȱpudoȱandarȱtanȱgrandȱcamino.98
[DonȱJuanȱManuelȱsaysȱthatȱheȱremembersȱtheȱmostȱmarvelousȱfeatȱperformedȱbyȱa
SakerȱfalconȱthatȱbelongedȱtoȱtheȱprinceȱdonȱJuan.ȱItsȱnameȱwasȱPerladoȱandȱitȱwasȱin
theȱcareȱofȱtheȱfalconerȱknownȱasȱPeroȱNuñez.ȱThisȱallȱhappenedȱoneȱdayȱduringȱa
huntingȱexcursionȱonȱtheȱriverbankȱofȱtheȱriverȱBernesgaȱnextȱtoȱLeón.ȱWhenȱthey
encounteredȱtwoȱheronsȱmatingȱtogetherȱtheyȱsentȱaȱbadȱ(male)ȱSakerȱfalconȱthatȱwas
inȱtheȱcareȱofȱtheȱfalconerȱGarcyaȱFerrandizȱinȱpursuitȱofȱtheȱherons.ȱWhenȱtheyȱwere
veryȱhighȱinȱtheȱsky,ȱtheyȱsentȱupȱaȱPeregrineȱfalconȱthatȱbelongedȱtoȱJuanȱManuelȱand
thatȱwasȱinȱtheȱcareȱofȱaȱfalconerȱbyȱtheȱnameȱofȱFerrantȱGomes.ȱThisȱfalconȱflewȱso
highȱthatȱwhenȱitȱreachedȱtheȱheronsȱthatȱitȱcouldȱbarelyȱbeȱseen.ȱItȱbroughtȱdownȱto
theȱgroundȱoneȱofȱtheȱherons.ȱTheȱ otherȱheronȱlookedȱtheȱsizeȱofȱaȱdoveȱfromȱthe
ground.ȱThat’sȱwhenȱtheyȱsentȱinȱitsȱpursuitȱtheȱSakerȱfalconȱthatȱbelongedȱtoȱprince
donȱJuan,ȱandȱtoȱeverybody’sȱastonishmentȱitȱflewȱupȱtoȱtheȱheronȱsoȱfastȱthatȱtheyȱlost
sightȱofȱit.ȱAndȱthoughȱunbelievableȱasȱitȱis,ȱJuanȱManuelȱwouldȱbetȱthatȱifȱtheȱheron
96
97
SeeȱJoséȱManuelȱFradejasȱRueda’s,ȱDonȱJuanȱManuelȱyȱelȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ167,ȱn.ȱ217.ȱIn
theȱ Fradejasȱ Ruedaȱ editionȱ theȱ wordȱ usedȱ hereȱ isȱ notȱ “malo”ȱ butȱ “ma[s]lo”,ȱ whichȱ means,
accordingȱtoȱFradejasȱRueda,ȱtheȱmale.ȱ
98
hadȱbeenȱupȱinȱtheȱskyȱfifteenȱthousandȱ“estados”ȱtheȱfalconȱhadȱtoȱflyȱupȱanother
thousandȱ“estados”ȱtoȱreachȱtheȱheron,ȱwhichȱaddsȱupȱtoȱaȱtotalȱofȱsixteenȱthousand
“estados”ȱthatȱtheȱfalconȱflew.ȱHeȱ(JuanȱManuel)ȱsaysȱthatȱneverȱbeforeȱandȱneverȱsince
hasȱseenȱanyȱfalconȱofȱanyȱkind,ȱnotȱaȱGyrfalconȱnorȱaȱPeregrineȱnorȱaȱSakerȱfalcon,
performȱsuchȱaȱmiraculousȱfeat.ȱSureȱheȱhasȱseenȱmanyȱfalconsȱreachȱandȱkillȱherons
thatȱwereȱveryȱhighȱinȱtheȱskyȱsoȱthatȱneitherȱcouldȱbeȱseen,ȱbutȱmarvelousȱwasȱthat
itȱflewȱsoȱhighȱupȱinȱsoȱlittleȱtime.]
InȱchapterȱXIIȱJuanȱManuelȱremembersȱanotherȱmarvelousȱeventȱthatȱhappened
atȱtheȱbankȱofȱaȱlagoonȱinȱCuenca,ȱbetweenȱZancaraȱandȱVillarȱdelȱEncina,ȱwhile
inȱtheȱcompanyȱofȱhisȱcousinȱandȱotherȱknightsȱandȱsquires,ȱamongȱthemȱIohan
RodriguesȱdeȱVillovosȱandȱIohanȱVelezȱdeȱVegara.ȱTheȱstoryȱinvolvesȱaȱ“rosinor”
(aȱyoungȱsparrowhawk)ȱthatȱcaughtȱaȱyoungȱstorkȱstillȱinȱitsȱnest.99ȱTheȱfalconȱdid
notȱletȱtheȱstorkȱgoȱevenȱwhenȱtheȱstorkȱbeganȱtoȱfly.ȱ
Theȱfascinationȱwithȱthisȱmemoryȱseemsȱsomewhatȱadolescent,ȱforȱitȱisȱhardȱto
seeȱwhatȱisȱmarvelousȱinȱtheȱevent.ȱPerhapsȱJuanȱManuelȱwasȱveryȱyoungȱwhen
thisȱhappened,ȱandȱitȱmadeȱthatȱbigȱofȱanȱimpressionȱonȱhim.ȱHeȱinsistsȱonȱboth
itsȱmarvelousȱnatureȱandȱthatȱitȱisȱtrueȱthatȱitȱhappened:ȱ“EtȱdizeȱdonȱIohanȱque
siȱelȱdixieseȱtodaȱlaȱmaneraȱcommoȱestoȱseȱfazia,ȱqueȱlosȱqueȱloȱoyessenȱloȱternian
porȱmaravilla,ȱmasȱqueȱdizeȱelȱloȱqueȱacaesçioȱetȱqueȱesȱverdat.”100ȱ(“DonȱJuanȱsays
thatȱifȱheȱwereȱtoȱtellȱtheȱentireȱstoryȱaboutȱwhatȱhappened,ȱthatȱthoseȱwhoȱheard
theȱstoryȱwouldȱthinkȱitȱmiraculous,ȱbutȱheȱsaysȱthisȱreallyȱhappenedȱtheȱwayȱhe
saidȱitȱdid.”)ȱ
99
SeeȱJoséȱMaríaȱCastroȱyȱCalvo,ȱDonȱJuanȱManuel:ȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ134.ȱCastroȱyȱCalvo
discardsȱtheȱpossibilityȱthatȱ“rusenor”ȱrefersȱtoȱ“ruiseñor”ȱ(nightingale).ȱRelyingȱonȱotherȱtreatises
heȱconcludesȱthatȱitȱrefersȱtoȱsparrowhawksȱthatȱareȱtakenȱfromȱtheirȱnestsȱinȱtreesȱ“roçinas.”ȱThe
adjectiveȱshouldȱqualifyȱ“gauilan”,ȱbecauseȱtheȱPeregrineȱfalconȱdoesȱnotȱnestȱinȱSpain.ȱ
100
DonȱJuanȱtoldȱtheȱauthorȱstoriesȱaboutȱhisȱfatherȱdonȱManuel,ȱaȱfewȱofȱwhichȱare
compressedȱinȱaȱlongȱparagraphȱinȱchapterȱVIII.101ȱTheseȱstoriesȱalsoȱmakeȱdon
Manuelȱbiggerȱthanȱlife:ȱ
InȱMurçiaȱdonȱJuanȱsawȱaȱSakerȱfalconȱthatȱbelongedȱtoȱdonȱManuel—whenȱbothȱdon
ManuelȱandȱkingȱAlfonsoȱwereȱresidingȱinȱMurcia—ȱthatȱcouldȱkillȱtheȱcraneȱwhenȱit
wasȱflyingȱinȱcirclesȱandȱinȱzigzagȱveryȱhighȱupȱinȱtheȱsky.102ȱ
101
SeeȱDerekȱW.ȱLomax,ȱ“ElȱpadreȱdeȱdonȱJuanȱManuel,”ȱDonȱJuanȱManuel:ȱVIIȱcentenarioȱ(seeȱnote
32),ȱ176.ȱDerekȱW.ȱLomaxȱsummarizesȱtheȱlifeȱofȱDonȱManuelȱinȱthisȱmanner,ȱcontrastingȱtheȱreal
donȱManuelȱ(goodȱandȱbad)ȱwithȱtheȱidealizedȱfatherȱinȱJuanȱManuel’sȱbooks:ȱ“Alȱrevisarȱloȱque
deȱsuȱvidaȱseȱsabe,ȱpareceȱunȱhombreȱbastanteȱgris.ȱHijoȱmenor,ȱmimadoȱporȱsuȱhermanoȱAlfonso,
conȱ devociones,ȱ amistadesȱ yȱ aficionesȱ convencionales,ȱ casiȱ nuncaȱ seȱ destacaȱ enȱ actuación
individual,ȱ yȱ casiȱ pareceȱ unȱ peónȱ queȱ Alfonsoȱ mueveȱ aȱ suȱ antojoȱ enȱ elȱ tableroȱ deȱ laȱ política
externaȱyȱmatrimonial.ȱSinȱembargo,ȱGregorioȱXȱleȱconsideróȱhombreȱdeȱgranȱinfluencia,ȱyȱsiȱlas
crónicasȱoficialesȱnoȱleȱpresentanȱconȱtantaȱpersonalidadȱcomo,ȱporȱejemplo,ȱsuȱhermanoȱEnrique
oȱelȱMaestreȱPelayoȱPérez,ȱquizásȱesȱporȱtenerȱsusȱpropiosȱprejuiciosȱcontraȱél,ȱoȱcontraȱsuȱhijo.ȱEn
losȱescritosȱdeȱJuanȱManuel,ȱoȱenȱlaȱCrónicaȱanónimaȱdeȱSilos,ȱenȱcambio,ȱadquiereȱelȱvalorȱdeȱun
príncipeȱhonradoȱconȱelȱqueȱseȱpuedeȱcontrastarȱlaȱbajezaȱmoralȱdeȱAlfonsoȱXȱoȱViolanteȱyȱalentar
unaȱideologíaȱaristocráticaȱyȱpretrastamarista.”ȱEstoȱseȱresaltaȱaúnȱmásȱenȱlasȱprofecíasȱdeȱMerlin,
importaciónȱpolitizadaȱdeȱlasȱleyendasȱartúricas;ȱyȱesȱmuyȱposibleȱqueȱlasȱrelacionesȱdeȱManuel
conȱInglaterraȱnoȱseȱlimitasenȱaȱnoviasȱyȱcapellanes,ȱsinoȱqueȱtambiénȱayudasenȱenȱlaȱtransmisión
aȱCastillaȱdeȱtalesȱleyendasȱ(19).ȱPeroȱéstasȱsonȱmerasȱespeculaciones.ȱHastaȱqueȱsepamosȱmás,ȱlo
sensatoȱseríaȱconsiderarȱqueȱManuelȱlegóȱaȱsuȱhijoȱunaȱriquezaȱyȱunȱpoderíoȱacumuladosȱaȱtravés
deȱ treintaȱ añosȱ prudentesȱ (¿apolíticos?),ȱ unaȱ mesnadaȱ deȱ vasallos,ȱ unasȱ tradicionesȱ orales,
históricasȱyȱliterarias,ȱyȱunaȱmadreȱitalianaȱcuyaȱinfluenciaȱsobreȱelȱgranȱescritorȱunȱdíaȱtendráȱque
calibrarse.ȱQuedaȱparaȱcadaȱlectorȱdecidirȱenȱquéȱmedidaȱJuanȱManuelȱaceptó,ȱyȱenȱquéȱmedida,
reaccionóȱcontraȱestaȱherencia.”ȱ[“ȱReviewingȱwhatȱisȱknownȱaboutȱhisȱlife,ȱheȱseemsȱtoȱbeȱa
mediocreȱ man.ȱ Youngestȱ sonȱ ofȱ Fernandoȱ III,ȱ spoiledȱ byȱ hisȱ brotherȱ theȱ kingȱ Alfonsoȱ X,
conventionalȱinȱhisȱchoiceȱofȱreligiousȱpractices,ȱfriendshipsȱandȱpastimes,ȱheȱhardlyȱeverȱshines
forȱhisȱindividuality,ȱandȱratherȱactsȱmoreȱlikeȱaȱpawnȱthatȱtheȱkingȱAlfonsoȱmovesȱatȱwillȱinȱthe
politicalȱarenaȱofȱforeignȱrelationsȱandȱarrangedȱmatrimonies.ȱNevertheless,ȱPopeȱGregorioȱX
consideredȱhimȱtoȱbeȱaȱmanȱofȱgreatȱinfluence,ȱandȱifȱtheȱroyalȱchroniclesȱdoȱnotȱportrayȱhimȱwith
asȱmuchȱpersonalityȱasȱhisȱbrotherȱdonȱEnriqueȱorȱMaestreȱPelayoȱPérez,ȱforȱexample,ȱmaybeȱit
isȱbecauseȱtheȱkingȱwasȱinȱtheȱendȱprejudicedȱagainstȱhimȱforȱsupportingȱhisȱsonȱSancho’sȱclaim
toȱtheȱthrone.ȱInȱJuanȱManuel’sȱwritings,ȱorȱinȱtheȱCrónicaȱanónimaȱdeȱSilos,ȱonȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱhe
acquiresȱtheȱstatureȱofȱaȱhonoredȱprinceȱwhoȱisȱcontrastedȱwithȱAlfonsoȱXȱorȱViolante,ȱwhoȱare
portrayedȱasȱmorallyȱinferior,ȱinȱorderȱtoȱgiveȱwingsȱtoȱanȱaristocraticȱideologyȱthatȱlaterȱfedȱinto
theȱTrastamara’sȱclaimsȱtoȱtheȱthrone.ȱThisȱisȱespeciallyȱemphasizedȱinȱtheȱpropheciesȱofȱMerlin,
aȱpoliticizedȱimportȱofȱtheȱArthurianȱlegends;ȱandȱitȱisȱevenȱpossibleȱthatȱManuel’sȱrelationsȱwith
Englandȱwereȱnotȱlimitedȱtoȱmatrimonialȱprospectsȱandȱchaplains,ȱthatȱis,ȱthatȱheȱindeedȱhadȱa
handȱinȱtheȱimportationȱofȱtheȱArthurianȱlegendsȱintoȱCastile.ȱHowever,ȱtheseȱareȱspeculations
inȱtheȱend.ȱUntilȱweȱknowȱmore,ȱwhatȱcanȱbeȱsaidȱforȱcertainȱisȱthatȱManuelȱpassedȱonȱtoȱhisȱson
wealthȱandȱpowerȱthatȱwereȱaccumulatedȱoverȱthirtyȱyearsȱofȱprudentȱ(orȱapolitical?)ȱaction,ȱan
armedȱretinueȱofȱvassals,ȱoralȱtraditions,ȱbothȱhistoricalȱandȱliterary,ȱandȱanȱItalianȱmother,ȱwhose
influenceȱonȱtheȱgreatȱwriterȱsillȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱmeasured.ȱItȱisȱupȱtoȱeveryȱreaderȱtoȱdecideȱtoȱwhat
degreeȱJuanȱManuelȱacceptedȱorȱrejectedȱthisȱinheritance.”]ȱ
102
DonȱManuelȱandȱhisȱsonȱdonȱAlfonsoȱManuelȱhadȱaȱhardȱtimeȱrunningȱafterȱthisȱfalcon
becauseȱofȱtheȱirrigationȱditchesȱinȱtheȱ“huertas”ȱ(gardens)ȱofȱMurcia.103ȱ
Itȱ isȱ saidȱ thatȱ donȱ Manuelȱ wasȱ theȱ bestȱ hunterȱ andȱ theȱ hunterȱ whoȱ hadȱ theȱ most
birds.104
DonȱJuanȱsworeȱthatȱwhenȱheȱvisitedȱkingȱAlfonsoȱandȱdonȱManuelȱinȱSevillaȱheȱsaw
thatȱdonȱManuelȱhadȱmanyȱfalconsȱthereȱwithȱhim.ȱ105
WhenȱdonȱJuanȱleftȱforȱCastillaȱandȱarrivedȱinȱMedellínȱheȱfoundȱthatȱdonȱManuelȱhad
160ȱfalconsȱresidingȱthereȱandȱparticipatingȱinȱhuntingȱexcursions,ȱbecauseȱMedellin
isȱaȱveryȱgoodȱplaceȱforȱhunting.ȱ106
HeȱhadȱmoreȱfalconsȱinȱMedellinȱthanȱinȱSevilla.107ȱ
Itȱwasȱgoingȱtoȱbeȱaȱmiraculousȱfeatȱtoȱhaveȱaȱleaderȱfalconȱemergeȱinȱthreeȱtoȱfour
years.108
Whileȱ donȱ Juanȱ isȱ theȱ mainȱ sourceȱ forȱ storiesȱ aboutȱ hisȱ father,ȱ Juanȱ Manuel
experiencesȱorȱrecreatesȱinȱtheȱbookȱhisȱdeadȱfather’sȱpresenceȱinȱotherȱways,ȱfor
example,ȱnamingȱtheȱplacesȱandȱpropertiesȱthatȱheȱinheritedȱfomȱhisȱfather,ȱsome
ofȱ whichȱ bearȱ hisȱ name.109ȱ Inȱ chapterȱ XII,ȱ whenȱ describingȱ theȱ goodȱ andȱ bad
huntingȱgroundsȱinȱtheȱbishopricȱofȱCartagena,ȱtheȱauthorȱmentionsȱoneȱofȱthe
lagoonsȱcloseȱtoȱtheȱportȱofȱCartagena,ȱwhichȱisȱcalledȱ“Cabeçuelosȱqueȱdizenȱde
donȱManuel”110ȱandȱanȱirrigationȱditchȱthatȱhisȱfatherȱhadȱconstructedȱthereȱ(“et
enȱelȱacequiaȱqueȱdonȱManuelȱmandoȱfazer”).111
CertainlyȱaȱgoodȱmanyȱofȱtheȱplacesȱthatȱJuanȱManuelȱmentionsȱandȱdescribes
asȱbeingȱeitherȱbadȱorȱgoodȱhuntingȱgroundsȱareȱhisȱproperties,ȱeitherȱinheritedȱor
acquiredȱbyȱhimȱduringȱhisȱlifetime.ȱInȱhisȱarticle,ȱ“LosȱdominiosȱdeȱdonȱJuan
Manuel,”ȱ Angelȱ Luisȱ deȱ Molinaȱ yȱ Molinaȱ providesȱ aȱ detailedȱ listingȱ ofȱ these
propertiesȱasȱwellȱasȱanȱhistoricalȱexplanationȱofȱhowȱtheȱauthorȱacquiredȱthem,
includingȱ theȱ relevantȱ informationȱ onȱ theȱ author’sȱ involvementȱ inȱ politicsȱ in
CastillaȱandȱAragonȱandȱinȱtheȱReconquestȱofȱMurcia.112ȱMolinaȱyȱMolinaȱwrites
thatȱinȱtheȱbishopricȱofȱ CartagenaȱJuanȱManuel’sȱpropertiesȱ includedȱthoseȱhe
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
JuanȱTorresȱFontesȱreproducesȱDonȱManuel’sȱwillȱinȱhisȱarticleȱ“Elȱtestamentoȱdelȱinfanteȱdon
Manuel,”ȱMisceláneaȱMedievalȱMurcianaȱVIIȱ(1981):ȱ11–21.
110
111
112
“LosȱdominiosȱdeȱDonȱJuanȱManuel,”ȱDonȱJuanȱManuel:ȱVIIȱcentenarioȱ(seeȱnoteȱ32),ȱ215–26.
inheritedȱfromȱhisȱfather,ȱ“Aspe,ȱNovelda,ȱElche,ȱElda,ȱCrevillente,ȱVillena,ȱand
Yecla,”ȱandȱthoseȱheȱacquired,ȱ“Cartagena,ȱLibrilla,ȱMolinaȱSeca,ȱetc.”113ȱ
Inȱ theȱ bishopricȱ ofȱ Cuencaȱ heȱ ownedȱ “Castejón,ȱ Torralba,ȱ Buendía,ȱ Puerto
Camdaljub,ȱ Villarȱ delȱ Saz,ȱ Huete,ȱ Montalvo,ȱ Zafraȱ delȱ Záncara,ȱ Laȱ Hinojosa,
PueblaȱdeȱAlmenara,ȱCastilloȱdeȱGarcimuñoz,ȱAlarcón,ȱBelmonte,ȱElȱCañavate,
IniestaȱyȱElȱProvencio.”114ȱOnȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱaccordingȱtoȱMariaȱdeȱlosȱLlanos
MartínezȱCarrillo,ȱinȱ“ElȱobispadoȱdeȱSigüenzaȱenȱelȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza:ȱunȱitinerario
geográfico,”ȱ theȱ authorȱ didȱ notȱ ownȱ propertyȱ inȱ inȱ theȱ bishopricȱ ofȱ Sigüenza,
whichȱisȱtheȱthirdȱandȱlastȱbishopricȱdescribedȱinȱtheȱincompleteȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza.
However,ȱheȱhadȱpoliticalȱinterestsȱinȱtheȱregionȱ(whichȱheȱexploitedȱasȱtutorȱto
bothȱkingsȱFernandoȱIVȱandȱAlfonsoȱXIȱduringȱtheirȱminorities)ȱbecauseȱofȱits
proximityȱtoȱVillena.115
TheȱwayȱVillenaȱisȱpresented,ȱasȱweȱsawȱabove,ȱisȱespeciallyȱdescriptive,ȱusing
theȱtwoȱspaces,ȱtheȱalcazarȱandȱtheȱcountryside.ȱTheȱpeopleȱwhoȱhappenȱtoȱbeȱon
theȱtopȱofȱtheȱalcazarȱcanȱseeȱtheȱmenȱwhoȱareȱhunting,ȱandȱtheȱmenȱwhoȱare
huntingȱcanȱseeȱtheȱpeopleȱatȱtheȱalcazar.ȱWeȱcanȱsenseȱtheȱpleasureȱthatȱitȱgives
JuanȱManuelȱtoȱhaveȱthisȱpropertyȱthat,ȱwithȱtheȱalcazarȱatȱtheȱcenter,ȱlendsȱitself
soȱwellȱtoȱhisȱfavoriteȱsport.ȱVillena,ȱexplainsȱMolinaȱandȱMolina,ȱwasȱpractically
anȱautonomousȱseignioryȱsituatedȱbetweenȱCastillaȱandȱAragón,ȱandȱwhichȱthe
authorȱ inheritedȱ fromȱ hisȱ father.ȱ Itȱ wasȱ underȱ theȱ jurisdictionȱ ofȱ Aragón,ȱ a
situationȱthatȱJuanȱManuelȱknewȱhowȱtoȱuseȱtoȱhisȱadvantage:ȱ
LaȱhabilidadȱdeȱdonȱJuanȱyȱsusȱpocosȱescrúpulosȱleȱpermitieronȱdesdeȱmuyȱpronto
gozarȱdeȱunȱseñoríoȱaȱcaballoȱentreȱAragónȱyȱCastilla,ȱexplotarȱenȱsuȱpropioȱbeneficio
lasȱdiferenciasȱentreȱambosȱreinosȱyȱconstruirȱunȱestadoȱprácticamenteȱautónomo.116ȱ
113
AngelȱLuisȱdeȱMolinaȱyȱMolina,ȱ“LosȱdominiosȱdeȱdonȱJuanȱManuel”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ110),ȱ222.
114
AngelȱLuisȱdeȱMolinaȱyȱMolina,ȱ“LosȱdominiosȱdeȱdonȱJuanȱManuel”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ110),ȱ220.
115
MaríaȱdeȱlosȱLlanosȱMartínezȱCarrillo,ȱ“ElȱobispadoȱdeȱSigüenzaȱenȱelȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza:ȱunȱitinerario
geográfico,”(seeȱnoteȱ36),190.ȱ“Porȱestasȱrazonesȱpersonalesȱyȱporȱestarȱsituadoȱelȱobispadoȱde
SigüenzaȱalȱnorteȱdelȱmarquesadoȱdeȱVillena,ȱdelȱqueȱdonȱJuanȱManuelȱeraȱtitular,ȱyȱcompartir
conȱélȱsuȱestratégicaȱposiciónȱdeȱtierrasȱencabalgadasȱenȱlaȱfronteraȱcastellanaȬaragonesa,ȱcuyo
valorȱpudoȱcomprobarȱmásȱminuciosamenteȱenȱlasȱposterioresȱtemporadasȱenȱqueȱresidióȱen
AragónȱcomoȱvasalloȱdesnaturalizadoȱdeȱsuȱreyȱAlfonsoȱXI,ȱdonȱJuanȱManuelȱseȱpresentaȱenȱel
“LibroȱdeȱlaȱCaza”ȱcomoȱunȱinnatoȱgeógrafoȱqueȱutilizandoȱsuȱobservaciónȱlegóȱaȱlaȱposteridad
unȱbuenȱejemploȱdeȱgeografíaȱdescriptiva.”ȱ[“ȱForȱtheseȱpersonalȱreasonsȱandȱbecauseȱSigüenza
wasȱsituatedȱtoȱtheȱnorthȱofȱtheȱMarquisateȱofȱVillena,ȱJuanȱManuel’sȱproperty,ȱandȱforȱsharing
withȱVillenaȱaȱstrategicȱlocation,ȱlandȱthatȱwasȱonȱtheȱborderȱbetweenȱCastillaȱandȱAragón,ȱthe
valueȱofȱwhichȱtheȱauthorȱwasȱableȱtoȱappreciateȱmanyȱtimesȱpersonallyȱduringȱtheȱyearsȱheȱwas
estrangedȱ fromȱ theȱ Castilianȱ kingȱ Alfonsoȱ XIȱ andȱ residingȱ inȱ Aragón.ȱ Juanȱ Manuelȱ presents
himselfȱinȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱasȱanȱexpertȱonȱgeography.ȱUtilizingȱhisȱpowerȱofȱobservationȱhe
handsȱdownȱtoȱposterityȱaȱgoodȱexampleȱofȱdescriptiveȱgeography.”]
116
“LosȱdominiosȱdeȱDonȱJuanȱManuel”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ110),ȱ221.
[Juanȱ Manuel’sȱ abilitiesȱ andȱ hisȱ lackȱ ofȱ scruplesȱ allowedȱ himȱ earlyȱ onȱ toȱ enjoyȱ a
seignioryȱinȱbetweenȱAragónȱandȱCastillaȱandȱtoȱexploitȱforȱhisȱpersonalȱbenefitȱthe
conflictsȱbetweenȱtheȱtwoȱkingdoms,ȱmakingȱVillenaȱpracticallyȱanȱautonomousȱstate.]
TheȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱisȱindeedȱanȱextraordinarilyȱvaluableȱbook,ȱnotȱonlyȱforȱits
placeȱinȱtheȱhistoryȱofȱbooksȱonȱfalconry,ȱbutȱalsoȱbecauseȱofȱhowȱpersonalȱitȱis.ȱIt
notȱonlyȱprovidesȱbiographicalȱinformation,ȱbutȱitȱalsoȱhasȱsavedȱinȱitsȱownȱfashion
JuanȱManuel’sȱvoiceȱtalkingȱtoȱtheȱscribeȱandȱtoȱitsȱreadersȱthroughȱtime.ȱItȱalso
showsȱusȱwhatȱwasȱcloseȱtoȱtheȱauthor’sȱheart;ȱitȱshowsȱusȱpartȱofȱwhatȱheȱloved
aboutȱbeingȱmale:ȱinteractingȱwithȱfalcons,ȱkillingȱprey,ȱhavingȱtheȱresourcesȱto
carryȱ onȱ theȱ aristocraticȱ sport,ȱ communingȱ withȱ otherȱ males,ȱ falconersȱ and
hunters,ȱbelongingȱtoȱaȱroyalȱfamilyȱofȱhunters,ȱknowingȱandȱadmiringȱhisȱuncle
donȱJuan,ȱandȱbeingȱhisȱfather’sȱson.ȱ
Conclusion.ȱMalesȱEducatingȱMales:ȱHuntingȱandȱBooks
DiegoȱCatalánȱandȱGermánȱOrdunaȱexplainȱtheȱimportantȱplaceȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza
hasȱinȱtheȱauthor’sȱdevelopmentȱasȱanȱeducator.ȱItȱisȱwithȱthisȱbookȱthatȱtheȱauthor
becameȱ confidentȱ thatȱ heȱ couldȱ followȱ inȱ hisȱ uncleȱ Alfonsoȱ X’sȱ footstepsȱ to
composeȱbooksȱforȱeducatingȱothers.ȱBecauseȱhuntingȱexcitedȱhim,ȱbecauseȱheȱwas
anȱ expert,ȱ becauseȱ hisȱ identityȱ wasȱ intimatelyȱ connectedȱ toȱ hunting,ȱ hunting
propelledȱhisȱcareerȱasȱaȱcomposerȱofȱbooksȱaimedȱatȱeducatingȱotherȱnobleȱmales.
Asȱ weȱ haveȱ seen,ȱ theȱ principalȱ objectiveȱ ofȱ theȱ Libroȱ deȱ laȱ cazaȱ isȱ toȱ recall
knowledgeȱonȱfalconryȱgainedȱfromȱwrittenȱandȱoralȱsources,ȱorganizeȱit,ȱmakeȱit
contemporary,ȱandȱpassȱitȱonȱwithȱtheȱwarningȱthatȱtheȱfalconerȱultimatelyȱneeds
toȱuseȱhisȱownȱjudgment.ȱ
WhatȱattractsȱaboutȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza,ȱandȱwhatȱmakesȱitȱsoȱpersonalȱandȱalive,
isȱ thatȱ itȱ capturesȱ Juanȱ Manuel’sȱ ownȱ educationȱ inȱ theȱ sportȱ ofȱ falconry.ȱ The
authorȱ recallsȱ whatȱ hisȱ ownȱ teachersȱ inȱ theȱ sportȱ taughtȱ him.ȱ Heȱ insists
neverthelessȱthatȱhisȱmainȱteacherȱwasȱexperienceȱitself,ȱandȱheȱdescribesȱgeneral
andȱspecificȱexperiences.ȱOnȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱheȱalsoȱincorporatesȱwrittenȱsources
(withoutȱnamingȱthem)ȱthatȱwereȱpartȱofȱhisȱeducationȱonȱfalconry,ȱorȱthatȱhe
madeȱpartȱofȱhisȱeducation.
Asȱmentionedȱabove,ȱJuanȱManuel’sȱteachersȱwereȱfamilyȱmembersȱ(mainlyȱhis
cousinȱDonȱJuan)ȱandȱfalconersȱwhoȱwereȱassociatedȱwithȱtheȱroyalȱhouseholds.
Recallȱ thatȱ oneȱ ofȱ theseȱ falconersȱ wasȱ “Johannete”,ȱ whoȱ revealedȱ toȱ himȱ the
curativeȱpowerȱofȱtheȱwhiteȱointmentȱandȱtaughtȱhimȱhowȱtoȱmakeȱitȱ(chapterȱXI).
AnotherȱfalconerȬteacher,ȱRemonȱDurche,ȱisȱmentionedȱinȱchapterȱVIII,ȱwhoȱwas
theȱfalconerȱwhoȱknewȱtheȱmostȱaboutȱhuntingȱcranes:ȱ
Otrosiȱ dizeȱ queȱ quantoȱ sabeȱ destaȱ caçaȱ deȱ lasȱ gruasȱ queȱ todoȱ loȱ masȱ etȱ loȱ mejor
aprendioȱdeȱdonȱRemonȱDurche,ȱqueȱfueȱelȱomneȱqueȱelȱnuncaȱvioȱqueȱmasȱsopiesse
deȱcaçaȱdeȱgruas.117ȱ
[Heȱ alsoȱ saysȱ thatȱ mostȱ ofȱ whatȱ heȱ knowsȱ aboutȱ huntingȱ cranesȱ heȱ learnedȱ from
RamonȱDurche,ȱwhoseȱformidableȱexpertiseȱhasȱneverȱbeenȱmatchedȱbyȱanyoneȱelse
heȱhasȱeverȱmet.]
Theȱ falconerȱ Remonȱ Durcheȱ hasȱ moreȱ importanceȱ inȱ theȱ bookȱ thanȱ atȱ first
apparent.118ȱHeȱtaughtȱJuanȱManuelȱaȱnewȱmethodȱtoȱhuntȱcranes,ȱaȱmethodȱthat
heȱhasȱfollowedȱeverȱsince:ȱ
.ȱ.ȱ.ȱetȱadelanteȱdiraȱcommoȱsoliaȱcaçarȱlasȱgruasȱenȱCastiellaȱanteȱqueȱdonȱRemon
Durcheȱviniesse,ȱetȱcommoȱmostroȱaȱdonȱIohanȱfaser[lo]ȱenȱlaȱguisaȱqueȱagoraȱvsaȱdon
Iohanȱcaçarȱlasȱgruas.119ȱ
[.ȱ.ȱ.andȱheȱwillȱexplainȱaheadȱhowȱcranesȱusedȱtoȱbeȱhuntedȱinȱCastillaȱbeforeȱRemon
Durcheȱcameȱonȱtheȱscene,ȱandȱhowȱdonȱJuanȱhuntsȱthemȱnow,ȱaccordingȱtoȱhow
RemonȱDurcheȱtaughtȱhimȱtoȱhuntȱthem.]
TheȱnewȱmethodȱofȱhuntingȱcranesȱtaughtȱbyȱRemonȱDurcheȱisȱcontrastedȱwithȱthe
oldȱmethod,ȱbothȱdescribedȱinȱstagesȱincorporatingȱhistoricalȱeventsȱinȱtheȱroyal
family:
Theȱ narratorȱ writesȱ thatȱ Juanȱ Manuelȱ saysȱ thatȱ heȱ heardȱ donȱ Juanȱ hisȱ cousinȱ and
GonçaloȱRoyzȱdeȱYsla,ȱaȱprincipalȱfalconerȱwhoȱusedȱtoȱworkȱforȱtheȱkingȱAlfonsoȱand
laterȱforȱkingȱSancho,ȱandȱPeroȱLopez,ȱaȱfalconerȱwhoȱwasȱemployedȱbyȱdonȱManuel,
andȱmanyȱotherȱfalconersȱfromȱkingȱAlfonso’sȱtime,ȱtalkȱaboutȱhowȱ12ȱorȱmoreȱfalcons
wereȱusedȱtoȱhuntȱcrane,ȱandȱtheȱfalconsȱcaughtȱtheȱcranesȱwhenȱtheyȱwereȱeitherȱstill
onȱtheȱgroundȱorȱflyingȱveryȱlow.ȱTheȱleaderȱofȱtheȱfalconsȱkeptȱholdȱofȱtheȱcraneȱuntil
theȱdogȱarrived.ȱIfȱtheȱcraneȱwasȱnotȱkilledȱduringȱthatȱfirstȱattemptȱandȱlanding,ȱthe
otherȱfalconsȱdidȱnotȱfollowȱtheȱcrane.120
Heȱhimselfȱusedȱtoȱhuntȱthisȱway,ȱexceptȱthatȱbyȱthisȱtimeȱnotȱsoȱmanyȱfalcons
wereȱused.ȱTheȱfirstȱfalconȱwasȱsetȱlooseȱwhenȱtheȱcranesȱwereȱstillȱonȱtheȱground,
likeȱbefore.121
Aȱyearȱlater,ȱhisȱuncleȱdonȱEnriqueȱdied.ȱHeȱinheritedȱaȱfalconȱofȱhisȱbyȱtheȱname
ofȱGalvanȱthatȱusedȱtoȱkillȱcranesȱsuccessfully,ȱbutȱitȱwasȱtrainedȱtoȱpursueȱand
attackȱwhenȱtheȱcranesȱwereȱstillȱonȱtheȱground.122
117
118
SeeȱFradejasȱRueda,ȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱhereȱ171,ȱn.ȱ243.ȱFradejasȱRuedaȱidentfiesȱRemón
DurcheȱasȱpossiblyȱRamónȱUrg,ȱtheȱmayorȱofȱtheȱalcazarȱofȱVillena,ȱJuanȱManuel’sȱproperty.ȱ
119
120
121
122
AnotherȱyearȱlaterȱRemonȱDurcheȱcameȱtoȱworkȱforȱhim.ȱThisȱhappenedȱduring
theȱmonthȱofȱAugustȱwhenȱtheȱkingȱofȱCastilla,ȱtheȱkingȱofȱAragónȱandȱtheȱking
ofȱPortugalȱmetȱinȱAgredaȱandȱinȱTarragona.123
RemonȱDurcheȱtookȱtoȱAlarcónȱ(propertyȱofȱtheȱauthor)ȱtoȱtrainȱtwoȱfalconsȱthat
belongedȱtoȱJuanȱManuel,ȱPlomateȱandȱReal.ȱHeȱtrainedȱthemȱtoȱkillȱcranesȱwhen
theyȱwereȱflyingȱinȱallȱdirections.124
ItȱwasȱatȱaȱstreamȱbetweenȱPalomaresȱandȱBuruanosȱthatȱJuanȱManuelȱsawȱfor
theȱfirstȱtimeȱaȱcraneȱkilledȱinȱthisȱmanner.125
EverȱsinceȱthenȱheȱhasȱbeenȱhuntingȱcranesȱinȱthisȱmannerȱthatȱRemonȱDurche
taughtȱhim.ȱ126
TheȱnarratorȱsaysȱthatȱJuanȱManuelȱalsoȱsaysȱthatȱheȱheardȱhisȱcousinȱdonȱJuan
talkȱaboutȱaȱSakerȱfalconȱthatȱbelongedȱtoȱdonȱManuelȱthatȱusedȱtoȱkillȱcranes
whenȱtheyȱflewȱhighȱup,ȱwhichȱwasȱunusualȱforȱtheȱ falconsȱofȱthatȱtimeȱwere
trainedȱkillȱwhenȱtheyȱcranesȱwereȱflyingȱlow.127
WeȱcanȱseeȱthatȱJuanȱManuelȱinsertsȱhisȱfather’sȱfalconȱintoȱtheȱnarrativeȱtoȱpaint
it,ȱandȱlikewiseȱpaintȱhisȱfather,ȱasȱaȱprecursorȱtoȱtheȱnewȱmethodȱthatȱcameȱlater.
Theyȱwereȱaheadȱofȱtheirȱtime.ȱWhatȱthisȱpartȱofȱtheȱnarrativeȱdoesȱisȱdelineateȱtwo
historicalȱperiodsȱwithȱregardȱtoȱhuntingȱmethods,ȱaȱ“before”ȱRemonȱDurcheȱand
anȱ“after”ȱRemonȱDurche.ȱInȱtheȱ“before”ȱperiodȱdonȱManuel’sȱfalconȱhuntedȱin
aȱmannerȱthatȱannouncedȱtheȱcomingȱofȱtheȱnewȱeraȱthatȱRemonȱDurche’sȱteaching
wouldȱ bring.ȱ Becauseȱ Remonȱ Durcheȱ wasȱ inȱ Juanȱ Manuel’sȱ employmentȱ and
becauseȱRemonȱDurcheȱwasȱhisȱteacher,ȱtheȱauthorȱviewsȱhimselfȱasȱtheȱagent
mostȱresponsibleȱ(afterȱtheȱteacherȱhimself)ȱforȱbringingȱaboutȱthisȱchange.ȱ
TheȱmentionȱofȱhisȱuncleȱdonȱEnrique’sȱdeathȱisȱinȱtheȱmiddleȱofȱtheȱnarrative.
Theȱfalconȱthatȱheȱinheritedȱfromȱhisȱuncleȱwasȱanȱexcellentȱhunterȱofȱcranesȱbut
stillȱtrainedȱinȱtheȱoldȱfashion.ȱDonȱEnrique’sȱdeathȱresonatesȱinȱtheȱsegmentȱof
narrativeȱandȱinȱtheȱentireȱchapter,ȱnotȱonlyȱbecauseȱofȱtheȱhistoricalȱinformation
thatȱitȱprovidesȱ(DonȱEnriqueȱdiedȱinȱ1303),ȱbutȱalsoȱbecauseȱitȱseemsȱtoȱhaveȱmade
aȱbigȱimpressionȱonȱJuanȱManuel,ȱwhoȱatȱtheȱtimeȱwasȱ21ȱyearsȱold.ȱAtȱtheȱendȱof
theȱchapterȱtheȱnarratorȱremarksȱthatȱdonȱEnrique,ȱalongȱwithȱhisȱbrothers,ȱwas
aȱgreatȱhunterȱduringȱhisȱlifetime.128ȱ
Theȱ otherȱ historicalȱ referenceȱ inȱ theȱ passageȱ isȱ identifiedȱ byȱ Joséȱ Manuel
Fradejasȱ Ruedaȱ asȱ theȱ meetingȱ inȱ 1304ȱ thatȱ tookȱ placeȱ inȱ Torrellasȱ between
123
124
125
126
127
128
JuanȱManuelȱmentionsȱhisȱuncleȱdonȱEnriqueȱalsoȱinȱElȱcondeȱLucanorȱ(storyȱIX)ȱandȱinȱLibroȱdeȱlas
armas.ȱ
Fernandoȱ IVȱ ofȱ Castilla,ȱ Jaimeȱ IIȱ ofȱ Aragónȱ andȱ Dinisȱ ofȱ Portugalȱ inȱ 1304.129ȱ
AccordingȱtoȱFranciscoȱJavierȱDíezȱdeȱRevengaȱandȱAngelȱLuisȱMolinaȱyȱMolina,
thisȱ meetingȱ wasȱ importantȱ toȱ Juanȱ Manuelȱ becauseȱ itȱ markedȱ theȱ endȱ ofȱ the
politicalȱ conflictȱ betweenȱ Alfonsoȱ deȱ laȱ Cerdaȱ (supportedȱ byȱ Jaimeȱ II)ȱ and
FernandoȱIV,ȱinȱwhichȱpropertiesȱofȱhisȱinȱMurciaȱwereȱatȱstake.130ȱItȱisȱinteresting
toȱ noteȱ thatȱ Juanȱ Manuel,ȱ alongȱ withȱ hisȱ cousinȱ donȱ Juanȱ andȱ hisȱ uncleȱ don
Enrique,ȱbothȱmentionedȱwithȱaffectionȱinȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza,ȱhadȱbeenȱinvolved
inȱtheȱconflict,ȱsupportingȱAlfonsoȱdeȱlaȱCerdaȱinȱhisȱquestȱtoȱbeȱnamedȱkingȱof
Castile.ȱWeȱcanȱseeȱinȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱthatȱtheȱauthorȱestablishesȱanȱaffinity
betweenȱ theȱ threeȱ noblesȱ becauseȱ ofȱ theirȱ sharedȱ interestȱ inȱ hunting,ȱ andȱ also
becauseȱofȱtheirȱallianceȱinȱpolitics.131ȱOtherwise,ȱheȱwouldȱnotȱhaveȱmentioned
129
Libroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ171,ȱn.ȱ245.
130
Alfonsoȱ deȱ laȱ Cerdaȱ andȱ hisȱ brotherȱ Fernandoȱ deȱ laȱ Cerdaȱ promisedȱ Jaimeȱ IIȱ ofȱ Aragónȱ the
kingdomȱofȱMurciaȱinȱexchangeȱforȱhisȱsupport.ȱJaimeȱIIȱbeganȱhisȱinvasionȱofȱMurciaȱinȱ1296.ȱHe
firstȱconqueredȱAlicante,ȱandȱthenȱtheȱvillagesȱinȱEldaȱandȱNovelda.ȱElcheȱwasȱalsoȱattacked,ȱbut
JuanȱManuelȱnegotiatedȱwithȱtheȱAragoneseȱking,ȱwhoȱtookȱoverȱtheȱjurisdictionȱofȱElche,ȱleaving
theȱ propertyȱ itselfȱ inȱ Juanȱ Manuel’sȱ name.ȱ Heȱ laterȱ negotiatedȱ withȱ Maríaȱ deȱ Molinaȱ the
concessionȱofȱtheȱtownȱofȱAlarcón,ȱtoȱmakeȱupȱforȱhisȱlossȱofȱtheȱjurisdictionȱofȱElche.ȱInȱ1300ȱJuan
Manuelȱ marriedȱ doñaȱ Isabel,ȱ Jaimeȱ II’sȱ daughterȱ withȱ Esclaramundaȱ deȱ Foix.ȱ Inȱ 1301ȱ he
participatedȱinȱaȱplotȱwithȱMariaȱdeȱMolinaȱandȱherȱsonȱFernandoȱIV,ȱstillȱduringȱhisȱminority,
toȱenterȱMurciaȱandȱtakeȱprisonerȱJaimeȱIIȱofȱAragón,ȱbutȱtheȱplotȱfailed.ȱInȱtheȱsameȱyearȱhisȱfirst
wifeȱdied.ȱInȱ1302ȱheȱheȱalliedȱhimselfȱwithȱhisȱuncleȱdonȱEnrique,ȱdonȱJuanȱhisȱcousinȱandȱother
noblesȱwhoȱsupportedȱAlfonsoȱdeȱlaȱCerda,ȱwhoȱwasȱcallingȱhimselfȱkingȱofȱCastile.,ȱstillȱwithȱthe
supportȱ ofȱ theȱ Aragoneseȱ king.ȱ Inȱ 1303ȱ heȱ wasȱ betrothedȱ toȱ Constanzaȱ ofȱ Aragón,ȱ another
daughterȱofȱJaimeȱII.ȱTheȱdowryȱincludedȱtheȱjurisdictionȱofȱElcheȱandȱotherȱpropertiesȱinȱMurcia
thatȱ hadȱ originallyȱ beenȱ his.ȱ Whenȱ theȱ kingsȱ ofȱ Castile,ȱ Aragónȱ andȱ Portugalȱ metȱ inȱ 1304ȱ in
TorrellasȱMurciaȱwasȱdividedȱbetweenȱAragónȱandȱCastile.ȱJuanȱManuelȱwasȱableȱtoȱkeepȱhis
propertiesȱinȱtheȱpartsȱthatȱwereȱadjucatedȱtoȱCastile,ȱincludingȱYecla,ȱwhichȱmadeȱtheȱdivisory
lineȱawkward.ȱTheȱterritoriesȱthatȱwereȱlocatedȱnorthȱofȱtheȱriverȱSeguraȱwereȱincorporatedȱinto
theȱkingdomȱofȱAragón.ȱJuanȱManuel’sȱproperty,ȱtheȱseignioryȱofȱVillenaȱwasȱalsoȱrespectedȱin
theȱtreatyȱofȱTorrellas.ȱSeeȱ“DonȱJuanȱManuelȱyȱelȱreinoȱdeȱMurcia:ȱnotasȱalȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza,”ȱ(see
noteȱ79).ȱSeeȱalsoȱJuanȱTorresȱFontes,ȱ“MurciaȱyȱDonȱJuanȱManuel:ȱtensionesȱyȱconflictos,”ȱDon
JuanȱManuel:ȱVIIȱcentenarioȱ(seeȱnoteȱ32),ȱ353–84;ȱIsabelȱGarcíaȱDiaz,ȱ“Lorca,ȱDonȱJuanȱManuelȱy
AlfonsoȱXI,”ȱMisceláneaȱMedievalȱMurcianaȱXXXIȱ(2007):ȱ69–93;ȱManuelȱGarcíaȱFernández,ȱ“Jaime
IIȱ yȱ laȱ minoríaȱ deȱ Alfonsoȱ XIȱ (1312–25):ȱ Susȱ relacionesȱ conȱ laȱ sociedadȱ políticaȱ castellana,”
Departamentoȱ deȱ Historiaȱ Medievalȱ yȱ Cienciasȱ yȱ Técnicasȱ Historiográficas,ȱ Universidadȱ de
Sevilla,ȱhttp://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/oaiart?codigo=58245;ȱandȱManuelȱGonzálezȱJiménez,ȱ“La
sucesiónȱalȱtronoȱdeȱCastilla:ȱ1275–1304,”
http://rua.ua.es/dspace/bitstream/10045/6827/1/HM_11_10.pdfȱ (lastȱ accessedȱ onȱ Decemberȱ 26,
2011).ȱ
131
DonȱJuan,ȱalongȱwithȱMariaȱdeȱMolina,ȱhisȱsisterȬinȬlaw,ȱandȱdonȱPedro,ȱherȱsonȱandȱhisȱnephew,
wasȱAlfonsoȱXI’sȱregentȱfromȱ1312ȱtoȱ1319,ȱtheȱyearȱbothȱuncleȱandȱnephewȱdiedȱinȱtheȱbattle
againstȱtheȱMoorsȱinȱVega,ȱGranada.ȱDonȱJuanȱwasȱseigniorȱofȱVizcayaȱandȱwasȱleaderȱofȱtheȱband
ofȱnoblesȱthatȱwantedȱtoȱprotectȱtheȱrightsȱofȱtheȱ“viejaȱnobleza”ȱ(noblesȱofȱtheȱoldȱorder).ȱAmong
theseȱnoblesȱwere,ȱaccordingȱtoȱManuelȱGarcíaȱFernándezȱ(seeȱnoteȱ127),ȱDonȱJuan’sȱwife,ȱMaría
deȱHaro,ȱhisȱnephew,ȱDonȱLopeȱdeȱHaro,ȱdonȱJuanȱNuñezȱdeȱLara,ȱdonȱFernandoȱdeȱlaȱCerda,
them.ȱTheȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱhasȱaȱpoliticalȱdimensionȱthatȱisȱhintedȱatȱsuperficially:
theȱ“contraȱesteȱtanȱnobleȱrey”ȱinȱtheȱprologueȱandȱtheȱhuntingȱcompanionsȱJuan
Manuelȱchosesȱtoȱmention.ȱAtȱtheȱdeeperȱandȱmoreȱintenseȱlevelȱisȱtheȱnamingȱof
propertiesȱthatȱJuanȱManuelȱowns,ȱwhichȱweȱdiscussedȱinȱpartȱthreeȱofȱthisȱarticle.
InȱtheȱsameȱchapterȱVIII,ȱrightȱafterȱtheȱfirstȱcontrastȱmadeȱbetweenȱtheȱoldȱand
theȱnew,ȱanotherȱhistoricalȱdemarcationȱisȱmadeȱbetweenȱtheȱoldȱandȱtheȱnew.
JuanȱManuelȱrecallsȱhearingȱthatȱbeforeȱhisȱgrandfather,ȱtheȱkingȱFernandoȱthe
Saint,ȱmarriedȱhisȱgrandmother,ȱtheȱqueenȱBeatriz,ȱheronsȱwereȱhuntedȱandȱkilled
withȱ goshawks.ȱ Afterȱ theyȱ wereȱ marriedȱ theyȱ wereȱ huntedȱ withȱ falcons.ȱ The
personȱwhoȱbroughtȱaboutȱthisȱchangeȱwasȱRodrigoȱGomesȱfromȱGalicia.ȱWhen
theȱroyalȱcouple’sȱsons,ȱdonȱAlfonsoȱ(laterȱking),ȱdonȱEnrique,ȱdonȱFelipeȱandȱDon
Manuel,ȱ startedȱ hunting,ȱ theyȱ alsoȱ huntedȱ heronsȱ withȱ falcons.ȱ Now,ȱ inȱ Juan
Manuel’sȱtime,ȱheronsȱareȱalsoȱhuntedȱwithȱfalcons,ȱbutȱinȱaȱnewȱandȱdifferent
manner,ȱwhichȱisȱ“escriptoȱenȱesteȱlibro”ȱ(“writtenȱinȱthisȱbook”).ȱJustȱbecauseȱthey
areȱold,ȱtheȱoldȱwaysȱareȱnotȱdismissed,ȱratherȱtheyȱareȱgivenȱtheirȱdueȱcreditȱas
antecedentsȱofȱtheȱnewȱways.ȱ
Theȱbook’sȱintentionȱisȱpartlyȱtoȱhonorȱtheȱpast,ȱcaptureȱitȱwithȱtheȱstoriesȱthat
theȱ authorȱ recalls,ȱ andȱ passȱ itȱ onȱ toȱ theȱ presentȱ generation,ȱ noȱ matterȱ how
applicableȱinȱtheȱpresentȱtheȱinformationȱisȱorȱnot.ȱOnȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱthereȱis
knowledgeȱthatȱisȱalwaysȱapplicable,ȱthatȱneverȱgoesȱoutȱofȱfashion.ȱTheȱbook
fulfillsȱ itsȱ responsibilityȱ ofȱ passingȱ onȱ thisȱ knowledge.ȱ Atȱ theȱ sameȱ time,ȱ itȱ is
necessaryȱ toȱ disseminateȱ theȱ knowledgeȱ ofȱ aȱ newȱ wayȱ ofȱ hunting,ȱ whichȱ is
practicedȱbyȱtheȱauthorȱandȱhisȱcompanions,ȱandȱwhichȱwasȱinȱturnȱtaughtȱtoȱthem
SanchoȱSánchezȱVelasco,ȱandȱlaterȱJuanȱManuelȱandȱtheȱqueenȱdoñaȱConstanzaȱofȱPortugal.ȱInȱthe
otherȱbandȱofȱnoblesȱwereȱthoseȱwhoȱwantedȱtoȱaidȱinȱtheȱstrengtheningȱofȱtheȱmonarchy,ȱand
theyȱwereȱdonȱPedro,ȱMaríaȱdeȱMolina’sȱson,ȱdonȱAlfonsoȱdeȱMenesesȱandȱhisȱsonȱdonȱTello,ȱdon
JuanȱAlfonsoȱdeȱHaro,ȱFernánȱRuizȱdeȱSaldaña,ȱtheȱGrandȱMastersȱofȱtheȱmilitaryȱordersȱandȱthe
majorityȱofȱtheȱnobilityȱinȱAndalucía.ȱ(Seeȱ“JaimeȱIIȱyȱlaȱminoríaȱdeȱAlfonsoȱXIȱ(1312–1325):ȱSus
relacionesȱconȱlaȱsociedadȱpolíticaȱcastellana,”(seeȱnoteȱ127);ȱhereȱ143.)ȱDonȱPedroȱwasȱalsoȱJaime
II’sȱsonȬinȬlaw,ȱbecauseȱheȱwasȱmarriedȱtoȱdoñaȱMaríaȱofȱAragón,ȱtheȱAragoneseȱking’sȱoldest
daughter.ȱDonȱPedroȱandȱJuanȱManuelȱwereȱarchenemies,ȱtheȱformerȱalienatingȱtheȱlatterȱfrom
anyȱparticipationȱinȱFernandoȱIV’sȱminorityȱbetweenȱ1312ȱandȱ1319.ȱInȱ1314ȱJuanȱManuelȱjoined
theȱbandȱofȱnoblesȱheadedȱbyȱhisȱcousinȱdonȱJuan.ȱTheȱsecondȱteamȱofȱregentsȱbetweenȱ1319ȱand
1321ȱwereȱMaríaȱdeȱMolina.ȱDonȱFelipe,ȱMaríaȱdeȱMolina’sȱsonȱandȱJuanȱManuel.ȱTheȱthirdȱteam
isȱformedȱinȱ1321ȱwhenȱMaríaȱdeȱMolinaȱdies.ȱDonȱJuanȱelȱTuerto,ȱfriendȱofȱJuanȱManuelȱandȱson
ofȱJuanȱManuel’sȱlateȱcousinȱdonȱJuan,ȱisȱnamedȱregentȱalongȱwithȱJuanȱManuelȱandȱdonȱFelipe.
ManuelȱGarcíaȱDíazȱwritesȱaboutȱthisȱsituation:ȱ“Elȱpoderȱllegóȱaȱtalȱgradoȱdeȱdisgregaciónȱque
cadaȱtutorȱgobernabaȱunaȱparteȱdelȱreinoȱyȱcobrandoȱlosȱimpuestosȱdeȱesaȱzonaȱenȱelȱnombreȱdel
rey,ȱperoȱenȱprovechoȱpropio.”ȱSeeȱ“Lorca,ȱDonȱJuanȱManuelȱyȱAlfonsoȱXI”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ130);ȱhere
76:ȱ“Theȱpowerȱsharedȱbyȱtheȱthreeȱtutorsȱreachedȱaȱlevelȱofȱdisintegrationȱsuchȱthatȱeachȱregent
governedȱaȱdifferentȱpartȱofȱtheȱkingdomȱandȱcollectedȱtaxesȱinȱtheȱking’sȱnameȱbutȱusedȱtheȱtaxes
forȱtheirȱownȱpurposes.”
byȱaȱfewȱveryȱtalentedȱmen.ȱTheȱauthorȱleavesȱroomȱtoȱincorporateȱlaterȱanyȱnew
huntingȱpracticesȱthatȱtheȱyoungerȱgenerationȱofȱhuntersȱmightȱdevelop:ȱ
queȱ[a]siȱcommoȱfizoȱescriuirȱloȱqueȱelȱvioȱetȱoyoȱenȱestaȱarteȱdeȱlaȱcaça,ȱqueȱsiȱalguna
cosaȱviereȱdaquiȱadelanteȱqueȱseȱmudeȱoȱseȱfagaȱmejorȱetȱmasȱestrannaȱmente,ȱqueȱasi
loȱfareȱescriuir.132
[Andȱtheȱsameȱwayȱinȱwhichȱheȱhadȱsomeoneȱwriteȱdownȱwhatȱheȱsawȱandȱwhatȱhe
heardȱregardingȱtheȱartȱofȱfalconry,ȱheȱwillȱdoȱtheȱsameȱforȱanyȱchangeȱorȱstrangeȱnew
practiceȱheȱhappensȱtoȱseeȱinȱtheȱfuture.]
JuanȱManuelȱrepresentsȱhimselfȱinȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱasȱaȱpupilȱwhoȱhasȱbecome
aȱteacher,ȱsimplyȱbecauseȱthisȱisȱtheȱnaturalȱorder.ȱHeȱgivesȱcreditȱtoȱhisȱteachers
forȱtheȱknowledgeȱtheyȱpassedȱonȱtoȱhim,ȱbutȱclarifiesȱthatȱexperienceȱhasȱbeenȱhis
mostȱ importantȱ teacherȱ andȱ hisȱ ownȱ judgmentȱ hisȱ mostȱ importantȱ guide.ȱ The
learningȱprocessȱneverȱstops.ȱHeȱisȱsureȱtoȱlearnȱmoreȱinȱtheȱfutureȱfromȱother
huntersȱandȱfalconers.ȱ
ItȱwasȱanȱactȱofȱloveȱforȱtheȱsportȱofȱhuntingȱthatȱmotivatedȱJuanȱManuelȱto
composeȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza:ȱ
EtȱdizeȱdonȱIohanȱqueȱtantoȱseȱpagaȱelȱdeȱlaȱcaçaȱetȱporȱtanȱaprouechosaȱlaȱtieneȱpara
losȱgrandesȱsennoresȱetȱavnȱparaȱtodosȱlosȱotros,ȱsiȱquierenȱvsarȱdellaȱcommoȱdeuen
etȱpertenesçeȱaȱsusȱestados,ȱqueȱ[a]siȱcommoȱfizoȱescriuirȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.”133
[“AndȱJuanȱManuelȱsaysȱthatȱheȱlovesȱhuntingȱsoȱmuch,ȱandȱthatȱheȱisȱconvincedȱthat
itȱisȱveryȱbeneficialȱtoȱnoblemen,ȱandȱevenȱtoȱothersȱwhoȱareȱnotȱnoble,ȱonlyȱifȱthey
practiceȱ theȱ sportȱ inȱ aȱ mannerȱ befittingȱ theirȱ station,ȱ thatȱ theȱ sameȱ wayȱ heȱ had
someoneȱwriteȱdownȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.”]ȱ
Heȱcomposedȱtheȱbookȱstartingȱperhapsȱwithȱnotesȱthatȱheȱbeganȱjottingȱdownȱor
dictatingȱwhenȱheȱwasȱyoung.ȱAsȱheȱmaturedȱasȱaȱhunter,ȱorȱafterȱheȱmaturedȱas
aȱhunter,ȱanotherȱphaseȱofȱ theȱ compositionȱ ofȱtheȱbookȱtookȱplace,ȱaȱphaseȱin
whichȱtheȱauthorȱcouldȱrepresentȱhimselfȱ(withȱhelpȱfromȱtheȱscribeȱandȱpossibly
fromȱaȱfalconerȱfriend)ȱasȱanȱexperiencedȱhunterȱandȱasȱaȱteacherȱonȱtheȱsubjectȱof
falconry.ȱTheȱbook’sȱreadersȱorȱlistenersȱareȱmales,ȱfalconersȱfromȱdifferentȱsocial
classesȱandȱnoblemenȱwhoȱhuntȱwithȱfalcons.ȱTheȱbookȱisȱaȱwonderfulȱtechnology
forȱlearningȱandȱteaching,ȱyetȱJuanȱManuelȱremindsȱhisȱreadersȱofȱtheȱneedȱtoȱuse
theirȱownȱjudgment,ȱeverȱawareȱthatȱanyȱdidacticȱbookȱhasȱasȱitsȱmainȱlimitation
itsȱinabilityȱtoȱteachȱeverythingȱonȱaȱcertainȱsubject.ȱAȱbookȱisȱlimitedȱandȱfinite
whereasȱ experienceȱ isȱ alwaysȱ unfolding,ȱ oftenȱ unpredictablyȱ andȱ notȱ likeȱ the
situationsȱpositedȱinȱtheȱbook.ȱ
132
133
Atȱtheȱbeginningȱofȱtheȱbookȱhuntingȱisȱdescribedȱwithȱfourȱadjectives:ȱ“nobles
etȱ apuestasȱ etȱ sabrosasȱ etȱ aprobechosas”:ȱ “noble,ȱ beautiful,ȱ pleasurable,ȱ and
useful.”ȱPerhapsȱbyȱnobleȱJuanȱManuelȱmeansȱitȱisȱaȱsportȱthatȱhasȱtraditionally
beenȱpracticedȱbyȱroyaltyȱandȱnoblemenȱorȱthatȱitȱisȱsportȱthatȱennoblesȱthoseȱwho
practiceȱit.134ȱHeȱdoesȱaffirmȱthatȱhuntingȱwithȱfalconsȱisȱnoblerȱthanȱhuntingȱwith
goshawks,ȱandȱamongȱtheȱfalconsȱtheȱnoblestȱofȱthemȱallȱisȱtheȱ“girlfalte.”ȱJuan
Manuelȱ makesȱ aȱ connectionȱ betweenȱ theȱ nobleȱ qualityȱ ofȱ theȱ sportȱ withȱ the
pleasureȱthatȱitȱgives,ȱwhichȱthenȱmakesȱtheȱsportȱbeautiful.ȱItȱisȱnoblerȱtoȱhunt
withȱfalconsȱthanȱwithȱgoshawksȱbecauseȱfalconsȱkillȱheronsȱafterȱtheȱgoshawks
dropȱthem,ȱandȱtheȱmannerȱinȱwhichȱtheyȱkillȱheronsȱisȱpleasurableȱandȱbeautiful
toȱwatch.ȱTheȱconnectionȱbetweenȱpleasureȱandȱbeautyȱisȱreinforcedȱaȱfewȱlines
downȱinȱthisȱpassage.ȱBecauseȱtheȱfalconȱtakesȱmoreȱtimeȱinȱkillingȱtheȱheronȱthan
theȱgoshawkȱdoes,ȱmoreȱpleasureȱisȱderivedȱfromȱwatchingȱandȱparticipating.ȱThis
pleasureȱthatȱlastsȱlongerȱmakesȱtheȱsportȱbeautiful,ȱorȱtheȱlongerȱtimeȱthatȱitȱtakes
increasesȱtheȱpleasureȱatȱwatchingȱwhatȱisȱbeautiful:ȱ
Etȱporȱqueȱenȱtodasȱlasȱcosasȱenȱqueȱhaȱplazerȱquantoȱmasȱduranȱsonȱdeȱmayorȱplazer,
porȱendeȱesȱ[de]ȱmayorȱplazerȱestaȱcaçaȱconȱlosȱfalconesȱqueȱconȱlosȱazoresȱetȱporȱesso
mismoȱesȱmasȱapuesta.135
ȱ
[Andȱbecauseȱtheȱthingsȱthatȱlastȱlongerȱgiveȱmoreȱpleasureȱthanȱtheȱthingsȱthatȱlast
little,ȱhuntingȱwithȱfalconsȱgivesȱmoreȱpleasureȱthanȱhuntingȱwithȱgoshawks,ȱandȱthis
isȱwhyȱitȱisȱalsoȱmoreȱbeautifulȱtoȱwatch.]
Theȱnarratorȱemphasizesȱtheȱpleasureȱmenȱexperienceȱwhenȱtheyȱwatchȱtheȱfalcons
killȱtheȱcranes,ȱwatchȱtheȱdogsȱrunȱtoȱhelpȱtheȱfalcons,ȱandȱwatchȱtheȱfalconers,ȱthe
horsemenȱ andȱ theȱ menȱ onȱ mulesȱ allȱ runȱ inȱ theȱ sameȱ direction.ȱ Theȱ narrator
describesȱtheȱexcitementȱofȱtheȱculminatingȱmomentȱofȱtheȱhunt,ȱwhenȱeverybody
movesȱinȱthatȱoneȱdirectionȱtowardȱtheȱcaughtȱprey:ȱ
Caȱmuyȱpocosȱsonȱlosȱqueȱveenȱquandoȱlosȱfalconesȱvanȱconȱlasȱgruasȱetȱlaȱapartanȱet
laȱderriban,ȱetȱveenȱcommoȱsusȱconpannasȱvienenȱacorrerȱaȱlaȱderribada,ȱetȱentienden
elȱpeligroȱenȱqueȱlosȱfalconesȱseranȱsinonȱfuerenȱacorridos,ȱqueȱallaȱnonȱacorranȱtodos,
loȱvnoȱporȱmatarȱlaȱgrua,ȱloȱalȱporȱacorrerȱlosȱfalcones,ȱloȱalȱporȱelȱplazerȱqueȱtoman
deȱlosȱfalconesȱetȱdeȱlosȱcanesȱquandoȱbienȱseȱayudanȱlosȱvnosȱaȱlosȱotros.ȱPorȱende
correnȱallaȱtodosȱquantoȱpuedenȱetȱnonȱcatanȱporȱdoȱvan;ȱdellosȱçahondanȱetȱestanȱen
134
SeeȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱJacquelineȱStuhmiller.ȱAccordingȱtoȱJacquelineȱStuhmiller,
inȱtheȱLivreȱdeȱchasseȱbyȱGastonȱPhébus,ȱCountȱofȱFoix,ȱtheȱnobleȱhunterȱ(inȱthisȱcase,ȱofȱbigȱgame)
hasȱmasteryȱthatȱisȱhonestȱandȱnotȱtricky:ȱ“Ultimately,ȱtheȱnobleȱandȱgentleȱhunterȱdoesȱnotȱrely
onȱ elaborateȱ contraptionsȱ orȱ stratagems,ȱ but,ȱ likeȱ theȱ knight,ȱ confrontsȱ hisȱ foesȱ openlyȱ and
honestly”ȱ(511).ȱThisȱunderstandingȱofȱtheȱnobleȱhunterȱisȱnotȱveryȱdifferentȱthanȱthatȱfoundȱin
JuanȱManuel.ȱHuntingȱexpertlyȱwithȱfalconsȱennoblesȱtheȱhunter.
135
grandȱpriesa,ȱdellosȱcaenȱetȱvanseȱ|ȱlesȱlasȱbestias,ȱlosȱotrosȱcorrenȱquantoȱpueden.ȱEt
assiȱporȱtodasȱestasȱcosasȱesȱcaçaȱmuyȱplazenteraȱdeȱveer.136
[Veryȱ fewȱ peopleȱ canȱ resistȱ runningȱ toȱ seeȱ theȱ falconsȱ attackȱ andȱ bringȱ downȱ the
cranes,ȱtoȱseeȱtheȱcompanionsȱofȱtheȱfalconȱrunȱtoȱtheȱfalcon’sȱrescue,ȱunderstanding
theȱ dangerȱ thatȱ heȱ falconsȱ areȱ inȱ ifȱ theyȱ wereȱ notȱ aided.ȱ Everyȱ animalȱ andȱ every
humanȱisȱconveningȱonȱtheȱtheȱscene,ȱsomeȱtoȱkillȱtheȱcrane,ȱsomeȱtoȱhelpȱtheȱfalcons,
someȱforȱtheȱpleasureȱofȱwatchingȱtheȱfalconsȱandȱtheȱdogsȱhelpȱeachȱotherȱout.ȱThis
isȱwhyȱeverybodyȱrunsȱoverȱandȱtheyȱdon’tȱalwaysȱlookȱwhereȱtheyȱareȱgoing.ȱThey
areȱexcitedȱandȱinȱaȱhurry.ȱSomeȱofȱthenȱfallȱandȱtheirȱhorseȱorȱmuleȱrunsȱawayȱfrom
them.ȱOthersȱrunȱasȱmuchȱandȱasȱfastȱasȱtheyȱcan.ȱAndȱitȱisȱfunȱtoȱwatchȱallȱofȱthis
excitementȱhappen.]
Theȱconnectionȱbetweenȱpleasureȱandȱusefulnesssȱisȱnotȱmadeȱasȱclearlyȱinȱthe
LibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱasȱitȱisȱinȱchapterȱXXXXIȱofȱtheȱLibroȱdelȱcaualleroȱetȱdelȱescudero,
“Commoȱelȱcaualleroȱançianoȱrespondeȱalȱcaualleroȱnouelȱqueȱcosaȱsonȱlasȱaves.”
(“Howȱ theȱ oldȱ knightȱ explainedȱ toȱ theȱ noviceȱ knightȱ whatȱ birdsȱ are.”)ȱ Itȱ is
interestingȱtoȱlistenȱtoȱtheȱcharacterȱofȱtheȱoldȱknightȱexplainȱtoȱtheȱnoviceȱknight
thatȱheȱisȱpassionateȱaboutȱhunting,ȱwhichȱbringsȱbenefits:ȱ“Etȱporȱqueȱyoȱentendia
queȱ estoȱ cumpliaȱ muchoȱ alȱ miȱ estado,ȱ vseloȱ muchoȱ etȱ otrosiȱ aviaȱ endeȱ grant
voluntad.”137ȱ(“AndȱbecauseȱIȱunderstoodȱthatȱhuntingȱwasȱusefulȱtoȱmyȱnoble
position,ȱ Iȱ practicedȱ itȱ aȱ lot,ȱ andȱ Iȱ didȱ soȱ becauseȱ itȱ pleasedȱ me.”)ȱ Itȱ isȱ useful
exerciseȱforȱtheȱknightȱandȱaȱgoodȱandȱhealthyȱuseȱofȱtheȱtimeȱheȱhasȱforȱleisure:
“Masȱ quandoȱ alȱ nonȱ haȱ deȱ fazerȱ deȱ losȱ tiemposȱ queȱ seȱ passanȱ baldios,ȱ nonȱ a
ningunoȱtanȱbienȱpuestoȱparaȱlosȱcauallerosȱcommoȱloȱqueȱponenȱenȱmonteȱoȱen
caça.”138ȱ(“Whenȱheȱhasȱleisureȱtimeȱatȱhisȱdisposal,ȱthereȱisȱnoȱbetterȱwayȱforȱthe
knightȱtoȱuseȱthisȱtimeȱthanȱhuntingȱbigȱgameȱorȱhuntingȱwithȱfalcons.”)ȱ
TheȱknightȱshouldȱbeȱselfȬdisciplined,ȱbecauseȱhuntingȱisȱsoȱpleasurableȱthatȱit
canȱbecomeȱanȱobsessionȱandȱinterfereȱwithȱhisȱotherȱresponsibilities:ȱ“Caȱnon
deueȱomneȱporȱlaȱcaçaȱdexarȱningunoȱotroȱfechoȱmayorȱqueȱleȱaprouecheȱoȱle
enpesçaȱaȱlaȱfaziendaȱoȱaȱlaȱonraȱoȱlaȱpro.”139ȱ(“Manȱshouldȱnotȱloseȱhimselfȱinȱthe
sportȱofȱhuntingȱsoȱasȱtoȱneglectȱhisȱotherȱresponsibilities,ȱwhichȱcouldȱdamageȱhis
estate,ȱhisȱhonorȱorȱhisȱbenefit.”)
Thisȱlongȱpassageȱinȱtheȱmaistriseȱalsoȱexplainsȱtheȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱfreeȱwill,
pleasureȱandȱusefulness.ȱItȱisȱaȱwonderfulȱsituationȱwhenȱwithȱfreeȱwillȱaȱman
choosesȱtoȱbeȱresponsibleȱtoȱhimselfȱandȱtoȱsocietyȱandȱheȱisȱableȱtoȱderiveȱpleasure
fromȱit:ȱ“PeroȱalȱqueȱDiosȱfazaȱtantaȱmerçedȱquellȱdaȱvoluntadȱparaȱfazerȱbuenas
obrasȱ etȱ aprouechosasȱ paraȱ elȱ almaȱ etȱ paraȱ elȱ cuerpo,ȱ esȱ deȱ buenaȱ venturaȱ en
136
137
138
139
ello.”140ȱ(“TheȱmanȱwhoȱGodȱgracesȱbyȱgivingȱhimȱtheȱwillȱtoȱdoȱgoodȱdeedsȱthat
areȱbeneficialȱforȱhisȱbodyȱandȱforȱhisȱsoulȱisȱveryȱfortunate.”)
ForȱJuanȱManuelȱhuntingȱinȱmoderationȱwasȱaȱbeneficialȱpastimeȱthatȱprovided
pleasure.ȱ Heȱ huntedȱ becauseȱ itȱ wasȱ partȱ ofȱ hisȱ educationȱ andȱ aȱ common
aristocraticȱpastime,ȱbutȱalsoȱbecauseȱheȱwantedȱto.ȱHeȱchoseȱtoȱhuntȱusingȱhisȱfree
will.ȱ Thereȱ isȱ aȱ strongȱ correspondenceȱ inȱ thisȱ respectȱ betweenȱ huntingȱ and
composingȱbooks.ȱTheyȱareȱbothȱactivitiesȱthatȱJuanȱManuelȱchoseȱtoȱengageȱin
duringȱtheȱtimeȱheȱhadȱleftȱoverȱforȱleisure.ȱTheseȱwereȱactivitiesȱthatȱwereȱboth
usefulȱandȱenjoyable.ȱTheȱusefulnessȱofȱtheȱfinishedȱprojectȱofȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcaza,
forȱexample,ȱisȱfoundȱinȱitsȱeducatingȱfunctionȱtargetingȱaȱmaleȱreadership.141ȱJuan
Manuelȱdidȱnotȱkeepȱhisȱknowledge,ȱpassionȱandȱexpertiseȱpertainingȱtoȱfalconry
toȱhimself,ȱbutȱinsteadȱheȱpassedȱthemȱon,ȱbyȱdictatingȱthemȱtoȱaȱscribeȱwhoȱwrote
hisȱdictationsȱdownȱinȱaȱbookȱthatȱcouldȱbeȱcopiedȱandȱdistributedȱamongȱtheȱmen
inȱtheȱpresentȱandȱinȱtheȱfutureȱwhoȱwereȱinterestedȱinȱtheȱsubjectȱofȱfalconry.142
TheȱpleasureȱthatȱJuanȱManuelȱderivedȱfromȱhuntingȱwasȱinȱpartȱdueȱtoȱthe
companionshipȱheȱfoundȱwithȱotherȱmenȱwhoȱparticipatedȱinȱtheȱsportȱwithȱhim,
menȱwhoȱtoldȱstoriesȱaboutȱhuntingȱtoȱeachȱother,ȱmenȱwhoȱheȱcouldȱjostleȱwith
andȱ playȱ pranksȱ on.ȱ Inȱ theȱ lastȱ chapterȱ ofȱ theȱ Libroȱ deȱ laȱ caza,ȱ Juanȱ Manuel
describesȱtheȱpleasureȱthatȱheȱderivesȱbyȱleadingȱhisȱfellowȱcompanionsȱthrough
theȱterrainȱintoȱtrapsȱinȱwhichȱtheyȱfellȱandȱthenȱbyȱlaughingȱatȱthem.143ȱStories,
140
141
Theȱ booksȱ thatȱ followedȱ haveȱ theȱ sameȱ purposeȱ thatȱ theȱ Libroȱ deȱ laȱ cazaȱ has,ȱ toȱ educateȱ the
aristocraticȱmale.ȱTheȱLibroȱdelȱcaualleroȱetȱdelȱescuderoȱ(TheȱBookȱofȱtheȱKnightȱandȱtheȱSquire)ȱisȱan
educationȱonȱtheȱwayȱtoȱliveȱtheȱlifeȱofȱaȱCatholicȱknight.ȱTheȱLibroȱdeȱlosȱestadosȱ(BookȱofȱEstates)
educatesȱonȱtheȱCatholicȱfaithȱinȱlayȱtermsȱandȱexplainsȱtheȱorganizationȱofȱtheȱtwoȱbranchesȱof
society,ȱlayȱandȱclerical.ȱTheȱbookȱcombinesȱtwoȱgenres,ȱtheȱgenreȱofȱtheȱEstatesȱandȱtheȱgenreȱof
theȱ Mirrorȱ ofȱ Princes.ȱ Theȱ Libroȱ enfenidoȱ alsoȱ belongsȱ toȱ aȱ distinctȱ genreȱ forȱ aristocraticȱ male
readership,ȱtheȱgenreȱofȱlessonsȱandȱinstructionsȱforȱsonsȱwhoȱinheritȱwealthȱandȱposition.ȱJuan
ManuelȱwroteȱtheȱbookȱforȱhisȱsonȱFernando.ȱTheȱLibroȱdeȱlasȱarmasȱisȱaȱheraldicȱtreatiseȱthat
narratesȱtheȱdivineȱoriginsȱofȱtheȱManuelȱlineageȱwhoseȱfutureȱitȱisȱtoȱinheritȱtheȱCastilianȱthrone.
Evenȱtheȱcollectionȱofȱstories,ȱtheȱCondeȱLucanor,ȱwrittenȱbetweenȱtheȱLibroȱdeȱlosȱestadosȱandȱthe
LibroȱInfinido,ȱtargetsȱpredominantlyȱaȱmaleȱaristocraticȱ readership,ȱnoȱmatterȱhowȱmuchȱthe
authorȱprotestsȱthatȱtheȱbookȱhasȱuniversalȱappeal.
142
SeeȱDenisȱMenjot,ȱ“JuanȱManuel:ȱauteurȱcynégétique”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ21,ȱ213).ȱAccordingȱtoȱMenjot,
JuanȱManuel’sȱbookȱwasȱnotȱwidelyȱdistributedȱafterȱhisȱdeathȱandȱwasȱeclipsedȱbyȱtheȱpopularity
ofȱPedroȱdeȱAyala’sȱbook,ȱElȱlibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱdeȱaves,ȱwrittenȱinȱ1385–1386:ȱ“Toutefoisȱetȱbienȱdans
lesȱinventairesȱdeȱbibliothèquesȱnobilairesȱneȱfigurentȱjamaisȱleȱnomȱdesȱauteurs,ȱJuanȱManuelȱne
sembleȱpasȱavoirȱconnuȱbeaucoupȱdeȱsuccessȱcommeȱauteurȱcynégétiqueȱ(32),ȱinjustementȱeclipsé
enȱCastilleȱparȱPeroȱdeȱAyalaȱdontȱonȱconnaitȱprèsȱdeȱvingtȱmanuscritsȱduȱtraitéȱentreȱleȱXIVeȱel
leȱXVIIIeȱsiècleȱ(33).”ȱ[“Evenȱthoughȱtheȱinventoriesȱofȱtheȱlibrariesȱofȱtheȱnobilitiesȱdon’tȱalways
includeȱtheȱnamesȱofȱauthors,ȱitȱseemsȱthatȱJuanȱManuelȱwasȱnotȱveryȱsuccessfulȱasȱaȱcynegetic
writer,ȱforȱheȱwasȱunjustlyȱeclipsedȱinȱCastillaȱbyȱPedroȱLópezȱdeȱAyala,ȱofȱwhoseȱtreatiseȱthere
wereȱcloseȱtoȱtwentyȱmanuscriptsȱbetweenȱtheȱfourteenthȱandȱtheȱeighteenthȱcenturies.”]ȱ
143
“Etȱavnȱdizeȱqueȱsienpreȱovoȱelȱporȱcostumbreȱdeȱengannarȱmuyȱdeȱgradoȱaȱlosȱ[que]ȱandanȱcon
withȱchufasȱorȱnot,ȱandȱpranksȱwereȱanȱimportantȱpartȱofȱtheȱeducationȱexperience
amongȱmen,ȱyoungȱandȱold,ȱnobleȱandȱnot,ȱandȱevenȱdeadȱorȱaliveȱ(forȱthereȱis
alwaysȱaȱmemoryȱtoȱconjureȱupȱofȱthoseȱwhoȱhaveȱdied),ȱwhoȱparticipatedȱinȱthe
sportȱofȱfalconryȱinȱtheȱthirteenthȱandȱfourteenthȱcenturiesȱinȱCastilla.
elȱaȱcaçaȱporȱlesȱfazerȱentrarȱenȱtalesȱlugaresȱqueȱcayanȱoȱlleg[u]enȱaȱtalȱlugarȱqueȱseȱayanȱaȱreyr
dellos,ȱetȱquandoȱporȱotraȱmaneraȱnonȱlosȱpodiaȱengannar,ȱqueȱybaȱapriesaȱalȱlogarȱdoȱelȱdiziaȱque
soliaȱqueȱeraȱelȱpaso,ȱetȱfaziaȱlesȱcreerȱqueȱqueriaȱentrarȱetȱqueȱlosȱqueȱvenianȱconȱelȱqueȱseȱmetian
delanteȱetȱcayanȱoȱafondauan,ȱenȱguisaȱqueȱavianȱtodosȱrazonȱdeȱreyr.ȱEtȱdizeȱqueȱestoȱtieneȱelȱpor
vnoȱdeȱlosȱplazeresȱdeȱlaȱcaca,ȱperoȱqueȱestoȱguardaȱsienpreȱdeȱfazerȱenȱlugarȱdoȱelȱomneȱninȱla
vestiaȱnonȱtomeȱdannoȱninȱpeligro,ȱetȱdizeȱquellȱpesaȱmuchoȱquandoȱseȱguardanȱdesteȱsuȱenganno
losȱquellȱsabenȱestaȱmanera”ȱ(ObrasȱcompletasȱIȱ[seeȱnoteȱ1],ȱ591:ȱ440–51).
[“Andȱheȱevenȱsaysȱthatȱitȱhasȱbeenȱhisȱcustomȱtoȱplayȱpranksȱonȱthoseȱwhoȱaccompanyȱhimȱon
huntingȱexcursionsȱbyȱmakingȱthemȱfallȱintoȱtrickyȱplacesȱorȱalmostȱfall,ȱsoȱthatȱtheyȱcouldȱall
laughȱatȱtheirȱexpense.ȱAndȱwhenȱheȱwasȱnotȱableȱtoȱtrickȱhisȱcompanionsȱthatȱeasily,ȱbecauseȱthey
wereȱsuspicious,ȱheȱwouldȱgetȱaheadȱofȱthemȱtellingȱthemȱheȱwasȱheadingȱtoȱtheȱspotȱthatȱheȱwas
familiarȱwith,ȱandȱthenȱheȱwouldȱmakeȱthemȱbelieveȱthatȱheȱwasȱgoingȱin,ȱandȱtheyȱwouldȱcome
behindȱ him,ȱ passȱ him,ȱ andȱ fallȱ onȱ theirȱ faceȱ onȱ theȱ groundȱ orȱ fallȱ inȱ theȱ water,ȱ whichȱ made
everybodyȱbreakȱoutȱlaughing.ȱAndȱheȱsaysȱthatȱheȱbelievesȱthatȱthisȱisȱoneȱofȱtheȱpleasuresȱin
hunting,ȱbutȱheȱisȱalwaysȱcarefulȱnotȱtoȱallowȱmanȱorȱbeastȱtoȱgetȱhurtȱorȱtoȱfallȱinȱanyȱdanger,ȱand
heȱsureȱdoesȱnotȱlikeȱitȱwhenȱhisȱcompanionsȱareȱtooȱguardedȱandȱonȱtheȱdefensive,ȱbecauseȱthey
knowȱthatȱheȱisȱschemingȱaȱprank.”]
Chapterȱ14
JacquelineȱStuhmiller
(UniversityȱofȱWisconsinȬMilwaukee,ȱMilwaukee,ȱWI)
ȱHuntingȱasȱSalvationȱinȱGastonȱPhébus’sȱ
Livreȱdeȱlaȱchasseȱ(1387–1389)ȱ
Inȱ theȱ beginning,ȱ humanȱ beingsȱ wereȱ commandedȱ toȱ haveȱ dominionȱ over
(praeesse,ȱsubicere)1ȱallȱofȱtheȱcreaturesȱonȱtheȱearthȱ(Gen.ȱ1:26,ȱ28).ȱThisȱcommand
toȱsubdueȱtheȱearthȱseemsȱtoȱhaveȱbeenȱtheȱfirstȱdivineȱorderȱthatȱhumansȱever
received,ȱpredatingȱevenȱtheȱinjunctionȱtoȱavoidȱtheȱforbiddenȱfruit;ȱweȱmightȱthus
reasonablyȱconcludeȱthatȱman’sȱfirstȱdutyȱisȱtoȱbeȱlordȱofȱtheȱanimals.ȱAfterȱthe
Fall,ȱdominionȱoverȱtheȱnaturalȱworldȱwasȱtheȱonlyȱthingȱthatȱconnectedȱhumans
withȱtheirȱtimeȱinȱParadise.ȱIȱwillȱargueȱinȱthisȱpaperȱthatȱtheȱmedievalsȱritually
invoked,ȱandȱtherebyȱtemporarilyȱreclaimed,ȱtheȱprelapsarianȱworldȱbyȱsubduing
wildȱ animalsȱ thatȱ symbolizedȱ theȱ originalȱ serpent.ȱ Theȱ bestȬknownȱ medieval
huntingȱ manual,ȱ theȱ Livreȱ deȱ laȱ chasseȱ (1387–1389)ȱ ofȱ Gastonȱ Phébus,ȱ Countȱ of
Foix,2ȱisȱaccordinglyȱaȱworkȱnotȱonlyȱofȱcynegeticalȱbutȱalsoȱspiritualȱdidacticism.
Althoughȱ thereȱ isȱ noȱ recordȱ ofȱ theȱ firstȱ interactionsȱ betweenȱ humansȱ and
animalsȱ inȱ theȱ Gardenȱ ofȱ Eden,ȱ theȱ relationshipȱ wasȱ apparentlyȱ aȱ benignȱ but
distantȱone.ȱAdamȱandȱEveȱseemȱtoȱhaveȱdoneȱlittleȱbyȱwayȱofȱexercisingȱtheir
naturalȱ rightsȱ overȱ theȱ otherȱ livingȱ creatures.ȱ Accordingȱ toȱ oneȱ versionȱ ofȱ the
creationȱstoryȱ(Gen.ȱ2:18–19),ȱGodȱoriginallyȱmadeȱtheȱanimalsȱasȱcompanionsȱfor
Adam,ȱbutȱtheyȱapparentlyȱdidȱnotȱfulfillȱtheirȱintendedȱfunction;ȱthereȱisȱindeed
noȱevidenceȱthatȱhumansȱreceivedȱanyȱaffectionȱorȱpsychologicalȱcomfortȱfrom
1
TheȱLatinȱisȱtakenȱfromȱTheȱVulgateȱBible,ȱvol.ȱ1:ȱTheȱPentateuch,ȱDouayȬRheimsȱTranslation,ȱed.ȱSwift
Edgar.ȱDumbartonȱOaksȱMedievalȱLibraryȱ(Cambridge,ȱMAȱandȱLondon:ȱHarvardȱUniversity
Press,ȱ2010).
2
Livreȱdeȱchasse,ȱed.ȱGunnarȱTilander.ȱCynegetica,ȱXVIIIȱ(Karlshamn:ȱE.ȱG.ȱJohanssonsȱBoktryckeri,
1971).ȱ[Editor’sȱnote:ȱInȱorderȱtoȱbeȱconformȱandȱconsistentȱwithȱallȱotherȱcitationsȱofȱthisȱwork,
Iȱhaveȱaddedȱtheȱarticleȱ‘la.]
506 JacquelineȱStuhmiller
them.ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱthatȱheȱcreatedȱwildȱbeasts,ȱGodȱalsoȱcreatedȱlivestock,ȱa
specialȱcategoryȱofȱanimalsȱthatȱareȱuniquelyȱtailoredȱtoȱserveȱhumanȱneeds;ȱthis
isȱaȱcuriousȱinclusion,ȱsinceȱAdamȱandȱEveȱdoȱnotȱseemȱtoȱhaveȱmadeȱpracticalȱuse
ofȱanyȱcreatures,ȱdomesticatedȱorȱwild.ȱTheyȱdidȱnotȱeatȱtheirȱcharges,ȱforȱGodȱhad
commandedȱ thatȱ theȱ treesȱ wouldȱ beȱ theirȱ foodȱ (Gen.ȱ 1:29ȱ andȱ 2:16),ȱ andȱ they
obviouslyȱdidȱnotȱmakeȱclothingȱoutȱofȱthem,ȱeither;ȱnorȱdoȱtheyȱseemȱtoȱhave
sacrificedȱthem,ȱasȱlaterȱgenerationsȱwouldȱdo.ȱAsȱthereȱwasȱnoȱagricultureȱandȱno
placeȱtoȱgoȱinȱtheȱprelapsarianȱworld,ȱthereȱalsoȱseemsȱtoȱhaveȱbeenȱnoȱreasonȱfor
humansȱtoȱuseȱanimalsȱforȱphysicalȱlaborȱorȱtransportation.ȱItȱisȱnotȱevenȱclearȱthat
theyȱprovidedȱAdamȱandȱEveȱwithȱanyȱsortȱofȱaestheticȱpleasure.ȱAlthoughȱthe
wordȱ“dominion”ȱhasȱsometimesȱbeenȱinterpretedȱtoȱmeanȱ“stewardship,”ȱthere
isȱnoȱevidenceȱthatȱhumanȱbeingsȱcaredȱforȱtheirȱanimalȱchargesȱinȱanyȱway.ȱInȱthe
beginning,ȱtherefore,ȱtheȱanimalsȱseemȱtoȱhaveȱservedȱnoȱfunctionȱatȱallȱexceptȱto
formȱtheȱbottomȱrungȱofȱaȱveryȱclearȱhierarchyȱofȱbeing.3
Itȱwas,ȱtherefore,ȱaȱseriousȱshockȱtoȱtheȱcarefullyȬorderedȱprimevalȱworldȱwhen
theȱserpent,ȱsomehowȱmoreȱcraftyȱ(callidior)ȱthanȱallȱotherȱanimals,ȱmanagedȱto
convinceȱ Eveȱ toȱ disobeyȱ God.ȱ Theȱ serpent’sȱ motivationȱ forȱ suchȱ gross
insubordinationȱisȱopaque,ȱandȱitsȱwordsȱareȱnotȱevenȱparticularlyȱeloquent.ȱIt
merelyȱ tellsȱ Eveȱ theȱ truthȱ aboutȱ theȱ natureȱ ofȱ theȱ fruitȱ ofȱ theȱ Treeȱ ofȱ the
KnowledgeȱofȱGoodȱandȱEvil,ȱandȱrevealsȱtheȱreasonȱwhyȱGodȱhadȱforbidden
humansȱtoȱeatȱit.4ȱItȱisȱnotȱclearȱhowȱtheȱserpentȱmanagedȱtoȱmasterȱtheȱlanguage
ofȱGodȱandȱhumans,ȱorȱwhyȱEveȱdidȱnotȱshowȱanyȱsurpriseȱatȱhearingȱanȱanimal
speak.
Onceȱtheȱhumansȱandȱtheȱserpentȱ(and,ȱitȱwouldȱseem,ȱtheȱrestȱofȱtheȱbeasts)
wereȱejectedȱfromȱEden,ȱthereȱwasȱnoȱfurtherȱinsubordinationȱfromȱtheȱanimals’
side.5ȱAbelȱhadȱofferedȱhisȱfinestȱlambsȱtoȱGodȱ(Gen.ȱ4:4),ȱbutȱitȱwasȱnotȱuntilȱafter
3
St.ȱThomasȱAquinasȱmakesȱmanyȱofȱtheseȱsameȱobservations,ȱbutȱconcludesȱthatȱanimalsȱmust
neverthelessȱhaveȱservedȱsomeȱpurposeȱforȱtheȱfirstȱhumans:
Inȱtheȱstateȱofȱinnocenceȱmenȱwouldȱnotȱhaveȱneededȱanimalsȱtoȱsupplyȱtheirȱbodilyȱwants;
eitherȱforȱclothing,ȱbecauseȱtheyȱwereȱnakedȱandȱnotȱashamed,ȱbeingȱbesetȱbyȱnoȱmovement
ofȱirregularȱdesire;ȱorȱforȱfood,ȱbecauseȱtheyȱusedȱtoȱfeedȱonȱtheȱtreesȱofȱParadise;ȱorȱfor
transport,ȱbecauseȱtheyȱwereȱtooȱrobustȱforȱthat.ȱButȱwhatȱtheyȱneededȱthemȱforȱwasȱto
acquireȱanȱexperientialȱknowledgeȱofȱtheirȱnatures.ȱThisȱisȱsuggestedȱbyȱGodȱleadingȱthe
animalsȱtoȱAdamȱforȱhimȱtoȱgiveȱthemȱtheirȱnames,ȱwhichȱdesignateȱtheirȱnatures.
(SummaȱTheologiae,ȱv.ȱ13ȱ(Cambridge:ȱBlackfriars,ȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱMcGrawȬHill,ȱandȱLondon:ȱEyre
andȱSpottiswoode,ȱ1964),ȱ1a,ȱ96,ȱ1,ȱp.ȱ127).
4
God,ȱfearingȱthatȱhumansȱwouldȱbecomeȱgodlike,ȱhadȱtoldȱAdamȱandȱEveȱthatȱtheyȱwouldȱdie
ifȱtheyȱwereȱtoȱeatȱtheȱfruit.ȱTheȱserpent,ȱonȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱassuredȱEveȱthatȱtheyȱwouldȱnotȱdie.
Indeed,ȱeatingȱtheȱfruitȱdidȱnotȱcauseȱdeath,ȱthoughȱitȱdidȱultimatelyȱleadȱtoȱaȱlossȱofȱimmortality.
Thusȱtheȱserpentȱseemsȱtoȱhaveȱbeenȱatȱleastȱasȱhonestȱ(arguablyȱmoreȱso),ȱandȱasȱknowledgeable,
asȱGodȱhimself.
5
Inȱcontrast,ȱMiltonȱimaginedȱthat,ȱatȱtheȱFall,ȱnatureȱbecameȱhostileȱtoȱman,ȱandȱtoȱitself.ȱAll
HuntingȱasȱSalvationȱ 507
theȱFloodȱthatȱmenȱbeganȱtoȱuseȱanimalsȱintensively.ȱGodȱchargedȱNoahȱandȱhis
sonsȱwithȱpreservingȱrepresentativeȱmembersȱofȱeachȱspeciesȱfromȱdestruction,
thusȱ firmlyȱ establishingȱ thatȱ theȱ animalsȱ wereȱ entirelyȱ dependentȱ onȱ the
benevolenceȱ ofȱ theirȱ higherȬups.ȱ Afterȱ theȱ watersȱ receded,ȱ theȱ animalsȱ hadȱ to
repayȱ theȱ favor.ȱ Theirȱ firstȱ functionȱ wasȱ asȱ sacrificialȱ victimsȱ whoseȱ slaughter
markedȱ theȱ covenantȱ betweenȱ Godȱ andȱ men.ȱ Immediatelyȱ afterȱ disembarking
fromȱtheȱark,ȱNoah’sȱfamilyȱburnȱanimalsȱonȱtheȱaltarȱ(Gen.ȱ8:20).ȱInȱresponseȱto
theȱsweetȱsmellȱofȱcharredȱmeat,ȱGodȱpromisesȱneverȱtoȱblightȱtheȱearthȱonȱman’s
accountȱagain.ȱHeȱalsoȱreȬemphasizesȱtheȱchainȱofȱcommand,ȱaȱlittleȱmoreȱsavagely
thisȱtime.
GodȱblessedȱNoahȱandȱhisȱsons;ȱheȱsaidȱtoȱthem,ȱ“Beȱfruitfulȱandȱincreaseȱinȱnumbers,
andȱfillȱtheȱearth.ȱFearȱandȱdreadȱofȱyouȱwillȱcomeȱonȱallȱtheȱanimalsȱonȱearth,ȱonȱall
theȱbirdsȱofȱtheȱair,ȱonȱeverythingȱthatȱmovesȱonȱtheȱground,ȱandȱonȱallȱfishȱinȱtheȱsea;
theyȱareȱmadeȱsubjectȱtoȱyou.ȱEveryȱcreatureȱthatȱlivesȱandȱmovesȱwillȱbeȱfoodȱforȱyou;
Iȱgiveȱthemȱallȱtoȱyou,ȱasȱIȱhaveȱgivenȱyouȱeveryȱgreenȱplant.ȱ(Gen.ȱ9:1–3)6ȱ
TheȱidealȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱhumansȱandȱanimalsȱthatȱisȱestablishedȱinȱEdenȱis
oneȱthat,ȱinȱtheȱpostlapsarianȱworld,ȱmustȱbeȱreinforcedȱoverȱandȱover.ȱAlthough
thereȱisȱnoȱwayȱtoȱreturnȱtoȱtheȱkindȱofȱdetached,ȱbenevolentȱmasteryȱoverȱthe
animalȱkingdomȱthatȱAdamȱandȱEveȱenjoyed,ȱitȱisȱcertainlyȱpossibleȱtoȱterrorize
theȱ lesserȱ creaturesȱ andȱ remindȱ themȱ ofȱ whoȱ isȱ onȱ top;ȱ theȱ symbolismȱ is
particularlyȱeffectiveȱifȱtheȱanimalsȱinȱquestionȱareȱwild,ȱratherȱthanȱdomestic.
Accordingȱtoȱthisȱlogic,ȱhuntingȱisȱtheȱmostȱperfectȱgestureȱofȱpiety,ȱforȱitȱisȱonly
theȱhunterȱwhoȱproactivelyȱsubduesȱtheȱanimalsȱofȱtheȱearth.7ȱ
AccordingȱtoȱtheȱLivreȱdeȱlaȱchasse,ȱtheȱhunterȱhasȱhisȱworkȱcutȱoutȱforȱhim.ȱMany
wildȱanimalsȱareȱhostileȱandȱnoneȱofȱthemȱcomesȱtoȱhandȱasȱeasilyȱasȱGenesisȱ9
animals,ȱevenȱthoseȱweȱwouldȱconsiderȱcarnivores,ȱwereȱvegetariansȱuntilȱOriginalȱSinȱradically
transformedȱallȱofȱCreation:
Beastȱnowȱwithȱbeastȱganȱwar,ȱandȱfowlȱwithȱfowl,
Andȱfishȱwithȱfish;ȱtoȱgrazeȱtheȱherbȱallȱleaving,
Devouredȱeachȱother;ȱnorȱstoodȱmuchȱinȱawe
Ofȱmanȱbutȱfledȱhim,ȱorȱwithȱcountenanceȱgrim
Glaredȱonȱhimȱpassingȱ.ȱ.ȱ.
(Johnȱ Milton,ȱ Paradiseȱ Lost,ȱ introd.ȱ Philipȱ Pullmanȱ [Oxford:ȱ Oxfordȱ Universityȱ Press,ȱ 2005],
X.710–14.)ȱ
6
TheȱOxfordȱStudyȱBible:ȱRevisedȱEnglishȱBibleȱwithȱtheȱApocrypha,ȱed.ȱM.ȱJackȱSuggs,ȱKatharineȱDoob
Sakenfeld,ȱandȱJamesȱR.ȱMuellerȱ(NewȱYork:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1992).
7
Theȱactivitiesȱofȱsubduingȱtheȱbirdsȱofȱtheȱairȱorȱtheȱfishȱofȱtheȱseaȱhaveȱlongȱenjoyedȱaȱlower
statusȱthanȱthatȱofȱsubduingȱtheȱlargerȱterrestrialȱmammals.ȱPresumablyȱthisȱisȱbecauseȱfishȱand
birdsȱareȱlessȱdangerousȱtoȱman,ȱandȱbecauseȱfishingȱandȱfowlingȱareȱmainlyȱsolitaryȱactivities
thatȱdoȱnotȱlendȱthemselvesȱwellȱtoȱpageantry.ȱFalconry,ȱanȱexpensiveȱandȱimpracticalȱwayȱto
catchȱbirdsȱ(itȱisȱmuchȱmoreȱefficientȱtoȱuseȱnetsȱorȱlime),ȱisȱaȱnotableȱexceptionȱtoȱtheȱrule.
wouldȱseemȱtoȱpromise.ȱTheȱboar,ȱwithȱitsȱsharpȱtusks,ȱcanȱsplitȱaȱmanȱinȱtwoȱor
killȱhisȱhorse.ȱTheȱblowȱofȱaȱstag’sȱantlersȱisȱlikeȱaȱboltȱshotȱfromȱaȱcrossbow,ȱand
itȱdoesȱasȱmuchȱdamage.ȱAȱwildȱgoatȱcanȱbreakȱallȱtheȱbonesȱinȱaȱman’sȱbody.
Someȱanimalsȱareȱevenȱvenomous:ȱwolves,ȱfoxes,ȱbadgers,ȱandȱottersȱallȱdeliver
aȱpoisonousȱbite.ȱGastonȱexplainsȱthatȱwolvesȱeatȱtoadsȱandȱotherȱverminȱand
therebyȱabsorbȱtheirȱpoison;ȱtheȱvenomȱofȱtheȱotherȱanimalsȱisȱofȱaȱmoreȱuncertain
provenance.ȱ
Theȱdogȱisȱtheȱmostȱperfectȱofȱcreatures;ȱitsȱsubmissivenessȱandȱeagernessȱto
serveȱmakeȱitȱtheȱclosestȱlivingȱrelativeȱofȱtheȱprelapsarianȱanimals.ȱHowever,ȱeven
itȱ isȱ naturallyȱ inclinedȱ toȱ evil.ȱ Theȱ mastiff,ȱ aȱ veryȱ largeȱ andȱ powerfulȱ dog,ȱ is
potentiallyȱdangerousȱandȱmustȱbeȱparticularlyȱwellȱtrained,ȱ“quarȱilȱestȱmieulz
tailléȱetȱplusȱfortȱpourȱfereȱmalȱqueȱnulleȱautreȱbeste”ȱ(forȱitȱisȱbetterȱshapedȱand
moreȱpowerfulȱforȱdoingȱharmȱ(fereȱmal)ȱthanȱanyȱotherȱbeast)ȱ(17:6).ȱMastiffsȱmay
attackȱtheȱlivestockȱthatȱisȱunderȱtheirȱcare,ȱandȱGastonȱmentionsȱthatȱheȱhasȱeven
knownȱofȱoneȱthatȱkilledȱitsȱmaster.ȱAlthoughȱ theȱ wordȱ malȱcanȱimplyȱsimple
noxiousness,ȱ itȱ carriesȱ aȱ strongȱ overtoneȱ ofȱ evilȱ orȱ sinfulness,ȱ ofȱ willfulȱ and
consciousȱmalice.8ȱAȱpoorlyȬtrainedȱmastiffȱisȱnotȱmerelyȱunsafe,ȱbutȱtreacherous.
Evenȱgentleȱdogsȱharborȱsomethingȱdiabolicalȱinsideȱofȱthem.ȱOfȱtheȱchienȱcourant,
aȱscentȱhound,ȱGastonȱsays:
.ȱ .ȱ .ȱ onȱ lesȱ puetȱ bienȱ aidierȱ aȱ fereȱ bons,ȱ enȱ bienȱ lesȱ enseignerȱ etȱ duire,ȱ enȱ lesȱ bien
chevauchierȱetȱacompaigner,ȱenȱfaisantȱplaisirsȱetȱbonnesȱcuirïesȱquantȱilzȱontȱbienȱfet
etȱenȱblasmantȱetȱbatantȱquantȱilzȱontȱmalȱfet,ȱquarȱilzȱsontȱbestes,ȱsiȱleurȱcouvientȱa
moustrerȱceȱqueȱonȱveultȱqu’ilzȱfacent.
[.ȱ.ȱ.ȱoneȱcanȱindeedȱhelpȱtoȱmakeȱthemȱgood,ȱbyȱteachingȱandȱtrainingȱthemȱwell,
followingȱandȱaccompanyingȱthemȱwellȱonȱhorseback,ȱpleasingȱthemȱandȱmakingȱgood
curéesȱ[theȱafterȬhuntȱritualsȱinȱwhichȱtheȱdogsȱareȱfedȱonȱtheȱcarcass]ȱwhenȱtheyȱhave
doneȱwell,ȱandȱscoldingȱandȱbeatingȱthemȱwhenȱtheyȱhaveȱdoneȱbadlyȱ(mal),ȱforȱthey
areȱbeasts,ȱsoȱitȱisȱnecessaryȱtoȱshowȱthemȱwhatȱoneȱwantsȱthemȱtoȱdo.]ȱ(19:5–6)
Malȱfaireȱcouldȱbeȱconstruedȱasȱ“toȱdoȱpoorly,”ȱbutȱitȱmayȱjustȱasȱeasilyȱmeanȱ“to
doȱharm,ȱtoȱhurt”ȱorȱ“toȱdoȱevil,ȱtoȱdoȱsomethingȱcontraryȱtoȱjusticeȱorȱmorality.”
Itȱisȱthusȱunclearȱwhetherȱtheȱdogsȱthatȱdeserveȱpunishmentȱhaveȱhuntedȱbadly,
haveȱdoneȱsomethingȱnaughty,ȱorȱhaveȱcommittedȱaȱdiabolicalȱdeed;ȱperhapsȱthey
haveȱdoneȱallȱthree.ȱDogs’ȱtendencyȱtoȱdoȱmalȱ(whateverȱthatȱwordȱmightȱmean)
isȱallȱtheȱmoreȱdangerousȱbecauseȱhumansȱliveȱsoȱcloseȱtoȱthemȱandȱrelyȱonȱthem
soȱcompletely.
8
Forȱpossibleȱmeaningsȱofȱtheȱconstructionȱ“faireȱmal”/“malȱfaire,”ȱseeȱ“malȱ1ȱ(subst.ȱmasc.)”ȱand
“malȱ 3ȱ (adv.)”ȱ inȱ Dictionnaireȱ duȱ Moyenȱ Françaisȱ (1330–1500)ȱ (Nancy:ȱ ATILFȱ Ȭȱ CNRS,ȱ 2010),
http://www.atilf.fr/dmfȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱJan.ȱ23,ȱ2012).ȱ
Ifȱ evenȱ dogsȱ cannotȱ beȱ entirelyȱ trusted,ȱ thenȱ wildȱ animalsȱ areȱ intractably
depraved.ȱBearȱcubsȱsuckleȱforȱaȱmonthȱatȱmost,ȱbecause
.ȱ.ȱ.ȱilzȱontȱmalesȱonglesȱetȱmalesȱdenzȱetȱsontȱfelonnessesȱbestesȱdeȱleurȱnature.ȱEt,
quantȱilzȱneȱtrueventȱleȱletȱdeȱleurȱmereȱaȱleurȱguiseȱouȱqueȱl’ourseȱseȱbougeȱouȱse
muet,ȱilzȱmordentȱetȱesgratinentȱlesȱpoupesȱdeȱleurȱmere,ȱetȱelleȱseȱcourrouceȱetȱles
blesceȱouȱtueȱaucunneȱfois.ȱ
[.ȱ.ȱ.ȱtheyȱhaveȱnastyȱ(males)ȱnailsȱandȱnastyȱteethȱandȱtheyȱareȱcruelȱ(felonnesses)ȱbeasts
byȱnature.ȱAnd,ȱwhenȱtheyȱdoȱnotȱfindȱtheirȱmother’sȱmilkȱtoȱtheirȱlikingȱorȱtheȱsheȬ
bearȱchangesȱplaceȱorȱmoves,ȱtheyȱbiteȱandȱscratchȱtheȱteatsȱofȱtheirȱmother,ȱandȱshe
growsȱangryȱandȱwoundsȱorȱkillsȱthemȱsometimes.]ȱ(8:13–15)
Theȱbear’sȱteethȱandȱclawsȱareȱnotȱmerelyȱdefensesȱagainstȱattack,ȱorȱtoolsȱfor
obtainingȱandȱeatingȱanȱomnivorousȱdiet;ȱrather,ȱtheyȱareȱphysicalȱmanifestations
ofȱ theȱ animal’sȱ inherentlyȱ evilȱ nature.ȱ Theȱ wordȱ felonesseȱ hasȱ overtonesȱ of
treacheryȱandȱmoralȱdepravity.9ȱAlthoughȱtheȱbearȱisȱalmostȱhumanȱinȱsomeȱways
—itȱ standsȱ uprightȱ andȱ matesȱ faceȬtoȬface10—itȱ isȱ neverthelessȱ anȱ unnatural
creature.
Theȱbearȱmayȱbeȱdepraved,ȱbutȱisȱclumsyȱandȱfoolish,ȱandȱthereforeȱnotȱaȱserious
threat.ȱ However,ȱ thereȱ areȱ manyȱ otherȱ animalsȱ thatȱ seemȱ toȱ haveȱ theȱ sortȱ of
intelligenceȱthatȱmadeȱtheȱoriginalȱserpentȱsoȱdangerous:ȱnamely,ȱaȱcombination
ofȱcraftinessȱandȱanȱintimateȱknowledgeȱofȱbothȱtheȱnaturalȱenvironmentȱandȱof
humanȱbehavior.ȱGastonȱcallsȱsuchȱanimalsȱasȱtheȱroeȱdeer,ȱtheȱhare,ȱtheȱwolf,ȱand
theȱfoxȱmalicieux,ȱfaux,ȱandȱsubtil.ȱTheȱtricksȱusedȱbyȱsuchȱanimalsȱtoȱcaptureȱtheir
preyȱorȱavoidȱcaptureȱthemselvesȱareȱmalices,ȱruses,ȱorȱsubtilités.
Theȱstagȱisȱoneȱofȱtheȱmostȱdeviousȱanimals,ȱandȱitȱveryȱoftenȱavoidsȱcapture
throughȱimpressiveȱevasiveȱaction:
.ȱ .ȱ .ȱ ilȱ aȱ plusȱ deȱ saigessesȱ etȱ deȱ malicesȱ enȱ garentirȱ saȱ vieȱ queȱ nulleȱ autreȱ besteȱ ne
homme,ȱ quarȱ ilȱ n’iȱ aȱ nulȱ siȱ bonȱ veneurȱ ouȱ mondeȱ quiȱ peüstȱ penserȱ lesȱ malicesȱ et
subtilitezȱqueȱunȱcerfȱscetȱfere,ȱneȱn’estȱnulȱsiȱbonȱveneurȱneȱsiȱbonsȱchienzȱquiȱmoult
deȱfoizȱneȱfaillentȱbienȱaȱprendreȱleȱcerfȱaȱforce,ȱetȱceȱestȱparȱsonȱsenȱetȱparȱsaȱmaliceȱet
parȱsaȱsubtilité.ȱ
[.ȱ.ȱ.ȱitȱhasȱmoreȱwisdomȱ(saigesses)ȱandȱtricksȱ(malices)ȱtoȱsaveȱitsȱlifeȱthanȱanyȱother
beastȱorȱman,ȱforȱthereȱisȱnoȱhunterȱsoȱgoodȱinȱtheȱworldȱwhoȱcouldȱthinkȱofȱtheȱtricks
(malices)ȱandȱstratagemsȱ(subtilitez)ȱthatȱaȱstagȱknowsȱhowȱtoȱdo,ȱnorȱisȱthereȱaȱhunter
soȱgoodȱorȱdogsȱsoȱgoodȱwhoȱindeedȱhaveȱnotȱmanyȱtimesȱfailedȱtoȱtakeȱtheȱstagȱby
force,ȱandȱthisȱisȱbecauseȱofȱitsȱgoodȱsenseȱandȱbecauseȱofȱitsȱtrickinessȱandȱitsȱwiliness
(subilité).]ȱ (1:87–88)
9
“Felonesseȱ(adj.ȱfém.),”ȱDictionnaireȱduȱMoyenȱFrançaisȱ(1330–1500)ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ8).
10
OrȱsoȱGastonȱsays,ȱatȱanyȱrate.ȱInȱfact,ȱbearsȱmateȱinȱtheȱusualȱway:ȱfrontȱtoȱback.
Theȱ wordȱ maliceȱ canȱ beȱ usedȱ toȱ describeȱ theȱ perversion,ȱ nastiness,ȱ and
deceptivenessȱofȱallȱsortsȱofȱbeings,ȱfromȱanimalsȱtoȱwomenȱtoȱLuciferȱhimself.11
Subtilitéȱsuggestsȱnotȱmerelyȱingeniousness,ȱbutȱdishonestyȱandȱdeceit.12ȱAtȱthe
sameȱtime,ȱGastonȱclearlyȱfeelsȱgreatȱadmirationȱforȱhisȱfoe,ȱasȱheȱdescribesȱthe
sameȱmorallyȱquestionableȱmaneuversȱasȱsaigessesȱandȱapplaudsȱtheȱanimalȱfor
havingȱsen;13ȱbothȱwordsȱreferȱtoȱtheȱkindȱofȱintellectualȱandȱmoralȱdiscernment
onlyȱpossessedȱbyȱsuperiorȱbeings,ȱwhetherȱhumanȱorȱdivine.ȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱthis
morallyȱambiguousȱanimalȱembodiesȱaspectsȱofȱGod,ȱman,ȱandȱSatan,ȱveryȱmuch
likeȱtheȱoriginalȱserpentȱitself.14ȱ
Inȱfact,ȱitȱisȱtheȱsuperiorȱfacultiesȱofȱtheȱstag,ȱcombinedȱwithȱitsȱphysicalȱpower
andȱspeed,ȱthatȱareȱpreciselyȱwhatȱmakeȱitsȱhuntȱtheȱsportȱofȱkings,ȱ“laȱplusȱnoble
chasceȱ queȱ l’enȱ puisseȱ chascier”ȱ (theȱ mostȱ nobleȱ chaseȱ thatȱ oneȱ couldȱ pursue)
(1:53).ȱ Theȱ huntȱ ofȱ aȱ cleverȱ animalȱ isȱ anȱ atavistic,ȱ ritualȱ returnȱ toȱ theȱ original
encounterȱ withȱ theȱ wilyȱ serpent;ȱ theȱ keyȱ differenceȱ isȱ thatȱ thisȱ time,ȱ manȱ will
almostȱcertainlyȱtriumphȱoverȱhisȱrival.ȱInȱthisȱpostlapsarianȱdrama,ȱtheȱmoreȱof
theȱ serpent’sȱ craftinessȱ thatȱ anȱ animalȱ displays,ȱ andȱ theȱ moreȱ strengthȱ and
enduranceȱ thatȱ itȱ has,ȱ theȱ moreȱ worthyȱ itȱ isȱ ofȱ beingȱ subdued,ȱ and,ȱ weȱ might
assume,ȱtheȱmoreȱdivineȱfavorȱaȱhunterȱwillȱreceiveȱforȱsubduingȱit.ȱInterestingly,
maliceȱandȱnobilityȱareȱlinked,ȱatȱleastȱinȱtheȱanimalȱkingdom.ȱ
Inȱthisȱworldȱofȱlurkingȱpostlapsarianȱevil,ȱhuntersȱmustȱmatchȱtheirȱopponents’
cunning,ȱwithoutȱeverȱcrossingȱtheȱlineȱintoȱmoralȱdepravity.ȱHumansȱandȱtheir
dogsȱuseȱsubtilitésȱagainstȱwildȱanimals,ȱjustȱasȱsubtilitésȱareȱusedȱagainstȱthem.
Theyȱalsoȱhaveȱtheȱoptionȱtoȱuseȱenginsȱorȱharnois:ȱnets,ȱsnares,ȱandȱtheȱlike.ȱAllȱof
theseȱwordsȱhaveȱmartialȱconnotations,ȱfurtherȱunderscoringȱtheȱfactȱthatȱhunting
isȱaȱwarȱwagedȱagainstȱtheȱanimalȱkingdom.ȱHowever,ȱGastonȱclaimsȱthatȱheȱis
reluctantȱ toȱ talkȱ aboutȱ huntsȱ thatȱ relyȱ excessivelyȱ onȱ deceptionȱ orȱ artificial
contraptions,ȱandȱwhichȱpracticallyȱguaranteeȱaȱkill,ȱbecause
.ȱ.ȱ.ȱjeȱneȱdevroyeȱenseignerȱaȱprendreȱlesȱbestesȱsiȱn’estȱparȱnoblesceȱetȱgentillesceȱet
parȱ avoirȱ biauxȱ deduiz,ȱ affinȱ qu’ilȱ yȱ eüstȱ plusȱ deȱ bestesȱ etȱ qu’onȱ neȱ lesȱ tuastȱ pas
faussementȱmesȱenȱtrouvastȱonȱtouzȱjoursȱassezȱaȱchascierȱ.ȱ.ȱ.
11
“Maliceȱ(subst.ȱfém.ȱetȱmasc.),”ȱDictionnaireȱduȱMoyenȱFrançaisȱ(1330–1500)ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ8).
12
“Subtilitéȱ(subst.ȱfém.),ȱ”ȱDictionnaireȱduȱMoyenȱFrançaisȱ(1330–1500)ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ8).
13
Manyȱanimalsȱareȱsaigeȱandȱsachant,ȱorȱpossessedȱofȱsen,ȱbutȱonlyȱhumans,ȱdogs,ȱandȱwolvesȱhave
connoissance,ȱandȱonlyȱdogsȱandȱhumansȱhaveȱjugement.ȱItȱisȱunclearȱhow,ȱorȱwhether,ȱGaston
differentiatesȱbetweenȱtheȱdifferentȱwordsȱthatȱheȱusesȱtoȱdescribeȱintelligenceȱandȱunderstanding.
14
AccordingȱtoȱfolkȱwisdomȱthatȱGastonȱrefusesȱtoȱcorroborate,ȱtheȱstagȱgainsȱitsȱimmortalityȱfrom
snakeȱvenom.ȱWhenȱtheȱstagȱnearsȱtheȱendȱofȱitsȱlife,ȱitȱharassesȱaȱserpentȱandȱthenȱswallowsȱit,
drinksȱwater,ȱandȱrunsȱhereȱandȱthereȱuntilȱitsȱbadȱhumorsȱareȱcastȱoutȱandȱitsȱfleshȱisȱrenewed
(1:82–83).
[.ȱ.ȱ.ȱIȱshouldȱnotȱwishȱtoȱteachȱ[one]ȱtoȱtakeȱbeastsȱifȱnotȱwithȱnobilityȱandȱgentilityȱand
byȱhavingȱbeautifulȱdelights,ȱforȱthereȱwouldȱbeȱmoreȱbeastsȱifȱoneȱdidȱnotȱkillȱthem
falselyȱbutȱoneȱwouldȱalwaysȱfindȱenoughȱofȱthemȱtoȱhuntȱ.ȱ.ȱ.]ȱ(60:4–5)
Huntsȱthatȱuseȱsuchȱbaseȱtechniquesȱareȱfitȱonlyȱforȱvilainsȱ(61:11,ȱ63:9),ȱhumans
whoȱareȱnearlyȱbeastsȱthemselves.ȱThereȱisȱaȱfineȱlineȱbetweenȱbeatingȱtheȱanimals
atȱtheirȱownȱgameȱandȱstoopingȱtoȱtheirȱlevelȱofȱmoralȱcorruption.
Ultimately,ȱtheȱnobleȱandȱgentleȱhunterȱdoesȱnotȱrelyȱonȱelaborateȱdevicesȱor
strategems,ȱbut,ȱlikeȱtheȱknight,ȱconfrontsȱhisȱfoesȱopenlyȱandȱhonestly.ȱHeȱhunts
anyȱanimalȱthatȱcanȱrunȱfastȱandȱfarȱaȱforce:ȱthatȱis,ȱonȱhorseback,ȱaccompaniedȱby
packsȱofȱdogsȱledȱbyȱunmountedȱunderhunters.ȱHeȱcarriesȱaȱswordȱandȱaȱdagger
andȱmayȱuseȱaȱspear,ȱbutȱgenerallyȱeschewsȱ weaponsȱthatȱallowȱhimȱtoȱavoid
physicalȱdanger,ȱatȱleastȱuntilȱtheȱfinalȱconfrontationȱwithȱtheȱquarry,ȱwhenȱsuch
weaponsȱmayȱbecomeȱnecessary.
Theȱ definingȱ characteristicȱ ofȱ theȱ trueȱ hunterȱ isȱ maistrise,ȱ mastery.ȱ Maistrise
impliesȱnotȱmerelyȱtechnicalȱknowledge,ȱbutȱpowerȱandȱdominance;ȱtheȱhunter
doesȱnotȱsimplyȱwishȱtoȱwinȱtheȱcontestȱagainstȱhisȱquarry,ȱbutȱtoȱdemonstrateȱhis
essentialȱsuperiorityȱoverȱtheȱanimalȱkingdom.ȱBothȱhumansȱandȱanimalsȱcanȱbe
“masters”ȱofȱtheirȱrespectiveȱprofessions.ȱTheȱmaistreȱduȱruitȱorȱmaistreȱdesȱbiches
(1:13–14)ȱisȱtheȱstagȱthatȱwinsȱtheȱrightȱtoȱmateȱwithȱtheȱfemalesȱinȱtheȱherd;ȱthese
contestsȱ areȱ oftenȱ foughtȱ toȱ theȱ death.ȱ Theȱ boarȱ isȱ alsoȱ theȱ masterȱ ofȱ itsȱ own
domain:ȱinȱorderȱtoȱchallengeȱitȱtoȱaȱfinalȱshowdown,ȱtheȱhunterȱcalls,ȱ“Avant,
maistre!ȱAvant!ȱOrȱsa,ȱsa!”ȱ(Advance,ȱmaster!ȱAdvance!ȱNowȱhere,ȱhere!)ȱ(53:22).
Gastonȱboastsȱthat,ȱwhenȱitȱcomesȱtoȱvenery,ȱnoȱoneȱisȱpossessedȱofȱmoreȱmaistrise
thanȱhimself:ȱ“jeȱneȱdoubteȱqueȱj’ayeȱnulȱmaistre”ȱ(IȱdoubtȱthatȱIȱhaveȱanyȱmaster)
(Prologue:6).ȱ
Theȱmaistreȱdeȱlaȱchasceȱorȱtheȱmaistreȱveneur,ȱlikeȱaȱfieldȱmarshal,ȱleadsȱtheȱarmies
ofȱ underhuntersȱ andȱ dogsȱ inȱ pursuitȱ ofȱ theȱ quarry.ȱ Theȱ longerȱ anȱ animalȱ can
evadeȱitsȱpursuers,ȱtheȱmoreȱmaistriseȱitȱtakesȱtoȱcatchȱit:ȱitȱrequiresȱgreatȱmastery
toȱtakeȱtheȱfleetȬfooted,ȱmaliciousȱroeȱdeer,ȱbutȱveryȱlittleȱtoȱtakeȱtheȱlumbering,
unimaginativeȱbadgerȱorȱtheȱwildcat,ȱwhoseȱoneȱtrickȱisȱtoȱclimbȱupȱtheȱnearest
tree.ȱInȱgeneral,ȱtheȱmoreȱevenlyȱaȱhuntȱpitsȱmenȱagainstȱwildȱbeastsȱ(keepingȱin
mindȱthatȱtheȱmedievalȱaristocraticȱhuntȱwasȱneverȱintendedȱtoȱbeȱaȱfairȱcontest)
andȱtheȱmoreȱmaliciousȱandȱnobleȱtheȱfoe,ȱtheȱmoreȱmaistriseȱtheȱhuntȱrequires,
andȱ theȱ greaterȱ itsȱ symbolicȱ weight.ȱ Asȱ forȱ theȱ Pyreneanȱ mountainȱ goat,ȱ a
dangerousȱ butȱ ignobleȱ animal,ȱ Gastonȱ says,ȱ withȱ evidentȱ distaste,ȱ “chascun
paisantȱ yȱ estȱ bonȱ veneurȱ deȱ cela,ȱ quarȱ ilȱ n’iȱ aȱ pasȱ tropȱ grantȱ maistriseȱ aȱ les
prendre”ȱ (eachȱ peasantȱ thereȱ isȱ aȱ goodȱ hunterȱ ofȱ it,ȱ forȱ thereȱ isȱ notȱ tooȱ much
masteryȱinȱtakingȱthem)ȱ(4:51–52).ȱ
Aȱ certainȱ amountȱ ofȱ animalȱ maliceȱ givesȱ theȱ hunterȱ anȱ opportunityȱ to
demonstrateȱhisȱownȱmaistrise.ȱIfȱitȱhasȱtooȱmuchȱnaturalȱmaliciousness,ȱhowever,
anȱanimalȱceasesȱtoȱbeȱaȱsourceȱofȱbeautifulȱsportȱandȱbecomesȱaȱmenace.ȱIfȱthere
isȱoneȱanimalȱthatȱembodiesȱtheȱcraftinessȱandȱinsubordinanceȱofȱtheȱserpent,ȱitȱis
theȱwolf:ȱ“Merveilleusementȱestȱsachantȱbesteȱetȱfausse,ȱplusȱqueȱnulleȱbeste,ȱen
garderȱtouzȱsesȱavantaigesȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ”ȱ(Itȱisȱaȱmarvelouslyȱcleverȱ(sachant)ȱandȱfalseȱbeast,
moreȱsoȱthanȱanyȱotherȱbeast,ȱinȱkeepingȱallȱofȱitsȱadvantagesȱ.ȱ.ȱ.)ȱ(10:51).ȱWolves
lookȱandȱactȱlikeȱdogs,ȱandȱtheyȱfurthermoreȱdisplayȱbehaviorsȱthatȱareȱnearly
human:ȱtheyȱhaveȱstrongȱattachmentsȱtoȱtheirȱcompanions,ȱareȱmonogamously
pairȬbonded,ȱshowȱintenseȱmaternalȱandȱfilialȱdevotion,ȱandȱseemȱtoȱpracticeȱaȱsort
ofȱcourtlyȱlove.ȱ
Yetȱforȱallȱthat,ȱthereȱisȱnoȱsympathyȱbetweenȱwolvesȱandȱmen.ȱLikeȱaȱserpent
thatȱcanȱspeakȱaȱhumanȱlanguage,ȱtheȱwolf’sȱnearlyȱhumanȱbehaviorȱmakesȱit
more,ȱnotȱless,ȱthreatening.15ȱWolves’ȱknowledgeȱofȱmenȱisȱsoȱcompleteȱthatȱthey
canȱstalkȱandȱkillȱaȱtravelerȱwithoutȱeverȱbeingȱseenȱ(10:43–44).ȱSomeȱwolvesȱlearn
thatȱhumansȱareȱeasierȱtoȱcatchȱthanȱotherȱanimals,ȱorȱtheyȱbecomeȱaccustomedȱto
feedingȱonȱtheȱdeadȱbodiesȱleftȱbehindȱbyȱwarȱorȱpublicȱexecutions,ȱandȱthereby
becomeȱmanȬeaters.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱonlyȱpeopleȱwhoȱseemȱtoȱbeȱinȱrealȱdangerȱof
beingȱ eatenȱ byȱ wolvesȱ areȱ loneȱ travelers,ȱ peasantȱ children,ȱ andȱ shepherds
(10:40–50).ȱGastonȱdoesȱnotȱmentionȱthatȱheȱhasȱeverȱseenȱanyoneȱinjuredȱduring
aȱwolfȱhunt.
Theȱwolf’sȱrealȱcrimeȱseemsȱtoȱbeȱnotȱthatȱitȱisȱdangerousȱbutȱthatȱitȱrefusesȱto
acceptȱmanȱasȱitsȱmaster:
Onȱneȱpeutȱnourrirȱunȱloup,ȱpourȱquantȱqueȱonȱl’aitȱpetitȱneȱjoesneȱetȱl’enȱleȱchastieȱet
bateȱetȱtieigneȱenȱdiscipline,ȱqueȱtousjoursȱilȱneȱfaceȱmal,ȱs’ilȱaȱloisirȱetȱleȱpeutȱfaire,ȱet
jamaiz,ȱpourȱquantȱqu’ilȱsoitȱprivé,ȱneȱsera,ȱseȱonȱleȱmaineȱdehors,ȱqu’ilȱneȱregarde
tousjoursȱetȱdeȱçaȱetȱdeȱlaȱpourȱveoirȱs’ilȱpeutȱenȱnulȱlieuȱfaireȱmalȱouȱilȱregarde,ȱcarȱil
aȱdoubteȱqueȱonȱneȱliȱfaceȱmal,ȱcarȱilȱscetȱbienȱenȱsaȱcognoissanceȱqu’ilȱfaitȱmal.ȱEtȱpour
ceȱleȱcrieȱl’en,ȱchasceȱetȱtue,ȱmaizȱpourȱtoutȱcelaȱneȱpuetȱilȱlaissierȱsaȱmauvaiseȱnature.ȱ
[Oneȱcannotȱraiseȱaȱwolf,ȱevenȱifȱoneȱhasȱitȱwhenȱitȱisȱsmallȱorȱyoungȱandȱpunishesȱand
beatsȱandȱdisciplinesȱit,ȱforȱitȱalwaysȱdoesȱmischiefȱ(faireȱmal),ȱifȱitȱhasȱtheȱopportunity
andȱcanȱdoȱit.ȱAndȱnever,ȱnoȱmatterȱhowȱtameȱitȱis,ȱifȱoneȱleadsȱitȱoutside,ȱwillȱitȱmiss
aȱchanceȱtoȱlookȱhereȱandȱthereȱinȱorderȱtoȱseeȱifȱitȱcanȱdoȱmischiefȱinȱanyȱplaceȱwhere
itȱlooks,ȱforȱitȱfearsȱthatȱsomeoneȱshouldȱdoȱitȱmischief;ȱforȱitȱknowsȱwellȱinȱitsȱfaculties
ofȱunderstandingȱ(cognoissance)ȱthatȱitȱdoesȱmischief.ȱAndȱbecauseȱofȱthisȱtheyȱcallȱafter
it,ȱchaseȱit,ȱandȱkillȱit,ȱbutȱforȱallȱthatȱitȱcannotȱleaveȱitsȱbadȱnature.]ȱ(10:74–76)
15
Theȱbehaviorȱofȱwolvesȱseemsȱtoȱbeȱaȱmockeryȱof,ȱorȱperhapsȱevenȱaȱpointedȱcommentaryȱon,
humanȱ institutions.ȱ Inȱ lupineȱ “courtlyȱ love,”ȱ theȱ sheȬwolfȱ leadsȱ onȱ theȱ malesȱ untilȱ theyȱ are
exhausted,ȱthenȱchoosesȱtheȱweakestȱandȱmostȱmiserableȱsuitorȱbecauseȱheȱisȱtheȱoneȱwhoȱhas
sufferedȱmostȱforȱherȱlove;ȱheȱisȱoftenȱsubsequentlyȱkilledȱbyȱhisȱangryȱrivals.ȱWolfȱ“marriages”
areȱbasedȱonȱmutualȱmistrustȱandȱdeception,ȱatȱleastȱwhenȱthereȱareȱpups:ȱbothȱparentsȱtryȱto
deceiveȱeachȱotherȱinȱorderȱtoȱtakeȱtheȱgreaterȱshareȱofȱtheȱfood.
Theȱwolfȱisȱevilȱincarnate:ȱifȱitȱisȱnotȱcurrentlyȱdoingȱwrong,ȱitȱisȱwaitingȱforȱits
nextȱ opportunityȱ toȱ doȱ it.ȱ Evenȱ whenȱ itȱ isȱ givenȱ theȱ sortȱ ofȱ disciplineȱ thatȱ is
effectiveȱwithȱother,ȱmoreȱtractableȱcreaturesȱalsoȱproneȱtoȱbadȱbehavior,ȱsuchȱas
dogsȱandȱboys,ȱtheȱwolfȱdoesȱnotȱimproveȱbyȱcorrection.ȱLikeȱtheȱserpent,ȱitȱhas
theȱintelligenceȱtoȱknowȱthatȱitȱisȱwrongȱtoȱsubvertȱtheȱwishesȱofȱitsȱnaturalȱmaster,
but,ȱ likeȱ theȱ sociopath,ȱ itȱ cannotȱ seemȱ toȱ helpȱ itself.ȱ Theȱ wolfȱ hasȱ an
overabundanceȱofȱtheȱmaliceȱthatȱwouldȱordinarilyȱrenderȱitsȱpursuitȱimmensely
pleasurable.ȱYetȱtheȱhuntȱofȱtheȱwolfȱhasȱnoȱbeautyȱandȱnoȱnobility;ȱitȱisȱmerelyȱa
practicalȱ necessity.ȱ Inȱ theȱ wolfȱ huntȱ aȱ force,ȱ theȱ wolfȱ isȱ baitedȱ andȱ ambushed,
preciselyȱtheȱkindȱofȱlowȱtrickeryȱthatȱGastonȱusuallyȱabhors.ȱHeȱalsoȱdescribes
manyȱotherȱwaysȱthatȱtheȱwolfȱcanȱbeȱkilled:ȱitȱcanȱbeȱsnared,ȱluredȱintoȱpitfallsȱor
jawȬtraps,ȱorȱtrickedȱintoȱswallowingȱmeatȱthatȱhidesȱspringȬloadedȱneedlesȱsoȱthat
itȱdiesȱhorribly,ȱdaysȱlater,ȱfromȱaȱperforatedȱintestine.ȱInȱaddition,ȱitȱisȱsometimes
trappedȱ andȱ keptȱ alive,ȱ toȱ beȱ laterȱ usedȱ inȱ brutalȱ dogȬtrainingȱ exercises.ȱ This
deliberateȱcircumventionȱofȱtheȱusualȱrulesȱofȱaristocraticȱhuntingȱisȱstriking.ȱThese
cruelȱpracticesȱseemȱtoȱbeȱdesignedȱtoȱpunishȱtheȱwolfȱnotȱforȱwhatȱitȱhasȱdoneȱor
mightȱdoȱinȱtheȱfuture,ȱbutȱforȱitsȱinherentȱwolfishness.
Atȱfirstȱglance,ȱtheȱLivreȱdeȱlaȱchasseȱseemsȱtoȱwarnȱusȱthatȱtheȱpostlapsarian
worldȱ isȱ aȱ hostileȱ place.ȱ Ifȱ humansȱ doȱ notȱ regularlyȱ exerciseȱ masteryȱ overȱ the
beasts,ȱ theyȱ willȱ themselvesȱ beȱ mastered.ȱ However,ȱ aȱ closerȱ lookȱ atȱ theȱ text
suggestsȱ thatȱ theȱ naturalȱ worldȱ isȱ notȱ quiteȱ soȱ harshȱ andȱ predatoryȱ asȱ itȱ first
seems.ȱCritically,ȱtheȱevilȱdoesȱnotȱseemȱtoȱbeȱinfectious:ȱunlikeȱtheȱfirstȱhumans,
medievalȱhuntsmenȱareȱnotȱinȱperilȱofȱbeingȱmorallyȱcorruptedȱbyȱtheȱanimalsȱthat
confrontȱ them.ȱ Theȱ onlyȱ dangerȱ isȱ physical,ȱ andȱ itȱ isȱ onlyȱ whenȱ anȱ animal’s
naturallyȱbadȱcharacterȱisȱcoupledȱwithȱtreacherousȱweaponryȱthatȱtheȱhunterȱis
imperiled.ȱ Evenȱ then,ȱ injuryȱ seemsȱ toȱ beȱ avoidableȱ ifȱ oneȱ takesȱ reasonable
precautions.ȱTwoȱmen,ȱworkingȱcarefullyȱandȱinȱtandem,ȱcanȱdefeatȱaȱbearȱwithout
riskȱofȱinjuryȱ(8:34–36).ȱAȱmanȱcanȱbeȱkilledȱbyȱaȱboar,ȱbutȱonlyȱifȱheȱisȱaȱreckless
foolȱ(54:14–16).ȱ
Soȱlongȱasȱtheȱhuntsmanȱhasȱsufficientȱmaistriseȱandȱtheȱdogsȱhaveȱbeenȱtrained
well,ȱtheȱhuntȱwillȱprobablyȱbeȱsuccessful.ȱTheȱstagȱisȱcleverȱenoughȱtoȱevadeȱits
pursuersȱquiteȱoften;ȱevenȱKingȱPhilipȱandȱtheȱCountȱofȱAlanson,ȱconsummate
mastersȱofȱtheȱchaseȱwhoȱownedȱdogsȱsuperiorȱtoȱanyȱdogȱaliveȱtoday,ȱcouldȱbe
fooledȱ byȱ theȱ wilesȱ ofȱ thisȱ animalȱ (45:156–57).ȱ Nevertheless,ȱ Gastonȱ seemsȱ to
suggest,ȱevenȱtheȱmostȱmaliciousȱstagȱcanȱonlyȱwinȱtheȱcontestȱtemporarily.ȱIfȱthe
dogsȱloseȱtheȱtrail,ȱtheȱhuntsmanȱneedȱonlyȱtakeȱaȱbreak,ȱhaveȱaȱglassȱofȱwine,
throwȱsomeȱbreadȱtoȱtheȱpack,ȱandȱtheyȱwillȱsoonȱbeȱableȱtoȱpickȱupȱtheȱscent
again,ȱasȱifȱbyȱmagicȱ(45:133–36).ȱWhenȱnightȱfalls,ȱheȱcanȱpackȱupȱandȱgoȱhome,
secureȱ inȱ theȱ knowledgeȱ thatȱ heȱ needȱ onlyȱ returnȱ toȱ theȱ sameȱ spotȱ theȱ next
morningȱinȱorderȱtoȱresumeȱtheȱchase.
Et,ȱs’ilzȱleȱdrescent,ȱsiȱchasceȱaprésȱjusquesȱaȱtantȱqu’ilȱsoitȱnuyt.ȱEt,ȱquantȱilȱseraȱnuyt,
ilȱdoitȱreprendreȱsesȱchienzȱetȱdemorerȱauȱplusȱpresȱqu’ilȱpourraȱd’ilecȱetȱyȱfereȱses
brisiees.ȱ Etȱ l’endemain,ȱ desȱ qu’ilȱ seraȱ clerȱ jour,ȱ ilȱ doitȱ retournerȱ aȱ sesȱ brisieesȱ et
requerirȱsonȱcerfȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ
[And,ȱifȱtheyȱ[theȱdogs]ȱrouseȱit,ȱthenȱchaseȱafterȱitȱuntilȱitȱisȱnight.ȱAnd,ȱwhenȱitȱis
night,ȱheȱ[theȱhuntsman]ȱmustȱtakeȱhisȱdogsȱagainȱandȱremainȱasȱcloseȱasȱheȱcanȱtoȱthat
placeȱandȱmakeȱhisȱbriséesȱ[brokenȱbranchesȱindicatingȱwhereȱtheȱdeerȱisȱharbored].
Andȱtheȱnextȱday,ȱasȱsoonȱasȱitȱisȱlight,ȱheȱmustȱreturnȱtoȱhisȱbriséesȱandȱlookȱagainȱfor
hisȱstagȱ.ȱ.ȱ.]ȱ (45:136–38)
Theȱ animalȱ willȱ stillȱ beȱ there,ȱ Gastonȱ assuresȱ theȱ reader,ȱ asȱ ifȱ theȱ huntȱ were
bookmarkedȱatȱthatȱplaceȱandȱtime.ȱInȱtheȱchapterȱonȱtheȱnaturalȱhistoryȱofȱthe
stag,ȱGastonȱwarnsȱthatȱcorneredȱanimalsȱareȱextremelyȱdangerous;ȱasȱtheȱsaying
goes,ȱ“Aprésȱleȱsanglerȱleȱmire,ȱetȱaprésȱleȱcerfȱlaȱbiere”ȱ(Afterȱtheȱboar,ȱtheȱdoctor,
andȱafterȱtheȱstag,ȱtheȱbier)ȱ(1:7–8).ȱHeȱhasȱmanyȱtimesȱseenȱtheseȱpowerfulȱbeasts
killȱdogs,ȱhorses,ȱandȱmen.ȱButȱinȱtheȱchapterȱdescribingȱtheȱhuntȱaȱforceȱofȱtheȱstag,
thereȱisȱnoȱmentionȱofȱgruesomeȱhuntingȱaccidents,ȱmerelyȱaȱwarningȱtoȱbeȱcareful
ofȱtheȱdogsȱwhenȱshootingȱtheȱanimalȱfromȱaȱdistance,ȱorȱhamstringingȱitȱfrom
behind.ȱTheȱtextȱseemsȱtoȱsuggestȱthat,ȱsoȱlongȱasȱoneȱactsȱwithȱprudence,ȱthereȱis
noȱchanceȱthatȱtheȱquarryȱwillȱescapeȱdeathȱorȱinjureȱitsȱpursuers,ȱnoȱmisstepȱthat
cannotȱbeȱrectifiedȱorȱanyȱmaliceȱthatȱcannotȱbeȱdefeatedȱwithȱmastery.
TheȱillustrationsȱofȱtheȱearliestȱextantȱmanuscriptȱofȱtheȱLivreȱdeȱlaȱchasseȱonly
serveȱtoȱreinforceȱtheȱnotionȱthatȱwildȱanimals,ȱnefariousȱasȱtheyȱmayȱbe,ȱcanȱbe
subduedȱbyȱaȱskillfulȱhunterȱwithȱlittleȱdifficulty.ȱBibliothèqueȱNationaleȱmsȱfr.ȱ619
seemsȱtoȱhaveȱbeenȱcopiedȱfromȱGastonȇsȱoriginalȱtextȱduringȱhisȱlifetime.16ȱIts
grisailleȱillustrations,ȱallȱexecutedȱbyȱtheȱsameȱhand,ȱwereȱlikelyȱdrawnȱunder
Gaston’sȱwatchfulȱeye.17
Inȱcontrastȱtoȱtheȱoftenȱharshȱconditionsȱunderȱwhichȱtheȱhunterȱmustȱwork,ȱthe
physicalȱenvironmentȱdepictedȱinȱtheȱillustrationsȱisȱbenign,ȱevenȱdomesticated.
Thereȱisȱnoȱbadȱweather,ȱnoȱperceptibleȱchangeȱinȱseasons,ȱnoȱdawn,ȱdusk,ȱor
night.ȱTheȱskyȱisȱblank,ȱuniformlyȱilluminated,ȱwithȱnoȱobjectsȱoffȱinȱtheȱdistance
orȱinȱtheȱsky,ȱsoȱthatȱeachȱsceneȱseemsȱtoȱtakeȱplaceȱagainstȱaȱwhiteȱwall.ȱInȱthe
forest,ȱ theȱ groundȱ isȱ almostȱ alwaysȱ decoratedȱ withȱ tuftsȱ ofȱ grassȱ soȱ precisely
arrangedȱthatȱtheyȱresembleȱaȱcheckeredȱfloor.ȱDependingȱonȱtheȱotherȱelements
ofȱtheȱillustration,ȱtheȱtreesȱmayȱbeȱeitherȱevenlyȱscatteredȱinȱtheȱforegroundȱor
16
FrançoisȱAvril,ȱAleksandraȱSarrabezolles,ȱandȱJeanȬPaulȱSaintȬAubin,ȱLeȱlivreȱdeȱchasseȱdeȱGaston
Phébusȱ(Paris:ȱBibliothèqueȱNationaleȱdeȱFrance/MontparnasseȱMultimedia,ȱ1999),ȱCDȬROM.
17
CarlȱNordenfalk,ȱ“Hatred,ȱHunting,ȱandȱLove:ȱThreeȱThemesȱRelativeȱtoȱSomeȱManuscriptsȱof
JeanȱsansȱPeur,”ȱStudiesȱinȱLateȱMedievalȱandȱRenaissanceȱPaintingȱinȱHonorȱofȱMillardȱMeiss,ȱed.
IrvingȱLavinȱandȱJohnȱPlummer,ȱvol.ȱ1ȱ(NewȱYork:ȱNewȱYorkȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1977),ȱ324–41;ȱhere
333–34.
neatlyȱ linedȱ upȱ alongȱ theȱ backȱ ofȱ theseȱ pictureȬdioramas;ȱ inȱ anyȱ case,ȱ their
functionȱ isȱ decorativeȱ andȱ theyȱ almostȱ neverȱ obscureȱ anyȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ view.
AlthoughȱtheȱtreesȱhaveȱrealisticȬlookingȱleaves,ȱtheyȱresembleȱ nothingȱthatȱis
foundȱnaturallyȱinȱaȱEuropeanȱforest;ȱtheirȱodd,ȱumbelȬlikeȱformsȱseemȱtoȱhave
beenȱcreatedȱthroughȱcarefulȱpruningȱorȱpollarding.ȱInȱfact,ȱtheȱvinesȱthatȱframe
theȱ illustrationsȱ areȱ moreȱ lifelikeȱ thanȱ theȱ vegetationȱ picturedȱ withinȱ the
illustrationsȱthemselves.ȱ
Theȱotherȱtypesȱofȱlandscapesȱareȱequallyȱtame.ȱHaresȱforageȱinȱagricultural
fieldsȱ adornedȱ withȱ neatlyȬcombedȱ rowsȱ ofȱ grainȱ orȱ runȱ aroundȱ flat,ȱ treeless
meadows;ȱottersȱswimȱinȱshallow,ȱstraightȱcanals,ȱwithinȱeasyȱreachȱofȱtheȱhunters’
tridents.ȱTheȱdreadfulȱcliffsȱofȱtheȱPyreneesȱhaveȱbeenȱtransformedȱintoȱwhatȱseem
toȱbeȱlow,ȱmoldedȱslicesȱofȱpâté,ȱlikeȱanȱelaborateȱentremets.ȱTheȱillustrationsȱcage
theȱanimalsȱintoȱtwoȬdimensional,ȱdeliberatelyȱartificialȱlandscapes,ȱasȱifȱtheyȱwere
inmatesȱofȱaȱveryȱoldȬfashionedȱzoo.ȱ
Theȱartistȱdoesȱnotȱattemptȱtoȱcreateȱanyȱillusionȱofȱdepthȱorȱdistance,ȱsoȱthatȱit
isȱimpossibleȱtoȱforgetȱthatȱoneȱisȱlookingȱatȱaȱtwoȬdimensionalȱsurface.ȱNoȱmatter
whereȱ theyȱ areȱ onȱ theȱ pictureȱ plane,ȱ theȱ animalsȱ alwaysȱ seemȱ toȱ beȱ theȱ same
distanceȱawayȱfromȱtheȱviewer,ȱasȱifȱtheyȱwereȱsandwichedȱbetweenȱverticalȱplates
ofȱglass.ȱTheyȱareȱoddlyȱtwoȬdimensionalȱandȱboneless;ȱinȱparticular,ȱtheȱboars
andȱbearsȱseemȱtoȱbeȱonlyȱaȱfewȱinchesȱthickȱandȱareȱeasilyȱrunȱthroughȱbyȱspears
(84v,ȱ97r).ȱAnimalsȱareȱalmostȱalwaysȱdepictedȱinȱprofileȱorȱinȱthreeȬquartersȱview,
neitherȱ facingȱ towardȱ theȱ “fourthȱ wall”ȱ thatȱ dividesȱ usȱ fromȱ them,ȱ norȱ facing
away;ȱinȱotherȱwords,ȱtheyȱareȱperpetualȱsubjects,ȱincapableȱeitherȱofȱconfronting
usȱ orȱofȱavoidingȱourȱgazes.ȱTheyȱareȱasȱhelplessȱandȱexposedȱonȱtheȱ pageȱ as
Gastonȱassuresȱusȱthatȱtheyȱwillȱbeȱonȱtheȱhuntingȱfield.
Furthermore,ȱ theȱ artistȱ sometimesȱ depictsȱ multipleȱ perspectivesȱ atȱ once,ȱ a
techniqueȱthatȱonlyȱreinforcesȱhowȱunnaturalȱtheseȱscenesȱreallyȱare.ȱSeveralȱmanȬ
madeȱ structuresȱ floatȱ dizzyinglyȱ inȱ midȬair,ȱ superimposedȱ onȱ theȱ landscape:
wickerȱhedgesȱthatȱdirectȱanimalsȱtoȱaȱpitfallȱ(95r),ȱaȱcircularȱwolfȱtrapȱ(98v),ȱa
crossroadsȱ(Fig.ȱ1:ȱ109r).ȱWhenȱtheȱanimalsȱdisappearȱintoȱdensȱorȱholesȱinȱthe
groundȱorȱtheȱfoliage,ȱitȱlooksȱasȱifȱtheyȱareȱsimplyȱslippingȱthroughȱdefectsȱinȱthe
parchmentȱ(e.ȱg.ȱ15r,ȱ92v,ȱ100r).ȱDogsȱchaseȱharesȱwithinȱanȱEscheresque,ȱperfectly
flatȱvineyard,ȱwhichȱisȱborderedȱbyȱaȱthickȱhedge,ȱalsoȱperfectlyȱflat,ȱthatȱresembles
bothȱaȱpictureȱframeȱandȱaȱMöbiusȱstrip.ȱTheȱgapsȱinȱtheȱhedgeȱappearȱtoȱleadȱnot
toȱtheȱfieldȱbeyondȱbutȱstraightȱdown,ȱintoȱtheȱdepthsȱofȱtheȱbookȱitselfȱ(Fig.ȱ2:
111r).ȱThusȱtheȱnaturalȱworldȱbecomesȱasȱflat,ȱsmooth,ȱandȱpredictableȱasȱtheȱpage;
theȱonlyȱwayȱthatȱanȱanimalȱcanȱescapeȱisȱbyȱtunnelingȱthroughȱtheȱfolioȱlikeȱa
bookworm.
Eachȱofȱtheȱchaptersȱdevotedȱtoȱdescribingȱtheȱnaturesȱofȱtheȱchaseableȱbeasts
(ch.ȱ 1–14)ȱ isȱ prefacedȱ byȱ anȱ illustrationȱ ofȱ aȱ groupȱ ofȱ animalsȱ thatȱ feed,ȱ mate,
suckleȱtheirȱyoung,ȱplay,ȱhunt,ȱrun,ȱandȱstandȱaroundȱinȱpicturesqueȱattitudes.
Theyȱareȱdepictedȱmoreȱorȱlessȱrealistically,ȱthoughȱtheȱbearȱisȱsoȱsimilarȱtoȱthe
boarȱ andȱ evenȱ toȱ theȱ badgerȱ thatȱ oneȱ wondersȱ whetherȱ theȱ artistȱ couldȱ have
drawnȱhisȱpicturesȱfromȱlife.ȱHeȱisȱlessȱinterestedȱinȱstrictȱrealism,ȱhowever,ȱthan
heȱ isȱ inȱ portrayingȱ theȱ essentialȱ maliciousnessȱ ofȱ thoseȱ speciesȱ thatȱ areȱ most
opposedȱ toȱ man.ȱ Theȱ irritableȱ bearȱ seemsȱ toȱ spendȱ mostȱ ofȱ itsȱ timeȱ inȱ angry
wrestlingȱmatchesȱwithȱothersȱofȱitsȱkindȱandȱmanagesȱtoȱlookȱbelligerentȱeven
whenȱstaringȱthoughtfullyȱintoȱtheȱdistanceȱ(15v).ȱTheȱboarȱisȱaȱprolificȱbreederȱas
wellȱasȱaȱbadȬtemperedȱanimal,ȱandȱsoȱtheȱillustrationȱofȱitsȱchapterȱprominently
featuresȱ twoȱ wildȱ pigsȱ matingȱ aggressivelyȱ (17v).ȱ Theȱ illustrationsȱ ofȱ animals
whoseȱdietsȱandȱbehaviorsȱputȱthemȱintoȱcloseȱcontactȱwithȱhumansȱsuggestȱthat
theyȱdoȱlittleȱelseȱexceptȱuseȱtheirȱexecrableȱmaliceȱtoȱthwartȱhumanȱindustry.ȱThe
fox,ȱ wildcat,ȱ andȱ otterȱ areȱ troublesomeȱ becauseȱ theyȱ takeȱ smallȱ animalsȱ that
humansȱalsoȱlikeȱtoȱeat.ȱUnsurprisingly,ȱhowever,ȱtheȱworstȱoffenderȱisȱtheȱwolf,
whichȱseemsȱtoȱdoȱveryȱlittleȱelseȱapartȱfromȱstealȱlivestockȱandȱmakeȱmoreȱlittle
wolvesȱthatȱwill,ȱinȱtime,ȱstealȱyetȱmoreȱlivestockȱ(Fig.ȱ3:ȱ19v).18
Theseȱillustrationsȱofȱanimalsȱattractivelyȱandȱvariouslyȱposedȱagainstȱdecorative
backgroundsȱcouldȱhaveȱcomeȱfromȱanȱartist’sȱpatternȱbook.ȱThereȱisȱcertainly
someȱindicationȱthatȱtheȱillustratorȱwasȱinspiredȱbyȱbooksȱotherȱthanȱtheȱoneȱhe
wasȱ decorating.ȱ Theȱ imageȱ ofȱ theȱ wildcat,ȱ inȱ particular,ȱ seemsȱ toȱ haveȱ been
borrowedȱwholesaleȱfromȱaȱmanualȱofȱheraldry.ȱOfȱthisȱanimal,ȱGastonȱwrites:
.ȱ.ȱ.ȱyȱaȱilȱdeȱdiversesȱmanieresȱdeȱchazȱsauvaiges,ȱespiciaumentȱilȱenȱyȱaȱunsȱquiȱsont
granzȱcommeȱlieparz,ȱetȱceulsȱapelentȱaucunsȱloupsȱcerviersȱetȱlesȱautresȱchazȱloux.ȱEt
c’estȱmauȱdit,ȱquarȱilsȱneȱsontȱneȱlousȱserviersȱniȱchatzȱlous.ȱOnȱlesȱpourroitȱmieulz
apelerȱchazȱlieparzȱqueȱautrement,ȱquarȱilzȱtraientȱplusȱaȱliepartȱqueȱaȱautreȱbesteȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ
ȱilzȱsonȱeinsiȱgranzȱqueȱunȱlouȱetȱontȱauquesȱlaȱfourmeȱd’unȱliepart,ȱmaisȱqu’ilzȱn’ont
pasȱsiȱlongueȱcueue.ȱ
[.ȱ.ȱ.ȱthereȱareȱdifferentȱkindsȱofȱwildcats;ȱinȱparticular,ȱthereȱareȱsomeȱthatȱareȱlargeȱlike
leopards,ȱandȱsomeȱpeopleȱcallȱthemȱ“lynxes”ȱandȱothersȱcallȱthemȱ“wolfȬcats.”ȱAnd
thisȱisȱbadlyȱsaid,ȱforȱtheyȱareȱneitherȱlynxesȱnorȱwolfȬcats.ȱOneȱcouldȱbetterȱcallȱthem
“leopardȱcats”ȱthanȱanythingȱelse,ȱforȱtheyȱresembleȱtheȱleopardȱmoreȱthanȱanyȱother
beast.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱtheyȱareȱthusȱasȱlargeȱasȱaȱwolfȱandȱhaveȱaboutȱtheȱsameȱshapeȱasȱaȱleopard,
butȱtheyȱdoȱnotȱhaveȱsuchȱaȱlongȱtail.]ȱ (13:3–6,ȱ7–8)
Thisȱ isȱ aȱ ratherȱ confusedȱ description,ȱ butȱ itȱ seemsȱ probableȱ thatȱ Gastonȱ is
describingȱtheȱEuropeanȱlynx,ȱaȱmediumȬsized,ȱstockyȱanimalȱwithȱlarge,ȱtufted
18
Onȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱbadgers,ȱwhichȱareȱneitherȱcleverȱnorȱfast,ȱneitherȱparticularlyȱhelpfulȱnor
particularlyȱnoxiousȱtoȱhumans,ȱandȱwhichȱdoȱnotȱevenȱtasteȱveryȱgood,ȱwanderȱaimlesslyȱaround
theȱenclosureȱofȱtheirȱpicture,ȱdoingȱnothingȱatȱallȱ(23v).ȱIfȱanȱanimalȱdoesȱnotȱdoȱsomethingȱeither
directlyȱforȱorȱagainstȱhumanȱbeings,ȱtheȱartistȱapparentlyȱcannotȱimagineȱwhatȱelseȱitȱcouldȱdo
withȱitsȱtime.
earsȱandȱaȱveryȱshortȱtail,ȱbothȱprominentlyȱtippedȱinȱblack.19ȱTheȱartist,ȱperhaps
unfamiliarȱwithȱtheȱlynxȱandȱundoubtedlyȱinfluencedȱbyȱtheȱwordȱ“leopard”ȱinȱthe
text,ȱhasȱdrawnȱtheȱlatterȱanimal.ȱInȱoneȱimage,ȱaȱstylizedȱleopardȱsticksȱoutȱits
tongueȱ(Fig.ȱ4.1:ȱ24r).ȱAnotherȱanimalȱisȱposedȱinȱtheȱattitudeȱknownȱasȱ“rampant
guardant,”ȱwithȱitsȱfrontȱlegsȱoutstretchedȱandȱoneȱhindȱlegȱlifted;ȱitȱevenȱwinks
oneȱeyeȱatȱtheȱviewer.ȱItȱisȱlockedȱinȱcombatȱwithȱaȱdogȱthatȱappearsȱtoȱbeȱinȱan
almostȱidenticalȱposition,ȱsoȱthatȱthisȱcornerȱofȱtheȱillustrationȱresemblesȱaȱheraldic
deviceȱasȱmuchȱasȱitȱdoesȱaȱfightȱtoȱtheȱdeathȱ(Fig.ȱ4.2:ȱ90v).ȱTheȱwildcatȱhasȱa
reputationȱforȱbeingȱdevilish,20ȱbutȱtheseȱcartoonishȱanimalsȱseemȱtoȱbeȱnothing
moreȱthanȱmischievous,ȱevenȱaȱlittleȱsilly.
Allȱhuntsȱaȱforceȱareȱillustratedȱinȱtheȱsameȱway:ȱtheȱaristocraticȱhuntersȱrideȱat
theȱtopȱleftȱcornerȱofȱtheȱfield;ȱtheȱservantsȱandȱdogsȱrunȱfromȱtheȱlowerȱleftȱcorner
toȱtheȱupperȱrightȱcorner,ȱwhereȱtheȱquarryȱfleesȱupȱaȱslightȱinclineȱ(Fig.ȱ5:ȱ57r,ȱ62r,
79r,ȱ82v).ȱTheȱhuntersȱalwaysȱseemȱtoȱbeȱmereȱsecondsȱawayȱfromȱsubduingȱtheir
prey.ȱWeȱcanȱreadȱtheȱpicturesȱasȱweȱwouldȱreadȱwordsȱacrossȱtheȱpage,ȱfromȱleft
toȱrightȱandȱfromȱtopȱtoȱbottom.ȱTheyȱrevealȱtheȱnaturalȱhierarchyȱthatȱhunting
helpsȱtoȱreinforce:ȱaristocratsȱonȱtop,ȱdogsȱandȱnonȬaristocratsȱbeneathȱthem.ȱThey
furthermoreȱ suggestȱ thatȱ theȱ narrativeȱ ofȱ theȱ huntȱ canȱ onlyȱ leadȱ toȱ aȱ single
conclusion,ȱoneȱthatȱisȱveryȱfavorableȱtoȱtheȱhuntersȱandȱveryȱunfavorableȱtoȱthe
quarry.ȱTheȱillustrationsȱareȱsoȱsimilarȱthatȱtheyȱbecomeȱreassuringlyȱpredictable,
evenȱmonotonous.21
Althoughȱ theȱ textȱ describesȱ theȱ manyȱ waysȱ thatȱ wildȱ animalsȱ canȱ evadeȱ or
attackȱ huntersȱ andȱ theirȱ dogs,ȱ theȱ animalsȱ inȱ theȱ illustrationsȱ generallyȱ seem
19
Theȱillustrationȱfrontingȱthisȱchapterȱdepictsȱtwoȱsortsȱofȱanimals,ȱoneȱofȱwhichȱisȱlargerȱand
spottedȱandȱotherȱofȱwhichȱisȱsmallerȱandȱstriped;ȱtheseȱareȱprobablyȱtheȱlynxȱandȱtheȱEuropean
wildcat,ȱrespectively.ȱGastonȱtendsȱtoȱgroupȱtogetherȱrelatedȱspeciesȱifȱheȱdoesȱnotȱesteemȱtheir
huntsȱhighly.ȱForȱexample,ȱheȱmentionsȱtwoȱspeciesȱofȱmountainȱgoatsȱinȱtheȱsameȱbreath:ȱ“Des
boucsȱyȱaȱdeȱdeuxȱmanieres,ȱlesȱunsȱs’apellentȱboucsȱsauvaigesȱetȱlesȱautresȱboucsȱysarus,ȱet
aucunsȱlesȱapellentȱsarus”ȱ(Thereȱareȱtwoȱkindsȱofȱgoats;ȱsomeȱareȱcalledȱwildȱgoatsȱandȱtheȱother
“ysaruȱgoats,”ȱandȱsomeȱcallȱthemȱ“sarus”)ȱ(4:3–4).ȱTheseȱtwoȱanimalsȱseemȱtoȱbeȱtheȱPyrenean
ibexȱ(nowȱextinct)ȱandȱtheȱPyreneanȱchamois,ȱrespectively.ȱOnȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱGastonȱseparates
theȱrabbitȱfromȱtheȱhareȱandȱtheȱthreeȱkindsȱofȱdeerȱfromȱeachȱother,ȱforȱeachȱprovidesȱaȱdistinctly
differentȱsortȱofȱchase.
20
EdwardȱofȱNorwich,ȱwhoȱtranslatedȱtheȱLivreȱdeȱlaȱchasseȱintoȱEnglish,ȱaddsȱhisȱownȱobservation
toȱtheȱchapterȱonȱwildcats:ȱ“OfȱcommonȱwildȱcatsȱIȱneedȱnotȱtoȱspeakȱmuch,ȱforȱeveryȱhunterȱin
Englandȱknowethȱthem,ȱandȱtheirȱfalsenessȱandȱmaliceȱareȱwellȱknown.ȱButȱoneȱthingȱIȱdareȱwell
sayȱthatȱifȱanyȱbeastȱhathȱtheȱdevil’sȱspiritȱinȱhim,ȱwithoutȱdoubtȱitȱisȱtheȱcat,ȱbothȱtheȱwildȱand
theȱtame.”ȱTheȱMasterȱofȱGame,ȱed.ȱWilliamȱA.ȱandȱF.ȱN.ȱBaillieȬGrohmanȱ(1909;ȱPhiladelphia:
UniversityȱofȱPennsylvaniaȱPress,ȱ2005),ȱ71.
21
Inȱcontrastȱtoȱtheȱstylized,ȱalmostȱsereneȱdepictionsȱofȱtheȱchassesȱaȱforce,ȱtheȱhuntsȱofȱtheȱwildȱgoat,
rabbit,ȱbadger,ȱandȱotterȱareȱchaoticȱandȱruthless.ȱTheȱterrifiedȱanimalsȱareȱshot,ȱspeared,ȱnetted,
andȱrippedȱapartȱbyȱdogsȱinȱeveryȱcornerȱofȱeachȱpicture.ȱIgnobleȱanimalsȱdoȱnotȱdeserveȱnoble
deaths.
blandlyȱresignedȱtoȱtheirȱfates.ȱIfȱtheyȱnoticeȱtheirȱpursuersȱatȱallȱ–ȱandȱsometimes
theyȱseemȱtoȱtakeȱnoȱnoticeȱwhatsoeverȱ–ȱtheȱonlyȱexpressionsȱtheyȱevinceȱare
thoseȱ ofȱ curiosity,ȱ confusion,ȱ surprise,ȱ mildȱ irritation,ȱ and,ȱ perhaps,ȱ reproach.
Onlyȱtheȱboarsȱturnȱtoȱfaceȱtheirȱattackersȱwithȱtheȱintentȱtoȱdoȱharm,ȱandȱsome
animalsȱevenȱrunȱtowardȱtheirȱpursuers,ȱratherȱthanȱawayȱfromȱthemȱ(101v).ȱLike
theȱbeastsȱbeforeȱtheȱFall,ȱmostȱofȱtheseȱanimalsȱseemȱtoȱrecognizeȱmanȱasȱtheir
master.
Ultimately,ȱtheȱmaliciousȱanimalsȱofȱtheȱLivreȱdeȱlaȱchasseȱareȱlessȱmaliciousȱthan
theyȱatȱfirstȱappear.ȱUnlikeȱtheȱoriginalȱserpent,ȱtheseȱbeastsȱcanȱbeȱdefeatedȱtime
andȱtimeȱagainȱinȱaȱsortȱofȱsymbolicȱreturnȱtoȱEden.ȱTheȱhuntȱisȱanȱactȱofȱboth
devotionȱ andȱ nostalgia.ȱ Itȱ isȱ aȱ ritualȱ invocationȱ ofȱ theȱ prelapsarianȱ world,ȱ an
acknowledgmentȱofȱGod’sȱplan,ȱevenȱaȱformȱofȱprayer.ȱYetȱmasteringȱtheȱanimals,
itȱ turnsȱ out,ȱ isȱ theȱ easyȱ part;ȱ itȱ isȱ farȱ moreȱ difficultȱ toȱ masterȱ oneself.ȱ Inȱ the
Prologue,ȱGastonȱexplainsȱthatȱimaginationȱorchestratesȱeveryȱman’sȱdeeds,ȱforȱ
.ȱ.ȱ.ȱlesȱymaginationsȱdeȱl’ommeȱvontȱplusȱtostȱaȱmalȱqueȱaȱbienȱparȱlesȱtroysȱenemis
qu’ilȱ ha,ȱ c’estȱ leȱ deable,ȱ leȱ mondeȱ etȱ laȱ charȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ Oreȱ teȱ prouverayȱ comment
ymaginationȱestȱseigneurȱetȱmaistreȱdeȱtoutesȱeuvresȱbonnesȱouȱmauvaisesȱqueȱl’enȱfet
etȱdeȱtoutȱleȱcorpsȱetȱmembresȱdeȱl’omme.ȱTuȱscesȱbienȱqueȱonquesȱeuvreȱbonneȱou
mauvaise,ȱsoitȱpetiteȱouȱgrande,ȱneȱseȱfistȱqueȱpremierȱneȱfustȱymagineeȱetȱpensee.
Doncȱestȱelleȱmaistresse,ȱquar,ȱselonȱceȱqueȱl’imaginationȱcommande,ȱl’enȱfetȱl’euvre
bonneȱouȱmauvaise,ȱqueleȱqueȱsoit,ȱcommeȱj’ayȱdit.ȱ
[.ȱ.ȱ.ȱtheȱimaginingsȱofȱmanȱgoȱsoonerȱtoȱevilȱthanȱgoodȱbecauseȱofȱtheȱthreeȱenemies
thatȱheȱhas:ȱnamely,ȱtheȱdevil,ȱtheȱworld,ȱandȱtheȱfleshȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱNowȱIȱwillȱproveȱtoȱyou
howȱimaginationȱisȱlordȱandȱmasterȱofȱallȱgoodȱorȱbadȱdeedsȱthatȱoneȱdoesȱandȱofȱall
theȱbodyȱandȱlimbsȱofȱman.ȱYouȱknowȱindeedȱthatȱanyȱgoodȱorȱbadȱdeed,ȱwhether
smallȱorȱlarge,ȱisȱneverȱdoneȱunlessȱitȱisȱfirstȱimaginedȱandȱthoughtȱabout.ȱThusȱitȱis
mistress,ȱfor,ȱaccordingȱtoȱwhatȱtheȱimaginationȱcommands,ȱoneȱdoesȱaȱdeedȱthatȱis
goodȱorȱbad,ȱwhateverȱitȱmightȱbe,ȱasȱIȱsaid.]ȱ (Prologue:17–18,ȱ19–21)
Imaginationȱisȱaȱdangerousȱpuppetȱmasterȱasȱwellȱasȱaȱshapeshifter:ȱitȱisȱnowȱgood
andȱnowȱevil,ȱnowȱmasterȱandȱnowȱmistress.ȱItȱisȱtheȱseductiveȱdevilȱthatȱweȱall
carryȱ insideȱ ofȱ ourselves,ȱ andȱ itȱ willȱ leadȱ usȱ toȱ perilȱ unlessȱ weȱ subdueȱ it.
Predictably,ȱGastonȱassuresȱusȱthatȱtheȱbestȱwayȱtoȱcontrolȱourȱimaginationsȱis
throughȱhuntingȱthatȱisȱstrenuousȱenoughȱtoȱexhaustȱusȱsoȱthatȱweȱdoȱnotȱseekȱout
troubleȱatȱnight,ȱbutȱnotȱsoȱstrenuousȱthatȱweȱareȱdistractedȱfromȱourȱtemporalȱand
spiritualȱ duties.ȱ Theȱ chasseȱ aȱ forceȱ keepsȱ aȱ man’sȱ bodyȱ andȱ mindȱ healthyȱ and
obedient,ȱand,ȱmostȱimportantly,ȱ“honȱenȱfuitȱtouzȱlesȱseptȱpechiezȱmortelz”ȱ(a
manȱfleesȱallȱtheȱsevenȱdeadlyȱsinsȱinȱthisȱway)ȱ(Prologue:13).ȱGastonȱseemsȱto
imagineȱtheȱpursuitȱofȱsalvationȱasȱaȱsetȱofȱnestedȱandȱinterlockingȱWildȱHunts:
animalsȱ thatȱ areȱ proxiesȱ forȱ theȱ devilȱ attemptȱ toȱ evadeȱ theȱ hunterȱ whileȱ the
hunter’sȱsoulȱattemptsȱtoȱevadeȱtheȱdevilȱwithin.22
AtȱtheȱbeginningȱofȱtheȱfinalȱsectionȱofȱtheȱLivreȱdeȱlaȱchasse,ȱGastonȱbecomes
evenȱmoreȱhyperbolicȱinȱhisȱclaimsȱforȱtheȱspiritualȱbenefitsȱofȱtheȱchase,ȱasserting
thatȱthereȱisȱnoȱoneȱinȱheavenȱexceptȱgoodȱhuntersȱ(60:10–11).ȱItȱisȱdoubtfulȱthatȱhe
trulyȱbelievedȱinȱthisȱcelestialȱmodel,ȱwhichȱwouldȱensureȱthatȱheavenȱcontained
onlyȱableȬbodiedȱaristocraticȱmen,ȱPyreneanȱpeasants,ȱandȱpoachersȱofȱallȱstripes.
Thereȱisȱanȱunderlyingȱdesperationȱtoȱtheseȱincreasinglyȱemphaticȱdeclarations
thatȱ seemsȱ toȱ reflectȱ theȱ author’sȱ deepȱ anxietiesȱ aboutȱ hisȱ ownȱ chancesȱ for
redemption.ȱ Clearly,ȱ somethingȱ weighedȱ heavilyȱ onȱ hisȱ conscience.ȱ Inȱ the
collectionȱofȱprayersȱnowȱknownȱasȱtheȱOrisons,ȱwhichȱareȱincludedȱinȱsixȱofȱthe
fortyȬfourȱextantȱmanuscriptsȱofȱtheȱLivreȱdeȱlaȱchasse,ȱGastonȱrefersȱobliquelyȱtoȱa
terribleȱsinȱthatȱheȱhasȱcommitted.ȱMostȱscholarsȱhaveȱassumedȱthatȱheȱalludesȱto
theȱmurderȱofȱhisȱonlyȱlegitimateȱson,ȱbutȱothersȱhaveȱsuggestedȱthatȱtheȱsinȱin
questionȱisȱheterosexualȱorȱevenȱhomosexualȱlust.23ȱWhateverȱtheȱnatureȱofȱhis
crime,ȱ theȱ Livreȱ deȱ laȱ chasseȱ seemsȱ toȱ be,ȱ likeȱ theȱ Orisons,ȱ aȱ petitionȱ forȱ the
reinstatementȱofȱdivineȱfavor.
Gaston’sȱconfidenceȱandȱbluffȱgoodȱhumorȱinȱtheȱPrologueȱseemȱtoȱgradually
transformȱintoȱanxiousȱgrandiosity,ȱandȱthenȱfinallyȱtoȱdepressionȱandȱremorse.
InȱtheȱEpilogue,ȱGastonȱdiscardsȱhisȱearlierȱboastȱthatȱheȱhasȱnoȱmasterȱinȱthe
cynegeticalȱarts,ȱandȱdedicatesȱhisȱbookȱtoȱPhilippeȱdeȱFrance,ȱ“maistreȱdeȱnous
touzȱquiȱsommesȱduȱmestierȱdeȱvenerie”ȱ(masterȱofȱallȱofȱusȱwhoȱbelongȱtoȱthe
craftȱofȱvenery)ȱ(86:8).ȱFurthermore,ȱheȱmentionsȱthat,ȱalongȱwithȱtheȱmanuscript,
heȱsendsȱ“unesȱoroysonsȱquiȱjeȱfisȱjadisȱquantȱNostreȱSeigneurȱfutȱcourrouciéȱa
moy”ȱ (aȱ prayerȱ thatȱ Iȱ madeȱ longȱ agoȱ whenȱ Ourȱ Lordȱ wasȱ angryȱ withȱ me)
(86:12–13).ȱHeȱseemsȱtoȱfearȱthatȱGodȱisȱstillȱangry.ȱInȱtheȱPrologue,ȱheȱrecognized
theȱunrulyȱbutȱentirelyȱcontrollableȱimaginationȱasȱlordȱoverȱhumanȱdestiny;ȱinȱthe
Epilogue,ȱheȱseemsȱtoȱquailȱbeforeȱanȱangryȱandȱimplacableȱLord.ȱGaston,ȱdevout
toȱtheȱend,ȱdiedȱwhileȱfollowingȱhisȱownȱspiritualȱcounsel.ȱTwoȱyearsȱafterȱhe
finishedȱwritingȱtheȱLivreȱdeȱlaȱchasse,ȱheȱsuccumbedȱtoȱaȱstrokeȱbroughtȱonȱbyȱa
22
Juanȱ Manuel,ȱ inȱ hisȱ Libroȱ deȱ laȱ cazaȱ (ca.ȱ 1325),ȱ alsoȱ linkedȱ huntingȱ andȱ sin,ȱ thoughȱ inȱ aȱ very
differentȱmanner:ȱheȱdenouncedȱallȱthoseȱwhoȱrefusedȱtoȱbelieveȱtheȱstoriesȱofȱhisȱcynegetical
exploitsȱasȱ“sinners.”ȱSeeȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱMariaȱCeciliaȱRuiz.
23
RichardȱVernier,ȱLordȱofȱtheȱPyrenees:ȱGastonȱFébus,ȱCountȱofȱFoixȱ(1331–1391)ȱ(Woodbridge,ȱUK:
Boydell,ȱ2008),ȱ147–48.ȱGastonȱwasȱwellȬknownȱforȱhisȱviolentȱtemper,ȱasȱwellȱasȱforȱhisȱinsatiable
sexualȱ appetite.ȱ Heȱ claimsȱ thatȱ heȱ isȱ notȱ theȱ greatestȱ ofȱ loversȱ (Prologue:3–4),ȱ aȱ transparent
modestyȱtropeȱthatȱisȱmeantȱtoȱremindȱtheȱreaderȱofȱhisȱmaistriseȱinȱtheȱartȱofȱseduction.
strenuousȱbearȱhuntȱinȱhotȱweather.24ȱWhetherȱorȱnotȱheȱwonȱdivineȱfavorȱforȱhis
cynegeticalȱachievements,ȱweȱcannotȱknow.
Theȱ Livreȱ deȱ laȱ chasseȱ isȱ thusȱ notȱ merelyȱ aȱ huntingȱ manualȱ butȱ aȱ guideȱ to
salvation,ȱaȱprayerbook,ȱaȱgestureȱofȱpenance,ȱand,ȱinȱtheȱfinalȱanalysis,ȱaȱworkȱof
remarkableȱaudacity.ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱthatȱGastonȱcowersȱbeforeȱGod,ȱheȱcannot
resistȱproclaimingȱhimselfȱtheȱsaviorȱofȱhumanity.ȱHeȱwillȱspeakȱofȱtheȱignoble
huntsȱnotȱbecauseȱheȱwantsȱtoȱdoȱsoȱbutȱbecauseȱheȱisȱobligatedȱtoȱdoȱso:
.ȱ.ȱ.ȱjeȱferoyeȱtropȱgrantȱpechiéȱsiȱjeȱpouoyeȱfereȱlesȱgenzȱsauverȱetȱalerȱenȱparadisȱetȱje
lesȱ fesoyeȱ alerȱ enȱ enfer.ȱ Etȱ aussi,ȱ siȱ jeȱ fesoyeȱ lesȱ genzȱ mourirȱ etȱ jeȱ lesȱ peüsseȱ fere
longuementȱvivre.ȱEtȱaussi,ȱsiȱjeȱfesoyeȱlesȱgenzȱestreȱtristesȱetȱmournesȱetȱpensisȱetȱje
lesȱpouoyeȱfereȱvivreȱlieement.ȱ
[.ȱ.ȱ.ȱIȱwouldȱsinȱveryȱgreatlyȱifȱIȱcouldȱhaveȱpeopleȱsavedȱandȱgoȱtoȱparadiseȱandȱI
madeȱthemȱgoȱtoȱhell.ȱAndȱalso,ȱifȱIȱmadeȱpeopleȱdieȱandȱIȱcouldȱhaveȱmadeȱthemȱlive
forȱaȱlongȱtime.ȱAndȱalsoȱifȱIȱmadeȱpeopleȱsadȱandȱmournfulȱandȱworriedȱandȱIȱcould
makeȱthemȱliveȱjoyously.]ȱ (60:6–9)ȱ
GastonȱdepictsȱhimselfȱasȱanȱamalgamationȱofȱChrist,ȱtheȱParcae,ȱandȱImagination;
theȱ falseȱ humilityȱ withȱ whichȱ heȱ triesȱ toȱ hideȱ hisȱ megalomaniaȱ onlyȱ servesȱ to
highlightȱit.ȱThereȱisȱaȱbarelyȬdisguisedȱcriticismȱhere:ȱGodȱcouldȱtakeȱsuchȱgood
careȱofȱhisȱsubjectsȱasȱGastonȱdoesȱofȱhis,ȱbutȱheȱdoesȱnot.ȱ
Gastonȱisȱnotȱmerelyȱaȱsyncretisticȱdeity;ȱhisȱhuntingȱbookȱisȱalsoȱaȱrewritingȱof
Genesis,ȱinȱwhichȱheȱplaysȱalmostȱallȱofȱtheȱrolesȱhimself.ȱJustȱasȱAdamȱnamedȱthe
animals,ȱso,ȱinȱtheȱfirstȱsectionȱofȱtheȱtext,ȱGastonȱnamesȱandȱdescribesȱtheȱnatural
historyȱofȱeveryȱoneȱofȱtheȱchaseableȱbeasts,ȱfromȱstagsȱtoȱotters;ȱinȱtheȱsecond
section,ȱheȱnamesȱandȱdescribesȱeveryȱoneȱofȱtheȱdifferentȱtypesȱofȱdogsȱusedȱin
theȱhunt.ȱHisȱknowledgeȱofȱtheȱbeasts,ȱlikeȱAdam’s,ȱisȱimpeccable.ȱGastonȱis,ȱin
addition,ȱaȱdispenserȱofȱclassifiedȱinformationȱmuchȱlikeȱtheȱserpentȱwas;ȱhowever,
ratherȱthanȱgivingȱadviceȱthatȱwillȱcauseȱhumanȱmisery,ȱhisȱinstructionsȱwillȱlead
toȱjoyȱinȱthisȱworldȱandȱtheȱnext.ȱ
Heȱis,ȱfinally,ȱaȱbenevolentȱgod,ȱreigningȱoverȱtheȱworldȱofȱtheȱhunt.ȱInȱfact,ȱhe
seemsȱtoȱbeȱreminiscentȱnotȱonlyȱofȱtheȱFather,ȱbutȱofȱtheȱSonȱasȱwell:ȱhisȱportrait
(Fig.ȱ6:ȱ1r)ȱisȱclearlyȱmodeledȱonȱChristȱinȱMajesty.ȱHeȱisȱseatedȱonȱaȱthrone,ȱwith
noȱhaloȱbutȱhisȱownȱcroppedȱhair.ȱInȱoneȱhand,ȱheȱholdsȱnotȱaȱbookȱbutȱwhatȱis
presumablyȱ anȱ estortoire,ȱ theȱ huntsman’sȱ allȬpurposeȱ tool,ȱ usedȱ toȱ pushȱ aside
branchesȱasȱwellȱasȱchastiseȱdisobedientȱboysȱandȱanimals.ȱRatherȱthanȱmakingȱa
gestureȱofȱblessingȱwithȱhisȱotherȱhand,ȱheȱmysteriouslyȱpointsȱatȱtheȱestortoire,ȱas
ifȱtoȱremindȱusȱwhoȱwieldsȱtheȱpowerȱoverȱourȱlives.ȱHeȱisȱsurroundedȱbyȱcrowds
24
That,ȱatȱanyȱrate,ȱwasȱtheȱstoryȱthatȱFroissartȱtold.ȱAsȱRichardȱVernierȱnotes,ȱitȱwasȱunlikelyȱthat
GastonȱwouldȱbeȱhuntingȱbearȱinȱthatȱparticularȱregionȱofȱBéarnȱinȱAugustȱ(LordȱofȱtheȱPyrenees
[seeȱnoteȱ23],ȱ187–79).
ofȱraptȱandȱwonderingȱ“disciples,”ȱbothȱmenȱandȱdogs,ȱmanyȱofȱtheȱformerȱwith
theirȱmouthsȱhangingȱopenȱinȱwhatȱseemsȱlikeȱprofoundȱawe.ȱTheȱadmirersȱinȱthe
upperȱ rowȱ seemȱ toȱ beȱ ofȱ aȱ higherȱ casteȱ thanȱ thoseȱ inȱ theȱ lowerȱ row;ȱ theyȱ are
depictedȱasȱslightlyȱlarger,ȱtheirȱclothesȱfiner,ȱandȱtheirȱdogsȱofȱgenerallyȱmore
aristocraticȱbreeds.ȱThisȱhierarchyȱmirrorsȱGaston’sȱunapologeticallyȱinegalitarian
messageȱofȱsalvation:ȱaristocraticȱhuntersȱwillȱbeȱinstalledȱinȱtheȱcenterȱofȱheaven
andȱallȱothersȱwillȱbeȱlodgedȱaroundȱtheȱedgesȱ(60:11–13).
TheȱonlyȱfigureȱmissingȱfromȱthisȱGardenȱisȱEve.ȱAlthoughȱmedievalȱhuntresses
wereȱ rare,ȱ womenȱ wereȱ intimatelyȱ connectedȱ withȱ theȱ chase:ȱ theyȱ mightȱ be
spectatorsȱandȱoccasionalȱparticipants;ȱtheyȱtypicallyȱ joinedȱinȱtheȱbeforeȬȱand
afterȬhuntȱactivities;ȱandȱtheyȱwereȱmetaphoricallyȱlinkedȱwithȱtheȱcynegeticalȱarts
throughȱ theȱ literaryȱ tropeȱ ofȱ theȱ loveȬchase.ȱ However,ȱ theȱ Livreȱ deȱ laȱ chasse
deliberatelyȱ avoidsȱ almostȱ allȱ mentionȱ ofȱ humanȱ females.ȱ Theȱ hunterȱ happily
spendsȱhisȱtimeȱinȱtheȱcompanyȱofȱhisȱmaleȱandȱcanineȱcompanions,ȱshieldedȱfrom
theȱperniciousȱinfluenceȱofȱwomen.
.ȱ.ȱ.ȱlaȱnuytȱilȱseȱcoucheraȱenȱsonȱlitȱetȱneȱpenseraȱqueȱdeȱdormirȱetȱdeȱsoyȱleverȱmatin
pourȱfereȱsonȱofficeȱbienȱetȱdiligentement,ȱeinsiȱqueȱdoitȱfereȱbonȱveneour,ȱetȱn’aura
queȱfereȱdeȱpenserȱforsȱdeȱlaȱbesoigneȱqu’ilȱha,ȱetȱestȱoccupé,ȱquarȱilȱn’estȱpointȱoyseus,
anczoisȱaȱassezȱaȱfereȱetȱymaginerȱdeȱsoyȱleverȱmatinȱetȱdeȱbienȱfereȱsonȱofficeȱsanz
penserȱaȱautresȱpechiezȱneȱmauvestiez.ȱ
[.ȱ.ȱ.ȱatȱnight,ȱheȱ[theȱhunter]ȱwillȱlayȱdownȱinȱhisȱbedȱandȱonlyȱthinkȱofȱsleepingȱand
ofȱ gettingȱ upȱ inȱ theȱ morningȱ toȱ doȱ hisȱ dutyȱ wellȱ andȱ diligently,ȱ asȱ aȱ goodȱ hunter
should,ȱandȱheȱwillȱhaveȱnothingȱtoȱdoȱexceptȱthinkȱaboutȱwhatȱheȱmustȱdo,ȱandȱheȱis
busy,ȱforȱheȱisȱnotȱatȱallȱidle;ȱquiteȱtoȱtheȱcontrary,ȱheȱhasȱenoughȱtoȱdoȱandȱtoȱimagine
himselfȱgettingȱupȱinȱtheȱmorningȱandȱdoingȱhisȱdutyȱwellȱwithoutȱthinkingȱofȱother
sinsȱorȱevils.]ȱ (Prologue:23–25)
ȱ
Heȱlivesȱaȱmonkishȱexistence,ȱhisȱsexualȱthoughtsȱreplacedȱwithȱ(unlikelyȱasȱitȱmay
seem)ȱtitillatingȱfantasiesȱaboutȱhardȱwork.ȱHisȱlifeȱisȱhappy,ȱuseful,ȱandȱspiritually
andȱphysicallyȱsalubrious.ȱIfȱAdamȱcouldȱhaveȱdoneȱitȱoverȱagain,ȱheȱmightȱwell
haveȱtakenȱupȱhunting.
Inȱ theȱ Bible,ȱ menȱ wereȱ permanentlyȱ castȱ outȱ fromȱ paradiseȱ becauseȱ ofȱ the
collaborationȱofȱaȱdevilishȱanimalȱandȱaȱfoolishȱwoman.ȱInȱtheȱworldȱofȱGaston’s
text,ȱhowever,ȱthereȱisȱnoȱanimalȱsoȱmaliciousȱthatȱitȱcannotȱbeȱefficientlyȱsubdued
byȱanȱexperiencedȱhunter,ȱandȱthereȱareȱnoȱwomenȱatȱall.ȱGastonȱisȱaȱbenevolent
deityȱwhoȱwantsȱmenȱtoȱenterȱparadise,ȱnotȱoneȱwhoȱhurriesȱtoȱthrowȱthemȱoutȱfor
peccadilloes.ȱ Inȱ Eden,ȱ theȱ questȱ forȱ knowledgeȱ wasȱ forbidden,ȱ butȱ hereȱ itȱ is
encouraged;ȱGastonȱgivesȱhisȱwisdomȱoutȱfreelyȱratherȱthanȱwithholdingȱit.ȱThe
hunterȱmayȱnotȱbeȱimmortal,ȱbutȱhisȱlifeȱisȱlongȱandȱidyllic,ȱwithȱtheȱguaranteeȱof
aȱevenȱmoreȱpleasantȱafterlifeȱifȱheȱdoesȱhisȱworkȱhonestlyȱandȱwell.ȱTheȱnatural
worldȱdepictedȱinȱtheȱLivreȱdeȱlaȱchasseȱisȱnotȱaȱgarden,ȱbutȱneitherȱisȱitȱtheȱcursed
landȱofȱ“thornsȱandȱthistles”ȱ(Gen.ȱ3:18)ȱintoȱwhichȱAdamȱandȱEveȱwereȱthrust.ȱIt
isȱdemandingȱbutȱalsoȱbeautifulȱandȱrewarding,ȱaȱsourceȱofȱredemptionȱrather
thanȱaȱpunishmentȱforȱsin.
Gaston’sȱbookȱofȱhuntingȱdepictsȱaȱworldȱthatȱisȱsomewhereȱinȱbetweenȱEden
andȱ theȱ messy,ȱ dangerousȱ postlapsarianȱ worldȱ inȱ whichȱ weȱ allȱ live,ȱ aȱ sortȱ of
Valhallaȱofȱvenery.ȱInȱthisȱkinderȱandȱgentlerȱcosmos,ȱpresidedȱoverȱbyȱaȱmerciful
andȱgenerousȱgodȱofȱtheȱchase,ȱtimeȱandȱspaceȱworkȱtoȱtheȱadvantageȱofȱmenȱand
huntsȱareȱnotȱonlyȱperfectlyȱsafeȱ(ifȱoneȱtakesȱtheȱcorrectȱprecautions)ȱbutȱinfinitely
replicable.ȱGoodȱhuntersȱareȱguaranteedȱsalvation,ȱandȱhuntingȱitselfȱisȱguaranteed
toȱbeȱpleasurable,ȱbeneficial,ȱandȱsatisfyinglyȱchallenging.ȱTheȱLivreȱdeȱlaȱchasse
thusȱoffersȱitsȱreadersȱexactlyȱthoseȱthingsȱthatȱGastonȱfearedȱheȱwouldȱneverȱhave
forȱhimself:ȱaȱpeaceful,ȱmoderateȱlife,ȱforgivenessȱofȱallȱtransgressions,ȱandȱaȱfinal
restingȱplaceȱinȱheaven.
Fig.ȱ1:ȱBibliothèqueȱNationaleȱmanuscritȱfrançaisȱ619,ȱ109r:ȱHareȬhuntingȱatȱa
crossroads.ȱȱNoteȱthatȱtheȱacanthusȬleafȱborderȱisȱmoreȱrealistic
thanȱareȱtheȱtrees
Fig.ȱ2:ȱBibliothèqueȱNationaleȱmanuscritȱfrançaisȱ619,ȱ111r:
HareȬhunting in a vineyard
ȱ ȱ ȱ
Fig.ȱ3:ȱȱBibliothèqueȱNationaleȱmanuscritȱfrançaisȱ619,ȱ19v:ȱTheȱmaliciousȱwolf
Fig.ȱ4.1ȱandȱ4.2:ȱBibliothèqueȱNationaleȱmanuscritȱfrançaisȱ
619,ȱ24rȱandȱ90v:ȱ
twoȱmischievousȱwildcats
Fig.ȱ5:ȱȱBibliothèqueȱNationaleȱmanuscritȱfrançaisȱ619,ȱ57r,ȱ62r,ȱ79r,ȱ82v:ȱ
Fourȱhuntsȱaȱforce
Fig.ȱ6:ȱȱBibliothèqueȱNationaleȱmanuscritȱfrançaisȱ619,ȱ1r:ȱ
GastonȱinȱMajesty
Chapterȱ15
AlbrechtȱClassen
RuralȱSpaceȱinȱLateȱMedievalȱBooksȱofȱHours:ȱBookȱIllustrationsȱas
aȱLookingȬGlassȱIntoȱMedievalȱMentalityȱandȱ
MirrorsȱofȱEcocriticism
OneȱofȱtheȱmostȱdelightfulȱandȱalsoȱaweȬinspiringȱrepresentativesȱofȱlateȬmedieval
art,ȱ literature,ȱ andȱ religionȱ provesȱ toȱ beȱ theȱ famousȱ genreȱ ofȱ Booksȱ ofȱ Hours,ȱ a
particularȱkindȱofȱmanuscriptȱmediumȱforȱprivateȱdevotion.ȱTheseȱpeculiarȱand
highlyȱ preciousȱ texts,ȱ normallyȱ relyingȱ onȱ theȱ octaveȱ format,ȱ wereȱ mostly
producedȱforȱwellȬtoȬdoȱburghersȱandȱaristocrats,ȱandȱespeciallyȱforȱnobleȱladies
whoȱenjoyedȱtheȱopportunityȱofȱhavingȱaȱprivateȱsettingȱtoȱpursueȱtheirȱreligious
needsȱwithȱtheȱhelpȱofȱtheseȱpreciousȱlittleȱbooks.ȱTheȱreaderȱisȱinvited,ȱ ifȱnot
encouraged,ȱtoȱcarryȱoutȱanȱindividualizedȱliturgicalȱservice,ȱusingȱtheȱBookȱof
Hoursȱasȱtheȱguideȱandȱreferenceȱpoint,ȱasȱtheȱdepositoryȱofȱtheȱessentialȱliturgical
texts,ȱandȱasȱaȱpictorialȱmediumȱforȱpersonalȱdevotion.1ȱ
AȱBookȱofȱHoursȱtypicallyȱcontainedȱtheȱHoursȱofȱtheȱVirgin,ȱaȱcalendarȱforȱchurch
festivalsȱandȱindividualȱSaints’ȱDays,ȱexcerptsȱfromȱtheȱfourȱGospels,ȱpenitential
psalmsȱ andȱ theȱ litany,ȱ theȱ Officeȱ ofȱ theȱ Dead,ȱ andȱ relatedȱ texts,ȱ allȱ neededȱ to
complyȱ withȱ theȱ basicȱ requirementsȱ forȱ aȱ religiousȱ lifeȱ withinȱ theȱ Christian
context.ȱ Booksȱ ofȱ Hoursȱ alsoȱ includedȱ prayers,ȱ notesȱ forȱ hymns,ȱ devotionsȱ to
particularȱsaintsȱofȱlocalȱextraction,ȱandȱsimilarȱmaterial.ȱSomeȱexemplarsȱwere
1
Wilhelmȱ Hansen,ȱ Kalenderminiaturenȱ derȱ Stundenbücher:ȱ Mittelalterlichesȱ Lebenȱ imȱ Jahreslauf
(Munich:ȱGeorgȱD.ȱW.ȱCallway,ȱ1984).ȱHeȱfocuses,ȱaboveȱall,ȱonȱtheȱdepictionȱofȱtheȱindividual
seasonsȱ ofȱ theȱ year,ȱ coveringȱ aȱ broadȱ spectrumȱ ofȱ allȱ aspectsȱ andȱ elementsȱ containedȱ inȱ the
miniaturesȱofȱtheȱBookȱofȱHours,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱcityȱduringȱwinter,ȱlifeȱatȱhome,ȱSpring,ȱtreesȱinȱthe
monthȱofȱMay,ȱfestivities,ȱwedding,ȱchurchȱholidays,ȱpeasants’ȱwork,ȱharvest,ȱbaking,ȱmilkingȱand
churningȱbutter,ȱweaving,ȱpigs,ȱbutchery,ȱhunting,ȱgrapeȱharvest,ȱwineȱproduction,ȱandȱlifeȱinȱa
Flemishȱcity.ȱSeeȱalsoȱMarieȱCollins,ȱMittelalterlichesȱLebenȱaufȱdemȱLande:ȱFrühling,ȱSommer,ȱHerbst
undȱWinter.ȱAusȱdemȱEnglischenȱvonȱHansȱFreundlȱ(1991;ȱVienna:ȱTosa,ȱ2003).
obviouslyȱintendedȱforȱuseȱduringȱofficialȱmass,ȱallowingȱtheȱlayȱownersȱaȱlimited,
yetȱ intenseȱ participationȱ inȱ theȱ liturgyȱ duringȱ theȱ churchȱ service,ȱ othersȱ were
designedȱtoȱbeȱstudiedȱonlyȱatȱhome,ȱreplicatingȱthatȱliturgyȱinȱtheȱprivateȱcontext.ȱ
InȱmanyȱrespectsȱtheȱBookȱofȱHoursȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱanalogousȱto,ȱorȱratherȱgrewȱout
of,ȱ theȱ psalterȱ andȱ thenȱ theȱ breviaryȱ sinceȱ theȱ thirteenthȱ century,2ȱ butȱ itȱ was
destinedȱforȱtheȱlaity,ȱespeciallyȱtheȱrichȱandȱtheȱfamousȱwhoȱcouldȱaffordȱthose
oftenȱveryȱluxuriousȱbooksȱforȱdevotionalȱpracticeȱandȱpersonalȱperformances.3
AlthoughȱthereȱisȱvirtuallyȱnotȱoneȱBookȱofȱHoursȱthatȱlooksȱexactlyȱlikeȱanyȱother,
theyȱ allȱ shareȱ theȱ majorȱ features,ȱ texts,ȱ designs,ȱ andȱ layoutȱ inȱ common.4ȱ A
comparativeȱ analysisȱ wouldȱ revealȱ theȱ extentȱ toȱ whichȱ theȱ imagesȱ strikingly
resembleȱeachȱotherȱinȱtheirȱmotifs,ȱthemes,ȱandȱessentialȱelements.ȱNevertheless,
bothȱinȱquantityȱandȱartisticȱquality,ȱtheȱBookȱofȱHoursȱcanȱbeȱidentifiedȱasȱtheȱmost
gloriousȱ representativeȱ ofȱ lateȬmedievalȱ bookȱ production,ȱ oftenȱ stunningly
decoratedȱbyȱfirstȬrateȱilluminations.5
Althoughȱ artistsȱ andȱ scribesȱ closelyȱ collaboratedȱ inȱ theȱ creationȱ ofȱ these
wonderfulȱbooks,ȱmakingȱthemȱquicklyȱtoȱveryȱcostly,ȱdelicate,ȱandȱpreciousȱitems
inȱprivateȱmedievalȱlibraries,ȱthousandsȱhaveȱsurvived,ȱandȱweȱcouldȱevenȱtalk
aboutȱaȱbestȬsellerȱinȱitsȱownȱterms.ȱAsȱElinaȱGertsmanȱnowȱspecifies,ȱ“theȱBooks
ofȱ Hoursȱ wereȱ layȱ equivalentsȱ toȱ Breviaries,ȱ onlyȱ considerablyȱ shortenedȱ and
considerablyȱmoreȱvaried.”6ȱSheȱalsoȱemphasizes:ȱ“WhatȱsetȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱapart
2
Claireȱ Donovan,ȱ Theȱ deȱ Brailesȱ Hours:ȱ Shapingȱ theȱ Bookȱ ofȱ Hoursȱ inȱ ThirteenthȬCenturyȱ Oxford
(Londonȱ:ȱBritishȱLibrary,ȱ1991).
3
D.ȱThoss,ȱ“Stundenbuch,”ȱLexikonȱdesȱMittelalters.ȱVol.ȱ8.2ȱ(Munich:ȱLexmaȱVerlag,ȱ1996),ȱ259.ȱSee
alsoȱMichaelȱKwatera,ȱO.S.B.,ȱ“BookȱofȱHours,”ȱDictionaryȱofȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱed.ȱJosephȱR.ȱStrayer.
Vol.ȱ2ȱ(NewȱYork:ȱCharlesȱScribner’sȱSons,ȱ1983),ȱ325–27.ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱquiteȱrespectable,ȱifȱnotȱeven
moreȱcomprehensiveȱarticleȱinȱWikipediaȱat:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_hoursȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱMayȱ19,ȱ2011).
4
Seeȱtheȱ“Introduction”ȱtoȱWomen’sȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱinȱMedievalȱEngland.ȱSelectedȱTexts.ȱTrans.ȱfrom
Latin,ȱAngloȬNormanȱFrenchȱandȱMiddleȱEnglishȱwithȱIntroductiionȱandȱInterpretiveȱEssay,ȱby
CharityȱScottȬStokes.ȱLibraryȱofȱMedievalȱWomenȱ(Cambridge:ȱD.ȱS.ȱBrewer,ȱ2006),ȱ1–24;ȱforȱa
veryȱ detailedȱ analysisȱ andȱ commentaryȱ ofȱ oneȱ Bookȱ ofȱ Hourȱ fromȱ theȱ middleȱ ofȱ theȱ fifteenth
century,ȱseeȱFriedrichȱGorissen,ȱDasȱStundenbuchȱderȱKatharinaȱvonȱKleve:ȱAnalyseȱundȱKommentar
(Berlin:ȱGebr.ȱMannȱVerlag,ȱ1973);ȱEberhardȱKönig,ȱDieȱBedfordȱHours:ȱdasȱreichsteȱStundenbuchȱdes
Mittelaltersȱ (Stuttgart:ȱ Theiss,ȱ 2007);ȱ Dasȱ Stundenbuchȱ derȱ Katharinaȱ vonȱ Kleve:ȱ anlässlichȱ der
Ausstellung:ȱDieȱWeltȱderȱKatharina.ȱFrömmigkeit,ȱDämonenȱundȱAlltäglichesȱLebenȱimȱ15.ȱJahrhundert,
MuseumȱHetȱValkhof,ȱNijmegen,ȱ10.ȱOktoberȱ2009ȱȬȱ4.ȱJanuarȱ2010;ȱTheȱMorganȱLibraryȱ&ȱMuseum,ȱNew
York,ȱ22.ȱJanuarȱȬȱ3.ȱMaiȱ2010ȱ(Stuttgart:ȱBelser,ȱ2009).ȱPresently,ȱweȱwitnessȱanȱenormousȱoutput
ofȱeverȱnewȱfacsimileȱeditions,ȱsee,ȱforȱinstance,ȱDasȱFlämischeȱStundenbuchȱderȱMariaȱvonȱMedici:
FeinsteȱBuchmalereiȱinȱeinemȱGewandȱausȱSilber,ȱSamtȱundȱSeideȱ(Lucerne:ȱQuaternioȱVerlag,ȱ2011).
5
See,ȱforȱexample,ȱMillardȱMeissȱandȱEdithȱW.ȱKirsch,ȱTheȱVisconiȱHours:ȱNationalȱLibrary,ȱFlorence
(Newȱ York:ȱ Georgeȱ Braziller,ȱ 1972).ȱ Hereȱ Iȱ useȱ aȱ copyȱ housedȱ inȱ Specialȱ Collections,ȱ The
UniversityȱofȱArizonaȱLibrary,ȱTucson.
6
ElinaȱGertsman,ȱ“BooksȱofȱHours,”ȱHandbookȱofȱMedievalȱStudies,ȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassen.ȱVol.ȱ2
(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱDeȱGruyter,ȱ2010),ȱ1647–51;ȱhereȱ1647.
RuralȱSpaceȱinȱMedievalȱBooksȱofȱHours 531
fromȱotherȱmedievalȱbooksȱwasȱtheirȱdemoticȱappeal;ȱacquiredȱbyȱindividualsȱand
families,ȱaȱBookȱofȱHoursȱmayȱhaveȱbeenȱtheȱonlyȱbookȱpossessedȱbyȱaȱhousehold”
(1647).ȱWeȱcanȱevenȱidentifyȱmajorȱsitesȱofȱproductionȱofȱBooksȱofȱHours,ȱsuchȱas
Oxford,ȱLondon,ȱSarumȱ(Salisbury)ȱinȱEngland,ȱParisȱinȱFrance,ȱBrugesȱandȱGhent
(Flanders),ȱbutȱthenȱalsoȱinȱToursȱandȱBourgesȱ(France),ȱthroughȱreferenceȱtoȱthe
specificȱuses,ȱorȱliturgicalȱperformances,ȱcommonlyȱpracticedȱinȱthoseȱregions.ȱ
Sinceȱ theseȱ smallȱ devotionalȱ booksȱ metȱ suchȱ aȱ greatȱ demand,ȱ commercial
scriptoriaȱ tendedȱ toȱ specializeȱ onȱ thisȱ genre.ȱ This,ȱ inȱ turn,ȱ ledȱ toȱ relatively
standardizedȱformats,ȱimages,ȱdesigns,ȱalthoughȱweȱcanȱbeȱcertainȱthatȱmanyȱof
theȱbestȱartistsȱofȱthatȱtimeȱcontributedȱinȱoneȱwayȱorȱtheȱotherȱtoȱtheȱillumination
program,ȱparticularlyȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱmostȱvaluableȱandȱcostlyȱspecimens,ȱadding
theirȱindividualȱperspectivesȱandȱstyles.7ȱSomeȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱdoȱnotȱmakeȱaȱhuge
impression,ȱservingȱonlyȱhumbleȱpurposes,ȱwhileȱothersȱemergeȱasȱoutstanding
masterpiecesȱofȱlateȬmedievalȱartȱandȱmanuscriptȱproduction.ȱAlthoughȱmanyȱof
theȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱwereȱlimitedȱtoȱaȱsmallȱsize,ȱtheirȱbrillianceȱofȱcolorsȱandȱthemes
inȱtheȱilluminations,ȱtheȱbeautyȱofȱtheȱcalligraphicȱscript,ȱandȱtheȱoverallȱcareȱwith
whichȱtheȱentireȱmanuscriptȱwasȱcompiledȱmakeȱevenȱtheȱsmallestȱexemplarsȱto
mostȱpreciousȱitems.8ȱ
Asȱscholarshipȱhasȱalreadyȱnotedȱaȱnumberȱofȱtimes,ȱthisȱgenreȱimpressively
reflectsȱtheȱlateȬmedievalȱlaity’sȱgreatȱinterestȱinȱjoiningȱtheȱdevotionalȱpracticeȱby
monksȱandȱpriests,ȱinȱprivatizingȱtheȱreligiousȱpractice,ȱandȱinȱtransformingȱthe
liturgicalȱserviceȱintoȱaȱkindȱofȱindividualizedȱperformanceȱinvolvingȱtextȱand
images,ȱnotes,ȱandȱevenȱmarginalȱdrawings.ȱAȱvastȱmajorityȱofȱownersȱseemsȱto
haveȱbeenȱwomen,ȱwhoȱapparentlyȱgreatlyȱenjoyedȱthisȱopportunityȱtoȱparticipate
inȱaȱspiritualizedȱlife,ȱalthoughȱtheyȱtendedȱnotȱtoȱfollowȱtheȱsameȱstrictureȱasȱto
theȱmonasticȱDivineȱOffice.ȱMostȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱwereȱcomposedȱinȱLatin,ȱbutȱinȱthe
Netherlandsȱ theȱ majorityȱ ofȱ representativesȱ wereȱ actuallyȱ composedȱ inȱ the
vernacularȱbecauseȱofȱtheȱfounderȱofȱtheȱDevotioȱmodernaȱmovement,ȱGertȱGrote
(1340–1384),ȱwhoȱhimselfȱcompiledȱtextsȱforȱlayȱreadersȱthatȱbasicallyȱconstitute
BooksȱofȱHoursȱinȱtheirȱownȱterms.9ȱ
Inȱmanyȱcasesȱweȱcanȱclearlyȱtellȱtheȱoriginȱofȱaȱrepresentativeȱbookȱandȱthe
placeȱofȱitsȱactualȱuse,ȱwhichȱreflectsȱtheȱvastȱnetworkȱofȱtheȱlateȬmedievalȱbook
market.ȱ Theȱ popularityȱ ofȱ thisȱ genreȱ beganȱ toȱ waneȱ onlyȱ inȱ theȱ middleȱ ofȱ the
sixteenthȱcentury,ȱwhenȱmanyȱexamplesȱwereȱeitherȱdiscardedȱorȱtheirȱparchment
pagesȱwereȱscrapedȱcleanȱandȱreusedȱforȱotherȱpurposes.ȱFortunately,ȱespecially
thoseȱwithȱimpressiveȱilluminationsȱhaveȱsurvivedȱbecauseȱtheyȱcontinuedȱtoȱexert
7
JanetȱBackhouse,ȱIlluminationȱfromȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱ(London:ȱTheȱBritishȱLibrary,ȱ2004),ȱ5–13.
8
EberhardȱKönig,ȱDieȱBellesȱHeuresȱdesȱDucȱdeȱBerry:ȱSternstundenȱderȱBuchkunstȱ(Stuttgart:ȱKonrad
TheissȱVerlag,ȱ2004),ȱ30–35.
9
HetȱgetijdenboekvanȱGeertȱGrote,ȱnaarȱhetȱHaagseȱhs.ȱ133ȱEȱ21,ȱuitg.ȱdoorȱNicolaasȱvanȱWijk.ȱLeidsche
Drukkenȱenȱherdrukken.ȱKleineȱreeks,ȱ3ȱ(Leiden:ȱE.ȱJ.ȱBrill,ȱ1940).
greatȱaestheticȱappealȱandȱwereȱtreasuredȱbyȱownersȱofȱmajorȱlibrariesȱthroughout
theȱcenturies.10
Whenȱweȱturnȱourȱattentionȱtoȱtheȱcalendars,ȱaȱclearȱconceptualȱdesignȱemerges
beforeȱourȱeyes.ȱ“Theȱillustrationsȱmostȱcommonlyȱfoundȱareȱoccupationsȱofȱthe
months,ȱbutȱsignsȱofȱtheȱzodiacȱalsoȱoccurȱquiteȱfrequently;ȱbothȱmayȱappearȱon
theȱsameȱpage,ȱbutȱsometimes,ȱwhenȱeachȱmonthȱspansȱtwoȱpages,ȱtheȱoccupation
willȱbeȱonȱtheȱrectoȱandȱtheȱsignȱofȱtheȱzodiacȱonȱtheȱverso.”11ȱTheȱilluminations
servedȱtoȱenhanceȱtheȱreligiousȱmessages,ȱwhichȱcommonlyȱaddressedȱtheȱlifeȱof
theȱVirginȱMary,ȱwithȱtheȱAnnunciation,ȱtheȱVisitation,ȱtheȱNativityȱofȱChrist,ȱthe
AnnunciationȱofȱtheȱBirthȱofȱChristȱtoȱtheȱshepherds,ȱtheȱAdorationȱofȱtheȱMagi,
theȱPresentationȱinȱtheȱTemple,ȱtheȱFlightȱintoȱEgypt,ȱandȱtheȱCoronationȱofȱthe
Virginȱ inȱ heaven.ȱ Asȱ Robertȱ Clemensȱ andȱ Timothyȱ Grahamȱ nowȱ emphasize,
followingȱtheȱinsightsȱalreadyȱestablishedȱbyȱVictorȱLeroquais,ȱ“Theȱhoursȱare
generallyȱfollowedȱbyȱtwoȱitemsȱfoundȱinȱnearlyȱallȱBooksȱofȱHours:ȱtheȱSeven
PenitentialȱPsalmsȱandȱtheȱlitany.”12ȱ
AlthoughȱtheȱindividualȱsectionsȱinȱtheseȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱcloselyȱfollowȱtraditional
patternsȱofȱtextȱselectionȱandȱvisualȱmotifs,ȱtheȱartistsȱstillȱenjoyedȱconsiderable
freedom,ȱ weȱ mightȱ say,ȱ toȱ developȱ theȱ concreteȱ scenesȱ bothȱ playfullyȱ and
individualistically.ȱInȱthisȱregard,ȱweȱcanȱonlyȱagreeȱwithȱClemensȱandȱGraham
thatȱ“BooksȱofȱHoursȱpresentȱaȱwindowȱontoȱtheȱworldȱofȱlateȱmedievalȱdevotion,
evenȱasȱtheirȱillustrationsȱaffordȱaȱpanoramicȱviewȱofȱtheȱrichnessȱofȱlateȱmedieval
manuscriptȱart.”13ȱ
Artȱhistoriansȱhaveȱoftenȱpointedȱoutȱtheȱtypological,ȱorȱformulaic,ȱcharacterȱof
theȱ richȱ illuminationsȱ inȱ thoseȱ privateȱ devotionalȱ books,ȱ asȱ ifȱ theȱ seemingly
endlessȱrepetitionsȱwouldȱmakeȱitȱimpossibleȱforȱusȱtoȱgraspȱhowȱthoseȱartists
perceivedȱruralȱspace.ȱButȱeveryȱtypologyȱisȱalsoȱanchoredȱinȱoneȱwayȱorȱtheȱother
inȱtheȱconcreteȱobservationȱofȱreality,ȱirrespectiveȱofȱtheȱlensȱwhichȱtheȱartistȱmight
10
RogerȱS.ȱWieck,ȱPaintedȱPrayers:ȱTheȱBookȱofȱHoursȱinȱMedievalȱandȱRenaissanceȱArtȱ(NewȱYork:
GeorgeȱBraziller,ȱinȱassociationȱwithȱtheȱPierpontȱMorganȱLibrary,ȱ1997);ȱChristopherȱdeȱHamel,
AȱHistoryȱofȱIlluminatedȱManuscriptsȱ(1986;ȱLondon:ȱPhaidonȱPress,ȱ1995);ȱKathleenȱL.ȱScott,ȱLater
GothicȱManuscriptsȱ1390–1490.ȱAȱSurveyȱofȱManuscriptsȱIlluminatedȱinȱtheȱBritishȱIsles,ȱ6ȱ(London:
HarveyȱMiller,ȱ1996).ȱTheȱresearchȱonȱthisȱtopicȱisȱreallyȱlegion.
11
Raymondȱ Clemensȱ andȱ Timothyȱ Graham,ȱ Introductionȱ toȱ Manuscriptȱ Studiesȱ (Ithaca,ȱ NY,ȱ and
London:ȱCornellȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2007),ȱ209.
12
ClemensȱandȱGraham,ȱIntroductionȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱ213.ȱSeeȱVictorȱLeroquais,ȱUnȱLivreȱdȇheuresȱde
JeanȱsansȱPeur,ȱDucȱdeȱBourgogneȱ(1404–1419)ȱ(Paris:ȱAndrieux,ȱ1939);ȱJohnȱPȱHarthan,ȱBooksȱof
HoursȱandȱtheirȱOwnersȱ(London:ȱThamesȱ&ȱHudson,ȱ1977);ȱFannyȱFaÿȬSallois,ȱAȱTeasuryȱofȱHours:
Selectionsȱ Fromȱ Illuminatedȱ Prayerȱ Booksȱ (Losȱ Angeles:ȱ J.ȱ Paulȱ Gettyȱ Museum,ȱ 2005);ȱ Charity
ScottȬStokes,ȱ Women’sȱ Booksȱ ofȱ Hoursȱ inȱ Medievalȱ England.ȱ Libraryȱ ofȱ Medievalȱ Women
(Woodbridge,ȱUK;ȱRochester,ȱNY:ȱD.ȱS.ȱBrewer,ȱ2006).
13
ClemensȱandȱGraham,ȱIntroductionȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱ220.ȱSeeȱalsoȱAlbrechtȱClassen“Theȱ Bookȱ of
HoursȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,”ȱFuthark:ȱRevistaȱdeȱInvestigaciónȱyȱCulturaȱ2ȱ(2007):ȱ111–29.
haveȱused.14ȱAsȱVirginiaȱReinburgȱobserves,ȱalthoughȱmembersȱofȱtheȱwealthy
urbanȱclassȱdemonstratedȱtheȱgreatestȱinterestȱinȱthisȱgenre,ȱtheȱurbanȱcontextȱand
socialȱ backgroundȱ areȱ virtuallyȱ absentȱ inȱ theȱ illuminationsȱ decoratingȱ Booksȱ of
Hours.ȱByȱcontrast,ȱtheȱartistsȱtendedȱtoȱfocusȱonȱgenteelȱpursuits,ȱsuchȱasȱhawking
orȱ“MayȬing,”ȱreflectingȱonȱtraditionalȱconceptsȱofȱtheȱcourtlyȱpastourelleȱorȱthe
locusȱamoenus.ȱConcomitantly,ȱtheȱilluminatorsȱfavoredȱruralȱscenes:ȱ“Thereȱisȱa
consistentȱsenseȱinȱtheseȱscenesȱofȱaȱplacid,ȱbucolic,ȱunchangingȱworld,ȱintoȱwhich
thereȱseldomȱpenetratesȱanyȱofȱtheȱhardȱworkȱandȱharshȱpovertyȱthatȱwasȱthe
realityȱofȱthisȱlife.”15ȱ
Mostȱstrikingly,ȱtheȱbulkȱofȱtheseȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱwasȱcreatedȱatȱtheȱveryȱsame
timeȱwhen,ȱinȱtheȱwakeȱofȱtheȱBlackȱDeathȱandȱsimilar,ȱorȱrepeated,ȱdevastating
epidemics,ȱtheȱsocialȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱpeasantsȱandȱtheȱaristocracyȱbeganȱto
changeȱrapidly,ȱoftenȱtriggeredȱbyȱmajorȱpeasantȱrevolts,ȱsuchȱasȱinȱFranceȱinȱ1358
(Jacquerie),ȱinȱEnglandȱinȱ1381,ȱandȱelsewhereȱ(Flanders,ȱSpain,ȱItaly).ȱTheȱvisual
depictionsȱofȱruralȱscenesȱinȱtheseȱprivateȱdevotionalȱbooksȱrevealȱaȱcertainȱdesire
toȱprojectȱmostȱpeaceful,ȱbucolicȱsettingsȱasȱbackdropsȱforȱtheȱaristocraticȱworld,
whichȱobviouslyȱfeltȱdeeplyȱthreatenedȱbyȱtheȱsocialȱunrestȱandȱlongedȱforȱvisual
dreamȱimagesȱthatȱcouldȱassureȱthemȱofȱtheȱcontinuedȱstabilityȱonȱtheirȱcountry
estates.ȱNevertheless,ȱtheȱinclusionȱofȱthoseȱelementsȱcharacteristicȱofȱruralȱspace
inȱtheseȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱallowsȱusȱtoȱpursueȱecocriticalȱperspectives,ȱmeaningȱthe
probingȱofȱhowȱmuchȱthoseȱartistsȱwereȱevenȱawareȱofȱtheirȱnaturalȱenvironment
andȱ whetherȱ theyȱ couldȱ convinceȱ theirȱ customersȱ toȱ subscribeȱ toȱ theȱ new
illustrationȱprogramȱwithȱitsȱhighlyȱ‘realistic’ȱapproach.16ȱ
Landscapeȱandȱnaturalȱscenesȱcanȱbeȱunderstoodȱasȱ“aȱformȱofȱnarrativeȱimage
mediatingȱ betweenȱ theȱ physicalȱ environmentȱ andȱ humanȱ cultureȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ crossing
conventionalȱboundariesȱbetweenȱtheȱbiologicalȱandȱtheȱimaginary,ȱtheȱbodyȱand
theȱenvironment,ȱtheȱsubjectiveȱandȱtheȱobjective.”17ȱAllȱrepresentationsȱofȱnature,
bothȱinȱliteraryȱtextsȱandȱinȱimages,ȱreflectȱspecificȱhumanȱperspectives,ȱwhich
thusȱallowȱusȱtoȱunderstandȱtheȱlevelȱofȱawareness,ȱappreciation,ȱorȱfearȱofȱthe
14
RogerȱS.ȱWieck,ȱTimeȱSanctified:ȱTheȱBookȱofȱHoursȱinȱMedievalȱArtȱandȱLife.ȱWithȱessaysȱbyȱLawrence
R.ȱ Poos,ȱ Virginiaȱ Reinburg,ȱ andȱ Johnȱ Plummerȱ (Newȱ York:ȱ Georgeȱ Braziller;ȱ Baltimore:ȱ The
WaltersȱArtȱGallery,ȱ1997).
15
VirginiaȱReinburg,ȱ“SocialȱHistoryȱandȱtheȱBookȱofȱHours,”ȱTimeȱSanctifiedȱ(seeȱnoteȱ14),ȱ33–38;
hereȱ37.
16
Otherȱapproachesȱtoȱthisȱtopicȱofȱruralȱspaceȱdrawȱtheirȱinformationȱforȱexampleȱfromȱtheȱfabliaux;
seeȱDanièleȱAlexanderȬBidonȱetȱMarieȬThérèseȱLorcin,ȱLeȱquotidienȱauȱtempsȱdesȱfabliaux:ȱTextes,
images,ȱobjets.ȱEspacesȱMédiévauxȱ(Paris:ȱEditionsȱA.ȱ&ȱJ.ȱPicard,ȱ2003).ȱSeeȱalsoȱGillianȱRudd,
Greenery:ȱEcocriticalȱReadingsȱofȱLateȱMedievalȱEnglishȱLiteratureȱ(2007;ȱManchester:ȱManchester
UniversityȱPress,ȱ2010).ȱForȱfurtherȱdiscussionȱofȱsocialȱriotsȱandȱunrestȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱsee
theȱIntroductionȱtoȱthisȱvolume.
17
AlfredȱK.ȱSiewers,ȱStrangeȱBeauty:ȱEcocriticalȱApproachesȱtoȱEarlyȱMedievalȱLandscape.ȱTheȱNew
MiddleȱAgesȱ(NewȱYork:ȱPalgraveȱMacmillan,ȱ2009),ȱ5.
physicalȱworldȱoutsideȱofȱtheȱsubjectȱ(culturalȱsymbolism).18ȱInsteadȱofȱlimitingȱour
approachȱ toȱ theȱ Booksȱ ofȱ Hoursȱ byȱ wayȱ ofȱ focusingȱ onȱ theȱ religiousȱ andȱ artȬ
historicalȱ aspectsȱ only,ȱ theȱ analysisȱ ofȱ theȱ ruralȱ spaceȱ inȱ theȱ manuscript
illustrationsȱwillȱallowȱusȱtoȱcomprehendȱmoreȱspecificallyȱtheȱinteractionȱbetween
theȱartists/patronȱandȱhis/herȱnaturalȱenvironment.19ȱ
ThroughoutȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱvirtuallyȱallȱaspectsȱofȱnatureȱandȱspaceȱcarriedȱa
symbolic,ȱallegorical,ȱorȱiconographicȱmeaningȱ(inȱtheȱsenseȱasȱD.ȱW.ȱRobertson
hadȱproclaimedȱinȱhisȱPrefaceȱtoȱChaucer,ȱ1962),ȱbutȱbeginningȱatȱtheȱlateȱfourteenth
andȱfifteenthȱcenturiesȱweȱalsoȱnoticeȱanȱinnovativeȱcuriosityȱaboutȱtheȱnatural
environmentȱforȱitsȱownȱsake,ȱindicatingȱaȱnewȱpleasureȱandȱdelightȱaboutȱthe
faunaȱ andȱ floraȱ surroundingȱ theȱ narrativeȱ figuresȱ andȱ protagonistsȱ inȱ literary
texts,ȱincludingȱtheȱBooksȱofȱHours.ȱ
St.ȱ Francisȱ ofȱ Assisiȱ canȱ beȱ creditedȱ withȱ havingȱ turnedȱ hisȱ contemporaries’
attentionȱtoȱtheirȱnaturalȱenvironmentȱwhereȱtheyȱcouldȱdiscoverȱencountersȱwith
theȱ divineȱ asȱ wellȱ becauseȱ allȱ creaturesȱ andȱ plantsȱ wereȱ madeȱ byȱ God.20
Ecocriticismȱreflects,ȱasȱGillianȱRuddȱnowȱexplains,ȱ“theȱadmissionȱthatȱhumans
areȱtooȱreadilyȱselfȬreferentialȱinȱtheirȱattitudes.ȱEcocriticismȱstrivesȱtoȱmoveȱaway
fromȱtheȱanthropocentrismȱwhichȱcreatesȱandȱoperatesȱaȱvalueȬsystemȱinȱwhich
theȱonlyȱthingsȱthatȱareȱseen,ȱletȱaloneȱvalued,ȱareȱthoseȱthatȱserveȱsomeȱkindȱof
purposeȱinȱhumanȱterms.”21ȱTheȱecocriticalȱreadingȱofȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱempowersȱus
toȱrecognizeȱsmallȱbutȱimportantȱnewȱelementsȱinȱthoseȱmarvelousȱminiaturesȱthat
increasinglyȱenterȱtheȱartists’ȱdesignȱandȱpopulateȱpreviouslyȱhighlyȱstereotyped
spaces.
Sinceȱ thereȱ isȱ aȱ considerableȱ varietyȱ ofȱ Booksȱ ofȱ Hours,ȱ despiteȱ aȱ noticeable
consistencyȱinȱtheȱstructuralȱmakeȬupȱandȱdesignȱofȱeachȱcopy,ȱitȱmightȱbeȱalmost
impossibleȱtoȱreachȱaȱfirmȱconclusionȱasȱtoȱtheȱfunctionȱofȱtheȱruralȱspaceȱdepicted
inȱ theseȱ illuminations.ȱ Myȱ primaryȱ interestȱ hereȱ focusesȱ onȱ theȱ awarenessȱ of
specificȱ detailsȱ presentedȱ byȱ theȱ artists,ȱ suchȱ asȱ trees,ȱ flowers,ȱ birds,ȱ animals,
18
Forȱ aȱ standardȱ definitionȱ ofȱ ecocriticism,ȱ seeȱ Rebeccaȱ Doughlass,ȱ “Ecocriticismȱ andȱ Middle
Englishȱ Literature,”ȱ Studiesȱ inȱ Medievalismȱ 10ȱ (1998):ȱ 136–63;ȱ hereȱ 138:ȱ itȱ isȱ aȱ “readingȱ with
attentionȱtoȱtreatmentsȱofȱnature,ȱland,ȱandȱplace,ȱinformedȱbyȱaȱdesireȱtoȱunderstandȱpastȱand
presentȱconnectionsȱbetweenȱliteratureȱandȱhumanȱattitudesȱregardingȱtheȱearth.”
19
PeterȱBarry,ȱ“Ecocriticism,”ȱBeginningȱTheory:ȱAnȱIntroductionȱtoȱLiteraryȱandȱCulturalȱTheory,ȱed.
id.ȱ 3rdȱ ed.ȱ (1995;ȱ Manchester:ȱ Manchesterȱ Universityȱ Press,ȱ 2009).ȱ Seeȱ alsoȱ Gregȱ Garrard,,
Ecocriticismȱ(NewȱYork::ȱRoutledge,ȱ2004);ȱToddȱA.ȱBorlik,ȱEcocriticismȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱEnglish
Literature:ȱGreenȱPasturesȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱLondon:ȱRoutledge,ȱ2011).ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱrespectableȱarticle
cumȱbibliographyȱinȱWikipedia,ȱonlineȱatȱhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecocriticismȱ(lastȱaccessed
onȱOct.ȱ19,ȱ2011).
20
Rogerȱ D.ȱ Sorrell,ȱ St.ȱ Francisȱ ofȱ Assisiȱ andȱ Nature:ȱ Traditionȱ andȱ Innovationȱ inȱ Westernȱ Christian
AttitudesȱTowardsȱtheȱEnvironmentȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱOxford:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2010).
21
Rudd,ȱGreeneryȱ(seeȱnoteȱ16),ȱ5–6.
mountains,ȱ rivers,ȱ andȱ meadows.ȱ Behindȱ everyȱ dreamȱ imageȱ weȱ canȱ detectȱ a
factualȱworld,ȱeitherȱasȱaȱcontrastȱorȱasȱaȱcorrective,ȱ butȱ inȱbothȱcasesȱtheȱone
dimensionȱcannotȱfullyȱexistȱwithoutȱtheȱother,ȱlikeȱtheȱlinguisticȱphenomenaȱof
theȱsigneȱandȱtheȱsignifié.ȱStudyingȱtheȱnatureȱscenesȱinȱtheȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱenables
usȱtoȱgraspȱlateȬmedievalȱawarenessȱofȱtheȱphysicalȱspaceȱinȱwhichȱpeopleȱlived,
especiallyȱoutsideȱofȱtheirȱhouses,ȱcities,ȱcastles,ȱandȱmonasteries.22
Toȱaddressȱtheȱissueȱpursuedȱhere,ȱIȱcanȱonlyȱselectȱaȱhandfulȱofȱmostȱremarkable
representatives,ȱbeginningȱwithȱtheȱtrulyȱstunningȱGrandesȱHeuresȱdeȱRohanȱfrom
ca.ȱ1415–1416,ȱinȱwhichȱsomeȱfiguresȱareȱclearlyȱmodeledȱafterȱthoseȱinȱtheȱTrès
RichesȱHeuresȱbyȱtheȱLimbourgȱbrothers,ȱorȱratherȱtheȱBellesȱHeuresȱpaintedȱbyȱPaul
deȱLimbourgȱforȱAllȱSaints.ȱTheȱoriginalȱownerȱmustȱhaveȱhailedȱfromȱParis,ȱbut
inȱJuneȱofȱ1416,ȱaȱfewȱmonthsȱafterȱtheȱdeathȱofȱtheȱDukeȱofȱBerry,ȱ“theȱDuchess
YolandeȱofȱAnjou,ȱtheȱwifeȱofȱhisȱnephew,ȱDukeȱLouisȱII,ȱborrowedȱitȱandȱsoon
boughtȱit.”23ȱHowever,ȱitȱseemsȱmostȱlikelyȱthatȱtheȱGrandesȱHeuresȱdeȱRohanȱwas
createdȱforȱCharles,ȱDukeȱofȱBerryȱandȱfromȱOctoberȱ1422ȱKingȱofȱFrance.ȱ
TheȱRohanȱMaster—inȱallȱlikelihoodȱthereȱwereȱseveralȱartistsȱinvolvedȱinȱthe
productionȱofȱthisȱBookȱofȱHours,ȱbutȱforȱsimplicity’sȱsakeȱIȱstickȱtoȱtheȱsingular
here—provesȱ toȱ beȱ highlyȱ unusualȱ inȱ hisȱ strategiesȱ inȱ theȱ paintings,ȱ andȱ he
certainlyȱ seemsȱ toȱ haveȱ originatedȱ fromȱ outsideȱ ofȱ France,ȱ perhapsȱ fromȱ the
NetherlandsȱorȱGermany.ȱHeȱmightȱhaveȱstartedȱhisȱcareerȱinȱtheȱProvenceȱand
subsequentlyȱseemsȱtoȱhaveȱmovedȱtoȱTroyesȱfromȱca.ȱ1410ȱtoȱ1414,ȱafterȱwhichȱhe
settledȱ inȱ Paris.ȱ Whileȱ theȱ Boucicautȱ Masterȱ andȱ theȱ Limbourgȱ Brothersȱ were
amongȱtheȱfirstȱtoȱrecognizeȱtheȱbeautyȱandȱpowerȱofȱnatureȱforȱtheirȱmanuscript
illuminations,ȱ theȱ Rohanȱ Masterȱ focusedȱ moreȱ onȱ somberȱ moodsȱ andȱ the
expressionȱofȱemotions.24ȱNevertheless,ȱweȱwouldȱnotȱdoȱjusticeȱtoȱhisȱworkȱifȱwe
disregardedȱtheȱconsiderableȱdegreeȱofȱattentionȱtoȱelementsȱinȱnature.ȱ
Forȱ theȱ monthȱ ofȱ February,ȱ forȱ instance,ȱ heȱ choseȱ toȱ presentȱ twoȱ elegantly
dressedȱworkersȱwhoȱcutȱtreesȱorȱuprootȱthem.ȱAȱfireȱburnsȱbehindȱthem,ȱwhile
aȱlittleȱdogȱstrutsȱaround.ȱForȱMarchȱheȱselectedȱanȱearlyȱspringȱscene,ȱwithȱthe
treesȱalreadyȱcoveredȱwithȱaȱdenseȱcanopyȱofȱleaves.ȱAȱrichlyȱclothedȱhorseman
isȱpositionedȱatȱtheȱedgeȱofȱaȱforest,ȱorȱatȱleastȱaȱwallȱofȱthinlyȬstemmedȱtrees,ȱthe
branchesȱofȱwhichȱhaveȱallȱbeenȱcut.ȱWeȱgainȱaȱclearȱsenseȱofȱaȱparkȬlikeȱsetting,
whichȱtheȱknight’sȱandȱhisȱhorse’sȱtrappingsȱunderscoreȱevenȱfurther.ȱTheȱimage
22
Forȱanȱolder,ȱbutȱstillȱveryȱusefulȱapproachȱwithȱplentyȱofȱliteraryȱdata,ȱseeȱDerekȱPearsallȱand
ElizabethȱSalter,ȱLandscapesȱandȱSeasonsȱofȱtheȱMedievalȱWorldȱ(London:ȱElek,ȱ1973).
23
TheȱRohanȱMaster:ȱAȱBookȱofȱHours.ȱBibliothèqueȱNationale,ȱParisȱ(M.S.ȱLatinȱ9471).ȱIntroductionȱby
MillardȱMeis.ȱIntroductionȱandȱCommentariesȱbyȱMarcelȱThomasȱ(NewȱYork:ȱGeorgeȱBraziller,
1973),ȱ13.ȱSeeȱnowȱtheȱfacsimileȱGrandesȱhorasȱdeȱRohanȱ(Ms.ȱLat.ȱ9471,ȱBibliotecaȱnacionalȱdeȱFrancia):
libroȱdeȱestudiosȱ([Madrid]:ȱA.ȱyȱN.ȱediciones;ȱ[Paris]:ȱBibliothèqueȱnationaleȱdeȱFrance,ȱ2006).
24
Meiss,ȱ“Introduction”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ23),ȱ17.
forȱScorpioȱoffersȱaȱstrikingȱarrayȱofȱnatureȱdetails,ȱwithȱaȱgrassȱcutterȱinȱtheȱcenter.
Althoughȱ heȱ isȱ doingȱ theȱ workȱ ofȱ aȱ farmer,ȱ andȱ althoughȱ heȱ seemsȱ naked
underneathȱ hisȱ whiteȱ coat,ȱ hisȱ fineȱ shirtȱ withȱ goldenȱ stripesȱ indicateȱ the
playfulnessȱofȱtheȱscene.ȱInȱtheȱforegroundȱtheȱquiteȱcommonȱlapȱdogȱsitsȱonȱaȱred
cloth,ȱwaitingȱforȱhisȱmasterȱtoȱfinishȱtheȱwork.ȱAȱcuriousȱdetailȱinȱtheȱrightȬhand
foregroundȱunderscoresȱtheȱartist’sȱfascinationȱwithȱrealisticȱelements,ȱsinceȱwe
noticeȱtheȱcutter’sȱbootsȱtidilyȱplacedȱthere,ȱperhapsȱbecauseȱtheyȱmightȱhamper
himȱinȱhisȱactivity.ȱBehindȱtheȱmanȱweȱseeȱaȱwaddleȱfence,ȱandȱthenȱsomeȱrather
fancifulȱlookingȱtreesȱwithȱyellowȱblossoms.ȱ
Theȱ twoȱ workersȱ cuttingȱ grainȱ inȱ theȱ imageȱ forȱ Lionȱ (Leo)ȱ wearȱ onlyȱ white
clothing,ȱandȱwhiteȱheadȱdresses,ȱbutȱtheyȱareȱalsoȱbareȬfootedȱandȱexposeȱtheir
legsȱ asȱ well.ȱ Theȱ artistȱ paidȱ particularȱ attentionȱ toȱ theȱ fieldȱ ofȱ wheatȱ andȱ the
individualȱstalks,ȱwhichȱoneȱofȱtheȱmenȱbindsȱtogetherȱintoȱbundles.ȱAgain,ȱwe
noticeȱaȱpairȱofȱboots,ȱaȱlapȬdog,ȱandȱthenȱalsoȱaȱsmallȱkegȱforȱtheirȱrefreshment.
TheȱtwoȱthrashersȱinȱtheȱimageȱforȱVirgoȱareȱsimilarlyȱdressed,ȱbutȱtheyȱdoȱnot
wearȱanyȱheadȬgear,ȱprobablyȱbecauseȱtheyȱworkȱinȱaȱshed.ȱMostȱbeautifully,ȱfor
theȱmonthȱofȱAugustȱtheȱartistȱhasȱchosenȱaȱmostȱbeautifulȱsceneȱwithȱaȱsower
walkingȱoverȱtheȱfield,ȱalthoughȱaȱnumberȱofȱtallȱtreesȱseemsȱtoȱstandȱinȱtheȱway.
Thisȱtimeȱtheȱmanȱwearsȱhisȱshoesȱbecauseȱheȱisȱstridingȱoverȱtheȱrough,ȱnaked
soil.ȱInȱtheȱforegroundȱweȱdiscoverȱtwoȱbeeȬhivesȱandȱaȱlapȬdog,ȱonceȱagain,ȱwhile
aȱtreeȱstumpȱsignalsȱtheȱworkȱwhichȱtheȱfarmersȱhaveȱalreadyȱcompletedȱtoȱcarve
thatȱfieldȱoutȱofȱtheȱforest.ȱ
Mostȱcuriously,ȱtheȱsowerȱseemsȱtoȱrepresentȱbothȱtheȱupperȱandȱtheȱlowerȱclass
atȱonce,ȱconsideringȱhisȱclothing.ȱWhileȱhisȱtunicȱandȱovercoatȱappearȱtoȱbeȱofȱhigh
quality,ȱ hisȱ leggingsȱ areȱ completelyȱ tornȱ atȱ theȱ knees,ȱ whichȱ mightȱ beȱ aȱ good
representativeȱofȱtheȱzodiacȱsign,ȱLibra,ȱasȱindicatedȱonȱtheȱtopȱportionȱthrough
aȱscale.25ȱTheȱartistȱofȱtheȱminiatureȱforȱtheȱmonthȱofȱOctoberȱdelightsȱourȱeyes
withȱanȱamazinglyȱrealisticȱsceneȱofȱgrapeȱharvesting,ȱalthoughȱinȱmostȱotherȱbooks
ofȱhoursȱthatȱeventȱinȱharvestȱtimeȱwasȱplacedȱinȱSeptember.ȱWhileȱaȱmanȱandȱa
womanȱ cutȱ theȱ grapesȱ andȱ placeȱ themȱ inȱ baskets,ȱ anotherȱ manȱ carriesȱ aȱ large
wickerȱbasketȱforȱgrapesȱonȱhisȱback,ȱaboutȱtoȱemptyȱtheȱcontentȱintoȱaȱlargeȱvat
whereȱaȱthirdȱmanȱisȱstompingȱonȱtheȱgrapes.ȱAȱfourthȱmanȱpoursȱtheȱgrapeȱjuice
throughȱaȱfunnelȱintoȱaȱlargeȱbarrel.ȱ
Theȱextentȱtoȱwhichȱallȱfiguresȱwearȱstrangelyȱembroideredȱclothing,ȱnotȱfitting
forȱ ordinaryȱ workers,ȱ clearlyȱ signalsȱ theȱ artist’sȱ interestȱ toȱ appealȱ toȱ his/her
aristocraticȱaudience,ȱpretendingȱasȱifȱthatȱkindȱofȱworkȱwouldȱbeȱaȱjoyfulȱactivity
alsoȱforȱmembersȱofȱtheȱnobility,ȱperhapsȱmasqueradingȱasȱfarmers.ȱSoȱtypicalȱof
25
Thomas,ȱinȱhisȱcommentaryȱtoȱfol.ȱ13,ȱalsoȱnoticesȱtheȱdiscrepancyȱbetweenȱtheȱembroideredȱrobe
andȱtheȱpatheticȱbreeches,ȱasȱheȱidentifiesȱthem.ȱBothȱtheȱcolorȱwhiteȱandȱtheȱtightȱfitȱindicate,
however,ȱthatȱtheseȱareȱtheȱleggings.ȱ
mostȱBooksȱofȱHours,ȱtheȱsceneȱisȱcharacterizedȱbyȱaȱdreamȬlikeȱsettingȱwhereȱthe
realisticȱdepictionȱofȱtheȱwineȱbushes,ȱtheȱdemarcationȱbetweenȱgreenȱlandȱandȱthe
sandyȱworkȱplace,ȱandȱtheȱluxuriousȱclothingȱcreateȱastonishingȱcontrasts.ȱThe
artistȱmustȱhaveȱcloselyȱstudiedȱtheȱtrellisesȱnormallyȱusedȱforȱwineȱstalks,ȱsoȱhe
seemsȱtoȱhaveȱbeenȱquiteȱfamiliarȱwithȱtheȱtechniqueȱofȱproducingȱwineȱoutȱofȱthe
grapes.ȱThereȱisȱlittleȱdoubtȱaboutȱtheȱconcreteȱsetting,ȱalthoughȱitȱstillȱbegsȱforȱa
moralizingȱinterpretation,ȱasȱwasȱcommonlyȱtheȱcaseȱwithȱmedievalȱminiature
illustrations,ȱespeciallyȱinȱBooksȱofȱHours.ȱ
AsȱMauritsȱSmeyersȱnotes,ȱreflectingȱonȱaȱcomprehensiveȱoverviewȱofȱFlemish
bookȱ illuminationsȱ fromȱ theȱ lateȱ Middleȱ Ages,ȱ “Flemishȱ miniaturistsȱ made
significantȱ contributionsȱ toȱ theȱ developmentȱ ofȱ theȱ depictionȱ ofȱ landscapesȱ in
Flemishȱartȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱTheȱcalendarȱillustrationsȱinȱbooksȱofȱhoursȱprovidedȱanȱideal
placeȱforȱlandscapeȱimagery.ȱBecauseȱofȱtheirȱfullȬpageȱscale,ȱtheseȱwereȱdeemed
toȱbeȱjustȱasȱimportantȱasȱtheȱimagesȱthatȱaccompaniedȱtheȱsacredȱtexts.”26ȱFrom
anȱartȬhistoricalȱperspective,ȱourȱprimaryȱtaskȱwouldȱbeȱtoȱdecodeȱtheȱmultiple
signsȱonȱtheȱpage,ȱandȱtoȱunravelȱtheȱreligiousȱsecretsȱhiddenȱbehindȱtheȱpanoply
ofȱaȱdelightfullyȱrealisticȱlandscape.ȱForȱus,ȱhowever,ȱsufficeȱitȱtoȱfocusȱonȱthe
obvious,ȱ theȱ artist’sȱ greatȱ interestȱ inȱ theȱ realisticȱ featuresȱ becauseȱ theȱ goalȱ of
realizingȱtrueȱreligiousȱdevotion—atȱleastȱforȱmembersȱofȱtheȱlaity—couldȱonlyȱbe
achievedȱnotȱbyȱprojectingȱimagesȱofȱbiblicalȱscenesȱandȱepisodes,ȱbutȱbyȱsituating
theȱviewerȱwithinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱruralȱspace.ȱ
Consideringȱtheȱoverarchingȱinterestȱinȱconveyingȱreligiousȱinstructionȱandȱin
providingȱ illustrationsȱ forȱ biblicalȱ scenes,ȱ theȱ obviousȱ delightȱ inȱ theȱ playful
inclusionȱ ofȱ natureȱ scenes,ȱ ofȱ peasantsȱ andȱ theirȱ labor,ȱ animals,ȱ andȱ farmȱ life
strikesȱ usȱ asȱ mostȱ noteworthy,ȱ perhapsȱ asȱ theȱ artȬhistoricalȱ harbingerȱ ofȱ the
imminentȱparadigmȱshift.ȱAfterȱall,ȱmostȱilluminationsȱfocusȱalmostȱexclusivelyȱon
theȱspecificȱeventsȱasȱdescribedȱinȱtheȱbiblicalȱtextȱandȱdoȱnotȱleaveȱanyȱroomȱfor
theȱ eyeȱ toȱ wanderȱ offȱ intoȱ theȱ backgroundȱ orȱ theȱ marginsȱ ofȱ theȱ painting,
especiallyȱwhenȱweȱmoveȱfromȱtheȱCalendarȱtoȱtheȱGospels,ȱPrayers,ȱtheȱHoursȱof
theȱVirgin,ȱHoursȱofȱtheȱCross,ȱandȱtheȱOfficeȱofȱtheȱDead.ȱ
However,ȱevenȱhereȱweȱencounterȱremarkableȱexceptions,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱfullȬpage
paintingȱinȱtheȱsectionȱofȱtheȱHoursȱofȱtheȱVirginȱ(fol.ȱ85v).ȱInȱthisȱpanel,ȱwhich
seemsȱtoȱbeȱinfluencedȱbyȱtheȱItalianȱstyle,ȱtwoȱangelsȱhoverȱinȱtheȱskyȱinȱtheȱtop
leftȱcorner,ȱreadingȱfromȱaȱscroll,ȱapparentlyȱannouncingȱtheȱbirthȱofȱChrist.ȱBelow
them,ȱ inȱ aȱ ratherȱ mountainousȱ landscape,ȱ anȱ oversizedȱ shepherd,ȱ facingȱ the
viewer,ȱisȱstompingȱhisȱfeetȱinȱaȱdancingȱmoveȱwhileȱblowingȱhisȱflute.ȱAtȱthe
sameȱtimeȱhisȱwife,ȱkneelingȱbelowȱhimȱandȱofȱmuchȱsmallerȱproportion,ȱmilks
oneȱofȱtheȱewes.ȱWhileȱbothȱfiguresȱseemȱtoȱbeȱunawareȱofȱtheȱdramaticȱscene
26
MauritsȱSmeyers,ȱFlemishȱMiniaturesȱfromȱtheȱ8thȱtoȱtheȱMid–16thȱCentury:ȱTheȱMedievalȱWorldȱon
Parchment.ȱTrans.ȱbyȱKarenȱBowenȱandȱDirkȱImhofȱ(Leuven:ȱBrepols,ȱ1999),ȱ422.
unfoldingȱaboveȱthem,ȱtheȱdogȱhowlsȱandȱsomeȱofȱtheȱsheepȱlookȱupwardsȱtoward
theȱangels.ȱCuriously,ȱtheȱramȱattentivelyȱgazesȱatȱtheȱshepherd,ȱwhoȱdoesȱnot
seemȱtoȱnoticeȱanyȱofȱtheȱmiraculousȱeventsȱaboveȱhisȱhead.ȱ
Theȱartistȱdemonstratesȱaȱcuriouslyȱmixedȱapproachȱtoȱruralȱspace,ȱdepictingȱthe
rockyȱ backgroundȱ inȱ aȱ veryȱ stereotypicalȱ fashion,ȱ consideringȱ theirȱ craggy
appearance,ȱwithȱnoȱvegetationȱgrowingȱonȱthemȱexceptȱforȱsomeȱforlornȱtreesȱthat
seemȱtoȱhaveȱbrokenȱoutȱinȱflowers.ȱButȱhisȱfocusȱonȱtheȱanimals,ȱonȱtheȱdancing
farmer,ȱhisȱclothing,ȱhisȱunshavenȱface,ȱandȱthenȱonȱtheȱwoman’sȱfigureȱsignalȱa
greatȱawarenessȱofȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱtheȱrealisticȱdetailsȱandȱtheȱenjoymentȱofȱthe
ruralȱspace.ȱ
Thisȱ doesȱ notȱ meanȱ thatȱ theȱ artistȱ disfavoredȱ urbanȱ settingsȱ andȱ domestic
interiors,ȱwhichȱweȱobserveȱespeciallyȱinȱtheȱotherȱsectionsȱofȱthisȱBookȱofȱHours.
Butȱthisȱoneȱilluminationȱfullyȱconfirmsȱhowȱmuchȱtheȱcountrysideȱalsoȱloomed
largeȱ inȱ theȱ artist’sȱ andȱ probablyȱ alsoȱ hisȱ patron’sȱ mind,ȱ especiallyȱ givenȱ the
biblicalȱcontextȱwithȱtheȱshepherdsȱbeingȱtheȱfirstȱtoȱwhomȱChrist’sȱbirthȱhadȱbeen
announced.ȱNotȱexcludingȱpossibleȱsymbolicȱorȱallegoricalȱreadingsȱofȱtheȱhuge
shepherd,ȱ weȱ canȱ certainlyȱ confirmȱ thatȱ theȱ artistȱ wasȱ fascinatedȱ byȱ the
opportunityȱtoȱpresentȱsuchȱaȱfigure,ȱblowingȱtheȱflute,ȱapparentlyȱdayȬdreaming
andȱcompletelyȱselfȬcontainedȱinȱhisȱactivity.ȱWeȱalsoȱnoteȱhowȱmuchȱtheȱartistȱdid
notȱshyȱawayȱfromȱdepictingȱtheȱshepherd’sȱwrinklesȱinȱhisȱface,ȱhisȱalmostȱobese
body,ȱandȱtheȱfairlyȱsplendidȱundercoat.ȱ
Byȱcontrast,ȱtheȱfarmȬhand,ȱorȱpeasant,ȱcuttingȱwheatȱinȱtheȱilluminationȱofȱthe
HolyȱFamily’sȱFlightȱintoȱEgyptȱ(fol.ȱ99r),ȱappearsȱratherȱdisheveledȱandȱpoor,
wearingȱnothingȱbutȱaȱwhiteȱshirtȱandȱunderpants,ȱwhichȱcontrastsȱstarklyȱwith
theȱsplendidȱappearanceȱofȱtheȱtwoȱknightsȱonȱhorsebackȱwhoȱarriveȱonȱbehalfȱof
KingȱHerodȱandȱinquireȱwithȱhimȱwhetherȱheȱmightȱhaveȱseenȱtheȱHolyȱFamily
inȱtheirȱescape.ȱTheȱaccountȱreflectedȱhereȱisȱborrowedȱfromȱtheȱApocryphaȱand
isȱpredicatedȱonȱtheȱmiracleȱofȱtheȱfieldȱofȱgrain.ȱ“Alongȱtheȱway,ȱtheȱfugitives
haveȱcrossedȱaȱfieldȱwhichȱhasȱrecentlyȱbeenȱsown,ȱandȱbehindȱthemȱtheȱgrainȱhas
sprungȱupȱsoȱquicklyȱthatȱitȱisȱreadyȱtoȱbeȱharvestedȱbyȱtheȱtimeȱHerod’sȱmen
arrive.”27ȱWhereasȱtheȱfarmerȱtellsȱthemȱtheȱtruth,ȱ“theyȱcrossedȱthisȱfieldȱwhenȱthe
grainȱhadȱnotȱyetȱbegunȱtoȱgrow,”ȱwhichȱmeansȱnothingȱinȱfaceȱofȱtheȱmiracle,ȱthe
knightsȱmisreadȱhisȱwordsȱandȱbelieveȱthatȱtheȱgroupȱmustȱhaveȱpassedȱmonths
ago,ȱsoȱtheyȱgiveȱupȱandȱreturnȱhome.ȱ
Thereȱ isȱ noȱ needȱ forȱ usȱ toȱ investigateȱ theȱ allegoricalȱ meaningsȱ andȱ biblical
referencesȱ muchȱ further,ȱ sinceȱ theȱ contextȱ explicateȱ themȱ soȱ clearly.ȱ Forȱ our
purposes,ȱhowever,ȱweȱcanȱfocusȱonȱtheȱappearanceȱonȱtheȱfarmerȱalone,ȱwho
standsȱinȱtheȱfieldȱbarefoot,ȱholdingȱtheȱsickleȱinȱhisȱrightȱhand,ȱwhileȱheȱisȱlooking
upȱtoȱtheȱhorses,ȱdemurringȱbeforeȱtheseȱtwoȱgreatȱlords.ȱTheȱartistȱpaidȱgreat
27
Thomas,ȱ“Commentaries”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ23),ȱno.ȱ53.
attentionȱtoȱtheȱfieldȱofȱgrain,ȱattemptingȱtoȱleaveȱtheȱclearȱimpressionȱofȱeach
individualȱplant.ȱBelowȱtheȱpeasantȱweȱseeȱaȱsleepingȱfigureȱinȱaȱredȱcoat,ȱeven
smallerȱ thanȱ he,ȱ restingȱ onȱ bundledȱ sheavesȱ ofȱ wheat.ȱ Theȱ standingȱ farmer
displaysȱaȱlongȱbeard,ȱhisȱhairȱseemsȱalreadyȱtoȱbeȱthinningȱout,ȱandȱhisȱfaceȱis
markedȱbyȱdeepȱwrinkles,ȱreflectingȱtheȱarrivalȱofȱoldȱageȱinȱdramaticȱfashion.28ȱ
Consideringȱ theȱ context,ȱ thisȱ manȱ servesȱ anȱ importantȱ functionȱ inȱ this
apocryphalȱaccountȱbecauseȱheȱassistsȱtheȱHolyȱFamilyȱtoȱescapeȱfromȱHerod’s
knights.ȱ Inȱ theȱ largerȱ compositionȱ ofȱ theȱ painting,ȱ heȱ seemsȱ toȱ beȱ onlyȱ of
secondaryȱ importance,ȱ consideringȱ theȱ centralȱ dominanceȱ ofȱ theȱ Virginȱ Mary,
holdingȱtheȱChristȱchild,ȱandȱJoseph,ȱwhoȱareȱallȱstandingȱinȱaȱcrammedȱposition
behindȱsomeȱsmallȱtreesȱandȱrocks.ȱHerod’sȱknightsȱoccupyȱtheȱlowerȱrightȱhand
corner,ȱdisplayingȱsumptuousȱclothing,ȱheadȱgears,ȱsittingȱonȱequallyȱsplendid
saddles.ȱByȱcontrast,ȱtheȱfarmerȱinȱtheȱfieldȱofȱgrainȱrepresentsȱtrueȱhumbleness,
simplicity,ȱbutȱalsoȱveracity,ȱhonesty,ȱandȱdevotion,ȱpursuingȱhisȱworkȱinȱtheȱonly
wayȱheȱknowsȱtoȱdo,ȱansweringȱuponȱtheȱknights’ȱquestion,ȱyetȱwithoutȱoffering
furtherȱexplanations,ȱthusȱhidingȱtheȱmiracleȱtoȱthem.ȱ
Inȱthisȱreligiousȱcontext,ȱthen,ȱweȱundoubtedlyȱobserveȱtheȱartist’sȱconsiderable
interestȱinȱtheȱworldȱofȱfarmersȱandȱtheirȱactivitiesȱinȱtheȱfieldȱbecauseȱtheȱdivine
workingsȱ haveȱ nothingȱ toȱ doȱ withȱ theȱ socialȱ statusȱ anȱ individualȱ enjoys.ȱ The
illuminationȱthusȱintimatelyȱconnectsȱtheȱHolyȱFamilyȱwithȱtheȱhumbleȱfarmer,
whoȱdeservesȱourȱrespectȱdespiteȱhisȱpovertyȱandȱsimplicity.ȱOneȱsmallȱvisual
featureȱmightȱsupportȱthisȱreadingȱfurther.ȱTheȱdivineȱlightȱwhichȱshinesȱfrom
aboveȱandȱpoursȱonȱtoȱtheȱHolyȱFamilyȱseemsȱtoȱbeȱextendingȱdownȱtoȱtheȱfield
ofȱgrain,ȱpaintedȱinȱexactlyȱtheȱsameȱgoldenȱcolor.ȱHerod’sȱknights,ȱbyȱcontrast,
occupyȱaȱseparateȱspace,ȱunawareȱbothȱofȱtheȱHolyȱFamilyȱandȱtheirȱinnocentȱbut
centralȱsupporter,ȱtheȱsimpleȱfarmer.ȱSignificantly,ȱthisȱmotif,ȱbutȱthenȱmuchȱmore
centrallyȱdeveloped,ȱfindsȱitsȱparallelȱinȱtheȱimageȱforȱtheȱmonthȱofȱJulyȱ(fol.ȱ10r)
andȱofȱAugustȱ(fol.ȱ9v),ȱequallyȱrealisticȱandȱdetailȬoriented.ȱOtherwise,ȱhowever,
theȱreligiousȱthemesȱdominateȱandȱleaveȱnoȱfurtherȱroomȱforȱelementsȱreflecting
onȱruralȱspace.
TheȱBookȱofȱHoursȱbyȱtheȱsoȬcalledȱSpitzȱMasterȱfromȱParis,ȱca.ȱ1420,ȱtoday,ȱafter
havingȱpassedȱthroughȱmanyȱdifferentȱhands,ȱinȱtheȱpossessionȱofȱtheȱJ.ȱPaulȱGetty
Museum,ȱoffersȱanȱinterestingȱcontrastiveȱperspective,ȱwhereȱruralȱspaceȱemerges
muchȱ lessȱ dramatically,ȱ butȱ stillȱ beingȱ ofȱ greatȱ significance.ȱ Mostȱ ofȱ the
illuminationsȱfollowȱstandardȱmodels,ȱdemonstratingȱlittleȱinterestȱinȱexpanding
onȱtheȱnatureȱscenes;ȱinsteadȱtheȱartist/sȱfocusedȱmostlyȱonȱtheȱbiblicalȱscenarios
andȱsituatedȱtheȱcentralȱfigureȱinȱaȱsomewhatȱdevelopedȱruralȱspace.ȱTheȱNativity
28
OldȱAgeȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱRenaissance:ȱInterdisciplinaryȱApproachesȱtoȱaȱNeglectedȱTopic,ȱed.
AlbrechtȱClassen.ȱFundamentalsȱofȱMedievalȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱCulture,ȱ2ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:
deȱGruyter,ȱ2007).
Sceneȱonȱfol.ȱ84,ȱforȱinstance,ȱpresentsȱanȱalmostȱidyllicȱscene,ȱfarȱremovedȱfrom
theȱtrueȱruralȱsetting,ȱwithȱtheȱanimals,ȱtheȱshepherds,ȱandȱtheȱHolyȱcoupleȱall
gazingȱ devoutlyȱ ontoȱ theȱ Christȱ child,ȱ whoȱ isȱ lyingȱ onȱ aȱ spotȱ inȱ theȱ grass
surroundedȱbyȱangels,ȱwithȱGod’sȱraysȱshiningȱdirectlyȱontoȱHim.ȱTheȱartistȱknew,
however,ȱthatȱheȱhadȱtoȱofferȱmoreȱdetails,ȱandȱsoȱheȱhasȱpopulatedȱtheȱslowly
risingȱpastureȱandȱtheȱhillsȱinȱtheȱbackgroundȱwithȱgrazingȱsheep.29ȱ
Inȱtheȱilluminationȱshowingȱ“TheȱAnnunciationȱtoȱtheȱShepherds”ȱ(fol.ȱ89v),ȱthat
ruralȱ spaceȱ isȱ considerablyȱ expanded,ȱ butȱ itsȱ idyllicȱ natureȱ doesȱ notȱ change,
showingȱusȱaȱgroupȱofȱthreeȱmen,ȱeitherȱlying,ȱsitting,ȱorȱstanding,ȱpayingȱclose
attentionȱ toȱ theȱ angels’ȱ words.ȱ Theirȱ sheepȱ calmlyȱ andȱ concentratedȱ onlyȱ on
feedingȱgrazeȱinȱtheȱpasture,ȱmostlyȱaroundȱaȱbarrenȱtree,ȱbutȱinȱtheȱbackground
weȱrecognizeȱalsoȱaȱmillȱsituatedȱonȱaȱhilltop,ȱandȱtheȱoutlinesȱofȱaȱtownscapeȱon
theȱopposingȱhill.ȱInȱtheȱEscapeȱtoȱEgyptȱsceneȱtheȱidyllicȱnatureȱintensifies,ȱwith
tinyȱlittleȱtreesȱdottingȱtheȱlandscape.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱthreatȱresultingȱfromȱHerod’s
soldiers,ȱwhoȱalreadyȱemergeȱinȱtheȱbackgroundȱnextȱtoȱaȱforestȱandȱaȱhillȱupon
whichȱaȱcastleȱisȱlocated,ȱisȱnotȱignored.ȱNevertheless,ȱtheȱsceneȱwithȱtheȱVirgin
Mary,ȱholdingȱJesusȱinȱherȱlap,ȱandȱwithȱtheȱoldȱJosephȱholdingȱtheȱreinsȱofȱthe
donkey,ȱgazingȱatȱtheȱnewborn,ȱexudesȱpeacefulness,ȱhighlightingȱtheȱspiritual
dimensionȱevenȱinȱthisȱdangerousȱsituation.ȱ
IfȱweȱleafȱthroughȱthisȱBookȱofȱHour,ȱweȱcomeȱacrossȱmoreȱandȱmoreȱofȱthese
imagesȱthatȱareȱmodeledȱveryȱsimilarlyȱtoȱeachȱother,ȱwithȱsomeȱhills,ȱpastures,
trees,ȱandȱsheepȱherdsȱinȱtheȱbackground,ȱwhereȱweȱregularlyȱobserveȱtheȱriseȱof
someȱtowersȱandȱspiresȱofȱaȱcityȱperchedȱonȱaȱhill,ȱsuchȱasȱinȱtheȱsceneȱforȱThe
Agonyȱ inȱ theȱ Gardenȱ (fol.ȱ 169v).ȱ Thereȱ Christȱ isȱ separatedȱ fromȱ Hisȱ disciples
throughȱaȱwaddledȱfence,ȱkneelingȱinȱfrontȱofȱaȱsharplyȱpointedȱhill,ȱprayingȱto
God,ȱwhileȱtheȱsoldiersȱareȱalreadyȱarrivingȱinȱtheȱbackground.ȱEveryȱtimeȱthe
darkȱblueȱskyȱisȱdottedȱwithȱgoldenȱstars,ȱbutȱtheȱcompleteȱabsenceȱofȱcloudsȱor
sunȱlightȱunderscoresȱtheȱfictionalȱconditionȱperpetuatedȱhere.ȱAsȱtoȱbeȱexpected,
theȱSpitzȱmasterȱwasȱcertainlyȱinfluencedȱbyȱtheȱLimbourgȱbrothers,ȱasȱmanyȱof
hisȱmotifsȱconformȱtoȱtheirs.ȱButȱheȱwasȱ“evidentlyȱdissatisfiedȱwithȱtheȱshallow
settingȱ inȱ theȱ Bellesȱ Heures,ȱ however,ȱ forȱ heȱ insertedȱ threeȱ staggeredȱ hillocks
beyondȱtheȱLimbourg’sȱforegroundȱrise”ȱinȱTheȱAnnunciationȱtoȱtheȱShepherds.30ȱ
Asȱartȱhistoriansȱhaveȱobserved,ȱthereȱisȱaȱgreaterȱemphasisȱonȱ“compositional
density,ȱ copiousȱ patterning,ȱ andȱ exuberantȱ polychromy”ȱ comparedȱ toȱ other,
contemporaryȱBooksȱofȱHours.31ȱButȱthisȱshouldȱnotȱconcernȱusȱhereȱinȱallȱthose
29
GregoryȱT.ȱClark,ȱTheȱSpitzȱMaster:ȱAȱParisianȱBookȱofȱHoursȱ(LosȱAngeles:ȱGettyȱMuseumȱStudies
onȱArt,ȱ2003),ȱ223.ȱ
30
Clark,ȱTheȱSpitzȱMasterȱ(seeȱnoteȱ29),ȱ61.
31
details,ȱ becauseȱ theȱ emphasisȱ restsȱ onȱ theȱ questionȱ toȱ whatȱ extentȱ ruralȱ space
comesȱintoȱfocusȱandȱgainedȱinȱimportanceȱduringȱtheȱlateȱMiddleȱAges.ȱ
Evenȱ thoughȱ theȱ Spitzȱ Masterȱ didȱ notȱ careȱ toȱ elaborateȱ moreȱ onȱ theȱ rural
backgroundȱofȱhisȱilluminations,ȱheȱcertainlyȱdelightedȱinȱexperimentingȱwithȱa
numberȱofȱnewȱdetails,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱhabitualȱflockȱofȱsheepȱandȱbirdsȱflyingȱinȱthe
airȱorȱsittingȱonȱtheȱroofȱtopȱofȱtheȱcowȱshedȱinȱTheȱNativity,ȱtheȱwaddleȱfenceȱand
theȱ smallȱ creekȱ inȱ Theȱ Agonyȱ inȱ theȱ Garden,ȱ or,ȱ soȱ farȱ notȱ mentioned,ȱ the
bountifulnessȱ ofȱ flowersȱ andȱ shrubsȱ inȱ Theȱ Virginȱ inȱ anȱ Enclosedȱ Gardenȱ in
anotherȱBookȱofȱHoursȱbyȱtheȱsameȱMaster.32ȱMostȱsignificantly,ȱheȱdemonstrated
anȱ enormousȱ interestȱ inȱ embellishingȱ theȱ marginsȱ ofȱ hisȱ illuminationsȱ withȱ a
plethoraȱofȱanimals,ȱplants,ȱflowers,ȱbirds,ȱandȱevenȱmonsters,ȱconveyingȱquiteȱa
differentȱsenseȱofȱruralȱspaceȱthroughȱproxyȱelements.ȱInȱTheȱAnnunciationȱtoȱthe
Shepherdsȱheȱpursuedȱanȱevenȱdifferentȱapproach,ȱfillingȱtheȱmarginalȱspaceȱwith
aȱthrongȱofȱangels,ȱbirds,ȱplants,ȱdogs,ȱsheep,ȱshepherds,ȱandȱaȱvarietyȱofȱleaves.
Althoughȱweȱdoȱnotȱdetectȱanyȱbackgroundȱorȱdepthȱperceptionȱthere,ȱwithȱall
theseȱdrawingsȱremainingȱonȱaȱpurelyȱdescriptive,ȱtwoȬdimensionalȱlevel,ȱweȱare
supposedȱtoȱperceiveȱhowȱmuchȱtheȱnaturalȱspaceȱwasȱpermeatedȱbyȱtheȱdivine
space,ȱasȱrepresentedȱbyȱtheȱangels.ȱ
Theȱ sameȱ appliesȱ toȱ “Theȱ Flightȱ intoȱ Egypt”ȱ whereȱ bothȱ groupsȱ ofȱ knights,
individualȱknights,ȱandȱfarmersȱappear,ȱeachȱofȱthemȱcreatingȱruralȱspaceȱonȱtheir
own.ȱTheȱknightsȱreplicateȱHerod’sȱsoldiers,ȱalthoughȱtheyȱfigureȱonlyȱinȱaȱoneȬ
dimensionalȱspace.ȱTwoȱindividualȱknightsȱpretendȱtoȱbeȱinȱaȱjoustȱorȱareȱhunting
withȱ aȱ falcon.ȱ Oneȱ peasantȱ isȱ shownȱ cuttingȱ wheatȱ withȱ hisȱ sickle,ȱ anotherȱ is
presentedȱ inȱ aȱ walkingȱ position,ȱ holdingȱ aȱ scytheȱ overȱ hisȱ shoulder,ȱ looking
backwards,ȱwhileȱaȱthirdȱpeasant,ȱorȱaȱpersonȱofȱaȱhigherȱrank,ȱsimplyȱgazesȱinto
theȱdistance.ȱAlthoughȱtheȱcentralȱimageȱdoesȱnotȱcontainȱanyȱruralȱmotifȱinȱthe
narrowȱ senseȱ ofȱ theȱ word,ȱ theȱ Holyȱ Familyȱ traversesȱ aȱ ruralȱ space,ȱ whichȱ is
underscoredȱbyȱtheȱpeasants’ȱactivities.ȱTheȱknights,ȱonȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱsuggest
spaceȱatȱlargeȱthroughȱtheirȱmovements.ȱInȱDavidȱinȱPrayerȱtheȱfancifulȱmarginal
drawingsȱincreaseȱinȱpreponderance,ȱalmostȱthreateningȱtoȱovershadowȱtheȱcentral
imageȱbecauseȱtheȱindividualȱcreatures,ȱmostlyȱmonstrousȱinȱappearance,ȱareȱof
muchȱlargerȱsize.ȱ
WhileȱtheȱsceneȱwithȱDavidȱpresentsȱaȱharmoniousȱworld,ȱpeacefulȱandȱquiet,
obviouslyȱreflectingȱtheȱintimateȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱmacrocosmȱ(withȱGodȱand
theȱheavenlyȱarmyȱofȱangelsȱhoveringȱabove)ȱandȱmicrocosmȱ(KingȱDavid,ȱthe
shepherds,ȱand,ȱbeyondȱourȱview,ȱtheȱcityȱdwellersȱinȱtheȱbackground),ȱtheȱmargin
contains,ȱasȱisȱsoȱoftenȱtheȱcaseȱinȱlateȬmedievalȱmanuscripts,ȱaȱworldȱinȱuproar
andȱ tumult,ȱ withȱ lotsȱ ofȱ leavesȱ andȱ branchesȱ shootingȱ forthȱ tendrilsȱ inȱ many
differentȱdirectionsȱandȱcolors.ȱTwoȱmonstrousȱlookingȱhuntsmenȱaimȱtheirȱarrows
32
atȱaȱbird,ȱwhichȱsituatesȱusȱsomehowȱinȱaȱwildȱforest,ȱalmostȱimpenetrableȱbecause
ofȱtheȱcountlessȱvines.33ȱ
Whereasȱ thisȱ famousȱ kingȱ fromȱ theȱ Oldȱ Testamentȱ kneelsȱ inȱ aȱ lonely
landscape—theȱshepherdsȱareȱfarȱremovedȱfromȱhim—beingȱdirectlyȱconnected
withȱGodȱaboveȱhisȱhead,ȱtheȱmargin,ȱcertainlyȱruralȱinȱaȱvarietyȱofȱways,ȱseems
toȱbeȱdominatedȱbyȱanȱinaudibleȱcacophony,ȱwhereȱwildȱthingsȱandȱoddȱlooking
creaturesȱ demarcateȱ theȱ materialȱ worldȱ withȱ itsȱ chaoticȱ properties,ȱ which
powerfullyȱreflectsȱtheȱdialecticȱnatureȱofȱmedievalȱepistemology.34ȱInȱthisȱregard
ruralȱspaceȱwasȱjustȱasȱimportantȱasȱurbanȱorȱcourtlyȱspace,ȱsinceȱitȱprovided,ȱin
itsȱcontrastiveȱcharacter,ȱanȱimportantȱbackdropȱtoȱtheȱdivineȱworld,ȱtheȱcourtly
sphere,ȱandȱtheȱwellȬorganizedȱurbanȱdimension.ȱSpirituality,ȱforȱinstance,ȱcould
notȱbeȱachieved,ȱasȱtheȱartistsȱofȱtheȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱindicated,ȱifȱtheȱviewerȱdidȱnot
understandȱtheȱparadoxȱofȱhumanȱexistence,ȱcaughtȱbetweenȱtheȱmaterialityȱand
theȱidealityȱofȱthisȱworld.
Significantly,ȱ ruralȱ spaceȱ emerges,ȱ evenȱ ifȱ onlyȱ inȱ itsȱ parkȬlikeȱ appearance,
mostlyȱinȱnorthernȱEuropeanȱBooksȱofȱHours,ȱwhereȱtheȱartistsȱandȱscribesȱhad
muchȱlessȱaccessȱtoȱclassicalȱliterature,ȱforȱinstance,ȱthanȱinȱItaly,ȱwhereȱtheȱSforza
Hours,ȱforȱinstance,ȱcreatedȱbyȱtheȱMilaneseȱilluminatorȱandȱpriestȱGiovanȱPietro
BiragoȱforȱtheȱDuchessȱBonzaȱSforzaȱ(diedȱ1503),ȱrepresentsȱtheȱnewȱapproach
deeplyȱinfluencedȱalreadyȱbyȱtheȱRenaissanceȱculture.35ȱHereȱweȱrecognizeȱmany
differentȱattemptsȱtoȱsituateȱtheȱspecificȱbiblicalȱeventsȱinȱtheȱcharacteristicȱlateȬ
medievalȱ orȱ alreadyȱ Renaissanceȱ environment,ȱ butȱ theȱ artistsȱ wereȱ mostly
concernedȱwithȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱtheȱensemblesȱofȱfigures,ȱwhichȱmeantȱthatȱthe
backgroundȱspace,ȱcertainlyȱfinelyȱmodeled,ȱlostȱinȱsignificanceȱagain.ȱIfȱweȱsee
nature,ȱ itȱ seemsȱ highlyȱ stylizedȱ andȱ onlyȱ framesȱ theȱ centralȱ eventsȱ inȱ the
foreground.ȱThereȱareȱnoȱmoreȱtypicallyȱruralȱscenes,ȱnoȱfarmers,ȱnoȱfields,ȱand
33
Thisȱis,ȱofȱcourse,ȱnotȱaȱnewȱobservation,ȱquiteȱonȱtheȱcontrary;ȱseeȱMichaelȱCamille,ȱImageȱonȱthe
Edge:ȱtheȱMarginsȱofȱMedievalȱArtȱ(London:ȱReaktionȱBooks,ȱ1992);ȱseeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionsȱto
Scientiaȱ inȱ margine:ȱ étudesȱ surȱ lesȱ marginaliaȱ dansȱ lesȱ manuscritsȱ scientifiquesȱ duȱ moyenȱ âgeȱ àȱ la
renaissance,ȱ réuniesȱ parȱ Danielleȱ Jacquartȱ etȱ Charlesȱ Burnett.ȱ Hautesȱ étudesȱ médiévalesȱ et
modernes,ȱ 88ȱ (Geneva:ȱ Droz,ȱ 2005);ȱ Signsȱ onȱ theȱ Edge:ȱ Space,ȱ Textȱ andȱ Marginȱ inȱ Medieval
Manuscripts,ȱed.ȱbyȱSarahȱLarrattȱKeeferȱandȱRolfȱH.ȱBremmerȱJr.ȱMediaevaliaȱGroningana,ȱN.S.,
10ȱ(ParisȱandȱDudley,ȱMA:ȱPeeters,ȱ2007).
34
Thisȱseemsȱtoȱhaveȱbeenȱaȱmajorȱfeatureȱofȱmedievalȱphilosophy,ȱtheology,ȱandȱscholasticism;ȱsee
Catherineȱ Brown,ȱ Contraryȱ Things:ȱ Exegesis,ȱ Dialectic,ȱ andȱ theȱ Poeticsȱ ofȱ Didacticism.ȱ Figurae
(Stanford,ȱCA:ȱStanfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1998);ȱConstanceȱBrittainȱBouchard,ȱ“EveryȱValleyȱShall
beȱExalted”:ȱTheȱDiscourseȱofȱOppositesȱinȱTwelfthȬCenturyȱThoughtȱ(Ithaca,ȱNY,ȱandȱLondon:ȱCornell
35
Markȱ Evans,ȱ Theȱ Sforzaȱ Hoursȱ (London:ȱ Theȱ Britishȱ Library,ȱ 1992).ȱ Margaretȱ ofȱ Austria
(1480–1530),ȱ daughterȱ ofȱ theȱ Hapsburgianȱ Emperorȱ Maximilianȱ Iȱ andȱ Maryȱ ofȱ Burgundy,
inheritedȱtheȱSforzaȱHoursȱwhenȱherȱhusbandȱPhillibert,ȱDukeȱofȱSavoy,ȱdiedȱinȱ1504.ȱMargaret
becameȱoneȱofȱtheȱgreatestȱpatronsȱofȱtheȱartsȱandȱliteratureȱduringȱtheȱearlyȱsixteenthȱcentury
(24–25).
virtuallyȱnoȱanimalsȱtoȱbeȱseen,ȱwhileȱcityȱimages,ȱarchitecturalȱinteriors,ȱcarefullyȬ
trimmedȱ treesȱ andȱ someȱ vistasȱ onȱ distantȱ landscapesȱ dominated,ȱ whichȱ are,
however,ȱallȱcivilized,ȱthatȱis,ȱoccupiedȱbyȱcities,ȱchurches,ȱorȱcastles.
Thisȱdoesȱnotȱmean,ȱhowever,ȱthatȱruralȱspaceȱwasȱcondemnedȱtoȱdisappear
fromȱthisȱgenreȱaltogether.ȱOnȱtheȱcontrary,ȱasȱtheȱBookȱofȱHhours,ȱoriginallyȱinȱthe
possessionȱofȱAugustȱtheȱYounger,ȱDukeȱofȱBrunswickȱandȱLüneburgȱ(1579–1666),
convincinglyȱillustrates,ȱtheȱinterestȱinȱruralȱactivities,ȱinȱtheȱpeasantȱpopulation,
andȱtheȱnaturalȱenvironmentȱcouldȱeasilyȱreenterȱthisȱgenre.36ȱNatureȱscenesȱplay
greatestȱ importance,ȱ asȱ toȱ beȱ expected,ȱ inȱ theȱ Calendar,ȱ withȱ individual
illustrationsȱreservedȱforȱeachȱmonth.ȱ
Afterȱtheȱfirstȱimageȱhasȱshownȱusȱindividualsȱinȱaȱroomȱeatingȱ(fol.ȱ2r),ȱthe
secondȱtakesȱusȱoutsideȱtoȱtheȱwinterȱlandscape,ȱwhereȱcoldȱweatherȱforcesȱpeople
toȱ dressȱ warmly,ȱ especiallyȱ becauseȱ snowȱ coversȱ theȱ groundȱ (fol.ȱ 2v).ȱ The
illuminationsȱforȱFebruaryȱpresentȱanȱorchardȱwhereȱnoȱleavesȱhaveȱyetȱsprouted
(fol.ȱ3r),ȱandȱaȱvillageȱsceneȱwithȱaȱmanȱcarryingȱaȱlargeȱbranchȱ(fol.ȱ3v).ȱInȱMarch
theȱpeasantsȱhaveȱtoȱbeginȱtoȱworkȱtheȱgroundsȱinȱpreparationȱforȱtheȱseeding
seasonȱ(fols.ȱ4r–4v).ȱTheȱimagesȱforȱAprilȱswitchȱfromȱtheȱworldȱofȱtheȱfarmersȱto
theȱoneȱofȱtheȱrichȱandȱwealthy,ȱperhapsȱevenȱofȱtheȱaristocrats,ȱsinceȱnowȱscenes
ofȱpleasureȱandȱleisureȱinȱgardenȬlikeȱsettingsȱdominateȱ(fols.ȱ5r–v).ȱOnlyȱwhenȱwe
turnȱtoȱtheȱmonthȱofȱJuneȱdoȱweȱencounterȱruralȱactivitiesȱagain,ȱwithȱaȱpeasant
andȱhisȱwifeȱworkȱonȱtheȱmeadow,ȱcuttingȱgrassȱandȱreadyingȱitȱforȱtheȱharvest
(fol.ȱ 6r–v).ȱ Thisȱ isȱ thenȱ continuedȱ inȱ theȱ imagesȱ forȱ theȱ subsequentȱ months,
dominatedȱbyȱtheȱcharacteristicȱagriculturalȱactivitiesȱnecessaryȱforȱthatȱseason.
TheȱilluminationsȱforȱtheȱmonthsȱofȱNovemberȱandȱDecemberȱfocusȱonȱfarmers’
workȱwithȱtheirȱanimals,ȱconcludingȱwithȱilluminationsȱshowingȱusȱbutchering.ȱ
Asȱ muchȱ asȱ thisȱ sequenceȱ ofȱ imagesȱ conformsȱ toȱ theȱ traditionȱ ofȱ Calendar
imagesȱinȱBooksȱofȱHours,ȱtheȱartistȱstillȱrevealsȱhisȱattentionȱtoȱdetail,ȱhisȱawareness
ofȱtheȱconcreteȱworkȱactivitiesȱinȱtheȱruralȱspace,ȱandȱhisȱconsiderableȱrespectȱfor
theȱfarmerȱwhoȱperformsȱimportantȱworkȱfromȱwhichȱallȱmembersȱofȱsocietyȱcan
profit.ȱ
UntilȱnowȱIȱhaveȱnotȱevenȱexaminedȱtheȱmostȱfamousȱBookȱofȱHours,ȱtheȱoneȱby
theȱ Brothersȱ ofȱ Limbourgȱ whoȱ producedȱ itȱ forȱ theȱ Dukeȱ ofȱ Berry,ȱ butȱ that
specimenȱsupersedesȱallȱtheȱothersȱandȱcanȱbeȱcalledȱtheȱartisticȱtriumphȱinȱthe
entireȱ genre,ȱ andȱ thisȱ alreadyȱ inȱ theȱ earlyȱ fifteenthȱ centuryȱ (ca.ȱ 1410–1418).
Scholarsȱhaveȱpouredȱmanyȱtimesȱoverȱtheirȱmasterpiece,ȱsoȱsufficeȱitȱhereȱtoȱdraw
onlyȱfromȱoneȱimage,ȱrepresentingȱtheȱmonthȱofȱFebruary.37ȱTheȱnumberȱofȱdetails
36
DasȱStundenbuchȱHerzogȱAugustsȱd.ȱJ.,ȱed.ȱJoachimȱFischerȱandȱGabrieleȱWerthmannȱ(Wolfenbüttel:
HerzogȱAugustȱBibliothek,ȱ2004).
37
EdmondȱPognon,ȱLesȱTrèsȱRichesȱheuresȱduȱDucȱdeȱBerry:ȱ15thȬCenturyȱManuscript,ȱtrans.ȱbyȱDavid
Macraeȱ([NewȱYork:]ȱCrescentȱBooks,ȱ1979).
beingȱpresentedȱisȱjustȱamazing,ȱindicatingȱnotȱonlyȱtheȱartists’ȱgreatȱeyeȱforȱdetail,
butȱalsoȱtheirȱawarenessȱandȱappreciationȱofȱtheȱlifeȱofȱtheȱruralȱpopulation.ȱThe
viewer’sȱeyeȱisȱallowedȱtoȱwanderȱbothȱintoȱtheȱopenedȱfarmȱhouse,ȱwithȱthree
peopleȱsittingȱonȱbenches,ȱholdingȱtheirȱfeetȱtoȱtheȱfire,ȱoutȱintoȱtheȱfarm,ȱwhere
theȱsheepȱhuddleȱinȱtheirȱshed,ȱpigeonsȱpickȱtheirȱfood,ȱandȱthenȱbeyondȱtoȱthe
forestȱ whereȱ aȱ manȱ isȱ choppingȱ downȱ aȱ tree,ȱ whileȱ anotherȱ takesȱ hisȱ donkey,
heavilyȱloadedȱwithȱwoodenȱsticks,ȱtowardȱtheȱnearȬbyȱsettlement,ȱprobablyȱonly
aȱhamlet.ȱThisȱpictureȱisȱalsoȱsoȱfamousȱbecauseȱwhereasȱtheȱfirstȱwomanȱsitting
closestȱtoȱtheȱviewerȱliftsȱupȱherȱdressȱonlyȱslightly,ȱavoidingȱexposingȱherȱlower
bodyȱparts,ȱtheȱcoupleȱbehindȱherȱdoesȱnotȱseemȱtoȱfeelȱanyȱshame,ȱsittingȱonȱtheir
seatsȱandȱallowingȱtheirȱclothingȱtoȱslipȱupȱbeyondȱtheirȱgenitals.38ȱ
Butȱperhapsȱweȱareȱmisledȱintoȱaȱmodernȱinterpretationȱhere,ȱbecauseȱwhite
textilesȱareȱhangingȱonȱaȱrackȱaboveȱtheirȱheads,ȱandȱsinceȱtheȱpeasantsȱareȱsoȱpoor
thatȱtheyȱhaveȱonlyȱoneȱsetȱofȱunderwear,ȱtheyȱhaveȱtoȱgoȱnakedȱwhenȱtheyȱhave
doneȱaȱwash.ȱ
Apartȱfromȱthisȱpornographicȱ(?)ȱorȱsimplyȱsexualȱallusion,ȱtheȱartistsȱclearly
conveyedȱhowȱmuchȱtheȱFebruaryȱfrostȱhurtsȱpeople,ȱasȱtheȱappearanceȱofȱone
personȱwalkingȱthroughȱtheȱyard,ȱextensivelyȱcoveredȱfromȱheadȱdownȱtoȱthe
knees,ȱindicates.ȱSnowȱcoversȱtheȱgroundȱeverywhere,ȱandȱtheȱskyȱisȱgrey.ȱThisȱis
trulyȱ February,ȱ inȱ theȱ village,ȱ amongȱ theȱ ruralȱ population.ȱ However,ȱ theȱ first
woman,ȱwhoȱavertsȱherȱeyesȱfromȱtheȱpeasantȱcouple,ȱseemsȱtoȱbeȱaȱnobleȱlady,
perhapsȱ aȱ travelerȱ whoȱ soughtȱ refugeȱ fromȱ theȱ cold,ȱ andȱ nowȱ feelsȱ rather
embarrassedȱbyȱtheȱsightȱsheȱhasȱtoȱwitnessȱinȱtheȱfarmer’sȱhouse.ȱWeȱwould,ȱof
course,ȱ goȱ badlyȱ astrayȱ ifȱ weȱ ignoredȱ numerousȱ allegoricalȱ allusionsȱ hidden
everywhere,ȱbutȱforȱourȱpurposesȱitȱsufficesȱtoȱrecognizeȱhowȱmuchȱtheȱartists
enjoyedȱworkingȱwithȱrealisticȱdetailsȱpertainingȱtoȱtheȱarchitecture,ȱtheȱpeasants,
andȱtheirȱanimals.
AlreadyȱtheȱimageȱforȱtheȱmonthȱofȱAprilȱrevealsȱhowȱmuchȱtheȱruralȱworld
onlyȱ servedȱ asȱ aȱ realisticȱ backdropȱ withoutȱ furtherȱ significanceȱ forȱ theȱ highly
aristocraticȱaudience.ȱInȱthisȱimageȱ(fol.ȱ4v)ȱtheȱeyeȱisȱfocusedȱonȱaȱgroupȱofȱrichly
dressedȱaristocrats,ȱtwoȱmenȱandȱtwoȱwomen,ȱwithȱthreeȱfiguresȱtoȱtheirȱsides,
equallyȱbelongingȱtoȱtheȱsameȱclass.ȱInȱtheȱdistanceȱaȱspectacularȱcastleȱrisesȱup
high,ȱwhichȱmightȱhaveȱbeenȱtheȱChâteauȱofȱDourdan,ȱnextȱtoȱwhichȱweȱdiscover
anȱassemblyȱofȱsmallȱhouses,ȱthoughȱevenȱtheseȱdoȱnotȱseemȱtoȱbeȱtheȱdwellings
ofȱ peasants,ȱ consideringȱ howȱ largeȱ theyȱ are,ȱ equippedȱ withȱ chimneys,ȱ and
38
TheȱLimbourgȱBrothers:ȱReflectionsȱonȱtheȱOriginsȱandȱtheȱLegacyȱofȱThreeȱIlluminatorsȱfromȱNijmegen,
ed.ȱRobȱDückersȱandȱPieterȱRoelofsȱ(LeidenȱandȱBoston:ȱBrill,ȱ2009);ȱseeȱalsoȱRobȱDückersȱand
PieterȱRoelofs,ȱwithȱcontributionsȱbyȱBoudewijnȱBakker,ȱGregoryȱT.ȱClark,ȱMarieȬThéreseȱGousset,
andȱothers,ȱTheȱLimbourgȱBrothers:ȱNijmegenȱMastersȱatȱtheȱFrenchȱCourt,ȱ1400Ȭ1416.ȱCatalogueȱof
theȱexhibitionȱNijmegen,ȱHolland,ȱ28ȱAugustȱȬȱ20ȱNovemberȱ2005ȱ(Nijmegen,ȱHolland:ȱLudion,
2005).
apparentlyȱnotȱequippedȱtoȱhouseȱanimals.ȱOnȱtheȱrightȱhandȱsideȱweȱareȱattracted
toȱ anȱ “isometricȱ projectionȱ ofȱ theȱ orchardȱ withȱ itsȱ walledȱ enclosureȱ andȱ the
crenellatedȱbuilding”ȱ(22)ȱnextȱtoȱit.ȱNatureȱisȱhereȱunderȱcompleteȱcontrol,ȱwith
theȱtreesȱallȱstandingȱinȱstraightȱrows,ȱtheirȱstemsȱcleanedȱfromȱallȱunnecessary
branches,ȱ whileȱ theȱ orchardȱ itselfȱ representsȱ nothingȱ butȱ artificialȱ gardening.
Belowȱ theȱ castle,ȱ hardlyȱ visibleȱ toȱ ourȱ eyes,ȱ weȱ noticeȱ twoȱ fishermen,ȱ while
otherwiseȱtheȱentireȱsetting,ȱasȱruralȱasȱitȱmightȱappearȱatȱfirstȱsight,ȱrepresentsȱthe
worldȱofȱtheȱaristocracy.39
Theȱillustrationsȱforȱtheȱfollowingȱmonthsȱonceȱagainȱallowȱtheȱworldȱofȱthe
peasantsȱtoȱreturn,ȱsinceȱtheyȱprovideȱtheȱessentialȱfoodȱforȱallȱofȱsociety.ȱButȱthey
proveȱtoȱbeȱnothingȱbutȱsecondaryȱdecoration,ȱwhileȱtheȱmembersȱofȱtheȱcourtȱpass
by,ȱoccupiedȱwithȱtheirȱfalconȱhunting,ȱasȱinȱtheȱimageȱforȱtheȱmonthȱofȱAugust
(fol.ȱ8v).ȱNevertheless,ȱtheȱartist/sȱstillȱdelightedȱinȱdrawingȱremarkableȱdetails,
showingȱusȱoneȱfarmerȱwhoȱhasȱalreadyȱslippedȱoutȱofȱhisȱclothingȱgettingȱready
forȱaȱdipȱinȱtheȱwater,ȱwhereȱtwoȱofȱhisȱcomradesȱareȱalreadyȱswimming.ȱInȱthe
illuminationȱforȱtheȱmonthȱofȱSeptember,ȱtheȱhugeȱcastle,ȱwhichȱhadȱbeenȱbuiltȱby
Louisȱ IIȱ ofȱ Anjou,ȱ certainlyȱ dwarvesȱ theȱ harvestȱ sceneȱ belowȱ it,ȱ showingȱ usȱ a
groupȱ ofȱ maleȱ andȱ femaleȱ workersȱ inȱ aȱ vineyard.ȱ Probablyȱ pokingȱ funȱ atȱ the
crudenessȱandȱsillinessȱofȱtheȱpeasants,ȱtheȱartist/sȱnotȱonlyȱportrayȱaȱvarietyȱof
collectors,ȱ bentȱ over,ȱ pickingȱ grapes,ȱ butȱ alsoȱ oneȱ workerȱ fromȱ hisȱ backside,
bendingȱoverȱandȱexposingȱhisȱrear.ȱHeȱmightȱbeȱnaked,ȱorȱsimplyȱwearingȱwhite
underpants,ȱbutȱtheȱartist/sȱcertainlyȱfoundȱtheȱsceneȱhilariousȱandȱwasȱcertainȱthat
he/theyȱcouldȱthusȱofferȱentertainmentȱtoȱtheȱnobleȱaudience.ȱ
OnlyȱtheȱmonthȱofȱNovember,ȱdepictedȱbyȱJeanȱColombeȱseventyȱyearsȱafterȱthe
workȱofȱtheȱLimbourgȱbrothers,ȱisȱalmostȱexclusivelyȱreservedȱforȱruralȱspace,
showingȱusȱaȱswineherdȱreadyȱtoȱthrowȱaȱstickȱintoȱtheȱbranchesȱofȱoakȱtreesȱso
thatȱhisȱswinesȱcanȱgetȱmoreȱacorns.ȱTheseȱanimalsȱoccupyȱallȱourȱattention,ȱand
soȱtheȱforestȱofȱoakȱtrees,ȱwhileȱtheȱchateauȱinȱtheȱtopȱleftȱcornerȱhardlyȱbecomes
visible.ȱ Theȱ artistȱ certainlyȱ succeededȱ inȱ capturingȱ theȱ animals,ȱ includingȱ the
watchȱdog,ȱamazinglyȱwell,ȱandȱheȱalsoȱmanagedȱimpressivelyȱwellȱtheȱdense
grove,ȱbehindȱwhichȱweȱnotice,ȱinȱtheȱfarȱdistance,ȱaȱvalleyȱthroughȱwhichȱaȱriver
runs.ȱ
LetȱusȱturnȱtoȱaȱfinalȱexampleȱwhichȱalmostȱmightȱtakeȱusȱoutȱofȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,
andȱyetȱdemonstratesȱintimateȱconnectionsȱwithȱtheȱartisticȱtraditionȱthatȱweȱhave
analyzedȱsoȱfarȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱruralȱspace.ȱTheȱoctaveȬsizedȱGolfȱBookȱfromȱca.
1540,ȱ todayȱ housedȱ inȱ theȱ Britishȱ Libraryȱ (Additionalȱ 24098),ȱ wasȱ paintedȱ by
39
RaymondȱCazellesȱandȱJohannesȱRathofer,ȱIlluminationsȱofȱHeavenȱandȱEarth:ȱTheȱGloriesȱofȱtheȱTrès
RichesȱHeuresȱduȱDucȱdeȱBerry.ȱForewordȱbyȱUmbertoȱEcoȱ(NewȱYork:ȱHarryȱN.ȱAbrams,ȱ1988).
SimonȱBening.40ȱTheȱnameȱofȱthisȱBookȱofȱHoursȱderivesȱfromȱoneȱsmallȱmarginal
drawingȱforȱtheȱmonthȱofȱSeptember,ȱshowingȱaȱgroupȱofȱchildrenȱplayingȱgolf,
orȱsomeȱsimilarȱgameȱusingȱsticksȱtoȱpushȱaȱroundȱobjectȱinȱaȱcompetitiveȱmanner.
BeningȱbelongedȱtoȱtheȱsixteenthȬcenturyȱGhentȬBrugesȱschool,ȱbutȱweȱcannotȱbe
certainȱwhoȱmightȱhaveȱcommissionedȱthisȱwork.41
Keepingȱ theȱ workȱ ofȱ theȱ Limbourgȱ brothersȱ inȱ mind,ȱ weȱ noticeȱ inȱ Bening’s
images.ȱsimilarlyȱtoȱotherȱrepresentativesȱofȱthisȱgenre,ȱtheȱintricate,ȱelegant,ȱand
sophisticatedȱ combinationȱ ofȱ ruralȱ spaceȱ withȱ figuresȱ fromȱ theȱ nobility.ȱ ȱ For
example,ȱinȱfol.ȱ24v,ȱaȱnobleȱman,ȱcarryingȱaȱfalconȱinȱhisȱleftȱhand,ȱpassesȱthrough
anȱagriculturalȱsettingȱwhereȱtwoȱfarmersȱcutȱgrassȱwithȱtheirȱlongȱscythes,ȱwhile
aȱwoman,ȱwithȱtheȱhelpȱofȱaȱman,ȱrakesȱtheȱgrass.ȱTheȱbuildingȱinȱtheȱbackground
mightȱbeȱaȱmonastery,ȱorȱaȱcountryȱestate,ȱbutȱitȱisȱneitherȱaȱfarmȱnorȱaȱcastle.ȱThe
peacefulnessȱofȱtheȱsceneȱcouldȱnotȱbeȱmoreȱstriking,ȱandȱtheȱartistȱhasȱcertainly
enhancedȱ theȱ effectivenessȱ throughȱ theȱ carefulȱ attentionȱ toȱ manyȱ details,ȱ not
ignoringȱtwoȱducksȱswimmingȱinȱaȱcanalȱnextȱtoȱtheȱmeadow.ȱ
Theȱnarrativeȱcharacterȱofȱtheseȱimagesȱisȱemphasizedȱonȱfol.ȱ25rȱwhereȱweȱsee,
inȱtheȱbottomȱmargin,ȱaȱhayȱwagonȱpulledȱbyȱtwoȱhorses,ȱwhileȱaȱfarmerȱisȱsitting
astrideȱoneȱofȱthem,ȱandȱtwoȱothersȱaccompanyingȱhimȱonȱtheirȱway.ȱHowever,
weȱ haveȱ toȱ beȱ carefulȱ andȱ avoidȱ readingȱ theseȱ imagesȱ asȱ straightforward
reflectionsȱ ofȱ theȱ agriculturalȱ world.ȱ Asȱ Carlosȱ Mirandaȱ GarcíaȬTejedor
emphasizes,ȱ “inȱ lineȱ withȱ theȱ Renaissanceȱ philosophyȱ thatȱ natureȱ affectsȱ the
emotionsȱofȱtheȱleadingȱcharacters,ȱtheȱlandscapeȱadaptsȱtoȱtheȱdramaticȱaspectȱof
eachȱscene.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱHenceȱtheȱlandscapesȱareȱinȱlineȱwithȱtheȱdramaticȱsenseȱofȱthe
representationȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.”42ȱNevertheless,ȱtheȱartist’sȱinterestȱinȱtheȱrealisticȱsetting,ȱthat
is,ȱ theȱ ruralȱ space,ȱ isȱ undeniable,ȱ whateverȱ theȱ underlyingȱ purposeȱ ofȱ each
individualȱsceneȱmightȱhaveȱbeen.ȱ
Onȱfol.ȱ25vȱweȱareȱwitnessȱtoȱaȱcalmȱgroupȱofȱfarmers,ȱoneȱcoupleȱrestingȱfrom
theȱhardȱworkȱofȱcuttingȱtheȱgrain,ȱwhileȱanotherȱfarmerȱisȱstillȱinvolvedȱwithȱthat
activity.ȱAȱpeasantȱwomanȱapproachesȱfromȱtheȱleft,ȱcarryingȱaȱheavyȱbasketȱon
herȱheadȱandȱaȱbigȱjugȱinȱherȱleftȱhand.ȱTheȱimageȱisȱbeautifullyȱstructuredȱbyȱa
tranquilȱriverȱrunningȱdiagonallyȱthroughȱtheȱentireȱlandscape,ȱdisappearingȱin
theȱfarȱleft,ȱwhereȱaȱchurchȱrisesȱupȱonȱaȱslope.ȱOnȱfol.ȱ26vȱweȱareȱwitnessesȱtoȱa
typicalȱfarmingȱscene,ȱinȱtheȱforegroundȱaȱworkerȱguidingȱtwoȱhorsesȱacrossȱa
40
ForȱanotherȱexampleȱofȱBening’sȱwork,ȱseeȱJudithȱAnneȱTesta,ȱTheȱStockholmȬKasselȱBookȱofȱHours:
AȱReintegratedȱManuscriptȱfromȱtheȱShopȱofȱSimonȱBening.ȱActaȱBibliothecæȱRegiæȱStockholmiensis
LIIIȱ(Stockholm:ȱKungl.ȱbibliotheket,ȱ1992).
41
HereȱIȱconsultedȱtheȱfacsimileȱeditionȱ(Barcelona:ȱM.ȱMoleiroȱEditor,ȱS.A.,ȱ2004),ȱaȱcopyȱofȱwhich
isȱhousedȱinȱtheȱSpecialȱCollectionsȱofȱtheȱUniversityȱofȱArizonaȱLibrary,ȱTucson.ȱForȱinȬdepth
informationȱaboutȱthisȱBookȱofȱHours,ȱseeȱCarlosȱMirandaȱGarcíaȬTejedor,ȱGolfȱBookȱ(Barcelona:ȱM.
MoleiroȱEditor,ȱS.A.,ȱ2004).
42
GarcíaȬTejedor,ȱGolfȱBookȱ(seeȱnoteȱ41),ȱ76.
field,ȱpullingȱaȱrake,ȱwhileȱaȱreaperȱnearȱhimȱisȱsowingȱalreadyȱtheȱseed.ȱInȱthe
backgroundȱanotherȱfarmerȱdrivesȱaȱploughȱalongȱtheȱedge,ȱandȱtheȱfarȱdistance
isȱoccupiedȱbyȱaȱfarmȱhouse,ȱandȱthenȱaȱlakeȱevenȱfurtherȱbehind.ȱ
Theȱ nameȱ ofȱ Golfȱ Bookȱ derives,ȱ asȱ observedȱ above,ȱ onlyȱ fromȱ oneȱ marginal
drawingȱofȱfourȱchildrenȱplayingȱaȱkindȱofȱgolfȱinȱtheȱmarginȱofȱfol.ȱ27r.ȱTheseȱare
notȱchildrenȱlivingȱinȱtheȱcity;ȱinsteadȱtheyȱcanȱbeȱidentifiedȱasȱbelongingȱtoȱthe
classȱofȱfarmers.ȱHowever,ȱalreadyȱonȱfol.ȱ27vȱweȱseeȱaȱgroupȱofȱmenȱofȱtheȱupper
classȱdebatingȱwithȱeachȱother,ȱwhileȱworkersȱtoȱtheirȱrightȱeitherȱpressȱgrapesȱor
pourȱ theȱ juiceȱ intoȱ aȱ vat.ȱ However,ȱ theȱ wildȱ forest,ȱ whichȱ climbsȱ upȱ inȱ the
background,ȱisȱnotȱfarȱaway,ȱonlyȱseparatedȱfromȱtheȱforegroundȱthroughȱaȱlake
andȱaȱwall.ȱBeningȱdemonstratesȱaȱkeenȱinterestȱinȱblendingȱtheȱdifferenceȱbetween
theȱsocialȱclassesȱandȱenjoysȱpresentingȱtoȱusȱvariousȱrepresentativesȱalmostȱinȱa
groupȱtogether,ȱasȱonȱfol.ȱ20v.ȱMostȱdramatically,ȱinȱtheȱforegroundȱaȱsweatyȱand
tiredȱworkerȱliftsȱhisȱcapȱinȱaȱgreetingȱmotion,ȱsubmissivelyȱsalutingȱaȱnobleȱlady
whoȱseemsȱtoȱtalkȱtoȱhim,ȱmaybeȱaboutȱplansȱregardingȱwhatȱflowersȱorȱherbsȱto
plantȱinȱtheȱgarden.ȱBehindȱthemȱtoȱtheȱrightȱtwoȱmenȱareȱchoppingȱdownȱaȱtree,
whileȱtwoȱmoreȱelegantlyȱdressedȱmen,ȱobviouslyȱbelongingȱtoȱtheȱrichȱpatriciate,
standȱfurtherȱawayȱinvolvedȱinȱaȱconversation.ȱInȱtheȱbackgroundȱweȱobserveȱa
manȱ onȱ aȱ whiteȱ horseȱ crossingȱ aȱ bridgeȱ leadingȱ toȱ anȱ walledȱ cityȱ structure.
Outside,ȱhowever,ȱonȱtheȱtopȱright,ȱweȱrecognizeȱaȱfarmer’sȱhut,ȱtheȱroofȱofȱwhich
isȱthatched,ȱclearlyȱsignalingȱtheȱsocialȱdifference.ȱ
Theȱ artistȱ hasȱ undoubtedlyȱ drawnȱ fromȱ aȱ longȱ traditionȱ ofȱ ruralȱ scenesȱ and
motifs,ȱasȱtheȱmarginalȱdrawingȱofȱaȱfarmerȱmovingȱtheȱploughȱhandleȱinȱhisȱeffort
toȱ guideȱ theȱ ploughshare.ȱ Asȱ GarcíaȬTejedorȱ comments,ȱ “Ploughingȱ wasȱ a
commonplaceȱsceneȱinȱtheȱimagesȱofȱseasonsȱinȱAntiquityȱonȱbothȱsarcophagiȱand
mosaics.ȱ Theȱ Golfȱ Bookȱ maintainsȱ theȱ classicȱ compositionȱ ofȱ aȱ labourerȱ inȱ the
foregroundȱ andȱ treesȱ inȱ theȱ background,ȱ asȱ inȱ theȱ imagesȱ ofȱ monthsȱ inȱ late
Antiquity.”43ȱNevertheless,ȱtheȱtropologicalȱnatureȱofȱthisȱsceneȱdoesȱnotȱtakeȱaway
itsȱrealisticȱappearance,ȱthatȱis,ȱitsȱbeingȱgroundedȱinȱanȱordinary,ȱruralȱexperience
typicalȱofȱdailyȱlife.ȱWeȱcouldȱargueȱalongȱtheȱsameȱlinesȱandȱsuggestȱthatȱthe
urbanȱsettings,ȱbecauseȱofȱtheirȱdependenceȱonȱartisticȱtraditions,ȱwouldȱnotȱcarry
anyȱvalueȱasȱtoȱourȱattemptȱtoȱgraspȱhowȱthatȱspaceȱwasȱperceivedȱinȱtheȱsixteenth
centuryȱ(see,ȱforȱinstance,ȱfol.ȱ21v).ȱStandardȱtropesȱareȱasȱfictionalȱasȱrealistic,ȱfor
whichȱreasonsȱweȱmustȱfocusȱespeciallyȱonȱminorȱdetailsȱthatȱreflectȱtheȱrepertoire
availableȱ toȱ anȱ artist,ȱ borrowedȱ fromȱ hisȱ ownȱ dailyȱ experiences.ȱ Ifȱ theyȱ then
conformȱtoȱartisticȱtraditions,ȱweȱwouldȱnotȱnecessarilyȱfaceȱanȱepistemological
contradiction.ȱAfterȱall,ȱcuttingȱgrassȱandȱrakingȱitȱin,ȱorȱtransportingȱtheȱhayȱto
theȱ barn,ȱ cuttingȱ wood,ȱ butcheringȱ aȱ pig,ȱ orȱ bakingȱ breadȱ belongedȱ allȱ toȱ the
standardȱ activityȱ byȱ aȱ farmerȱ throughoutȱ theȱ ages,ȱ andȱ henceȱ weȱ findȱ scenes
43
depictingȱthoseȱmotifsȱthroughoutȱtheȱcenturies.44ȱStereotypicalȱiconographyȱdoes
notȱnecessaryȱdiminishȱitsȱvalueȱasȱaȱreflectionȱofȱtheȱhistoryȱofȱmentalityȱandȱof
everydayȱlife.ȱ
Mostȱimportantly,ȱhowever,ȱasȱtheȱGolfȱBookȱillustratesȱasȱwell,ȱruralȱspaceȱwas
notȱreallyȱthatȱfarȱremovedȱfromȱurbanȱandȱcourtlyȱspace,ȱwhichȱcomesȱnicely
throughȱ inȱ theȱ veryȱ firstȱ illuminationȱ onȱ fol.ȱ 1r,ȱ presentingȱ aȱ bishopȱ inȱ allȱ his
regalia,ȱstandingȱinȱtheȱmiddleȱofȱaȱmeadow,ȱholdingȱhisȱcrosierȱinȱhisȱleftȱhand,
andȱaȱclosedȱbookȱinȱhisȱrightȱhand.ȱWeȱseeȱtheȱVirginȱMary,ȱholdingȱherȱchild,
standingȱonȱtheȱbook,ȱwhichȱinformsȱusȱaboutȱtheȱallegoricalȱsignificanceȱofȱthis
illustration.ȱHowever,ȱinȱtheȱhistoriatedȱframeȱweȱwitnessȱanȱintensiveȱhuntȱscene,
withȱthreeȱmenȱalreadyȱcirclingȱaȱboar,ȱoneȱreadyȱtoȱshootȱhisȱarrow,ȱtheȱother
preparingȱhisȱspearȱforȱtheȱdeadlyȱthrust,ȱandȱtheȱthirdȱblowingȱhisȱhornȱtoȱattract
theȱotherȱhunters.ȱStrikingȱrealismȱandȱallegoricalȱapproachesȱintimatelyȱinteract
withȱeachȱotherȱhere,ȱmakingȱthisȱintroductoryȱpaintingȱintoȱsuchȱaȱremarkable
exampleȱofȱtheȱbasicȱprocessesȱgenerallyȱpursuedȱbyȱtheȱartistsȱofȱBooksȱofȱHours.
Thereȱwasȱnoȱchanceȱforȱthemȱtoȱachieveȱtheȱprobablyȱdesiredȱgoalȱtoȱcreateȱan
illustratedȱbookȱforȱprivateȱdevotionȱwithoutȱanchoringȱitȱsomehowȱinȱtheȱreality
ofȱ theirȱ time.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ regardȱ ruralȱ spaceȱ emergedȱ asȱ aȱ significantȱ dimension,
reflecting,ȱonȱtheȱoneȱhand,ȱhowȱmuchȱpeopleȱinȱtheȱlateȱMiddleȱAgesȱwereȱalways
exposedȱtoȱandȱlivedȱwithȱfarmersȱandȱtheirȱfamilies,ȱand,ȱonȱtheȱother,ȱtheȱnatural
tendencyȱ toȱ spiritualizeȱ andȱ allegorizeȱ agriculturalȱ andȱ naturalȱ settings.ȱ Even
religiousȱ themes,ȱ suchȱ asȱ Christ’sȱ crucifixionȱ (fol.ȱ 10v),ȱ couldȱ noȱ longerȱ be
presentedȱ withoutȱ someȱ criticalȱ background,ȱ suchȱ asȱ hereȱ theȱ spaceȱ ofȱ Mount
Golgotha.
Nevertheless,ȱtheȱgreatȱinterestȱinȱruralȱspaceȱinȱtheseȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱemergeȱas
oneȱofȱtheȱmostȱcriticalȱfeatures,ȱunderscoringȱinȱmultipleȱfashionȱtheȱimportance
ofȱthatȱworldȱandȱitsȱpopulationȱforȱlateȬmedievalȱsocietyȱatȱlarge.ȱNeitherȱthe
artistsȱnorȱtheirȱpatronsȱwouldȱhaveȱdevotedȱsoȱmuchȱattentionȱtoȱtheȱpeasants,
theirȱhousingȱandȱactivities,ȱandȱtoȱtheȱnaturalȱbackgroundȱ—meadows,ȱwoods,
fields,ȱvalleys,ȱrivers,ȱlakes,ȱpastures,ȱandȱorchards—ifȱtheseȱwouldȱhaveȱbeen
unwelcome.ȱOfȱcourse,ȱweȱareȱnotȱdealingȱwithȱcentralȱmotifs,ȱandȱtheȱruralȱspace
certainlyȱ remainedȱ aȱ minorȱ elementȱ forȱ theȱ backgroundȱ orȱ frame,ȱ butȱ weȱ can
definitelyȱaffirmȱthatȱtheȱsocialȱspheresȱwereȱnotȱasȱstrictlyȱseparatedȱfromȱeach
otherȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱEarlyȱModernȱAgeȱasȱweȱmightȱhaveȱassumed.ȱ
TheȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱproveȱtoȱbeȱpowerfulȱcounterȬexamples.ȱThisȱisȱnotȱtoȱdeny
thatȱtheȱartistsȱclearlyȱindicatedȱwhatȱtheȱdifferencesȱtoȱtheȱnobilityȱwere:ȱ“lower
rankingȱ peopleȱ work,ȱ andȱ theirȱ anatomyȱ andȱ gesturesȱ areȱ coarserȱ whilstȱ the
nobilityȱandȱmembersȱofȱtheȱaristocracyȱwatchȱthemȱorȱenjoyȱthemselves,ȱforȱthese
44
manuscriptsȱwereȱproducedȱforȱtheȱhighestȱclassesȱofȱsociety.”45ȱThisȱcoarseness
inȱtheȱpeasants’ȱfeaturesȱandȱbehavior,ȱhowever,ȱdidȱnotȱnecessarilyȱmakeȱthe
artistsȱ depictȱ themȱ altogetherȱ asȱ ugly,ȱ evil,ȱ orȱ detestable.ȱ Thoseȱ whoȱ holdȱ the
moneyȱalwaysȱmakeȱsureȱthatȱtheyȱareȱpresentedȱasȱorȱcanȱportrayȱthemselvesȱas
moreȱbeautiful,ȱeducated,ȱandȱrefinedȱthanȱthoseȱonȱtheȱlowerȱsocialȱlevel.ȱ
However,ȱasȱSimonȱBeningȱdemonstratedȱthroughȱhisȱminiatureȱpaintings,ȱthere
wasȱ noȱ shameȱ associatedȱ withȱ beingȱ aȱ peasant,ȱ andȱ asȱ longȱ asȱ thoseȱ farmers
expressedȱ theirȱ humilityȱ andȱ subordination,ȱ performingȱ theȱ jobsȱ whichȱ were
expectedȱfromȱthem,ȱtheȱartistsȱhadȱnoȱproblemȱportrayingȱthemȱinȱanȱalmost
idyllicȱfashion.ȱ
Asȱweȱcanȱnowȱconfirm,ȱbehindȱtheȱtraditionalȱiconographyȱinȱtheseȱvaluable
andȱ impressiveȱ Booksȱ ofȱ Hoursȱ weȱ discoverȱ aȱ socialȱ worldȱ whichȱ hasȱ always
remainedȱsilent,ȱifȱnotȱmute,ȱandȱdidȱnotȱfindȱanyȱsignificantȱmeasuresȱtoȱexpress
itselfȱ orȱ toȱ findȱ anyoneȱ willingȱ toȱ portrayȱ itȱ inȱ aȱ moreȱ realisticȱ mode.ȱ These
miniatureȱ artists,ȱ thoughȱ obviouslyȱ followingȱ olderȱ styles,ȱ models,ȱ andȱ visual
trends,ȱopenedȱwindowsȱtowardȱtheȱruralȱpopulation,ȱprojectingȱthemȱasȱintegral
membersȱofȱtheȱsameȱsociety,ȱevenȱthoughȱonȱaȱlowerȱsocialȱlevel.ȱAsȱWilhelm
Hansenȱobserves,ȱcontrastingȱearlyȱandȱhighȱwithȱlateȱmedievalȱart,ȱ“Dieȱstatische
RuheȱsakralerȱKunstȱweichtȱGenreszenenȱvollerȱAktivitäten,ȱwieȱsieȱsichȱimȱrealen
Lebenȱabspielen,ȱundȱanȱdieȱStelleȱsinnbildhafterȱÜberhöhungenȱtrittȱdieȱscharf
blickendeȱ Beobachtungȱ derȱ nüchternenȱ Wirklichkeit”ȱ (Theȱ staticȱ tranquilityȱ of
sacredȱartȱgivesȱroomȱtoȱgenreȱimagesȱfilledȱwithȱactivitiesȱasȱtheyȱtookȱplaceȱin
realȱlife,ȱandȱsymbolicȱrepresentationȱisȱsubstitutedȱbyȱtheȱobservationȱofȱsober
reality).46
Weȱ mightȱ alsoȱ entertainȱ theȱ notionȱ thatȱ theȱ creatorsȱ ofȱ theseȱ Booksȱ ofȱ Hours,
especiallyȱ ofȱ theȱ Golfȱ Book,ȱ delightedȱ inȱ addingȱ hilarious,ȱ facetious,ȱ thatȱ is,
everydayȱscenes,ȱincludingȱpeasantsȱandȱtheirȱwives,ȱchildren,ȱanimals,ȱbirds,ȱand
objects,ȱ therebyȱ alleviatingȱ temporarilyȱ theȱ intensityȱ ofȱ theȱ religiousȱ theme
pursuedȱinȱtheseȱbooks.ȱAlthoughȱweȱalsoȱwitnessȱfromȱtimeȱtoȱtimeȱurbanȱspaces,
courtȱsettings,ȱtheȱsectionsȱwithȱtheȱCalendarsȱareȱdominatedȱbyȱimagesȱreflecting
ruralȱspace.ȱThisȱwas,ȱtoȱbeȱsure,ȱnotȱtheȱnormȱinȱlateȬmedievalȱbookȱillustrations.
Muchȱdependedȱonȱtheȱspecificȱthemesȱandȱcontents,ȱsuchȱasȱwhenȱweȱturn,ȱfor
instance,ȱtoȱtheȱfamousȱBibleȱMoraliséȱcreatedȱbyȱtheȱLimbourgȱbrothersȱforȱthe
DukeȱofȱBerryȱsometimeȱafterȱ1405.ȱHereȱweȱareȱconfrontedȱwithȱaȱhostȱofȱimages
illustratingȱspecificȱaspectsȱandȱepisodesȱinȱtheȱBible,ȱbutȱthereȱisȱveryȱlittleȱinterest
inȱelaboratingȱonȱtheȱsocial,ȱnaturalisticȱcontextȱorȱbackground.ȱWeȱcommonly
observeȱ someȱ hillsȱ andȱ mountains,ȱ lakesȱ andȱ rivers,ȱ atȱ timesȱ dottedȱ byȱ towns
45
46
Hansen,ȱKalenderminiaturenȱderȱStundenbücherȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1),ȱ41.
nestledȱinȱtheȱbackground,ȱbutȱtheȱcomparisonȱwithȱtheȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱwouldȱjust
notȱdoȱjusticeȱtoȱtheȱlatter.47
However,ȱevenȱwithinȱtheȱlargeȱcorpusȱofȱthisȱgenreȱweȱhaveȱtoȱlookȱcarefully
toȱ identifyȱ specificȱ examplesȱ whereȱ theȱ ruralȱ spaceȱ emergesȱ moreȱ noticeably.
ManyȱBooksȱofȱHours,ȱasȱsplendidlyȱasȱtheyȱmightȱbeȱdecoratedȱandȱembellished
withȱ marvelousȱ interieurs,ȱ doȱ notȱ grantȱ anyȱ roomȱ toȱ ruralȱ spaceȱ andȱ contend
themselvesȱwithȱbiblicalȱscenesȱwithȱratherȱgeneral,ȱtopologicalȱbackgroundsȱor
settings.ȱ
AȱgoodȱexampleȱprovesȱtoȱbeȱtheȱoneȱcreatedȱforȱMaryȱofȱBurgundyȱ(1465–1482),
aȱmostȱpowerfulȱnobleȱlady,ȱbutȱwhoȱdiedȱwhenȱsheȱwasȱonlyȱtwentyȬfiveȱyears
ofȱage.ȱTheȱgreatestȱ contributionsȱtoȱthisȱBookȱofȱHoursȱcameȱfromȱtheȱMasters
NicolasȱSpierincȱandȱLiévinȱvanȱLathem,ȱbutȱweȱcanȱassumeȱthatȱaȱwholeȱteamȱof
calligraphersȱ andȱ paintersȱ wasȱ alsoȱ involved.ȱ Asȱ isȱ soȱ oftenȱ theȱ caseȱ inȱ lateȬ
medievalȱmarginalȱdrawings,ȱtheȱframesȱteemȱwithȱimagesȱofȱbirds,ȱstrawberries,
sometimesȱsmallȱmonsters,ȱleavesȱandȱvines,ȱtendrilsȱandȱflowers,ȱonceȱaȱfrogȱ(fol.
125v),ȱ butȱ theȱ artistsȱ neverȱ exploredȱ ruralȱ spaceȱ inȱ itsȱ concreteȱ terms.48ȱ This
phenomenonȱ makesȱ theȱ specimensȱ discussedȱ aboveȱ soȱ remarkableȱ and
noteworthyȱbecauseȱinȱtheȱmajorityȱofȱcasesȱtheȱartistsȱfocusedȱprimarilyȱonȱthe
biblicalȱcontextȱandȱcreatedȱfancifulȱvisualȱcontextsȱthatȱreflectedȱlittleȱofȱtheȱrural
spaceȱthatȱweȱhaveȱdiscussedȱabove.49ȱ
Accordingȱtoȱtheȱbiblicalȱaccount,ȱcertainȱagriculturalȱeventsȱwereȱintimately
connectedȱwithȱtheȱspiritualȱphenomenon,ȱwhichȱinvitedȱtheȱlateȬmedievalȱartists
toȱ experimentȱ withȱ everȱ newȱ variationsȱ ofȱ thoseȱ themes,ȱ suchȱ asȱ reapingȱ and
makingȱ wine.50ȱ Butȱ thisȱ doesȱ notȱ prepareȱ usȱ forȱ sometimesȱ extraordinarily
vivaciousȱandȱlivelyȱscenes,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱAnnunciationȱtoȱtheȱShepherdsȱinȱthe
HoursȱofȱtheȱVirginȱ(ca.ȱ1450,ȱBruges),ȱinȱwhichȱtheȱshepherdsȱbreakȱoutȱinȱjubilant
dance,ȱholdingȱoneȱanother’sȱhands,ȱandȱoneȱofȱthemȱblowingȱhisȱfluteȱinȱresponse
toȱ theȱ angel’sȱ news.ȱ Theȱ artistsȱ projectedȱ aȱ sceneȱ ofȱ utmostȱ joyfulnessȱ and
presentedȱ theȱ figuresȱ inȱ veryȱ positiveȱ light,ȱ wellȱ dressed,ȱ wellȬmannered,ȱ and
virtuallyȱcomparableȱtoȱnobleȱcharacters,ȱperhapsȱdistinguishedȱfromȱthemȱonly
byȱtheȱmonochromeȱsimplicityȱofȱtheirȱclothing.ȱ
47
EberhardȱKönigȱandȱJohnȱLowden,ȱLaȱBibliaȱMoralizadaȱdeȱlosȱLimbourg:ȱDeȱlosȱHermanosȱLimbourg
aȱGeorgesȱTrubertȱ(Valencia:ȱPatrimonioȱEdiciones,ȱ2010).ȱHereȱIȱlikewiseȱconsultedȱtheȱfacsimile
copyȱheldȱbyȱSpecialȱCollectionsȱinȱtheȱUniversityȱofȱArizonaȱLibrary.
48
Dasȱ Stundenbuchȱ derȱ Mariaȱ vonȱ Burgund:ȱ Codexȱ Vindobonensisȱ 1857ȱ derȱ Österreichischen
Nationalbibliothek,ȱ commentaryȱ byȱ Franzȱ Unterkircher.ȱ Glanzlichterȱ derȱ Buchkunst,ȱ 3ȱ (Graz:
AkademischeȱDruckȬȱundȱVerlagsanstalt,ȱ1993).
49
ForȱaȱgoodȱselectionȱofȱindividualȱfolioȱpagesȱfromȱaȱvarietyȱofȱBooksȱofȱHours,ȱkeptȱinȱtheȱBritish
Library,ȱLondon,ȱseeȱBackhouse,ȱIlluminationȱfromȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱ(seeȱnoteȱ7).ȱ
50
Wieck,ȱTimeȱSanctifiedȱ(seeȱnoteȱ14),ȱ75.
Theȱherdȱofȱsheepȱbeforeȱthemȱseemsȱhighlyȱcurious,ȱsinceȱseveralȱofȱtheȱanimals
lookȱupȱandȱflockȱtogether.ȱAȱtallȱwaddledȱfenceȱbordersȱtheȱpastureȱfromȱtheȱriver
andȱtheȱhillyȱlandscapeȱinȱtheȱbackground,ȱwhereȱaȱwellȬbuiltȱstructureȱdotsȱthe
landscape.ȱThereȱisȱnoȱotherȱwayȱbutȱtoȱidentifyȱthisȱsceneȱasȱidyllic,ȱevenȱthough
itȱfocusesȱonȱtheȱshepherdsȱonly.51ȱAnotherȱastoundingȱexample,ȱalthoughȱhardly
visible,ȱ comesȱ toȱ ourȱ attentionȱ inȱ theȱ sameȱ Hoursȱ ofȱ theȱ Virgin,ȱ inȱ theȱ scene
depictingȱtheȱEntombmentȱofȱChristȱ(fol.ȱ46v).ȱAlthoughȱtheȱfocusȱrestsȱonȱthe
tombȱandȱonȱChrist’sȱdeadȱbody,ȱtheȱeyeȱisȱallowedȱtoȱwanderȱoutȱofȱtheȱenclosed
roomȱ(tiledȱfloorȱandȱarchedȱwall)ȱintoȱtheȱdistanceȱwhereȱaȱcityȱwithȱmanyȱtowers
andȱchurchȱspiresȱrisesȱbeforeȱtheȱdarkȱsky.ȱButȱnextȱtoȱit,ȱonȱtheȱslope,ȱweȱdetect
anȱastonishingȱrepresentationȱofȱagriculture,ȱwithȱmanyȱfieldsȱsituatedȱnextȱtoȱeach
other,ȱallȱsurroundedȱbyȱgreenȱfences.ȱ
Insteadȱofȱprojectingȱtheȱusualȱblandȱlandscapeȱorȱfarmland,ȱhereȱtheȱartistȱtook
careȱtoȱreflectȱonȱtheȱconcreteȱsituationȱwithȱindividualȱpeasantsȱmakingȱsureȱthat
theirȱownȱpropertyȱwasȱclearlyȱmarkedȱandȱseparatedȱfromȱtheirȱneighbors.52ȱThe
delicateȱpatternsȱofȱtheȱtilesȱuponȱwhichȱtheȱsarcophagusȱrestsȱfindsȱitsȱparallelȱin
theȱarrangementȱofȱtheȱfields.ȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱtheȱbiblicalȱeventȱinȱtheȱforeground
wasȱnotȱtoȱbeȱpresentedȱinȱanȱidealizedȱspaceȱwithoutȱanyȱrealisticȱgrounding.ȱThe
viewerȱcouldȱidentifyȱwithȱtheȱsceneȱbecauseȱtheȱcontextȱwasȱborrowedȱfromȱthe
contemporaryȱworld,ȱwhichȱincludesȱaȱriver,ȱtheȱaboveȱmentionedȱhill,ȱandȱthe
splendidȱcity.ȱ
Ifȱ weȱ compareȱ thisȱ imageȱ withȱ theȱ oneȱ depictingȱ theȱ Martyrdomȱ ofȱ Dennis,
Eleutherius,ȱ andȱ Rusticusȱ inȱ theȱ Bookȱ ofȱ Hoursȱ byȱ theȱ Masterȱ ofȱ theȱ Harvard
Hannibalȱ(Paris,ȱ1420s),ȱweȱrecognizeȱhowȱmuchȱthatȱlittleȱpatchȱofȱfarmlandȱinȱthe
previousȱ illuminationȱ markedȱ aȱ newȱ beginning.ȱ Hereȱ weȱ recognizeȱ onlyȱ the
traditionalȱ craggyȱ hillsȱ withȱ noȱ vegetation,ȱ exceptȱ forȱ aȱ groupȱ ofȱ threeȱ trees
growingȱonȱoneȱofȱtheȱrocksȱbehindȱtheȱscene.ȱTheȱdecapitationȱtakesȱplaceȱinȱa
blandȱ greenȱ field,ȱ whereȱ aȱ fewȱ herbsȱ andȱ flowersȱ raiseȱ theirȱ heads.ȱ The
backgroundȱisȱoccupiedȱbyȱfortressȬlikeȱstructure,ȱandȱtheȱsky,ȱasȱusual,ȱisȱpainted
inȱdarkȱblue,ȱdottedȱwithȱyellowȱstars.53
TheȱcraggyȱbutȱveryȱunrealisticȱmountainsȱareȱomnipresentȱinȱBooksȱofȱHours,
andȱtheyȱsurfaceȱevenȱinȱimagesȱreservedȱforȱscenesȱnearȱtheȱcoastline,ȱsuchȱasȱSt.
Louis’sȱarrivalȱbeforeȱDamiettaȱinȱtheȱBellesȱHeuresȱofȱJean,ȱDukeȱofȱBerryȱ(fol.
173r).54ȱ Afterȱ all,ȱ theȱ primaryȱ purposeȱ ofȱ Booksȱ ofȱ Hoursȱ consistedȱ ofȱ religious
51
Wieck,ȱTimeȱSanctifiedȱ(seeȱnoteȱ14),ȱ81,ȱpl.ȱ21.
52
Wieck,ȱTimeȱSanctifiedȱ(seeȱnoteȱ14),ȱ87,ȱpl.ȱ27.
53
Wieck,ȱTimeȱSanctifiedȱ(seeȱnoteȱ14),ȱ142,ȱp.ȱ34.
54
MillardȱMeissȱandȱElizabethȱH.ȱBeatson,ȱTheȱBellesȱHeuresȱofȱJean,ȱDukeȱofȱBerry.ȱTheȱCloisters,ȱthe
MetropolitanȱMuseumȱofȱArtȱ(NewȱYork:ȱGeorgeȱBraziller,ȱ1974).ȱSimilarly,ȱonȱfol.ȱ164v,ȱwhereȱSt.
Eustaceȱlosesȱhisȱsons,ȱandȱonȱfol.ȱ170r,ȱwhereȱSt.ȱAnthonyȱofȱPaduaȱstillsȱaȱstorm,ȱtheȱgreenȱand
theȱbrownȱmountainsȱinȱtheȱbackgroundȱareȱnothingȱbutȱstockȱelements.
instructionȱandȱsupportingȱtheȱindividualȱpiousȱpersonȱtoȱperformȱtheȱhoursȱofȱthe
liturgyȱinȱtheȱprivacyȱofȱhisȱorȱherȱhome.ȱNevertheless,ȱwhenȱweȱdiscoverȱmost
realisticȱ natureȱ scenes,ȱ focusingȱ onȱ ruralȱ space,ȱ weȱ canȱ beȱ certainȱ thatȱ weȱ are
confrontingȱaȱnewȱawarenessȱaboutȱtheȱrealȱenvironmentȱintoȱwhichȱtheȱreligious
sceneȱisȱsituated.55ȱRuralȱspace,ȱthen,ȱtoȱstateȱitȱmostȱclearly,ȱcouldȱnotȱbeȱignored
orȱneglected,ȱnotȱevenȱbyȱtheȱhighestȱrankingȱmembersȱofȱlateȬmedievalȱsociety,
andȱ thereȱ wasȱ noȱ realȱ needȱ forȱ itȱ orȱ aȱ desireȱ toȱ doȱ so.ȱ Afterȱ all,ȱ theȱ religious
phenomenaȱdepictedȱhereȱoftenȱoccurȱinȱtheȱcountrysideȱandȱinvolveȱpeasants,
theirȱ wives,ȱ shepherds,ȱ children,ȱ farmhands,ȱ andȱ maids.ȱ Aȱ finalȱ exampleȱ to
illustrateȱthisȱobservationȱmayȱbeȱtakenȱfromȱTheȱViscontiȱHours,ȱcommissionedȱby
Giangaleazzoȱ Viscontiȱ andȱ created/writtenȱ beforeȱ 1395.ȱ Onȱ fol.ȱ BRȱ 2vȱ weȱ see
Joachimȱsittingȱinȱaȱwildernessȱsetting,ȱdisregardingȱtheȱherdsmenȱbeneathȱhim.
Edithȱ W.ȱ Kirschȱ offersȱ theȱ followingȱ summaryȱ ofȱ theȱ pictorialȱ details:ȱ “A
gesticulatingȱshepherd,ȱwearingȱoneȱgrayȱandȱoneȱblackȱshoe,ȱcrossesȱhisȱlegsȱand
twistsȱhisȱrightȱarmȱtoȱholdȱtheȱstaffȱonȱwhichȱheȱleans.ȱAtȱhisȱfeetȱaȱdogȱliesȱfast
asleep.ȱSeatedȱinȱtheȱravineȱwhichȱdividesȱtheȱminiatureȱisȱaȱsecondȱherdsman,
barefootȱandȱmuscular,ȱbutȱlikeȱJoachim,ȱbeardedȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱTheȱonlyȱmanȬmadeȱshelter
inȱJoachim’sȱwildernessȱisȱtheȱthatchedȬroofedȱshedȱatȱtheȱpeakȱofȱtheȱcragȱbehind
him.”56ȱ
Neitherȱ theȱ rocksȱ norȱ theȱ pasture,ȱ neitherȱ theȱ herdsmenȱ norȱ theȱ treesȱ really
surpriseȱ us,ȱ butȱ theȱ appearanceȱ ofȱ cowsȱ inȱ thisȱ contextȱ provesȱ toȱ beȱ rather
innovative.ȱTheȱartistȱaddedȱaȱmostȱcuriousȱelement,ȱwhichȱrevealsȱtheȱextentȱto
whichȱtheȱruralȱexistenceȱhadȱtoȱbeȱconsideredȱevenȱinȱtheȱpresenceȱofȱsuchȱaȱholy
figureȱasȱJoachim.ȱOneȱofȱtheȱcowsȱisȱbotheredȱbyȱaȱfly,ȱandȱtriesȱtoȱchaseȱitȱaway
withȱtheȱhelpȱofȱitsȱtail.ȱNextȱtoȱhim,ȱonȱanotherȱcowȱaȱsecondȱflyȱhasȱlanded,ȱbut
thisȱdoesȱnotȱdistractȱtheȱanimalȱfromȱhisȱgrazingȱactivity.ȱAsȱKirschȱcorrectly
remarks,ȱ “Perhapsȱ awareȱ ofȱ theȱ noveltyȱ ofȱ thisȱ detail,ȱ theȱ artistȱ paintedȱ these
insectsȱdisproportionatelyȱlarge.”ȱ
Otherwise,ȱ however,ȱ theȱ goldȬcoloredȱ skyȱ andȱ theȱ typologicallyȱ easily
recognizableȱrocksȱtakeȱusȱbackȱtoȱmoreȱtraditionalȱilluminationsȱinȱBooksȱofȱHours.
Theȱonlyȱotherȱsceneȱwhereȱruralȱspaceȱisȱallowedȱtoȱenterȱtheȱpictorialȱprogram
55
Forȱfurtherȱexamplesȱandȱstudies,ȱseeȱEberhardȱKönig,ȱDasȱBerlinerȱStundenbuchȱderȱMariaȱvon
BurgundȱundȱKaiserȱMaximilian:ȱHandschriftȱ78ȱBȱ12ȱimȱKupferstichkabinettȱderȱStaatlichenȱMuseenȱzu
BerlinȱPreußischerȱKulturbesitz.ȱWithȱcontributionsȱbyȱFedjaȱAnzelewsky,ȱBodoȱBrinkmann,ȱand
FraukeȱSteenbockȱ(LachenȱamȱZürichsee:ȱCoronȱVerlagȱMonikaȱSchoellerȱ&ȱCo.,ȱ1998);ȱKathryn
A.ȱSmith,ȱArt,ȱIdentityȱandȱDevotionȱinȱFourteenthȬCenturyȱEngland:ȱThreeȱWomenȱandȱTheirȱBooksȱof
Hoursȱ(London:ȱTheȱBritishȱ Library;ȱTorontoȱandȱBuffalo:ȱUniversityȱofȱTorontoȱPress,ȱ2003);
EberhardȱKönig,ȱDieȱBellesȱHeuresȱdesȱDucȱdeȱBerry:ȱSternstundenȱderȱBuchkunstȱ(Luzern:ȱFaksimile
Verlag;ȱStuttgart:ȱKonradȱTheiss,ȱ2004).
56
TheȱViscontiȱHours,ȱNationalȱLibrary,ȱFlorence.ȱ[Introductionsȱandȱcommentaryȱby]ȱMillardȱMeiss
andȱ Edithȱ W.ȱ Kirschȱ (Newȱ York:ȱ G.ȱ Brazillerȱ [1972]),ȱ noȱ pageȱ number,ȱ sectionȱ “Platesȱ and
Commentaries,”ȱBRȱ2v.
is,ȱquiteȱfittingly,ȱtheȱNativityȱonȱfol.ȱLFȱ11r,,ȱbelowȱwhichȱtheȱartistȱ(Belbelloȱda
Pavia)ȱaddedȱTheȱAnnunciation.ȱRemarkably,ȱtheȱshepherdsȱareȱpresentedȱinȱa
denselyȱwoodedȱarea,ȱtheȱcentralȱpersonȱnotȱevenȱpayingȱattentionȱtoȱtheȱangels,
bendingȱhisȱheadȱdown,ȱcoveredȱinȱaȱhood,ȱsleeping.ȱTheȱundergrowthȱappears
toȱbeȱsoȱthickȱthatȱtheȱsheepȱareȱevenȱcoveredȱbyȱbranches.ȱNeitherȱtheȱforestȱnor
theȱ animalsȱ makeȱ aȱ realisticȱ impression,ȱ butȱ weȱ recognizeȱ theȱ artist’sȱ serious
attemptȱtoȱconveyȱtheȱrurality,ȱifȱweȱmayȱsayȱso,ȱofȱChrist’sȱbeginning,ȱbeingȱborn
toȱhisȱmotherȱinȱaȱcowȱshed,ȱwhileȱsimpleȱshepherdsȱoutsideȱareȱgrantedȱtheȱstatus
ofȱbeingȱtheȱfirstȱexternalȱwitnesses.ȱThisȱis,ȱofȱcourse,ȱveryȱmuchȱinȱlineȱwithȱthe
biblicalȱ account,ȱ butȱ thisȱ artistȱ tookȱ theȱ nextȱ stepȱ toȱ includeȱ specificȱ elements
sheddingȱmoreȱlightȱonȱtheȱworldȱofȱtheȱpeasantsȱthanȱthisȱwouldȱhaveȱeverȱbeen
possibleȱinȱtheȱearlyȱorȱhighȱMiddleȱAges.ȱ
Asȱtopologicalȱasȱthisȱsceneȱprovesȱtoȱbe,ȱandȱasȱmuchȱasȱmanyȱofȱtheȱimages
discussedȱaboveȱconfirmȱtheȱmodelȱwhichȱtheyȱallȱfollowȱinȱoneȱwayȱorȱtheȱother,
theȱ illustrationsȱ toȱ theȱ Booksȱ ofȱ Hoursȱ quiteȱ oftenȱ stillȱ giveȱ wayȱ toȱ theȱ newly
discoveredȱfascinationȱexertedȱbyȱtheȱruralȱspaceȱandȱopenlyȱadmitȱitsȱsignificance
bothȱinȱpurelyȱfactualȱandȱspiritualȱterms.ȱInȱthisȱregardȱweȱmightȱhaveȱidentified
aȱremarkableȱmarkerȱofȱtheȱemergingȱmodernȱageȱinȱwhichȱnatureȱandȱtheȱrural
environmentȱfinallyȱgainedȱtheȱrecognitionȱwhichȱtheyȱstillȱenjoyȱtoday.ȱBehind
theȱ religiousȱ content,ȱ andȱ withinȱ theȱ gamutȱ ofȱ typologicalȱ elementsȱ so
representativeȱofȱtheȱcalendarȱimagery,ȱweȱnoticeȱinȱthisȱoutstandingȱbookȱgenre
theȱgrowingȱimpetusȱtoȱincorporateȱelementsȱofȱtheȱnaturalȱworldȱandȱtoȱallowȱthe
workȱbeingȱperformedȱbyȱfarmersȱtoȱbeȱacceptedȱasȱworthwhileȱforȱtheȱartist’sȱeye
asȱwell.ȱ
WeȱcouldȱcertainlyȱnotȱclaimȱthatȱtheȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱindicateȱaȱstraightforward
andȱartisticallyȱboldȱidealizationȱofȱruralȱspace,ȱorȱtheȱglorificationȱofȱtheȱpeasant
population—farȱ fromȱ it.ȱ Nevertheless,ȱ inȱ analyzingȱ theȱ genreȱ byȱ itselfȱ inȱ a
comparativeȱfashion,ȱweȱundoubtedlyȱrecognizeȱtheȱopeningȱupȱofȱtheȱthemes
possibleȱ andȱ permissibleȱ forȱ theȱ lateȬmedievalȱ artists,ȱ obviouslyȱ becauseȱ their
motifsȱalsoȱmetȱtheirȱpatrons’ȱinterests.ȱItȱwould,ȱofȱcourse,ȱstillȱtakeȱhundredsȱof
yearsȱuntilȱRomanticȱpaintersȱandȱothersȱshiftedȱtheȱvalueȱsystemȱinȱfavorȱofȱnaive
nature,ȱ butȱ hereȱ inȱ theȱ Booksȱ ofȱ Hoursȱ weȱ canȱ alreadyȱ recognizeȱ theȱ budding
interestȱinȱruralȱspaceȱwhereȱreligiousȱeventsȱfromȱtheȱbiblicalȱpastȱandȱtheȱhistory
ofȱ theȱ earlyȱ Churchȱ couldȱ beȱ powerfullyȱ depicted.ȱ Withinȱ theȱ spectrumȱ of
typologicallyȱpredeterminedȱimages—trees,ȱmeadows,ȱfarmersȱplowing,ȱsowing,
reaping,ȱ etc.,ȱ animals,ȱ lakesȱ andȱ rivers—weȱ discover,ȱ afterȱ all,ȱ aȱ definite
fascinationȱ withȱ andȱ interestȱ inȱ ruralȱ spaceȱ asȱ aȱ meaningfulȱ stageȱ ofȱ human
activities.ȱ
Ourȱconclusionsȱwouldȱcertainlyȱfindȱaȱnumberȱofȱconfirmationsȱifȱweȱcompared
ourȱminiatureȱimagesȱinȱtheseȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱwithȱtheȱartȱcommonlyȱidentifiedȱas
theȱ earlyȱ Renaissanceȱ primarilyȱ inȱ Italy.ȱ Theȱ famousȱ paintingȱ byȱ Pieroȱ della
FrancescaȱdepictingȱSt.ȱJohnȱbaptizingȱChristȱ(ca.ȱ1440–1450;ȱLondon,ȱNational
Gallery),ȱforȱinstance,ȱprovidesȱconsiderableȱinformationȱaboutȱtheȱnaturalȱworld,
hereȱ populatedȱ byȱ trees,ȱ bushes,ȱ grass,ȱ andȱ flowers,ȱ butȱ theyȱ areȱ nothingȱ but
standardȱdecorations.ȱInȱBenozzoȱGozzoli’sȱpaintingȱshowingȱtheȱarrivalȱofȱthe
Threeȱ Magiȱ (ca.ȱ 1459Ȭ1461;ȱ Florence,ȱ Palazzoȱ MediciȬRiccardi),ȱ typologically
standardizedȱrockȱformations,ȱtreesȱconformingȱtoȱRenaissanceȱnorms,ȱandȱsome
generalȱ vistasȱ towardȱ hillyȱ landscapeȱ inȱ theȱ backgroundȱ dominateȱ theȱ panel,
altogetherȱleavingȱusȱratherȱdisappointed.ȱJanȱvanȱEyck’sȱfamousȱaltarȱtriptychȱin
theȱGhentȱcathedralȱSt.ȱBavoȱ(1432)ȱincludesȱmuchȱnaturalȱlandscape,ȱsoȱitȱseems,
withȱthrongsȱofȱpeopleȱapproachingȱtheȱcentrallyȱlocatedȱaltar,ȱuponȱwhichȱthe
agnusȱdeiȱisȱstanding,ȱfromȱallȱfourȱcorners,ȱbutȱatȱcloserȱanalysisȱweȱrecognize
mostlyȱformulaicȱelementsȱcopiedȱfromȱmodelȱbooks,ȱwhileȱtheȱnaturalȱdetailsȱso
characteristicȱofȱimagesȱforȱtheȱCalendarsȱinȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱareȱalmostȱnotȱpresent.ȱ
Ofȱcourse,ȱtheȱartists’ȱgrowingȱwillingnessȱtoȱincorporateȱnatureȱbelongsȱtoȱsome
ofȱtheȱhighlightsȱofȱtheȱearlyȱRenaissance,ȱsuchȱasȱillustratedȱbyȱGeertgenȱtotȱSint
Jans’sȱpaintingȱofȱJohnȱtheȱBaptistȱ(1485Ȭ–1490;ȱBerlin,ȱStaatlicheȱMuseenȱStiftung
PreußischerȱKulturbesitz),ȱorȱHieronymusȱBosch’sȱShipȱofȱFoolsȱ(afterȱ1490;ȱParis,
MuséeȱNationalȱduȱLouvre).ȱButȱtheȱdominatingȱsymbolicȱinterpretationȱofȱthe
criticalȱcomponentsȱwithinȱtheȱruralȱspaceȱcontinuesȱtoȱplayȱaȱhugeȱrole.ȱWeȱcould,
ofȱcourse,ȱnotȱradicallyȱclaimȱthatȱtheȱnaturalȱelementsȱdepictedȱinȱtheȱBooksȱof
Hoursȱ reflectȱ completelyȱ differentȱ attitudesȱ andȱ ideasȱ aboutȱ theȱ natural
environment,ȱirrespectiveȱofȱtheȱongoingȱemploymentȱofȱpictorialȱformulas.ȱAfter
all,ȱtheȱpredominantlyȱprivateȱcharacterȱofȱthisȱdevotionalȱgenreȱobviouslyȱinvited
theȱ artistsȱ toȱ experimentȱ moreȱ withȱ suchȱ detailsȱ thanȱ inȱ theirȱ largerȱ pieces,
officiallyȱcommissioned,ȱandȱservingȱpublicȱrepresentationalȱpurposes.57ȱ
BroadlyȱspeakingȱweȱcanȱcertainlyȱagreeȱwithȱDanièleȱAlexandreȬBidonȱand
MarieȬThérèseȱLorcin,ȱalthoughȱtheyȱdrawȱtheirȱessentialȱmaterialȱfromȱtheȱworld
ofȱtheȱOldȱFrenchȱfabliaux.ȱTheyȱconvincinglyȱargueȱthatȱdespiteȱaȱconsiderable
degreeȱofȱplayfulness,ȱlateȬmedievalȱauthorsȱandȱartistsȱturnedȱtheirȱattentionȱto
socialȱrealityȱandȱbeganȱtoȱintegrate,ȱmoreȱthanȱeverȱbefore,ȱruralȱelements,ȱi.e.,
especiallyȱmembersȱofȱtheȱruralȱcommunities,ȱasȱprotagonistsȱandȱsideȱfiguresȱin
theirȱ works.ȱ Evenȱ archeologyȱ andȱ relatedȱ disciplinesȱ confirmȱ thatȱ weȱ know
increasinglyȱ moreȱ aboutȱ theȱ ruralȱ worldȱ sinceȱ theȱ fourteenthȱ andȱ fifteenth
centuries,ȱbothȱbecauseȱitȱhadȱinȱfactȱgainedȱaȱstrongerȱpositionȱwithinȱtheȱcontext
ofȱmedievalȱsocietyȱinȱeconomicȱandȱpoliticalȱtermsȱandȱbecauseȱfarmȱwork,ȱthe
57
TheȱnumberȱofȱrelevantȱstudiesȱonȱRenaissanceȱartȱisȱlegion,ȱbutȱhereȱIȱhaveȱdrawnȱfromȱManfred
Wundram,ȱFrührenaissanceȱvonȱMasaccioȱbisȱBosch.ȱMalereiȱdesȱAbendlandesȱ(Berlin,ȱDarmstadt,
andȱVienna:ȱC.ȱA.ȱKoch’sȱVerlagȱNachf.,ȱn.ȱy.ȱ[ca.ȱafterȱ1977]).
peasantȱasȱaȱsocialȱgroup,ȱandȱnatureȱasȱpartȱofȱtheȱeverydayȱenvironmentȱgained
inȱimportance.58ȱ
Forȱinstance,ȱbothȱinȱLangland’sȱPiersȱtheȱPlowmanȱandȱinȱtheȱslightlyȱlaterȱThe
Plowmanȱ andȱ Deathȱ byȱ Johannesȱ ofȱ Teplȱ (ca.ȱ 1400)ȱ theȱ criticalȱ issuesȱ inȱ lifeȱ are
reflectedȱbyȱtheȱallegorizedȱfarmer,ȱnotȱbyȱaȱknightȱorȱaȱcourtier.ȱTheȱevidenceȱof
theȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱconfirmsȱthisȱobservationȱandȱaddsȱmanyȱnewȱperspectivesȱboth
inȱaestheticȱandȱmaterialȱterms.ȱTheȱartistsȱcertainlyȱstillȱreflectedȱaȱhighlyȱnaive
approachȱtoȱtheirȱnaturalȱenvironment,ȱbutȱtheyȱdefinitelyȱaffirmedȱtheȱvalueȱof
theȱanimals,ȱtrees,ȱbushes,ȱflowers,ȱbirds,ȱrocks,ȱandȱaȱmyriadȱofȱotherȱnatural
objectsȱ allȱ byȱ themselves.ȱ Thisȱ innovativeȱ approach,ȱ aȱ kindȱ ofȱ landmarkȱ ofȱ a
comingȱparadigmȱshift,ȱfindsȱmuchȱsupportȱinȱcontemporaryȱliterature.ȱGillian
Ruddȱthusȱremarks,ȱwithȱregardȱtoȱPiersȱtheȱPlowman,ȱ“Langlandȱlinksȱtheȱsearch
forȱaȱrightȱwayȱtoȱliveȱwithȱmomentsȱofȱacuteȱobservations,ȱmuchȱofȱwhichȱ.ȱ.ȱ.
consistsȱ ofȱ straightforwardȱ appreciationȱ of,ȱ andȱ sheerȱ delightȱ in,ȱ theȱ natural
world.”59ȱThisȱfullyȱappliesȱtoȱtheȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱasȱwellȱinȱvariousȱdegreesȱand
levelsȱofȱintensity.
Theȱ Macclesfieldȱ Psalterȱ fromȱ theȱ secondȱ quarterȱ ofȱ theȱ fourteenthȱ century,
acquiredȱbyȱtheȱFitzwilliamsȱMuseum,ȱCamȱbridgeȱonlyȱinȱ2004,ȱevenȱthoughȱitȱis
notȱspecificallyȱaȱBookȱofȱHours,ȱprovidesȱvaluableȱinsightȱintoȱtheȱemergenceȱof
thisȱ‘ecocritical’ȱperspectiveȱinȱtheȱlateȱMiddleȱAges.60ȱTheȱartist/sȱwasȱorȱwere
obviouslyȱonlyȱallowedȱtoȱaddȱmarginalȱdrawingsȱorȱtoȱdecorateȱtheȱoftenȱmost
fantasticȱinitials.ȱSoȱweȱdoȱnotȱfaceȱanyȱlargeȬscaleȱimagesȱofȱnaturalȱscenesȱinȱthis
book.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱplethoraȱofȱnaturalȱelementsȱscatteredȱthroughoutȱtheȱpages
isȱjustȱstaggering,ȱyetȱnotȱuntypicalȱofȱlateȬmedievalȱbookȱillustrations,ȱsuchȱasȱin
theȱcaseȱofȱtheȱLuttrellȱPsalter.61ȱTheȱMacclesfieldȱPsalterȱwouldȱrequireȱaȱdetailed
studyȱallȱbyȱitself;ȱhenceȱsufficeȱitȱhereȱtoȱhighlightȱjustȱaȱfewȱelementsȱthatȱmight
haveȱpavedȱtheȱwayȱforȱfutureȱartistsȱtoȱelaborateȱinȱfullȱscaleȱhighlyȱdetailedȱrural
sceneriesȱinȱtheȱBooksȱofȱHours.
Onȱfol.ȱ76r,ȱforȱinstance,ȱaȱhugeȱsnailȱapproachesȱaȱknightȱfromȱtheȱleftȱwhoȱtries
toȱ defendȱ himselfȱ withȱ aȱ longȱ spear,ȱ onȱ whichȱ aȱ snakeȱ isȱ coiled.ȱ Onȱ fol.ȱ 77rȱ a
farmerȱisȱdrivingȱaȱplowȱacrossȱhisȱfield,ȱpulledȱbyȱtwoȱhorses,ȱwhileȱaȱfemale
person,ȱperhapsȱhisȱwife,ȱstandsȱonȱtheȱcartȱholdingȱaȱlongȱstaffȱwithȱaȱwhipȱatȱthe
end.ȱOnȱfol.ȱ81vȱaȱbeautifulȱbirdȱwithȱredȱandȱblueȱplumeȱ(perhapsȱaȱfinch)ȱis
perchedȱonȱtheȱbottomȱshaftȱofȱtheȱinitialȱletter,ȱapparentlyȱdrawnȱfromȱnature.ȱOn
58
AlexandreȬBidonȱandȱLorcin,ȱLeȱquotidienȱdesȱfabliauxȱ(seeȱnoteȱ16),ȱ285–88.
59
Rudd,ȱGreeneryȱ(seeȱnoteȱ16),ȱ201.
60
StellaȱPanayotova,ȱTheȱMacclesfieldȱPsalterȱ(London:ȱThamesȱ&ȱHudson,ȱ2008).
61
Michaelȱ Camille,ȱ Mirrorȱ inȱ Parchment:ȱ Theȱ Luttrellȱ Psalterȱ andȱ theȱ Makingȱ ofȱ Medievalȱ England
(Chicago:ȱUniversityȱofȱChicagoȱPress,ȱ1998);ȱMichelleȱP.ȱBrown,ȱTheȱWorldȱofȱtheȱLuttrellȱPsalter
(London:ȱ Britishȱ Museum,ȱ 2006);ȱ Theȱ Luttrellȱ Psalter:ȱ Aȱ Facsimile,ȱ commentaryȱ byȱ Michelleȱ P.
Brownȱ(London:ȱBritishȱLibrary,ȱ2006).
fols.ȱ151rȱandȱ152rȱweȱrecognizeȱrabbitsȱwhoȱassumeȱhumanȱfunctions,ȱinȱtheȱfirst
sceneȱ joustingȱ inȱ aȱ knightlyȱ manner,ȱ sittingȱ onȱ horses,ȱ andȱ thenȱ aȱ funeral
procession.ȱManyȱtimesȱfloralȱandȱfoliageȱmotifsȱaddȱconsiderablyȱtoȱtheȱrichȱfabric
ofȱaestheticȱfeatures,ȱsuchȱasȱonȱfols.ȱ1v,ȱ13r,ȱ47r,ȱandȱ42r.ȱMostȱshockingly,ȱonȱfol.
68rȱaȱmanȱfallsȱbackwards,ȱhorrifiedȱbyȱaȱgiantȱskateȱ(belongingȱtoȱtheȱfamilyȱof
rays)ȱfloatingȱtowardȱhim,ȱwhileȱaȱmonstrousȱanimalȱwithȱwebbedȱfeetȱandȱaȱshort
beakȱ bitesȱ aȱ longȱ twig,ȱ completelyȱ absorbedȱ byȱ thisȱ activity.ȱ Butȱ thenȱ weȱ also
discoverȱaȱnakedȱurinatingȱputto,ȱwhileȱaȱgrotesqueȱfigureȱholdsȱaȱcupȱforȱhis
urineȱ(fol.ȱ236r).ȱ
Theȱmagicȱofȱtheȱilluminationȱprogramȱrestsȱinȱtheȱunsuspectedȱappearanceȱof
naturalȱdetails,ȱsuchȱasȱaȱmanȱshootingȱanȱarrowȱtowardȱanȱowlȱonȱfol.ȱ36rȱ(see
alsoȱ fol.ȱ 91r).ȱ CraneȬlikeȱ birdsȱ andȱ ducksȱ (seeȱ fols.ȱ 93vȱ andȱ 94v)ȱ populateȱ this
psalterȱasȱmuchȱasȱrabbitsȱthatȱhaveȱassumed,ȱreflectingȱaȱtopsyȬturvyȱworld,ȱthe
roleȱofȱhunters,ȱusingȱknightsȱasȱtheirȱhorsesȱ(fol.ȱ115v;ȱcf.ȱalsoȱ116r,ȱwithȱtwo
rabbitsȱallȱbyȱthemselves,ȱwhileȱonȱfol.ȱ124rȱaȱgreyhoundȱisȱchasingȱaȱrabbit;ȱand
onȱfol.ȱ143vȱaȱmonkȱridingȱonȱaȱmonstrousȱcreatureȱaimsȱhisȱarrowȱatȱaȱrabbit
sittingȱinȱaȱdistance,ȱoutsideȱofȱtheȱinitial).ȱOnȱfol.ȱ162vȱaȱfoxȱhasȱjustȱcaughtȱa
rooster—obviouslyȱaȱborrowingȱfromȱtheȱfableȱtradition—whereasȱonȱfol.ȱ193vȱa
manȱhasȱcaughtȱaȱstagȱwithȱmightyȱantlers,ȱusingȱaȱstrongȱrope,ȱunlessȱweȱare
supposedȱtoȱreadȱthisȱasȱaȱhuntingȱsceneȱinȱwhichȱtheȱanimalȱservesȱasȱaȱguide
substitutingȱforȱaȱhorseȱorȱaȱtrackingȱdog.ȱ
Overall,ȱtheȱplayfulnessȱandȱirreverenceȱofȱtheseȱmarginalȱdrawingsȱdominate
theȱscenes,ȱandȱyetȱweȱrecognizeȱaȱgrowingȱfascinationȱwithȱdetailedȱdepictions
ofȱ animals,ȱ fowl,ȱ andȱ allȱ kindsȱ ofȱ oddȱ creatures,ȱ mostlyȱ monstrous.ȱ Stella
Panayotovaȱ explainsȱ themȱ asȱ reflectionsȱ ofȱ aȱ newȱ approachȱ toȱ preachingȱ and
religiousȱdidacticismȱinȱtheȱlateȱMiddleȱAgesȱbecauseȱ“Theologians,ȱrhetoricians
andȱ preachersȱ relaxedȱ theirȱ harshȱ oppositionȱ toȱ monstrosities,ȱ spicyȱ stories,
scandalousȱimages,ȱsecularȱmusiciansȱandȱactorsȱasȱtheyȱsawȱtheȱeducationalȱvalue
ofȱentertainmentȱandȱitsȱpotentialȱforȱtheȱcureȱofȱsouls.”62ȱ
Fromȱanȱecocriticalȱperspective,ȱweȱrecognizeȱhereȱaȱburgeoningȱinterestȱalsoȱin
theȱnaturalȱworld,ȱandȱasȱsoonȱasȱtheȱgenreȱofȱtheȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱgainedȱinȱstatus
andȱpopularity,ȱtheȱartisticȱmodelsȱasȱ developedȱ inȱtheȱLuttrellȱ Psalterȱandȱthe
62
Panayotova,ȱTheȱMacclesfieldȱPsalterȱ(seeȱnoteȱ60),ȱ14;ȱseeȱalsoȱMichaelȱCamille,ȱImageȱonȱtheȱEdge
(seeȱ noteȱ 33);ȱ Prayersȱ inȱ Codex:ȱ Booksȱ ofȱ Hoursȱ fromȱ Renaissanceȱ France,ȱ ed.ȱ Martinaȱ Bagnoli
(Baltimore,ȱMD:ȱTheȱWaltersȱArtȱMuseum,ȱ2009);ȱDasȱStundenbuchȱausȱPoitiersȱinȱderȱLissabonner
StiftungȱGulbenkian:ȱBegleitbandȱzurȱFaksimileȬAusgabeȱdesȱMs.ȱL.A.ȱ135ȱMuseuȱFundacaoȱCalouste
Gulbenkian,ȱLisboa,ȱed.ȱEberhardȱKönigȱ(Simbachȱa.ȱInn:ȱPfeiler,ȱ2009);ȱEberhardȱKönig,ȱDasȱPariser
Stundenbuchȱ anȱ derȱ Schwelleȱ zumȱ 15.ȱ Jahrhundert:ȱ dieȱ Heuresȱ deȱ Joffroyȱ undȱ weitereȱ unbekannte
Handschriftenȱ (Ramsen,ȱ Switzerland:ȱ Tenschert,ȱ 2011);ȱ Dasȱ Daȱ CostaȬStundenbuch:ȱ vollständige
FaksimileȬAusgabeȱderȱHandschriftȱMSȱM.399ȱausȱTheȱMorganȱLibraryȱ&ȱMuseum,ȱNewȱYork.ȱCodices
selecti,ȱ 116ȱ (Graz:ȱ Akademischeȱ DruckȬȱ undȱ Verlagsanstalt,ȱ vol.ȱ 1ȱ [facsimile]ȱ 2010;ȱ vol.ȱ 2
[documentation]ȱ2009;ȱvol.ȱ3ȱ[commentary]ȱ2010).
MacclesfieldȱPsalterȱwereȱreadilyȱavailableȱforȱaȱfullyȬfledgedȱdevelopmentȱonȱa
largeȱ scale.ȱ Afterȱ all,ȱ inȱ theȱ lateȱ Middleȱ Agesȱ nature,ȱ thatȱ is,ȱ theȱ natural
environmentȱforcedȱitselfȱuponȱman’sȱconsciousnessȱandȱgainedȱinȱrelevanceȱfor
theȱarts,ȱliterature,ȱphilosophy,ȱandȱtheologyȱinȱunforeseenȱfashionȱcharacterizing
mostȱdramaticallyȱtheȱnewȱinteractionȱbetweenȱpeopleȱandȱtheirȱenvironment.
Whileȱtheȱpsalterȱilluminationsȱandȱthoseȱinȱotherȱreligiousȱbooksȱgiveȱusȱonlyȱa
faintȱindicationȱofȱwhatȱwasȱtoȱcome,ȱtheȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱareȱalreadyȱtheȱtriumphant
harbingerȱ ofȱ lateȬmedievalȱ andȱ earlyȬmodernȱ ecocriticismȱ inȱ aȱ dazzling
aestheticizingȱmanner.63
InȱtheȱFitzwilliamȱBookȱofȱHoursȱfromȱca.ȱ1500,ȱcontainingȱtheȱilluminationsȱfrom
fourȱartists,ȱforemostȱamongȱthemȱtheȱMasterȱofȱtheȱDresdenȱPrayerȱBook,ȱactive
fromȱca.ȱ1470ȱtoȱ1510,ȱtheȱfirstȱsectionȱwithȱtheȱcalendarȱshowsȱus,ȱasȱwasȱcommon,
theȱtypicalȱscenesȱrepresentativeȱofȱeachȱseasonȱduringȱtheȱyear,ȱmostȱofȱthem
depictingȱruralȱactivitiesȱ(laborsȱofȱtheȱmonths),ȱhereȱdisregardingȱaȱfewȱurban
settings.64ȱOnȱfol.ȱ4r,ȱforȱinstance,ȱtheȱforegroundȱisȱfilledȱwithȱidyllicȱelements,
withȱaȱwomanȱmilkingȱaȱcowȱandȱtwoȱshepherdsȱtendingȱtoȱtheȱ sheep.ȱ Inȱ the
background,ȱ barelyȱ openȱ toȱ theȱ viewerȱ becauseȱ ofȱ theȱ calendarȱ leaf,ȱ the
perspectiveȱ extendsȱ toȱ aȱ wideȱ rangingȱ landscape,ȱ andȱ onlyȱ atȱ theȱ farȱ endȱ we
observe,ȱbarelyȱvisible,ȱaȱcity.ȱGreatȱattentionȱisȱpaidȱtoȱplanting,ȱcutting,ȱandȱother
regularȱ workȱ inȱ theȱ fieldsȱ andȱ inȱ theȱ forest.ȱ Onȱ fol.ȱ 6v,ȱ weȱ alsoȱ seeȱ inȱ the
background,ȱwhichȱisȱquiteȱunusual,ȱhowȱfarmersȱhoistȱbalesȱofȱhayȱintoȱtheȱattic
ofȱtheȱbarn,ȱwhileȱaȱmanȱandȱaȱwomanȱinȱtheȱforegroundȱreadyȱtheȱhayȱandȱturn
itȱ overȱ forȱ furtherȱ drying.ȱ Fol.ȱ 7rȱ depictsȱ theȱ cuttingȱ ofȱ wheat,ȱ andȱ onȱ fol.ȱ 7v
farmersȱ putȱ togetherȱ andȱ readyȱ theȱ sheavesȱ ofȱ wheatȱ forȱ transportation.ȱ The
artist/sȱ regularlyȱ divideȱ theȱ imagesȱ intoȱ twoȱ sections,ȱ withȱ theȱ majorȱ events
happeningȱatȱtheȱbottom,ȱwhileȱtheȱtopȱisȱfilledȱwithȱaȱlargeȱsectionȱofȱskyȱwhere
swarmsȱ ofȱ birdsȱ areȱ flying.ȱ Alsoȱ noteworthyȱ mightȱ beȱ theȱ imageȱ onȱ fol.ȱ 11v,
63
SeeȱalsoȱTheȱHoursȱofȱCatherineȱofȱCleves.ȱIntrod.ȱandȱcommentariesȱbyȱJohnȱPlummerȱ(London:
BarrieȱandȱRockcliff,ȱ1966);ȱTheȱRohanȱBookȱofȱHours,ȱintrod.ȱandȱcommentariesȱbyȱMarcelȱThomas,
trans.ȱfromȱtheȱFrenchȱbyȱKatherineȱW.ȱCarson,ȱintrod.ȱbyȱMillardȱMeissȱ(London:ȱThamesȱand
Hudson,ȱ1973).ȱHereȱweȱcomeȱacrossȱaȱgoodȱnumberȱofȱcharmingȱsmallȱillustrations,ȱbutȱthey
continueȱtoȱbeȱratherȱschematicȱandȱlittleȱdetailed,ȱalthoughȱtheȱmarginsȱareȱalsoȱquiteȱelaborately
filledȱwithȱuniqueȱrealisticȱscenes,ȱsuchȱasȱaȱmanȱroastingȱpigsȱonȱaȱspit,ȱfol.ȱ83r.ȱCf.ȱfurtherȱThe
HastingsȱHours:ȱAȱ15thȬCenturyȱFlemishȱBookȱofȱHourseȱMadeȱforȱWilliam,ȱLordȱHastings,ȱprefaceȱand
commentaryȱbyȱD.ȱH.ȱTurnerȱ(London:ȱThamesȱ&ȱHudson,ȱ1983);ȱJanetȱBackhouse,ȱTheȱBedford
Hoursȱ(London:ȱBritishȱLibrary,ȱ1990);ȱRogerȱS.ȱWieck,ȱTheȱBookȱofȱHoursȱinȱMedievalȱArtȱandȱLife,
withȱ essaysȱ byȱ Lawrenceȱ R.ȱ Poos,ȱ Virginiaȱ Reinberg,ȱ andȱ Johnȱ Plummerȱ (London:ȱ Sotheby’s
Publications,ȱ1988);ȱseeȱespeciallyȱWieck’sȱessayȱ“Calendar,”ȱ45–54.
64
TheȱFitzwilliamȱBookȱofȱHoursȱMSȱ1058–1975.ȱCommentaryȱbyȱStellaȱPanayotovaȱ(London:ȱTheȱFolio
Society,ȱ2009).ȱForȱaȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱcalendar,ȱseeȱPanayotova,ȱ71–77.ȱSheȱalsoȱoffersȱtheȱrelevant
remarksȱonȱtheȱsignsȱofȱtheȱzodiac,ȱwhichȱareȱalsoȱessentialȱelementsȱinȱBooksȱofȱHours,ȱconstituting
theȱcriticalȱlinksȱbetweenȱmacroȬȱandȱmicrocosm.
showingȱ usȱ aȱ farmerȱ onȱ aȱ marketȱ sellingȱ hisȱ sowsȱ toȱ aȱ merchantȱ orȱ butcher.
Finally,ȱtheȱlastȱpageȱofȱtheȱcalendarȱdepictsȱaȱcoldȱdayȱinȱtheȱcityȱwithȱsnowȱflakes
fallingȱdown.ȱAllȱtheȱpeopleȱareȱhuddledȱup,ȱonlyȱaȱchild,ȱledȱbyȱhisȱmother,ȱdoes
notȱwearȱaȱheadgearȱandȱhasȱnoȱglovesȱon.ȱThisȱisȱaȱniceȱmatchȱwithȱtheȱfirstȱtwo
imagesȱpresentingȱaȱcoupleȱinȱtheirȱhouse,ȱwithȱtheȱmanȱwarmingȱhisȱhandsȱand
feetȱatȱtheȱfireȱ(fol.ȱ1r),ȱandȱthenȱwithȱaȱgroupȱofȱyoungȱpeopleȱridingȱinȱaȱhorseȬ
drawnȱsleighȱthroughȱtheȱsnow,ȱobviouslyȱenjoyingȱthisȱleisurelyȱactivity.ȱ
Apartȱfromȱtheȱcalendar,ȱtheȱrestȱofȱtheȱFitzwilliamȱBookȱofȱHoursȱisȱbeautifully
illuminated.ȱ Theȱ borderȱ vignettesȱ displayȱ aȱ wealthȱ ofȱ flowers,ȱ strawberries,
insects,ȱbirds,ȱandȱsometimesȱalsoȱgrotesqueȱfigures,ȱsuchȱasȱaȱredȬhoodedȱman
stuckȱinȱtheȱshellȱofȱaȱsnailȱ(fol.ȱ78r),ȱallȱveryȱsimilarȱtoȱthoseȱinȱtheȱDresdenȱPrayer
Bookȱ fromȱ ca.ȱ 1470.ȱ Asȱ Stellaȱ Panayotovaȱ commentsȱ withȱ regardȱ toȱ theȱ latter,
whichȱalsoȱappliesȱtoȱtheȱpresentȱBookȱofȱHours:ȱ“Throughȱcloseȱobservationȱof
natureȱ theȱ Masterȱ ofȱ theȱ Dresdenȱ Prayerȱ Bookȱ simulatedȱ spatialȱ depthȱ and
atmosphericȱ effectsȱ thatȱ wereȱ emulatedȱ byȱ theȱ nextȱ generationȱ ofȱ Flemish
illuminators,ȱ notablyȱ Simonȱ Bening,ȱ whoȱ createdȱ someȱ ofȱ theȱ mostȱ ambitious
CalendarȬcyclesȱstillȱinȱexistence.”65
Littleȱdiscussed,ȱyetȱprovingȱtoȱbeȱaȱperfectȱandȱfinalȱexampleȱforȱourȱargument,
isȱtheȱHastingsȱHoursȱfromȱca.ȱ1480,ȱaȱFlemishȱproduct,ȱperhapsȱinfluencedȱbyȱthe
schoolȱofȱHansȱMemlingȱinȱBruges.ȱTheȱwideȱmarginsȱofȱitsȱpagesȱareȱfilledȱwith
flowers,ȱbutterflies,ȱfruits,ȱinsectsȱ(suchȱasȱdragonflies),ȱandȱbirds,ȱallȱpaintedȱmost
lovinglyȱandȱmeticulouslyȱcopiedȱfromȱreality.ȱTheȱartist/sȱmustȱhaveȱpaidȱclose
attentionȱtoȱnatureȱstudies,ȱotherwiseȱheȱorȱtheyȱwouldȱnotȱhaveȱbeenȱableȱtoȱcopy
thoseȱelementsȱinȱsuchȱanȱaccurateȱmanner.66ȱOfȱcourse,ȱtheȱreligiousȱsymbolism
continuesȱtoȱplayȱaȱmajorȱroleȱhere,ȱasȱweȱwouldȱnotȱexpectȱinȱanyȱotherȱway,
consideringȱtheȱgenreȱitself,ȱbutȱitȱbeginsȱtoȱbeȱpairedȱwithȱthisȱintriguingȱinterest
inȱtheȱspecificȱdetailsȱinȱnatureȱandȱinȱeverydayȱhumanȱexistence.ȱTheȱruralȱspace
stakedȱ itsȱ ownȱ rightȱ inȱ theseȱ masterpiecesȱ ofȱ lateȬmedievalȱ genre,ȱ gloriously
illuminatedȱbyȱsomeȱofȱtheȱbestȱartistsȱofȱtheirȱtime.67ȱAtȱcloserȱanalysisȱweȱcan
65
Panayotova,ȱCommentaryȱ(seeȱnoteȱ64),ȱ75.ȱSeeȱalsoȱThomasȱKren,ȱ“LandscapeȱasȱLeitmotif:ȱA
ReintegratedȱBookȱofȱHoursȱIlluminatedȱ byȱ SimonȱBening,”ȱIlluminatingȱtheȱBook:ȱMakersȱand
Interpreters:ȱ Essaysȱ inȱ Honourȱ ofȱ Janetȱ Backhouse,ȱ ed.ȱ Michelleȱ P.ȱ Brownȱ andȱ Scotȱ McKendrick
(London:ȱ Britishȱ Library,ȱ andȱ Toronto:ȱ Universityȱ ofȱ Torontoȱ Press,ȱ 1998),ȱ 209–32.ȱ Forȱ the
exchangesȱ amongȱ artistsȱ andȱ theȱ learningȱ process,ȱ seeȱ id.ȱ andȱ Maryanȱ W.ȱ Ainsworth,
“Illuminatorsȱ andȱ Painters:ȱ Artisticȱ Exchangesȱ andȱ Interrelationships,”ȱ Theȱ Renaissance:ȱ The
TriumphȱofȱFlemishȱManuscriptȱPaintingȱinȱEurope,ȱed.ȱThomasȱKrenȱandȱScotȱMcKendrickȱ(Los
Angeles:ȱTheȱJ.ȱPaulȱGettyȱMuseum,ȱandȱLondon:ȱRoyalȱAcademyȱofȱArts,ȱ2003–2004),ȱ35–57.
66
TheȱHastingsȱHoursȱ(seeȱnoteȱ63).ȱEachȱpageȱisȱdominatedȱbyȱaȱspecificȱcolorȱofȱtheȱflowers,ȱsoȱred,
blue,ȱorȱyellow.ȱButȱatȱtimesȱthereȱareȱalsoȱgreenȱleavesȱ(fol.ȱ71r),ȱorȱaȱveritableȱflowerȱbouquet
(fol.ȱ73b).ȱ
67
ThereȱwouldȱbeȱmanyȱmoreȱexamplesȱofȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱthatȱcouldȱbeȱdiscussed,ȱandȱtheȱcollection
inȱtheȱFitzwilliamȱMuseum,ȱCambridge,ȱparticularlyȱdeservesȱmentionȱhere.ȱSee,ȱforȱinstance,ȱthe
easilyȱfindȱillustrationsȱforȱaȱwideȱrangeȱofȱmanyȱdifferentȱruralȱactivities,ȱthen
animals,ȱ housing,ȱ foodstuff,ȱ plants,ȱ tools,ȱ buildings,ȱ gardens,ȱ butchering,
landscapes,ȱandȱtheȱlike.ȱAsȱmuchȱasȱweȱmightȱtendȱtoȱviewȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱonly
throughȱtheȱlenseȱofȱaristocraticȱliterature,ȱclericalȱtexts,ȱorȱlegalȱdocuments,ȱthe
evidenceȱofȱtheȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱconfirmsȱtheȱextentȱtoȱwhichȱtheȱruralȱworldȱwas,
afterȱall,ȱonȱmanyȱpeople’sȱmindsȱsinceȱallȱexistenceȱdependedȱonȱtheȱproduction
ofȱfoodstuff.68
TheȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱproveȱtoȱbeȱaȱhighlyȱexcitingȱgenreȱfromȱtheȱlateȱMiddleȱAges
sinceȱtheyȱprovideȱsuchȱfarȬreachingȱinsightsȱintoȱtheȱawarenessȱofȱruralȱspaceȱat
thatȱ time.ȱ Ourȱ ecocriticalȱ readingȱ provesȱ toȱ beȱ aȱ farȬreachingȱ methodȱ toȱ learn
muchȱmoreȱaboutȱthatȱtime.69
incrediblyȱ richlyȱ illuminatedȱ Ms.ȱ 62ȱ (ca.ȱ 1445–1450).ȱ Forȱ aȱ carefulȱ description,ȱ seeȱ Montague
RhosesȱJames,ȱAȱDescriptiveȱCatalogueȱofȱtheȱManuscriptsȱinȱtheȱFitzwilliamȱMuseumȱwithȱIntroduction
andȱIndicesȱ(Cambridge:ȱAtȱtheȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1895),ȱ156–74.ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthe
presentȱvolumeȱbyȱLiaȱB.ȱRossȱwhoȱalsoȱincludesȱaȱdiscussionȱofȱBooksȱofȱHours,ȱthoughȱthenȱshe
expandsȱtheȱscopeȱofȱherȱanalysisȱconsiderably.
68
ForȱanȱexcellentȱcollectionȱofȱindividualȱscenesȱinȱmanyȱdifferentȱBooksȱofȱHours,ȱseeȱnowȱDas
leuchtendeȱMittelalter,ȱed.ȱJacquesȱDalarun.ȱTrans.ȱfromȱtheȱFrenchȱintoȱGermanȱbyȱBirgitȱLamerzȬ
Beckschäfer,ȱ3rdȱed.ȱ(2002;ȱDarmstadt:ȱPrimus,ȱ2011).
69
Iȱ wouldȱ likeȱ toȱ expressȱ myȱ thanksȱ toȱ myȱ dearȱ colleagueȱ Christopherȱ R.ȱ Clason,ȱ Oaklandȱ
University,ȱMI,ȱforȱaȱcarefulȱreadingȱofȱthisȱarticleȱandȱforȱprovidingȱmeȱwithȱhelpfulȱcomments.
IȱalsoȱgreatlyȱappreciateȱtheȱcommentsȱbyȱStellaȱPanayotova,ȱFitzwilliamȱMuseum,ȱCambridge.
Chapterȱ16
LiaȱB.ȱRoss
(TheȱUniversityȱofȱNewȱMexico,ȱAlbuquerque)
TheȱTameȱWildernessȱofȱPrinces:ȱImagesȱofȱNatureȱinȱExemplars
ofȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱandȱinȱtheȱLivreȱduȱCœurȱd’amourȱéprisȱ
ofȱKingȱRenéȱofȱAnjouȱ
InȱaȱfamousȱpassageȱofȱTheȱWorldȱasȱWillȱandȱIdeaȱSchopenhauerȱillustratedȱthe
conceptȱofȱtheȱsublimeȱbyȱwayȱofȱaȱseriesȱofȱimagesȱthatȱawakenȱinȱtheȱhuman
mindȱaȱprofoundȱstateȱofȱexaltationȱmixedȱwithȱfear.ȱFromȱtheȱcontemplationȱof
theȱunbrokenȱhorizonsȱofȱboundlessȱprairiesȱtoȱtheȱsensationȱofȱbeingȱengulfedȱby
theȱvastnessȱofȱtheȱuniverse,ȱtheȱsublimeȱisȱlinkedȱwithȱeverȱgrowingȱintensityȱto
aspectsȱofȱwildȱnature.
Natureȱconvulsedȱbyȱaȱstorm;ȱtheȱskyȱdarkenedȱbyȱblackȱthreateningȱthunderȬclouds;
stupendous,ȱ naked,ȱ overhangingȱ cliffs,ȱ completelyȱ shuttingȱ outȱ theȱ view;ȱ rushing,
foamingȱtorrents;ȱabsoluteȱdesert;ȱtheȱwailȱofȱtheȱwindȱsweepingȱthroughȱtheȱcleftsȱof
theȱ rocks.ȱ Ourȱ dependence,ȱ ourȱ strifeȱ withȱ hostileȱ nature,ȱ ourȱ willȱ brokenȱ inȱ the
conflict,ȱnowȱappearsȱvisiblyȱbeforeȱourȱeyes.ȱYet,ȱsoȱlongȱasȱtheȱpersonalȱpressure
doesȱnotȱgainȱtheȱupperȱhand,ȱbutȱweȱcontinueȱinȱaestheticȱcontemplation,ȱtheȱpure
subjectȱofȱknowingȱgazesȱunshakenȱandȱunconcernedȱthroughȱthatȱstrifeȱofȱnature,
throughȱthatȱpictureȱofȱtheȱbrokenȱwill,ȱandȱquietlyȱcomprehendsȱtheȱIdeasȱevenȱof
thoseȱobjectsȱwhichȱareȱthreateningȱandȱterribleȱtoȱtheȱwill.ȱInȱthisȱcontrastȱliesȱthe
senseȱofȱtheȱsublime.1
Evenȱifȱsuchȱextremeȱsentiments,ȱacceptableȱatȱtheȱheightȱofȱRomanticism,ȱsound
alienȱtoday,ȱneverthelessȱechoesȱofȱthoseȱconceptsȱhaveȱremainedȱcurrentȱenough
inȱpostȬRomanticȱartȱasȱtoȱopenȱupȱtheȱartist’sȱcanvasȱtoȱuntamedȱnatureȱasȱitsȱsole
1
ArthurȱSchopenhauer,ȱTheȱWorldȱasȱWillȱandȱIdea,ȱtrans.ȱR.ȱB.ȱHaldaneȱandȱJ.ȱKempȱ(1883–1886;
GardenȱCity,ȱNY:ȱDoubledayȱ&ȱCompany,ȱInc.,ȱ1961),ȱ217.
562 LiaȱB.ȱRoss
subject.2ȱ Andȱ modernȱ enjoymentȱ ofȱ theȱ wildȱ isȱ soȱ appreciatedȱ todayȱ thatȱ itȱ is
becomingȱaȱmarkȱofȱveritableȱtouristicȱelitism.ȱThisȱattitudeȱtowardȱpristineȱnature
isȱ apparentlyȱ motivatedȱ byȱ “aȱ senseȱ ofȱ itsȱ inherentȱ differenceȱ [.ȱ .ȱ .]ȱ something
deemedȱtoȱbeȱapartȱfromȱtheȱordinaryȱdomainȱofȱtheȱhuman;ȱitsȱspecialnessȱasȱa
regionȱisȱinherentȱtoȱitsȱremoteness,”ȱandȱpreciselyȱbecauseȱofȱitsȱremotenessȱitȱis
believedȱtoȱpossessȱredemptiveȱqualities.3ȱ
Itȱmayȱseemȱoddȱthatȱpeopleȱlivingȱinȱtheȱmedievalȱpastȱcouldȱhaveȱresponded
quiteȱdifferentlyȱtoȱanȱideaȱthatȱSchopenhauerȱassumedȱtoȱbeȱinnateȱandȱsharedȱby
humankind.ȱ Butȱ inȱ factȱ itȱ wouldȱ beȱ challengingȱ toȱ findȱ examplesȱ fromȱ late
medievalȱartȱorȱliteratureȱthatȱreflectȱsuchȱanȱintenseȱmixtureȱofȱlongingȱforȱand
fearȱofȱanȱextremeȱpersonalȱexperienceȱinȱrelationȱtoȱnature.ȱAlmostȱaȱcenturyȱago
Huizingaȱ recognizedȱ aȱ fundamentalȱ differenceȱ betweenȱ theȱ Romanticȱ and
medievalȱviewȱofȱnatureȱinȱtheȱcourseȱofȱhisȱlengthyȱdiscussionȱofȱlateȱmedieval
estheticsȱinȱnorthernȱEurope.ȱWithinȱthisȱcultureȱ“theȱfeelingȱforȱnatureȱwasȱnot
free,ȱneitherȱwasȱtheȱmannerȱofȱexpressingȱit.ȱLoveȱofȱnatureȱhadȱtakenȱtheȱform
ofȱ theȱ pastoralȱ andȱ wasȱ thereforeȱ controlledȱ byȱ sentimentalȱ andȱ aesthetic
conventions.”4ȱ
Rightȱfromȱtheȱstartȱheȱmadeȱtheȱsignificantȱobservationȱthatȱtheȱvastȱmajority
ofȱwhatȱisȱleftȱofȱtheȱartisticȱexpressionȱofȱthatȱperiodȱwasȱdictatedȱbyȱtheȱtasteȱof
princelyȱpatronsȱandȱtheirȱdependants.ȱ
Theȱ greatȱ artistsȱ generallyȱ workedȱ forȱ otherȱ circlesȱ thanȱ thoseȱ ofȱ theȱ devout
townspeople.ȱTheȱartȱofȱtheȱbrothersȱVanȱEyckȱandȱofȱtheirȱfollowers,ȱthoughȱitȱsprang
upȱinȱmunicipalȱsurroundingsȱandȱwasȱfosteredȱbyȱtownȱcircles,ȱcannotȱbeȱcalledȱa
bourgeoisȱart.ȱTheȱcourtȱandȱtheȱnobilityȱexercisedȱtooȱpowerfulȱanȱattraction.ȱOnlyȱthe
patronageȱ ofȱ princesȱ permittedȱ theȱ artȱ ofȱ miniatureȱ toȱ raiseȱ itselfȱ toȱ theȱ degreeȱ of
artisticȱrefinementȱwhichȱcharacterizesȱtheȱworkȱofȱtheȱbrothersȱofȱLimburgȱandȱthe
artistsȱofȱtheȱHoursȱofȱTurin.5ȱ
Itȱisȱindeedȱtrue,ȱifȱdisappointing,ȱthatȱwhatȱisȱleftȱofȱlateȱmedievalȱartȱ(aȱsmall
sampleȱofȱtheȱwhole,ȱperhaps,ȱbutȱstillȱremarkablyȱabundant)ȱeitherȱbelongedȱto
theȱhighestȱranksȱofȱtheȱaristocracyȱ(whichȱincludedȱtheȱupperȱranksȱofȱtheȱclergy)
orȱ wasȱ createdȱ withinȱ anȱ environmentȱ thatȱ cateredȱ toȱ theirȱ taste.ȱ Theȱ present
chapterȱinvestigatesȱlateȱmedievalȱattitudesȱtowardsȱwildȱnatureȱasȱaȱsourceȱof
2
See,ȱforȱexample,ȱCézanne’sȱpaintingsȱRocksȱatȱFontainebleauȱ(1893)ȱandȱRocksȱatȱl’Estaqueȱ(1879–
1882).
3
DavidȱWhitley,ȱTheȱIdeaȱofȱNatureȱinȱDisneyȱAnimation.ȱAshgateȱStudiesȱinȱChildhood,ȱ1700ȱto
Presentȱ(Burlington,ȱVT:ȱAshgateȱPublishingȱCompany,ȱ2008),ȱ11.ȱ
4
J(oh)anȱHuizinga,ȱTheȱWaningȱofȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(1919;ȱNewȱYork,ȱLondon:ȱDoubleday,ȱ1989),ȱ
292–93.
5
Huizinga,ȱTheȱWaningȱofȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ260.ȱSeeȱalsoȱhisȱdiscussionȱ(128)ȱofȱthe
aristocraticȱtastesȱofȱPhilipȱofȱArtevelde,ȱleaderȱofȱtheȱFlemishȱinsurgents.
TheȱTameȱWildernessȱofȱPrinces 563
pureȱestheticȱpleasure,ȱasȱevidencedȱbyȱselectedȱpictorialȱexamplesȱthatȱillustrate
theirȱtastesȱinȱnaturalȱlandscapes.ȱButȱhavingȱtoȱsearchȱforȱcluesȱexclusivelyȱwithin
theȱaristocraticȱworld,ȱitȱisȱforcedȱtoȱframeȱitsȱcentralȱquestionȱinȱmoreȱlimited
terms:ȱdidȱlateȱmedievalȱprincesȱfeelȱpureȱestheticȱpleasureȱinȱbeingȱimmersedȱin
nature?ȱ
Theȱdiverseȱdataȱonȱthisȱapparentlyȱsimpleȱtopicȱisȱfarȱfromȱeasyȱtoȱdecipher.ȱOn
theȱ oneȱ handȱ thereȱ isȱ theȱ compellingȱ imageȱ leftȱ byȱ Lucienȱ Febvreȱ inȱ his
representationȱ ofȱ courtȱ lifeȱ inȱ Renaissanceȱ Franceȱ (certainlyȱ applicableȱ toȱ the
previousȱcenturies)ȱofȱruddyȱcourtiersȱandȱladiesȱgallopingȱacrossȱtheȱcountryside,
daringȱharshȱwindsȱandȱrainȱtoȱfollowȱaȱroyalȱcourtȱinȱperpetualȱmotion.6ȱThen
thereȱ areȱ innumerableȱ otherȱ testimoniesȱ fromȱ medievalȱ art,ȱ literature,ȱ andȱ the
anecdotalȱevidenceȱofȱchroniclersȱthatȱtheȱhuntȱwasȱtheȱparamountȱaristocratic
pleasure.7ȱOnȱtheȱotherȱhandȱtheȱinterpretationȱofȱthisȱbodyȱofȱevidenceȱmayȱlead
toȱambiguousȱconclusions.ȱFebvreȱhimselfȱsuggestsȱthatȱnoblesȱdidȱnotȱsoȱmuch
enjoyȱtheȱperipateticȱlifeȱofȱmedievalȱandȱRenaissanceȱcourtsȱasȱtolerateȱitȱstoically
outȱofȱaȱsenseȱofȱduty.8ȱAndȱperhapsȱoutdoorȱpastimesȱwereȱnotȱsoughtȱafterȱin
orderȱtoȱexperienceȱtheȱwild,ȱbutȱforȱmoreȱutilitarianȱreasonsȱsuchȱasȱtrainingȱfor
war,ȱ affirmationȱ ofȱ prerogatives,ȱ orȱ displayȱ ofȱ skillsȱ toȱ validateȱ one’sȱ position
withinȱtheȱpeerȱgroup.ȱInȱotherȱterms,ȱaristocratsȱcouldȱhaveȱbeenȱmotivatedȱby
social,ȱratherȱthanȱesthetic,ȱrewards.
Onȱaȱpracticalȱlevel,ȱtheȱneedȱtoȱselectȱaȱmanageableȱsampleȱofȱsourcesȱimposes
aȱchoiceȱbetweenȱliteraryȱandȱfigurativeȱsources.ȱThis,ȱinȱturn,ȱleadsȱtoȱaȱshort
reviewȱ ofȱ Huizinga’sȱ analysis,ȱ inȱ theȱ courseȱ ofȱ whichȱ heȱ highlightedȱ both
similaritiesȱandȱdistinctionsȱbetweenȱtheȱliteraryȱandȱfigurativeȱmaterialȱonȱhand.
Theȱcruxȱofȱhisȱthesisȱwasȱthatȱlateȱmedievalȱpoetryȱcomparedȱunfavorablyȱwith
contemporaryȱfigurativeȱart,ȱaȱconclusionȱthatȱheȱsummarizedȱwithȱtheȱincisive
statementȱthatȱoneȱofȱtheȱ“fundamentalȱtraitsȱofȱtheȱmindȱofȱtheȱdecliningȱMiddle
Agesȱisȱtheȱpredominanceȱofȱtheȱsenseȱofȱsight,ȱaȱpredominanceȱwhichȱisȱclosely
connectedȱwithȱtheȱatrophyȱofȱthought.”9ȱ
Inȱ particularȱ heȱ notedȱ thatȱ theȱ tendencyȱ toȱ attributeȱ equalȱ importanceȱ toȱ all
detailsȱ(veryȱevidentȱinȱtheȱcelebratedȱFlemishȱartȱofȱtheȱperiod)ȱfellȱflatȱwhen
6
LucienȱFebvre,ȱLifeȱinȱRenaissanceȱFrance,ȱed.ȱandȱtrans.ȱMarianȱRothsteinȱ(CambridgeȱandȱLondon:
HarvardȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1977),ȱ17–18.
7
Forȱ aȱ discussionȱ ofȱ anȱ unusualȱ aspectsȱ ofȱ thisȱ topic,ȱ seeȱ theȱ chapterȱ “Womenȱ atȱ theȱ Hunt:
DevelopingȱaȱGenderedȱLogicȱofȱRuralȱSpaceȱinȱtheȱNetherlandishȱVisualȱTradition”ȱbyȱMartha
Peacockȱinȱtheȱpresentȱvolume.
8
Febvreȱ(LifeȱinȱRenaissanceȱFranceȱ[seeȱnoteȱ6],ȱ19)ȱstatesȱthatȱȱnoblesȱreturnedȱtoȱtheirȱownȱdomains
asȱ soonȱ asȱ possibleȱ andȱ triedȱ toȱ spendȱ atȱ mostȱ oneȱ orȱ twoȱ monthsȱ aȱ yearȱ followingȱ the
peregrinationsȱofȱtheȱking.
9ȱ
Huizinga,ȱTheȱWaningȱofȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ284.
564 LiaȱB.ȱRoss
appliedȱtoȱpoetryȱandȱdegeneratedȱintoȱenumerations.10ȱAsȱanȱexampleȱheȱquoted
aȱpassageȱfromȱtheȱLivreȱdesȱQuatreȱDames,ȱaȱpoemȱbyȱAlainȱChartier,ȱwhoȱ“inȱhis
dayȱwasȱheldȱtoȱbeȱaȱgreatȱpoet”ȱtoȱaȱlevelȱwithȱPetrarch.ȱInȱthisȱpoemȱChartier
describesȱaȱwalkȱ“auxȱchamps”ȱ(inȱtheȱcountry)ȱonȱaȱspringȱmorning,ȱwhichȱhe
triesȱtoȱrenderȱthroughȱanȱinventoryȱofȱbloomingȱtrees,ȱhoppingȱrabbits,ȱbuzzing
insects,ȱ andȱ finallyȱ aȱ listȱ ofȱ colorsȱ (white,ȱ yellow,ȱ red,ȱ andȱ violet)ȱ toȱ suggest
flowers.11ȱTheȱpoetȱlimitsȱhisȱcanvasȱtoȱsuperficialȱfeaturesȱandȱneverȱachievesȱany
lyricalȱintensity.ȱFurther,ȱtheȱmostȱsignificantȱadjectiveȱthatȱheȱproducesȱisȱ“doux”
(mellow),ȱ thatȱ isȱ aȱ genericȱ moralȱ quality,ȱ notȱ aȱ descriptiveȱ one.ȱ Huizinga
concludedȱthatȱinȱanȱepochȱofȱ“preȬeminentlyȱvisualȱinspirationȱ[.ȱ.ȱ.]ȱpictorial
expressionȱeasilyȱsurpassesȱliteraryȱexpression.”12
Theȱauthorȱthenȱendeavoredȱtoȱexplainȱhowȱaȱculturalȱenvironmentȱthatȱcreated
aȱ wealthȱ ofȱ pictorialȱ masterpiecesȱ couldȱ produceȱ aȱ poetryȱ thatȱ wasȱ generally
insipid,ȱimitative,ȱandȱshallow.ȱButȱwhenȱheȱproceededȱtoȱexamineȱtheȱvisualȱarts
heȱswitchedȱeasilyȱfromȱtheȱsubjectȱofȱnatureȱtoȱthatȱofȱhumans:ȱportraits,ȱclothes
andȱaccessories,ȱlavishȱinteriors,ȱandȱelegantȱurbanȱexteriors.ȱInȱtheseȱcases—he
argued—theȱartists’ȱandȱpatrons’ȱloveȱforȱdetailsȱdidȱproduceȱaȱpleasingȱvisual
effect,ȱ yetȱ farȱ fromȱ anȱ inspiringȱ oneȱ toȱ theȱ modernȱ eye.ȱ Theȱ reasonȱ wasȱ that
medievalȱtheoryȱhadȱintellectualizedȱtheȱideaȱofȱbeautyȱintoȱoneȱofȱharmonious
proportionsȱandȱformalȱperfection,ȱandȱinȱsoȱdoingȱhadȱsubstitutedȱforȱbeautyȱ“the
notionsȱofȱmeasure,ȱorderȱandȱappropriateness”ȱandȱreducedȱitȱtoȱ“theȱsensation
ofȱlightȱandȱsplendour.”13ȱ
Henceȱ theȱ artȱ andȱ theȱ literatureȱ ofȱ theȱ fifteenthȱ century,ȱ thoughȱ bornȱ ofȱ theȱ same
inspirationȱandȱtheȱsameȱspirit,ȱinevitablyȱproduceȱonȱusȱquiteȱdifferentȱeffects.ȱ[Yet
both]ȱshareȱtheȱgeneralȱandȱessentialȱtendencyȱofȱtheȱspiritȱofȱtheȱexpiringȱMiddle
Ages:ȱthatȱofȱaccentuatingȱeveryȱdetail,ȱofȱdevelopingȱeveryȱthoughtȱandȱeveryȱimage
toȱtheȱend,ȱofȱgivingȱconcreteȱformȱtoȱeveryȱconceptȱofȱtheȱmind.14ȱ
Evenȱinȱtheȱgreatȱpaintingsȱofȱtheȱperiodȱoneȱfindsȱexaggeratedȱdetailsȱinȱclothes
andȱ ornamentsȱ asȱ artistsȱ satisfiedȱ theirȱ nobleȱ patrons’ȱ “fondnessȱ forȱ allȱ that
glitters,”ȱdepictingȱwithȱlovingȱprecisionȱtheirȱgaudyȱattireȱofȱsoftȱvelvetsȱandȱstiff
damasksȱoverlyȬadornedȱwithȱpreciousȱstones.ȱTheȱanthropocentricȱworldȱofȱart,
withȱ itsȱ almostȱ exclusiveȱ appreciationȱ forȱ whatȱ isȱ builtȱ byȱ humanȱ hands,ȱ is
reflectedȱinȱtheȱbackgroundsȱofȱreligiousȱpaintingsȱthatȱindulgeȱinȱminuteȱdetails
ofȱ “aȱ townȱ fullȱ ofȱ pointedȱ gablesȱ andȱ elegantȱ belfriesȱ [.ȱ .ȱ .]ȱ aȱ curvedȱ bridge
10ȱ
11ȱ
Huizinga,ȱTheȱWaningȱofȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ281–83.
12
13ȱ
Huizinga,ȱTheȱWaningȱofȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ267,ȱ269.
14
swarmingȱwithȱgroupsȱofȱpeople.”15ȱInȱfact,ȱinȱtheȱfigurativeȱartsȱofȱtheȱperiodȱit
isȱrareȱtoȱseeȱaȱnaturalȱlandscapeȱthatȱwasȱnotȱartificiallyȱcomposedȱasȱbackdrop
toȱaȱhumanȱscene.ȱ
Inȱconclusion,ȱlateȱGothicȱfondnessȱforȱdetailsȱwasȱinȱevidenceȱbothȱinȱpoetry
(whereȱnatureȱcouldȱbeȱdepictedȱbyȱitself,ȱbutȱwithinȱtheȱconfinesȱofȱtheȱpastoral)
andȱpaintingȱ(whereȱnatureȱwasȱbarelyȱpresentȱasȱbackgroundȱtoȱportraiture,ȱat
leastȱinȱaltarpiecesȱandȱotherȱmonumentalȱart).ȱWhileȱthisȱobservationȱwillȱturnȱout
usefulȱinȱtheȱcourseȱofȱtheȱpresentȱanalysis,ȱitȱisȱimportantȱnotȱtoȱforgetȱHuizinga’s
mainȱargumentȱthatȱweȱareȱdealingȱwithȱanȱeraȱthatȱemphasizedȱimagesȱoverȱthe
writtenȱword.ȱThereforeȱtheȱmostȱmeaningfulȱsourcesȱforȱtheȱpresentȱdiscussion
areȱtoȱbeȱfoundȱinȱpaintedȱlandscapesȱappearingȱwithinȱaȱtextualȱcontext.ȱLuckily,
theȱlateȱmedievalȱperiodȱhasȱpreservedȱforȱposterityȱaȱrelativeȱabundanceȱofȱthis
typeȱofȱimagesȱinȱtheȱilluminationsȱofȱpreciousȱbooks.ȱ
Thisȱart,ȱtoo,ȱcateredȱmainlyȱtoȱprinces,ȱandȱperhapsȱevenȱmoreȱsoȱthanȱlargeȬ
scaleȱfigurativeȱartȱwasȱtiedȱtoȱtheȱpatrons’ȱtaste,ȱbeingȱancillaryȱtoȱtextsȱthatȱwere
readȱbyȱtheirȱownersȱandȱtheirȱinnerȱgroup.ȱForȱthisȱreasonȱitȱcanȱbeȱviewedȱasȱa
closeȱ reflectionȱ ofȱ theȱ tasteȱ ofȱ theȱ patronsȱ ratherȱ thanȱ ofȱ theȱ inspirationȱ ofȱ the
painter.ȱInȱthisȱtypeȱofȱartȱoneȱcanȱfindȱaȱcloserȱparallelȱtoȱtheȱpeculiarȱperception
ofȱnatureȱtypicalȱofȱtheȱpoetryȱofȱtheȱperiod.ȱ
Huizingaȱdidȱconsiderȱthisȱartȱformȱinȱhisȱstudy,ȱandȱappreciatedȱtheȱcharming
resultsȱofȱsomeȱofȱitsȱbestȱexemplars:ȱtheȱilluminationsȱofȱBooksȱofȱHours.16ȱThese
fashionableȱ prayerȱ books,ȱ mostȱ oftenȱ madeȱ forȱ aristocratsȱ andȱ royalty,ȱ were
lavishlyȱdecoratedȱwithȱimagesȱofȱbiblicalȱevents,ȱcontemporaryȱseasonalȱactivities,
portraitsȱofȱsaintsȱandȱsometimeȱofȱtheȱowner,ȱandȱoftenȱbizarreȱpicturesȱinȱthe
margins,ȱwhichȱmayȱorȱmayȱnotȱhaveȱbeenȱconnectedȱtoȱtheȱtextȱofȱtheȱpageȱon
whichȱtheyȱwereȱdrawn.17ȱInȱtheseȱworksȱtheȱperceptionȱofȱnatureȱinȱitsȱexclusive
15
Huizinga,ȱTheȱWaningȱofȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱ270ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ278.
16
ForȱanȱinȬdepthȱdiscussionȱofȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱandȱtheirȱdepictionȱofȱruralȱscenes,ȱseeȱtheȱchapter
“RuralȱSpaceȱinȱLateȱMedievalȱBooksȱofȱHours:ȱBookȱIllustrationsȱasȱaȱLookingȬGlassȱIntoȱMedieval
MentalityȱandȱMirrorsȱofȱEcocriticism”ȱbyȱAlbrechtȱClassenȱinȱtheȱpresentȱvolume.
17
Itȱmayȱbeȱnotedȱthatȱinȱtheseȱworksȱtheȱnorthernȱfigurativeȱtasteȱpredominates.ȱJohnȱPlummer,
TheȱHoursȱofȱCatherineȱofȱClevesȱ(NewȱYork:ȱGeorgeȱBraziller,ȱ1966?),ȱ8ȱexplains:ȱ“Duringȱtheȱfirst
fourȱdecadesȱofȱtheȱfifteenthȱcentury,ȱilluminatedȱmanuscriptsȱwereȱproducedȱinȱunprecedented
numbersȱinȱtheȱNorth,ȱinȱparticularȱinȱcentersȱdistributedȱroughlyȱalongȱaȱlargeȱgeographicalȱarc
betweenȱParisȱandȱUtrecht,ȱandȱswingingȱthroughȱsuchȱplacesȱasȱTournai,ȱYpres,ȱBruges,ȱGhent,
andȱBrussels.[.ȱ.ȱ.]ȱForȱParisȱtheȱmostȱimportantȱmanuscriptsȱandȱtheȱartistsȱofȱtheirȱminiaturesȱare
widelyȱknown:ȱTheȱTrèsȱRichesȱHeuresȱdeȱJeanȱdeȱBerryȱbyȱtheȱLimbourgȱbrothers,ȱPaul,ȱHerman,
andȱJohnȱMalouel,ȱwhoȱcameȱoriginallyȱfromȱGuelders;ȱtheȱHoursȱofȱtheȱMaréchalȱdeȱBoucicaut
byȱanȱanonymousȱartistȱcalledȱsimplyȱtheȱ’BoucicautȱMaster’;ȱtwoȱmanuscripts,ȱaȱBookȱofȱHours
andȱaȱBreviary,ȱmadeȱforȱJohnȱofȱLancaster,ȱDukeȱofȱBedford,ȱbyȱaȱminiaturistȱknownȱthusȱasȱthe
‘BedfordȱMaster’;ȱtheȱGrandesȱHeuresȱdeȱlaȱFamilleȱdeȱRohanȱbyȱtheȱsoȬcalledȱRohanȱMaster.ȱLess
widelyȱknownȱareȱtheȱminiaturistsȱofȱUtrechtȬGueldersȱandȱtheirȱmasters.”
566 LiaȱB.ȱRoss
relationȱtoȱhumanȱactivitiesȱisȱquiteȱevident.ȱTheȱTrésȱRichesȱHeuresȱofȱtheȱDukeȱof
Berry,ȱoneȱofȱtheȱearliestȱandȱmostȱfamousȱBookȱofȱHoursȱofȱtheȱfifteenthȱcentury,
suppliesȱaȱwealthȱofȱexamples.ȱTheȱvignettesȱofȱfarmers’ȱlifeȱinȱtheȱshadowȱof
glitteringȱcastlesȱthatȱadornȱtheȱCalendarȱsectionȱofȱtheȱbookȱearnedȱHuizinga’s
praise.ȱInȱparticularȱheȱadmiredȱtheȱsereneȱimageȱofȱSeptemberȱ“withȱtheȱvintage
inȱ progressȱ andȱ theȱ castleȱ ofȱ Saumur,ȱ risingȱ likeȱ aȱ visionȱ behindȱ it,”ȱ andȱ of
Decemberȱwithȱtheȱ“somberȱtowersȱofȱVincennesȱloomingȱthreateninglyȱbehind
theȱleaflessȱwoods.”ȱStill,ȱheȱfellȱshortȱofȱattributingȱtheȱinspirationȱforȱthoseȱscenes
ofȱfarmingȱactivitiesȱtoȱloveȱofȱnature,ȱasȱheȱnoticedȱtheȱdominantȱroleȱofȱtheȱcastles
overȱtheȱfields.18ȱ
Theȱhistoryȱofȱtheȱilluminationsȱofȱthisȱrenownedȱworkȱisȱsignificantȱbecauseȱit
confirmsȱaȱremarkableȱcontinuityȱinȱtheȱperceptionȱofȱnaturalȱlandscapeȱacross
generations.ȱAsȱLillianȱSchacherlȱinformsȱus,ȱtheȱfirstȱteamȱofȱartistsȱassignedȱtoȱit
consistedȱofȱtheȱthreeȱLimbourgȱbrothers,ȱPaulȱ(whoȱwasȱprobablyȱtheȱmasterȱin
charge),ȱHerman,ȱandȱJean,ȱnativesȱofȱNimwegenȱinȱtheȱDuchyȱofȱGuelders.ȱThey
wereȱhiredȱbyȱtheȱDukeȱofȱBerryȱtoȱillustrateȱtheȱBellesȱHeuresȱ(1408–1409)ȱand
immediatelyȱafterwardsȱtoȱstartȱtheȱTrèsȱRichesȱHeuresȱ(1410).ȱButȱallȱthreeȱdiedȱstill
youngȱinȱ1416ȱofȱunknownȱcausesȱ(possiblyȱduringȱanȱepidemic),ȱleavingȱtheȱwork
unfinished.ȱ Theirȱ patronȱ alsoȱ diedȱ inȱ theȱ sameȱ yearȱ andȱ theȱ bookȱ eventually
passedȱ toȱ theȱ houseȱ ofȱ Savoy,ȱ theȱ familyȱ ofȱ hisȱ widowȱ Bonne.ȱ Inȱ 1485ȱ Duke
CharlesȱIȱofȱSavoyȱcommissionedȱJeanȱColombe,ȱanȱilluminatorȱlivingȱinȱBourges,
toȱcompleteȱtheȱbook,ȱwhichȱColombeȱdidȱinȱhisȱownȱstyle.ȱTheȱmanuscriptȱinȱthe
presentȱstateȱcontainsȱoneȱhundredȱthirtyȬoneȱminiaturesȱexceptionalȱinȱquality
andȱoriginalityȱ(forȱexample,ȱtheyȱfeatureȱtheȱfirstȱfullyȬfledgedȱshadowsȱcastȱby
figuresȱandȱobjects).19ȱ
Amongȱ thoseȱ areȱ elevenȱ vignettesȱ ofȱ openȱ landscapesȱ associatedȱ withȱ the
monthsȱofȱtheȱyearȱinȱtheȱCalendarȱportionȱ(Januaryȱisȱtheȱexceptionȱasȱitȱportrays
anȱindoorsȱscene).ȱFebruaryȱshowsȱlifeȱonȱaȱfarm:ȱonȱaȱsnowyȱlandscapeȱofȱsoft
whiteȱhillsȱandȱaȱforestȱofȱdenudedȱtreesȱ aȱ wellȬdressedȱmaleȱfigureȱisȱcutting
wood,ȱwhileȱaȱlonelyȱmuleteerȱtravelsȱaȱroadȱleadingȱtoȱaȱvillage.ȱTheȱforeground
isȱ occupiedȱ byȱ aȱ fencedȱ spaceȱ enclosingȱ aȱ storageȱ towerȱ flankedȱ byȱ frozen
beehives;ȱaȱfigureȱwalkingȱwithȱhisȱfaceȱprotectedȱagainstȱtheȱcold;ȱaȱbarnȱwhere
sheepȱareȱhuddledȱtogether;ȱandȱaȱcourtyardȱwhereȱcrowsȱareȱfeedingȱonȱgrains.
Theȱ pictureȱ isȱ completedȱ withȱ aȱ domesticȱ sceneȱ onȱ theȱ leftȱ corner:ȱ anȱ elegant
femaleȱfigureȱflankedȱbyȱtwoȱservants,ȱallȱsittingȱonȱaȱbenchȱandȱwarmingȱtheir
feetȱatȱaȱfire.20ȱ
18ȱ
Huizinga,ȱTheȱWaningȱofȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ293–94.ȱ
19
LillianȱSchacherl,ȱTrèsȱRichesȱHeures:ȱBehindȱtheȱGothicȱMasterpieceȱ(MunichȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱPrestel,
1997),ȱ29–36,ȱ51.
20ȱ
Schacherl,ȱTrèsȱRichesȱHeuresȱ(seeȱnoteȱ19),ȱ46–47.ȱHerȱinterpretationȱofȱtheȱvariousȱhumanȱfigures
MarchȱfeaturesȱtheȱDuke’sȱfortressȱatȱLusignanȱinȱPoitouȱdominatingȱenclosed
fieldsȱofȱpaleȱgreenȱbeingȱplowedȱbyȱoxenȱandȱplantedȱbyȱfarmers.ȱAprilȱillustrates
aȱ betrothalȱ ceremonyȱ amongȱ aristocrats,ȱ dressedȱ inȱ sumptuousȱ clothesȱ onȱ a
manicuredȱ lawnȱ ofȱ solidȱ delicateȱ greenȱ delimitedȱ byȱ stylizedȱ trees;ȱ inȱ the
backgroundȱ aȱ riverȱ andȱ aȱ whiteȱ castleȱ (eitherȱ Dourdanȱ orȱ Pierrefonds)ȱ canȱ be
discerned.ȱ Aȱ groupȱ ofȱ aristocratsȱ (perhapsȱ theȱ sameȱ betrothalȱ partyȱ afterȱ the
wedding)ȱareȱdepictedȱinȱMayȱasȱtheyȱtakeȱaȱleisurelyȱrideȱinȱtheȱcountry,ȱthe
majorityȱofȱthemȱappropriatelyȱwearingȱgreen.ȱTheȱhugeȱcastleȱinȱtheȱbackground
hasȱbeenȱidentifiedȱwithȱtheȱPalaisȱdeȱlaȱCitéȱinȱParisȱorȱtheȱDuke’sȱchateauȱof
Riom.ȱ Anȱ intenseȱ greenȱ forestȱ partiallyȱ screensȱ it,ȱ whileȱ theȱ colorfulȱ ridersȱ on
bedeckedȱhorsesȱandȱaccompaniedȱbyȱdogsȱdominateȱtheȱforeground.ȱTheȱquaint
lawnȱ barelyȱ sketchedȱ atȱ theȱ edgeȱ ofȱ theȱ pictureȱ isȱ aȱ uniformȱ greenȱ surface
sprinkledȱwithȱverdantȱandȱfloweryȱbushes.21ȱ
June,ȱJuly,ȱandȱAugustȱreturnȱtoȱtheȱthemeȱofȱagriculture.ȱInȱtheȱimageȱofȱJune
theȱDuke’sȱHôtelȱdeȱNesleȱinȱParisȱisȱdepictedȱwithȱextremeȱdetails,ȱwithȱitsȱblue
roofsȱandȱwhiteȱwallsȱandȱtheȱSeineȱflowingȱbelow,ȱbutȱtheȱrestȱofȱtheȱcityȱhas
disappeared,ȱleavingȱonlyȱaȱpeacefulȱgreenȱfieldȱbeingȱmowedȱbyȱfarmersȱwhile
womenȱrakeȱtheȱgrassȱandȱpileȱitȱintoȱhayȱstacks.ȱInȱJulyȱfarmersȱareȱagainȱatȱwork
inȱtheȱshadowȱofȱaȱducalȱpalaceȱ(thisȱoneȱonȱtheȱClainȱRiverȱinȱPoitiers).ȱTheȱriver
flowsȱbetweenȱaȱgoldenȱfieldȱbeingȱmowedȱbyȱpeasantsȱandȱaȱgreenȱpastureȱdotted
byȱtreesȱwhereȱsheepȱareȱbeingȱsheared.ȱAugustȱisȱtheȱonlyȱminiatureȱthatȱportrays
bothȱaristocratsȱandȱpeasantȱinȱtheȱsameȱpicture,ȱbutȱappropriatelyȱseparatedȱby
theirȱactivitiesȱandȱalsoȱphysicallyȱbyȱtheȱJuineȱRiverȱthatȱintersectsȱtheȱscene.ȱIn
theȱfieldsȱoutsideȱtheȱDuke’sȱcastleȱofȱÉtampesȱpeasantsȱareȱharvestingȱandȱloading
carts,ȱ whileȱ someȱ refreshȱ themselvesȱ byȱ swimmingȱ inȱ theȱ silveryȱ watersȱ (the
depictionȱ ofȱ swimmersȱ andȱ theirȱ reflectionsȱ isȱ quiteȱ novel).ȱ Theȱ foreground
portraysȱaȱgroupȱofȱnoblesȱhawkingȱonȱaȱvastȱemeraldȱmeadow.22ȱ
Septemberȱwasȱleftȱunfinishedȱwithȱonlyȱitsȱbackgroundȱdepictingȱtheȱsplendid
castleȱofȱSaumurȱnearȱAngers.ȱJeanȱColombeȱcompletedȱtheȱforegroundȱseventy
yearsȱ laterȱ forȱ hisȱ Savoyardȱ masterȱ withȱ theȱ additionȱ ofȱ vintnersȱ harvesting
grapes.23ȱDespiteȱtheȱdifferenceȱinȱstyleȱ(moreȱrobustȱwithȱtheȱlaterȱilluminator)ȱthe
pictureȱisȱwellȱassimilatedȱ withinȱtheȱrestȱofȱtheȱCalendarȱscenesȱandȱshowsȱa
remarkableȱcontinuityȱinȱtasteȱbothȱforȱilluminatorsȱandȱpatrons.ȱOctoberȱfeatures
isȱasȱfollows:ȱtheȱwoodȱcutterȱrepresentsȱtheȱfarmer,ȱtheȱfemaleȱfigureȱwarmingȱherȱfeetȱatȱtheȱfire
hisȱwife,ȱandȱtheȱtwoȱfiguresȱseatedȱnextȱtoȱherȱ(visiblyȱnakedȱunderȱtheirȱaprons)ȱherȱservants.ȱOf
course,ȱotherȱinterpretationsȱareȱpossible.ȱTheȱimageȱcanȱbeȱviewedȱat
http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Les_Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_duc_de_Berry_f%C3%A
9vrier.jpg.ȱ
21
Schacherl,ȱTrèsȱRichesȱHeuresȱ(seeȱnoteȱ19),ȱ51–57.
22ȱ
23
568 LiaȱB.ȱRoss
theȱking’sȱresidenceȱofȱtheȱLouvreȱinȱtheȱbackground,ȱwhileȱinȱtheȱforegroundȱa
manȱsowsȱseedsȱandȱanotherȱonȱhorsebackȱharrowsȱaȱfieldȱwhereȱmagpiesȱare
busyȱ eatingȱ underȱ theȱ distantȱ gazeȱ ofȱ aȱ scarecrowȱ dressedȱ likeȱ anȱ archer.ȱ For
NovemberȱColombeȱdepictedȱtheȱtraditionalȱactivityȱofȱharvestingȱacorns:ȱinȱthe
backgroundȱpigsȱareȱfeedingȱinȱtheȱforest,ȱwatchedȱbyȱswineherds,ȱwhileȱanother
swineherdȱstrikesȱaȱtheatricalȱposeȱinȱtheȱforeground.24ȱBehindȱtheȱstraightȱand
orderlyȱgroveȱofȱtreesȱisȱaȱblueȬtingedȱmountainȱlandscape,ȱaȱcolorȱwhichȱsuffuses
withȱmagicȱanȱotherwiseȱrealisticȱrenditionȱofȱtheȱtopographyȱofȱSavoy.25ȱ
DecemberȱisȱprobablyȱtheȱworkȱofȱPaulȱLimbourgȱandȱportraysȱtheȱculmination
ofȱaȱboarȱhuntȱinȱtheȱBoisȬdeȬVincennesȱ(withȱtheȱcastleȱvisibleȱbeyondȱtheȱtrees).
Theȱlandscapeȱhereȱisȱwintry,ȱwithȱyellowȱleavesȱandȱstumpsȱofȱcutȱtreesȱinȱthe
foreground.ȱThisȱscene,ȱaloneȱamongȱthoseȱofȱtheȱCalendar,ȱcouldȱbeȱconstruedȱas
theȱ abandonmentȱ ofȱ theȱ pastoralȱ themeȱ toȱ portrayȱ wildȱ violence:ȱ theȱ boarȱ is
prostrate,ȱ mortallyȱ woundedȱ orȱ alreadyȱ dead,ȱ andȱ theȱ houndsȱ haveȱ viciously
thrownȱthemselvesȱonȱtheȱpreyȱ(oneȱofȱthemȱfoamsȱatȱtheȱmouthȱasȱaȱservantȱholds
itȱback).26ȱHowever,ȱthisȱisȱaȱwildȱsceneȱbyȱmodernȱstandardsȱonly.ȱForȱmedieval
viewersȱthisȱoccurrenceȱwasȱcommonplace,ȱandȱitȱisȱsafeȱtoȱassumeȱthatȱaȱlackȱof
feelingsȱforȱtheȱslaughteredȱwildȱbeastȱcouldȱhaveȱbeenȱsharedȱbyȱbothȱpatronȱand
painter.ȱInȱgeneral,ȱSchacherl’sȱcommentȱthatȱtheȱDukeȱofȱBerryȱ“wantedȱtoȱseeȱa
worldȱthatȱwasȱcontentedȱandȱentirelyȱfocusedȱonȱhimself”ȱisȱquiteȱfittingȱtoȱthis
seriesȱofȱimages.27ȱ
Theȱcontrolledȱworldȱofȱagricultureȱisȱabandonedȱinȱtheȱillustrationsȱofȱbiblical
episodes.ȱButȱasȱnaturalȱlandscapesȱquitȱtheirȱfamiliarȱsettingȱtheyȱalsoȱassumeȱless
importanceȱ inȱ theȱ overallȱ scenes,ȱ andȱ repetitionsȱ becomeȱ moreȱ evident.ȱ For
example,ȱtheȱVisitationȱofȱSt.ȱElizabethȱisȱsetȱagainstȱaȱfairyȬtaleȱbackgroundȱofȱdeep
greensȱandȱbluesȱwithȱaȱbeautifulȱcityȱinȱtheȱfarȱrightȱ(probablyȱBourges),ȱwhileȱthe
foregroundȱisȱdominatedȱbyȱaȱstrange,ȱabstract,ȱspiralingȱmountainȱthatȱresembles
anȱ iceȱ creamȱ cone.ȱ Theȱ sameȱ mountainȱ reappearsȱ inȱ theȱ Annunciationȱ toȱ the
Shepherds,ȱ thisȱ timeȱ inȱ paleȱ green:ȱ aȱ streamȱ risesȱ fromȱ itȱ andȱ poursȱ intoȱ an
incongruousȱmarbleȱfountain,ȱthenȱflowsȱagainȱfromȱtheȱfountainȱtoȱaȱrivuletȱfrom
whichȱsheepȱareȱdrinking.ȱ
TheȱmountainȱresurfacesȱinȱtheȱTemptationȱofȱChristȱandȱinȱtheȱMeetingȱofȱthe
Magi,ȱalongȱwithȱotherȱstylizedȱroundedȱhillsȱsurmountedȱbyȱcastles.ȱBothȱthisȱlast
sceneȱandȱtheȱsubsequentȱAdorationȱofȱtheȱMagiȱsuggestȱthatȱtheȱartistȱattemptedȱto
renderȱanȱalienȱworldȱcompleteȱwithȱexoticȱanimals,ȱasȱheȱdepictedȱcamelsȱand
24ȱ
25
Whitleyȱ (Theȱ Ideaȱ ofȱ Natureȱ inȱ Disneyȱ Animationȱ [seeȱ noteȱ 3],ȱ 87)ȱ statesȱ thatȱ inȱ filmȱ animation
naturalisticȱȱlandscapesȱareȱusuallyȱtintedȱblueȱwhenȱtheȱintentȱisȱtoȱsuggestȱsomeȱmagicȱquality.ȱ
26
Schacherl,ȱTrèsȱRichesȱHeuresȱ(seeȱnoteȱ19),ȱ75–77.ȱ
27
Schacherl,ȱTrèsȱRichesȱHeuresȱ(seeȱnoteȱ19),ȱ50.
evenȱcheetahsȱ(butȱtheseȱinȱaȱratherȱtameȱstance)ȱtoȱaccompanyȱtheȱbeardedȱmen
inȱfancifulȱorientalȱoutfits.28ȱ
Theȱ twoȱ mostȱ strikingȱ picturesȱ ofȱ theȱ seriesȱ areȱ almostȱ completelyȱ monoȬ
chromatic.ȱTheȱfirst,ȱChristȱinȱGethsemane,ȱmayȱbeȱtheȱworkȱofȱPaulȱalone,ȱ and
depictsȱanȱentirelyȱnocturnalȱscene.ȱUnderȱaȱdeepȱblueȱskyȱstuddedȱwithȱstars,
amongȱtheȱsilhouettesȱofȱtrees,ȱtheȱcrowdȱofȱsleepingȱdisciplesȱisȱbarelyȱvisibleȱin
theȱforegroundȱinȱtheȱweakȱlightȱofȱanȱupturnedȱlantern.ȱChrist’sȱhead,ȱlitȱbyȱan
intenseȱhalo,ȱisȱtheȱonlyȱbrightȱspotȱandȱtheȱfocusȱofȱtheȱcomposition.ȱTheȱcalm,
intimateȱauraȱthatȱpervadesȱtheȱpictureȱproducesȱanȱeffectȱofȱsubduedȱlyricismȱfar
fromȱtheȱpowerfulȱdramaȱofȱRomanticȱlandscapes.ȱTheȱsecond,ȱtheȱCrucifixionȱis
entirelyȱrenderedȱinȱgrisailleȱthroughȱsoftȱshadesȱofȱblue,ȱorangeȱandȱred,ȱwithȱthe
sunȱandȱmoonȱbothȱvisibleȱinȱtheȱdarkȱsky,ȱtoȱrepresentȱanȱeclipse.ȱ
Noȱlandscapeȱtoȱspeakȱofȱappearsȱinȱtheȱscene:ȱtheȱthreeȱcrosses,ȱuprightȱagainst
theȱ sky,ȱ andȱ aȱ silentȱ crowdȱ gatheredȱ aroundȱ theȱ centralȱ figuresȱ areȱ allȱ thatȱ is
visible,ȱ withȱ Christ’sȱ haloȱ onceȱ againȱ supplyingȱ theȱ onlyȱ sourceȱ ofȱ light.ȱ In
contrast,ȱtheȱDepositionȱtakesȱplaceȱinȱfullȱdaylight,ȱandȱisȱoccupiedȱentirelyȱby
humanȱfigures,ȱwithȱnoȱattemptȱatȱrenderingȱtheȱbackgroundȱexceptȱasȱaȱuniform
slateȱ ofȱ green.29ȱ Inȱ general,ȱ theseȱ illuminationsȱ ofȱ outdoorsȱ scenesȱ confirmȱ the
centralȱroleȱofȱtheȱhumanȱpresenceȱandȱtheȱpreferenceȱforȱaȱfamiliarȱnature,ȱeven
ifȱsituatedȱinȱexoticȱsettings.ȱ
OtherȱexamplesȱofȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱconfirmȱthatȱtrend.ȱTheȱanonymousȱilluminator
knownȱ asȱ theȱ Bedfordȱ Masterȱ wasȱ namedȱ afterȱ hisȱ masterpiece,ȱ theȱ soȬcalled
BedfordȱHoursȱ(nowȱAdditionalȱMSȱ18850ȱinȱtheȱBritishȱLibrary),ȱaȱworkȱofȱover
twelveȱhundredȱilluminationsȱthatȱwasȱacquired,ȱbutȱprobablyȱnotȱcommissioned,
byȱJohnȱofȱLancaster,ȱDukeȱofȱBedfordȱandȱregentȱofȱFranceȱafterȱtheȱdeathȱofȱhis
brotherȱHenryȱVȱ(theȱbookȱwasȱlaterȱadaptedȱforȱtheȱyoungȱKingȱHenryȱVI).ȱWith
thisȱworkȱtheȱpastoralȱinspirationȱisȱespeciallyȱsuccessfulȱinȱrenderingȱanimalsȱin
almostȱ humanȱ attitudes.ȱ Inȱ fact,ȱ theȱ Masterȱ displaysȱ suchȱ sensitivityȱ inȱ the
portrayalȱofȱanimalsȱthatȱheȱisȱbelievedȱtoȱhaveȱstartedȱhisȱcareerȱasȱilluminatorȱof
huntingȱmanualsȱ(hisȱhandȱshowsȱinȱtheȱpreciousȱLivreȱdeȱChasseȱofȱGastonȱPhébus
FountȱofȱFoix).ȱInȱtheȱBedfordȱHoursȱheȱperfectsȱhisȱartistryȱinȱdepictingȱanimals
28
Theȱ imagesȱ andȱ theȱ commentȱ aboutȱ Bourgesȱ areȱ inȱ Schacherl,ȱ Trèsȱ Richesȱ Heuresȱ (seeȱ note
19)85–95,ȱ114–15.ȱIȱhesitateȱtoȱattributeȱtoȱbiblicalȱinspirationȱtheȱmedievalȱutilitarianȱviewȱof
natureȱ(i.e.,ȱvegetalȱandȱanimalȱworldsȱsubordinateȱtoȱman)ȱgivenȱtheȱintenseȱnaturalismȱofȱthe
patristicȱ tradition,ȱ asȱ inȱ Saintȱ Athanasius,ȱ Theȱ Lifeȱ ofȱ Saintȱ Antony,ȱ trans.ȱ Robertȱ T.ȱ Meyer
(Westminster,ȱ MD:ȱ Theȱ Newmannȱ Press,ȱ 1950)ȱ takenȱ upȱ byȱ medievalȱ hagiographersȱ suchȱ as
Felix’sȱ Lifeȱ ofȱ St.ȱ Guthlac,ȱ trans.ȱ Bertramȱ Colgraveȱ (Cambridge,ȱ London,ȱ Newȱ York,ȱ etȱ al.:
CambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1956).ȱItȱseemsȱmoreȱlikelyȱthat,ȱifȱanything,ȱtheȱ“traditional”ȱbiblical
viewȱwouldȱprovideȱtheȱsanctionȱforȱanȱingrainedȱsocialȱattitudeȱratherȱthanȱtheȱmotivationȱfor
theȱsame.
29
Schacherl,ȱTrèsȱRichesȱHeuresȱ(seeȱnoteȱ19),ȱ100,ȱ104–107.
570 LiaȱB.ȱRoss
scatteredȱonȱprettyȱlandscapes.ȱForȱexample,ȱtheȱAnnunciationȱtoȱtheȱShepherdsȱ(fol.
70v)ȱinȱtheȱHoursȱofȱtheȱVirginȱportraysȱsheep,ȱdogs,ȱandȱshepherdsȱdrapedȱall
overȱaȱgrassyȱhillȱamongȱfloweryȱtrees,ȱandȱapparentlyȱsharingȱtheȱsameȱemotions,
“fromȱquietȱreposeȱtoȱraptȱattention.”ȱTheȱpictureȱexhibitsȱ“aȱkeenȱsenseȱofȱnature
andȱ aȱ benignȱ sympathyȱ forȱ menȱ andȱ animals,ȱ extendingȱ evenȱ beyondȱ the
miniatureȱintoȱtheȱdancingȱfiguresȱofȱtheȱborder.”30ȱ
TheȱcomplexȱillustrationȱofȱAfterȱtheȱFloodȱ(fol.ȱ16v)ȱisȱdominatedȱbyȱtheȱgolden
arkȱ onȱ theȱ leftȱ upperȱ cornerȱ andȱ theȱ newȱ vineyardsȱ inȱ theȱ rightȱ lowerȱ corner.
Amongȱtheȱrecedingȱwatersȱthatȱrevealȱsubmergedȱbuildingsȱandȱpeople,ȱtheȱland
appearsȱ greenȱ andȱ plentiful,ȱ andȱ dottedȱ withȱ severalȱ speciesȱ ofȱ animalsȱ from
domesticȱ toȱ exoticȱ (dromedary)ȱ andȱ wildȱ (lion,ȱ bear).ȱ Theȱ Master’sȱ natural
backgroundsȱareȱallȱquiteȱcheery,ȱregardlessȱofȱtheȱtheme.ȱTheȱTowerȱofȱBabelȱ(fol.
17v)ȱisȱbeingȱerectedȱunderȱaȱdeepȱblueȱstarryȱsky,ȱamongȱmeadowsȱofȱvibrant
greenȱandȱyellow,ȱsmoothȱconicalȱhills,ȱandȱlittleȱgrovesȱofȱstylizedȱfloweringȱtrees.
AȱsimilarȱbackdropȱgracesȱtheȱVisitationȱ(fol.ȱ54v),ȱChristȱinȱPrayerȱonȱMountȱOlive
(fol.ȱ208),ȱandȱJudas’sȱKissȱ(fol.ȱ221v).ȱ
Theȱlastȱpictureȱintroducesȱaȱstrangeȱlowȱbushȱwithȱfilamentousȱbranches,ȱwhich
mayȱhaveȱbeenȱanȱattemptȱatȱrepresentingȱaȱtropicalȱtree,ȱandȱwhichȱrecursȱin
otherȱscenes.ȱTheȱCalendarȱminiaturesȱofȱtheseȱHoursȱwereȱapparentlyȱpaintedȱby
aȱdifferentȱartistȱandȱleftȱincomplete.ȱTheyȱareȱquiteȱconventional:ȱAprilȱ(fol.4)ȱand
Mayȱ(fol.ȱ5)ȱshowȱrespectivelyȱaȱmanȱcarryingȱaȱleafyȱtreeȱandȱwalkingȱonȱaȱlawn
alongȱaȱsmoothȱblueȱriver,ȱandȱaȱfalconerȱonȱhorsebackȱonȱaȱgreenȱlawnȱalongȱa
blueȱriver,ȱwithȱaȱcastleȱinȱtheȱbackground.31
InȱsomeȱofȱtheȱlaterȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱaȱnewȱfeatureȱmakesȱaȱ(ratherȱtimid)ȱdebut:
aȱlimitedȱsampleȱofȱwildȱsceneryȱasȱaȱdeviceȱtoȱportrayȱdramaticallyȱtheȱpresence
ofȱevil,ȱandȱoftenȱcoexistingȱwithȱidyllicȱlandscapesȱwithinȱtheȱsameȱpicture.ȱFor
instance,ȱtheȱHoursȱofȱCatherineȱofȱCleves,ȱDuchessȱofȱGueldersȱ(datedȱcircaȱ1440)
containsȱexquisiteȱilluminationsȱbyȱtheȱanonymousȱartistȱknownȱonlyȱasȱtheȱMaster
ofȱ Catherineȱ ofȱ Cleves.ȱ Despiteȱ hisȱ dramaticȱ styleȱ andȱ hisȱ developedȱ senseȱ of
perspectiveȱandȱcolorȱ(especiallyȱevidentȱinȱhisȱcolorfulȱskiesȱinȱhuesȱofȱorangeȱand
blue),ȱ heȱ doesȱ notȱ abandonȱ theȱ pastoralȱ formȱ evenȱ inȱ theȱ seriesȱ ofȱ images
dedicatedȱtoȱtheȱlivesȱandȱmartyrdomsȱofȱsaints.32ȱForȱexample,ȱinȱtheȱsceneȱSaint
30
EberhardȱKönig,ȱTheȱBedfordȱHours:ȱTheȱMakingȱofȱaȱMedievalȱMasterpieceȱ(London:ȱTheȱBritish
Library,ȱ2007),ȱ5,ȱ11.ȱ
31
König,ȱTheȱBedfordȱHoursȱ(seeȱnoteȱ30),ȱ15,ȱ38,ȱ58–59,ȱ68–69,120.ȱTheȱauthorȱexplainsȱ(69)ȱtheȱreason
forȱsuchȱvarietyȱinȱstyleȱwithinȱtheȱsameȱbook:ȱtheȱprojectȱcouldȱbeȱsharedȱbetweenȱenlumineurs,
borderȱdecorators,ȱandȱhistorieurs,ȱpaintersȱofȱminiatures.ȱItȱisȱlikelyȱthatȱtheȱdifferentȱcraftsmen
responsibleȱdidȱnotȱevenȱworkȱinȱtheȱsameȱworkshop.
32
Maintainingȱ aȱ pleasantȱ naturalȱ backdropȱ evenȱ toȱ scenesȱ ofȱ martyrdomȱ seemsȱ toȱ haveȱ beenȱ
common.ȱForȱexample,ȱseeȱtheȱidyllicȱbackgroundȱtoȱtheȱPietàȱinȱaȱFrenchȱBookȱofȱHours,ȱca.ȱ1450.
RaymondȱClemensȱandȱTimothyȱGraham,ȱIntroductionȱtoȱManuscriptȱStudiesȱ(IthacaȱandȱLondon:
MichaelȱBattlingȱDemonsȱtheȱarchangelȱstandsȱwithȱhisȱswordȱdrawnȱoverȱdefeated
demonsȱsurroundedȱbyȱaȱbrightȱgreenȱmeadowȱstuddedȱwithȱflowers.ȱFarȱbehind
himȱareȱtwoȱcraggyȱbarrenȱhillsȱgashedȱbyȱflamingȱfissuresȱtoȱrepresentȱHell,ȱfrom
whichȱanotherȱdemonȱemerges.ȱ
Likewise,ȱ Saintȱ Johnȱ theȱ Baptistȱ isȱ conventionallyȱ portrayedȱ againstȱ aȱ wild
backgroundȱofȱrocksȱandȱcavesȱ(someȱofȱthemȱsurmountedȱbyȱtrees),ȱbutȱstanding
onȱ aȱ greenȱ floweryȱ lawn.ȱ Theȱ Martyrdomȱ ofȱ Saintȱ Erasmusȱ depictsȱ theȱ saint
stretchedȱonȱaȱpalletȱbeingȱdisemboweledȱbyȱtwoȱexecutionersȱwhoȱareȱstringing
hisȱintestinesȱthroughȱaȱmachineȱrotatingȱtwoȱspindles.ȱTheȱbackdropȱ(whichȱmay
beȱtheȱworkȱofȱaȱdifferentȱartist)ȱconsistsȱofȱaȱsoftȱblueȱsky,ȱtwoȱroundedȱbareȱhills,
andȱaȱpaleȱgreenȱlawn.ȱInȱtheȱLapidationȱofȱSaintȱStephenȱtheȱsaintȱgentlyȱfallsȱamong
hisȱexecutionersȱonȱaȱdelicateȱlawnȱdottedȱwithȱflowers.33ȱ
Theȱviewerȱderivesȱtheȱimpressionȱthatȱthisȱartistȱ(orȱartists,ȱsinceȱthereȱmay
haveȱbeenȱmoreȱthanȱone)ȱfollowedȱhisȱinspirationȱtoȱcreateȱaȱsensuous,ȱevocative
naturalȱsettingȱwheneverȱheȱcould,ȱandȱinȱhisȱhandsȱtheȱpastoralȱevolvesȱbeyond
clichésȱtoȱachieveȱrealȱsophistication,ȱbutȱstillȱconfinedȱbyȱtheȱestheticȱnormsȱofȱthe
period.ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ inȱ depictingȱ Saintȱ Christopherȱ Carryingȱ theȱ Infantȱ Jesusȱ he
placesȱtheȱsaintȱinȱtheȱforegroundȱasȱheȱwadesȱashoreȱcarryingȱtheȱinfantȱwhoȱis
blessingȱ him.ȱ Theȱ twoȱ figuresȱ areȱ surroundedȱ byȱ anȱ “almostȱ surrealistic”
landscape:ȱgreenȬtoppedȱhillsȱframeȱtheȱscene;ȱmirrorȬlikeȱwatersȱreflectȱdistant
cliffsȱandȱfishermenȱstandingȱinȱtheirȱboats;ȱaȱfewȱripplesȱmadeȱbyȱjumpingȱfish
breakȱtheȱsurfaceȱofȱtheȱwater;ȱinȱtheȱfarȱdistanceȱmicroscopicȱducksȱfloatȱamong
theȱreeds;ȱandȱtheȱorangeȱsunsetȱgivesȱwayȱtoȱaȱdeepȱblueȱnightȱskyȱwithȱgoldȱstars
andȱmoon.ȱButȱtheȱartistȱisȱnotȱcontentȱwithȱtheȱalreadyȱrichȱscene,ȱandȱaddsȱtwo
otherȱ figuresȱ toȱ theȱ composition.ȱ “Onȱ aȱ ledgeȱ inȱ theȱ cliffsȱ atȱ oneȱ side,ȱ the
traditionalȱhermitȱineffectuallyȱlightsȱtheȱsaint’sȱwayȱwithȱaȱlantern.ȱInȱtheȱlower
border,ȱaȱmanȱpushesȱandȱpullsȱatȱtheȱgatewayȱinȱwhichȱheȱstands,ȱprobablyȱa
depictionȱofȱSamsonȱpullingȱdownȱtheȱgatesȱofȱGazaȱbeforeȱcarryingȱthemȱoff,ȱa
conventionalȱ parallelȱ forȱ Saintȱ Christopher.”34ȱ Itȱ isȱ anȱ extremelyȱ skillfulȱ and
evocativeȱpicture,ȱyetȱuponȱanalysisȱalsoȱaȱveryȱbusyȱone,ȱtypicalȱofȱlateȱGothicȱart
inȱitsȱabundanceȱofȱindependentȱvignettesȱonlyȱlooselyȱconnectedȱwithȱtheȱcentral
scene.ȱ Theȱ effectȱ ofȱ theȱ whole,ȱ whileȱ quiteȱ attractive,ȱ isȱ stillȱ ofȱ anȱ artificially
assembledȱsceneryȱwithȱhumansȱatȱeveryȱlevel.ȱ
Aȱsimilarȱconceptȱofȱnatureȱcontinuesȱitsȱdominanceȱaȱgenerationȱlaterȱinȱthe
BookȱofȱHoursȱofȱMaryȱofȱBurgundy,ȱdaughterȱandȱheiressȱofȱDukeȱCharlesȱtheȱBold
CornellȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2007),ȱ213,ȱFig.ȱ13–10.ȱAnȱexceptionȱtoȱthisȱruleȱisȱinȱimagesȱofȱHell,ȱbut
inȱthisȱcaseȱitȱisȱaȱmatterȱofȱimaginaryȱlandscape,ȱnotȱ“nature”ȱasȱsuch.
33
Plummer,ȱTheȱHoursȱofȱCatherineȱofȱClevesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ17),ȱ8–9.ȱTheȱimagesȱlistedȱbelongȱtoȱtheȱsoȬ
calledȱMorganȱvolumeȱofȱtheȱmanuscript,ȱandȱareȱfoundȱrespectivelyȱatȱpp.ȱ204,ȱ208,ȱ258,ȱandȱ271.
34
Plummer,ȱTheȱHoursȱofȱCatherineȱofȱClevesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ17),ȱ275.ȱThisȱimage,ȱtoo,ȱisȱinȱtheȱMorgan
volume.
572 LiaȱB.ȱRoss
ofȱBurgundy.ȱTheȱbook,ȱproducedȱinȱtheȱ1470s,ȱwasȱrichlyȱillustratedȱbyȱaȱteamȱof
artistsȱandȱisȱconsideredȱoneȱofȱtheȱmasterpiecesȱofȱtheȱperiod.ȱWhileȱitsȱattribution
isȱnotȱcertain,ȱitȱisȱreputedȱtoȱhaveȱbelongedȱtoȱaȱhighȱpersonageȱofȱtheȱBurgundian
court,ȱmostȱlikelyȱaȱwomanȱ(someȱofȱtheȱprayersȱuseȱtheȱfeminineȱinȱreferringȱto
theȱsupplicant),ȱandȱperhapsȱwithȱsomeȱEnglishȱassociationsȱ(aȱgiftȱtoȱMaryȱfrom
herȱstepmotherȱMargaretȱofȱYorkȱhasȱbeenȱsuggested).35ȱLikeȱothersȱofȱitsȱgenreȱit
containsȱaȱwealthȱofȱmarginaliaȱthatȱrealisticallyȱrenderȱisolatedȱaspectsȱofȱnature,
forȱexample,ȱdomesticȱandȱwildȱanimals,ȱbirds,ȱinsects,ȱandȱplants,ȱallȱdepicted
withȱaȱlovingȱhand.ȱEvenȱhalfȬwildȱanimalsȱlikeȱmonkeys,ȱwhichȱwereȱpopularȱas
pets,ȱfindȱaȱplaceȱhereȱasȱtheirȱmischievousȱnatureȱisȱportrayedȱinȱseveralȱdrolleries
withȱindulgentȱhumor.ȱAndȱtheȱCalendarȱsection,ȱlikeȱthatȱofȱtheȱHeuresȱofȱBerry,
depictsȱsereneȱruralȱscenesȱofȱfamiliarȱseasonalȱactivitiesȱconfinedȱwithinȱaȱlimited
spaceȱandȱdominatedȱbyȱhumansȱandȱtheirȱartifacts.ȱ
Thisȱworkȱcontainsȱalsoȱaȱfewȱsparseȱimagesȱofȱwild,ȱrockyȱscenery,ȱbutȱtheseȱare
almostȱexclusivelyȱrelegatedȱtoȱtheȱpassagesȱofȱtheȱHoursȱofȱtheȱVirginȱdedicated
toȱtheȱPassionȱofȱChrist.ȱInȱfourȱlargeȱilluminations,ȱeachȱoccupyingȱtheȱgreater
partȱofȱaȱpage,ȱtheȱartistȱvisualizesȱtheȱgracefulȱbuildingsȱofȱJerusalemȱreceding
intoȱtheȱdistanceȱwhileȱtheȱforegroundȱloomsȱbarrenȱandȱinhospitable,ȱaȱsomber
complementȱtoȱtheȱunfoldingȱdrama.36ȱTheseȱlandscapesȱareȱdeliberatelyȱrendered
savageȱbecauseȱtheyȱserveȱasȱbackdropȱtoȱscenesȱofȱviolence,ȱandȱareȱmeantȱto
elicitȱaversionȱinȱtheȱreader,ȱaȱtechniqueȱencounteredȱearlierȱonlyȱinȱtheȱsceneȱof
SaintȱMichaelȱBattlingȱDemonsȱinȱtheȱHoursȱofȱCatherineȱofȱCleves.37ȱTheȱconnection
betweenȱstarkȱnatureȱandȱevilȱisȱmaintainedȱinȱtheȱillustrationȱaccompanyingȱthe
openingȱpageȱofȱtheȱGospelȱofȱSaintȱJohn.ȱTheȱEvangelistȱisȱhereȱconventionally
depictedȱinȱtheȱislandȱofȱPatmosȱandȱtormentedȱbyȱtheȱDevilȱwhoȱtriesȱtoȱstealȱhis
inkwell.ȱTheȱblackened,ȱclawedȱmonsterȱatȱtheȱleftȱofȱtheȱpictureȱrisesȱfromȱan
agitatedȱseaȱframedȱbyȱbleakȱrocks,ȱwhileȱplacidȱwatersȱandȱgracefulȱbuildings
formȱtheȱbackdropȱtoȱtheȱsaintȱandȱtheȱprotectiveȱangel.38
ItȱcouldȱbeȱarguedȱthatȱtheȱfiveȱimagesȱjustȱmentionedȱinȱtheȱHoursȱofȱMaryȱof
Burgundyȱwereȱnaiveȱattemptsȱatȱinsertingȱrealisticallyȱtheȱhumanȱcharactersȱin
35
TheȱHoursȱofȱMaryȱofȱBurgundy:ȱCodexȱVindobonensisȱ1857,ȱVienna,ȱÖsterreichischeȱNationalbibliothek,
withȱcommentaryȱbyȱEricȱInglisȱ(London:ȱHarveyȱMillerȱPublishers,ȱ1995),ȱ10–11,ȱ14–16.
36
TheȱfourȱimagesȱareȱrespectivelyȱinȱTheȱHoursȱofȱMaryȱofȱBurgundyȱ(seeȱnoteȱ35),ȱ94v,ȱ99v,ȱ104v,
111v.
37
Inȱ general,ȱ however,ȱ thereȱ seemsȱ toȱ beȱ noȱ directȱ parallelȱ betweenȱ mountainousȱ terrainȱ andȱ
inhospitableȱnature.ȱSeeȱtheȱdiscussionȱaboutȱDante’sȱdilettosoȱmonteȱandȱtheȱvisionȱofȱitsȱȱbiblical
andȱ classicalȱ predecessors,ȱ theȱ sacredȱ mountainsȱ Olympusȱ andȱ Helicon,ȱ inȱ Paulȱ Piehler,ȱ The
Visionaryȱ Landscape:ȱ aȱ Studyȱ inȱ Medievalȱ Allegoryȱ (Montreal:ȱ McGillȬQueen’sȱ Universityȱ Press,
1971),ȱ115.ȱThisȱimageȱmayȱbeȱ“primarilyȱassociatedȱwithȱtheȱSinaiȱofȱExodusȱXIXȱandȱwithȱthe
montemȱdominiȱofȱtheȱtwentyȬthirdȱpsalm.ȱBehindȱtheseȱBiblicalȱassociationsȱliesȱaȱwholeȱbodyȱof
feelingȱaboutȱtheȱsacrednessȱofȱmountains”ȱthroughȱpaganȱassociations.ȱ
38
TheȱHoursȱofȱMaryȱofȱBurgundyȱ(seeȱnoteȱ35),ȱ27.ȱTheȱimageȱisȱfoundȱatȱ128v.ȱ
theirȱalienȱsettingȱ(anȱideaȱnotȱunlikeȱthatȱofȱtheȱbizarreȱfilamentousȱbushȱthat
showsȱupȱrepeatedlyȱinȱtheȱ BedfordȱHours).ȱThatȱargument,ȱhowever,ȱdoesȱnot
soundȱveryȱpersuasive:ȱinȱfact,ȱinȱtheȱsameȱHoursȱofȱMaryȱofȱBurgundyȱKingȱDavid
isȱportrayedȱkneelingȱoutsideȱhisȱpalace,ȱframedȱwithinȱaȱtypicalȱFlemishȱurban
backgroundȱ completeȱ withȱ aȱ swanȱ swimmingȱ placidlyȱ inȱ aȱ canalȱ borderedȱ by
houses.ȱAndȱeveryoneȱisȱfamiliarȱwithȱscenesȱofȱtheȱAnnunciationȱstagedȱwithin
refinedȱnorthernȱinteriors.39ȱ
Toȱsummarize,ȱtheȱillustrationsȱofȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱtranslateȱintoȱtheȱfigurativeȱart
theȱ literaryȱ conceptȱ thatȱ makesȱ ofȱ natureȱ aȱ privateȱ humanȱ domainȱ where
commonersȱ workȱ andȱ noblesȱ amuseȱ themselves.ȱ Therefore,ȱ theyȱ portrayȱ the
outdoorsȱmainlyȱasȱpleasant,ȱcontrolledȱspaces,ȱorȱmuchȱmoreȱrarelyȱasȱsavageȱand
hostileȱonesȱ(wheneverȱtheseȱareȱassociatedȱwithȱevilȱorȱviolence).ȱAsȱtheȱfirstȱtype
ofȱimageryȱvastlyȱoutnumbersȱtheȱsecond,ȱitȱdeservesȱaȱcloserȱlook.ȱTheȱhappyȱand
confinedȱ greenȱ spaceȱ whereȱ aristocratsȱ disportȱ themselvesȱ seemsȱ toȱ beȱ the
figurativeȱ counterpartȱ ofȱ theȱ poeticȱ ideaȱ ofȱ theȱ park.ȱ Thisȱ literaryȱ conceptȱ is
discussedȱatȱlengthȱbyȱPaulȱPiehlerȱinȱhisȱanalysisȱofȱmedievalȱallegory:
[T]heȱenclosedȱgarden,ȱparkȱorȱparadise,ȱtheȱlocusȱamoenus,ȱ[is]ȱportrayedȱasȱintensely
desirable,ȱandȱsituatedȱeitherȱveryȱremotelyȱorȱbehindȱinhibitingȱphysicalȱorȱpsychic
barriers.ȱInȱmedievalȱliteratureȱandȱartȱtheseȱareȱinȱoriginȱcloselyȱconnectedȱwithȱthe
sacredȱgrovesȱofȱtheȱpaganȱgodsȱ[.ȱ.ȱ.]ȱtheyȱalsoȱrepresentȱaȱreconciliationȱofȱwilderness
andȱcity,ȱtheȱhostileȱpowersȱofȱnatureȱtamedȱbutȱnotȱextinguished,ȱor,ȱpsychologically,
reasonȱandȱintuitionȱharmonizedȱ.ȱ.ȱ.40ȱ
HeȱfindsȱtheȱoriginȱofȱtheȱimageryȱinȱtheȱBible,ȱspecificallyȱtheȱGardenȱofȱEdenȱand
theȱ derivedȱ ideaȱ ofȱ theȱ hortusȱ conclususȱ ofȱ theȱ Songȱ ofȱ Songs.ȱ “Theseȱ Biblical
gardensȱwereȱassociatedȱrespectivelyȱwithȱprelapsarianȱinnocenceȱandȱwithȱthe
purityȱofȱChrist’sȱloveȱforȱtheȱsoul,ȱaccordingȱtoȱcommonȱallegoricalȱexegesis.”
Twoȱsignificantȱqualitiesȱaccompaniedȱthisȱconceptȱandȱrenderedȱitȱpopularȱin
literatureȱandȱrelatedȱillumination:ȱtheyȱrepresentedȱexclusiveȱspacesȱthatȱ“walled
outȱ allȱ butȱ theȱ elect,”ȱ andȱ “thanksȱ toȱ theirȱ generalȱ currency,ȱ theyȱ providedȱ a
referenceȱeasilyȱcomprehensibleȱtoȱtheȱallegorist’sȱaudience.”41ȱ
Outsideȱ ofȱ literature,ȱ theȱ enclosedȱ parkȱ wasȱ probablyȱ aȱ realityȱ sinceȱ ancient
times.ȱEvanȱEisenbergȱpostulatesȱthatȱitȱmayȱhaveȱbeenȱinventedȱbyȱtheȱPersians
39
Forȱexample,ȱtheȱAnnunciationȱinȱtheȱTrèsȱRichesȱHeuresȱofȱBerryȱisȱsetȱinȱanȱelegantȱGothicȱchurch
andȱdepictsȱtheȱVirginȱatȱprayerȱ(sinceȱtheȱ1380sȱaȱcommonȱFrenchȱtranspositionȱfromȱMary’s
chamberȱtoȱaȱchurch).ȱSchacherl,ȱTrèsȱRichesȱHeuresȱ(seeȱnoteȱ19),ȱ82,ȱ84.ȱ
40
Piehler,ȱTheȱVisionaryȱLandscapeȱ(seeȱnoteȱ37),ȱ77–78.ȱTheȱevolutionȱofȱtheȱroyalȱparkȱfromȱhunting
preserveȱtoȱtameȱgardenȱisȱdiscussedȱinȱtheȱchapterȱ“HuntingȱorȱGardening:ȱParksȱandȱRoyal
RuralȱSpace”ȱbyȱMarilynȱL.ȱSandidgeȱinȱtheȱpresentȱvolume.
41
Piehler,ȱ Theȱ Visionaryȱ Landscapeȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 37),ȱ 78,ȱ 99.ȱ Heȱ addsȱ (88)ȱ thatȱ theȱ locusȱ amoenusȱ is
describedȱinȱseveralȱscholarlyȱworks:ȱ“E.ȱR.ȱCurtius,ȱforȱexample,ȱtracesȱtheȱ‘idealȱlandscape’ȱback
toȱHomer.”
574 LiaȱB.ȱRoss
orȱmayȱhaveȱhadȱitsȱoriginȱinȱMesopotamia.ȱInȱeitherȱcase,ȱ“itȱisȱtheȱsortȱofȱthing
thatȱisȱboundȱtoȱariseȱinȱanyȱplaceȱwhereȱhuntingȱisȱaȱgeneralȱpracticeȱandȱpeople
comeȱtoȱoutnumberȱtheȱgame.ȱAtȱsomeȱpointȱtheȱrulingȱclassesȱmustȱprotectȱtheir
sportȱfromȱtheȱpeople’sȱhunger.”42 Aȱthird,ȱmoreȱcontemporaryȱideaȱmayȱalsoȱhave
insinuatedȱitselfȱinȱtheseȱimages:ȱtheȱactualȱcastleȱgardensȱofȱtheȱperiod.ȱ
[They]ȱ shouldȱ beȱ consideredȱ anȱ importantȱ influenceȱ onȱ literaryȱ andȱ iconographic
descriptions.ȱTheȱtypicalȱcourtlyȱgardenȱofȱtheȱtwelfthȱcenturyȱwasȱlocatedȱinȱaȱsmall
walledȱenclosureȱwithinȱtheȱcastle.ȱCultivatedȱpurelyȱforȱtheȱorderedȱbeautyȱofȱits
flowersȱandȱlawns,ȱitsȱenjoymentȱconfinedȱtoȱtheȱelegantlyȱattiredȱmembersȱofȱthe
privilegedȱclasses,ȱitȱmustȱhaveȱappearedȱasȱaȱhavenȱofȱbeautyȱinȱcontrastȱwithȱthe
countryȱoutsideȱtheȱcastle,ȱwhichȱwasȱdevotedȱtoȱutilitarianȱagricultureȱasȱfarȱasȱthe
encompassingȱforestȱorȱwildernessȱhadȱbeenȱcleared.ȱ[.ȱ.ȱ.]ȱInȱrelationȱtoȱtheȱcastleȱitself,
theȱgardenȱmustȱalsoȱhaveȱprovidedȱaȱhavenȱfromȱtheȱturbulenceȱofȱtheȱmainȱhall;ȱits
developmentȱseemsȱtoȱhaveȱcoincidedȱwithȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱprivateȱsleepingȱand
diningȱ rooms,ȱ whichȱ functionedȱ similarlyȱ asȱ refugesȱ fromȱ theȱ commotionȱ and
vulgarityȱofȱtheȱretainersȱ[.ȱ.ȱ.].ȱYetȱtheseȱrealȱgardensȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱconsideredȱso
muchȱaȱsourceȱforȱorȱinfluenceȱonȱtheȱgardensȱofȱtheȱpoetsȱbutȱratherȱaȱparallelȱand
mutuallyȱreinforcingȱinstanceȱofȱtheȱsameȱtendenciesȱ[.ȱ.ȱ.].”43
Whileȱprivateȱspaceȱ(especiallyȱinȱprincelyȱmansions)ȱhadȱevolvedȱsufficientlyȱby
theȱfifteenthȱcenturyȱtoȱrenderȱtheȱsecretȱgardenȱlessȱusefulȱasȱrefugeȱfromȱthe
noisyȱcommonȱhalls,ȱneverthelessȱtheȱmetaphorȱofȱtheȱsecretȱgardenȱcontinuedȱto
enjoyȱfavorȱinȱtheȱlaterȱMiddleȱAges,ȱaȱfavorȱthatȱisȱabundantlyȱreflectedȱinȱpoetry,
andȱalsoȱinȱtheȱsoȬcalledȱ“softȱstyle”ȱ(WeicheȱStil)ȱofȱlateȱGothicȱart.44ȱ
Onȱtheȱsubjectȱofȱtheȱparkȱinȱliterature,ȱPiehlerȱmakesȱanotherȱobservationȱthat
couldȱhelpȱclarifyȱtheȱobsessionȱwithȱenumerationsȱthatȱafflictedȱtheȱpoetryȱofȱthe
periodȱ (witnessȱ Chartier’sȱ insipidȱ listȱ ofȱ platitudesȱ quotedȱ byȱ Huizinga).
AccordingȱtoȱPiehlerȱenumerationȱisȱaȱmethodȱofȱdomesticatingȱnature,ȱmakeȱit
familiarȱandȱsafe.ȱInȱexaminingȱtheȱpassageȱofȱChaucer’sȱParlementȱofȱFoulesȱin
whichȱtheȱdreamerȱfindȱhimselfȱinȱaȱparkȱandȱimmediatelyȱidentifiesȱthirteenȱtrees,
andȱ aȱ similarȱ passageȱ inȱ Guillaumeȱ deȱ Lorris’sȱ Romanȱ deȱ laȱ Roseȱ inȱ whichȱ the
protagonistȱ listsȱ theȱ treesȱ inȱ theȱ Gardenȱ ofȱ Mirth,ȱ Piehlerȱ bringsȱ theȱ reader’s
attentionȱtoȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱcataloguing:
Atȱtheȱmythicalȱlevel,ȱitȱexpressesȱtheȱreductionȱofȱtheȱwilderness,ȱtheȱsilva,ȱtoȱorder,
toȱaȱparkȬlikeȱstate,ȱbyȱtheȱnamingȱofȱthings.ȱWhenȱtheȱtreesȱareȱfinallyȱseparatedȱfrom
theȱwood,ȱtheȱunpredictable,ȱmenacing,ȱbutȱunmanifestedȱcreaturesȱofȱourȱfearsȱare
42
Evanȱ Eisenberg,ȱ Theȱ Ecologyȱ ofȱ Edenȱ (Newȱ York:ȱ Alfredȱ A.ȱ Knopf,ȱ 1998),ȱ 172.ȱ Heȱ addsȱ inȱ anȱ
anotherȱpassageȱ(199)ȱthatȱinȱmedievalȱEurope,ȱasȱlandȱresourcesȱbecameȱscarce,ȱtheȱelitesȱ“found
itȱnecessaryȱtoȱwallȱnatureȱinȱandȱwallȱotherȱpeopleȱout.”
43
Piehler,ȱTheȱVisionaryȱLandscapeȱ(seeȱnoteȱ37),ȱ99–100.
44
König,ȱTheȱBedfordȱHoursȱ(seeȱnoteȱ30),ȱ15.ȱ
laidȱtoȱrest.ȱThusȱtheȱcataloguingȱproceedsȱwithȱaȱthoroughnessȱsurprisingȱtoȱmodern
apprehensions,ȱimplyingȱthatȱweȱareȱhereȱconcernedȱwithȱaȱparkȱandȱnotȱaȱforestȱ[.ȱ.
.].ȱAndȱtheȱwildernessȱorderedȱbecomesȱaȱreconciliationȱofȱcityȱandȱforest,ȱreasonȱand
intuition,ȱandȱthus,ȱinȱtermsȱofȱtheȱtraditionalȱsymbolism,ȱtheȱlocusȱamoenus,ȱtheȱgood
park,ȱparadise.45
OutsideȱofȱBooksȱofȱHours,ȱclassicalȱworksȱandȱchivalricȱromancesȱwereȱtheȱtwo
mostȱ popularȱ categoriesȱ ofȱ princelyȱ books,ȱ inȱ whichȱ theȱ familiarȱ worldsȱ of
agricultureȱandȱofȱimaginaryȱbutȱconventionalȱbiblicalȱsettingsȱwereȱnecessarily
lessȱobvious.ȱInȱtheȱlatterȱgenre,ȱinȱparticular,ȱoneȱcouldȱexpectȱaȱmoreȱfanciful,
andȱperhapsȱevenȱinspired,ȱdepictionȱofȱwilderness.ȱInsteadȱhere,ȱtoo,ȱanȱidyllic
atmosphereȱpermeatesȱtheȱimagesȱofȱnature,ȱevenȱwhenȱtheyȱcomplementȱtexts
thatȱplaceȱheroicȱhumansȱ(orȱpersonifications)ȱwithinȱaȱwideȱworldȱofȱgeographical
possibilities.ȱAnȱinstructiveȱexampleȱisȱtheȱLivreȱduȱCœurȱd’amourȱépris,ȱaȱworkȱof
proseȱnarrativeȱandȱpoeticȱdialogueȱwrittenȱinȱ1457ȱbyȱDukeȱRenéȱofȱAnjou,ȱselfȬ
styledȱkingȱofȱSicily,ȱNaples,ȱandȱJerusalemȱ(andȱthereforeȱbetterȱknownȱasȱKing
René).ȱ
Theȱbookȱisȱdedicatedȱtoȱhisȱnephew,ȱDukeȱJeanȱofȱBourbon,ȱandȱfollowsȱthe
adventuresȱofȱRené’sȱownȱlovesickȱheartȱpersonifiedȱasȱCœur,ȱasȱitȱisȱremoved
fromȱhisȱchestȱduringȱsleepȱandȱhandedȱtoȱDésirȱtoȱpursueȱtheȱloveȱofȱDameȱMerci.
TheȱtwoȱareȱlaterȱjoinedȱbyȱLargesse,ȱandȱtheȱtrioȱtravelsȱoverȱlandȱandȱsea,ȱwith
mandatoryȱstopsȱatȱmysteriousȱcastlesȱandȱhutsȱthatȱmaterializeȱinȱtheȱwilderness
andȱencountersȱwithȱvariousȱallegoricalȱfigures,ȱfriendlyȱorȱhostile.ȱOfȱtheȱseven
extantȱ manuscriptsȱ ofȱ thisȱ workȱ threeȱ areȱ illuminated,ȱ andȱ ofȱ theseȱ theȱ most
ambitiousȱ isȱ BNFȱ MSȱ 24399,ȱ whichȱ containsȱ seventyȱ illuminationsȱ byȱ an
unidentifiedȱartist,ȱallȱstylisticallyȱcoherentȱandȱquiteȱfaithfulȱtoȱtheȱtext.46ȱTwentyȬ
sevenȱscenesȱtakeȱplaceȱindoorsȱandȱfortyȬthreeȱoutdoors,ȱbutȱtheȱmajorityȱofȱthe
outdoorsȱpicturesȱrepresentȱeitherȱaȱconfinedȱspaceȱorȱanȱopenȱspaceȱinȱwhichȱthe
centerpieceȱisȱaȱmanȬmadeȱobjectȱthatȱabsorbsȱtheȱinterestȱofȱtheȱwriterȱandȱofȱthe
illuminator.ȱInȱoneȱextremeȱcase,ȱtwentyȬnineȱillustrationsȱareȱrepetitionsȱofȱthe
sameȱscene:ȱDameȱCourtoisieȱhasȱledȱtheȱthreeȱcompanionsȱtoȱvisitȱtheȱcemetery
whereȱareȱburiedȱthoseȱwhoȱsuccumbedȱtoȱloveȱsickness.ȱ
OnȱtheȱlargeȱalabasterȱportalȱofȱtheȱcemeteryȱareȱsuspendedȱtwentyȬnineȱcoats
ofȱarmsȱ(someȱfancifulȱinventions)ȱofȱillustriousȱmenȱpastȱandȱpresentȱwhoȱhave
45
Paulȱ Piehler,ȱ “Myth,ȱ Allegory,ȱ andȱ Visionȱ inȱ theȱ Parlementȱ ofȱ Foules:ȱ Aȱ Studyȱ inȱ Chaucerian
ProblemȱSolving,”ȱAllegoresisȱTheȱCraftȱofȱAllegoryȱinȱMedievalȱLiterature,ȱed.ȱJ.ȱStephenȱRussell.
GarlandȱReferenceȱLibraryȱofȱtheȱHumanities,ȱ664ȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱLondon:ȱGarlandȱPublishing,
Inc.,ȱ1988),ȱ200–201.ȱForȱtheȱinterpretationȱofȱdeȱLorris’sȱpassage,ȱseeȱalsoȱEvanȱEisenberg,ȱThe
EcologyȱofȱEdenȱ(seeȱnoteȱ42),ȱ198.
46
Renéȱ d’Anjou,ȱ Leȱ Livreȱ duȱ Coeurȱ d’amourȱ épris,ȱ ed.ȱ Florenceȱ Bouchetȱ (Paris:ȱ Librairieȱ générale
française,ȱ2003),ȱ14,ȱ16,ȱ52–55,ȱ84.ȱ
576 LiaȱB.ȱRoss
visitedȱtheȱplace.47ȱAsȱtheȱtextȱgoesȱthroughȱaȱprolixȱrecitalȱofȱtheȱstoryȱofȱeach
personageȱ(someȱ ofȱwhomȱ wereȱacquaintancesȱofȱKingȱRené),ȱtheȱillustrations
faithfullyȱaccompanyȱeachȱexplanation.ȱAllȱvignettesȱshowȱtheȱthreeȱcharacters
standingȱbelowȱtheȱmassiveȱportalȱandȱdiscussingȱeachȱblazonȱasȱitȱisȱilluminated
inȱturn,ȱuntilȱtheȱ“grandȱfinale”ȱwhenȱallȱofȱthemȱappearȱlitȱtogether.ȱTheȱcemetery
itselfȱ isȱ visibleȱ inȱ theȱ backgroundȱ asȱ aȱ shapelessȱ greenȱ lawnȱ dottedȱ with
tombstones.ȱ
Thatȱleavesȱonlyȱfifteenȱspecificȱoutdoorsȱscenes,ȱwhereȱcharactersȱmeetȱorȱare
simplyȱinȱtransitȱbetweenȱplaces,ȱbutȱinȱthese,ȱtoo,ȱhumanȱdetailsȱruleȱoverȱnatural
ones.ȱForȱexample,ȱinȱoneȱsceneȱCoeurȱandȱDésirȱmeetȱEsperanceȱinȱfrontȱofȱher
pavilionȱ“aȱl’oreeȱd’uneȱgrantȱforest,ȱenȱpaysȱestrangeȱetȱcontreeȱdescongneue,ȱen
ungȱpréȱplantureux,ȱdesoubzȱunȱpinȱtresbel,ȱhaultȱetȱvertȱetȱdroit”ȱ(atȱtheȱedgeȱof
aȱgreatȱforest,ȱinȱaȱstrangeȱplaceȱandȱunfamiliarȱlocality,ȱoverȱaȱluxuriantȱlawn,
underȱaȱbeautifulȱpine,ȱtall,ȱgreen,ȱandȱstraight).ȱHavingȱdismissedȱtheȱsettingȱin
oneȱ sentence,ȱ theȱ writerȱ launchesȱ intoȱ aȱ muchȱ moreȱ detailedȱ andȱ inspired
descriptionȱofȱtheȱpavilion:ȱitȱisȱmadeȱofȱsilk,ȱembroideredȱwithȱpearls,ȱwithȱaȱtall
jasperȱcolumnȱatȱitsȱentranceȱbearingȱanȱinscriptionȱwithȱadviceȱtoȱprospective
loversȱtoȱremainȱconstant.48ȱ
Theȱ illustrationȱ faithfullyȱ recordsȱ theȱ event,ȱ withȱ theȱ foregroundȱ entirely
occupiedȱ byȱ theȱ humanȱ figuresȱ andȱ theȱ mysteriousȱ pavilion.ȱ Surroundingȱ the
groupȱisȱanȱidealizedȱlandscape,ȱcharmingȱandȱsereneȱlikeȱallȱtheȱothersȱofȱthis
seriesȱofȱillustrations:ȱaȱuniformȱgreenȱsprinkledȱwithȱshrubsȱtoȱsuggestȱmeadows;
aȱdirtȱpathȱwithȱaȱfewȱdiscreetȱstonesȱplacedȱonȱtheȱsideȱandȱrowsȱofȱlittleȱbushes
allȱalikeȱtoȱmarkȱitsȱedges;ȱaȱgroveȱofȱtrees,ȱagainȱallȱalike,ȱtoȱrepresentȱaȱforest
impenetrableȱandȱalien,ȱandȱyetȱsmoothȱandȱharmoniousȱinȱtheirȱsamenessȱ(the
pictorialȱequivalentȱofȱtheȱ“tall,ȱstraightȱpine”ȱofȱtheȱtext).49ȱFurther,ȱtheȱfamed
northernȱtasteȱforȱvibrantȱcolors,ȱsoȱmuchȱinȱevidenceȱinȱtheȱnumerousȱdepictions
ofȱ armors,ȱ clothes,ȱ pennons,ȱ andȱ princelyȱ interiors,ȱ doesȱ notȱ applyȱ toȱ natural
scenes,ȱwhichȱinsteadȱremainȱconfinedȱwithinȱaȱsoftȱpaletteȱofȱgreensȱandȱblues.
Likewise,ȱtheȱcelebratedȱloveȱforȱpainstakingȱdetailsȱdoesȱnotȱtranslateȱtoȱimages
ofȱwildȱnature:ȱregardlessȱofȱtheȱlandȱtraveledȱbyȱtheȱthreeȱcharacters,ȱeverything
looksȱtheȱsame.ȱ
Wateryȱlandscapesȱpartakeȱinȱtheȱsameȱsweetȱdomesticity:ȱinȱtheȱsceneȱwhere
CoeurȱisȱdefeatedȱinȱaȱduelȱbyȱSouciȱheȱfallsȱintoȱtheȱRiverȱofȱTears,ȱwhoseȱwaters
areȱ shownȱ flowingȱ smoothlyȱ asȱ fromȱ aȱ faucet.ȱ Laterȱ onȱ theȱ threeȱ personages
47
Renéȱd’Anjou,ȱLeȱLivreȱduȱCoeurȱd’amourȱéprisȱ(seeȱnoteȱ46),ȱ292–354.ȱTheȱmanuscriptȱisȱonȱline,ȱand
theseȱimagesȱcanȱbeȱseenȱatȱhttp://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b60005361/f174.imageȱthrough
f265.imageȱ(lastȱaccessedȱJulyȱ10,ȱ2011)ȱcorrespondingȱtoȱfol.ȱ68v–91r.
48
Renéȱd’Anjou,ȱLeȱLivreȱduȱCoeurȱd’amourȱéprisȱ(seeȱnoteȱ46),ȱ98–100.
49
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b60005361/f17.imageȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱJulyȱ10,ȱ2011);
correspondingȱtoȱfol.ȱ5r.
embarkȱforȱtheȱIslandȱofȱLoveȱfromȱaȱgrassyȱshore,ȱwhileȱaȱgentleȱseaȱlapsȱatȱits
edgesȱlikeȱwatersȱofȱaȱpond.50
Inȱfact,ȱwhileȱtheȱillustrationsȱinȱthisȱmanuscriptȱusuallyȱfollowȱcloselyȱtheȱtext,
theyȱonlyȱdepartȱfromȱitȱwhenȱtheȱtextȱdescribesȱaȱharshȱlandscape.ȱForȱexample,
atȱoneȱpointȱtheȱmainȱcharactersȱarriveȱ
[E]nȱuneȱvalleeȱgrandeȱetȱmerveilleuse,ȱenȱpaïsȱobscurȱetȱdesert,ȱetȱparmyȱlaȱvalee
passoitȱuneȱriviereȱparfonde,ȱhideuse,ȱtroubleȱetȱespouentableȱdurement.ȱ[.ȱ.ȱ.]ȱenȱmy
laȱ valee,ȱ entreȱ hayesȱ etȱ espines,ȱ surȱ laȱ riviere,ȱ uneȱ petiteȱ maisonnetteȱ couverteȱ de
chaulme,ȱmalȱacoultre.51
[toȱaȱlargeȱandȱstrangeȱvalley,ȱinȱaȱplaceȱdarkȱandȱdeserted,ȱcrisscrossedȱbyȱaȱriver
deep,ȱhorrible,ȱturbulent,ȱandȱquiteȱterrifyingȱ[.ȱ.ȱ.]ȱandȱinȱtheȱmiddleȱofȱthisȱvalley
amongȱbushesȱandȱthornsȱand,ȱaboveȱtheȱriver,ȱaȱsmallȱhut,ȱcoveredȱwithȱstubbleȱand
illȬkept.]
Overȱtheȱdoorȱofȱtheȱdilapidatedȱcottageȱtheȱinevitableȱinscriptionȱannouncesȱthat
thisȱisȱtheȱdwellingȱofȱMélancolie.ȱTheȱaccompanyingȱillustrationȱdoesȱshowȱthe
wornȱcabinȱasȱtheȱvisitorsȱapproach,ȱbutȱtheȱbarelyȬvisibleȱriverȱbankȱonȱtheȱleft
lowerȱ cornerȱ isȱ asȱ smoothȱ asȱ aȱ lawnȱ andȱ theȱ thornyȱ bushesȱ aboveȱ itȱ lookȱ like
plantedȱshrubs.
InȱanotherȱepisodeȱCoeurȱandȱDésirȱarriveȱlateȱinȱtheȱdayȱatȱtheȱforestȱofȱLongue
Attenteȱafterȱstrugglingȱforȱhoursȱtoȱfindȱtheirȱwayȱamongȱwoodȱscrapsȱwhere
peasantsȱhadȱcutȱlogsȱ(thereȱisȱaȱslightȱtoneȱofȱannoyanceȱinȱnotingȱthisȱplebeian
intrusion,ȱasȱifȱtheȱforestȱshouldȱbeȱaȱprincelyȱprivateȱspace,ȱnotȱtoȱbeȱshared).ȱAs
theyȱsettleȱinȱforȱtheȱnight,ȱleavingȱtheirȱhorsesȱtoȱbrowse,ȱtheyȱhearȱwaterȱflowing
nearbyȱfromȱwhatȱappearsȱasȱaȱdarkȱrock,ȱandȱdrinkȱthirstily.ȱImmediatelyȱtheȱfair
weatherȱ givesȱ wayȱ toȱ rainȱ andȱ thunder,ȱ andȱ theyȱ haveȱ toȱ campȱ inȱ theȱ cold
downpour.ȱOnȱtheȱfollowingȱmorning,ȱafterȱtheȱstormȱhasȱpassedȱandȱwhileȱDésir
isȱstillȱasleep,ȱCoeurȱnoticesȱthatȱtheȱrockȱisȱactuallyȱaȱblackȱmarbleȱfountainȱfrom
whichȱgushesȱforthȱfoulȱwater,ȱandȱthatȱbearsȱanȱinscriptionȱwarningȱthatȱthisȱis
theȱ Fountainȱ ofȱ Fortune,ȱ builtȱ byȱ aȱ giant,ȱ andȱ thatȱ willȱ bringȱ illȱ luckȱ andȱ foul
weatherȱtoȱwhomeverȱdrinksȱitsȱwaters.52ȱ
50
TheȱtwoȱepisodesȱareȱinȱRenéȱd’Anjou,ȱLeȱLivreȱduȱCoeurȱd’amourȱéprisȱ(seeȱnoteȱ46),ȱ144–50,ȱ244–53,
andȱtheȱillustrationsȱareȱrespectivelyȱatȱhttp://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b60005361/f63.image,
andȱ http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b60005361/f140.imageȱ (lastȱ accessedȱ onȱ Julyȱ 10,ȱ 2011);
correspondingȱtoȱfol.ȱ22r,ȱ54v.ȱ
51
Renéȱd’Anjou,ȱLeȱLivreȱduȱCoeurȱd’amourȱéprisȱ(seeȱnoteȱ46),ȱ136.ȱTheȱfollowingȱillustrationȱisȱfound
atȱhttp://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b60005361/f48.imageȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱJulyȱ10,ȱ2011);ȱcorresȬ
pondingȱtoȱfol.ȱ17v.ȱ
52
Renéȱd’Anjou,ȱLeȱLivreȱduȱCoeurȱd’amourȱéprisȱ(seeȱnoteȱ46),ȱ120–32.ȱTheȱillustrationȱisȱfoundȱat
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b60005361/f43.imageȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱJulyȱ10,ȱ2011);ȱcorresȬ
pondingȱtoȱfol.ȱ15r.
578 LiaȱB.ȱRoss
TheȱilluminationȱshowsȱDésirȱasleepȱandȱtheȱhorsesȱpasturingȱnearby,ȱandȱa
greenȱlawnȱunderȱtheȱgoldenȱlightȱofȱtheȱmorningȱsun,ȱwhileȱCoeurȱstandsȱinȱfront
ofȱtheȱmysteriousȱfountainȱreadingȱtheȱinscription.ȱButȱthereȱisȱnoȱillustrationȱto
accompanyȱtheȱfrighteningȱstormȱofȱtheȱprecedingȱscene.
Onȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱwheneverȱtheȱsubjectȱturnsȱtoȱtheȱbizarre,ȱtheȱmonstrous,ȱthe
untamedȱhumanȱnature,ȱtheȱartistȱrevealsȱremarkableȱvirtuosityȱinȱinterpretingȱthe
text.ȱForȱexample,ȱtheȱtwoȱheroesȱatȱoneȱpointȱcomeȱtoȱmeetȱJalousie.ȱTheȱtext
describesȱherȱasȱaȱdwarfȱwithȱspikyȱcoarseȱhairȱlikeȱanȱoldȱboar,ȱhugeȱpendulous
breastsȱandȱears,ȱaȱgapingȱmouthȱfullȱofȱunevenȱteeth,ȱspindlyȱlegsȱandȱwebbed
feet,ȱshortȱhairyȱarms,ȱandȱscantilyȱdressedȱinȱanȱanimalȱskin.53ȱTheȱcreatureȱisȱa
compositeȱimageȱmadeȱupȱofȱallȱwhatȱwasȱconsideredȱuglyȱinȱthatȱperiod,ȱand
renderedȱbyȱmeansȱofȱaȱlistȱofȱtraitsȱthatȱwereȱtheȱoppositeȱofȱtheȱidealȱofȱfeminine
beautyȱ (soft,ȱ flowingȱ blondȱ hair,ȱ smallȱ mouthȱ andȱ breasts,ȱ slenderȱ feet,ȱ long
gracefulȱarms).54ȱItȱisȱnotȱaȱwellȬintegratedȱimage,ȱbutȱdisplaysȱcreativity—andȱnot
aȱ littleȱ humor—onȱ theȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ artist.ȱ Likewise,ȱ asȱ attestedȱ byȱ numerous
marginaliaȱinȱBooksȱofȱHoursȱandȱdrawingsȱfromȱmaps,ȱthereȱexistedȱaȱrichȱfolklore
surroundingȱexoticȱcreatures,ȱbothȱhumanȱandȱanimal,ȱthatȱsupposedlyȱinhabited
unexploredȱlands.ȱTheȱubiquitousȱWildȱManȱandȱWildȱWomanȱwereȱimaginedȱas
hirsute,ȱnaked,ȱandȱapeȬlike,ȱandȱsuppliedȱaȱpopularȱthemeȱatȱmaskedȱballsȱand
tableauxȱvivants;ȱwhileȱtheȱintriguingȱsciopodesȱwereȱoftenȱportrayedȱonȱtheirȱback,
shadingȱtheirȱfacesȱwithȱtheirȱsingleȱhumongousȱfoot.55ȱ
53
[uneȱnayneȱbossueȱtouteȱcontrefaicteȱdeȱvisaigeȱetȱdeȱcorps,ȱlaquelleȱavoitȱlesȱcheveuxȱpresque
d’ungȱpiéȱetȱdemyȱdeȱhault,ȱdroizȱetȱrudes,ȱgrosȱetȱnoirsȱcommeȱsiȱceȱfustȱlaȱhureȱd’ungȱvieil
sanglier.ȱSesȱyeulxȱestoientȱemflambezȱetȱreluisansȱcommeȱcharbonsȱardansȱ;ȱleȱnezȱavoitȱtortuȱet
grant,ȱlesȱsourcilzȱpendansȱsurȱlesȱyeulx,ȱlaȱboucheȱlongueȱetȱlargeȱjucquesȱauxȱoreilles,ȱlesȱdents
grandes,ȱjaulnesȱetȱmalȱacoultrees,ȱlesȱoreillesȱpendansȱplusȱd’uneȱpaulme,ȱleȱfrontȱetȱleȱvisaige
noir,ȱridéȱetȱhideux,ȱlesȱtetassesȱgrandes,ȱmollesȱetȱpendansȱsurȱleȱventreȱ;ȱetȱlesȱespaullesȱestoient
plusȱhaultesȱqueȱlesȱoreilles,ȱlesȱbrazȱcours,ȱgrosȱetȱveluz,ȱlesȱhanchesȱhaultes,ȱlaȱjambeȱgresle,
touteȱesgratigneeȱd’espinesȱ;ȱlesȱpiedzȱavoitȱlargesȱetȱpatuzȱcommeȱungȱcyneȱ,ȱetȱn’avoitȱsurȱelle
vaistuȱpourȱtoutȱhabillementȱqueȱdeuxȱpeaulxȱdeȱlyonsȱouȱtoutȱleȱpoil,ȱnoueesȱsurȱl’espauleȱ]ȱRené
d’Anjou,ȱLeȱLivreȱduȱCoeurȱd’amourȱéprisȱ(seeȱnoteȱ46),ȱ110Ȭ12.ȱTheȱimageȱisȱat
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b60005361/f24.imageȱ (lastȱ accessedȱ onȱ Julyȱ 10,ȱ 2011)
correspondingȱtoȱfol.ȱ8v.
54
Forȱaȱdiscussionȱonȱmedievalȱconceptsȱofȱbeautyȱandȱugliness,ȱseeȱUmbertoȱEco,ȱOnȱugliness,
transl.ȱAlastairȱMcEwenȱ(NewȱYork:ȱRizzoli,ȱ2007),ȱ116,ȱ142,ȱ159Ȭ63ȱandȱUmbertoȱEco,ȱArtȱand
Beautyȱ inȱ theȱ Middleȱ Ages,ȱ transl.ȱ Hughȱ Bredinȱ (Newȱ Haven:ȱ Yaleȱ Universityȱ Press,ȱ 1986).ȱ In
particular,ȱheȱstatesȱ(80)ȱthatȱ“[f]orȱtheȱmedieval,ȱaȱthingȱwasȱuglyȱifȱitȱdidȱnotȱrelateȱtoȱaȱhierarchy
ofȱendsȱcenteredȱonȱmanȱandȱhisȱsupernaturalȱdestiny.”ȱAlsoȱLazmaȱRazdaȬCazers,ȱ“OldȱAgeȱin
WolframȱvonȱEschenbach’sȱParzivalȱandȱTiturel,“ȱOldȱageȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱRenaissance:
InterdisciplinaryȱAapproachesȱtoȱaȱNneglectedȱTtopic,ȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassen.ȱFundamentalsȱofȱMedieval
andȱEarlyȬModernȱCulture,ȱ5ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱWalterȱdeȱGruyter,ȱ2007),ȱ201–18.
55
Forȱanȱexampleȱofȱstrangeȱcreaturesȱinȱaȱmapȱandȱtheȱcommentȱonȱsciopodes,ȱseeȱClemensȱand
Graham,ȱIntroductionȱtoȱManuscriptȱStudiesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ32),ȱ242.ȱMentionsȱofȱpeopleȱmasquerading
asȱWildȱMenȱcanȱbeȱfoundȱinȱlateȱmedievalȱchroniclers:ȱforȱexample,ȱtheȱaccountȱofȱtheȱtragic
TheȱmedievalȱopenȬmindednessȱtowardȱinclusionȱofȱtheȱbizarreȱelementȱinȱthe
humanȱworldȱrendersȱevenȱmoreȱstrikingȱtheȱartists’ȱreluctanceȱtoȱimagineȱaȱwild
andȱ yetȱ attractiveȱ worldȱ inȱ whichȱ nonȬhumanȱ elementsȱ occupyȱ theȱ artist’s
inspiration.ȱOneȱofȱtheȱfewȱsuchȱexamplesȱisȱtheȱfamousȱbutȱenigmaticȱGardenȱof
Earthlyȱ Delightsȱ (1480–1490)ȱ byȱ Hieronymusȱ Bosch.ȱ Inȱ particularȱ inȱ theȱ central
panelȱtheȱartistȱconceivedȱaȱparadisiacalȱworldȱthatȱneverȱwas,ȱaȱpanoramaȱofȱland
andȱwaterȱframedȱbyȱfantasticȱmountainsȱsurmountedȱbyȱimpossibleȱpeaksȱand
lookingȱ likeȱ abstractȱ sculptures,ȱ anȱ organicȬlookingȱ fountainȱ madeȱ ofȱ “hybrid
growthȱofȱfleshȬcoloredȱprotuberancesȱsetȱinȱaȱshimmeringȱblueȱlake,”ȱperfectȱtrees
withȱ denseȱ foliageȱ loadedȱ withȱ brilliantȱ fruitsȱ scatteredȱ aboutȱ “shimmering
meadows.”ȱ Withinȱ thisȱ exuberantȱ natureȱ frolicȱ exoticȱ animalsȱ togetherȱ with
imaginaryȱonesȱsuchȱasȱwingedȱfishȱandȱgiganticȱbirds,ȱandȱaȱcrowdȱofȱnaked
humansȱofȱdiverseȱracesȱengagedȱinȱvariousȱactivities,ȱsomeȱrealisticȱ(lovemaking)
andȱsomeȱnotȱ(crawlingȱintoȱgiantȱshellsȱorȱamongȱhugeȱstrawberries).56ȱ
Theȱ centralȱ panelȱ deliversȱ toȱ theȱ modernȱ observerȱ anȱ imageȱ oddlyȱ akinȱ to
scienceȱfiction.ȱStill,ȱitȱformsȱaȱcoherentȱensembleȱwithȱtheȱleftȱpanelȱ(theȱGarden
ofȱEden,ȱwithȱGodȱintroducingȱEveȱtoȱAdam)ȱandȱtheȱrightȱoneȱ(theȱmanȬmade
Hellȱ ofȱ warȱ asȱ aȱ visionȱ ofȱ aȱ burningȱ cityȱ underȱ aȱ nightȱ sky,ȱ loomingȱ overȱ the
silhouettesȱofȱsoldiersȱandȱrefugees),ȱasȱinȱallȱthreeȱpanelsȱhumansȱareȱstillȱcentral
toȱtheȱcomposition.ȱInȱaȱcompletelyȱdifferentȱspirit,ȱtheȱshuttersȱofȱtheȱtriptych
provideȱaȱrareȱmedievalȱexampleȱofȱnaturalȱlandscapeȱdevoidȱofȱhumanȱpresence,
asȱ theȱ painterȱ imaginedȱ theȱ Earthȱ onȱ theȱ thirdȱ dayȱ ofȱ creation,ȱ aȱ flatȱ surface
surroundedȱbyȱaȱglobeȱofȱwaterȱandȱunpopulated,ȱshroudedȱinȱaȱuniformȱgrey
dimnessȱasȱtheȱsunȱandȱtheȱmoonȱhadȱnotȱyetȱcomeȱintoȱexistenceȱtoȱlightȱupȱthe
world.57ȱ
Theȱ fameȱ thatȱ thisȱ triptychȱ achievedȱ isȱ corroboratedȱ byȱ theȱ numberȱ of
contemporaryȱ imitations,ȱ whichȱ indicateȱ aȱ certainȱ diffusionȱ ofȱ theȱ tasteȱ that
inspiredȱtheȱoriginalȱpainting,ȱoneȱthatȱisȱfarȱfromȱ theȱpastoralȱviewȱofȱnature
encounteredȱsoȱfar.ȱForȱthatȱreasonȱalone,ȱapartȱfromȱitsȱacknowledgedȱartistic
value,ȱthisȱexceptionalȱ workȱdeservesȱmention.ȱ However,ȱitȱcannotȱinȱitselfȱbe
construedȱasȱaȱreflectionȱofȱdrasticallyȱevolvedȱprincelyȱtastes.ȱTrue,ȱinȱ1517ȱ(one
maskedȱballȱofȱ1392ȱtoȱwhichȱKingȱCharlesȱVIȱandȱothersȱparticipatedȱdressedȱasȱwildȱmenȱand
inȱwhichȱfiveȱcourtiersȱdiedȱofȱburnsȱinȱJeanȱFroissart,ȱFroissart’sȱChronicle,ȱtrans.ȱJohnȱJolliffe
(London:ȱ Harvillȱ Press,ȱ 1967),ȱ 343–46.ȱ Forȱ anotherȱ viewȱ ofȱ thisȱ concept,ȱ seeȱ theȱ chapter
“TrespassingȱtheȱSierra:ȱEncountersȱinȱaȱLiminalȱTimeȱandȱSpace”ȱbyȱCarrieȱL.ȱRuizȱinȱtheȱpresent
volume.
56
HansȱBelting,ȱHieronymusȱBosch:ȱGardenȱofȱEarthlyȱDelightsȱ(Munich,ȱBerlin,ȱLondon,ȱetȱal.:ȱPrestel,
2002),ȱ14,ȱ26,ȱ47–54.ȱTheȱimageȱofȱtheȱtriptychȱcanȱbeȱviewedȱat
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Garden_of_Earthly_Delights_by_Bosch_High_Resolutio
n.jpgȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱAugustȱ29,ȱ2011).
57
Belting,ȱHieronymusȱBoschȱ(seeȱnoteȱ56),ȱ21.ȱ
580 LiaȱB.ȱRoss
yearȱafterȱtheȱartist’sȱdeath)ȱitȱwasȱinȱtheȱpossessionȱofȱCountȱHendrikȱIIȱofȱNassau,
artȱconnoisseurȱandȱbonȬvivant,ȱintimateȱofȱArchdukeȱPhilipȱtheȱFairȱandȱofȱthe
Imperialȱfamily,ȱbutȱweȱdoȱnotȱhaveȱtheȱfullȱhistoryȱofȱhowȱitȱcameȱtoȱbeȱproduced
andȱwhoȱinspiredȱtheȱartistȱ(apartȱfromȱtheȱsecondȱbookȱofȱGenesisȱandȱhisȱown
fantasy).ȱFurther,ȱBoschȱwasȱoneȱofȱtheȱfirstȱartistsȱtoȱleaveȱprivateȱsketchesȱthat
presumablyȱhadȱnoȱrelationȱtoȱprincelyȱpatronage,ȱandȱthatȱrevealȱhisȱownȱkeen
personalȱinterestȱinȱnatureȱ(witnessȱhisȱrealisticȱpenȱandȱinkȱdrawingȱofȱanȱowl
perchedȱ insideȱ aȱ gnarlyȱ tree).ȱ Andȱ lastly,ȱ heȱ operatedȱ atȱ theȱ thresholdȱ ofȱ the
sixteenthȱcentury,ȱaȱperiodȱthatȱ(atȱleastȱinȱtheȱartisticȱsense)ȱhasȱbeenȱcalledȱ“no
longerȱmedievalȱandȱnotȱyetȱmodern.”58ȱ
Inȱ moreȱ conventionalȱ examplesȱ suchȱ asȱ Kingȱ René’sȱ work,ȱ elementsȱ of
landscapesȱareȱalsoȱlessȱdetailedȱthanȱinȱtheȱfamousȱtriptych,ȱleavingȱtheȱobserver
withȱaȱvagueȱandȱratherȱsuperficialȱimpressionȱofȱprettiness.ȱTheȱgentleȱfeatures
ofȱ theȱ landscapesȱ thatȱ frameȱ theȱ adventuresȱ ofȱ Coeurȱ areȱ notȱ theȱ resultȱ of
incompetenceȱ onȱ theȱ artist’sȱ part,ȱ norȱ doȱ theyȱ reflectȱ theȱ limitedȱ personal
experienceȱorȱtheȱspecificȱtasteȱofȱKingȱRenéȱalone.ȱRatherȱtheyȱareȱtheȱproductȱof
strictȱ adherenceȱ toȱ estheticȱ canons.ȱ Inȱ factȱ theyȱ reappearȱ inȱ theȱ moreȱ skillful
illuminationȱofȱMSȱ2597ȱatȱtheȱNationalȱLibraryȱofȱVienna,ȱwhichȱmayȱhaveȱbeen
oneȱofȱtheȱprince’sȱownȱprivateȱcopiesȱandȱwhoseȱminiaturesȱhaveȱrecentlyȱbeen
attributedȱ toȱ aȱ wellȬknownȱ illuminatorȱ fromȱ theȱ Netherlands,ȱ Barthélemyȱ van
Eyckȱ(ca.ȱ1420ȱ–ȱafterȱ1470).ȱThisȱworkȱonlyȱcontainsȱsixteenȱillustrationsȱ(outȱofȱthe
fortyȬfourȱapparentlyȱplanned),ȱandȱofȱnecessityȱfewerȱoutdoorsȱscenesȱthanȱthe
previousȱexample.59ȱTheȱartist’sȱskillȱisȱparticularlyȱevidentȱinȱdeliveringȱaȱgreater
varietyȱofȱvegetationȱ(atȱleastȱthreeȱdifferentȱtypesȱofȱtrees,ȱrenderedȱconvincingly,
insteadȱ ofȱ theȱ abstractȱ columnsȱ surmountedȱ byȱ evenȱ foliageȱ ofȱ theȱ previous
manuscript)ȱandȱalsoȱinȱtheȱmoreȱnuancedȱplayȱofȱlightsȱthatȱdepictȱrealisticallyȱthe
timeȱofȱdayȱ(forȱexample,ȱtheȱsuggestiveȱsceneȱinȱwhichȱCoeurȱwakesȱupȱinȱthe
meadowȱ nextȱ toȱ theȱ magicȱ fountain).60ȱ However,ȱ thisȱ isȱ stillȱ aȱ gardenȱ variety
nature.ȱ
Thisȱseriesȱofȱpictorialȱexamples,ȱnoneȱofȱwhichȱcouldȱbeȱsummonedȱtoȱwitness
theȱ feelingsȱ expressedȱ fourȱ centuriesȱ laterȱ byȱ Schopenhauer,ȱ couldȱ justifyȱ the
conclusionȱthatȱwildernessȱasȱsuchȱindeedȱlackedȱestheticȱappealȱforȱmedieval
princes.ȱ Unfortunatelyȱ thereȱ areȱ fewerȱ anecdotalȱ testimoniesȱ toȱ supportȱ this
hypothesis.ȱOneȱofȱtheȱfewȱbelongsȱinȱtheȱChroniquesȱofȱGeorgesȱChastellain,ȱa
massiveȱworkȱspanningȱseveralȱvolumesȱ(manyȱofȱwhichȱnowȱlost)ȱthatȱchronicles
theȱreignsȱofȱtheȱlastȱtwoȱValoisȱdukesȱofȱBurgundy,ȱinȱparticularȱPhilipȱtheȱGood
58
Belting,ȱHieronymusȱBoschȱ(seeȱnoteȱ56),ȱ8,ȱ61,ȱ66–74.
59
Renéȱd’Anjou,ȱLeȱLivreȱduȱCoeurȱd’amourȱéprisȱ(seeȱnoteȱ46),ȱ37,ȱ52,ȱ65.
60
TheȱillustrationȱofȱthisȱsceneȱandȱallȱothersȱareȱinȱRenéȱd’Anjou,ȱLeȱLivreȱduȱCoeurȱd’amourȱépris
(seeȱnoteȱ46),ȱSummaire.
(r.1419–1467).ȱBookȱIVȱcontainsȱaȱrareȱepisodeȱthatȱillustratesȱtheȱreactionȱofȱthis
princeȱtoȱfindingȱhimselfȱaloneȱwithȱnature.ȱCuriously,ȱthisȱisȱtheȱsameȱepisode
thatȱHuizingaȱemployedȱinȱhisȱpreviouslyȱmentionedȱchapterȱonȱtheȱcomparison
betweenȱplasticȱartsȱandȱpoetryȱtoȱmakeȱtheȱpointȱthatȱtheȱproseȱofȱtheȱperiod
couldȱrivalȱpaintingȱbutȱonlyȱwhenȱtheȱwriterȱallowedȱhimselfȱtoȱdepictȱlifeȱwith
“vividȱrealism.”61ȱ
Oneȱ winterȱ afternoonȱ inȱ 1457,ȱ followingȱ aȱ violentȱ quarrelȱ withȱ hisȱ son,ȱ the
elderlyȱprinceȱ(whoȱwasȱinȱhisȱsixties)ȱrushedȱoutȱofȱhisȱpalaceȱofȱBrusselsȱalone
onȱhorseback,ȱheadedȱforȱnearbyȱHal,ȱwhere,ȱforȱreasonsȱnotȱexplainedȱinȱtheȱtext,
heȱhadȱhastilyȱarrangedȱtoȱmeetȱaȱgroupȱofȱhisȱcourtiers.ȱButȱwhileȱtheyȱreached
theirȱdestinationȱwithoutȱdifficulty,ȱPhilipȱneverȱarrived.Theȱdaysȱwereȱalready
short,ȱ theȱ weatherȱ wasȱ coldȱ andȱ rainy,ȱ andȱ aȱ thickȱ fogȱ setȱ inȱ justȱ asȱ theȱ duke
wanderedȱthroughȱmountainsȱandȱvalleysȱintentȱonȱconfusingȱhisȱtracksȱtoȱavoid
beingȱfollowed.ȱSoonȱheȱfoundȱhimselfȱlostȱjustȱasȱeveningȱset,ȱand—theȱwriter
addsȱemphatically—aȱmanȱ“quiȱhommesȱavoitȱparȱmillionsȱpourȱluiȱfaireȱservice”
(whoȱhadȱmillionsȱofȱmenȱtoȱserveȱhim)ȱwasȱsuddenlyȱallȱaloneȱwithoutȱevenȱ“un
povreȱbouvierȱpourȱluiȱtenirȱcompagnie“ȱ(aȱpoorȱcowherdȱtoȱkeepȱhimȱcompany).ȱ
Asȱ theȱ nightȱ “siȱ hideuseȱ etȱ siȱ pleineȱ deȱ péril”ȱ (soȱ frightfulȱ andȱ dangerous)
approachedȱ underȱ theȱ frigidȱ downpour,ȱ theȱ lonelyȱ riderȱ enteredȱ “uneȱ grosse
espaisseȱforeste,ȱlàȱoùȱn’yȱavoitȱneȱvoye,ȱneȱsentier”ȱ(aȱthickȱvastȱforestȱwithout
roadsȱorȱpaths).62ȱHoursȱlater,ȱheȱwasȱstillȱstrugglingȱamongȱ“valléesȱcrolleusesȱet
parfondesȱoùȱoncquesȱn’avoitȱeuȱchemin”ȱ(deepȱcrumblingȱgorgesȱneverȱbefore
traveled),ȱ soakedȱ byȱ theȱ rain,ȱ spatteredȱ withȱ mud,ȱ tremblingȱ fromȱ coldȱ and
hunger,ȱhisȱhandsȱtornȱbyȱbushes,ȱdismountingȱoftenȱtoȱfeelȱinȱvainȱforȱtracksȱon
theȱsoggyȱterrain,ȱallȱtheȱwhileȱcryingȱoutȱforȱhelp,ȱwhileȱhisȱhorseȱkeptȱslipping
inȱtheȱicyȱmuck.ȱAfterȱhoursȱofȱenduringȱhunger,ȱloneliness,ȱandȱcold,ȱheȱsettled
forȱlocatingȱanyȱ“maisonchelleȱchampestre”ȱ(peasantȱcottage)ȱthatȱcouldȱofferȱhim
aȱroofȱforȱtheȱnight.ȱButȱbyȱthenȱfatigueȱhadȱcausedȱhisȱmindȱtoȱbetrayȱhim.ȱAtȱone
pointȱheȱwasȱlaughingȱhystericallyȱatȱhimself,ȱatȱanotherȱheȱwasȱmistakingȱthe
whiteȱwatersȱofȱaȱstreamȱforȱaȱroad,ȱandȱwasȱbarelyȱsavedȱfromȱfallingȱintoȱitȱby
hisȱhorse,ȱwhichȱrefusedȱtoȱplungeȱinȱdespiteȱtheȱDuke’sȱangryȱspurring.63
Eventually,ȱlongȱafterȱmidnight,ȱtheȱDukeȱfollowedȱtheȱdistantȱbarkingȱofȱaȱdog
toȱtheȱhumbleȱhutȱofȱaȱpeasant.ȱHeȱbangedȱinsistentlyȱatȱtheȱdoor,ȱdemandingȱto
beȱ letȱ inȱ andȱ promisingȱ aȱ reward.ȱ Theȱ poorȱ manȱ wasȱ alreadyȱ asleepȱ withȱ his
“famelette”ȱ(littleȱwife)ȱbutȱeventuallyȱgotȱupȱandȱletȱinȱtheȱstranger,ȱrealizingȱthat
61
Huizinga,ȱTheȱWaningȱofȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ285.ȱTheȱdescriptionȱandȱcommentaryȱofȱthe
episodeȱareȱatȱpp.ȱ286–89.
62
Georgesȱ Chastellain,ȱ “Chroniques,”ȱ Œuvres,ȱ ed.ȱ Kervynȱ deȱ Lettenhove,ȱ 8ȱ vols.ȱ (Brussels:
Heussner,ȱ1863–1866;ȱGeneva:ȱSlatkine,ȱ1971),ȱ3:ȱ240–43.
63
Chastellain,ȱ“Chroniques”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ62),ȱ3:ȱ250–53.
582 LiaȱB.ȱRoss
thisȱwasȱnotȱaȱbanditȱorȱaȱvagrant.ȱHowever,ȱheȱdidȱnotȱrecognizeȱhisȱDuke,ȱnor
didȱPhilipȱrevealȱhisȱidentity,ȱlikelyȱfeelingȱvulnerableȱallȱaloneȱasȱheȱwas,ȱand
perhapsȱaȱlittleȱashamed.ȱTheȱhostȱledȱhimȱtoȱhisȱfireplaceȱtoȱdryȱup,ȱandȱfedȱhim
bread,ȱcheese,ȱandȱwater.ȱTheȱwriter,ȱwhoȱthoughtȱitȱanȱamazingȱfeatȱforȱsuchȱa
loftyȱ princeȱ toȱ breakȱ theȱ hardȱ breadȱ allȱ byȱ himselfȱ withoutȱ écuyerȱ trenchant,
launchesȱintoȱanȱemotionalȱhomilyȱinȱconventionalȱbucolicȱstyleȱonȱtheȱblissȱof
eatingȱsimpleȱfoodȱwithoutȱfearȱofȱpoisonȱandȱdrinkingȱwaterȱinsteadȱofȱwine.64ȱ
TheȱDukeȱhadȱaȱmoreȱdifficultȱtimeȱinȱconvincingȱhisȱhostȱtoȱleadȱhimȱtoȱaȱroad
outȱofȱtheȱforest:ȱtheȱpeasantȱinformedȱhimȱthatȱtheȱwayȱtoȱHalsenbergueȱwasȱonly
oneȱ leagueȱ awayȱ (aboutȱ fiveȱ kilometers)ȱ and—significantly—thatȱ theȱ traveler
couldȱeasilyȱfindȱitȱonȱhisȱown.ȱDuringȱtheȱconversationȱitȱturnedȱoutȱthatȱHalȱwas
alsoȱ onlyȱ twoȱ leaguesȱ awayȱ andȱ soȱ theȱ Dukeȱ (reluctantly,ȱ andȱ afterȱ aȱ rather
comicalȱhaggling)ȱpaidȱtheȱpeasantȱquiteȱwellȱtoȱdeliverȱaȱmessageȱonȱhisȱbehalf
toȱhisȱservantsȱwhoȱwereȱstillȱexpectingȱhim.ȱPhilipȱreachedȱhisȱnewȱdestination
atȱdawnȱandȱonceȱonȱfamiliarȱgroundsȱwentȱstraightȱtoȱtheȱhouseȱofȱaȱgamekeeper
ofȱhisȱandȱdemandedȱaȱbed.ȱThereȱheȱfinallyȱfellȱasleepȱandȱwasȱlaterȱfoundȱbyȱhis
franticȱcourtiers.65ȱ
Someȱcautionȱmayȱbeȱinȱorderȱwhenȱinterpretingȱthisȱnarrative,ȱinȱparticularȱthe
insistenceȱonȱtheȱdangersȱfacedȱbyȱtheȱDuke.ȱChastellain’sȱfirstȬhandȱsourceȱmust
haveȱbeenȱPhilipȱhimself,ȱasȱheȱwasȱaloneȱinȱhisȱadventure,ȱandȱafterȱtheȱinitial
shockȱheȱmightȱwellȱhaveȱrearrangedȱhisȱmemoriesȱtoȱrenderȱhisȱactionsȱintoȱa
coherentȱ sequence.ȱ Asȱ forȱ theȱ writer,ȱ notoriouslyȱ proneȱ toȱ prolixityȱ and
sentimentalȱexaggerations,ȱheȱseemsȱtoȱhaveȱrelishedȱtheȱopportunityȱtoȱportray
theȱDukeȱasȱaȱfigureȱofȱfableȱandȱmayȱwellȱhaveȱinflatedȱtheȱrealȱdangersȱtoȱbring
hisȱ narrativeȱ inȱ lineȱ withȱ theȱ chivalricȱ romancesȱ popularȱ atȱ court.ȱ Butȱ after
brushingȱ asideȱ someȱ ofȱ theȱ mostȱ obviousȱ literaryȱ devices,ȱ likeȱ theȱ repeated
mentionsȱofȱmountains,ȱvalleys,ȱandȱravinesȱinȱtheȱsuburbsȱofȱBrussels,ȱorȱthe
choiceȱofȱtermsȱ(“maisoncelle,”ȱ“famelette”)ȱdesignedȱtoȱenhanceȱtheȱstatureȱofȱthe
Dukeȱbyȱloweringȱthatȱofȱhisȱrescuer,ȱwhatȱsurfacesȱfromȱtheȱaccountȱisȱaboveȱall
Philip’sȱterrorȱatȱbeingȱalone,ȱhisȱunfamiliarityȱwithȱhisȱownȱterritories,ȱandȱhis
reliefȱatȱtheȱcomfortingȱcompanyȱfirstȱofȱtheȱpeasant,ȱandȱthenȱofȱtheȱgamekeeper,
socialȱ subordinatesȱ whoȱ couldȱ tameȱ theȱ wildernessȱ forȱ himȱ andȱ renderȱ itȱ safe
(muchȱlikeȱtheȱmysteriousȱfiguresȱthatȱsuccorȱCoeurȱatȱcriticalȱpointsȱinȱRené’s
story).66ȱ
64
Chastellain,ȱ“Chroniques”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ62),ȱ3:ȱ255–60.
65
Chastellain,ȱ“Chroniques”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ62),ȱ3:ȱ261–67.ȱTheȱDukeȱconvincedȱtheȱpeasantȱtoȱgoȱtoȱHal
andȱinformȱhisȱservantsȱthatȱ“theȱmanȱwhomȱtheyȱexpected”ȱwouldȱnotȱbeȱcomingȱtoȱmeetȱthem
there.
66
Philip’sȱ propensityȱ forȱ gettingȱ lostȱ mayȱ haveȱ beenȱ exceptional,ȱ witnessȱ anotherȱ episodeȱ inȱ a
previousȱ chapterȱ ofȱ theȱ sameȱ “Chroniques”ȱ inȱ Bookȱ IIIȱ (whoseȱ attributionȱ toȱ Chastellainȱ is
debated).ȱInȱtheȱyearsȱ1451–1453,ȱPhilipȱwasȱconductingȱaȱpunitiveȱexpeditionȱagainstȱGhent,
Theȱ wild,ȱ bothȱ inȱ realityȱ andȱ fantasy,ȱ wasȱ apparentlyȱ perceivedȱ eitherȱ as
desolateȱandȱhostile,ȱorȱasȱaȱmysteriousȱrealmȱofȱfrighteningȱmagic.ȱInȱtheȱfirst
instance,ȱtheȱforestȱdidȱpresentȱrealȱdangersȱduringȱtimesȱofȱwarȱandȱrampant
banditry,ȱasȱattestedȱbyȱtheȱstrikingȱaccountsȱofȱcontemporaryȱchroniclers.ȱBut
thoseȱdangersȱwereȱremovedȱfromȱtheȱsettingȱofȱChastellain’sȱanecdote,ȱasȱthe
ravagesȱofȱtheȱcivilȱwarȱandȱtheȱHundredȱYearsȱWarȱdidȱnotȱquiteȱreachȱtheȱDuke’s
ownȱdominions,ȱandȱwereȱbecomingȱaȱthingȱofȱtheȱpastȱevenȱinȱFranceȱbyȱtheȱtime
thisȱepisodeȱtookȱplace.ȱFurther,ȱasȱconfirmedȱbyȱtheȱsameȱchroniclers,ȱtheȱviolence
hadȱmainlyȱaffectedȱcommoners,ȱleavingȱtheȱprincesȱwithȱtheȱrelativelyȱminor
problemȱofȱdecreasedȱrevenuesȱfromȱdamagesȱtoȱtheirȱtenantsȱandȱtheȱexpenses
associatedȱwithȱkeepingȱreadyȱarmies.67ȱPhilipȱwouldȱmostȱlikelyȱhaveȱbeenȱfaced
onlyȱwithȱtheȱannoyanceȱofȱhavingȱtoȱdealȱwithȱtheȱdebrisȱofȱwoodȱcutting,ȱlikeȱthe
charactersȱinȱRené’sȱstory.ȱ
Asȱtoȱtheȱliteraryȱtraditionȱthatȱassociatedȱwildernessȱwithȱhostileȱmagic,ȱPiehler
explainsȱitȱthroughȱtheȱintriguingȱconceptȱofȱtheȱguardiansȱofȱtheȱloci.
Inȱ ancientȱ literature,ȱ theȱ primaryȱ dangerȱ toȱ theȱ consciousnessȱ inherentȱ inȱ the
wildernessȱ isȱ manifestedȱ andȱ symbolizedȱ inȱ itsȱ animalȱ inhabitants.ȱ [.ȱ .ȱ .]ȱ Atȱ the
frontiersȱofȱtheȱunknown,ȱtheȱsleepȱofȱreasonȱengendersȱmonsters,ȱapotropaicȱsentinels
warningȱmanȱawayȱfromȱtheȱpsychicȱdisintegrationȱthreatenedȱwhereȱurbanȱrationality
willȱnoȱlongerȱfindȱitsȱnecessaryȱphenomenalȱcorrelatives.ȱ[.ȱ.ȱ.]ȱItȱremainsȱtoȱbeȱnoted
thatȱtheȱfundamentalȱconflictȱofȱmanȱandȱwildernessȱ[.ȱ.ȱ.]ȱdidȱnotȱescapeȱtheȱancient
philosophersȱandȱwasȱinheritedȱbyȱtheȱmedievalȱallegoristȱinȱabstractȱformȱasȱwellȱas
inȱpoeticȱimagery.ȱPlato’sȱanalysisȱinȱtheȱTimaeusȱofȱtheȱuniverseȱasȱcreatedȱbyȱthe
interactionȱ ofȱ nousȱ andȱ anankeȱ (Reasonȱ andȱ Necessityȱ orȱ Mindȱ andȱ Matter)ȱ was
developedȱbyȱAristotleȱintoȱtheȱmoreȱfamiliarȱconjunctionȱofȱnousȱandȱhyle,ȱwhereȱhyle
denotesȱtheȱchaosȱantecedentȱtoȱtheȱoperationȱofȱtheȱForm,ȱbutȱliterallyȱmeansȱ‘forest’.
[.ȱ.ȱ.]ȱWeȱhaveȱnotedȱthatȱtheȱsilvaȱisȱnotȱonlyȱaȱphysicalȱbutȱaȱpsychicalȱentityȱforȱthe
primitiveȱandȱtheȱsenseȱofȱthisȱisȱcarriedȱoverȱintoȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.68
Evenȱhumanȱ(orȱhumanȬlike)ȱpresenceȱcouldȱbeȱfrighteningȱwhenȱitȱtookȱtheȱform
ofȱguardianȱofȱloci.ȱThisȱfigureȱstillȱevokedȱ“theȱawe,ȱtheȱmingledȱrepulsionȱand
attractionȱofȱtheȱsacredȱplace,ȱandȱinȱparticularȱtheȱinstinctiveȱfearȱofȱcrossingȱits
whichȱhadȱrevoltedȱagainstȱhisȱauthority,ȱbutȱafterȱwinningȱaȱbattleȱnearȱGavereȱwasȱeasilyȱled
onȱaȱfalseȱpathȱandȱawayȱfromȱhisȱgoalȱbyȱaȱlocalȱguide,ȱwhoȱwishedȱtoȱpreventȱaȱmassacre.
Chastellain,ȱ“Chroniques”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ62),ȱ2:373.
67
Forȱ theȱ terrifyingȱ roleȱ ofȱ banditsȱ inȱ Franceȱ duringȱ theȱ Hundredȱ Yearsȱ War,ȱ seeȱ inȱ particular
Thomasȱ Basin, Histoireȱ deȱ Charlesȱ VII,ȱ ed.ȱ Charlesȱ Samaran,ȱ 2ȱ vols.ȱ (Paris:ȱ Lesȱ Bellesȱ Lettres,
1933–1944),ȱ1:ȱ107–09,ȱ2:ȱ53–57.ȱForȱaȱspecificȱexample,ȱseeȱtheȱstoryȱofȱtheȱBastardȱofȱVaurusȱwho
hadȱaȱwomanȱtiedȱtoȱaȱtreeȱtoȱbeȱdevouredȱbyȱwolvesȱinȱJournalȱd’unȱbourgeoisȱdeȱParis:ȱ1405–1449,
ed.ȱ Coletteȱ Beauneȱ (Paris:ȱ Livreȱ deȱ poche,ȱ 1990),ȱ 184–87.ȱ Forȱ theȱ portrayalȱ ofȱ aȱ malignant
enchantedȱforest,ȱseeȱtheȱchapterȱ“OutlyingȱSpacesȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱEnglishȱAwntyrsȱoffȱArthureȱat
theȱTerneȱWathelyne”byȱJeanȱE.ȱJostȱinȱtheȱpresentȱvolume.
68
Piehler,ȱTheȱVisionaryȱLandscapeȱ(seeȱnoteȱ37),ȱ73,ȱ75.
584 LiaȱB.ȱRoss
boundaries”ȱwhichȱareȱassociatedȱwithȱ“theȱmagicoȬreligiousȱtaboosȱonȱcrossing
frontiersȱamongȱpreȬliterateȱpeoples.”69ȱMedievalȱliteraryȱtraditionȱhadȱembraced
thisȱidea,ȱwhichȱisȱquiteȱinȱevidenceȱinȱRené’sȱwork.ȱForȱexampleȱinȱtheȱepisodeȱof
theȱ Fountainȱ ofȱ Fortuneȱ theȱ mysteriousȱ supernaturalȱ presenceȱ inȱ aȱ wildȱ place
makesȱitselfȱfeltȱthroughȱtheȱinscriptionȱtoȱwarnȱtheȱpassersȬbyȱthatȱtheyȱareȱbeing
watchedȱbyȱanȱinvisibleȱbeing.70ȱButȱhowȱmuchȱtheȱconceptȱofȱguardianȱofȱloci
couldȱhaveȱinfluencedȱtheȱnarrowȱportrayalȱofȱwildȱnatureȱinȱilluminations,ȱor
evenȱPhilip’sȱreactionȱtoȱfindingȱhimselfȱaloneȱinȱit,ȱisȱhardȱtoȱguess.ȱItȱseemsȱmuch
lessȱproblematicȱtoȱsupportȱaȱdifferentȱargument,ȱthatȱprincesȱrevealedȱaȱmarked
preferenceȱ forȱ theȱ tame,ȱ semiȬprivateȱ parkȱ orȱ theȱ privateȱ hortusȱ conclususȱ asȱ a
consequenceȱofȱtheirȱprivilegedȱsocialȱstatus.ȱWhatȱtheirȱidealȱlandscapesȱrepresent
isȱaȱnatureȱwithȱmoralȱratherȱthanȱaestheticȱattributes,ȱaȱhumanizedȱnatureȱinȱa
manȬdominatedȱworld,ȱsafe,ȱcontrolled,ȱandȱpredictable.ȱOnceȱtheȱwildȱwasȱtruly
tamedȱorȱotherwiseȱremovedȱfromȱtheirȱdirectȱcontact,ȱtheyȱcouldȱviewȱtheȱsame
throughȱaȱsentimentalȱlensȱ(aȱprocessȱrenderedȱfamiliarȱtoȱtheȱearlyȱmodernȱworld
throughȱtheȱmoreȱrecentȱinventionȱofȱtheȱNobleȱSavage).71ȱ
Toȱfindȱaȱcorrespondenceȱinȱmodernȱpopularȱartȱoneȱcouldȱsearchȱamongȱthe
landscapesȱ ofȱ earlyȱ Disneyȱ animations,ȱ inȱ particularȱ Snowȱ White,ȱ Bambi,ȱ and
Fantasia.ȱAndȱjustȱasȱmedievalȱpastoralȱtasteȱandȱitsȱaccompanyingȱsentimentality
provokedȱtheȱharshȱcriticismȱofȱHuizinga,ȱDisney’sȱanimationsȱhaveȱbeenȱaccused
ofȱexposingȱyoungȱaudiencesȱtoȱ“false,ȱsanitizedȱandȱsweetenedȱimagesȱofȱnature,”
inȱparticularȱforȱportrayingȱwildȱanimalsȱasȱ“disarminglyȱcute”ȱhumanȱhelpers.72
69
Piehler,ȱTheȱVisionaryȱLandscapeȱ(seeȱnoteȱ37),ȱ119.
70
Theȱ phenomenonȱ ofȱ “barrierȱ symbolism”ȱ isȱ discussed,ȱ forȱ example,ȱ inȱ Piehlerȱ (Theȱ Visionary
Landscapeȱ[seeȱnoteȱ37],ȱ120–21)ȱinȱrelationȱtoȱDante’sȱdescentȱintȱInferno:ȱ“Asȱweȱlookȱatȱlater
developmentsȱofȱbarrierȱsymbolisms,ȱweȱseeȱthatȱtheȱsacredȱobjectsȱusedȱtoȱmarkȱtheȱportalȱor
thresholdȱfrequentlyȱappearȱinȱtheȱformȱofȱinscriptionsȱfromȱsacredȱtexts,ȱasȱaȱsocietyȱbecomes
literateȱ[.ȱ.ȱ.].”
71
Alongȱthoseȱlines,ȱseeȱtheȱobservationȱbyȱMarinaȱWarner,ȱFromȱtheȱBeastȱtoȱtheȱBlonde:ȱOnȱFairy
TalesȱandȱtheirȱTellersȱ(London:ȱVintage,ȱ1995),ȱ306ȱrelatedȱtoȱtheȱemergenceȱofȱcuddlyȱtoysȱwithin
theȱcultureȱofȱmodernȱchildhood,ȱcitedȱinȱDavidȱWhitley,ȱTheȱIdeaȱofȱNatureȱinȱDisneyȱAnimation
(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ27:ȱ“Justȱasȱtheȱriseȱofȱtheȱteddyȱbearȱmatchesȱtheȱdeclineȱofȱrealȱbearsȱinȱtheȱwild,ȱso
softȱ toysȱ todayȱ haveȱ takenȱ theȱ shapeȱ ofȱ rareȱ wildȱ speciesȱ [.ȱ .ȱ .]ȱ Theyȱ actȱ asȱ aȱ kindȱ ofȱ totem,
associatingȱ theȱ humanȱ beingȱ withȱ theȱ animal’sȱ imaginedȱ capacitiesȱ andȱ value.
Anthropomorphismȱ traducesȱ theȱ creaturesȱ themselves:ȱ theirȱ loveablenessȱ sentimentally
exaggerated,ȱjustȱas,ȱformerly,ȱtheirȱviciousnessȱcrowdedȱoutȱempiricalȱobservation.”
72
Whitley,ȱTheȱIdeaȱofȱNatureȱinȱDisneyȱAnimationȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ3,ȱ5.ȱAsȱanȱasideȱonȱtheȱthemeȱofȱthe
cartoonȬlikeȱqualityȱofȱtheȱ“soft”ȱlateȱGothicȱstyle,ȱaȱsmallȱpaintingȱonȱwoodenȱpanelȱknownȱas
theȱ Frankfurtȱ Paradiesgärtleinȱ (circaȱ 1400,ȱ atȱ theȱ Städelschesȱ Kunstinstitut),ȱ attributedȱ toȱ an
unidentifiedȱmasterȱofȱtheȱUpperȱRhine,ȱdepictsȱaȱlovelyȱwalledȱgarden,ȱwithȱaȱfountain,ȱflowers,
andȱplants.ȱInȱtheȱrightȱcorner,ȱtoȱrepresentȱaȱdefeatedȱEvil,ȱisȱaȱcuteȱsmallȱdragonȱlyingȱonȱthe
grassȱbellyȬupȱandȱwatchedȱbyȱsaints.ȱKönig,ȱTheȱBedfordȱHoursȱ(seeȱnoteȱ30),ȱ18–20.ȱSeeȱat
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Meister_des_Frankfurter_Paradiesg%C3%A4rtleins_001.jpgȱ(last
accessedȱonȱJulyȱ10,ȱ2011).
Inȱ addressingȱ thoseȱ allegations,ȱ Davidȱ Whitleyȱ examinesȱ theȱ linkȱ betweenȱ the
pastoralȱandȱtheȱsentimentalȱandȱreachesȱconclusionsȱthatȱcouldȱwellȱbeȱapplied
toȱtheȱcalendarȱorȱbiblicalȱimagesȱofȱBooksȱofȱHours:
Pastoralȱcanȱincludeȱtheȱlabourȱthatȱnatureȱexactsȱfromȱmenȱandȱwomen,ȱasȱtheȱprice
theyȱ mustȱ payȱ forȱ livingȱ onȱ theȱ land,ȱ andȱ canȱ promoteȱ awarenessȱ ofȱ someȱ ofȱ the
harsherȱexigenciesȱofȱaȱ simpleȱ existenceȱcloseȱtoȱtheȱearth,ȱespeciallyȱasȱexpressed
throughȱtheȱchangeȱofȱseasons.ȱSuchȱhardshipȱisȱneverȱallowedȱtoȱdominateȱhowever;
theȱkeynoteȱofȱpastoralȱisȱanȱexpressionȱofȱinnateȱsympathyȱbetweenȱallȱlivingȱthings,
atȱtimesȱevokedȱlyricallyȱandȱoftenȱassociatedȱwithȱhumanȱsexualȱloveȱinȱidealized
forms.ȱ[.ȱ.ȱ.]ȱ[The]ȱessenceȱofȱtheȱpastoralȱmodeȱhasȱalwaysȱbeenȱinȱsomeȱsenseȱaȱretreat
orȱescape.73
Sentimentalityȱ hasȱ elicitedȱ disapprovalȱ fromȱ bothȱ artȱ criticsȱ andȱ philosophers
becauseȱofȱitsȱtendencyȱtoȱmisrepresentȱreality.ȱAsȱMarkȱJeffersonȱexplains,ȱitȱis
moreȱperniciousȱthanȱotherȱformsȱofȱemotionalȱindulgenceȱbecauseȱitȱinvolves
attachmentȱtoȱaȱdistortedȱsetȱofȱbeliefs.ȱ
[Itȱ places]ȱ emphasisȱ uponȱ suchȱ thingsȱ asȱ theȱ sweetness,ȱ dearness,ȱ littleness,
blamelessness,ȱ andȱ vulnerabilityȱ ofȱ theȱ emotionsȇȱ objects. Theȱ qualitiesȱ that
sentimentalityȱimposesȱonȱitsȱobjectsȱareȱtheȱqualitiesȱofȱinnocence.ȱButȱthisȱalmost
inevitablyȱ involvesȱ aȱ grossȱ simplificationȱ ofȱ theȱ natureȱ ofȱ theȱ object.ȱ Andȱ itȱ isȱ a
simplificationȱofȱanȱovertlyȱmoralȱsignificance.ȱTheȱsimplisticȱappraisalȱnecessaryȱto
sentimentalityȱisȱalsoȱaȱdirectȱimpairmentȱtoȱtheȱmoralȱvisionȱtakenȱofȱitsȱobjects.74ȱ
Anthonyȱ Savileȱ isȱ evenȱ moreȱ emphatic:ȱ Aȱ “sentimentalȱ modeȱ ofȱ thoughtȱ is
typicallyȱ oneȱ thatȱ idealizesȱ itsȱ objectȱ underȱ theȱ guidanceȱ ofȱ aȱ desireȱ for
gratificationȱ andȱ reassurance.”ȱ Weȱ canȱ lookȱ sentimentallyȱ toȱ natureȱ whenȱ we
“projectȱ ontoȱ anȱ inertȱ andȱ separatelyȱ existingȱ worldȱ aȱ warmȱ concernȱ forȱ our
humanȱwelfareȱandȱaȱtenderȱamenabilityȱtoȱourȱdesiresȱandȱneeds.”75ȱ
Sentimentalityȱ isȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ mostȱ evidentȱ qualitiesȱ ofȱ theȱ artsȱ ofȱ theȱ waning
MiddleȱAges,ȱandȱformsȱtheȱbasisȱforȱtheȱbucolicȱconventionsȱofȱitsȱliteratureȱ(for
example,ȱChastellain’sȱuseȱofȱ“maisoncelle”ȱandȱ“famelette”ȱwhenȱreferringȱto
facetsȱofȱpeasantȱlife)ȱthatȱHuizingaȱdisparaged.ȱ
Theȱnewȱenthusiasmȱforȱnatureȱdoesȱnotȱmeanȱaȱtrulyȱdeepȱsenseȱofȱreality,ȱnotȱeven
aȱsincereȱadmirationȱforȱwork;ȱitȱisȱonlyȱanȱattemptȱtoȱadornȱcourteousȱmannersȱbyȱan
arrayȱofȱartificialȱflowers,ȱplayingȱatȱshepherdȱandȱshepherdessȱjustȱasȱpeopleȱhad
playedȱatȱLancelotȱandȱGuinevere.ȱ[.ȱ.ȱ.]ȱTheȱpastoralȱgenreȱwasȱtheȱschoolȱwhereȱa
keenerȱperceptionȱandȱaȱstrongerȱaffectionȱtowardsȱnatureȱwereȱlearned.ȱTheȱliterary
73
Whitley,ȱTheȱIdeaȱofȱNatureȱinȱDisneyȱAnimationȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),,ȱ9.
74
MarkȱJefferson,ȱ“WhatȱisȱWrongȱwithȱSentimentality?,”ȱMindȱ92.368ȱ(1983):ȱ519–29;ȱhereȱ526–27.
75
AnthonyȱSavile,ȱ“Sentimentality,”ȱArguingȱAboutȱArt,ȱContemporaryȱPhilosophicalȱDebates,ȱed.ȱAlex
NeillȱandȱAaronȱRidley,ȱ2ndȱeditionȱ(LondonȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱRoutledge,ȱ2002),ȱ315–19;ȱhereȱ318.
586 LiaȱB.ȱRoss
expressionȱ ofȱ theȱ sentimentȱ ofȱ natureȱ wasȱ aȱ byȬproductȱ ofȱ theȱ pastoral.ȱ [.ȱ .ȱ .]ȱ The
pastoralȱtravestyȱservesȱforȱallȱsortsȱofȱdiversions;ȱtheȱdomainsȱofȱpastoralȱfancyȱand
ofȱchivalricȱromanticismȱmingle.76ȱ
Throughȱtheȱlensȱofȱsentimentalityȱedgesȱwereȱblurred,ȱcontrastsȱsmoothened,ȱand
detailsȱlost.ȱTheȱilluminationsȱofȱprincelyȱtexts,ȱjustȱlikeȱtheȱpoetryȱandȱromances
thatȱ flourishedȱ atȱ theirȱ courts,ȱ suggestȱ thatȱ theȱ wildȱ cavalcadesȱ andȱ huntsȱ of
princesȱandȱtheirȱretinuesȱhadȱmoreȱtoȱdoȱwithȱtheȱviewȱofȱtheȱcountrysideȱasȱa
vastȱ personalȱ parkȱ inȱ whichȱ theyȱ couldȱ ventȱ theirȱ aggressionȱ orȱ displayȱ their
vanityȱthanȱwithȱanyȱtasteȱforȱtheȱwildȱandȱtheȱunknown.77ȱWildȱnatureȱmayȱbe
dangerous,ȱbutȱitȱalsoȱcarriesȱwithȱitȱwhatȱWhitleyȱcallsȱ“theȱpossibilityȱofȱfreedom
andȱdevelopment.”78ȱThereforeȱtheȱRomanticȱoutlookȱisȱmoreȱdynamic,ȱasȱtheȱrapt
observerȬparticipantȱisȱpoisedȱtoȱplungeȱintoȱuncertainty.ȱOnȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱthe
pastoralȱviewȱisȱstaticȱbecauseȱofȱitsȱnostalgicȱcomponent,ȱasȱitȱlooksȱbackȱinȱsearch
forȱ anȱ Arcadiaȱ orȱ aȱ Paradiseȱ Lost,ȱ whichȱ theȱ patronȱ demandsȱ andȱ theȱ artist
recreates.79
Theȱcrucialȱdifferenceȱbetweenȱtheȱtwoȱperceptionsȱofȱnature,ȱRomanticȱand
pastoralȱis,ȱtoȱaȱgreatȱextent,ȱaȱmatterȱofȱwhoȱisȱinȱcontrol:ȱnatureȱinȱtheȱfirstȱcase
andȱ theȱ humanȱ inȱ theȱ second.ȱ Theȱ componentȱ ofȱ controlȱ andȱ utilitarianismȱ in
princelyȱ tastesȱ shouldȱ notȱ beȱ underestimated:ȱ forȱ Coeurȱ (andȱ hisȱ author)ȱ the
sublimeȱexperienceȱisȱtheȱattainmentȱofȱtheȱkissȱofȱhisȱimaginaryȱlady,ȱwhoȱfinally
isȱconvincedȱtoȱbendȱtoȱhisȱwill,ȱandȱtheȱultimateȱdisappointmentȱtheȱdenialȱofȱthe
prize,ȱasȱtheȱforcesȱofȱenvyȱandȱslanderȱtakeȱherȱawayȱatȱtheȱveryȱmomentȱinȱwhich
heȱexpectsȱfulfillment.ȱAndȱitȱseemsȱappropriateȱthatȱtheȱsettingȱforȱtheȱclimactic
sceneȱ shouldȱ beȱ notȱ theȱ outdoorsȱ butȱ theȱ insideȱ ofȱ aȱ castle,ȱ afterȱ aȱ formal
presentationȱofȱtheȱlongingȱheartȱtoȱDameȱMerci.ȱ
Thereforeȱitȱisȱnotȱsurprisingȱthatȱlackȱofȱsensitivityȱtoȱtheȱunbridledȱpowerȱof
natureȱ wouldȱ beȱ foundȱ inȱ figurativeȱ artȱ asȱ well,ȱ especiallyȱ whenȱ artȱ was
subservientȱtoȱaȱliteratureȱdestinedȱforȱaȱcategoryȱofȱpatronsȱwhoȱmadeȱaȱdogma
outȱofȱhierarchyȱandȱcontrol,ȱandȱwhoȱhadȱtheȱmeansȱtoȱexactȱartisticȱformsȱthat
reflectedȱtheirȱsocialȱneeds.ȱComfortȱforȱthemȱmeantȱaȱmediatedȱspace,ȱthatȱis,ȱthe
presenceȱofȱhumanȱbuffersȱbetweenȱthemselvesȱandȱtheȱnaturalȱworld.ȱRaisedȱto
76
77
Itȱisȱevenȱpossibleȱtoȱimagineȱtheȱwalledȱgardenȱasȱaȱcompleteȱecosystemȱtoȱtheȱserviceȱofȱthe
elites,ȱprotectedȱfromȱexposureȱtoȱtheȱcommonȱforest,ȱtheȱdominionȱofȱeveryone.ȱForȱaȱdiscussion
ofȱthisȱtopic,ȱseeȱtheȱchapterȱ“LandscapeȱofȱLuxury:ȱMahautȱd’Artois’ȱ(1302–1329)ȱManagement
andȱUseȱofȱtheȱParkȱatȱHesdin”ȱbyȱAbigailȱP.ȱDowlingȱinȱtheȱpresentȱvolume.ȱTheȱcontributionȱby
MarilynȱL.ȱSandidgeȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱprovidesȱfurtherȱinsightsȱfromȱanȱEnglishȱperspective.
78
Whitley,ȱTheȱIdeaȱofȱNatureȱinȱDisneyȱAnimationȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ107.
79
EvanȱEisenbergȱ(TheȱEcologyȱofȱEdenȱ[seeȱnoteȱ42],ȱ151)ȱlinksȱtheȱmelancholicȱaspectȱofȱArcadia
toȱitsȱdenialȱofȱinevitableȱchange.ȱHeȱdiscussesȱinȱdepthȱalsoȱtheȱmythsȱofȱEdenȱandȱtheȱGolden
Ageȱthroughoutȱhisȱwork.
countȱonȱthoseȱbuffersȱ(theyȱwereȱconstantlyȱsurroundedȱbyȱcourtiersȱandȱrarely
evenȱsleptȱalone)ȱtheyȱlackedȱtheȱskillsȱtoȱnavigateȱunaidedȱinȱtheȱwilderness—
unlikeȱtheirȱbelovedȱfictionalȱheroes—whileȱtheyȱwereȱquiteȱcapableȱofȱconfronting
manȬmadeȱdangersȱwithoutȱhesitation.ȱ
InȱtheȱeraȱofȱJeanȱofȱBerry,ȱJohnȱofȱLancaster,ȱCatherineȱofȱCleves,ȱRenéȱofȱAnjou,
andȱMaryȱofȱBurgundy,ȱtheȱpowerȱandȱsheerȱnumericȱpresenceȱofȱprincesȱwas
reachingȱaȱhighȱpoint,ȱandȱinȱadditionȱtoȱtheirȱstatusȱofȱ“overȬmightyȱsubjects”
theyȱ tendedȱ toȱ formȱ aȱ cohesiveȱ groupȱ thatȱ sharedȱ estheticȱ andȱ socialȱ values
throughȱ participationȱ inȱ tournaments,ȱ banquets,ȱ andȱ membershipȱ inȱ chivalric
ordersȱbyȱthenȱlimitedȱ(inȱpracticeȱifȱnotȱinȱtheory)ȱtoȱmembersȱofȱtheirȱownȱclass.80
Evenȱifȱanȱanalysisȱofȱattitudesȱtowardȱwildȱnatureȱisȱlimitedȱtoȱtheȱupperȱcrustȱby
theȱavailabilityȱofȱsources,ȱthereȱareȱhintsȱthatȱprincelyȱtasteȱtrickledȱdownȱtoȱthe
gentryȱ andȱ theȱ bourgeoisie.ȱ Aȱ pervasiveȱ indifference,ȱ ifȱ notȱ utterȱ dislike,ȱ for
untamedȱaspectsȱofȱnatureȱpermeatesȱtheȱaccountsȱofȱexplorationsȱandȱconquests
thatȱopenedȱupȱatȱtheȱtailȱendȱofȱthisȱperiod,ȱoneȱthatȱwitnessedȱaȱrelativelyȱlarge
numberȱofȱlateȱmedievalȱpeopleȱcomeȱintoȱcontactȱwithȱnewȱandȱalienȱformsȱof
nature.ȱ
WhileȱtheȱConquistadorsȱdescribedȱwithȱaweȱtheȱmarvelsȱofȱtheȱAztecȱcapital
andȱtheȱsplendorȱofȱitsȱroyalȱgardens,ȱtheyȱseemȱtoȱhaveȱhardlyȱnoticedȱtheȱharsh
naturalȱbeautyȱofȱtheȱMexicanȱland,ȱjustȱasȱtheȱAndesȱandȱtheȱjungleȱofȱSouth
Americaȱ wereȱ perceivedȱ onlyȱ asȱ impedimentsȱ toȱ overcomeȱ inȱ theirȱ questȱ for
riches.81ȱExplorationȱofȱtheȱunknownȱforȱitsȱownȱsakeȱwasȱcenturiesȱaway;ȱandȱit
isȱperhapsȱsignificantȱthatȱappreciationȱofȱwildernessȱdetachedȱfromȱmaterialȱaims
hadȱtoȱwaitȱforȱanȱeraȱwhenȱprincesȱwereȱnoȱlongerȱtheȱarbitersȱofȱtaste.ȱ
80
Forȱtheȱcommentsȱonȱ“overȬmightyȱsubjects”ȱseeȱJohnȱGillingham,ȱTheȱWarsȱofȱtheȱRoses:ȱPeaceȱand
ConflictȱinȱFifteenthȬCenturyȱEnglandȱ(BatonȱRouge:ȱLouisianaȱStateȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1981),6.ȱFor
aȱ discussionȱ onȱ princelyȱ attitudes,ȱ tastes,ȱ andȱ valuesȱ reflectedȱ inȱ blazons,ȱ personalȱ devices,
exclusiveȱchivalricȱorders,ȱandȱtheirȱsharedȱperceptionȱofȱtheȱthreatȱofȱaȱrisingȱbourgeoisie,ȱsee
PhilippeȱContamine,ȱLaȱnoblesseȱauȱroyaumeȱdeȱFranceȱdeȱPhilippeȱleȱBelȱàȱLouisȱXIIȱ(Paris:ȱPresses
UniversitairesȱdeȱFrance,ȱ1997),ȱ287–98,ȱ311–20.ȱAmongȱchroniclers,ȱJeanȱLeȱFèvre,ȱChroniqueȱde
Jeanȱ Leȱ Fèvre,ȱ seigneurȱ deȱ SaintȬRemy,ȱ ed.ȱ Françoisȱ Morand,ȱ 2ȱ vols.ȱ (Paris:ȱ Librairieȱ Renouard,
1876–1881),ȱ2:201–08ȱgivesȱaȱlengthyȱdescriptionȱofȱtheȱannualȱfestivitiesȱofȱtheȱorderȱofȱtheȱToison
d’Or,ȱ whileȱ Jeanȱ Molinet,ȱ Chroniques,ȱ ed.ȱ Georgesȱ Doutrepontȱ andȱ Omerȱ Jodogne,ȱ 3ȱ vols.
(Brussels:ȱPalaisȱdesȱacadémies,ȱ1935–1937),ȱ1:250–51ȱrecordsȱtheȱelaborateȱritualȱofȱinitiationȱof
MaximilianȱofȱAustriaȱintoȱtheȱorder.
81
ForȱtheȱconquestȱofȱMexicoȱsee,ȱforȱexample,ȱTheȱMemoirsȱofȱtheȱConquistadorȱBernalȱDiazȱdelȱCastillo,
trans.ȱJohnȱIngramȱLockhart,ȱF.R.A.S,ȱ1ȱ(London:ȱJ.ȱHatchardȱandȱSon,ȱ1844)ȱat
http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/32474/pg32474.txtȱ (lastȱ accessedȱ onȱ Julyȱ 10,ȱ 2011),ȱ in
particularȱCh.ȱLXXXVII,ȱwhereȱtheȱmainȱcityȱisȱreferredȱtoȱasȱIztapalapan.ȱForȱtheȱconquestȱof
Peru,ȱseeȱforȱexampleȱJuanȱdeȱBetanzos,ȱSumaȱyȱnarraciónȱdeȱlosȱincas,ȱtranslatedȱandȱeditedȱby
RolandȱHamiltonȱandȱDanaȱBuchananȱfromȱtheȱPalmaȱdeȱMallorcaȱmanuscriptȱ(Austin:ȱUniversity
ofȱTexasȱPress,ȱ1996).
Chapterȱ17
JeanȱE.ȱJost
(BradleyȱUniversity,ȱPeoria,ȱIL)
MarshyȱSpacesȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱEnglishȱ
AwntyrsȱoffȱArthureȱatȱtheȱTerneȱWathelyne:
PhysicalȱandȱSpiritualȱTerritory
SitesȱwithinȱMiddleȱEnglishȱromancesȱsuchȱasȱtheȱAwntyrsȱoffȱArthureȱatȱtheȱTerne
Wathelyneȱoftenȱalternateȱbetweenȱruralȱandȱurbanȱspaces,ȱthusȱrevealingȱtheir
idyllic,ȱutopian,ȱcourtly,ȱmilitary,ȱfrightening,ȱdangerous,ȱorȱephemeralȱaspects.
Eachȱ localeȱ isȱ theȱ spaceȱ onȱ whichȱ areȱ imprintedȱ contrastingȱ emotionsȱ and
narrationsȱcomprisingȱtheȱessenceȱofȱtheȱromance.ȱTheseȱnarrativesȱareȱremarkably
literary,ȱ engaging,ȱ andȱ dramatic,ȱ perhapsȱ borrowingȱ fromȱ anȱ oralȱ tradition.1
AccordingȱtoȱThomasȱHahn,ȱ
Whileȱitsȱsupernaturalȱandȱchivalricȱstorylinesȱhaveȱaffinitiesȱwithȱpopularȱtales,ȱthe
complexȱrhymeȱscheme,ȱnarrativeȱstructure,ȱwrittenȱsources,ȱallusions,ȱandȱcontent
demostrateȱ thatȱ Awntyrsȱ wasȱ aȱ distinctlyȱ literaryȱ effort.ȱ Awntyrsȱ emergesȱ fromȱ a
transitionalȱculturalȱcontext,ȱinȱwhichȱaȱliterateȱauthorȱhasȱfullyȱexploredȱoralȱstylistics
andȱtechniques.2
1
SeeȱW.ȱR.ȱJ.ȱBarron,ȱ“AlliterativeȱRomanceȱandȱtheȱFrenchȱTradition,”ȱMiddleȱEnglishȱAlliterative
PoetryȱandȱitsȱLiteraryȱBackground:ȱSevenȱEssays,ȱed.ȱDavidȱLawtonȱ(Cambridge:ȱD.ȱS.ȱBrewer,ȱ1982),
70–87;ȱhereȱ82.ȱBarronȱdescribesȱtheȱAwntyrsȱasȱȱ“[c]omposedȱofȱtwoȱepisodesȱofȱmoralȱreproofȱof
theȱcourtlyȱandȱchivalricȱexcessesȱofȱtheȱRoundȱTable;ȱtheȱfirstȱderivedȱlargelyȱfromȱtheȱTrentalle
SanciiȱGregorii,ȱwidelyȱcurrentȱinȱaȱnumberȱofȱMiddleȱEnglishȱversions,ȱwithȱadditionalȱdetails
fromȱotherȱdidacticȱworksȱinȱEnglish;ȱtheȱsecondȱapparentlyȱfreelyȱcomposed,ȱdrawingȱonȱthe
alliterativeȱMorteȱArthureȱforȱmanyȱmotifsȱofȱArthurianȱarroganceȱandȱonȱSirȱGawainȱandȱtheȱGreen
Knightȱforȱverbalȱand,ȱpossibly,ȱthematicȱsuggestions.”
2
ThomasȱHahn,ȱed.,ȱSirȱGawain:ȱElevenȱRomancesȱandȱTales,ȱ“Introduction:ȱTheȱAwntyrsȱoffȱArthur
(Kalamazoo,ȱMI:ȱTEAMSȱ[ConsortiumȱforȱtheȱTeachingȱofȱtheȱMiddleȱAges],ȱ1995),ȱ169–226;ȱhere
169.ȱ
590 JeanȱE.ȱJost
Partȱofȱthisȱliteraryȱexpertiseȱisȱevidencedȱinȱtheȱcreativeȱmanipulationȱofȱplaceȱin
contrastingȱepisodesȱwithinȱtheȱtale.ȱInȱfact,ȱdichotomiesȱbetweenȱthemȱresonate
throughout,ȱhighlightingȱbothȱpolaritiesȱofȱtheȱsupernaturalȱandȱtheȱchivalric,ȱthe
rusticȱandȱtheȱcivilized.ȱTheȱsettingȱofȱtheȱtwoȬpartȱAwntyrsȱoffȱArthureȱisȱbothȱrural
andȱ urban,ȱ displayingȱ supernatural,ȱ ethical,ȱ andȱ magical,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ physical,
dubiouslyȱ ethical,ȱ andȱ naturalȱ aspects.ȱ Theseȱ dualȱ settingsȱ functionȱ asȱ liminal
borderȱboundariesȱbetweenȱeachȱother:ȱtheȱwild,ȱruralȱterrainȱofȱhunting,ȱandȱthe
culturedȱurbaneȱplaceȱofȱtheȱcastle,ȱbeingȱsupernaturalȱandȱnaturalȱrespectively.
Interestingly,ȱbothȱlocationsȱpartakeȱofȱtheȱidyllicȱandȱtheȱmundane.ȱFurther,ȱas
Barronȱ pointsȱ out,ȱ “Theȱ Awntyrsȱ offȱ Arthureȱ (northȬwestȱ [England],ȱ c.ȱ 1400–30)
consistsȱofȱtwoȱepisodesȱonȱaȱcommonȱthemeȱofȱdisregardȱofȱselfȱandȱgenerosity
toȱothers,ȱinȱbothȱofȱwhichȱGawainȱactsȱasȱArthur’sȱsurrogate.”3ȱBothȱtheȱrural
regionȱofȱtheȱTarn,ȱonȱtheȱedgeȱofȱtheȱcourtȱsettlement,ȱandȱtheȱmoreȱpopulous
colonyȱofȱtheȱknightsȱitself,ȱencourageȱsuchȱinteractionȱandȱconcernȱforȱothers,ȱas
theȱseparateȱnarrativesȱconfirm.ȱ
Additionally,ȱaȱlistȱofȱoppositionsȱsuffuseȱtheȱtwoȱpartsȱvisȬàȬvisȱeachȱotherȱand
withinȱeachȱpart,ȱsuchȱas:ȱlightȱandȱdark,ȱwarmȱandȱcold,ȱlivingȱandȱdead,ȱwealth
andȱpoverty,ȱmonarchyȱandȱaristocracy,ȱmaterialȱfleshȱandȱsupernaturalȱspirit,
concreteȱandȱephemeral,ȱhabitationȱandȱvisitation,ȱwildȱandȱcivilized,ȱcontained
andȱexcessive,ȱprivationȱandȱnurture,ȱearthlyȱspaceȱandȱsupernaturalȱspaceȱbeyond
theȱgrave,ȱtensionȱandȱinterdependency,ȱpopularȱandȱchivalric,ȱconventionȱand
originality,ȱ andȱ contrastȱ andȱ complementarity.4ȱ Theseȱ collidingȱ dualisticȱ splits
betweenȱandȱwithinȱtheȱtwoȱpartsȱextendȱtoȱtheȱcharactersȱwithinȱeachȱasȱwellȱand
addȱ toȱ theȱ structuralȱ netȱ bindingȱ theȱ taleȱ together.ȱ Suchȱ radicallyȱ different
opposingȱcontextsȱandȱaurasȱcompoundȱandȱcomplicateȱtheȱrelationshipȱbetween
ruralȱandȱurbanȱspace.
InȱPartȱ1ȱofȱtheȱAwntyrsȱofȱArthure,5ȱfirstȱsetȱonȱtheȱidyllicȱhuntingȱgroundsȱof
Arthur’sȱestateȱnearȱtheȱ“Turnewathelane,”6ȱtheȱmarshyȱbogsȱofȱaȱremoteȱarea
3
R.ȱW.ȱJ.ȱBarron,ȱ“BrutteneȱDeorling:ȱAnȱArthurȱforȱEveryȱAge,”ȱTheȱFortunesȱofȱArthur,ȱed.ȱNorris
J.ȱLacy.ȱArthurianȱStudies,ȱLXIVȱ(Woodbridge:ȱD.ȱS.ȱBrewer,ȱ2005),ȱ47–65;ȱhereȱ61.
4
Theȱ complexityȱ ofȱ theȱ contentȱ isȱ trulyȱ remarkable,ȱ butȱ asȱ Derekȱ Brewerȱ alsoȱ suggests,ȱ “The
additionȱofȱrhymeȱtoȱtheȱunrhymedȱalliterativeȱlongȱlineȱofȱOldȱEnglishȱproducedȱaȱwholeȱrange
ofȱpoeticȱforms,ȱmanyȱofȱthemȱexceptionallyȱadvancedȱandȱcomplex,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱlongȬlineȱstanzaic
poemsȱ ȱ ofȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ ȱ Theȱ Awntyrsȱ offȱ ȱ Arthure.”ȱ Seeȱ “Theȱ Alliterativeȱ Revival:ȱ Originsȱ andȱ Social
Backgrounds,”ȱMiddleȱEnglishȱAlliterativeȱPoetryȱandȱItsȱLiteraryȱBackground:ȱSevenȱEssays,ȱed.ȱDavid
Lawtonȱ(Cambridge:ȱD.ȱS.ȱBrewer,ȱ1982),ȱ34–53;ȱhereȱ36.ȱ
5
AsȱKristaȱSueȬLoȱTwuȱpointsȱout,ȱthisȱpoemȱ“belongsȱtoȱaȱsetȱofȱlongȱmarginalizedȱtextsȱthatȱhave
receivedȱratherȱlessȱattentionȱthanȱtheirȱrhymed,ȱmetricalȱcontemporariesȱwithȱtheirȱmoreȱpatent
contiuitiesȱwithȱlaterȱEngishȱpoeticȱtradition.”ȱȱSeeȱherȱarticleȱ“TheȱAwntyrsȱoffȱArthureȱatȱtheȱTerne
Wathelyne:ȱReliquaryȱforȱRomance,”ȱArthurianȱLiteratureȱ20ȱ(2003):ȱ103–22;ȱhereȱ103.ȱȱ
6
SeveralȱcriticsȱhaveȱdiscussedȱplaceȱandȱpeopleȱnamesȱinȱthisȱScottishȱsetting,ȱamongȱthemȱSusan
AwntyrsȱoffȱArthureȱatȱtheȱTerneȱWathelyne 591
somewhatȱremovedȱfromȱcivilization,ȱplaceȱisȱinȱfactȱtheȱsubjectȱofȱtheȱnarrative
ofȱepisodeȱone.
InȱtheȱtymeȱofȱArthurȱaneȱaunterȱbyȬtydde
ByȱþeȱTurnewathelane—asȱþeȱbokeȱtelles
ȱ Whaneȱ heȱ toȱ Carleleȱ wasȱ comen,ȱ [that]ȱ conquerourȱkydde[famous].7
(ll.ȱ1–3)ȱ
AsȱSirȱFrederickȱMaddenȱcomments,ȱtheȱTurnewathelaneȱ“isȱstillȱtheȱnameȱofȱa
smallȱTarnȱorȱlakeȱofȱInglewoodȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱnearȱHeskethȱinȱCumberland.”8ȱAndrewȱR.
WalklingȱdescribesȱtheȱTarnȱWadlingȱasȱ“aȱnowȱdefunctȱlakeȱwidelyȱassociatedȱin
theȱMiddleȱAgesȱwithȱspectralȱapparitions.”9ȱThisȱmagicalȱlakeȱisȱtheȱfoundation
ofȱoneȱofȱtheȱthreeȱromanceȱsites.ȱ
ȱȱ
TheȱAwntyrsȱoffȱArthureȱoffersȱaȱratherȱcomplicatedȱrepresentationȱofȱruralȱspace
insofarȱasȱitȱencompassesȱvariousȱdegreesȱofȱrusticity.10ȱTheȱmostȱcourtly,ȱleast
ruralȱ Rondolesetteȱ Hallȱ isȱ inȱ populousȱ terrainȱ andȱ offersȱ theȱ comfortsȱ of
civilization.ȱ Theȱ moreȱ rural,ȱ evenȱ pastoral,ȱ areaȱ ofȱ theȱ huntȱ isȱ lusciousȱ and
sensuallyȱ evocativeȱ butȱ removedȱ fromȱ generalȱ civilization.11ȱ Theȱ battlefieldȱ is
lackingȱtheȱgraceȱandȱbeautyȱofȱtheȱhuntingȱgroundsȱbutȱapartȱfromȱtheȱcourt,
offersȱtheȱpenultimateȱdegreeȱofȱruralȱregion.ȱTheȱmostȱruralȱisȱtheȱunnatural,
isolated,ȱ andȱ griefȬwrenchingȱ Tarn,ȱ apartȱ fromȱ theȱ realȱ world,ȱ physicallyȱ and
psychologically.ȱ Althoughȱ theȱ ruralȱ spacesȱ areȱ notȱ introducedȱ inȱ decreasing
degreesȱofȱrusticity,ȱtheyȱeachȱrepresentȱaȱdifferentȱdegreeȱofȱrurality.
Kelly,ȱ “Placeȱ Namesȱ inȱ theȱ Awntyrsȱ offȱ Arthure,”ȱ Literaryȱ Onomasticsȱ Studiesȱ 6ȱ (1979),ȱ 162–99;
Rosamundȱ Allen,ȱ “PlaceȬNamesȱ inȱ Theȱ Awntyrsȱ offȱ Arthure:ȱ Corruption,ȱ Conjecture,ȱ and
Coincidence,”ȱ Arthurianȱ Studiesȱ inȱ Honorȱ ofȱ P.ȱ J.ȱ C.ȱ Field,ȱ ed.ȱ andȱ forword,ȱ Bonnieȱ Wheeler;
Introduction,ȱMargaretȱLocherbieȬCameronȱ(Cambridge:ȱD.ȱS.ȱBrewer,ȱ2004),ȱ181–98;ȱȱAndrew
Breeze,ȱȱ“TheȱAwntyrsȱoffȱArthure,ȱCaerphilly,ȱOysterlow,ȱandȱWexford,”ȱArthurianaȱ9.4ȱ(1999):ȱ
63–68;ȱȱandȱid.,ȱ“TheȱLadyȱBerykeȱandȱSirȱMenedukeȱinȱ“TheȱAwntyrsȱoffȱArthure,”ȱȱTransactions
ofȱtheȱCumberlandȱandȱWestmorlandȱAntiquaraianȱandȱArchaeologicalȱSocietyȱ100ȱ(2000):ȱ281–85.
7
ThisȱandȱsubsequentȱquotationsȱareȱtakenȱfromȱTheȱAwntyrsȱoffȱArthureȱatȱtheȱTerneȱWathelyne:ȱA
CriticalȱEdition,ȱed.ȱRobertȱGatesȱ(Philadelphia:ȱUniversityȱofȱPennsylvaniaȱPress,ȱ1969).
8
SirȱFredericȱMadden,ȱed.ȱSyrȱGawayne.ȱLondon,ȱ1839,ȱquotedȱinȱTheȱAwntyrsȱoffȱArthureȱatȱtheȱTerne
Wathelyneȱ(seeȱnoteȱ7),ȱ200.ȱn.ȱ2
9
AndrewȱR.ȱWalkling,ȱ“TheȱProblemȱofȱ‘RondolesetteȱHalle’ȱinȱtheȱAwntyrsȱoffȱArthure,”ȱStudiesȱin
Philologyȱ 100.2ȱ (2003):ȱ 105–22;ȱ hereȱ 105.ȱ ȱ Seeȱ alsoȱ R.ȱ C.ȱ Cox,ȱ “Tarnȱ Wadlingȱ andȱ Gervaseȱ of
Tilbury’sȱ‘Laikbrait’,”ȱFolkloreȱ85ȱ(1974):ȱ128–32,ȱwhichȱdiscussesȱtheȱauraȱsurroundingȱtheȱTarn
Wadling.
10
Similarly,ȱ inȱ herȱ contributionȱ toȱ theȱ presentȱ volumeȱ Pennyȱ Simonsȱ findsȱ thatȱ ruralȱ location
featuresȱmoreȱthanȱonce,ȱforȱsheȱnoticesȱaȱ“doubleȱmoveȱfromȱcourtlyȱtoȱruralȱspaceȱandȱback
again”ȱinȱtheȱfabliauȱworldȱofȱcultureȱandȱsubversion.ȱ
11
ForȱaȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱecocriticalȱandȱpastoralȱelementsȱinȱWaltherȱvonȱderȱVogelweide,ȱsee
ChristopherȱClason’sȱcontributionȱandȱAlbrechtȱClassen’sȱIntroductionȱtoȱthisȱvolume.
592 JeanȱE.ȱJost
Oneȱday,ȱArthurȱandȱhisȱcompanionsȱrepairȱtoȱtheȱslopingȱhillsȱandȱvalleysȱof
theȱregionȱtoȱslayȱtheȱdoeȱinȱtheȱenclosedȱforest,ȱinȱtheȱridgesȱofȱtheȱwoods.ȱInȱthis
naturalȱterritory,ȱapartȱfromȱtheirȱregalȱlivingȱquarters,ȱQueenȱGaynourȱonȱaȱwhite
muleȱ isȱ deckedȱ outȱ inȱ royalȱ ribbons,ȱ preciousȱ rubies,ȱ sapphiresȱ andȱ jewelsȱ of
magicalȱimport,ȱandȱqueenlyȱattireȱtoȱsetȱtheȱtoneȱofȱtheȱenvironment;ȱextravagant,
luxuriousȱbeautyȱisȱofȱbothȱnaturalȱandȱartificialȱtypes.ȱSheȱisȱaccompaniedȱbyȱthe
wellȬhorsedȱSirȱGawayne,ȱequallyȱwellȱattiredȱwithinȱtheȱsameȱnaturalȱlandscape,
whereȱtheyȱwillȱsoonȱbecomeȱseparatedȱfromȱtheȱhuntingȱparty,ȱdissociatedȱfrom
otherȱhumanȱbeings.ȱTheȱinitialȱfocusȱisȱonȱtheȱreal,ȱconcrete,ȱactual,ȱpresentȱland
andȱ whatȱ itȱ mysteriouslyȱ becomes,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ whatȱ thisȱ newlyȱ magicalȱ space
revealsȱtoȱtheȱawestruckȱDameȱGaynourȱandȱSirȱGawayne.ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
Theȱcoupleȱshareȱaȱconcreteȱaffiliationȱwithȱtheȱwateryȱmarshland:ȱ“Heȱladdeȱþat
ladyȱsoȱlongȱbyȱthatȱlogheȱ[lakeȱ/ȱpond]ȱsides”ȱ(31).ȱThisȱlakeȱrecallsȱtheȱopposing
dangerousȱwatersȱofȱtheȱWheelȱofȱFortune,ȱwithȱitsȱnippingȱmonstersȱandȱdevilish
reptiles,ȱ andȱ theȱ lifeȬrenewingȱ watersȱ ofȱ theȱ Ladyȱ ofȱ theȱ Lake’sȱ habitat.ȱ The
narrativeȱitselfȱopensȱwhenȱ“Oneȱaȱdayȱþeiȱhemȱ[GawayneȱandȱtheȱQueen]ȱdighte
[preparedȱtoȱgo]ȱtoȱþeȱdepeȱdelles”ȱ(1.6)ȱnearȱtheȱTarn.ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
Whenȱtheyȱenterȱtheȱgatesȱbyȱtheȱgreenȱwell,ȱtheyȱleaveȱidyllicȱcivilizationȱand
enterȱfairyȱterritory,ȱaȱlandȱofȱfrighteningȱmagicalȱrealism;ȱbutȱbeingȱsomewhat
remote,ȱotherȱknightsȱwillȱnotȱbeȱprivyȱtoȱitsȱmysteries.ȱUnderȱnature’sȱboughsȱin
thisȱ liminalȱ spaceȱ betweenȱ theȱ courtȱ andȱ theȱ Tarn,ȱ whereȱ knightsȱ mightȱ hear
huntingȱhornsȱandȱbeholdȱsightsȱinȱbare,ȱhoaryȱgroves,ȱ“Þeiȱkestȱofȱhereȱcouples
[pairsȱ ofȱ dogs]ȱ inȱ cliffesȱ soȱ colde”ȱ (44).ȱ Theȱ immediateȱ experienceȱ before
encounteringȱtheȱTarnȱisȱveryȱsensory.ȱTheȱdeerȱlieȱstillȱinȱtheȱthicketȱcoweringȱfor
dreadȱofȱdeathȱbyȱtheȱstrongȱstream;ȱtheyȱwageȱwarȱinȱtheȱwildȱandȱcreateȱmisery.
Theȱhuntersȱshoutȱnoisilyȱamidstȱtheȱbrightȱcolorsȱandȱgreenȱgrovesȱasȱtheȱking
blowsȱhisȱhorn,ȱfollowingȱonȱtheȱtrackȱwithȱhisȱmen.ȱTheȱhighȱactivityȱlevel,ȱloud
sounds,ȱsplashingȱcolors,ȱandȱwarmȱtemperaturesȱestablishȱandȱmarkȱtheȱspace;
itsȱintensityȱforeshadowsȱbutȱalsoȱcontrastsȱtheȱfollowingȱscene.
Byȱaȱmagicalȱlaurel,ȱDameȱGaynourȱandȱGawayneȱretireȱamidȱgreenȱleavesȱand
groves,ȱnowȱfullyȱimmersedȱinȱtheȱTarnȱenvironsȱand,ȱtoȱtheirȱsurprise,ȱwitnessȱan
unexpectedȱmarvel.ȱItsȱintroductionȱoccursȱas
Theȱdayȱwexȱalsȱdirkeȱ
Alsȱhitȱwereȱmydni˄teȱmyrkeȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ
Thusȱtoȱfoteȱarȱþeiȱfarene,ȱþesȱfrekesȱvnfayneȱ[reluctant],ȱ
Andȱfleeneȱfroȱþeȱforestȱtoȱþeȱfaweȱfelleȱ[variegatedȱhill];
Thayȱraneȱfasteȱtoȱtheȱrochesȱ[rocks]ȱforȱreddoureȱ[hardship]ȱofȱþeȱrayne,
Forȱ þeȱ snitterandȱ snaweȱ þatȱ snayppedeȱ þameȱ soȱ snelleȱ [quickly].ȱ
(75–76;ȱ79–82)
Theȱweatherȱhasȱmysteriouslyȱtransformedȱthisȱlocusȱfromȱaȱwarm,ȱbright,ȱsunny
Mayȱhabitationȱtoȱaȱcold,ȱraining,ȱsleetingȱdarknessȱofȱisolation.ȱTheȱidyllicȱplace
ofȱtheȱhuntȱoutsideȱtheȱcastleȱhallȱsuddenlyȱbecomesȱaȱharshȱandȱfearfulȱrural
spaceȱ ofȱ desolation.ȱ Surprisingly,ȱ onlyȱ Gaynourȱ andȱ Gawayneȱ experienceȱ this
alternateȱreality—aȱspectacleȱofȱdeath,ȱaȱvisionȱfreedȱfromȱsocialȱconstraints.ȱAs
AlbrechtȱClassenȱnotesȱofȱWaltherȱvonȱderȱVogelweide’sȱ“Underȱderȱlinden”ȱinȱhis
contributionȱtoȱthisȱvolume,ȱinȱsuchȱruralȱspace,ȱ“theȱlocationȱ wasȱfarȱenough
awayȱfromȱsocietyȱtoȱguaranteeȱsomeȱkindȱofȱprivacy.”12ȱSimilarlyȱhere,ȱthoughȱin
aȱreversedȱorder,ȱtheȱdramaticȱwizardryȱofȱtheȱruralȱspaceȱbeginsȱasȱaȱsupernatural
marvelȱandȱconvertsȱtheȱnaturalȱenvirons:ȱtheȱmorningȱdaylightȱturnsȱtoȱevening
darkness;ȱtheȱdryȱwarmȱMayȱmorningȱwitnessesȱaȱwet,ȱcoldȱsnowstorm.ȱThen,ȱout
ofȱtheȱlakeȱmaterializesȱanȱunexpectedȱ supernaturalȱphantomȱinȱtheȱformȱofȱa
humanȱ skeleton—bothȱ nonȬhumanȱ andȱ human—“Inȱ theȱ lyknesȱ ofȱ Lucyfere,
layethesteȱ[mostȱloathsome]ȱinȱhelle”ȱ(84)ȱovertakingȱtheȱpair.ȱItȱpresentsȱaȱstriking
contrastȱtoȱtheȱnobleȱcouple.ȱAsȱHahnȱpointsȱout,ȱthisȱshockingȱ“‘adventure’ȱof
Awntrys,ȱitsȱencounterȱwithȱtheȱalien,ȱtakesȱtheȱformȱofȱaȱgothicȱfantasy:ȱaȱghost
describedȱinȱscreechingȱandȱgrotesqueȱdetail.”13ȱTheȱthreateningȱapparitionȱthen
glidesȱtowardȱSyrȱGawayneȱ“þeȱgatesȱtoȱgayne”ȱ(85).ȱ
Theȱ encroachingȱ specterȱ huntsȱ theȱ pairȱ inȱ thisȱ placeȱ asȱ theȱ huntersȱ didȱ the
vulnerableȱdeer.ȱToȱthisȱfrightfulȱsightȱisȱaddedȱtheȱsoundȱofȱterrorȱmimickingȱthat
ofȱanimalsȱofȱprey:ȱ“˄aulandȱandȱ˄omerandȱ[howlingȱandȱlamenting]ȱwithȱmany
aȱlowdȱ˄elle”ȱ(86)ȱthisȱfigureȱscreeches,ȱmuchȱlikeȱArthur’sȱhornȬblowingȱatȱthe
deer.ȱTheȱterrorȱenvelopesȱandȱtransportsȱtheȱpairȱtoȱaȱnewȱrealityȱatȱanotherȱlocus
asȱtheȱghostlyȱcreatureȱcontinues:ȱ
Hitȱ˄aulesȱ[yowls],ȱhitȱ˄ameresȱ[laments],ȱwithȱwongesȱ[cheeks]
ȱ fulȱwete
Andȱseidȱwitheȱsikingȱsareȱ[sighingȱwithȱsorrow]:
“Iȱ baneȱ þeȱ bodyȱ meȱ bare.ȱ [Iȱ curseȱ theȱ bodyȱ thatȱ boreȱ me];ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
Alas!ȱNowȱkindelesȱ[isȱaroused]ȱmyȱcare,ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
Iȱgloppenȱ[fear]ȱandȱIȱgreteȱ[cry]!”ȱ (87–91)
DameȱGaynour’sȱresponseȱisȱpredictablyȱhuman—sheȱfearedȱandȱweptȱforȱbeing
inȱthisȱthreateningȱinhumanȱplace,ȱbeggedȱGawayne’sȱȱadvice,ȱandȱcalledȱother
knightsȱdiscourteousȱforȱabandoningȱherȱtoȱtheȱmostȱhideousȱghostȱthatȱsheȱever
heardȱ cryȱ out—worseȱ thanȱ theȱ huntingȱ horns—onȱ herȱ deathȱ day.ȱ Gawayne
advisesȱherȱtoȱgrieveȱtheȱghostȱnoȱmore,ȱforȱheȱwillȱlearnȱherȱissues,ȱwhatȱmay
12
SeeȱAlbrechtȱClassen’sȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱonȱtheȱgreatȱGermanȱpoetȱWaltherȱvonȱder
Vogelweideȱwhereȱheȱnotesȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱruralȱdistanceȱfromȱcivilizationȱinȱthatȱpoet’sȱwork.ȱ
13
ThomasȱHahn,ȱ“Introduction,”ȱAwntyrsȱoffȱArthureȱ(seeȱnoteȱ2),ȱ169.
594 JeanȱE.ȱJost
relieveȱtheȱgriefsȱofȱthisȱstarklyȱbareȱskeleton,ȱandȱpresumablyȱhowȱtoȱreverseȱthe
threateningȱnatureȱofȱthisȱplace.
Meanwhile,ȱ asȱ thisȱ ghastlyȱ figureȱ glidesȱ closerȱ toȱ theȱ pair,ȱ itsȱ savageȱ sounds
increaseȱandȱitsȱhorrifyingȱsightȱbecomesȱmoreȱappalling.ȱTheȱspectreȱestablishes
theȱ hideous,ȱ frightfulȱ spaceȱ itȱ inhabits,ȱ derivedȱ fromȱ theȱ dreadedȱ placeȱ from
whenceȱitȱcomes,ȱhowȱitȱlooks,ȱandȱhowȱitȱsounds.ȱ
Bareȱwasȱþeȱbodyȱandȱblakeȱtoȱþeȱbone,
ȱȱ AlȱbiȬclaggedȱinȱclay,ȱvncomlyȱcladde;
Hitȱwariedȱ[cursed],ȱhitȱwaymentȱ[wailed]ȱasȱaȱwomane
Butȱonȱhideȱ[skin]ȱneȱonȱhuweȱ[color]ȱnoȱhelingȱhitȱhadde;
Hitȱstemeredȱ[staggered],ȱhitȱstonaydeȱ[isȱastounded],ȱhitȱstodeȱasȱaȱstoneȱ
Hitȱmarredȱ[wasȱconfused],ȱhitȱmemeredȱ[stammered],ȱhitȱmusedȱ
[stared]ȱforȱmadde.ȱ(105–10)ȱ
Theseȱextremeȱemotionalȱresponsesȱfromȱtheȱspiritȱaddȱtoȱtheȱclimateȱofȱunreality,
theȱunearthlyȱfeelingȱofȱanȱunnaturalȱplace,ȱasȱherȱ snakyȱhairȱraves,ȱherȱvoice
screeches,ȱherȱbareȱskeletalȱbodyȱstartles,ȱandȱherȱcharredȱblackȱbonesȱfrighten.ȱA
toadȱsitsȱmenacinglyȱonȱherȱhead,ȱandȱherȱsunkenȱeyesȱglowȱasȱburningȱembers.
Encircledȱwithȱserpents,ȱsheȱseemsȱanȱinhumanȱreflectionȱofȱaȱmenacingȱghost.
Evenȱtheȱgreyhoundsȱfearȱherȱgrimȱnoise,ȱandȱtheȱbirdsȱtrembleȱatȱherȱshrieksȱas
herȱ glowingȱ shadowȱ coversȱ them.ȱ Allȱ natureȱ hasȱ turnedȱ fromȱ thisȱ unnatural
monstrosity.ȱ Theȱ mysticalȱ tarnȱ hasȱ magicallyȱ incubatedȱ thisȱ staggering,
stammeringȱfiendȱfromȱpurgatory,ȱleadingȱGawayneȱtoȱcallȱonȱChrist,ȱandȱinquire
ofȱtheȱphantom:”whyȱþouȱwalkestȱþeseȱwayesȱþeȱwodesȱwithȬin?”ȱ(136).ȱ
Inȱresponse,ȱtheȱapparitionȱrevealsȱherȱmonstrousȱtransformation:ȱsheȱonceȱhad
faceȱandȱfigureȱ“fairestȱofȱalle”ȱ(137),ȱwasȱchristenedȱandȱbaptized,ȱandȱkinȱof
kingsȱknownȱtoȱbeȱstrong.ȱSheȱthenȱadmitsȱwhyȱsheȱappearedȱtoȱthemȱunderȱthis
supernaturalȱaspect,ȱtheȱonlyȱoneȱatȱherȱdisposal:ȱ“Iȱameȱcomeneȱinȱþisȱcaceȱ/ȱTo
spekeȱwithȱyoureȱqueen”ȱ(142–43).ȱTheȱcontrastȱinȱphysicalȱandȱemotionalȱlociȱis
startling:ȱ powerful,ȱ beautiful,ȱ andȱ livelyȱ warmȱ Mayȱ sunshine—butȱ perhaps
shallowȱsensation—isȱpittedȱagainstȱpowerless,ȱugly,ȱdeathlyȱdark,ȱcold,ȱsnowȬ
paintedȱenvirons—butȱhousingȱdeepȱsignificance.ȱGaynour’sȱmotherȱpresentsȱyet
anotherȱcontrast:ȱnotȱmerelyȱselfȬinterest,ȱredemptionȱtoȱsaveȱherȱsoul,ȱbutȱaȱstate
ofȱgenerosityȱtowardȱtheȱcourtȱ(includingȱherȱdaughter)ȱandȱtheȱpoorȱforȱtheirȱown
sake;ȱ heedingȱ herȱ willȱ preventȱ theȱ uglyȱ deathȱ Gaynourȱ mightȱ otherwiseȱ be
doomedȱtoȱendure.ȱ
TheȱhorrificȱghostȱnowȱconcedesȱsheȱwasȱonceȱherselfȱaȱQueen,ȱbrighterȱthan
most,ȱ “Gretterȱ þeneȱ Dameȱ Gaynour”ȱ (147).ȱ Sheȱ onceȱ oversawȱ treasure,ȱ gold,
palaces,ȱparks,ȱponds,ȱplows,ȱtowns,ȱtowers,ȱcastles,ȱcountries,ȱcrags,ȱandȱravines.
Sheȱheldȱaȱplaceȱofȱpowerȱandȱdignity.ȱNowȱthrownȱoutȱofȱherȱluxuriousȱhouse,
caughtȱandȱenclosedȱinȱaȱmostȱincommodiousȱplaceȱofȱputrefyingȱclay,ȱsheȱnotes
whatȱdeathȱhasȱdoneȱtoȱher,ȱandȱbegsȱ“Leteȱmeȱonysȱhaueȱaȱsighteȱ/ȱOfȱGaynour
þeȱgay”ȱ(155–56).ȱHerȱnextȱwordsȱrevealsȱherȱidentityȱasȱGaynour’sȱmother:ȱ“Lo!
Howȱdelfulȱdetheȱhasȱþiȱdameȱdi˄te!ȱ[used]”ȱ(160).ȱSuchȱaȱsupernaturalȱrevelation,
Gaynour’sȱmotherȱrisingȱfromȱtheȱdead,ȱconvertsȱtheȱplaceȱofȱtheirȱconcourse,
alreadyȱremovedȱfromȱlocalȱcivilization,ȱtoȱanȱunnatural,ȱshocking,ȱmystical,ȱand
psychologicallyȱisolatedȱlocus.ȱSheȱadmitsȱherȱstate,ȱmoaning:ȱ
NowȱIȱamȱaȱgracelesȱgostȱandȱgrislyȱIȱgrone;
WitheȱLucyferȱinȱaȱlakeȱlo˄ȱ[low]ȱamȱIȱlighteȱ[fallen].ȱ
ThusȱamȱIȱlykeȱtoȱLucefere,ȱtakisȱwitnesȱbyȱmee:ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
Forȱalȱþiȱfressheȱforoureȱ[furredȱgarments]ȱ
Museȱoneȱmyȱmirrour.ȱ (163–67)ȱ
Oneȱ thinksȱ ofȱ Christopherȱ Marlowe’sȱ Dr.ȱ Faustusȱ whoseȱ devilȱ Mephistophilisȱ
admits,ȱ“Whyȱthisȱisȱhell,ȱnorȱamȱIȱoutȱofȱit”ȱ(sceneȱiii,ȱl.ȱ80),14ȱfusingȱseemingly
oppositeȱrealms.ȱHerȱmessageȱtoȱherȱdaughterȱGaynourȱisȱtoȱrecognizeȱwhatȱmight
happenȱtoȱoneȱofȱtheȱphantom’sȱpriorȱstatus,ȱaȱkinglyȱrulerȱandȱemperor,ȱ and
avoidȱtheȱpitfallsȱwhichȱledȱherȱtoȱthisȱpitȱofȱdespair:ȱ“þusȱdetheȱwilȱ˄ouȱdi˄te
[treat],ȱthareȱyouȱnotȱdoute”ȱ(170).ȱAsȱHahnȱcomments,ȱtheȱspectreȱ“suffersȱnow
forȱtheȱhiddenȱsinsȱofȱtheȱfleshȱsheȱcommittedȱonȱearth.ȱTheȱghostȱlamentsȱtheȱsplit
withinȱherȱownȱlife,ȱbetweenȱaȱbrilliant,ȱsplendidȱappearanceȱandȱaȱfetidȱinner
corruption.”15ȱ
Thisȱ dichotomyȱ wellȱ reflectsȱ theȱ splitȱ betweenȱ naturalȱ courtȱ chivalryȱ and
unnaturalȱruralȱdesolation.ȱHence,ȱ theȱpastȱandȱ theȱpresent,ȱtheȱouterȱandȱthe
inner,ȱtheȱsplendidȱandȱfetidȱareȱjuxtaposed,ȱbutȱpotentiallyȱlinkedȱifȱcareȱisȱnot
taken.ȱTheȱphantomȱinsistsȱthatȱherȱdaughterȱtakeȱheedȱwhileȱonȱthisȱ locusȱof
earth,ȱwhenȱsheȱisȱarrayedȱrichlyȱandȱridesȱinȱcompany,ȱto:ȱ
Haueȱpiteȱoneȱþeȱpoerȱwhilȱþouȱartȱofȱpowereȱȱ.ȱ.ȱ.
Wheneȱþiȱbodyȱisȱbamedȱ[embalmed]ȱandȱbrou˄teȱonȱaȱbere
Thaneȱwilleȱþayȱleueȱ[leave]ȱtheȱlyghtelyȱ[unconcerned]ȱþatȱnowȱȱwillȱ
þeȱlouteȱ[bowȱto]ȱ
(173–76)
Inȱotherȱwords,ȱdeathȱchangesȱeverything:ȱhowȱoneȱbehavesȱbeforeȱdeathȱwill
determineȱwhatȱhappensȱafter,ȱandȱsycophantsȱwillȱleaveȱyou.ȱTheȱplaceȱofȱthe
afterlifeȱisȱestablishedȱbyȱbehaviorȱinȱtheȱpreviousȱlife.ȱTherefore,ȱfulfillingȱthe
14
TheȱProjectȱGutenbergȱEbookȱofȱTheȱTragicalȱHistoryȱofȱDoctorȱFaustusȱfromȱTheȱQuartoȱofȱ1604,
byȱChristopherȱMarlowe,ȱedȱTheȱReverendȱAlexanderȱDyce.ȱwww.gutenberg.org/files/779Ȭh/779Ȭ
h.htmȱ (lastȱ accessedȱ onȱ Nov.ȱ 7,ȱ 2011);ȱ seeȱ alsoȱ Renaissanceȱ Drama:ȱ Anȱ Anthologyȱ ofȱ Playsȱ and
Entertainmentsȱ(Malden,ȱMA,ȱȱandȱOxford:ȱBlackwellȱPublishingȱCo,ȱ1999,ȱ120ff.ȱ
15
ThomasȱHahn,ȱ“Introduction,”ȱAwntyrsȱoffȱArthureȱ(seeȱnoteȱ2),ȱ169ȱ.
596 JeanȱE.ȱJost
injunctionȱtoȱgiveȱtoȱtheȱpoorȱwillȱhaveȱlaterȱramifications—itȱwillȱdecideȱone’s
permanentȱlocus.ȱThenȱitȱwillȱbeȱtooȱlateȱtoȱactȱdifferently,ȱgenerously,ȱbecauseȱ
Forȱþeneȱþeȱhelpesȱnoȱþingȱbutȱholyȱpraiere.ȱ
Þeȱpraiereȱofȱþeȱpoerȱmayȱpurchasȱþeȱpes;ȱ
Ofȱthatȱþouȱyeuesȱ[yelling]ȱatȱþiȱyeteȱ(gate),ȱ
Whenȱþouȱartȱsetȱinȱþiȱsete,ȱ
Withȱalȱmerthesȱ[mirths]ȱatȱmeteȱ[dinner],ȱ
Andȱdayntesȱinȱdesȱ[dias].ȱ (177–81)ȱ
Evenȱworse,ȱtheȱsupernaturalȱapparitionȱdwellsȱinȱdangerȱandȱsorrow,ȱnastyȱand
needy,ȱnakedȱatȱnight,ȱandȱfollowedȱbyȱaȱhostȱofȱfiendsȱfromȱHell,ȱrudelyȱhurling
her,ȱpromisingȱtoȱharmȱher.ȱSheȱuttersȱ“InȱbrasȱandȱinȱbrymstoneȱIȱbreneȱasȱa
belle”ȱ(188).ȱAȱsadderȱcreatureȱwasȱneverȱwroughtȱinȱtheȱworld—tooȱhardȱforȱany
tongueȱtoȱtellȱherȱtorment!ȱHerȱfinalȱwarningȱisȱto
Thenkȱhertilyȱonȱþisȱ
Fondeȱ[Try]ȱtoȱmendeȱthyȱmys,
Thouȱartȱwarnedȱywys,ȱ
Bewareȱbyȱmyȱwo!ȱ (192–95)ȱ
GaynourȱisȱmovedȱbyȱthisȱeyeȬglowing,ȱmouthȬscreeching,ȱsnakeȬinfestedȱskeletal
creatureȱandȱtheȱenvironmentȱȱsheȱcarriesȱwithȱher.ȱTheȱephemeralȱspaceȱisȱwild,
mysterious,ȱsupernatural,ȱdevilish,ȱthreatening,ȱandȱallȬencompassing,ȱdistressful
toȱanyoneȱpassingȱthroughȱitsȱaura.ȱPatriciaȱClareȱInghamȱsuggests:ȱ
Theȱpoet’sȱdescriptionȱofȱtheȱawfulȱbodyȱofȱtheȱghostȱofȱGuinevere’sȱmother—aȱbody
thatȱseems,ȱinȱtheȱvividnessȱofȱtheȱdescription,ȱconsiderablyȱmoreȱsubstantialȱaȱhorror
thanȱitsȱstatusȱasȱghostȱwouldȱsuggest—ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱtheȱsignȱofȱaȱhorrific,ȱandȱisolatedȱfuture
bornȱfromȱsinȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱtheȱblackenedȱpurgatorialȱghostȱofȱTheȱAwntyrsȱoffȱArthureȱ[was]ȱonce
beautifulȱbutȱȱterriblyȱtransformedȱthroughȱsexualȱcorruptionȱandȱinfidelity.16ȱ
Facedȱ withȱ thisȱ appallingȱ settingȱ encompassingȱ herȱ ownȱ mother,ȱ theȱ Queen
expressesȱherȱcompassion,ȱandȱasksȱwhatȱsheȱcanȱdoȱforȱher:ȱ
“Woȱisȱmeȱforȱþiȱwo,”ȱquodȱWaynour,ȱ“yȬwys,ȱ
ButȱoneȱþingȱwoldȱIȱwiteȱifȱþiȱwilȱware:”ȱ (196–97)ȱ
Canȱmatinsȱorȱmassesȱcureȱherȱanguish,ȱorȱanyȱworldlyȱgoods?ȱWouldȱbishops’
prayersȱ bringȱ herȱ toȱ bliss?ȱ Orȱ mightȱ bodiesȱ ofȱ monksȱ inȱ cloistersȱ relieveȱ her
anguish?ȱGaynourȱlooksȱtoȱsupernaturalȱspacesȱtoȱresolveȱherȱmother’sȱphysically
debilitatingȱhabitation.ȱTheȱenvironmentȱisȱsoȱhorrificȱthatȱsheȱevenȱdoubtsȱthe
identityȱofȱthisȱfiendishȱghost:ȱ
16
PatriciaȱClareȱIngham,ȱSovereignȱFantasies:ȱArthurianȱRomanceȱandȱtheȱMakingȱofȱBritain.ȱTheȱMiddle
AgesȱSeriesȱ(Philadelphia:ȱUniversityȱofȱPennsylvaniaȱPress,ȱ2001),ȱ184,ȱ183.
Ifȱþouȱbeȱmyȱmoderȱgreteȱwonderȱhitȱisȱ
Thatȱalȱþiȱburlyȱ[stately]ȱbodyȱisȱbroughtȱtoȱbeȱsoȱbare!ȱ(202–03)ȱ
PhilippaȱTristramȱnotesȱtheȱinfrequencyȱofȱthisȱsituation,ȱstatingȱ“Itȱisȱveryȱrareȱto
findȱtheȱmacabreȱinȱArthurianȱromanceȱatȱanyȱdate;ȱthereȱisȱoneȱexceptionȱinȱThe
Awyntyrsȱ offȱ Arthure,ȱ whereȱ aȱ walkingȱ corpseȱ reversesȱ aȱ courtlyȱ hunt.”17ȱ The
ghostlyȱfigureȱrepliesȱhonestlyȱthatȱsheȱisȱsufferingȱlegitimateȱpunishment,ȱforȱ“I
brakeȱaȱsolempneȱaȬvow”ȱ(205),ȱaȱfactȱnowȱknownȱonlyȱtoȱGaynour.ȱPresumably
theȱvowȱsheȱbrokeȱwasȱherȱmaritalȱvow,ȱanȱimplicitȱwarningȱtoȱGaynourȱnotȱtoȱdo
theȱsame.ȱByȱtheȱtokenȱofȱherȱadmission,ȱandȱtheȱsights,ȱsounds,ȱandȱsmellsȱofȱthis
place,ȱ canȱ sheȱ knowȱ herȱ mother,ȱ soȱ transformedȱ fromȱ herȱ earthlyȱ state.ȱ The
sympatheticȱdaughter,ȱobviouslyȱshakenȱbyȱtheȱexperienceȱofȱthisȱsupernatural
field,ȱasksȱwhatȱsheȱcanȱdoȱtoȱalleviateȱthisȱsufferingȱofȱ“þeȱbalefulȱ[harmful]ȱbestes
þatȱoneȱþiȱbodyȱbitesȱ/ȱAlleȱblendisȱ[stirred]ȱmyȱblode—thiȱbleeȱ[complexion]ȱes
soȱblake!”ȱ(211–12).ȱ
Gaynour’sȱemotionalȱlocusȱhasȱbeenȱchangedȱuponȱmeetingȱanȱotherworldly
phantomȱdiscoveredȱtoȱbeȱherȱcharredȱmotherȱfromȱpurgatory:ȱsheȱhasȱmoved
fromȱaȱstateȱofȱcomplacencyȱtoȱaȱstateȱofȱgreatȱsorrowȱandȱempathy.ȱTheȱfrightful
visitorȱboldlyȱdivulgesȱherȱsinsȱofȱ“lufȱparamour,ȱlistesȱ[lusts],ȱandȱdelitesȱ/ȱÞatȱhas
meȱli˄teȱ[lie]ȱandȱlengeȱ[stay]ȱlo˄ȱinȱaȱlake”ȱ(213–14).ȱWeȱnowȱknowȱtheȱwho,ȱwhat,
when,ȱwhere,ȱandȱwhyȱofȱthisȱpatheticȱfiend,ȱhauntedȱbyȱtheȱwildȱwormsȱcausing
herȱ destruction.ȱ Sheȱ isȱ inȱ aȱ placeȱ ofȱ physicalȱ andȱ emotionalȱ desperationȱ and
despair,ȱdrawnȱtoȱseekȱaȱremedyȱthroughȱherȱdaughterȱwhoȱlivesȱinȱaȱplaceȱwith
accessȱtoȱrestitution.ȱWhenȱGaynourȱasksȱhowȱtoȱremoveȱherȱmotherȱfromȱthis
placeȱofȱpainȱandȱanguish,ȱtheȱphantomȱbegsȱforȱ“thrittyȱtrentales”ȱbetweenȱmidȬ
morningȱandȱnoonȱtoȱreleaseȱherȱsoulȱfromȱsufferingȱandȱbringȱherȱtoȱbliss.ȱThe
dutifulȱdaughterȱpromisesȱ“aȱmyllioneȱofȱmasses”ȱ(236),ȱwhileȱacknowledgingȱthe
corporalȱworkȱofȱmercyȱtoȱfeedȱtheȱhungryȱasȱwell:ȱ
Toȱ mendeȱ [cure]ȱ vsȱ withȱ massesȱ greteȱ mysterȱ [need]ȱ hitȱ were;ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
Forȱhimȱþatȱrestȱonȱþeȱrodeȱ[cross],
Gyfȱfastȱofȱþiȱgoode
17
PhilippaȱTristram,ȱFiguresȱofȱLifeȱandȱDeathȱinȱMedievalȱEnglishȱLiteratureȱ(1976;ȱPlymouth:ȱLatimer
Trendȱ&ȱCompanyȱLtd.,ȱ1976),ȱ188,ȱn.ȱ22.ȱPerhapsȱanotherȱexampleȱofȱȱtheȱmacabreȱwouldȱbe
MarieȱDeȱFrance’sȱBisclavret.ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱmostȱamazingȱcasesȱofȱhellishȱprojectionsȱinȱtheȱStyrian
poetȱHeinrichȱvonȱdemȱTürlin’sȱDiuȱCrône,ȱhereȱcitedȱfromȱTheȱCrown:ȱAȱTaleȱofȱSirȱGaweinȱandȱKing
Arthur’sȱCourt,ȱtrans.ȱandȱwithȱanȱintrod.ȱbyȱJ.ȱW.ȱThomasȱ(LincolnȱandȱLondon:ȱUniversityȱof
NebraskaȱPress,ȱ1989);ȱseeȱAlbrechtȱClassen,ȱ“TheȱLiteraryȱPuzzleȱofȱHeinrichȱvonȱdemȱTürlin’s
DiuȱCrône:ȱSeenȱfromȱaȱPostmodernȱPerspective,”ȱMichiganȱGermanicȱStudiesȱ24.2ȱ(1998,ȱpublished
inȱ 2000):ȱ 111–28;ȱ id.ȱ “Selfȱ andȱ Otherȱ inȱ theȱ Arthurianȱ World:ȱ Heinrichȱ vonȱ demȱ Türlin’sȱ
‘Wunderketten,’”ȱMonatshefteȱ96.1ȱ(2004):ȱ20–39.
598 JeanȱE.ȱJost
Toȱfolkeȱþatȱfaileneȱþeȱfode,ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
Whileȱþouȱartȱhere.ȱ (230–34)ȱ
AȱtransformedȱGaynourȱseemsȱcognizantȱofȱherȱresponsibilities,ȱreadyȱtoȱperform
them,ȱ andȱawareȱthatȱonlyȱwhileȱ“here”ȱonȱearthȱisȱthatȱdutyȱpossible.ȱToȱher
partingȱquestionȱ“whatȱangersȱGodȱtheȱmost?”ȱsheȱlearnsȱtheȱanswerȱisȱprideȱand
belongings,ȱwhichȱbearȱbitterȱboughs,ȱthatȱmakeȱmenȱbreakȱtheȱcommandments,
andȱloseȱtheirȱhappiness.ȱUnlessȱtheyȱareȱsavedȱofȱtheirȱsorrowȱbeforeȱleavingȱthis
mortalȱworld,ȱtheyȱmustȱknowȱpainȱandȱcare.ȱWhenȱGaynourȱasksȱwhatȱprayers
toȱsay,ȱsheȱisȱtoldȱtoȱfollowȱvirtue,ȱbutȱalsoȱtoȱrememberȱtheȱ transienceȱofȱher
earthlyȱhabitation:ȱ
Mekenesseȱandȱmercy,ȱþesȱarneȱþeȱmoost,
Haueȱpiteȱoneȱþeȱpoer,ȱþatȱplesesȱheuenȱking;ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
Siþeneȱchariteȱisȱchef,ȱandȱthenȱisȱchaste,
AndȱþeneȱalmesseȬdedeȱaureȱalȱoþerȱþingȱ.ȱ.ȱ.
Holdȱþeseȱwordesȱinȱhert;ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
Þouȱshalȱleveȱ[live]ȱbutȱaȱstertȱ[moment],
Heþeneȱ[Hence]ȱshalȱþouȱfare.ȱ (250–53;ȱ258–60)
Sheȱ hasȱ beenȱ introducedȱ toȱ theȱ placeȱ ofȱ virtue,ȱ aȱ stateȱ theȱ phantomȱ hasȱ not
attained.ȱSheȱisȱwarnedȱtoȱfollowȱitsȱtenetsȱlestȱherȱmother’sȱstateȱbecomeȱhers.
Theȱplaceȱofȱtheȱghostlyȱphantomȱisȱalsoȱoneȱofȱmagicȱandȱprophecy,ȱdoomȱand
gloom.ȱGawayneȱtheȱwarrior,ȱnotȱobliviousȱtoȱthisȱghost’sȱpatheticȱstate,ȱnowȱseeks
adviceȱasȱtoȱhowȱheȱshallȱfare,ȱalreadyȱguiltilyȱadmittingȱheȱhasȱ“defouleneȱþe
folkeȱoneȱfeleȱ[many]ȱkingesȱlondes”ȱ(262)ȱandȱstolenȱ“richesȱouerȱreymesȱ[realms]
withouteneȱenyȱrighte”ȱ(263).ȱHisȱmoralȱstateȱisȱprecarious.ȱTheȱphantomȱpredicts
thatȱalthoughȱKingȱArthurȱisȱnowȱhighȱonȱtheȱWheelȱofȱFortune,ȱ“Heȱshalȱlighte
fulȱloweȱoneȱþeȱseȱsondesȱ[ȱseaȱsands]”ȱ(268);ȱheȱshallȱachieveȱmisfortuneȱandȱhis
fortuitousȱlordsȱwillȱfallȱtoȱlowȱdescent.ȱSheȱadvisesȱSirȱGawayneȱtoȱguardȱhimself
fromȱallȱtheȱwarfareȱandȱtreason,ȱandȱbewareȱofȱTuscany,ȱforȱ“þereȱshalȱþeȱrounde
tableȱleseȱ[lose]ȱþeȱrenouneȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱInȱaȱslakeȱ[hollow]ȱþuȱshalȱbeȱslayne,ȱ/ȱSiche
ferlyesȱ‘[marvels]ȱshulleȱfaIle”ȱ(293,ȱ298–99).ȱHerȱadviceȱtoȱhimȱisȱphysical,ȱbutȱalso
asȱadmonitoryȱasȱherȱadviceȱtoȱGaynour.ȱInȱCornwall,ȱArthurȱandȱtheȱRoundȱTable
shallȱbeȱwounded,ȱandȱallȱdieȱonȱoneȱday,ȱovercomeȱbyȱaȱsubjectȱwearingȱsable.ȱA
childȱplaysȱatȱtheȱballȱtodayȱwhoȱshallȱovercomeȱhimȱfullȱfiercelyȱthatȱday—no
doubtȱmeaningȱMordred.ȱThusȱthisȱmysticalȱskeletonȱrevealsȱfutureȱsecretsȱasȱa
warningȱtoȱGawayneȱinȱaȱlocusȱofȱmagic,ȱcharms,ȱandȱfearfulȱforebodings.ȱShe
departsȱtellingȱhimȱandȱherȱdaughter:ȱ
Iȱmotȱwalkeȱonȱmyȱwayȱþorghȱþisȱwildeȱwodeȱȱ
Vntoȱmyȱwonyngȱstidȱ[livingȱplace],ȱinȱwoȱforȱtoȱwelleȱ[boil]ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.
ÞenkȱonȱþeȱdangerȱandȱtheȱdoleȱþatȱIȱyneȱdwelleȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ
Withȱaȱgrislyȱgreteȱ[cry]ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
ÞeȱgosteȱaȬweyȱglides.ȱ (315–16,ȱ318,ȱ324–25)ȱ
Sheȱhasȱattainedȱherȱgoal:ȱtoȱseekȱGaynour’sȱhelpȱthroughȱtrentalsȱtoȱextricate
herselfȱfromȱhellȱandȱtoȱadmonishȱtheȱcoupleȱnotȱtoȱwarrantȱaȱsimilarȱdoomȱin
theirȱfuture.ȱTheȱwildȱwoods,ȱtheȱboilingȱmarshyȱTarn,ȱtheȱunnaturalȱMayȱwinter,
andȱ theȱ forebodingȱ screamsȱ signifyȱ theȱ dangerȱ ofȱ sinȱ andȱ itsȱ punishment,ȱ the
supernaturalȱ dimensionȱ ofȱ graceȱ andȱ itsȱ absence,ȱ theȱ sensoryȱ threatsȱ toȱ the
heedless;ȱunfortunatelyȱGaynour’sȱmother’sȱcorpseȱforewarnsȱthoseȱtooȱfoolishȱto
heedȱaȱcoalȬcharredȱbody,ȱfireȬglowingȱeyes,ȱserpentȬinfestedȱhead,ȱandȱfearful,
shriekingȱ yellsȱ emanatingȱ fromȱ theȱ farȬflungȱ ruralȱ spacesȱ ofȱ Arthur’sȱ isolated
domain.ȱOneȱthinksȱofȱtheȱproductionsȱofȱHieronymusȱBoschȱ(1450–1516)ȱorȱHans
Memlingȱ(1430–1494)ȱsimilarlyȱdepictingȱtheȱforebodingȱconditionsȱofȱmankindȱin
startling,ȱgraphicȱdetail.ȱ
Andȱyet,ȱasȱRandyȱP.ȱSchiffȱpointsȱout,ȱtheȱtaleȱalsoȱwarnsȱofȱanȱideologyȱofȱantiȬ
imperialismȱandȱ
provesȱtoȱshareȱ inȱ theȱ localismȱthatȱleadsȱusȱtoȱlookȱtoȱtheȱmarchesȱforȱtheȱregion
whenceȱ theȱ Awntyrsȱ beganȱ toȱ disseminateȱ itselfȱ moreȱ widelyȱ acrossȱ Britain.ȱ In
revealingȱtoȱtheȱghostȱhisȱreservationsȱaboutȱhisȱcareerȱasȱaȱmilitaryȱmanȱprofitingȱfrom
theȱ arbitraryȱ dispossessionsȱ ofȱ others,ȱ theȱ Gawainȱ ofȱ theȱ Awntyrsȱ givesȱ voiceȱ toȱ a
regionalȱanxietyȱproducedȱbyȱtheȱcentralȱroleȱofȱmilitarizationȱinȱtheȱeconomicȱlifeȱof
theȱborderlands.18
ȱ
Theȱpowerȱofȱmarshesȱtoȱsuckȱinȱthoseȱwhoȱtraverseȱitsȱsurfaceȱwithoutȱproper
guidanceȱandȱaȱmeansȱofȱescapeȱfromȱtheȱentrapmentȱofȱlustȱorȱmilitaryȱgreedȱis
potent.ȱGawain’sȱanxietyȱandȱmilitarismȱwillȱsoonȱbeȱenactedȱinȱPartȱII.
Afterȱ theȱ cloudsȱ “unclosed”ȱ andȱ theȱ sunȱ emerges,ȱ aȱ newȱ openȱ environment
evolvesȱfromȱtheȱpriorȱdesolation.ȱAȱblowȱfromȱArthur’sȱhuntingȱhornȱbreaksȱthe
spellȱ ofȱ thisȱ supernaturalȱ eventȱ andȱ returnsȱ Gaynourȱ andȱ Gawyneȱ toȱ aȱ more
expected,ȱnatural,ȱphysicalȱenvironment.ȱInȱaddition,ȱtheȱblastȱonȱtheȱhornȱinȱthis
enclosedȱforestȱdrawsȱmanyȱpeopleȱtogether,ȱ“Andȱalȱþeȱrialleȱrouteȱtoȱþeȱquene
rides”ȱ(330).ȱTheȱdark,ȱconfined,ȱsecretive,ȱrestrictedȱspaceȱofȱtheȱTarnȱisȱreplaced
byȱanȱopen,ȱnaturalȱunrestrictedȱparty.ȱ
TheȱonlyȱcarryȬoverȱisȱmental:ȱwhenȱGaynourȱreportsȱtheȱstrangeȱmarvelȱsheȱhas
witnessed,ȱtheȱwiseȱareȱastonished,ȱbutȱall,ȱincludingȱshe,ȱsoonȱforgetȱtheȱincident.
InȱPartȱII,19ȱfirstȱsetȱunderȱaȱlovelyȱsilkȱcanopyȱinsideȱtheȱcivilizedȱRondolesette
18
RandyȱP.ȱSchiff,ȱ“BorderlineȱSubversions:ȱAntiȬimperialȱEnergiesȱinȱTheȱAwntyrsȱoffȱArthureȱand
GolagrosȱandȱGawain,”ȱSpeculumȱ84.3ȱ(Julyȱ2009):ȱ613–32;ȱhereȱȱ617.ȱSchiffȱalsoȱcommentsȱonȱthe
reasonȱforȱthisȱborderlandȱtensionȱandȱanxiety:ȱ“ThatȱtheȱAngloȬScottishȱborderȱstandsȱasȱtheȱkey
siteȱforȱliteraryȱmeditationsȱonȱtheȱdangersȱofȱimperialismȱstemsȱfromȱtheȱparticularlyȱnefarious
brandȱofȱexpansionismȱpracticedȱbyȱtheȱEnglish”ȱ(618).ȱ
19
KristaȱSueȬLoȱTwuȱpointsȱtoȱtheȱdebateȱoverȱtheȱbiȬpartiteȱstructureȱofȱtheȱpoem,ȱnotingȱthat
600 JeanȱE.ȱJost
HallȱatȱArthur’sȱcastleȱ(andȱlaterȱinȱtheȱbattlefield),ȱtheȱsenseȱofȱplace,ȱbothȱhere
andȱ inȱ southernȱ Scotland,ȱ isȱ theȱ objectȱ ofȱ theȱ narrative,ȱ theȱ reasonȱ forȱ battle
betweenȱGawayneȱandȱGaleron.ȱThisȱHall,ȱappearingȱonlyȱonceȱinȱtheȱromanceȱat
lineȱ337,ȱatȱ“theȱmomentȱatȱwhichȱArthurȱandȱhisȱcourtȱleaveȱbehindȱtheȱterrifying
experienceȱ ofȱ theȱ Tarnȱ Wadling,”ȱ asȱ Walklingȱ states,ȱ isȱ mysterious.ȱ Walkling
continues:
Theȱpoemȱgivesȱnoȱhintȱasȱtoȱwhereȱ“Rondolesette”ȱisȱmeantȱtoȱbe,ȱnorȱwhatȱsortȱof
hallȱwouldȱhaveȱbeenȱlocatedȱthere.ȱFromȱtheȱcontextȱofȱtheȱpoem,ȱweȱmayȱassumeȱthat
itȱisȱsomeȱdistanceȱfromȱtheȱTarnȱWadling,ȱasȱtheȱArthurianȱcourtȱmustȱtravelȱthereȱin
orderȱtoȱenjoyȱtheȱfeastȱthatȱawaitsȱthem;ȱbesides,ȱsurelyȱnoȱkingȱsolicitousȱforȱthe
safetyȱofȱhisȱcourtȱwouldȱholdȱaȱfeastȱinȱcloseȱproximityȱtoȱaȱplaceȱwithȱsuchȱmanifest
supernaturalȱassociations.20ȱ
Whatȱisȱtheȱnatureȱofȱthatȱplace?ȱJohnȱRobson’sȱ1842ȱeditionȱsuggestsȱtheȱnameȱof
theȱmanorȱȱisȱconnectedȱwithȱPlumptonȱPark,ȱaȱtractȱofȱlandȱbelongingȱtoȱtheȱking
notȱfarȱfromȱtheȱPlumptonȱLandȱofȱlineȱ475.ȱInȱtheȱnextȱcentury,ȱeditorsȱofȱTheȱPlace
NamesȱofȱCumberlandȱsuggestȱ“RandersideȱHall,”ȱisȱbasedȱonȱȱJohnȱSpeed’sȱTheatre
ofȱtheȱEmpireȱofȱGreatȱBritaineȱofȱ1612.ȱȱInȱ1897,ȱF.ȱJ.ȱArmoursȱpositsȱȱ“Randalholme”
“describedȱbyȱSamuelȱJeffersonȱinȱhisȱ1840ȱHistoryȱandȱAntiquitiesȱofȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱCumberland
asȱ‘anȱancientȱmanorhouse,ȱnearȱtheȱjunctionȱofȱtheȱAleȱwithȱtheȱTyre,ȱsupposed
byȱMr.ȱHogsonȱtoȱbeȱRaynerholme.’”21Afterȱdiscussingȱtheseȱseveralȱpossibilities
Walklingȱ concludesȱ thisȱ “halle”ȱ mightȱ indeedȱ beȱ aȱ “hale,”ȱ usingȱ theȱ MED
definitionȱofȱ“aȱtemporaryȱstructureȱforȱhousing,ȱentertaining,ȱeatingȱmeals,ȱetc.;
anȱopenȱpavilion,ȱaȱtent,ȱetc.”22
ȱ Soȱ oneȱ mightȱ envisionȱ aȱ stableȱ manorȱ houseȱ orȱ aȱ lessȱ permanentȱ tentȬlike
structureȱasȱtheȱsiteȱofȱRondolesette,ȱtheȱsecondȱspaceȱofȱtheȱromance,ȱfurnished
withȱ chivalricȱ accoutrements.ȱ Thisȱ peacefulȱ bridgeȱ spansȱ theȱ otherȱ twoȱ more
“RalphȱHanna’sȱ1974ȱeditionȱcontinuesȱtoȱpresentȱtheȱpoemȱunderȱtheȱsubtitlesȱ‘TheȱAwntyrsȱA’
andȱ ‘Theȱ Awntyrsȱ B’ȱ becauseȱ ‘Theȱ Awntyrsȱ mayȱ presentȱ notȱ oneȱ poemȱ butȱ two.”ȱ ȱ Seeȱ Twu,
“RelequaryȱforȱRomance,”ȱ104–05ȱ(noteȱ5),ȱandȱRalphȱHannaȱIII,ȱTheȱAwntyrsȱoffȱArthureȱatȱthe
TerneȱWathelyn:ȱAnȱEditionȱBasedȱonȱBodleianȱLibraryȱMSȱDouceȱ324ȱ(Manchester:ȱUniversityȱof
ManchesterȱPress,ȱ1974),ȱ17.ȱAlsoȱseeȱRosalindȱAllen,ȱ“SomeȱSkepticalȱObservationsȱonȱtheȱEditing
ofȱ Theȱ Awntyrsȱ offȱ Arthure,”ȱ Manuscriptsȱ andȱ Texts:ȱ Editorialȱ Problemsȱ inȱ Laterȱ Middleȱ English
Literature:ȱEssaysȱfromȱtheȱ1985ȱConferenceȱatȱtheȱUniversityȱofȱYork,ȱed.ȱDerekȱPearsallȱ(Cambridge:
D.ȱS.ȱBrewer,ȱ1997),ȱwhoȱreassertsȱtheȱpoem’sȱorganicȱunity.ȱSheȱclaimsȱ“fewȱwouldȱdispute”ȱA.
C.ȱ Spearing’sȱ argumentȱ forȱ unityȱ inȱ “Centralȱ andȱ Displacedȱ Sovereigntyȱ inȱ Threeȱ Medieval
Poems,”ȱReviewȱofȱEnglishȱStudiesȱ33ȱ(1982):ȱ247–61ȱesp.ȱ248–52ȱȱandȱ“TheȱAwntyrsȱoffȱArthure,”
Theȱ Alliterativeȱ Traditionȱ inȱ theȱ Fourteenthȱ Century,ȱ ed.ȱ Bernardȱ S.ȱ Levyȱ andȱ Paulȱ E.ȱ Szarmach
(Columbus:ȱOhioȱStateȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1981),ȱ183–202.ȱ
20
AndrewȱWalkling,ȱ“TheȱProblemȱofȱ‘RondolesetteȱHalle’”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ9),ȱ107.
21
AndrewȱWalkling,ȱ“TheȱProblemȱofȱ‘RondolesetteȱHalle’”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ9),ȱ108.ȱ
22
AndrewȱWalkling,ȱ“TheȱProblemȱofȱ‘RondolesetteȱHalle’”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ9),ȱ111–12.
dramaticȱborderȱspacesȱofȱtheȱdeadlyȱTarnȱandȱtheȱdeathlyȱfieldȱofȱbattle.23ȱIfȱthe
purposeȱatȱtheȱTarnȱwasȱforȱGawayneȱandȱGaynourȱtoȱabsorbȱinstructionȱand
advice,ȱ theȱ purposeȱ atȱ theȱ canopyȱ isȱ toȱ nourishȱ theȱ bodyȱ atȱ supper—atȱ least
initially.ȱ Theȱ focusȱ atȱ theȱ arrivalȱ isȱ onȱ theȱ interiorȱ spacesȱ ofȱ Rondalesȱ Hallȱ /
RondolesetteȱHall,ȱaȱpleasantȱbreakȱbetweenȱtheȱfrighteningȱsupernaturalȱTarnȱof
Gaynour’sȱghostlyȱmotherȱandȱtheȱgory,ȱbloody,ȱbutȱnaturalȱplaceȱofȱconflictȱover
Galeron’sȱfarawayȱlands.
Furthermore,ȱ asȱ Christopherȱ Deanȱ suggests,ȱ “Insteadȱ ofȱ theȱ [stereotypical]
knightȱgoingȱoutȱfromȱArthur’sȱcourtȱtoȱseekȱadventure,ȱinȱtheȱAwntyrsȱoffȱArthure
heȱ[namely,ȱGaleronȱofȱGalloway]ȱcomesȱtoȱtheȱcourt,ȱandȱhisȱbattleȱthereȱwith
Gawainȱisȱtheȱprincipalȱeventȱofȱtheȱsecondȱsectionȱofȱtheȱpoem.”24ȱȱThisȱplaceȱof
battleȱinȱPartȱIIȱisȱthusȱtheȱthirdȱsettingȱorȱlocusȱofȱtheȱromance.ȱMoreȱimportantly,
asȱ Schiffȱ indicates,ȱ “theȱ Awntyrs,ȱ setȱ nearȱ theȱ marcherȱ strongholdȱ ofȱ Carlisle,
ultimatelyȱsituatesȱtheȱcollapseȱofȱtheȱArthurianȱempireȱatȱtheȱveryȱedgeȱofȱits
expandingȱfrontier.”25ȱThisȱancillaryȱArthurianȱcourtȱthusȱrepresentsȱtheȱliminal
spaceȱbetweenȱtheȱcivilizedȱandȱtheȱwild,ȱconflictȱandȱaccommodation,ȱaggression
andȱvirtue,ȱwarȱandȱpeace.ȱTheȱsituationȱhereȱisȱpoliticalȱandȱphysicalȱratherȱthan
magicalȱorȱsupernatural,ȱasȱrivalsȱforȱtheȱScottishȱrealmȱcompeteȱforȱcontestedȱland
underȱArthur’sȱauspices.ȱPatriciaȱClareȱInghamȱnotesȱthatȱ“Thisȱromanceȱlinks
marriageȱtoȱmilitarismȱandȱtoȱpoliciesȱofȱannexation;ȱitȱdepictsȱtheȱpleasuresȱofȱa
centralizedȱsovereignȱwhoȱrestsȱhisȱpracticesȱofȱlandȱdistributionȱ andȱ regional
controlȱ onȱ theȱ violenceȱ ofȱ knightlyȱ rivalry.”26ȱ Thus,ȱ Arthur’sȱ Carlisleȱ position,
sittingȱsquarelyȱbetweenȱkingshipȱofȱtheȱborderlandsȱinȱScotlandȱandȱkingshipȱof
theȱRoundȱTable,ȱisȱpivotalȱasȱissuesȱofȱaggressionȱbetweenȱtheȱtwoȱfactionsȱare
enacted.ȱTheȱspaceȱisȱdangerous.
Here,ȱfarȱfromȱtheȱcontestedȱScottishȱlands,ȱtheȱcompanyȱofȱtheȱwild,ȱghostly
phantomȱisȱreplacedȱbyȱthatȱofȱwellȬappointedȱlordsȱandȱladies.ȱAfterȱtheȱcourt
partakesȱ ofȱ nourishment,ȱ soonȱ anotherȱ surpriseȱ occurs,ȱ replacingȱ theȱ ghostly
screechingȱ ofȱ Partȱ I,ȱ forȱ “Þereȱ comeȱ inȱ aȱ setolerȱ [citoleȱ player]ȱ withȱ aȱ symbol
[cymbal]”ȱ (343).ȱ Theȱ soundsȱ ofȱ horrorȱ areȱ replacedȱ byȱ theȱ musicȱ ofȱ harmony.ȱ
Followingȱhimȱ“Aȱladyȱluvsomȱofȱloteȱ[manner],ȱledandȱ[leading]ȱaȱkni˄teȱ.ȱ.ȱ.
rydesȱvpȱtoȱþeȱhegheȱdesseȱ[dias]ȱbiforȱtheȱrialleȱ[royalȱking]”ȱ(344–45).ȱSheȱisȱas
23
ForȱaȱdiscussionȱofȱboundaryȱbordersȱinȱTheȱAwntyrsȱoffȱArthure,ȱseeȱJeanȱE.ȱJost,ȱ“Marginsȱin
MiddleȱEnglishȱRomance:ȱCultureȱandȱCharacterizationȱinȱtheȱAwntyrsȱoffȱArthureȱatȱtheȱTerne
WathelyneȱandȱtheȱWeddingȱofȱSirȱGawainȱandȱDameȱRagnell,”ȱMeetingȱtheȱForeignȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,
ed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassenȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱLondon:ȱRoutledge,ȱ2002),ȱ133–52.
24
ChristopherȱDean,ȱArthurȱofȱEngland:ȱEnglishȱAttitudesȱtoȱKingȱArthurȱandȱtheȱKnightsȱofȱtheȱRound
TableȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱRenaisssanceȱ(Toronto,ȱBuffalo,ȱandȱLondon:ȱUniversityȱofȱToronto
Press,ȱ1987),ȱ79.
25
RandyȱP.ȱSchiff,ȱ“BorderlineȱSubversions”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ17),ȱȱ613.
26
PatriciaȱClareȱIngham,ȱSovereignȱFantasiesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ15),ȱ180.
602 JeanȱE.ȱJost
pleasingȱinȱeveryȱwayȱinȱaȱgloriousȱgreenȱgownȱandȱaȱcloakȱwithȱbirdȱdecorations
asȱtheȱghostȱwasȱthreateningȱandȱfearfulȱinȱherȱskeletalȱframe—asȱaliveȱandȱvibrant
asȱtheȱphantomȱwasȱdeadȱandȱcharredȱblack.ȱNotȱsnakesȱbutȱjewelryȱandȱaȱgold
crownȱ encircledȱ herȱ hair.ȱ Notȱ demandingly,ȱ butȱ politelyȱ sheȱ asksȱ Arthurȱ to
welcomeȱtheȱerrantȱknightȱaccompanyingȱher.ȱSheȱfunctionsȱasȱanȱassistantȱor
facilitatorȱforȱtheȱmilitaryȱcontent,ȱjustȱasȱGawayneȱfunctionsȱasȱanȱassistantȱor
facilitatorȱforȱȱtheȱethicalȱcontentȱinȱPartȱI;ȱasȱtheȱmaidȱushersȱinȱandȱconnects
Galeronȱ andȱ Arthur,ȱ soȱ Gawainȱ usheredȱ inȱ andȱ connectedȱ Gaynourȱ andȱ her
ghostlyȱmother.ȱ
Equallyȱattiredȱinȱnobleȱraiment,ȱtheȱvisitingȱknightȱpresentsȱanȱimposingȱfigure.
WhereasȱGawayneȱandȱGaynourȱwentȱtoȱtheȱmarshyȱTarnȱofȱtheȱghostȱtoȱhearȱher
bedraggledȱghost’sȱstory,ȱtheȱnobleȱladyȱandȱherȱknightȱgoȱtoȱtheȱroyalȱcastleȱhall
toȱtellȱtheirs.ȱButȱbeforeȱlong,ȱtheȱnextȱdayȱtheyȱwillȱrepairȱtoȱtheȱbattlefield;ȱitȱtoo
willȱbeȱaȱtarn,ȱaȱmarshlandȱwateredȱbyȱcompetingȱknights’ȱblood.ȱTheȱentranceȱof
theȱcoupleȱisȱasȱpleasantȱasȱthatȱofȱtheȱghostȱwasȱfrightening.ȱNotȱglidingȱeerily
overȱdirtyȱwaterȱasȱdidȱshe,ȱtheȱknightȱridesȱaȱdignifiedȱFrieslandȱhorseȱandȱis
kindlyȱwelcomedȱbyȱArthur.ȱAsȱinȱtheȱTarnȱvisit,ȱtheȱnewcomerȱisȱaskedȱquestions,
suchȱasȱwhoȱareȱyou,ȱandȱwhatȱdoȱyouȱseek?ȱWhileȱtheȱghostȱsoughtȱtoȱadmonish
GaynourȱandȱGawayneȱandȱseekȱhelp,ȱtheȱknightȱseeksȱtoȱadmonishȱArthurȱand
Gawayneȱ andȱ seekȱ retributionȱ forȱ theȱ lossȱ ofȱ hisȱ landsȱ throughȱ battle.ȱ The
situationsȱareȱsimilar,ȱifȱtheȱplacesȱareȱdifferent,ȱeachȱappropriateȱtoȱitsȱvenue.ȱ
Asȱ theȱ ghostȱ claimsȱ toȱ beȱ Gaynour’sȱ motherȱ whoȱ hasȱ lostȱ herȱ dignityȱ and
bequeathedȱitȱtoȱGaynour,ȱtheȱknightȱclaimsȱtoȱbeȱGaleronȱofȱGalloway,ȱwhose
landsȱhaveȱbeenȱusurpedȱbyȱArthurȱandȱgivenȱtoȱGawayne.ȱHeȱandȱtheȱphantom
haveȱbothȱlostȱtheirȱdomiciles.ȱTheyȱareȱvisitorsȱtoȱaȱterritoryȱnotȱtheirȱown.ȱThe
knightȱdemandsȱjusticeȱofȱhisȱlisteners,ȱasȱtheȱghostȱrequestedȱmercyȱofȱhers.ȱThe
knightȱGaleronȱaccusinglyȱsaysȱtoȱArthur:ȱ
Þouȱhastȱwoneneȱ(myȱlandes)ȱinȱwerreȱwithȱaȱwrangeȱ[wrong]ȱwileȱ
AndȱgeuenȱhemȱtoȱSirȱGawayne—þatȱmyȱherteȱgryllesȱȱ[angers]—
Biȱalȱþeȱweltheȱofȱþeȱworlde,ȱheȱshalȱhemȱneuerȱweldeȱ[rule],ȱ
WhileȱIȱþyȱhedeȱ[care]ȱmayȱbere,ȱ
Butȱ[unless]ȱheȱwyneȱhemȱinȱwere,ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
Witheȱaȱsheldeȱandȱaȱspere,ȱ
Onȱaȱfaireȱfeld.ȱ (421–22,ȱ425–29)ȱ
Bothȱghostȱandȱknightȱhaveȱlostȱtheirȱpriorȱdignityȱandȱpower,ȱandȱfearȱothers’
disdain;ȱGaleronȱfearsȱothersȱ“woldȱlagheȱmeȱtoȱscorne”ȱ(233)ȱforȱsoȱeasilyȱlosing
hisȱeightȱterritories.ȱAlthoughȱtheyȱareȱnowȱinȱtheȱlovelyȱwoodsȱoutsideȱArthur’s
culturedȱCastle,ȱhavingȱjustȱcompletedȱaȱchivalricȱhuntȱamongȱhoundsȱandȱhorn,
byȱtomorrowȱSirȱGaleronȱwillȱbeȱmatched.ȱJustȱasȱtheȱghostȱmustȱuseȱallȱherȱskills
toȱachieveȱtrentalsȱforȱherȱsoulȱtoȱgainȱheaven,ȱGaleronȱmustȱuseȱallȱhisȱskillsȱto
achieveȱvictoryȱoverȱGawayne,ȱforȱhisȱlandsȱtoȱbeȱreturned.ȱMeanwhile,ȱtonight
heȱwillȱbeȱservicedȱinȱArthur’sȱancillaryȱcourtȱ(theȱsecondȱsettingȱorȱlocusȱofȱthe
poem)ȱwithȱrichȱdaintiesȱinȱaȱsumptuousȱenvironmentȱofȱchapel,ȱchamber,ȱand
hall,ȱroomsȱwarmedȱbyȱaȱchimneyȱandȱdecoratedȱwithȱhangings,ȱtapestriesȱand
cushions.ȱ Theȱ contrastȱ withȱ theȱ starkȱ Tarnȱ ofȱ locusȱ 1—black,ȱ cold,ȱ wet,
uncomfortable,ȱ andȱ incommodious—isȱ extreme.ȱ Itsȱ severeȱ magicalȱ realism
contrastsȱ theȱ courtlyȱ hospitalityȱ onȱ Galeron’sȱ arrivalȱ (locusȱ 2),ȱ andȱ theȱ bloody
battlegroundȱrealismȱofȱtheȱimpendingȱfightȱtheȱnextȱdayȱ(locusȱ3).ȱOnlyȱtheȱvoices
ofȱtheȱplaintiffsȱonȱtheȱTarnȱechoȱaȱcomparableȱcravingȱforȱrelief.ȱ
Theȱnextȱday,ȱasȱtheȱplaceȱofȱconflictȱoverȱwhoȱwillȱcontrolȱtheȱScottishȱlandsȱis
movedȱtoȱanȱoutdoorȱlocus,ȱlistsȱareȱsetȱupȱatȱaȱpalaceȱonȱPlumtoneȱlandȱ“Where
neuerȱfrekeȱ[men]ȱoponeȱfoldeȱ[earth]ȱhadȱfou˄teneȱbiforne”ȱ(476).ȱTheȱspaceȱisȱnot
quiteȱasȱruralȱasȱtheȱmarshyȱTarn,ȱbutȱisȱcreatedȱforȱbattle:ȱtheȱsceneȱbeginsȱwith
bright,ȱglitteringȱgold,ȱandȱdevolvesȱintoȱbloodyȱredȱgore.ȱSimilarly,ȱtheȱmoodȱof
theȱcontestantsȱbeginsȱwithȱjoyȱandȱexcitement:ȱ“Soȱiolileȱþeseȱgentilȱiustedȱone
were”ȱ[Soȱjoyfullyȱthoseȱgentlesȱjoustedȱonȱwar]ȱ(502);ȱbutȱitȱdescendsȱintoȱdismay,
pain,ȱ andȱ wounds;ȱ “Heȱ swappedȱ [struck]ȱ hymȱ yneȱ atȱ þeȱ swyreȱ [neck]ȱ withȱ a
swerdeȱkeneȱ/ȱThatȱgreuedȱ[grieved]ȱSirȱGawayneȱtoȱhisȱdeþȱday”ȱ(514–15).ȱWhen
Gawayneȱreturnsȱtheȱfavor:ȱ“Theȱbrondeȱ[sword]ȱwasȱblodyȱþatȱburneshedȱwas
bri˄te”ȱ(529).ȱAsȱKristaȱSueȬLoȱTwuȱpointsȱout,ȱ“TheȱduelȱbetweenȱGawainȱand
Galeronȱprovidesȱanotherȱmeansȱofȱsimultaneouslyȱexpressingȱandȱcontainingȱa
violenceȱthatȱmightȱotherwiseȱthreatenȱtheȱcourt.”27
Whenȱ Galeronȱ decapitatesȱ Gawayne’sȱ horseȱ Grisselle,ȱ theȱ settingȱ plummets
fromȱhorsebackȱtoȱgroundȱlevelȱasȱtheȱdeadlyȱactionȱproceedsȱdownward.ȱThe
violenceȱincreasesȱasȱ“Sheneȱ[bright]ȱsheldesȱwereȱshredȱ[splintered],ȱ/ȱBrighte
brenesȱ[coatsȱofȱchainȱmail]ȱbyȬbledȱ[bled]”ȱ(569–70)ȱonȱtheȱfairȱbutȱbloodȬladen
field—rapidlyȱbecomingȱaȱmarshyȱtarn.ȱTheseȱequallyȱmatchedȱknightsȱseriously
woundȱeachȱother,ȱuntilȱfirstȱGaynour,ȱandȱthenȱGaleron’sȱloverȱshriek,ȱscreech,
weep,ȱandȱbegȱforȱanȱendingȱofȱthisȱtorture;ȱtheȱwoundedȱknightsȱmoanȱandȱgroan.
WeȱcannotȱhelpȱbutȱbeȱremindedȱofȱtheȱrecentȱsquealsȱofȱtheȱghostȱinȱtheȱTerne
Wathelyne.ȱNowȱGaynourȱbeseechesȱArthur,ȱsayingȱ“þesȱburnesȱ[knights]ȱinȱþe
bataileȱsoȱbledeȱonȱþeȱbentȱ[openȱspaces]”ȱ(629).ȱ
MuchȱlikeȱtheȱconflictȱinȱChaucer’sȱ“Knight’sȱTale,”28ȱwhenȱPalamonȱandȱArcite
fightȱinȱaȱwoodedȱgroveȱuntilȱtheyȱareȱupȱtoȱtheirȱanklesȱinȱblood,ȱthatȱgroundȱis
marshyȱlikeȱtheȱ“TerneȱWathelyne.”ȱThisȱbloodȬstainedȱbattleȱspaceȱnowȱbegins
toȱsoundȱandȱlookȱlikeȱtheȱchaoticȱTarnȱofȱPartȱI,ȱanȱotherworldlyȱnightmareȱnow
realizedȱinȱthisȱworldlyȱhorror.ȱ“Vnnetheȱ[scarcely]ȱmi˄teȱþoȱsturneȱ[braveȱmen]
stondeȱ[stand]ȱvpȬri˄teȱ[upright]ȱ;ȱ/ȱWhatȱforȱbuffetesȱandȱblodeȱhereȱ[their]ȱblees
[complexions]ȱwexȱ[become]ȱblake”ȱ(657–58).ȱIndeed,ȱtheȱeerieȱaspectȱofȱtheȱTerne
27
KristaȱSueȬLoȬTwu,ȱ“ReliquaryȱforȱRomance”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ5),ȱ109.
28
SeeȱTheȱRiversideȱChaucer,ȱed.ȱLarryȱD.ȱBensonȱ(Boston:ȱHoughtonȬMifflin,1987).
604 JeanȱE.ȱJost
WathleynȱhasȱbeenȱreplacedȱbyȱaȱlifeȬorȬdeathȱenvironmentȱinȱthisȱnewȱtarn;ȱboth
placesȱembodyȱaȱdangerousȱlocusȱinȱaȱmarshyȱfield.ȱ
Whenȱtheȱconfrontationȱreachesȱdeadlyȱdimensions,ȱandȱtheȱequallyȱmatched
combatantsȱareȱseriouslyȱendangered,ȱGaleronȱacknowledgesȱGawayne’sȱbravery
andȱcompetence:ȱthus,ȱheȱturnsȱallȱtheȱlandsȱinȱquestionȱbackȱtoȱhim.ȱGawayne
reciprocates,ȱgivingȱoverȱhisȱlandsȱtoȱGaleron.ȱTheȱaccordȱwhichȱArthurȱengineers
parallelsȱ thatȱ accordȱ whichȱ Gaynour’sȱ motherȱ reachesȱ withȱ herȱ daughterȱ for
massesȱtoȱfreeȱherȱsoulȱandȱwithȱGawayneȱtoȱavoidȱsinsȱofȱacquisitionȱsuchȱas
usurpingȱ Galeron’sȱ lands.ȱ Unfortunately,ȱ neitherȱ Gaynourȱ norȱ Gawayne
rememberȱherȱwarningȱaboutȱsin.ȱBut,ȱasȱSueȬLoȱTwuȱsuggests,ȱtheȱsiteȱofȱthe
entireȱpoemȱresidesȱinȱArthur,ȱwhoseȱkinglyȱfigureȱunitesȱtheȱpoem:
Arthur’sȱenthronementȱhereȱatȱtheȱexactȱcenterȱofȱtheȱpoem,ȱ‘soveraynestȱofȱal’ȱ(358),
providesȱaȱmeridianȱatȱwhichȱtheȱArthurianȱsunȱhasȱreachedȱitsȱnoon.ȱButȱfarȱfrom
dividingȱtheȱparts,ȱtheȱcentralityȱofȱArthur’sȱkingshipȱhereȱprovidesȱaȱunifyingȱdevice
forȱtheȱwholeȱpoem.ȱLikeȱtheȱsunȱatȱnoon,ȱArthur’sȱreignȱcreatesȱitsȱownȱdayȱfrom
whichȱmorningȱandȱeveningȱareȱmeasured.ȱArthur’sȱkinglyȱpresenceȱilluminatesȱallȱof
theȱdisparateȱfeauresȱofȱtheȱpoem:ȱtheȱGhost’sȱwarningȱtoȱGuenevereȱregardingȱthe
infidelityȱ thatȱ eventuallyȱ willȱ contributeȱ toȱ theȱ dissolutionȱ ofȱ Arthur’sȱ court;ȱ its
warningȱtoȱGawainȱaboutȱtheȱvicissitudesȱofȱfortuneȱandȱtheȱrevolutionsȱofȱpower
throughȱ militaryȱ conquest;ȱ andȱ Galeron’sȱ challengeȱ toȱ Arthur’sȱ annexationȱ ofȱ his
lands.29
ArthurȱextendsȱandȱconcludesȱthisȱunificationȱbyȱreturningȱtoȱhisȱcourtȱatȱCarlisle
andȱincorporatingȱSirȱGaleronȱintoȱtheȱRoundȱTableȱcoterie.ȱHeȱgenerouslyȱfinds
theȱtravelerȱaȱpermanentȱplaceȱinȱtheirȱsocialȱnetwork,ȱandȱjoyfullyȱjoinsȱinȱhis
weddingȱceremonyȱtoȱhisȱsweetheart.ȱAsȱHahnȱcontends:
.ȱ .ȱ .ȱ theȱ integrationȱ ofȱ theȱ initiallyȱ truculentȱ Scotsȱ knightȱ Galeronȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ setsȱ outȱ the
fundamentalȱpatternȱwithinȱtheȱGawainȱromances,ȱwherebyȱoutlyingȱCelticȱterritories
areȱassimilatedȱtoȱaȱcentralizingȱEnglishȱperspective;ȱArthur’sȱkingshipȱconsistsȱinȱhis
powerȱ toȱ controlȱ andȱ redistributeȱ theȱ lands—Scotland,ȱ Wales,ȱ Brittany,ȱ perhaps
Ireland—thatȱmarkȱtheȱbordersȱofȱtheȱbodyȱpolitic.30ȱ
ȱ
Thus,ȱ thoseȱ oppositionsȱ whichȱ canȱ beȱ welded—Galeronȱ andȱ theȱ Roundȱ Table
Knights,ȱArthur’sȱimmediateȱcourtlyȱhabitationȱ andȱtheȱborderlands,ȱhisȱroyal
authorityȱ andȱ theȱ entireȱ bodyȱ politic,ȱ Galeronȱ andȱ Gawayne,ȱ brideȱ and
groom—areȱknitȱtogetherȱatȱtheȱendȱofȱPartȱII.ȱTheȱfinalȱbondingȱofȱoutsidersȱinto
ArthurianȱcultureȱonȱearthȱparallelsȱtheȱfinalȱexpectedȱbondingȱGaynour’sȱmother
willȱachieveȱinȱtheȱafterlife.ȱGaynourȱbringsȱtheȱtaleȱfullȱcircle:ȱsheȱheadsȱtoȱthe
westȱtoȱenlistȱholyȱmenȱandȱbishopsȱtoȱcelebrateȱmassesȱforȱherȱmother,ȱburning
29
KristaȱSueȬLoȱTwu,ȱ“ReliquaryȱforȱRomance”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ5),ȱ107.
30
ThomasȱHahn,ȱ“Introduction,”ȱAwntyrsȱoffȱArthureȱ(seeȱnoteȱ2),ȱ172.
inȱtheȱmarshyȱTarn.ȱThusȱsheȱfulfillsȱtheȱplaceȱofȱdaughter,ȱanȱearthlyȱsurvivor
whoȱrescuesȱherȱmotherȱfromȱanȱunearthlyȱpurgatory.ȱTheȱauthorȱremindsȱusȱ“þis
ferelyȱ[wondrously]ȱbifelleȱinȱIngulwudȱforest,ȱ/ȱVnderȱaȱholteȱ[grove]ȱsoȱhore
[bare]ȱatȱhuntyng”ȱȱȱ(708–10).ȱPartȱII,ȱthen,ȱisȱaboutȱspaceȱatȱtheȱcastle,ȱtheȱcourtly
RondolesetteȱHall,ȱtheȱmarshyȱbattlefield,ȱandȱfarȱawayȱplacesȱinȱScotland;ȱthe
parallelȱandȱcontrastingȱrelationshipsȱwithinȱtheseȱconstituenciesȱformȱtheȱheart
ofȱtheȱepisode.ȱ
ThomasȱHahnȱsummarizesȱconnectionsȱbetweenȱPartsȱIȱandȱIIȱwhichȱemphasize
theȱplaceȱofȱtransitionȱinȱthisȱway:ȱ
Theȱ fusionȱ ofȱ popularȱ andȱ learned,ȱ nativeȱ andȱ Latin,ȱ oralȱ andȱ literateȱ inȱ Awntyrs
accuratelyȱconveysȱtheȱtransitionalȱcontextȱinȱwhichȱaȱmixedȱchivalricȱromanceȱofȱthis
sortȱparticipatedȱandȱwasȱperformedȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱTheȱdecoratedȱqualitiesȱofȱAwntyrsȱaskȱtoȱbe
understoodȱ asȱ aȱ culturalȱ eventȱ forȱ listenersȱ andȱ readersȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ Inȱ itsȱ placeȱ between
literateȱ andȱ oralȱ traditions,ȱ itsȱ surfaceȱ isȱ itsȱ substance,ȱ andȱ performance—whether
religiousȱritual,ȱchivalricȱcourtesyȱandȱprowess,ȱorȱpoeticȱcomposition—isȱaȱcrucial
partȱofȱitsȱmeaning.31
Clearlyȱ theȱ poeticȱ embellishmentsȱ andȱ narrativeȱ polaritiesȱ areȱ beingȱ drawn
togetherȱintoȱaȱlogisticalȱwholeȱbyȱthisȱspatiallyȬmindedȱauthor.ȱHisȱsenseȱofȱplace
encompassesȱ culturalȱ status,ȱ emotionalȱ locus,ȱ physicalȱ surroundings,ȱ moral
position,ȱrelationshipȱtoȱmaterialȱobjects,ȱdegreeȱofȱvictory,ȱsiteȱbetweenȱreality
andȱfantasy,ȱroleȱorȱfunction,ȱandȱanyȱpositionȱvisȬàȬvisȱitsȱopposition.ȱHowȱthe
poetȱweavesȱtheseȱvariousȱstructuralȱspacesȱandȱplacesȱintoȱanȱintriguingȱtaleȱis
matterȱforȱartisticȱappreciation.ȱForȱexample,ȱRobertȱJ.ȱGatesȱbelievesȱ
Theȱtwoȱmoralȱdilemmasȱraisedȱinȱtheȱfirstȱpartȱofȱtheȱpoem,ȱtheȱsoulȱinȱtormentȱand
theȱinjusticesȱofȱArthurȱandȱhisȱknights,ȱareȱresolvedȱinȱtheȱconclusion.ȱGuenevere
undertakesȱtoȱlessenȱherȱmother’sȱsufferingȱbyȱprayerȱandȱdevotion,ȱandȱtheȱhonorȱof
theȱRoundȱTableȱisȱupheldȱbyȱtheȱgenerousȱtreatmentȱofȱSirȱGaleron.32
Whileȱthisȱconclusionȱatȱfirstȱseemsȱappropriate,ȱitȱfailsȱtoȱacknowledgeȱthatȱbelow
theȱsurface,ȱtheȱresolutionsȱareȱmerelyȱtemporaryȱandȱfailȱtoȱreachȱtheȱcoreȱofȱthe
problems.ȱGaynourȱmayȱlessenȱherȱmother’sȱsuffering,ȱbutȱultimatelyȱsheȱfailsȱto
learnȱtheȱlessonȱherȱmotherȱcameȱtoȱdeliver:ȱbewareȱsinsȱofȱtheȱflesh.ȱWhileȱthe
militaryȱconflictȱappearsȱtemporarilyȱended,ȱArthur’sȱoffensiveȱmilitarismȱisȱnot
staunched,ȱdespiteȱtheȱghost’sȱwarning.ȱNevertheless,ȱotherȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱpoem,
fromȱitsȱgraphicȱpoeticȱimagery,ȱitsȱmultipleȱevocativeȱmoods,ȱitsȱsophisticated
structuralȱ networking,ȱ establishȱ theȱ workȱ asȱ anȱ intriguingȱ contributionȱ toȱ the
medievalȱromanceȱcorpus.
31
ThomasȱHahn,ȱ“Introduction,”ȱAwntyrsȱoffȱArthureȱ(seeȱnoteȱ2),ȱ174,ȱ173.
32
RobertȱJ.ȱGates,ȱed.ȱTheȱAwntyrsȱoffȱArthureȱatȱtheȱTerneȱWathelyneȱ(seeȱnoteȱ7),ȱ5.
606 JeanȱE.ȱJost
Butȱperhapsȱmostȱimpressiveȱisȱtheȱelaborateȱuseȱofȱspaceȱtoȱdesignateȱandȱrefine
tone,ȱ content,ȱ andȱ construction.ȱ Thisȱ alliterativeȱ poemȱ juxtaposesȱ and
differentiatesȱtheȱTarn,ȱtheȱcourt,ȱandȱtheȱbattleground;ȱtheȱwild,ȱtheȱcivilized,ȱȱand
theȱviolent;ȱtheȱsurreal,ȱtheȱreal,ȱandȱtheȱgory;ȱtheȱshocking,ȱtheȱreassuring,ȱandȱthe
disturbing;ȱtheȱsupernatural,ȱtheȱnatural,ȱandȱtheȱdeadly;ȱȱtheȱmoral,ȱtheȱcourtly,
andȱtheȱimmoral;ȱtheȱexperienced,ȱtheȱenjoyed,ȱandȱtheȱimaginedȱterritory;ȱthe
imminent,ȱ theȱ adjacent,ȱ andȱ theȱ distant;ȱ theȱ dreadfulȱ tarn,ȱ theȱ joyfulȱ locusȱ of
dinnerȱandȱtheȱviciousȱbattle;ȱtheȱrhetoricalȱpersuasionȱofȱaȱghost,ȱtheȱhospitable
generosityȱofȱcourt,ȱandȱtheȱphysicalȱbattleȱofȱwarriors.ȱAllȱaspectsȱconvergeȱon
andȱ reȬemergeȱ fromȱ outlyingȱ areasȱ inȱ theȱ suburbanȱ regionsȱ ofȱ Arthur’sȱ and
Galeron’sȱhabitations.ȱInȱTheȱAwntyrsȱoffȱArthureȱatȱtheȱTerneȱWathelyne,ȱ“place”
encompassesȱnotȱmerelyȱtheȱsettingȱofȱpurgatory,ȱaȱjoyfulȱparty,ȱaȱfierceȱbattle,ȱand
reconciliationȱofȱlandsȱbutȱtheȱmotivesȱofȱcharactersȱandȱmodusȱoperandiȱofȱthe
narrativeȱinȱeachȱofȱtheseȱspacesȱthatȱlieȱbehindȱthisȱmostȱmarvelousȱandȱunusual
Arthurianȱnarrative.ȱ
Chapterȱ18
NicolinoȱApplauso
(BucknellȱUniversity,ȱLewisburg,ȱPA)
PeasantȱAuthorsȱandȱPeasantȱHaters:
MatazoneȱdaȱCaliganoȱandȱtheȱAmbiguityȱofȱtheȱSatira
delȱvillanoȱinȱHighȱandȱLateȱMedievalȱItaly1
Sinceȱitsȱdiscoveryȱinȱ1883,ȱMatazoneȱdaȱCaligano’sȱ“Nativitasȱrusticorum”ȱhas
beenȱreveredȱasȱtheȱearliestȱexampleȱofȱtheȱsatiraȱdelȱvillanoȱ[satireȱofȱtheȱpeasant]
genreȱ inȱ Italy.2ȱ Theȱ satiraȱ delȱ villanoȱ genreȱ developedȱ inȱ Europeȱ betweenȱ the
eleventhȱandȱtwelfthȱcenturies,ȱfindingȱfertileȱgroundsȱespeciallyȱinȱFranceȱwith
theȱ fabliauxȱ andȱ inȱ Germanyȱ throughȱ theȱ maerenȱ literature.3ȱ Inȱ Italyȱ theȱ genre
1
IȱwouldȱlikeȱtoȱthankȱDarioȱFoȱforȱhisȱinvaluableȱinsightsȱandȱhisȱgenerosityȱinȱsharingȱwithȱme
hisȱ thoughtsȱ onȱ hisȱ ownȱ versionȱ ofȱ Matazone’sȱ poem.ȱ Iȱ wasȱ firstȱ introducedȱ toȱ “Nativitas
rusticorum”ȱthroughȱDarioȱFo’sȱremarkableȱadaptationȱinȱMisteroȱbuffo;ȱitȱisȱforȱthisȱreasonȱthat
Iȱwouldȱlikeȱtoȱdedicateȱthisȱarticleȱtoȱhim.ȱIȱamȱalsoȱveryȱgratefulȱtoȱTrifoneȱCellamaroȱandȱthe
kindȱstaffȱofȱtheȱVenerandaȱBibliotecaȱAmbrosianaȱforȱtheirȱgenerousȱcollaborationȱinȱprovidingȱme
withȱhelpfulȱinformationȱaboutȱtheȱManuscriptȱC.ȱ218ȱinf.ȱIȱwouldȱalsoȱlikeȱtoȱthankȱAlbrecht
Classen,ȱChristopherȱR.ȱClason,ȱandȱmyȱwifeȱJeannetteȱApplausoȱforȱtheirȱhelpfulȱcommentsȱin
reviewingȱthisȱarticle.ȱAllȱremainingȱerrorsȱareȱmine.
2
Paulȱ Meyerȱ firstȱ discoveredȱ Matazone’sȱ poemȱ andȱ printedȱ aȱ fullȱ diplomaticȱ editionȱ inȱ his
pioneeringȱstudy,ȱseeȱPaulȱMeyer,ȱ“Ditȱsurȱlesȱvillains,”ȱRomaniaȱ12ȱ(1883):ȱ14–28.ȱȱ
3
PaulȱFreedman,ȱImagesȱofȱtheȱMedievalȱPeasant,ȱFigurae:ȱReadingȱinȱMedievalȱCultureȱ(Stanford:
StanfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1999),ȱ133–38;ȱClaireȱCabaillot,“Laȱsatireȱduȱvilainȱàȱtraversȱquelques
textesȱduȱMoyenȬAge,”ȱChroniquesȱitaliennesȱ15ȱ(1988):ȱ1–27.ȱForȱaȱusefulȱbiographyȱonȱtheȱgenre,
seeȱalsoȱArmandoȱBisanti,ȱLeȱFavoleȱdiȱAvianoȱeȱlaȱloroȱfortunaȱnelȱMedioevoȱ(Florence:ȱEdizioniȱDel
Galluzzo,ȱ2010),ȱ97,ȱn.105.ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱexcellentȱarticleȱbyȱMicheleȱFeo,ȱ“Dalȱpiusȱagricolaȱal
villanoȱmattoȱeȱbestialeȱ(aȱpropositoȱdiȱunaȱinfedeltàȱvirgilianaȱdelȱCaro),”ȱMaiaȱ20.2–3ȱ(1968):
89–136;ȱ206–23.ȱDomenicoȱMerlini’sȱextensiveȱstudyȱonȱtheȱSatiraȱdelȱvillanoȱisȱaȱveryȱusefulȱsource
toȱunderstandȱtheȱphenomenonȱinȱrelationȱtoȱItaly;ȱseeȱDomenicoȱMerlini,ȱSaggioȱdiȱricercheȱsulla
satiraȱ controȱ ilȱ villanoȱ (Turin:ȱ Loescher,ȱ 1894).ȱ Seeȱ alsoȱ Francescoȱ Novati,ȱ Carminaȱ mediiȱ aevii
(Florence:ȱAllaȱLibreriaȱDanteȱinȱFirenze,ȱ1883),ȱ25–38.ȱForȱanȱoverviewȱofȱmaerenȱliteratureȱor
otherȱ Germanȱ sourcesȱ thatȱ containȱ peasantȱ satire,ȱ seeȱ Albrechtȱ Classen’sȱ introductionȱ toȱ this
volume.
608 NicolinoȱApplauso
pioneeredȱbyȱMatazoneȱreachedȱitsȱapexȱonlyȱinȱaȱlaterȱperiodȱduringȱtheȱfifteenth
andȱ sixteenthȱ centuries.4ȱ Nothingȱ isȱ knownȱ aboutȱ Matazone,ȱ althoughȱ heȱ was
almostȱcertainlyȱaȱjester;ȱandȱthereȱareȱdoubtsȱonȱtheȱdatingȱofȱtheȱpoem,ȱwhichȱfor
theȱ majorityȱ ofȱ scholarsȱ wasȱ writtenȱ betweenȱ theȱ thirteenthȱ andȱ fourteenth
centuries.5ȱWhatȱisȱcertainȱisȱtheȱexceptionalityȱofȱthisȱpieceȱwhichȱisȱcontainedȱin
onlyȱoneȱmanuscriptȱ(theȱC.ȱ218ȱinf.)ȱheldȱatȱtheȱBibliotecaȱAmbrosianaȱinȱMilan.
Furthermore,ȱtheȱinfluentialȱplaywrightȱandȱNobelȱlaureate,ȱDarioȱFo,ȱadapted
Matazone’sȱpoemȱtoȱtheȱstageȱinȱhisȱMisteroȱBuffoȱ(1969),ȱthusȱspreadingȱawareness
aroundȱtheȱworldȱaboutȱtheȱexistenceȱofȱthisȱtextȱandȱitsȱculturalȱtradition.ȱ
Despiteȱitsȱexceptionality,ȱonlyȱaȱfewȱstudiesȱhaveȱbeenȱdevotedȱtoȱ“ȱNativitas
rusticorum.”6ȱTheȱpoemȱdeservesȱspecialȱattentionȱnotȱonlyȱbecauseȱitȱisȱtheȱfirst
knownȱexampleȱofȱtheȱsatiraȱdelȱvillanoȱinȱItaly,ȱbutȱalsoȱforȱitsȱstimulatingȱandȱyet
complexȱcontent.ȱInȱhisȱpoem,ȱMatazoneȱ(theȱmotleyȱfool)ȱpresentsȱhimselfȱasȱa
peasantȱ andȱ speaksȱ atȱ lengthȱ aboutȱ theȱ baseȱ natureȱ andȱ originȱ of
peasants—supposedlyȱbornȱfromȱaȱdonkey’sȱfartȱ(85–88).ȱ
EvenȱthoughȱMatazone’sȱplayfulȱpoemȱhasȱbeenȱdefinedȱasȱtheȱprototypeȱofȱthe
satiraȱdelȱvillano,ȱtheȱtermȱusedȱtoȱidentifyȱthisȱgenreȱisȱdebatableȱandȱmisleading.
InȱItalianȱtheȱprepositionȱ“del”ȱmeansȱnotȱonlyȱ“about”ȱbutȱalsoȱ“of.”ȱThus,ȱthe
termȱsatiraȱdelȱvillanoȱcouldȱimplyȱeitherȱaȱsatireȱaboutȱpeasantsȱorȱaȱsatireȱwritten
byȱpeasants.ȱThisȱlinguisticȱambiguityȱisȱconfirmedȱbyȱtheȱambiguityȱofȱMatazone
himselfȱwhoȱdeclaresȱtoȱbeȱaȱpeasantȱandȱobliquelyȱseemsȱtoȱridiculeȱbothȱpeasants
andȱ denounceȱ theirȱ abuses.ȱ Perhapsȱ Domenicoȱ Merlini’sȱ suggestionȱ aboutȱ the
existenceȱofȱtwoȱmodelsȱofȱsatireȱ(oneȱ“pro”ȱandȱtheȱotherȱ“against”ȱpeasants)
withinȱtheȱgenreȱshouldȱbeȱconsidered.7ȱHowever,ȱMerliniȱonlyȱhintedȱatȱthese
4
SeeȱGianfrancoȱContini,ȱPoetiȱdelȱDuecento,ȱTomeȱ1ȱ(MilanȱandȱNaples:ȱRicciardi,ȱ1960),ȱ789–801;
hereȱ789.
5
Paulȱ Meyerȱ proposedȱ thatȱ “Nativitasȱ rusticorum”ȱ wasȱ writtenȱ inȱ theȱ fourteenthȱ century;ȱ see
Meyer,ȱ“Ditȱsurȱlesȱvillains,”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ2),ȱ15.ȱCesareȱMolinariȱalsoȱsupportsȱMeyer’sȱsupposition;
seeȱCesareȱMolinari,ȱ“IlȱDettoȱdeiȱvillaniȱdiȱMatazoneȱdaȱCaligano”ȱBibliotecaȱTeatraleȱ3.3ȱ(1972):
1–19;ȱhereȱ5ȱn.ȱ3.ȱTheȱmajorityȱofȱscholars,ȱsuchȱasȱFrancescoȱNovati,ȱGianfrancoȱContini,ȱand
VittorioȱDornetti,ȱbelieveȱthatȱtheȱpoemȱcouldȱbelongȱtoȱtheȱfifteenthȱcentury.ȱSeeȱNovati,ȱCarmina
mediiȱaeviiȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ29ȱn.ȱ2;ȱContini,ȱPoetiȱdelȱDuecentoȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ789;ȱDornetti,ȱ“Matazoneȱda
Caliganoȱeȱleȱoriginiȱdellaȱsatiraȱdelȱvillano,”ȱStudiȱdiȱlinguaȱeȱletteraturaȱlombardaȱoffertiȱaȱMaurizio
Vitale,ȱvol.ȱ1ȱ(Pisa:ȱGiardiniȱEditori,ȱ1983),ȱ22–44;ȱhereȱ25ȱn.ȱ13.ȱBeingȱthatȱmostȱlikelyȱtheȱscribe
recordedȱ theȱ pieceȱ fromȱ theȱ oralȱ performanceȱ byȱ aȱ jester,ȱ itȱ isȱ plausibleȱ thatȱ “Nativitas
rusticorum”ȱwasȱlikelyȱperformedȱmuchȱearlierȱthanȱwhenȱitȱwasȱrecorded.
6
Toȱmyȱknowledge,ȱonlyȱthreeȱessays—solelyȱdevotedȱtoȱthisȱtext—areȱavailable.ȱTheseȱareȱPaul
Meyer,ȱ“Ditȱsurȱlesȱvillains;”ȱCesareȱMolinari,ȱ“IlȱdettoȱdeiȱvillaniȱdiȱMatazoneȱdaȱCaligano;”ȱand
VittorioȱDornetti,ȱ“MatazoneȱdaȱCaligano”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ5).
7
Merliniȱbrieflyȱdistinguishesȱbetweenȱtwoȱopposingȱtrendsȱwithinȱtheȱsatiraȱdelȱvillanoȱgenre.ȱThe
firstȱtrend,ȱwhichȱheȱcalledȱ“satiraȱnegativa,”ȱisȱwrittenȱagainstȱpeasants,ȱwhileȱtheȱother,ȱi.e.,ȱthe
“satiraȱpositiva,”ȱisȱwrittenȱinȱdefenseȱofȱthem;ȱseeȱMerlini,ȱSatiraȱcontroȱilȱvillanoȱ(seeȱnoteȱ2),ȱ4.
Scholarsȱ suchȱ asȱ Vittorioȱ Rossiȱ andȱ Alessandroȱ D’Anconaȱ criticizedȱ Merlini’sȱ terminology
“positiva”ȱandȱ“negativa”ȱinȱtheirȱreviews;ȱseeȱVittorioȱRossi,ȱReviewȱofȱMerlini,ȱSaggioȱdiȱricerche
MatazoneȱdaȱCaliganoȱandȱtheȱAmbiguityȱofȱtheȱSatiraȱ 609
dualȱtrendsȱwithoutȱsurveyingȱtheirȱpossibleȱapplicationsȱwithinȱtheȱgenre.ȱAfter
Merlini’sȱremark,ȱnoȱscholar—toȱmyȱknowledge—hasȱeverȱpursuedȱthisȱpossibility
withinȱthisȱpoem.ȱFurthermore,ȱscholarsȱhaveȱgenerallyȱprivilegedȱtheȱantiȬpeasant
satiricalȱtendencyȱbyȱexplainingȱtheȱliteraryȱphenomenonȱofȱtheȱsatiraȱdelȱvillanoȱas
aȱEuropeanȱgenreȱfeaturingȱparodiesȱwrittenȱtoȱridiculeȱpeasantsȱandȱruralȱlife.8
Inȱthisȱarticle,ȱIȱshallȱapproachȱ“Nativitasȱrusticorum”ȱinȱconnectionȱwithȱthe
satiraȱdelȱvillanoȱgenreȱandȱfocusȱonȱtwoȱconflictingȱmodelsȱofȱsatire:ȱOneȱwritten
againstȱpeasants,ȱwhichȱIȱcallȱ“theȱpeasantȱhaterȱsatire;”ȱandȱtheȱotherȱwrittenȱin
defenseȱofȱthem,ȱwhichȱIȱcallȱ“peasantȱauthorȱsatire.”ȱIȱbelieveȱthatȱbothȱformsȱof
satireȱshouldȱbeȱconsideredȱasȱcomponentsȱofȱtheȱsoȬcalledȱsatiraȱdelȱvillanoȱgenre.
Forȱthisȱpurpose,ȱIȱshallȱexamineȱbothȱpossibilitiesȱandȱinvestigateȱifȱindeedȱthe
poemȱcontainsȱtheseȱtwoȱconflictingȱsatiricalȱmodels.ȱIfȱso,ȱtheȱpoeticȱcorpusȱofȱthe
soȬcalledȱsatiraȱdelȱvillanoȱcouldȱbeȱunderstoodȱnotȱonlyȱasȱaȱsimpleȱliteraryȱtopos
directedȱagainstȱpeasants.ȱInstead,ȱitȱcouldȱbeȱapproachedȱasȱaȱcomplexȱarrayȱof
textsȱ containingȱ incompatibleȱ yetȱ coexistingȱ messages—whichȱ haveȱ important
socioeconomicȱimplications—andȱwereȱperhapsȱdirectedȱtowardȱaȱwideȱandȱmore
heterogeneousȱpublic.
BeforeȱexaminingȱMatazone’sȱpoem,ȱIȱshallȱbrieflyȱintroduceȱtheseȱtwoȱopposite
satiricalȱtraditions,ȱsurveyingȱtheirȱpresenceȱandȱdevelopmentȱwithinȱtheȱItalian
medievalȱliteraryȱtradition.ȱItȱisȱlikelyȱthatȱbothȱwereȱrecognizableȱbyȱMatazone’s
contemporaries.ȱThisȱwillȱallowȱusȱtoȱapproachȱ“Nativitasȱrusticorum”ȱbothȱfrom
theȱsupposedȱ“peasantȱauthor”ȱperspectiveȱ(exemplifiedȱbyȱMatazoneȱhimself)ȱas
wellȱasȱfromȱhisȱprospectiveȱaudienceȱ(whichȱseemsȱtoȱbeȱexposedȱtoȱhyperbolical
ridiculeȱatȱtheȱexpenseȱofȱpeasants).ȱFinally,ȱafterȱhavingȱanalyzedȱMatazone’s
poem,ȱIȱwillȱbrieflyȱexploreȱDarioȱFo’sȱversionȱandȱadaptationȱofȱtheȱpoem,ȱwhich
providesȱmodernȱaudienceȱwithȱtheȱunconventionalȱapproachȱofȱaȱsatiraȱdelȱvillano
asȱaȱproȬpeasantȱjesterȱperformance.ȱ
sullaȱsatiraȱcontroȱilȱvillano.ȱGiornaleȱStoricoȱdellaȱLetteraturaȱItalianaȱ25ȱ(1894):ȱ432–36;ȱhereȱ432.
AlessandroȱD’Ancona,ȱReviewȱofȱMerlini,ȱSaggioȱdiȱricercheȱsullaȱsatiraȱcontroȱilȱvillano.ȱRassegna
BibliograficaȱdellaȱLetteraturaȱItalianaȱ2ȱ(1894):ȱ256.
8
TheȱmedievalȱpeasantȱsatireȱisȱcurrentlyȱdefinedȱbroadlyȱasȱaȱEuropeanȱgenreȱwhichȱdeveloped
inȱtheȱtwelfthȱcenturyȱasȱaȱconsequenceȱofȱurbanization,ȱwhichȱfueledȱtheȱclashȱbetweenȱruralȱand
urbanȱspaces;ȱseeȱArmandoȱBisanti,ȱ“MimoȱGiullarescoȱeȱSatiraȱdelȱVillanoȱnelȱDeȱClericisȱet
Rustico”ȱProceedingsȱofȱtheȱXVȱBattleȱConferenceȱandȱofȱtheȱXIȱColloquioȱmedievaleȱofȱtheȱOfficinaȱdiȱstudi
medievali,ȱ1992,ȱed.ȱMarjorieȱChibnall.ȱAngloȬNormanȱStudies,ȱ15ȱ(Woodbridge:ȱTheȱBoydellȱPress,
1993),ȱ59–76.
Theȱ“PeasantȱHaters”ȱSatireȱinȱMedievalȱItaly
Theȱtrendȱofȱtheȱ“peasantȱhaters”ȱsatireȱdevelopedȱinȱEuropeȱaroundȱtheȱtwelfth
century.9ȱ Theȱ availabilityȱ ofȱ numerousȱ textsȱ whichȱ shareȱ aȱ negative—even
contemptuous—ȱopinionȱofȱpeasantsȱhaveȱledȱscholarsȱtoȱconcludeȱthatȱthisȱtrend
wasȱprominentȱthroughoutȱtheȱMiddleȱAges.ȱPaulȱFreedmanȱcommentsȱaboutȱthe
frequencyȱofȱtheseȱtypesȱofȱtextsȱinȱmedievalȱEuropeanȱliterature:ȱ
Thatȱtheȱmedievalȱpeasantȱwasȱusuallyȱregardedȱwithȱcontemptȱisȱhardlyȱaȱnovelty.
Theȱrusticȱorȱvillainȱwasȱaȱliteraryȱtypeȱforȱtheȱbase,ȱtheȱridiculous.ȱHeȱservedȱasȱa
modelȱofȱhowȱnotȱtoȱact,ȱepitomizingȱqualitiesȱopposedȱtoȱtheȱvirtuousȱchivalryȱofȱthe
knight.ȱ(.ȱ.ȱ.)ȱMedievalȱliteraryȱgenresȱsuchȱasȱtheȱFrenchȱfabliauxȱorȱGermanȱSchwankȬ
literaturȱwereȱdevotedȱ(inȱwholeȱorȱinȱpart)ȱtoȱtheȱanticsȱofȱrustics,ȱtheirȱfoolishness,
murderousȱviolence,ȱorȱproclivitiesȱforȱtheȱlowerȱbodyȱfunctions.10ȱ
Textsȱthatȱcriticizedȱpeasantsȱmostȱlikelyȱoriginatedȱafterȱtheȱtwelfthȱcenturyȱand
wereȱfosteredȱbyȱsocioȬpoliticalȱconflictsȱamongȱvariousȱsocialȱclasses.ȱAuthors
suchȱasȱnoblemen,ȱclerics,ȱorȱcityȱdwellersȱoftenȱexpressedȱdisdainfulȱattitudes
againstȱ rustics.11ȱ Inȱ Franceȱ bothȱ Andreasȱ Cappellanusȱ andȱ Chrètienȱ deȱ Troyes
provideȱexpressiveȱexamplesȱofȱthisȱexplicitȱtypeȱofȱsatireȱwhichȱaddressesȱboth
maleȱ andȱ femaleȱ peasants.12ȱ Inȱ Italyȱ variousȱ examplesȱ confirmȱ thatȱ authors
ridiculedȱandȱlaunchedȱsevereȱaccusationsȱagainstȱpeasantsȱthroughȱaȱwealthȱof
satiricalȱ poems,ȱ novellas,ȱ andȱ proverbsȱ bothȱ inȱ Latinȱ andȱ vernacular.13ȱ The
Venetianȱlateȱmedievalȱpoemȱ“Alphabetoȱdelliȱvillani”ȱrecordsȱtheȱmostȱrecurrent
accusationȱdirectedȱagainstȱtheȱpeasantsȱwhoȱareȱblamedȱforȱbeingȱlazy,ȱbestialȱlike
pigsȱinȱtheȱstables,ȱandȱfraudulentȱbecauseȱtheyȱhadȱcrucifiedȱJesusȱChrist.14ȱOther
twelfthȬȱ andȱ fourteenthȬcenturyȱ textsȱ approachȱ theȱ questionȱ inȱ aȱ grammatical
fashionȱ byȱ bestowingȱ allȱ possibleȱ vicesȱ toȱ peasantsȱ throughȱ theȱ fullȱ Latin
9
SeeȱNovati,ȱCarminaȱmediiȱaeviiȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ25–26.
10
Freedman,ȱImagesȱofȱtheȱMedievalȱPeasantȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ133–34.
11
Merlini,ȱSatiraȱcontroȱilȱvillanoȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ4
12
ForȱfurtherȱdiscussionȱonȱAndreasȱCappellanusȱandȱhisȱviewȱofȱfemaleȱpeasants,ȱseeȱClassen’s
contributionȱtoȱthisȱvolume,ȱ“UtopianȱSpaceȱinȱtheȱCountryside.”ȱChrétienȱdeȱTroyesȱinȱYvain
providesȱanȱeloquentȱdescriptionȱofȱmaleȱpeasantsȱinȱtheȱdeformedȱgrotesqueȱherdsmanȱwho
“resembledȱaȱMoor,”ȱcitedȱinȱFreedman,ȱImagesȱofȱtheȱMedievalȱPeasantȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ137.ȱInȱhis
study,ȱFreedmanȱnotesȱthatȱmaleȱ“peasantsȱwereȱoftenȱdepictedȱasȱfilthy,ȱsubhuman,ȱandȱcomical
.ȱ .ȱ .ȱ malformedȱ andȱ unfitȱ forȱ theȱ serviceȱ ofȱ love,”ȱ (157)ȱ becauseȱ theyȱ didȱ notȱ “possessȱ any
particularȱsexualȱenergyȱorȱaggressiveness”ȱ(158).ȱ
13
Merlini,ȱSatiraȱcontroȱilȱvillanoȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ7.
14
CitedȱinȱMerlini,ȱSatiraȱcontroȱilȱvillanoȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ3ȱn.ȱ1.ȱFreedmanȱbelievesȱthatȱthisȱconnection
couldȱ traceȱ backȱ toȱ lateȱ antiquityȱ andȱ earlyȱ Christianity,ȱ 137–38.ȱ Hisȱ thesisȱ shouldȱ be
supplementedȱwithȱFeo’sȱstudyȱ“Dalȱpiusȱagricola”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3).ȱ
declensionȱ ofȱ theȱ nounȱ “rusticus.”ȱ Oneȱ colorfulȱ exampleȱ isȱ providedȱ inȱ the
fourteenthȬcenturyȱmanuscriptȱMarcianoȱXI,ȱ6615:
SINGULARITER ETȱPLURALITER
Nom.ȱhisȱvillanus. Nom.ȱhiȱmaledictiȱ
Gen.ȱhuiusȱrustici Gen.ȱhorumȱtristium
Dat.ȱhuicȱtfeferoȱ(sic) Dat.ȱhisȱmendacibus
Acc.ȱhuncȱfurem Acc.ȱhosȱnequissimos
Voc.ȱoȱlatro Voc.ȱoȱpessimi
Abl.ȱabȱhocȱdepredatore Abl.ȱabȱhisȱinfidelibusȱ
Hereȱ theȱ termȱ “villanus”ȱ isȱ mockinglyȱ employedȱ toȱ evokeȱ aȱ pseudoȬgrammar
lesson,ȱ andȱ itȱ isȱ associatedȱ withȱ baseȱ moralȱ behaviors.ȱ Theȱ entireȱ declension
exposesȱ aȱ listȱ ofȱ seriousȱ transgressionsȱ rangingȱ fromȱ theftȱ andȱ depredationȱ to
fraudȱandȱinfidelity.ȱDespiteȱaȱfewȱexceptions,ȱitȱwasȱwidespreadȱtoȱfindȱsources
thatȱassociateȱtheȱtermȱ“villanus”ȱwithȱnounsȱsuchȱasȱ“malvagio”ȱ(wicked)ȱand
“reo”ȱ(guilty),ȱthusȱqualifyingȱ“rustici”ȱorȱpeasantsȱthroughȱnegativeȱepithets.16ȱAn
eloquentȱexampleȱofȱthisȱnegativeȱtendencyȱisȱprovidedȱbyȱaȱfourteenthȬcentury
satiricalȱpoem,ȱ“Deȱnaturaȱrusticorum,”ȱwhichȱassociatesȱpeasantsȱwithȱheretics,
donkeys,ȱwolves,ȱandȱdogs.17ȱ
EvenȱDanteȱwhoȱfavorablyȱdepictsȱaȱcharmingȱbucolicȱsettingȱwithȱaȱ“villanȱch’al
poggioȱsiȱriposa”ȱ(25;ȱaȱpeasant,ȱrestingȱonȱaȱhillside)ȱinȱInfernoȱ26,ȱdoesȱnotȱrefrain
fromȱusingȱtheȱtermȱ“villano”ȱinȱitsȱnegativeȱconnotationsȱexplicitlyȱreferringȱto
ruralȱspace.18ȱPerhapsȱoneȱofȱtheȱmostȱaggressiveȱattacksȱagainstȱtheȱ“contado”ȱor
countrysideȱ isȱ evidentȱ inȱ Paradisoȱ 16ȱ throughȱ Dante’sȱ greatȬgreatȱ grandfather
15
CitedȱfromȱNovati,ȱCarminaȱmediiȱaeviiȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ28ȱn.ȱ2;ȱseeȱalsoȱFreedman,ȱImagesȱofȱtheȱPeasant
(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ134.
16
AsȱNovatiȱnotes,ȱremarkablyȱtheȱanonymousȱauthorȱwhoȱcompiledȱtheȱDestructoriumȱvitiorum
distinguishesȱbetweenȱtheȱtermsȱ“villanus”ȱandȱrustics,ȱthusȱdefendingȱpeasantsȱandȱrejectingȱthe
knownȱ punsȱ betweenȱ “villano”ȱ andȱ “villania”ȱ [boorishȱ behavior]:ȱ “Villanusȱ illeȱ estȱ quiȱ facit
villaniam,ȱnonȱquiȱinȱvillaȱnascitur”;ȱcitedȱinȱNovati,ȱCarminaȱmediiȱaeviiȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ27ȱn.ȱ2.ȱIn
anotherȱ poemȱ entitledȱ “Alphabetoȱ delȱ villano,”ȱ theȱ authorȱ distinguishesȱ betweenȱ theȱ “buon
villan”ȱandȱ“quelloȱrio”ȱ(goodȱandȱevilȱpeasant).ȱTheȱlatterȱisȱtheȱtargetȱofȱtheȱattack;ȱseeȱPaul
Meyer,ȱ“Ditȱsurȱlesȱvillains”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ2),ȱ15–16ȱn.ȱ3.ȱTheseȱexamplesȱdoȱnotȱoccurȱfrequently.ȱIn
fact,ȱmanyȱLatinȱandȱvernacularȱpoemsȱechoȱtheȱfollowingȱlineȱfromȱthisȱlateȱmedievalȱsatirical
poem:ȱ“Oȱmalvasioȱrioȱvillano”[Oȱwickedȱguiltyȱpeasant];ȱseeȱMerlini,ȱSatiraȱcontroȱilȱvillanoȱ(see
noteȱ3),ȱ182.
17
ȱNovati,ȱCarminaȱmediiȱaeviiȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ37.
18
Throughoutȱ theȱ Commedia,ȱ Danteȱ providesȱ otherȱ instancesȱ inȱ whichȱ heȱ employsȱ imageries
inspiredȱbyȱtheȱruralȱworld.ȱForȱexampleȱinȱInfernoȱ15,ȱthroughȱBrunettoȱLatini,ȱDanteȱmentions
theȱactȱofȱhoeingȱperhapsȱwithȱslightȱscorn:ȱ“peròȱgiriȱFortunaȱlaȱsuaȱrotaȱ/ȱcomeȱleȱpiace,ȱeȱ‘lȱvillan
laȱsuaȱmarra”ȱ(95–96;ȱLetȱFortuneȱspinȱherȱwheelȱjustȱasȱsheȱpleases,ȱ/ȱletȱtheȱloutishȱpeasantȱply
hisȱhoe).ȱAllȱcitationsȱfromȱDante’sȱCommediaȱareȱtakenȱfromȱGiorgioȱPetrocchi’sȱedition,ȱGiorgio
Petrocchi,ȱLaȱCommediaȱsecondoȱl’anticaȱvulgata,ȱ2ndȱed.ȱ(Florence:ȱLeȱLettere,ȱ1994ȱ[1966–1967]).ȱFor
theȱEnglishȱtranslation,ȱIȱusedȱRobertȱHollander’sȱtranslation,ȱwhichȱisȱalsoȱavailableȱonlineȱatȱthe
PrincetonȱDanteȱProject,ȱhttp://etcweb.princeton.edu/dante/pdp/ȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱNov.ȱ14,ȱ2011).
Cacciaguida.ȱ Whileȱ nostalgicallyȱ evokingȱ theȱ nobleȱ andȱ homogenousȱ Roman

ancestryȱofȱFlorence,ȱheȱharshlyȱcondemnsȱtheȱinfiltrationȱofȱnotoriousȱfamilies
fromȱruralȱtoȱurbanȱareas,ȱ
Maȱlaȱcittadinanza,ȱch’èȱorȱmistaȱ ȱ
diȱCampi,ȱdiȱCertaldoȱeȱdiȱFegghine,ȱ ȱ
puraȱvediesiȱneȱl’ultimoȱartista.ȱ ȱ
Ohȱquantoȱforaȱmeglioȱesserȱvicineȱ
quelleȱgentiȱch’ioȱdico,ȱeȱalȱGalluzzoȱ
eȱaȱTrespianoȱaverȱvostroȱconfine,ȱ ȱ
cheȱaverleȱdentroȱeȱsostenerȱloȱpuzzo
delȱvillanȱd’Aguglion,ȱdiȱquelȱdaȱSigna,ȱ
cheȱgiàȱperȱbarattareȱhaȱl’occhioȱaguzzo!ȱ (49–57)
[Butȱtheȱcity’sȱbloodline,ȱnowȱmixedȱ/ȱwithȱthatȱofȱCampi,ȱofȱCertaldo,ȱandȱFigline,ȱ/
wasȱthenȱfoundȱpureȱinȱtheȱhumblestȱartisanȱ/ȱAh,ȱhowȱmuchȱbetterȱwouldȱitȱbeȱ/ȱhad
thoseȱcitiesȱwhichȱIȱnameȱremainedȱbutȱneighbors,ȱ/ȱhadȱyouȱkeptȱyourȱbordersȱat
GalluzzoȱandȱTrespiano,ȱthanȱtoȱhaveȱthemȱinȱyourȱmidstȱandȱbearȱtheȱstenchȱ/ȱofȱthe
loutȱfromȱAguglionȱandȱofȱhimȱfromȱSigna/ȱwhoȱalreadyȱhasȱsoȱsharpȱanȱeyeȱforȱgraft!]
HereȱCacciaguidaȱdirectlyȱassociatesȱtheȱtermȱ“villan”ȱandȱtheȱcontextȱofȱrural
environmentȱwithȱstenchȱandȱmoralȱcorruption.ȱAsȱVittorioȱDornettiȱhasȱnoted,ȱthe
reekȱofȱrusticsȱservesȱtoȱcharacterizeȱfigurativelyȱpeasantsȱasȱmorallyȱinferiorȱand
distinguishedȱbyȱaȱlowȱandȱbestialȱnature.19ȱFurthermore,ȱtheȱFlorentineȱpoetȱuses
thisȱnegativeȱimageryȱtoȱcondemnȱtheȱcorruptionȱofȱexplicitlyȱnobleȱfamiliesȱfrom
AguglionȱandȱSignaȱwhoȱruledȱtheȱcountryside.ȱByȱstronglyȱassociatingȱthemȱwith
theȱfetidȱodorȱofȱpeasantsȱandȱtheirȱruralȱenvironment,ȱheȱhyperbolicallyȱlabels
themȱasȱ“stinkyȱpeasant”ȱasȱwell.20ȱDante’sȱstrategyȱtoȱuseȱtheȱfamiliarȱconnection
betweenȱunpleasantȱsmellȱandȱpeasantry,ȱwhichȱisȱrecurrentȱinȱtheȱtraditionȱofȱthe
“peasantȱ hatersȱ satire,”ȱ couldȱ beȱ viewedȱ asȱ aȱ resultȱ ofȱ prejudiceȱ againstȱ the
contadiniȱandȱtheȱcontado.ȱHowever,ȱitȱcouldȱalsoȱbeȱunderstoodȱasȱaȱtechnique
employedȱbyȱDanteȱinȱorderȱtoȱintensifyȱfurtherȱhisȱmockeryȱandȱcondemnation
againstȱspecificȱfamiliesȱthatȱrecentlyȱarrivedȱinȱFlorenceȱfromȱtheȱcountrysideȱand
wereȱresponsibleȱforȱdespicableȱactions.ȱIndeed,ȱtheȱtermȱ“villano”ȱoftenȱrecursȱin
theȱCommedia,ȱbutȱDanteȱdoesȱnotȱutilizeȱitȱtoȱridiculeȱorȱattackȱpeasantsȱdirectly.21
19
VittorioȱDornetti,ȱ“MatazoneȱdaȱCaligano”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ5),ȱ29.ȱ
20
ȱSeeȱCorradoȱBarberis,ȱ“Iȱcaratteriȱoriginariȱdelȱmondoȱruraleȱitaliano,”ȱTrasformazioniȱdelleȱsocietà
ruraliȱneiȱpaesiȱdell’Europaȱoccidentaleȱeȱmediterraneaȱ(secoliȱXIX–XX):ȱBilancioȱdegliȱstudiȱeȱprospettive
diȱricerca,ȱedȱPasqualeȱVillani.ȱGuidaȱricerca:ȱstoriaȱ(Naples:ȱGuida,ȱ1986),ȱ269–88;ȱhereȱ272.
21
Inȱmanyȱexamples,ȱDanteȱemploysȱtheȱtermȱ“villano”ȱtoȱtargetȱpoliticalȱabusesȱratherȱthanȱto
singleȱoutȱaȱpredeterminedȱsocialȱgroup.ȱSeeȱforȱexampleȱPurg.ȱ6,ȱwhereȱinȱoneȱofȱhisȱmostȱfamous
invectives,ȱDanteȱspecificallyȱusesȱtheȱtermȱ“villano”ȱwhileȱcommentingȱonȱdespoticȱrulersȱ“Ché
leȱcittàȱd’Italiaȱtutteȱpieneȱ/ȱsonȱdiȱtiranni,ȱeȱunȱMarcelȱdiventaȱ/ȱogneȱvillanȱcheȱparteggiando
viene”ȱ(124–26,ȱForȱeachȱItalianȱcityȱoverflowsȱ withȱtyrantsȱ/ȱandȱeveryȱclownȱthatȱplaysȱthe
Besidesȱ poetry,ȱ variousȱ novellasȱ offerȱ negativeȱ andȱ sardonicȱ depictionsȱ of

peasantsȱthroughȱtheȱItalianȱproseȱtradition.ȱBothȱtheȱthirteenthȬcenturyȱcollection
ofȱ talesȱ inȱ Ilȱ Novellinoȱ andȱ otherȱ fourteenthȬcenturyȱ textsȱ (e.g.,ȱ Giovanni
Boccaccio’sȱDecameron,ȱFrancoȱSacchetti’sȱTrecentonovelle,ȱandȱSercambi’sȱNovelliere)
provideȱaȱwealthȱofȱexamplesȱofȱnegativeȱstereotypesȱaboutȱrustics.22ȱSomeȱofȱthe
partisanȱ/ȱthinksȱheȱisȱtheȱnewȱMarcellus).ȱInȱanotherȱinstance,ȱDanteȱemploysȱtheȱtermȱ“villano”
inȱaȱnegativeȱwayȱtoȱdescribeȱrudeȱbehaviors;ȱseeȱInfȱ33,ȱ150:ȱ“eȱcortesiaȱfuȱluiȱesserȱvillano”ȱ(and
toȱbeȱrudeȱtoȱhimȱwasȱcourtesy).ȱHereȱDanteȱclearlyȱjuxtaposesȱtheȱtermȱ“villano”ȱtoȱ“cortesia.”
Evenȱ ifȱunderstoodȱinȱnegativeȱterms,ȱtheȱtermȱ“villano”ȱrefersȱtoȱFrateȱAlberigo,ȱandȱnotȱto
peasants.ȱAsȱFreedman,ȱImagesȱofȱtheȱPeasantȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱsuggests,ȱ“Theȱcontrastȱbetweenȱvilain
andȱcourtoisȱwasȱnotȱnecessarilyȱstructuredȱwithȱtheȱpeasantȱinȱmindȱasȱaȱdirectȱtargetȱofȱsatirical
attack”ȱ(134).ȱIronically,ȱtheȱfifteenthȬcenturyȱauthorȱwhoȱwroteȱtheȱChioseȱsopraȱDante,ȱ(i.e.,ȱa
commentaryȱofȱDante’sȱParadiso)ȱassociatesȱDanteȱtoȱaȱvillanoȱbyȱwritingȱthisȱverseȱatȱtheȱendȱof
theȱ manuscriptȱ asȱ aȱ warningȱ toȱ theȱ buyerȱ ofȱ hisȱ book:ȱ “Oȱ tuȱ chȇachattiȱ i[l]ȱ libroȱ delȱ villanoȱ /
Rendiloȱprestoȱperchèȱgranȱpiaciereȱ/ȱNeȱtra’ȱchostuiȱaȱcchiȱ‘lȱchaviȱdiȱmanoȱ(Ohȱyouȱwhoȱbuyȱthe
bookȱofȱtheȱrudeȱ/ȱreturnȱitȱfastȱbecauseȱsoȱmuchȱpleasureȱ/ȱgainedȱheȱ[whoȱwroteȱit]ȱandȱfrom
whomȱ youȱ areȱ takingȱ itȱ from,ȱ myȱ translation).ȱ Aȱ glossȱ placedȱ atȱ theȱ marginȱ ofȱ thisȱ verse
impudentlyȱdeclaresȱthatȱDanteȱhimselfȱwasȱconsideredȱaȱvillanoȱbyȱhisȱcontemporaries:ȱ“Dante
siȱchiamòȱilȱvillanoȱperchèȱe’ȱno’ȱlasciòȱaȱdireȱadȱaltriȱnulla”ȱ(Danteȱwasȱnamedȱtheȱloutishȱbecause
heȱdidȱnotȱallowȱanybodyȱtoȱsayȱanything).ȱCitedȱinȱGiovanniȱPapanti,ȱDante,ȱsecondoȱlaȱtradizione
eȱiȱnovellatoriȱȱ(Livorno:FrancescoȱVigoȱEditore,ȱ1873),ȱ115.
22
Seeȱ Domenicoȱ Merlini,ȱ Satiraȱ controȱ ilȱ villanoȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 3),ȱ 93–94ȱ andȱ Michelȱ Plaisance,ȱ “The
RelationshipȱBetweenȱCityȱandȱCountryȱinȱtheȱShortȱStoriesȱofȱSacchetti,ȱSercambiȱandȱSermini,”
Florenceȱ Inȱ theȱ Timeȱ ofȱ theȱ Medici:ȱ Publicȱ Celebrations,ȱ Politics,ȱ andȱ Literatureȱ inȱ theȱ Fifteenthȱ and
SixteenthȱCenturies,ȱed.ȱandȱtrans.ȱNicoleȱCarewȬReid.ȱCentreȱforȱReformationȱandȱRenaissance
Studies,ȱ14ȱ(Toronto:ȱCentreȱforȱReformationȱandȱRenaissanceȱStudies,ȱ2008),ȱ119–211;ȱandȱClaire
Cabaillot,“LaȱsatireȱduȱvilainȱàȱtraversȱquelquesȱtextesȱduȱMoyenȱAge”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ7.ȱTheȱcaseȱof
Boccaccioȱisȱfarȱmoreȱcomplexȱthanȱotherȱnovellaȱtraditions.ȱBoccaccio’sȱnovelleȱdoȱnotȱprivilegeȱor
projectȱaȱsimple,ȱoneȬsidedȱdepictionȱofȱruralȱspaceȱandȱpeasantsȱandȱdoȱnotȱpresentȱthemȱas
eitherȱ negativeȱ orȱ positive.ȱ Inȱ someȱ novelleȱ Boccaccioȱ dealsȱ withȱ theȱ usualȱ stereotypesȱ about
peasantsȱbeingȱvulgarȱandȱcoarse.ȱHowever,ȱheȱalsoȱoffersȱaȱsurprisinglyȱpositiveȱrepresentation
ofȱpeasants.ȱForȱexample,ȱtheȱtwoȱtalesȱofȱ“MasettoȱdaȱLamporecchio”ȱ(III.1)ȱandȱ“Griselda”ȱ(X.10)
introduceȱpraiseworthyȱpeasantsȱwho,ȱasȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱGriselda,ȱhaveȱevenȱbecomeȱroleȱmodels
forȱothersȱtoȱfollow.ȱ[Editor’sȱnote:ȱseeȱalsoȱtheȱcaseȱofȱtheȱoldȱfatherȱinȱWernherȱderȱGartenære’s
Helmbrecht.ȱSimilarly,ȱinȱmanyȱofȱHansȱSachs’sȱsixteenthȬcenturyȱShrovetideȱplaysȱweȱencounter
bothȱstupidȱandȱintelligent,ȱkindȱandȱbrutalȱpeasants,ȱasȱtheȱindividualȱsituationȱrequires.]ȱInstead,
“FrateȱCipolla”ȱ(VI.ȱ10)ȱandȱ“TofanoȱofȱArezzo”ȱ(VII.4)ȱofferȱaȱmoreȱcriticalȱdepictionȱofȱpeasants
asȱ eitherȱ foolishȱ andȱ gullible,ȱ orȱ asȱ rashȱ andȱ savage;ȱ seeȱ forȱ instanceȱ theȱ expressionȱ “villano
matto”ȱ(crazyȱpeasant)ȱinȱtheȱtaleȱofȱTofanoȱofȱArezzo.ȱSeeȱalsoȱAlbrechtȱClassen’sȱcomments
aboutȱ nobleȬmindedȱ peasantsȱ inȱ medievalȱ literature,ȱ includingȱ Boccaccio’sȱ Decameron,ȱ inȱ his
Introductionȱtoȱthisȱvolume.ȱFurthermore,ȱtheȱcontrastȱbetweenȱruralȱandȱurbanȱrealitiesȱinȱthe
Decameronȱisȱnotȱasȱsharpȱasȱmostȱscholarsȱhaveȱsuggested.ȱInȱorderȱtoȱescapeȱtheȱplague,ȱthe
sevenȱwomenȱandȱthreeȱmenȱchooseȱtoȱsettleȱmomentarilyȱinȱtheȱtownȱofȱFiesoleȱinȱanȱunaffected
villaȱinȱtheȱcountryside.ȱTheȱvillaȱisȱtheȱbucolicȱspaceȱappropriateȱforȱleisureȱthatȱcontrastsȱthe
urbanȱworkingȱenvironment.ȱNumerousȱscholarsȱhaveȱproposedȱthatȱBoccaccioȱcreatesȱaȱsharp
tensionȱbetweenȱurbanȱandȱruralȱspacesȱinȱorderȱtoȱstrengthenȱtheȱlinkȱbetweenȱtheȱutopianȱworld
ofȱ theȱ countrysideȱ andȱ theȱ realismȱ ofȱ theȱ novelle;ȱ seeȱ forȱ exampleȱ Margaȱ CottinoȬJones,ȱ “The
City/CountryȱConflictȱinȱtheȱDecameron,”ȱStudiȱsulȱBoccaccioȱ8ȱ(1974):ȱ147–84.ȱHowever,ȱBoccaccio
inȱ theȱ introductionȱ toȱ theȱ Firstȱ Dayȱ alsoȱ offersȱ aȱ veryȱ dramaticȱ andȱ realisticȱ depictionȱ ofȱ the
mostȱcommonȱareȱtheȱportrayalȱofȱvillaniȱasȱgullible,ȱcoarse,ȱorȱasȱvictims.ȱSuch
depictionsȱofȱruralȱlifeȱspanȱalsoȱtoȱtheȱfifteenthȱandȱsixteenthȱcenturyȱwithȱGentile
Sermini’sȱLeȱNovelleȱ(ca.ȱ1424)ȱandȱPoggioȱBracciolini’sȱFacezieȱ(1438–1452),ȱwhich
showȱtheȱconsistentȱradicalizationȱofȱthisȱtrendȱthroughoutȱtheȱmedievalȱandȱearly
modernȱperiod.23ȱ
Overall,ȱ theȱ satireȱ againstȱ peasantsȱ hadȱ aȱ crucialȱ culturalȱ impactȱ inȱ Italy,
especiallyȱifȱweȱconsiderȱthatȱitȱisȱrecurrentȱthroughoutȱvariousȱenvironments,
suchȱasȱtheȱcivic,ȱreligious,ȱandȱevenȱtheȱacademic.ȱInȱaddition,ȱtheȱantiȬpeasant
satireȱhadȱaȱsignificantȱlinguisticȱinfluenceȱinȱItaly,ȱwhichȱisȱnoticeableȱinȱcurrent
Italianȱlanguage.ȱAsȱCorradoȱBarberisȱargues,ȱtheȱetymologyȱofȱ“contadino”ȱand
“paesano”ȱmightȱreflectȱthisȱnegativeȱmentalityȱbecauseȱurbanȱresidentsȱofȱlarge
metropolitanȱareasȱconstructedȱtheȱbasisȱofȱtheȱItalianȱlanguage,ȱthusȱprojecting
theirȱdiscriminationsȱtowardȱpeasantryȱonȱlinguisticȱtermsȱandȱunfairlyȱdiscounted
theȱkeyȱroleȱplayedȱbyȱpeasantsȱinȱtheȱmakingȱofȱItaly.24ȱIndeed,ȱinȱmodernȱItalian
theȱ termȱ “villano”ȱ holdsȱ stillȱ negativeȱ connotationsȱ asȱ itȱ primarilyȱ describes
discourteousȱactionsȱandȱindividuals.25ȱ
peasants’ȱenvironmentȱduringȱtheȱpestilence.ȱJuxtaposedȱtoȱtheȱhopelessȱrepresentationȱofȱplagueȬ
strickenȱFlorence,ȱtheȱdescriptionȱofȱtheȱruralȱbackgroundȱemergesȱjustȱasȱgloomyȱandȱdesolate
asȱtheȱcity:ȱ“theȱsurroundingȱcountrysideȱwasȱnotȱsparedȱtheȱbadȱtimesȱwhichȱaffectedȱtheȱcity.
.ȱ.ȱ.ȱLikeȱtheȱcityȬdwellers,ȱtheyȱ(peasantȱworkers)ȱdiscardedȱallȱhabitsȱandȱneglectedȱtheirȱduties
andȱtheirȱproperty.ȱIndeedȱallȱofȱthem,ȱasȱsoonȱasȱtheyȱrealizedȱthatȱdeathȱwasȱonȱitsȱway,ȱbecame
deeplyȱ concerned,ȱ notȱ withȱ anyȱ futureȱ profitȱ fromȱ theirȱ livestockȱ andȱ fieldsȱ andȱ fromȱ their
previousȱlabors,ȱbutȱwithȱconsumingȱimmediatelyȱwhateverȱcameȱtoȱhandȱbyȱanyȱmeansȱatȱtheir
disposal.ȱAndȱsoȱtheȱcattle,ȱtheȱasses,ȱtheȱsheep,ȱtheȱgoats,ȱtheȱpigs,ȱtheȱpoultry,ȱandȱevenȱtheȱdogs
(suchȱfaithfulȱcompanionsȱtoȱman),ȱdrivenȱfromȱtheirȱownȱplaces,ȱroamedȱaboutȱfreelyȱthrough
theȱ fields,ȱ whereȱ theȱ cropsȱ hadȱ beenȱ leftȱ unharvestedȱ andȱ indeedȱ uncutȱ (13).”ȱ Citedȱ from
Decameron,ȱtrans.ȱJ.ȱG.ȱNicholsȱ(NewȱYork:ȱEveryman’sȱLibrary,ȱ2009).ȱWeȱshouldȱbeȱcarefulȱwhen
usingȱtheȱtermȱ“country”ȱinȱtheȱDecameronȱbecauseȱBoccaccioȱconceivesȱruralȱspaceȱinȱvarious
ways,ȱ thusȱ suggestingȱ thatȱ whenȱ theȱ urbanȱ andȱ theȱ ruralȱ realitiesȱ interact,ȱ theyȱ oftenȱ share
similarities.
23
DomenicoȱMerlini,ȱSatiraȱcontroȱilȱvillanoȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ95;ȱseeȱalsoȱClaireȱCabaillot,“Laȱsatireȱdu
vilain”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ7–25.
24
SeeȱCorradoȱBarberis,ȱ“Iȱcaratteriȱoriginariȱdelȱmondoȱruraleȱitaliano”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ20),ȱ271.ȱBarberis
provokinglyȱstatesȱthatȱ“Laȱlinguaȱitalianaȱèȱunoȱstrumentoȱdelȱpopoloȱurbano”ȱ(271,ȱtheȱItalian
languageȱisȱanȱinstrumentȱofȱtheȱurbanȱpeople).ȱAȱmoreȱextensiveȱoverviewȱofȱtheȱquestionȱis
providedȱbyȱGianfrancoȱContini,ȱ“Laȱpoesiaȱrusticaleȱcomeȱcasoȱdiȱbilinguismo,”ȱUltimiȱesercizi
edȱelzeviriȱ(Turin:ȱEinaudi,ȱ1988),ȱ5–21.ȱ
25
UnlikeȱtheȱEnglishȱnounȱ“villain,”ȱwhichȱhasȱstrongȱmoralȱconnotationsȱ(i.e.,ȱevil),ȱinȱmodern
Italianȱtheȱnounȱandȱadjectiveȱ“villano”ȱisȱassociatedȱwithȱbaseȱandȱuneducatedȱbehavior.ȱSeeȱfor
exampleȱLoȱZingarelliȱ2001:ȱVocabolarioȱdellaȱlinguaȱitalianaȱdiȱNicolaȱZingarelli,ȱed.ȱMiroȱDogliotti,
LuigiȱRosiello,ȱandȱPaoloȱValesio.ȱ12thȱed.ȱ(Bologna:ȱZanichelli,ȱ2001),ȱthatȱdefinesȱ“villano”ȱas
“zotico”ȱ(churlish),ȱ“rozzo”ȱ(rude)ȱandȱ“incivile”ȱ(impolite),ȱ2020.ȱȱ
Theȱ“PeasantȱAuthor”ȱSatireȱinȱMedievalȱItaly
WhileȱscholarsȱhaveȱmainlyȱfocusedȱonȱtheȱantiȬpeasantȱsatire,ȱtheȱother,ȱparallel
modelȱofȱsatireȱhasȱbeenȱoverlooked.ȱDomenicoȱMerliniȱonlyȱhintsȱatȱaȱtypeȱof
satireȱthatȱheȱbelievedȱoriginatedȱinȱpopularȱcultureȱandȱportraysȱpeasantsȱasȱsly
victims,ȱ whoȱ evenȱ ifȱ oppressed,ȱ emergeȱ victoriousȱ fromȱ theirȱ powerfulȱ and
ruthlessȱoppressors.26ȱHeȱcallsȱthisȱmodelȱofȱsatireȱ“positiva”ȱinȱcontrastȱwithȱthe
oneȱ previouslyȱ mentioned,ȱ whichȱ heȱ callsȱ “negativa.”ȱ Evenȱ thoughȱ Merlini’s
terminologyȱ“positiva”ȱandȱ“negativa”ȱisȱtooȱbroad,ȱitȱcallsȱourȱattentionȱtoȱthe
variationsȱofȱtheȱsatiraȱdelȱvillanoȱgenre.ȱAccordingȱtoȱMerlini,ȱauthorsȱofȱtheȱsoȬ
calledȱ“satiraȱpositiva”ȱhadȱaȱconstructiveȱviewȱonȱrusticsȱandȱruralȱlifeȱandȱare
oftenȱ highlyȱ sophisticatedȱ asȱ theyȱ expressedȱ theirȱ criticismȱ againstȱ peasant
detractorsȱ eitherȱ withȱ sarcasmȱ orȱ byȱ impersonatingȱ peasants.ȱ Indeed,ȱ several
authorsȱinȱtheirȱsatiresȱmimicȱ(oftenȱindirectly)ȱpeasantsȱwhileȱridiculingȱvarious
membersȱofȱupperȱsocialȱclasses—suchȱasȱtheȱnobility,ȱtheȱclergy,ȱand—atȱaȱlater
time—theȱupperȱmiddleȱclassȱorȱmerchants.ȱInȱItalyȱthisȱtypeȱofȱsatireȱwasȱmainly
producedȱ byȱ jestersȱ orȱ giullariȱ andȱ byȱ poetsȱ fromȱ theȱ urbanȱ environment.ȱ By
pretendingȱtoȱbeȱpeasants,ȱtheseȱauthorsȱembracedȱruralȱlanguageȱandȱcultureȱin
orderȱtoȱserveȱtheirȱownȱagenda.
Theȱ“RitmoȱLaurenziano”ȱ(ca.ȱ1188–1207)ȱisȱoneȱofȱtheȱfirstȱknownȱtextsȱthat
couldȱbeȱlinkedȱtoȱtheȱ“peasantȬauthor”ȱtradition.ȱTheȱpoemȱdatesȱbackȱtoȱthe
twelfthȬcenturyȱandȱwasȱlikelyȱauthoredȱbyȱaȱnorthernȱItalianȱjesterȱ27:
Salvaȱloȱvescovoȱsenato,28ȱȱȱȱ
loȱmelliorȱc’umqueȱsiaȱnato,ȱ
ceȱ[dall’]oraȱfueȱsagratoȱȱȱȱ
tutt’allummaȱ‘lȱcericato.
NéȱFisolacoȱnéȱCato 5
26
DomenicoȱMerliniȱlinksȱthisȱproȬpeasantȱtraditionȱtoȱtheȱgenreȱofȱtheȱnovella;ȱseeȱMerlini,ȱSatira
controȱ ilȱ villanoȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 3),ȱ 3–4.ȱ Rossiȱ inȱ hisȱ reviewȱ criticizesȱ theȱ twoȱ termsȱ “positiva”ȱ and
“negativa”ȱdisagreeingȱonȱtheȱexistenceȱofȱsuchȱaȱdichotomy.ȱInstead,ȱheȱsupportsȱtheȱlikelihood
ofȱ aȱ singleȱ sourceȱ thatȱ couldȱ beȱ tracedȱ backȱ toȱ classicalȱ antiquity;ȱ seeȱ Russo,ȱ “Reviewȱ of
Merlini”(seeȱnoteȱ7),ȱ433.ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱnegativeȱreviewȱbyȱGastonȱParis,ȱReviewȱofȱMerlini,ȱSaggio
diȱricercheȱsullaȱsatiraȱcontroȱilȱvillano.ȱRomaniaȱ24ȱ(1895):ȱ142–45;ȱhereȱ144.ȱMicheleȱFeoȱsubtly
observesȱthatȱMerlini’sȱstudyȱneglectsȱtoȱexploreȱtheȱpeasantȱsatireȱauthoredȱbyȱtheȱnobility;ȱsee
Feo,ȱ“Dalȱpiusȱagricola”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ101.
27
TheȱRitmoȱLaurenzianoȱisȱcitedȱfromȱAntologiaȱdellaȱpoesiaȱitaliana:ȱDuecento,ȱed.ȱCesareȱSegreȱand
CarloȱOssolaȱ(Turin:ȱEinaudi,ȱ1999),ȱ7–9,ȱ553–54;ȱhereȱ7–8.ȱThisȱeditionȱfollowsȱtheȱoneȱbyȱArrigo
Castellani,ȱ“IlȱRitmoȱLaurenziano,”ȱStudiȱLinguisticiȱItalianiȱ12ȱ(1986):ȱ182–216;ȱseeȱalsoȱGianfranco
Contini,ȱPoetiȱdelȱDuecento,ȱvol.ȱ1ȱ(MilanȱandȱNaples:ȱRicciardi,ȱ1960),ȱ3–6.ȱTheȱEnglishȱtranslation
isȱmine.ȱ
28
Theȱtermȱ“senato”ȱlikelyȱrefersȱtoȱtheȱgenitiveȱ“aesinatis”ȱ(i.e.,ȱ“esinate”)ȱmeaningȱ“ofȱIesi.”ȱIesi
isȱaȱtownȱinȱtheȱcomuneȱofȱAnconaȱinȱtheȱMarcheȱregion;ȱseeȱSegreȱandȱOssola,ȱAntologiaȱdella
poesiaȱitaliana:ȱDuecentoȱ(seeȱnoteȱ27),ȱ7.
nonȱfueȱsíȱringratïato,
eȱ‘lȱpap’ȱlluiȱ[dalȱdestroȱl]ato
perȱsuoȱdrudoȱplúȱprivato.ȱ
Suoȱgentileȱvescovatoȱȱȱȱ
ben’èȱcresciutoȱeȱmelliorato. 10
L’apostolicoȱromanoȱȱȱȱ
loȱ[sagroeȱin]ȱLaterano.
SanȱBenedettoȱeȱsanȱGermanoȱȱȱȱ
‘lȱdestinoeȱd’esserȱsovrano
deȱtuttoȱregnoȱcristïano 15
peroeȱvenneȱdaȱLornano,
delȱparadìsȱdelitïano.
Çàȱnonȱfueȱques[to]ȱvillano!ȱ
daȱceȱ‘lȱmondoȱfueȱpaganoȱȱȱȱ
nonȱciȱsoȱtalȱmarchisciano. 20
Seȱmiȱdàȱcavalȱbalçano,ȱȱȱȱ
monsteroll’ȱalȱbonȱtoscano,
aȱloȱvescovoȱvolterrano,ȱȱȱȱ
cuiȱbendicenteȱbascioȱlaȱmanoȱ(.ȱ.ȱ.)ȱ
[Blessȱ theȱ bishopȱ fromȱ Iesi,ȱ /ȱ theȱ bestȱ oneȱ whoȱ wasȱ everȱ bornȱ /ȱ becauseȱ fromȱ the
momentȱheȱwasȱconsecratedȱ/ȱheȱenlightenedȱtheȱentireȱclergy.ȱ/ȱNeitherȱPhysiologus
norȱCatoȱ/ȱwasȱsoȱtalented,ȱ/ȱandȱ(stands)ȱonȱtheȱrightȱsideȱofȱtheȱPopeȱ/ȱasȱhisȱclosest
friend.ȱ /ȱ Hisȱ gallantȱ dioceseȱ /ȱ hasȱ grownȱ andȱ improvedȱ well.ȱ /ȱ Theȱ Romanȱ Popeȱ /
consecratedȱhimȱinȱLaterano.ȱ/ȱSt.ȱBenedictȱandȱSt.ȱGermainȱ/ȱassignedȱhimȱtoȱbeȱthe
rulerȱ/ȱofȱtheȱentireȱChristianȱlandȱ/ȱbecauseȱitȱcameȱformȱLornano,ȱ/ȱtheyȱrejoiceȱin
Paradise.ȱ/ȱHeȱneverȱwasȱaȱpeasant!ȱ/ȱEverȱsinceȱtheȱworldȱwasȱpaganȱ/ȱIȱhaveȱnever
knownȱsuchȱaȱMarchigiano.ȱ/ȱIfȱheȱgivesȱmeȱaȱwhiteȱhorse,ȱ/ȱIȱwillȱshowȱhimȱtoȱthe
goodȱTuscan,ȱ/ȱtheȱVolterranȱBishop,ȱ/ȱblessedȱbyȱhim,ȱIȱkissȱhisȱhand.]ȱ
Throughȱaȱflatteringȱandȱrusticȱtone,ȱtheȱanonymousȱjesterȱtriesȱtoȱconvinceȱan
unidentifiedȱbishopȱtoȱgiveȱhimȱaȱhorse,ȱperhapsȱasȱaȱcompensationȱforȱhisȱservice
asȱanȱentertainer.ȱInȱorderȱtoȱencourageȱhimȱfurther,ȱtheȱjesterȱsaysȱthatȱheȱwill
showȱ theȱ horseȱ toȱ theȱ bishopȱ ofȱ Volterraȱ (11–14);ȱ mostȱ likelyȱ theȱ Bishop
IldebrandinoȱdeiȱPannocchieschi.29ȱScholarsȱhaveȱdebatedȱtheȱidentityȱofȱtheȱfirst
bishopsȱtoȱwhomȱtheȱpoemȱisȱaddressed,ȱfocusingȱspecificallyȱonȱtheȱline:ȱ“Çàȱnon
fueȱques[to]ȱvillano!”ȱ(18,ȱHeȱneverȱwasȱaȱpeasant!).ȱMostȱinterpretationsȱpropose
thatȱ theȱ bishopȱ inȱ questionȱ wasȱ Villanoȱ Gaetani,ȱ Archbishopȱ ofȱ Pisa,ȱ thus
suggestingȱ theȱ punȱ onȱ theȱ termȱ “villano”[peasant]ȱ withȱ theȱ otherȱ “Villano”
[VillanoȱGaetani’sȱproperȱname].30ȱIfȱso,ȱtheȱauthorȱcouldȱjokeȱonȱtheȱfactȱthatȱthe
bishopȱisȱbothȱaȱ“Villano”ȱinȱwordȱandȱdeed.ȱAsȱMarcȱCiriglianoȱnotes,ȱtheȱpun
29
BishopȱIldebrandinoȱdeiȱPannocchieschiȱwasȱbishopȱfromȱ1184ȱtoȱ1211.ȱSeeȱFrancescoȱTorraca,ȱ“Su
laȱpiùȱanticaȱpoesiaȱToscana,”ȱRivistaȱd’Italiaȱ4.1ȱ(1901):ȱ229–49;ȱhereȱ243.
30
SeeȱGianfrancoȱContini,ȱPoetiȱdelȱDuecento,ȱvol.ȱ1ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ27),ȱ4.
mightȱ revealȱ “theȱ lightheartedȱ natureȱ ofȱ theȱ poem,ȱ whichȱ exploitsȱ theȱ tension
betweenȱ anȱ ecclesiastic’sȱ celestialȱ roleȱ ofȱ pointingȱ theȱ wayȱ toȱ heavenȱ andȱ the
materiallyȱorientedȱtasksȱofȱrunningȱaȱdiocese.”31ȱ
Theȱmostȱrecentȱinterpretationȱrefutesȱthisȱidentificationȱandȱadvocatesȱthatȱthe
bishopȱ inȱ questionȱ wasȱ insteadȱ Grimaldescoȱ ofȱ Iesi,ȱ asȱ alsoȱ confirmedȱ byȱ the
adjectiveȱ“senatore”ȱ(1,ȱofȱIesi).32ȱEvenȱifȱthisȱalternativeȱinterpretationȱexcludesȱthe
punȱ Villano/villano,ȱ theȱ poemȱ couldȱ stillȱ beȱ approachedȱ asȱ anȱ expressionȱ ofȱ a
satireȱ thatȱ isȱ notȱ directlyȱ hostileȱ toȱ peasants.ȱ Theȱ jesterȬauthorȱ usesȱ theȱ term
“villano”ȱtoȱaddressȱimpudentlyȱaȱprominentȱmemberȱofȱtheȱclergyȱwhoȱis,ȱmost
likelyȱ mockingly,ȱ juxtaposedȱ toȱ anotherȱ bishop.ȱ Furthermore,ȱ throughȱ his
irreverentȱ yetȱ coarseȱ language,ȱ theȱ giullareȱ seemsȱ toȱ hintȱ implicitlyȱ atȱ hisȱ own
humbleȱ origin,ȱ asȱ heȱ alsoȱ actsȱ asȱ aȱ subordinateȱ (23–24),ȱ perhapsȱ toȱ display
hyperbolicallyȱtheȱarchbishop’sȱsuperiorityȱandȱreinforceȱhisȱeulogy.ȱ
TheȱtendencyȱtoȱemployȱtopoiȱfromȱtheȱantiȬpeasantȱsatireȱinȱorderȱtoȱridicule
targetsȱotherȱthanȱpeasantsȱisȱalsoȱvisibleȱinȱotherȱthirteenthȬcenturyȱTuscanȱtexts.
Inȱ oneȱ ofȱ hisȱ mostȱ celebratedȱ canzone,ȱ Guittoneȱ d’Arezzoȱ usesȱ theȱ adjective
“villano”ȱassociatedȱwithȱtheȱtermȱ“malvagio”ȱ(evil)ȱandȱ“vil”ȱ(vile).ȱAsȱpreviously
noted,ȱtheȱtwoȱtermsȱ“villano”ȱandȱ“malvagio”ȱfrequentlyȱrecurȱinȱtheȱantiȬpeasant
satire.33ȱHowever,ȱcontraryȱtoȱanyȱ expectations,ȱGuittoneȱdoesȱnotȱemployȱthe
expressionȱ “villanoȱ malvagio”ȱ toȱ condemnȱ peasants.ȱ Instead,ȱ heȱ criticizes
prominentȱGhibellineȱcitizensȱfromȱArezzo,ȱsuchȱasȱpoliticiansȱandȱjudgesȱduring
theȱturbulentȱGuelphȱandȱGhibellineȱwarsȱ(ca.ȱ1256–1259)34:
Genteȱnoiosaȱeȱvillanaȱ
eȱmalvagiaȱeȱvilȱsignoria
eȱgiùdiciȱpien’ȱdiȱfalsia
fannoȱme,ȱlasso,ȱlaȱmiaȱterraȱodiare
eȱl’altruiȱforteȱamare.ȱ
[Destructiveȱandȱloutishȱpeopleȱ/ȱandȱevilȱandȱvileȱlordshipȱ/ȱandȱjudgesȱfullȱofȱdeceit
/ȱmakeȱme,ȱalas,ȱhateȱmyȱlandȱ/ȱandȱstronglyȱloveȱtheȱlandȱofȱothers.]ȱ
Guittone’sȱ powerfulȱ poemȱ employsȱ aȱ knownȱ satiricalȱ traditionȱ toȱ addressȱ a

differentȱsocialȱtarget.ȱWhileȱprojectingȱhisȱdisappointmentȱaboutȱtheȱwickedness
31
Marcȱ Cirigliano.ȱ Melancoliaȱ Poetica,ȱ Aȱ Dualȱ Languageȱ Anthologyȱ ofȱ Italianȱ Poetryȱ 1160–1560
(Leicester,ȱUK:ȱTroubador,ȱ2007),ȱ1–3;ȱhereȱ1.ȱ
32
SeeȱFrancescoȱTorraca,ȱ“SuȱlaȱpiùȱanticaȱpoesiaȱToscana,”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ29),ȱ239–41.ȱSeeȱalsoȱAntologia
dellaȱpoesiaȱitaliana:ȱDuecentoȱ(seeȱnoteȱ27),ȱ7.ȱLeoȱSpitzerȱinterpretsȱ“nonȱfueȱvillano”ȱasȱaȱ“familiar
expressionȱofȱeulogy;”ȱseeȱhisȱ“NotesȱtoȱtheȱTextȱofȱ‘RitmoȱLaurenziano,’”ȱItalicaȱ28.4ȱ(1951):
241–48;ȱhereȱ242.
33
Seeȱforȱexampleȱ“ilȱperfidoȱvillan,ȱmalvagio”ȱinȱinȱtheȱpoemȱ“Alfabetoȱsopraȱliȱvillani”;ȱcitedȱin
Merlini,ȱSatiraȱcontroȱilȱvillanoȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ225.ȱ
34
Citedȱ fromȱ Gianfrancoȱ Contini,ȱ Poetiȱ delȱ Duecento,ȱ Tomeȱ 1ȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 27),ȱ 14–19.ȱ Theȱ English
translationȱisȱmine.
andȱcorruptionȱofȱhisȱcompatriots,ȱheȱingeniouslyȱassociatesȱaȱknownȱterminology
focusingȱonȱtheȱurban—ratherȱthanȱrural—reality.ȱGuittone’sȱcontemporaryȱpoet,
theȱthirteenthȬcenturyȱFlorentineȱRusticoȱFilippi,ȱalsoȱemploysȱtheȱtermȱ“villano”
aimingȱ atȱ targetsȱ whichȱ doȱ notȱ belongȱ toȱ theȱ ruralȱ environment.ȱ Heȱ rather
ironicallyȱridiculesȱmembersȱfromȱtheȱnobility,ȱandȱmoreȱspecificallyȱFlorentine
noblewomen.35ȱHeȱclearlyȱdenigratesȱthemȱwithȱtermsȱthatȱreferȱtoȱtheȱliteraryȱand
culturalȱantiȬpeasantȱsatiricalȱtradition.ȱOneȱclearȱexampleȱisȱhisȱscurrilousȱsonnet
“Daȱcheȱguerraȱm’aveteȱincominciata”ȱ(Sinceȱyouȱhaveȱwagedȱwarȱagainstȱme)
directedȱatȱanȱunidentifiedȱ“donna”ȱ(5,ȱwoman),ȱlikelyȱaȱmemberȱofȱtheȱFlorentine
aristocracy.ȱTheȱridiculeȱreachesȱitsȱapexȱinȱtheȱfollowingȱlines:ȱ“Cheȱfosteȱputta
ilȱdieȱcheȱvoiȱnascesteȱ/ȱedȱioȱneȱlevaiȱsaggioȱneȱlaȱstallaȱ/ȱchéȱ‘lȱculoȱinȱterraȱtosto
percoteste,”ȱ(9–11,ȱthatȱyouȱwereȱaȱwhoreȱtheȱdayȱyouȱwereȱborn,ȱ/ȱIȱfiguredȱitȱout
inȱtheȱstableȱ/ȱbecauseȱyouȱinstantlyȱhitȱyourȱassȱonȱtheȱground).ȱAsȱFabianȱAlfie
notes,ȱ“Rusticoȱasksȱhisȱfemaleȱaddresseeȱtoȱrecallȱthatȱheȱknewȱsheȱwasȱnotȱa
virginȱwhenȱheȱpoundedȱherȱbottomȱagainstȱtheȱstallȱfloor.”36ȱThisȱassociation
betweenȱnoblewomenȱandȱstablesȱ“undoubtedlyȱassociatesȱthemȱwithȱlowȬborn
peasantryȱratherȱthanȱnoblewomen.”37ȱ
Moreover,ȱ Ceccoȱ Angiolieriȱ fromȱ Sienaȱ goesȱ evenȱ aȱ stepȱ further.ȱ While
irreverentlyȱinsultingȱhisȱcontemporaries,ȱheȱexplicitlyȱdeclaresȱthatȱoneȱofȱhis
sonnetsȱisȱanȱexampleȱofȱpeasantȱpoetry:ȱ“mottiȱnonȱbei,ȱmaȱrustichiȱeȱvillani”ȱ(not
refinedȱwords,ȱbutȱrusticȱandȱcoarse).38ȱEvenȱifȱassociatedȱwithȱtheȱnobility,ȱCecco
impersonatesȱ theȱ peasantȬauthorȱ whoȱ launchesȱ hisȱ criticismȱ throughȱ aȱ low
vernacularȱ style,ȱ thusȱ evokingȱ theȱ “villano.”ȱ Byȱ doingȱ so,ȱ heȱ offersȱ aȱ novel
perspectiveȱonȱtheȱpeasantȱauthorȱsatire,ȱbecauseȱheȱassociatesȱitȱnotȱmerelyȱwith
jesterȱperformers,ȱbutȱratherȱwithȱtheȱurbanȱandȱupperȬclassȱenvironment.ȱ
Finally,ȱtheȱfourteenthȬcenturyȱjesterȱCenneȱdellaȱChitarraȱridiculesȱtheȱknightȬ
poetȱFolgoreȱdaȱSanȱGimignianoȱbyȱperformingȱaȱparodyȱofȱhisȱcelebratedȱ“Sonetti
35
ThisȱisȱevidentȱfromȱtheȱnameȱofȱtheȱfemaleȱreceiversȱofȱmanyȱofȱRustico’sȱsonnetsȱ(i.e.,ȱMonna
Nese,ȱ orȱ Madonnaȱ Tana)ȱ andȱ theȱ useȱ ofȱ theȱ formalȱ pronounȱ “voi”—insteadȱ ofȱ theȱ informal
“tu”—whenȱheȱsardonicallyȱaddressesȱthem;ȱseeȱSilviaȱBuzzettiȱGallarati,ȱRusticoȱFilippi:ȱsonetti
satiriciȱeȱgiocosiȱ(Rome:ȱCarrocci,ȱ2005),ȱ154,ȱ178,ȱandȱ200.
36
Fabianȱ Alfie,ȱ “Yesȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ butȱ wasȱ itȱ funny?ȱ Ceccoȱ Angiolieri,ȱ Rusticoȱ Filippiȱ andȱ Giovanni
Boccaccio,”ȱ Laughterȱ inȱ theȱ Middleȱ Agesȱ andȱ Earlyȱ Modernȱ Times:ȱ Epistemologyȱ ofȱ aȱ Fundamental
HumanȱBehavior,ȱitsȱMeaning,ȱandȱConsequences,ȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassen.ȱFundamentalsȱofȱMedieval
andȱEarlyȱModernȱCultureȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱDeȱGruyter,ȱ2010),ȱ365–82;ȱhereȱ378ȱn.ȱ44.
37
Alfie,ȱ“Yes.ȱ.ȱ.ȱbutȱwasȱitȱfunny?”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ36),ȱ378.
38
Theȱsonnetȱinȱquestionȱisȱ“Chiȱdiceȱdelȱsuoȱpadreȱaltro,ȱch’onoreȱ/ȱlaȱlinguaȱgliȱdovrebbeȱesser
tagliata;”ȱ(1–2,ȱWhoȱsaysȱtoȱhisȱfatherȱotherȱthings,ȱratherȱthanȱhonorȱ/ȱshouldȱhaveȱhisȱtongue
cut);ȱSeeȱFabianȱAlfie,ȱComedyȱandȱCulture:ȱCeccoȱAngiolieri’sȱPoetryȱandȱLateȱMedievalȱSociety.ȱItalian
Perspectives,ȱ8ȱ(Leeds,ȱUK:ȱNorthernȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2002),ȱ141–43.ȱPerhapsȱthisȱincipitȱevokes
Isaiahȱ45:10:ȱ“Woeȱtoȱhimȱwhoȱsaysȱtoȱhisȱfather,ȱ‘Whatȱhaveȱyouȱbegotten?’”ȱCeccoȱisȱlikely
ridiculingȱbothȱhisȱownȱcomicȱpersonaȱ(asȱCeccoȱhimselfȱdoesȱinȱseveralȱvituperativeȱsonnets
againstȱhisȱownȱfather)ȱandȱalsoȱtheȱideologyȱofȱhisȱownȱcontemporaryȱ(andȱpossiblyȱtheȱSienese
Franciscanȱideology;ȱSeeȱFabianȱAlfie,ȱComedyȱandȱCulture,ȱ129–37).
de’mesi”ȱ(SonnetsȱofȱtheȱMonths).ȱInsteadȱofȱFolgore’sȱpositiveȱdescriptionsȱof
noblemenȱ andȱ knightlyȱ leisure,ȱ Cenneȱ providesȱ aȱ seriesȱ ofȱ sonnetsȱ that
hyperbolicallyȱdepictȱtheȱcrudeȱandȱdepravedȱlifeȱofȱpeasants.ȱInȱhisȱsonnetȱ“Di
maggio”ȱ(onȱMay),ȱCenneȱsubvertsȱFolgore’sȱversionȱbyȱsubstitutingȱhisȱpeaceful
andȱchivalrousȱsceneryȱwithȱaȱcomicȱruralȱsettingȱcharacterizedȱbyȱ“lavoratori”ȱ(2,
herdsmen),ȱandȱ“villanȱscapigliatiȱeȱgridatoriȱ/ȱde’ȱqual’ȱresolvanȱsìȱfattiȱsudori,ȱ/
cheȱ turbenȱ l’aireȱ sìȱ cheȱ maiȱ nonȱ cagli,”ȱ (6–8,ȱ peasantsȱ ruffledȱ andȱ loud,ȱ /ȱ who
emanateȱsuchȱbodyȱodors,ȱ/ȱthatȱtheyȱtroubleȱsoȱmuchȱtheȱairȱthatȱitȱneverȱsettles).39
Theȱdescriptionȱcontinuesȱwithȱ
altriȱvillanȱpoiȱfacendoviȱmance
diȱcipolleȱporrateȱeȱdiȱmarroni, 10
usandoȱinȱquestoȱgranȱgavazzeȱeȱciance:
inȱgiùȱletameȱedȱinȱaltoȱforconi;
vecchieȱeȱmassaiȱbaciarsiȱperȱleȱguance;
diȱpecoreȱeȱdiȱporciȱsiȱragioni.
[otherȱpeasantsȱwhoȱgiveȱyouȱasȱgiftsȱ/ȱonionsȱwithȱwartsȱandȱrapeseeds,ȱ/ȱwhile
engagingȱinȱbigȱrevelriesȱandȱcackles;ȱ/ȱmanureȱisȱdownȱandȱpitchforksȱareȱup;ȱ/
oldȱ womenȱ andȱ husbandmenȱ kissingȱ onȱ theȱ cheeks;ȱ /ȱ whileȱ discussingȱ about
sheepȱandȱpigs,9–14]
Whileȱ providingȱ aȱ vividȱ andȱ colorfulȱ pictureȱ ofȱ ruralȱ life,ȱ Cenneȱ discredits
Folgore’sȱidealsȱofȱchivalryȱandȱreplacesȱthemȱwithȱtheȱpragmaticȱpeasantȱreality,
characterizedȱbyȱunpleasantȱodors,ȱnoise,ȱandȱcoarseness.ȱByȱdoingȱso,ȱheȱalso
fostersȱaȱdialogueȱbetweenȱtwoȱsocialȱrealities,ȱbecauseȱheȱjuxtaposesȱhisȱpeasant
charactersȱ withȱ Folgore’sȱ knights.ȱ Otherȱ examplesȱ moreȱ explicitlyȱ stageȱ the
polemicȱ interactionȱ betweenȱ villaniȱ andȱ membersȱ ofȱ theȱ bourgeoisie.ȱ The
anonymousȱauthorȱofȱaȱcontrastoȱentitledȱ“Astuzieȱde’ȱvillaniȱsentenziose,ȱeȱbelle”
stagesȱaȱharshȱdisputeȱbetweenȱaȱgroupȱofȱcraftsmenȱandȱaȱgroupȱofȱpeasants.40
Bothȱgroupsȱshareȱanȱequalȱspaceȱinȱtheȱdebate,ȱbutȱtheȱpeasants’ȱremarksȱare
placedȱatȱtheȱconclusionȱofȱtheȱcontroversy.ȱByȱhavingȱtheȱlastȱwords,ȱtheyȱareȱable
toȱridiculeȱandȱdenounceȱpersuasivelyȱtheȱabusesȱofȱtheirȱcraftsmenȱdetractors.ȱA
furtherȱ developmentȱ ofȱ thisȱ trendȱ isȱ noticeableȱ inȱ theaterȱ throughȱ theȱ comic
personaȱ ofȱ Hellequin:ȱ theȱ peasantȱ wildȱ manȱ whoȱ developedȱ inȱ Frenchȱ passion
plays,ȱ andȱ wasȱ laterȱ transposedȱ toȱ theȱ Italianȱ stageȱ throughȱ theȱ maskȱ of
Arlecchino.41
39
Cenne’sȱsonnetȱisȱcitedȱfromȱCesareȱSegreȱandȱCarloȱOssola,ȱAntologiaȱdellaȱpoesiaȱitaliana:ȱDuecento
(seeȱnoteȱ27),ȱ470.ȱTheȱEnglishȱtranslationȱisȱmine.ȱ
40
SeeȱMerlini,ȱSatiraȱcontroȱilȱvillanoȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ13–18.ȱEvenȱthoughȱtheseȱdebateȱpoemsȱdateȱback
toȱtheȱsixteenthȱcentury,ȱitȱisȱlikelyȱthatȱsimilarȱexamplesȱfromȱanȱearlierȱperiodȱexisted.
41
IȱamȱindebtedȱtoȱDarioȱFoȱforȱthisȱconnectionȱbetweenȱtheȱpeasantȱauthorȱsatireȱandȱtheater,ȱand
moreȱspecificallyȱtoȱtheȱlaterȱtrendȱofȱtheȱCommediaȱdell’arte.ȱTheȱItalianȱtheaterȱadaptedȱtoȱthe
stageȱtheȱpopularȱFrenchȱHellequin,ȱi.e.,ȱtheȱwildȱmanȱpeasantȱfromȱtheȱforestȱwhichȱdatedȱback
Overall,ȱ theȱ “peasantȱ author”ȱ satireȱ seemsȱ wellȱ establishedȱ throughȱ a

heterogeneousȱgroupȱofȱauthorsȱandȱperformers.ȱItȱshowsȱthatȱbothȱjestersȱand
poetsȱfromȱvariousȱenvironmentsȱandȱsocialȱgroupsȱwereȱnotȱonlyȱfamiliarȱwith
theȱ antiȬpeasantȱ literaryȱ tradition,ȱ butȱ alsoȱ employedȱ itȱ toȱ launchȱ theirȱ own
sardonicȱ attacksȱ againstȱ differentȱ socialȱ andȱ politicalȱ targets,ȱ thusȱ craftingȱ an
alternativeȱsatiricalȱform.ȱEvenȱifȱtheȱmajorityȱofȱtheseȱauthorsȱareȱnotȱpeasant,
throughȱ aȱ comicȱ andȱ rusticȱ lexiconȱ theyȱ claimȱ toȱ represent—moreȱ orȱ less
overtly—theȱliteraryȱcategoryȱofȱ“peasantȱauthors”ȱexpressedȱthroughȱaȱmodelȱof
satireȱthatȱfunctionsȱinȱconjunctionȱwithȱtheȱother.
MatazoneȱdaȱCaligano’sȱSatiraȱdelȱvillano
Havingȱoutlinedȱtheseȱtwoȱmodelsȱofȱsatiresȱandȱtheirȱdynamics,ȱlet’sȱnowȱreturn
toȱMatazoneȱdaȱCaligano.ȱHisȱ284ȱlineȱvernacularȱpoemȱ“Nativitasȱrusticorumȱet
qualiterȱdebenȱtractari”ȱ(theȱbirthȱofȱpeasantsȱandȱhowȱoneȱshouldȱtreatȱthem)ȱis
recordedȱinȱtheȱlateȱfourteenthȱcenturyȱmanuscriptȱC.ȱ218ȱinf.ȱAsȱevidentȱfrom
politicalȱandȱhistoricalȱreferences,ȱitȱalmostȱcertainlyȱrefersȱtoȱanȱearlierȱoralȱjester
performance,ȱwhichȱcouldȱdateȱbackȱtoȱtheȱthirteenthȱorȱtheȱfourteenthȱcenturies.42
Theȱauthorȱofȱtheȱpoem,ȱtheȱgiullareȱMatazoneȱ(theȱmotleyȱfool)ȱexplicitlyȱmentions
hisȱpeasantȱoriginȱandȱassociationȱwithȱNorthernȱItalyȱbyȱaffirmingȱhisȱbelonging
toȱtheȱruralȱtownȱ“Caligano”ȱ(7).ȱ
PaulȱMeyerȱfirstȱfoundȱaȱtownȱnamedȱ“Calignano”ȱinȱLombardy,ȱnearȱtheȱcity
ofȱ Pavia,ȱ arguingȱ thatȱ itȱ couldȱ beȱ theȱ townȱ mentionedȱ byȱ Matazone.43ȱ Suchȱ a
possibilityȱisȱconfirmedȱbyȱtheȱauthor’sȱuseȱofȱaȱhybridȱdialectȱandȱpoeticȱmeter,
whichȱconsignȱtheȱcompositionȱtoȱfourteenthȬcenturyȱLombardy—notȱtoȱmention
toȱ medievalȱ Passionȱ Plays;ȱ Darioȱ Foȱ (2011,ȱ Septemberȱ 6).ȱ Telephoneȱ interviewȱ (conductedȱ and
recordedȱbyȱme).ȱSeeȱalsoȱDarioȱFo,ȱManualeȱminimoȱdell’attore,ȱ2ndȱed.ȱ(Turin:ȱEinaudi,ȱ1987);
translatedȱbyȱJoeȱFarrell,ȱDarioȱFo:ȱTheȱTricksȱofȱtheȱTradeȱ(London:ȱMethuenȱDrama,ȱ1991);ȱPaolo
Toschi,ȱLeȱoriginiȱdelȱteatroȱItalianoȱ(Turin:ȱEinaudi,ȱ1955),ȱ196–212.ȱSeeȱalsoȱTimothyȱHusband,ȱThe
Wildȱ Man:ȱ Medievalȱ Mythȱ andȱ Symbolism.ȱ Catalogueȱ ofȱ anȱ Exhibitionȱ Heldȱ atȱ theȱ Cloisters,
MetropolitanȱMuseumȱofȱArtȱ(NewȱYork:ȱMetropolitanȱMuseumȱofȱArt,ȱ1980).
42
Matazone’sȱpoemȱisȱrecordedȱinȱtwoȱfoliosȱ(i.e.,ȱ54rȱandȱ54ȱv)ȱthatȱwereȱaddedȱatȱtheȱendȱofȱthe
MSȱ C.ȱ 218ȱ Inf.ȱ Aȱ lateȱ fourteenthȬcenturyȱ handȱ recordedȱ theȱ poem,ȱ asȱ evidentȱ fromȱ bothȱ the
manuscriptȱhandȱandȱtheȱprecedingȱfolios,ȱwhichȱcontainȱtheȱexhortationsȱbyȱtheȱVicentineȱauthor
Antonioȱ Loschiȱ (1365–1441),ȱ “Antoniiȱ Lusciȱ Vicentiniȱ carmenȱ adȱ ducamȱ Mediolani”ȱ (53r–v).
Scholarsȱhaveȱdebatedȱaboutȱtheȱdatingȱofȱthisȱpoem,ȱespeciallyȱinȱreferenceȱtoȱtheȱexpression
“lezeȱdeȱl’imperator”ȱ(69–70,ȱemperor’sȱlaw);ȱseeȱCesareȱMolinariȱ“IlȱdettoȱdeiȱvillaniȱdiȱMatazone
daȱCaligano”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ5),ȱ5ȱn.3;ȱandȱVittorioȱDornetti,“MatazoneȱdaȱCaligano”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ5),ȱ24ȱn.
12.ȱ
43
Paulȱ Meyer,ȱ “Ditȱ surȱ lesȱ Vilains”ȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 2),ȱ 14.ȱ However,ȱ theȱ manuscriptȱ clearlyȱ reads
“Caligano.”ȱItȱcouldȱlikelyȱbeȱaȱscribalȱerror,ȱorȱperhapsȱMatazone’sȱintentionalȱdistortionȱofȱthe
nameȱtoȱavoidȱtoȱexplicitlyȱnamingȱtheȱtown.ȱ
theȱfactȱthatȱtheȱpoemȱisȱcontainedȱinȱaȱLombardȱmanuscript.44ȱTheȱlongȱtextȱcould
beȱapproachedȱasȱaȱwrittenȱrecordȱofȱanȱoral,ȱstagedȱperformance,ȱwhichȱinȱthe
originalȱformȱwasȱexpectedȱtoȱfeatureȱdialoguesȱandȱsoliloquies,ȱasȱwellȱasȱprops
andȱnumerousȱcharacters.45ȱOverall,ȱtheȱpoemȱcouldȱbeȱdividedȱinȱfiveȱparts.ȱInȱthe
firstȱpartȱMatazoneȱaddressesȱhisȱaudienceȱandȱintroducesȱhimselfȱ(orȱhisȱcomic
persona)46:ȱ
Aȱvoy,ȱsegnorȱeȱcavaler,
Siȱloȱcontoȱvolonter
eȱaȱtutaȱbonaȱzente,
tutaȱcomunamente.
Intenditiȱquestaȱraxone,ȱ 5
laȱqualȱfeȱMatazone,
eȱfoȱdaȱCaligano
eȱnaqueȱd’unȱvilano;
eȱd’unȱvilanoȱfoȱnato,
[Toȱyou,ȱOȱlordȱandȱknight,ȱ/ȱIȱwouldȱbeȱgladȱtoȱnarrateȱ/ȱandȱtoȱallȱtheȱgoodȱpeople,
/ȱgatheredȱtogether.ȱ/ȱUnderstandȱthisȱpoem,ȱ/ȱcreatedȱbyȱMatazoneȱ/ȱwhoȱhailsȱfrom
Caliganoȱ/ȱbornȱasȱaȱpeasant;ȱ/ȱandȱofȱaȱpeasantȱIȱwasȱborn.ȱ(1–9)]ȱ
Byȱdoingȱso,ȱMatazoneȱimmediatelyȱassociatesȱhimselfȱwithȱtheȱpeasantȱauthor
satiricalȱtradition.ȱHowever,ȱsuchȱallegedȱpeasantȱoriginȱisȱrenderedȱproblematic
whenȱ heȱ immediatelyȱ downgradesȱ itȱ byȱ theatricallyȱ confidingȱ hisȱ regretsȱ for
belongingȱtoȱsuchȱaȱlowȱclassȱ(10).ȱAdoptingȱanȱapparentlyȱduplicitousȱattitude,
heȱthenȱpraisesȱtheȱ“cortexi”ȱ(nobles)ȱwhoȱtaughtȱhimȱtoȱbeȱaȱgoodȱcivilizedȱman
despiteȱhisȱbaseȱrusticȱnatureȱ(11–19).ȱ
Maȱnoȱperȱloȱsoȱgrato,ȱ 10
peroȱcheȱinȱvilania
noȱvoseȱaverȱcompagnia
seȱnoȱdaȱgliȱcortexi,
44
Onȱtheȱbottomȱofȱ54r.ȱthereȱisȱtheȱdateȱwhichȱrefersȱtoȱtheȱdateȱofȱpurchaseȱofȱtheȱmanuscript,ȱ“28
Lulius,ȱ78”ȱ[Julyȱ28ȱ(15)78],ȱbyȱtheȱLombardȱeducatorȱandȱhumanistȱFrancescoȱCiceriȱ(1521–1596);
seeȱtheȱEnciclopediaȱitalianaȱTreccani:ȱhttp://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/ȱfrancescoȬciceri_(DizionarioȬ
Biografico)ȱ(lastȱaccessedȱNov.ȱ14,ȱ2011).ȱSeeȱalsoȱGianfrancoȱContini,ȱPoetiȱdelȱDuecentoȱ(seeȱnote
4),ȱ 790.ȱ Itȱ isȱ worthȱ notingȱ thatȱ becauseȱ Matazoneȱ wasȱ aȱ jester,ȱ heȱ couldȱ haveȱ mimickedȱ the
Lombardȱdialectȱandȱmeterȱtoȱdramatizeȱhisȱperformance,ȱthusȱtheȱfactȱthatȱheȱdeclaresȱtoȱbeȱfrom
Caliganoȱ shouldȱ alsoȱ beȱ takenȱ withȱ cautionȱ asȱ itȱ couldȱ beȱ Matazone’sȱ creationȱ ofȱ aȱ poetic
performance.ȱ
45
CesareȱMolinariȱemphasizesȱtheȱperformativeȱvalueȱofȱthisȱtext,ȱandȱthusȱraisesȱimportantȱpoints
aboutȱtheȱquestionȱofȱinterpretingȱitȱwithoutȱknowingȱtheȱoriginalȱpunctuation,ȱtone,ȱandȱpauses;
seeȱhisȱ“Ilȱdettoȱdeiȱvillani”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ5),ȱ7–8.ȱTheȱfactȱthatȱ“nativitasȱrusticorum”ȱwasȱfirstȱand
foremostȱaȱjesterȱperformance,ȱshouldȱbeȱconsideredȱwhenȱattemptingȱtoȱdateȱthisȱtext,ȱwhich
likelyȱrefersȱtoȱaȱmuchȱearlierȱperformance.
46
Iȱ transcribedȱ theȱ poemȱ diplomaticallyȱ fromȱ theȱ manuscriptȱ C.ȱ 218ȱ Inf.ȱ heldȱ atȱ theȱ Biblioteca
AmbrosianaȱinȱMilan,ȱwithȱsomeȱminorȱadaptations.ȱTheȱEnglishȱtranslationȱisȱmine.
daȱchiȱbontàȱimprexi
perȱbonaȱnutritura;ȱ 15
maȱfoȱcontraȱnatura:
cognosenzaȱloȱvole,
naturaȱsìȱs’enȱdole.
Peroȱnoȱtaxoȱmiga,
anzȱèȱmesterȱcheȱdigaȱ 20
costumoȱdiȱvilan
cheȱmeȱvaȱperȱleȱmanȱ
[butȱIȱamȱnotȱsoȱgratefulȱforȱthat,ȱ/ȱbecauseȱpeasantryȱ/ȱneverȱwishedȱforȱcompanyȱ/
especiallyȱtheȱoneȱofȱcourteousȱmen,ȱ/ȱfromȱwhomȱIȱlearnedȱgoodnessȱ/ȱbecauseȱofȱmy
goodȱupbringing;ȱ/ȱbutȱIȱlearnedȱitȱagainstȱnature:ȱ/ȱasȱcultureȱwishes,ȱ/ȱnatureȱthus
regretsȱit./ȱButȱIȱamȱnotȱkeepingȱquiet,ȱ/ȱindeedȱitȱisȱmyȱjobȱtoȱtellȱ/ȱaboutȱtheȱcustom
ofȱtheȱpeasantȱ/ȱthatȱforȱmeȱitȱcomesȱinȱhandy.ȱ (1–22)]
Hereȱtheȱjesterȱseemsȱtoȱrepudiateȱdisrespectfullyȱhisȱownȱnatureȱasȱheȱintroduces
theȱ nextȱ sequenceȱ ofȱ hisȱ performance.ȱ Thisȱ secondȱ partȱ featuresȱ aȱ dispute,
expressedȱ inȱ directȱ speech,ȱ betweenȱ aȱ “villano”ȱ andȱ hisȱ “signore”ȱ orȱ lord.
Matazoneȱexpressivelyȱdisclosesȱtheȱcontroversyȱthroughȱaȱveryȱsarcasticȱtone,
whichȱisȱevidentȱbothȱinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱtheȱstoryȱandȱinȱtheȱwordȱchoice.ȱSuch
sarcasmȱrendersȱtheȱpoemȱobscure,ȱbecauseȱitȱisȱnotȱclearȱifȱMatazoneȱcompletely
supportsȱ theȱ lordȱ orȱ takesȱ theȱ peasant’sȱ side.ȱ Theȱ argumentȱ isȱ causedȱ byȱ the
peasant’sȱinabilityȱtoȱshareȱhisȱgoodsȱwithȱhisȱ“plan”ȱ(24,ȱmeek)ȱlord:ȱ“Siȱtuȱqueȱfa
loȱ vilanȱ /ȱ alȱ soȱ segnorȱ chiȱ eȱ plan?ȱ /ȱ Elȱ noȱ geȱ dariaȱ maiȱ tantoȱ /ȱ chelȱ nogeȱ toga
altrettanto”ȱ(23–26,ȱDoȱyouȱknowȱwhatȱtheȱpeasantȱdoesȱ/ȱtoȱhisȱmeekȱlord?ȱ/ȱHe
wouldȱnotȱeverȱgiveȱhimȱmoreȱ/ȱifȱheȱdoesȱnotȱtakeȱasȱmuch).ȱ
Inȱotherȱwords,ȱtheȱpeasantȱwouldȱnotȱgiveȱmoreȱtoȱhisȱlordsȱunlessȱheȱtakes
fromȱhimȱsomethingȱofȱequalȱvalue.47ȱOnceȱtheȱlordȱdoesȱnotȱmeetȱtheȱvillano’s
“socialist”ȱclaim,ȱtheȱlatterȱcomplainsȱdirectlyȱinȱfrontȱofȱhimȱ(27–30).ȱHeȱreminds
hisȱlordȱhowȱtheȱmaster’sȱfatherȱandȱancestorsȱwereȱmuchȱfairerȱthanȱheȱ(31–32),
andȱfinallyȱthreatensȱtoȱleaveȱhimȱbecauseȱheȱisȱsureȱthatȱwithȱGod’sȱhelp,ȱheȱwill
certainlyȱfindȱaȱmoreȱhonorableȱmasterȱ(37–40).ȱDuringȱthisȱdynamicȱexchange,ȱa
thirdȱcharacterȱisȱthenȱintroduced,ȱaȱ“vilana”ȱorȱfemaleȱpeasant.ȱTheȱjesterȱwas
probablyȱresponsibleȱforȱperformingȱtheȱsceneȱbyȱhimself,ȱactingȱoutȱallȱtheȱthree
characters.ȱItȱisȱnotableȱthatȱMatazoneȱcontinuesȱtoȱinterruptȱtheȱactionȱwithȱhis
ownȱcunningȱandȱmordantȱremarks:ȱ
Zòȱsedevaȱunaȱvilana
chiȱpetenavaȱstopaȱonȱlana;
elȱsegnorȱperȱlìȱpasava
etȱelaȱl’ovraȱlasava;
47
Molinariȱinterpretsȱtheseȱlinesȱdifferently,ȱbelievingȱthatȱtheȱpeasantȱisȱaccusedȱofȱrobbingȱhisȱlord;
seeȱMolinari,ȱ“Ilȱdettoȱdeiȱvillano”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ5),ȱ10–11.ȱ
alȱcelȱlevaȱleȱmane, 45
conȱbochaȱdixeȱplane:
“Meser,ȱvendetaȱfay
deȱcoluȱcheȱvaȱlay.”
MaȱuncaȱDeȱnoȱfaza
cheȱtalȱcosaȱIeȱplaza, 50
cheȱnesunȱzentilȱhomo
habiaȱniȱsìȱniȱcomo,
niȱmalaȱnominanza,
s’elȱnoȱfoseȱferùȱdeȱlanza
inȱstormoȱonȱinȱbatalia. 55
Deȱquelaȱnoȱm’enȱcalia!
Maȱloȱsegnorȱcomandava
eȱconȱfurorȱparlava:
“Piateȱqueloȱvilano,
ligategeȱleȱmano, 60
metitelȱinȱpresone!ȱ(.ȱ.ȱ.)ȱ
[Downȱbelowȱwasȱsittingȱaȱfemaleȱpeasantȱ/ȱwhoȱwasȱteasingȱtangledȱwool;ȱ/ȱtheȱlord
wasȱthereȱpassingȱbyȱ/ȱandȱsheȱinterruptedȱherȱwork;ȱ/ȱroseȱherȱhandsȱtoȱheaven,ȱ/
throughȱ herȱ lipsȱ softlyȱ said:ȱ /ȱ “Lord,ȱ castȱ yourȱ vengeanceȱ /ȱ towardȱ himȱ whoȱ goes
there.”ȱ/ȱButȱGodȱdoesȱnothingȱbutȱ/ȱwhatȱHeȱpleases,ȱ/ȱsoȱthatȱnoȱcourteousȱmanȱ/ȱgets
anyȱevilȱ/ȱneitherȱbadȱreputation,ȱ/ȱunlessȱheȱgetsȱwoundedȱbyȱaȱspear/ȱduringȱwarȱor
inȱbattle.ȱ/ȱOfȱthatȱoneȱIȱdoȱnotȱcare!ȱ/ȱButȱtheȱlordȱcommandedȱ/ȱandȱwasȱtalkingȱwith
furor:ȱ/ȱ“Seizeȱthatȱpeasant,ȱ/ȱbindȱhisȱhands,ȱ/ȱputȱhimȱinȱjailȱ!”ȱ (41–61)]
Afterȱ theȱ villano’sȱ reproach,ȱ hisȱ supposedlyȱ meekȱ masterȱ angrilyȱ ordersȱ his
imprisonment.ȱTheȱbriefȱintermissionȱofȱtheȱfemaleȱpeasantȱcouldȱserveȱasȱaȱdevice
toȱ releaseȱ theȱ tensionȱ betweenȱ theȱ twoȱ characters,ȱ butȱ itȱ isȱ introducedȱ inȱ very
graphicȱterms.48ȱInȱaddition,ȱMatazoneȱobservesȱtheȱscene,ȱapparentlyȱtakingȱthe
sideȱofȱtheȱlord,ȱandȱclearlyȱdismissesȱherȱbyȱsayingȱ“Deȱquelaȱnoȱm’enȱcalia!”ȱ(56,
ofȱthatȱoneȱIȱdoȱnotȱcare).49ȱHowever,ȱtheȱroleȱofȱherȱcurseȱisȱambiguousȱbecause
itȱpowerfullyȱdisruptsȱtheȱcourseȱofȱtheȱnarration.ȱEvenȱthoughȱsheȱputsȱaȱcurseȱon
theȱlordȱinȱaȱveryȱdiscreetȱway,ȱtheȱpublicȱhearsȱherȱpetitionȱthatȱisȱdirectedȱtoward
God.ȱ Finally,ȱ theȱ authorȱ suggestsȱ thatȱ anyȱ actȱ ofȱ vengeanceȱ castȱ byȱ menȱ is
ultimatelyȱ futileȱ (49–55),ȱ yetȱ theȱ lordȱ paradoxicallyȱ engagesȱ inȱ hisȱ ownȱ actȱ of
vengeanceȱ againstȱ theȱ peasantȱ whenȱ heȱ seizesȱ him.ȱ Thisȱ intriguingȱ sketchȱ is
renderedȱevenȱmoreȱproblematicȱbyȱtheȱlord’sȱjustificationȱforȱtheȱimprisonment
ofȱhisȱvillano:ȱ
48
AsȱMolinariȱalsoȱobserves,ȱunlikeȱtheȱlord,ȱsheȱisȱdescribedȱveryȱvividlyȱandȱaccurately,ȱsinceȱthe
authorȱspecifiesȱnotȱonlyȱherȱaction,ȱbutȱalsoȱherȱattitude.ȱMolinariȱalsoȱbelievesȱthatȱsheȱwas
meantȱtoȱbeȱanȱoldȱpeasantȱwoman;ȱhowever,ȱthisȱsuppositionȱisȱnotȱsupportedȱanywhereȱinȱthe
story;ȱseeȱMolinariȱ“Ilȱdettoȱdeiȱvillani”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ5),ȱ12.ȱ
49
However,ȱtheȱpronounȱ“quela”ȱ(thatȱone)ȱcouldȱalsoȱreferȱtoȱtheȱnounȱ“lanza”ȱ(spear).
“Cheȱquestoȱchiȱvolȱlaȱlezeȱ
deȱl’imperadorȱdire,ȱ 70
cheȱloȱvilanȱeȱloȱfeo
deȱeserȱtutoȱmeo
eȱd’ogniȱbonȱsegnore
chiȱseȱmantenȱaȱhonore.”ȱ
[“Becauseȱ thisȱ isȱ whatȱ theȱ lawȱ /ȱ ofȱ theȱ emperorȱ means,ȱ /ȱ thatȱ theȱ peasantȱ andȱ the
fiefdomȱ/ȱmustȱbeȱallȱmineȱ/ȱandȱofȱeveryȱgoodȱlord/ȱwhoȱpreservesȱhisȱhonor.”ȱ(69–74)]
Theȱ lordȱ invokesȱ theȱ “lezeȱ deȱ l’imperatore”ȱ (69–70,ȱ emperor’sȱ law),ȱ explicitly
alludingȱtoȱtheȱLegesȱaugustalesȱorȱConstitutionsȱofȱMelfi:ȱAȱlawȬcodeȱpromulgated
inȱAugustȱ1231ȱbyȱtheȱselfȬproclaimedȱImperatorȱRomanorumȱFrederickȱII.ȱScholars
haveȱ notedȱ thatȱ thisȱ referenceȱ couldȱ suggestȱ thatȱ theȱ poemȱ emergedȱ fromȱ the
thirteenthȬcenturyȱ feudalȱ tradition,ȱ butȱ itȱ alsoȱ confirmsȱ thatȱ theȱ poemȱ likely
circulatedȱinȱLombardyȱduringȱtheȱfourteenthȱandȱevenȱfifteenthȱcenturiesȱduring
theȱproȬimperialȱruleȱofȱtheȱViscontiȱDynasty.50ȱTheȱLegesȱaugustalesȱintroduced
newȱregulationsȱpertainingȱtoȱtheȱ“servitùȱdellaȱgleba”ȱorȱserfȱpracticeȱappliedȱto
territoriesȱ“populatedȱbyȱLombards,ȱGreekȱandȱevenȱnonȬChristians.”51ȱ
Theseȱregulationsȱaimedȱatȱeliminatingȱspecialȱprivilegesȱofȱtheȱnobilityȱand
ensuredȱtheȱ“protectionȱofȱtheȱdefencelessȱagainstȱseizureȱorȱusurpation”ȱandȱin
particularȱsafeguardedȱ“theȱpeasant,ȱwhoseȱabilityȱtoȱdefendȱhisȱrightȱtoȱlandȱwas
weakest.”52ȱ Furthermore,ȱ sinceȱ theȱ midȬthirteenthȱ century,ȱ variousȱ northern
comuniȱ abolishedȱ theȱ serfȱ practicesȱ andȱ aȱ newȱ typeȱ ofȱ contractualȱ system
developed.ȱ Itȱ wasȱ calledȱ theȱ mezzadriaȱ “underȱ whichȱ theȱ peasantȱ andȱ the
landownerȱeachȱreceivedȱ50ȱpercentȱofȱtheȱproduce.”53ȱBesidesȱtheȱ“emperorȱlaw,”
evenȱ localȱ Lombardȱ statutesȱ prohibitedȱ lordsȱ fromȱ burdeningȱ andȱ oppressing
50
CesareȱMolinariȱstatesȱthatȱtheȱ“lezeȱdeȱl’imperatore”ȱreferenceȱsuggestsȱthatȱtheȱpoemȱlikely
emergesȱinȱtheȱthirteenthȱcentury;ȱseeȱhisȱ“Ilȱdettoȱdeiȱvillani,”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ5),ȱ5ȱn.3.ȱInstead,ȱVittorio
DornettiȱbelievesȱthatȱthisȱallusionȱconfirmsȱthatȱtheȱpoemȱlikelyȱrelatedȱtoȱtheȱbothȱfourteenthȬ
andȱ fifteenthȬcenturyȱ Lombardy,ȱ becauseȱ theȱ Viscontiȱ Lordsȱ associatedȱ themselvesȱ withȱ the
empireȱ asȱ evidentȱ fromȱ theirȱ titleȱ ofȱ “vicariȱ imperiali,”ȱ whichȱ evokedȱ Frederickȱ II’sȱ imperial
legacy;ȱ seeȱ Dornettiȱ “Matazoneȱ daȱ Caligano”ȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 5),ȱ 24ȱ n.ȱ 12.ȱ Inȱ myȱ opinion,ȱ both
possibilitiesȱareȱplausibleȱbecauseȱtheȱjester’sȱperformanceȱcouldȱrightlyȱapplyȱtoȱbothȱperiods.
Thus,ȱ theȱ poemȱ wasȱ mostȱ likelyȱ authoredȱ duringȱ theȱ thirteenthȱ centuryȱ andȱ continuously
performed,ȱperhapsȱwithȱvariations,ȱthroughoutȱtheȱfourteenthȱandȱfifteenthȱcenturies.
51
DavidȱAbulafia,ȱFrederickȱII:ȱAȱMedievalȱEmperorȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱOxford:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,
1988),ȱ203.
52
Abulafia,ȱFrederickȱIIȱ(seeȱnoteȱ51),ȱ139.
53
SeeȱJaneȱLaurent,ȱ“TheȱPeasantȱinȱItalianȱAgrarianȱTreatises,”ȱAgriculturalȱHistoryȱ58.4ȱ(1984):
565–83;ȱhereȱ565.ȱIfȱweȱconsiderȱtheȱmezzadriaȱtradition,ȱtheȱversesȱinȱwhichȱtheȱrusticȱexpresses
hisȱdesireȱtoȱreceiveȱequalȱshareȱfromȱhisȱlordȱassumeȱaȱdifferentȱvalue:ȱ“noȱgeȱdariaȱmaiȱtantoȱ/
chelȱnogeȱtogaȱaltrettanto”ȱ(25–26,ȱHeȱwouldȱnotȱeverȱgiveȱhimȱmoreȱ/ȱifȱheȱdoesȱnotȱtakeȱas
much).
peasants.54ȱ Ifȱ weȱ considerȱ theseȱ historicalȱ andȱ legalȱ developments,ȱ theȱ lord’s
statementȱ seemsȱ highlyȱ controversial—andȱ evenȱ unlawful—especiallyȱ his
autocraticȱinterpretationȱofȱtheȱlaw,ȱwhichȱinȱhisȱviewȱmeansȱthatȱ“loȱvilanȱeȱloȱfeo
/ȱde’ȱeserȱtutoȱmeo”ȱ(71–72,ȱtheȱpeasantȱandȱtheȱfiefdomȱ/ȱmustȱbeȱallȱmine).ȱ
Afterȱthisȱprovocativeȱstatement,ȱtheȱjesterȱresumesȱhisȱambiguousȱmonologue
andȱreiteratesȱthatȱdueȱtoȱhisȱunabashedȱnature,ȱonlyȱtheȱvillanoȱisȱtoȱblameȱforȱthis
dispute.ȱ Theȱ poemȱ continuesȱ withȱ aȱ thirdȱ part,ȱ whichȱ describesȱ theȱ shameful
nativityȱofȱtheȱpeasant,ȱbornȱfromȱtheȱflatulenceȱofȱaȱdonkey:
Maȱloȱvilanȱpurȱseȱrampogna,ȱ 75
perȱch’elȱnoȱseȱvergogna,
chéȱs’elȱseȱvergognase
eȱbenȱseȱperpensase
eȱaveseȱinȱmemoria
comoȱfoȱl’istoriaȱ 80
deȱsoaȱnatevità,
voyoȱcheȱvuȱintenda:
Làȱzoxo,ȱinȱunoȱhostero,
sìȱeraȱunȱsomero;
deȱdréȱsì’ȱféȱunȱsonoȱ 85
sìȱgrandeȱcomeȱunȱtono:
deȱquelȱmalvaxioȱvento
nascèȱelȱvilanȱpuzolento.ȱ
ȱ
[Butȱtheȱpeasantȱevenȱifȱheȱreproaches,ȱ/ȱbecauseȱheȱdoesȱnotȱfeelȱshame,ȱ/ȱifȱonlyȱhe
wereȱashamedȱ/ȱandȱreflectedȱwellȱ/ȱandȱrememberedȱ/ȱhowȱwasȱtheȱstoryȱ/ȱofȱhis
nativity,ȱ/ȱIȱwantȱyouȱallȱtoȱgetȱthisȱstraight:ȱ/ȱDownȱthere,ȱinȱanȱhostel,ȱ/ȱthereȱwasȱa
donkey;ȱ/ȱfromȱbehindȱheȱmadeȱaȱsoundȱ/ȱasȱloudȱasȱthunder:ȱ/ȱFromȱthatȱevilȱwindȱ/
wasȱbornȱtheȱstinkyȱpeasant.ȱ (75–88)]
Hereȱ Matazone,ȱ throughȱ hisȱ insolentȱ remark,ȱ perhapsȱ intendedȱ toȱ recreateȱ a
parodyȱofȱGenesisȱ1.2,ȱsinceȱtheȱ“vento”ȱorȱwindȱderisivelyȱreechoesȱtheȱspiritȱof
Godȱ thatȱ createdȱ Adam.55ȱ Theȱ factȱ thatȱ theȱ settingȱ ofȱ thisȱ nativityȱ isȱ alsoȱ an
54
Seeȱforȱexampleȱtheȱ1243ȱVercelliȱStatute,ȱregulatedȱbyȱLombardȱlaw,ȱwhichȱinȱDeȱlibertadeȱet
franchitioneȱhominumȱetȱrusticorumȱprohibitedȱnoblesȱfromȱburdeningȱpeasantsȱwithȱtaxesȱand
oppressions;ȱcitedȱinȱCorradoȱBarberis,ȱ“Iȱcaratteriȱoriginariȱdelȱmondoȱruraleȱitaliano”ȱ(seeȱnote
20),ȱ273.ȱ
55
ForȱmoreȱonȱtheȱconnectionȱbetweenȱfartsȱandȱGenesis,ȱseeȱValerieȱAllen,ȱOnȱFarting:ȱLanguageȱand
LaughterȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges.ȱTheȱNewȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(NewȱYork:ȱPalgraveȱMacmillan,ȱ2007),ȱ64.ȱAn
interestingȱvariationȱofȱtheȱthemeȱofȱfartsȱinȱrelationȱtoȱpeasantsȱisȱinȱRutebeuf’sȱfabliauxȱwhere
aȱdevilȱmistakesȱaȱpeasant’sȱfartȱforȱhisȱsoulȱandȱbringsȱitȱtoȱhellȱinȱaȱsack;ȱ“noȱoneȱcanȱtellȱthe
differenceȱbetweenȱaȱchurl’sȱsoulȱandȱhisȱfart,ȱsoȱdebasedȱisȱpeasantȱnature.”ȱCitedȱinȱAllen,ȱOn
Farting,ȱ67.ȱForȱmoreȱinformationȱonȱtheȱrelationȱbetweenȱfabliauxȱandȱpeasantȱsatire,ȱseeȱPenny
Simons’sȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolume,ȱ“RuralȱSpaceȱandȱTransgressiveȱSpaceȱinȱBérengerȱauȱlonc
cul.”ȱTheȱoldȱFrenchȱthirteenthȬcenturyȱfabliauxȱBérengerȱauȱloncȱculȱcouldȱbeȱjuxtaposedȱtoȱanother
Frenchȱ poem,ȱ theȱ eleventhȬcenturyȱ comicȱ Latinȱ elegiacȱ poemȱ “Deȱ lombardoȱ etȱ limaca”ȱ (the
“osteria”ȱorȱinnȱandȱhisȱfatherȱisȱaȱdonkey,ȱsuggestsȱthatȱpeasantsȱareȱassociated
withȱbeingȱidle,ȱaȱtoposȱthatȱwasȱrecurrentȱinȱtheȱantiȬpeasantȱtradition.56ȱTheȱlink
betweenȱrusticsȱandȱdonkeysȱisȱfurtherȱreinforcedȱinȱtheȱsubsequentȱlines,ȱwhen
theȱjesterȱswearsȱthatȱhisȱwords:ȱ
ch’eleȱsonȱtuteȱverità,
cheȱnesunȱasinoȱcheȱsia
mayȱnoȱvaȱsoloȱperȱlaȱvia,
cheȱunȱvilanȱonȱdoy
noȱgeȱvadaȱdaȱpoy; 120
eȱvaloȱconfortando
eȱsegoȱrasonando,
peroȱcheȱsonȱparenti
eȱnatiȱd’unaȱzente:
[theyȱareȱallȱtrue,ȱ/ȱbecauseȱaȱtrueȱdonkeyȱ/ȱneverȱgoesȱaloneȱinȱtheȱstreet,ȱ/ȱwithout
beingȱpairedȱtoȱaȱpeasantȱ/ȱwhoȱfollowsȱbehindȱhim;ȱandȱgoesȱcomfortingȱhimȱ/ȱand
conversingȱwithȱhim,ȱ/ȱbecauseȱtheyȱareȱrelativesȱ/ȱandȱbornȱfromȱtheȱsameȱpeople.ȱ
(116–124)]ȱ
Matazoneȱthenȱintroducesȱtheȱrusticȱcharacterȱonceȱmore.ȱHeȱlaterȱdeclaresȱthatȱthe
donkeyȱisȱhisȱbrotherȱ(125).ȱByȱlookingȱfurtherȱinȱtheȱoriginalȱmanuscript,ȱoneȱcan
seeȱ howȱ thisȱ allegedȱ parentalȱ relationshipȱ isȱ evenȱ moreȱ dramatizedȱ throughȱ a
Latinȱ poemȱ transcribedȱ atȱ theȱ bottomȱ ofȱ theȱ lastȱ folio—immediatelyȱ after
“Nativitasȱrusticorum.”ȱThisȱpoem,ȱentitledȱ“Testamentumȱdominiȱasiniȱnostri”
(TheȱWillȱofȱOurȱLordȱDonkey),ȱstagesȱaȱmaleȱandȱfemaleȱpeasantsȱmourningȱfor
aȱ donkey.57ȱ Theȱ presenceȱ ofȱ thisȱ poemȱ additionallyȱ reinforcesȱ thisȱ comical
associationȱandȱdemeansȱhisȱorigin.ȱTheȱinferiorityȱofȱtheȱvillanoȱisȱalsoȱaffirmed
byȱtheȱdisclosureȱofȱhisȱsimpleȱdietȱ(comprisedȱofȱrawȱryeȱbread,ȱbeans,ȱandȱgarlic,
Lombardȱandȱtheȱsnail),ȱwhichȱnarratesȱtheȱstoryȱofȱaȱLombardȱpeasantȱwhoȱpreparesȱforȱaȱbattle
againstȱaȱsnail;ȱcitedȱinȱFeo,ȱ“Dalȱpiusȱagricola”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ102–03.ȱTheȱtextȱisȱalsoȱrecordedȱin
sixȱ thirteenthȬcenturyȱ Italianȱ manuscripts;ȱ seeȱ Francescoȱ Novati,ȱ “Ilȱ lombardoȱ eȱ laȱ lumaca,”
GiornaleȱStoricoȱdellaȱLetteraturaȱItalianaȱ22ȱ(1893):ȱ335–53.ȱTheseȱtwoȱFrenchȱtextsȱcouldȱbe
associatedȱwithȱMatazone’sȱ“Nativitasȱrusticorum”ȱbecauseȱbothȱareȱsetȱinȱLombardy.
56
Theȱidentificationȱofȱtheȱtermȱ“hostero”ȱwithȱtheȱinnȱisȱevidentȱinȱGiuseppeȱBonghi,ȱArcaismiȱdel
DueȬTrecento,ȱavailableȱonline,ȱhttp://www.classicitaliani.it/glossari/glossario_medioevo_02.htm
(lastȱaccessedȱonȱNov.ȱ14,ȱ2011).ȱPaulȱFreedmanȱalsoȱtranslatesȱtheȱtermȱ“hostero”ȱwithȱ“inn”;ȱsee
hisȱ Imagesȱ ofȱ theȱ Medievalȱ Peasantȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 3),ȱ 354–55ȱ n.ȱ 78.ȱ However,ȱ Gianfrancoȱ Contini,
interpretsȱtheȱtermȱ“hostero”ȱasȱsimplyȱmeaningȱ“casa”ȱorȱhouse;ȱseeȱhisȱPoetiȱdelȱDuecentoȱ(see
noteȱ4),ȱ793ȱn.83.ȱForȱtheȱconnectionȱbetweenȱpeasantsȱandȱidleness,ȱseeȱMerlini,ȱSatiraȱcontroȱil
villanoȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ32ȱn.1.
57
PaulȱMeyerȱtranscribedȱtheȱpoem;ȱseeȱhisȱ“Ditȱsurȱlesȱvilains”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ2),ȱ26–27.ȱTheȱscribeȱwho
transcribedȱtheȱpoemȱrecordedȱthatȱitȱisȱfromȱ“mediolani”ȱorȱMilan.ȱItȱisȱaȱsatiricalȱtextȱsetȱasȱa
funeralȱlitany,ȱwhereȱtheȱmainȱresponseȱisȱ“Oe!ȱOe!!ȱMorieris,ȱasine!”ȱ(Alas!ȱAlas!ȱYouȱwillȱdieȱo
donkey!),ȱMilan,ȱBibliotecaȱAmbrosiana,ȱMSȱCȱ218ȱInf,ȱfol.ȱ54v.ȱAfterȱaȱseriesȱofȱfuneralȱeulogies,
theȱtwoȱpeasantsȱfinallyȱdeliverȱtheȱdonkey’sȱcorpseȱtoȱaȱwolf.
97–102)ȱandȱwearȱ(coarseȱcanvas,ȱsimpleȱtrousersȱandȱshirtȱwrappedȱinȱaȱcord,
103–07)ȱwithȱcertainty.ȱ
Theȱfourthȱpartȱofȱtheȱ“Nativitasȱrusticorum”ȱcontrastsȱtheȱvillano’sȱslanderous
nativityȱ toȱ theȱ oneȱ ofȱ aȱ knight.ȱ Theȱ nativityȱ ofȱ theȱ cavaliereȱ isȱ describedȱ asȱ the
encounterȱ betweenȱ aȱ roseȱ andȱ aȱ lilyȱ inȱ aȱ beautifulȱ garden.ȱ Thisȱ description
promotesȱnotȱonlyȱtheȱsocialȱbutȱalsoȱbiologicalȱsuperiorityȱofȱtheȱcavaliereȱoverȱhis
subjects.ȱHowever,ȱasȱMatazoneȱpreviouslyȱhasȱdoneȱwithȱtheȱsignore,ȱheȱseemsȱto
ridiculeȱtheȱcavaliereȱasȱwellȱwhenȱheȱreactsȱtoȱaȱrusticȱwhoȱinsistsȱinȱknowingȱifȱhe
wasȱbornȱwearingȱsilkȱ(134–38):
Elȱcavalerȱrespondeva:
“Diroteloȱvolontera
zoȱcheȱioȱneȱsayo
eȱqueȱvedutoȱn’ayo.
[Theȱknightȱanswered:ȱ/ȱ“Iȱwillȱgladlyȱtellȱyouȱ/ȱforȱwhatȱIȱknowȱ/ȱandȱwhatȱIȱhave
seen.ȱ (146–48)]
Theȱ knight’sȱ credibilityȱ comesȱ intoȱ questionȱ becauseȱ theȱ cavaliereȱ respondsȱ by
repeatingȱnegativeȱexpressionsȱsuchȱasȱ“neȱsayo”ȱ(literally—Iȱdoȱnotȱknow)ȱand
“n’ayo”ȱ(literally—Iȱdoȱnotȱhave).ȱSimilarlyȱtoȱtheȱpreviousȱexpression,ȱ“Deȱquela
noȱm’enȱcalia!”ȱ(56,ȱofȱthatȱoneȱIȱdoȱnotȱcare!),ȱthisȱphrasingȱsuggestsȱthatȱperhaps
theȱknightȱdoesȱnotȱfullyȱknowȱtheȱdetailsȱofȱhisȱownȱnativity,ȱasȱheȱprobablyȱwas
notȱevenȱthere.58ȱInȱaddition,ȱheȱmentionsȱthatȱonceȱheȱisȱbornȱheȱisȱescortedȱby
“seteȱpolzeleȱordenate:ȱ/ȱZoyaȱeȱAlegreza,ȱ/ȱProdezaȱeȱLargheza,ȱ/ȱBelezaȱeȱArdire”
(194–97,ȱsevenȱorderlyȱmaidens:ȱJoyȱandȱHappiness/ȱValianceȱandȱMunificence,/
BeautyȱandȱCourage)ȱwhoȱgiveȱhimȱtheȱpeasantȱasȱaȱgiftȱ(207–10).ȱTheȱnumber
“sete”ȱ(seven)ȱsuggestsȱanȱimmediateȱreferenceȱtoȱtheȱ“SevenȱHeavenlyȱVirtues”
thatȱareȱallegoricallyȱdepictedȱasȱmaidens.59ȱHowever,ȱtheȱcavaliereȱnamesȱonlyȱsix
ofȱthem.ȱScholarsȱhaveȱcorrectedȱthisȱanomalyȱbyȱchangingȱtheȱnumberȱ“sete”ȱto
“six”,ȱbutȱtheȱnumberȱ“sete”ȱisȱclearlyȱvisibleȱinȱtheȱmanuscript.60ȱMolinariȱfirst
notedȱ thisȱ discrepancyȱ andȱ arguedȱ thatȱ itȱ couldȱ beȱ intentionalȱ asȱ theȱ cavaliere
mixedȱtheȱmoralȱcategoriesȱofȱtheȱcardinalȱvirtueȱ(i.e.,ȱcourage)ȱwithȱworldlyȱand
58
Molinariȱnotesȱthatȱsinceȱweȱdoȱnotȱpossessȱtheȱoriginalȱpunctuationȱandȱtheȱjesterȱtoneȱforȱthese
lines,ȱweȱcanȱonlyȱspeculateȱonȱtheȱironyȱandȱsarcasmȱcontainedȱinȱtheȱpoem,ȱwhichȱcanȱonlyȱbe
inferredȱthroughȱaȱliveȱperformance;ȱMolinari,ȱ“Ilȱdettoȱdeiȱvillani”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ5),ȱ7–8.ȱFurthermore,
theȱquestionȱofȱtheȱpeasantȱcouldȱbeȱeasilyȱreadȱwithȱanȱirreverentȱtone,ȱespeciallyȱifȱweȱconsider
theȱveryȱpopularȱmottoȱcoinedȱbyȱJohnȱBallȱduringȱtheȱpeasantȱrevoltȱofȱ1381ȱinȱEngland,ȱ“When
AdamȱdelvedȱandȱEveȱspan,ȱwhereȱwasȱtheȱgentleman?”ȱcitedȱinȱFeo,ȱ“Dalȱpiusȱagricola”ȱ(seeȱnote
3),ȱ107.
59
SeeȱBeatrizȱScaglia,ȱTheȱSevenȱHeavenlyȱVirtue:ȱExploringȱtheȱElementsȱofȱGoodnessȱContrastingȱthe
SevenȱDeadlyȱSinsȱ(Webster’sȱDigitalȱServices,ȱ2011).
60
Contini’sȱstandardȱeditionȱmodifiedȱtheȱnumberȱ“seven”ȱtoȱ“six”ȱtoȱstayȱcoherentȱwithȱtheȱcontext;
seeȱhisȱPoetiȱdelȱDuecentoȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ798ȱn.193.ȱ
mundaneȱ onesȱ (i.e.,ȱ beautyȱ andȱ munificence),ȱ andȱ thusȱ heȱ becomesȱ rather
unreliable.61ȱ Suchȱ evidentȱ mystificationȱ furtherȱ discreditsȱ theȱ knightȱ andȱ his
character.ȱAsȱpreviouslyȱnoted,ȱtheȱjester’sȱpositionȱtowardȱnobilityȱseemsȱhere
againȱasȱambiguousȱasȱhisȱpositionȱtowardȱpeasantry.
Theȱlastȱpartȱofȱtheȱpoemȱexposesȱwhatȱtheȱlordȱshouldȱ“rightfully”ȱtakeȱfrom
theȱvillano.ȱAsȱPaulȱFreedmanȱsummarizes,ȱ“inȱFebruary,ȱatȱCarnival,ȱseizeȱaȱcapon
fromȱhimȱeveryȱday.ȱInȱMarch,ȱmakeȱhimȱworkȱinȱtheȱvineyardsȱandȱprohibitȱhis
wearingȱshoes.ȱInȱJuneȱdemandȱaȱdayȱofȱlaborȱserviceȱeachȱweek.”62ȱAsȱaȱmockȬ
liturgicalȱcalendarȱinȱaȱBookȱofȱHours,ȱtheȱlistȱcontinues,ȱcoveringȱmeticulouslyȱeach
monthȱofȱtheȱyear.63ȱInȱDecember,ȱtheȱlordȱshouldȱsnatchȱfromȱhimȱtheȱwholeȱpig,
butȱleaveȱhimȱsomeȱsausages—notȱallȱofȱthemȱbecauseȱtheyȱareȱexpensive—and
heȱshouldȱnotȱevenȱthinkȱofȱgivingȱhimȱtheȱfatȱhamȱ(215–24).ȱInȱJune,ȱduringȱthe
cherryȱmonth,ȱtheȱlordȱshouldȱgrantȱhimȱaȱfreeȱdayȱofȱworkȱandȱmakeȱhimȱlookȱfor
hisȱheartyȱvinegarȱandȱgiveȱitȱtoȱhimȱ(247–54).ȱInȱSeptember,ȱinȱorderȱtoȱmakeȱhim
rest,ȱheȱoughtȱtoȱmakeȱtheȱpeasantȱpickȱgrapes,ȱsqueezeȱthem,ȱandȱgiveȱtheȱmarc
toȱhimȱsoȱthatȱheȱcanȱmakeȱthinȱwineȱandȱneverȱgetȱinebriatedȱ(259–66).ȱInȱthe
chillyȱNovember,ȱheȱmustȱnotȱletȱhimȱrest.ȱInstead,ȱheȱshouldȱsendȱhimȱtoȱgather
wood,ȱthusȱmakingȱhimȱconstantlyȱcarryȱlogsȱuponȱhisȱshoulders;ȱifȱheȱcomesȱby
theȱfire,ȱheȱneedsȱtoȱsendȱhimȱawayȱ(273–82).ȱTheȱjesterȱlastlyȱconcludesȱthisȱtour
deȱforceȱwithȱtheȱlapidaryȱremark:ȱ“Eȱconȱquestaȱfatigaȱ/ȱelȱmalȱvilanȱseȱcastiga”
(283–84,ȱandȱwithȱthisȱhardȱworkȱ/ȱoneȱpunishesȱtheȱevilȱpeasant).ȱ
Becauseȱ ofȱ itsȱ hyperbolicȱ languageȱ andȱ irreverentȱ content,ȱ scholarsȱ have
generallyȱinterpretedȱthisȱpoemȱasȱaȱdiatribeȱagainstȱpeasantsȱandȱasȱsuchȱ the
earliestȱ Italianȱ exampleȱ ofȱ theȱ soȬcalledȱ satiraȱ delȱ villano.ȱ Theȱ poemȱ indeed
addressesȱ noblemen,ȱ orȱ moreȱ preciselyȱ theȱ archetypesȱ ofȱ aȱ “signore”ȱ andȱ a
“cavaliere,”ȱ thusȱ creatingȱ aȱ clearȱ qualitativeȱ distinctionȱ betweenȱ peasantsȱ and
noblemenȱasȱevidentȱfromȱtheȱcontrastingȱimageriesȱofȱtheirȱtwoȱnativities.ȱThus
Matazoneȱcouldȱhaveȱcomposedȱsuchȱaȱpieceȱinȱorderȱtoȱgainȱtheȱfavorsȱofȱthe
61
Molinari,ȱ“Ilȱdettoȱdeiȱvillani”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ5),ȱ15–16.ȱHeȱalsoȱprovidesȱadditionalȱevidenceȱtoȱshow
howȱtheȱenumeratedȱvirtuesȱareȱrecurrentȱinȱotherȱsources,ȱsuchȱasȱBrunettoȱLatini’sȱIlȱTesoretto,
GiovanniȱQuirini’sȱsonnetȱ“Segnorȱch’aveteȱdiȱpregioȱlaȱcorona”,ȱandȱGullaumeȱdeȱLorris’sȱRoman
deȱlaȱRose.ȱHeȱnoticesȱhowȱallȱtheseȱsourcesȱmentionȱtheȱvirtueȱofȱCortesia,ȱwhichȱisȱmissingȱin
Matazone’sȱlist.
62
Freedman,ȱImagesȱofȱtheȱMedievalȱPeasantsȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ147.ȱTheseȱtasksȱofȱtheȱrusticȱareȱlistedȱfrom
linesȱ229ȱtoȱ240.ȱ
63
Thisȱ portionȱ ofȱ theȱ poemȱ couldȱ beȱ readȱ asȱ anȱ explicitȱ parodyȱ ofȱ aȱ Bookȱ ofȱ Hoursȱ liturgical
calendar.ȱForȱmoreȱinformationȱonȱtheȱBookȱofȱHoursȱandȱtheȱpeasantȱtradition,ȱseeȱAlbrecht
Classen’sȱ contributionȱ inȱ thisȱ volume,ȱ “Ruralȱ Spaceȱ inȱ Lateȱ Medievalȱ Booksȱ ofȱ Hours.”
Codicologicalȱevidenceȱalsoȱsuggestsȱthatȱthisȱsectionȱofȱtheȱpoemȱwasȱnotȱmerelyȱaȱlistȱofȱpeasant
duties,ȱbutȱaȱparodyȱofȱliturgicalȱtexts.ȱMatazone’sȱpoemȱisȱplacedȱaȱfewȱfoliosȱafterȱtheȱreligious
treatiseȱ“Inȱsingulosȱanniȱdiesȱfestosȱdisticha,”ȱwhichȱlistsȱallȱtheȱmonthsȱofȱtheȱyearȱwithȱthe
respectiveȱfeastsȱandȱreligiousȱobservations;ȱSeeȱBAȱC.ȱ218ȱInf,ȱfols.ȱ52r–52vȱ(seeȱnoteȱ42).
“segnor”ȱandȱ“cavaler.”64ȱHowever,ȱifȱweȱcarefullyȱexamineȱtheȱsalutatioȱatȱthe
openingȱofȱtheȱpoem,ȱMatazoneȱseemsȱtoȱaddressȱhisȱpoemȱnotȱonlyȱtoȱaȱselected
audience,ȱbutȱalsoȱaȱwiderȱandȱmoreȱmixedȱgroup:
Aȱvoy,ȱsegnorȱeȱcavaler,
siȱloȱcontoȱvolonter
eȱaȱtutaȱbonaȱzente,
tutaȱcomunamente.
[Toȱyou,ȱOȱlordȱandȱknight,ȱ/ȱIȱwouldȱbeȱgladȱtoȱnarrateȱ/ȱandȱtoȱallȱtheȱgoodȱpeople,
/ȱgatheredȱtogether.ȱ (1–4)]
Theȱsalutatioȱofȱtheȱpoemȱclearlyȱsortsȱoutȱaȱnoblemanȱandȱaȱknight,ȱbutȱalsoȱa
crowdȱofȱpeopleȱ(3,ȱgente)ȱwhoȱareȱmostȱlikelyȱtheȱjester’sȱaudience.ȱTheȱterm
“comunemente”ȱ (4)ȱ seemsȱ toȱ evokeȱ aȱ municipalȱ settingȱ orȱ “comune.”ȱ Ifȱ the
performanceȱoccurredȱinȱaȱsquare,ȱtheȱtargetȱaudienceȱcouldȱhaveȱcomprisedȱof
bothȱmembersȱofȱtheȱupperȱclassȱandȱofȱ“tutaȱbonaȱzente”ȱ(allȱtheȱgoodȱpeople).
Matazone’sȱincipitȱisȱrecurrentȱinȱjesterȱpoetryȱwhereȱtheȱtermȱoftenȱimpliesȱeither
aȱwholeȱcommunityȱorȱaȱcrowdȱofȱpeopleȱfromȱtheȱlowȱandȱmiddleȱclass.65
Thisȱunidentifiedȱgroupȱisȱunequivocallyȱdistinguishedȱfromȱtheȱpreviousȱone,
asȱevidentȱfromȱtheȱconjunctionȱ“e”ȱ(3,ȱand).ȱMostȱlikelyȱitȱcouldȱconsistȱofȱpeople
distinctivelyȱ differentȱ fromȱ “segnor”ȱ andȱ “cavaler,”ȱ namely,ȱ peasants.ȱ Jesters
generallyȱ performedȱ inȱ courts,ȱ butȱ followingȱ theȱ processȱ ofȱ urbanizationȱ in
fourteenthȬcenturyȱ Italy,ȱ theyȱ moreȱ frequentlyȱ performedȱ inȱ localȱ plazasȱ to
townspeopleȱandȱmembersȱfromȱtheȱruralȱcommunity.ȱAȱpassageȱfromȱaȱmore
contentiousȱpoemȱ“Oȱmalvasioȱrioȱvillano”ȱ(Ohȱevilȱcriminalȱpeasant)ȱconfirms
suchȱaȱpossibility.ȱ
Theȱauthorȱofȱtheȱpoem,ȱascribedȱinȱtheȱmanuscriptȱtoȱCeccoȱd’Ascoli,ȱmocks
peasantsȱbecauseȱtheyȱdevoutlyȱattendȱjesters’ȱperformancesȱbutȱunashamedly
avoidȱ priests’ȱ sermons.66ȱ Otherȱ sourcesȱ confirmȱ theȱ possibilityȱ thatȱ jesters
64
ThisȱisȱalsoȱDomenicoȱMerlini’sȱconclusionȱaboutȱtheȱpoem;ȱMerlini,ȱSatiraȱcontroȱilȱvillanoȱ(see
noteȱ3),ȱ6.
65
Molinariȱprovidesȱvariousȱexamplesȱtoȱshowȱhowȱtheȱtermȱ“signoriȱandȱcavalieri”ȱwasȱgenerally
usedȱtoȱapproachȱaȱvastȱpublic,ȱwhileȱ“bonaȱgente”ȱoftenȱrefersȱtoȱaȱcrowdȱofȱlowȱorȱmiddleȱsocial
rank;ȱHowever,ȱheȱdoesȱnotȱbelieveȱthatȱtheȱpoemȱcouldȱbeȱascribedȱtoȱaȱcertain,ȱspecificȱpublic;
seeȱMolinari,ȱ“Ilȱdettoȱdeiȱvillani”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ5),ȱ8–9.ȱTheȱfourteenthȬcenturyȱjesterȱBuccioȱdiȱRanallo
usesȱaȱstrikinglyȱsimilarȱbeginningȱtoȱhisȱpoem,ȱwhichȱisȱgearedȱtowardȱtheȱwholeȱcommunity:
“Signuri,ȱ bonaȱ gente.”ȱ Heȱ explicitlyȱ specifiesȱ thatȱ withȱ theȱ termȱ “bonaȱ gente,”ȱ heȱ alludesȱ to
merchantsȱandȱwhoeverȱcannotȱreadȱLatin;ȱseeȱMariaȱLuisaȱLombardo,ȱ“Appendix/ȱAppendice.
Nobili,ȱmercantiȱeȱpopoloȱminutoȱnegliȱattiȱdeiȱnotaiȱromaniȱdelȱxivȱeȱxvȱsecolo,”ȱSourcesȱofȱSocial
History:ȱPrivateȱActsȱofȱtheȱLateȱMiddleȱAges.ȱPapersȱinȱMediaevalȱStudies,ȱ5ȱ(Toronto:ȱPontifical
InstituteȱofȱMediaevalȱStudies,ȱ1984),ȱ291–310;ȱhereȱ308.
66
Merlini,ȱ Satiraȱ controȱ ilȱ villanoȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 3),ȱ 182.ȱ Molinariȱ mentionsȱ thatȱ jestersȱ oftenȱ created
performancesȱtoȱdelightȱvariousȱcitizensȱandȱpeasantsȱbothȱinȱpublicȱsquaresȱandȱvillages;ȱsee
Molinari,ȱ 8.ȱ Furthermore,ȱ variousȱ northernȬItalianȱ statutesȱ confirmedȱ thisȱ practiceȱ asȱ they
performedȱinȱfrontȱofȱpeasantsȱandȱ“popolani”ȱandȱsoȱachievedȱsuccess.67ȱIfȱsuch
aȱ heterogeneousȱ groupȱ trulyȱ constitutedȱ theȱ targetȱ audienceȱ ofȱ theȱ poem,ȱ its
inherentȱambiguityȱseemsȱperhapsȱmoreȱwellȱsuitedȱtoȱpleaseȱtheȱentireȱaudience.
Furthermore,ȱinȱtheȱlastȱpartȱofȱhisȱpoem,ȱMatazoneȱlistsȱanȱexcessivelyȱboisterous
listȱ ofȱ obligationsȱ toȱ whichȱ rusticsȱ mustȱ abide.ȱ Theȱ scholar,ȱ Cesareȱ Molinari,
observesȱ thatȱ thereȱ isȱ ambiguityȱ inȱ thisȱ partȱ mainlyȱ becauseȱ ofȱ itsȱ wittyȱ and
sardonicȱtone.ȱOtherȱscholarsȱalsoȱstateȱthatȱ“evenȱifȱtheȱpeasantsȱareȱatȱfirstȱsight
theȱ objectsȱ ofȱ theȱ satire,ȱ theȱ sarcasmȱ isȱ directedȱ withȱ greatȱ subtletyȱ atȱ the
nobility.”68ȱAtȱtimesȱtheȱabuseȱexperiencedȱbyȱtheȱpeasantsȱseemsȱtoȱhaveȱbiblical
references,ȱespeciallyȱifȱweȱconsiderȱtheȱallusionȱtoȱvinegarȱ(250–53),ȱwhichȱbrings
toȱ mindȱ Jesus’ȱ tribulationȱ onȱ theȱ cross.ȱ Similarlyȱ toȱ Molinari,ȱ theȱ influential
philologistȱGianfrancoȱContiniȱalsoȱexpressedȱsomeȱreservationȱaboutȱplacingȱthis
poemȱunderȱtheȱcategoryȱofȱantiȬpeasantȱsatire.ȱ
HavingȱanalyzedȱtheȱlinguisticȱregisterȱofȱMatazone,ȱheȱconcludesȱthatȱtheȱpoem
indeedȱfeaturesȱtheȱsocialȱcontrastsȱbetweenȱpeasantsȱandȱnoblemen,ȱbutȱsuchȱa
relationȱ isȱ renderedȱ problematicȱ byȱ theȱ jester’sȱ lowȱ linguisticȱ registerȱ andȱ his
allegedȱbelongingȱtoȱtheȱpeasantȱworld.ȱByȱproclaimingȱhimselfȱasȱbeingȱaȱrustic
andȱ byȱ providingȱ aȱ detailedȱ descriptionȱ ofȱ theȱ peasant’sȱ adversity,ȱ Matazone
describesȱtheȱtragicȱconditionȱofȱhisȱpeopleȱthusȱsupportingȱitsȱcauseȱandȱindirectly
denouncingȱnoblemen’sȱabuses.69
Overall,ȱIȱbelieveȱthatȱweȱshouldȱreconsiderȱthisȱpoem’sȱplacementȱwithinȱthe
antiȬpeasantȱ satire.ȱ Iȱ wouldȱ alsoȱ beȱ cautiousȱ inȱ ascribingȱ thisȱ poemȱ toȱ aȱ proȬ
peasantȱsatire,ȱespeciallyȱifȱweȱconsiderȱtheȱdeceptiveȱroleȱplayedȱbyȱMatazone
himself.ȱEvenȱifȱatȱfirstȱheȱintroducesȱhimselfȱasȱaȱmodestȱpeasantȱatȱfirst,ȱheȱthen
switchesȱtoȱaȱcausticȱpeasantȱdetractor,ȱconsistentlyȱunderminingȱtheȱcredibility
ofȱtheȱ“cortexi”ȱ(13,ȱnoblemenȱandȱknights)ȱwithȱwhomȱheȱwishesȱtoȱbeȱassociated.
Perhaps,ȱDarioȱFo’sȱadaptationȱcouldȱprovideȱanȱalternativeȱreadingȱtoȱthisȱmultiȬ
facetedȱpoem.ȱ
sanctionedȱjestersȱforȱtheirȱpublicȱperformancesȱinȱtheȱstreets.ȱTheȱSieneseȱStatuteȱimplemented
numerousȱsanctionsȱagainstȱ“giollari”ȱorȱjestersȱandȱanyoneȱwhoȱwasȱdirectlyȱassociatedȱwith
them;ȱ seeȱ forȱ exampleȱ M.ȱ S.ȱ Elsheikh,ȱ IIȱ costitutoȱ delȱ comuneȱ diȱ Sienaȱ volgarizzatoȱ nel
MCCCIX–MCCCX.3ȱvols.ȱ(Siena:ȱFondazioneȱMonteȱdeiȱPaschiȱdiȱSiena,ȱ2002),ȱ329ȱandȱ331–32.ȱ
67
FrancoȱSuitnerȱmentionsȱthatȱtheȱthirteenthȬcenturyȱIberianȱjesterȱMartinȱSoaresȱridiculesȱaȱfellow
poetȱbecauseȱheȱpleasesȱpeasantsȱandȱ“popolani”ȱorȱmembersȱofȱtheȱlowerȱsocialȱclass;ȱseeȱhisȱI
poetiȱdelȱmedioȱevo:ȱItaliaȱedȱEuropaȱ(secoliȱXII–XIV)ȱ(Rome:ȱCarocci,ȱ2010),ȱ82.
68
CostantinoȱMaeder,ȱ“MisteroȱBuffo:ȱNegatingȱTextualȱCertainty,ȱtheȱIndividual,ȱandȱTime,”ȱDario
Fo:ȱ Stage,ȱ Text,ȱ andȱ Tradition,ȱ ed.ȱ Josephȱ Farrellȱ andȱ Antonioȱ Scudieriȱ (Carbondale:ȱ Southern
IllinoisȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2000),ȱ65–79;ȱhereȱ76–77.ȱ
69
Contini,ȱPoetiȱdelȱDuecentoȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ790.
DarioȱFo’sȱMatazoneȱandȱtheȱProȬPeasantȱSatiraȱdelȱvillano
Inȱ1969,ȱtheȱplaywrightȱandȱactorȱDarioȱFoȱfirstȱstagedȱMisteroȱBuffoȱ(TheȱComic
Mysteries),ȱanȱinnovativeȱperformanceȱbasedȱonȱmedievalȱjesterȱsourcesȱsuchȱas
theȱ“Nascitaȱdelȱvillano”ȱ(theȱbirthȱofȱtheȱpeasant),ȱwhichȱhadȱbeenȱȱinspiredȱbyȱthe
“Nativitasȱrusticorum.”70ȱSinceȱthisȱfirstȱperformance,ȱitȱisȱestimatedȱthatȱabout
fortyȱmillionȱpeopleȱthroughoutȱtheȱworldȱhaveȱseenȱMisteroȱBuffo.ȱMatazone’s
poemȱtherebyȱgainedȱworldwideȱattentionȱperhapsȱasȱnoȱotherȱmedievalȱtext.71
Surprisingly,ȱ suchȱ anȱ exposureȱ hasȱ notȱ favoredȱ aȱ revivalȱ ofȱ thisȱ text.ȱ Onȱ the
contrary,ȱ onlyȱ aȱ handfulȱ ofȱ studiesȱ existȱ todayȱ onȱ Matazone’sȱ poem.ȱ Modern
literaryȱscholarsȱgenerallyȱoverlookȱFo’sȱadaptationȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱitsȱinspiration.
Thisȱdismissalȱisȱpossiblyȱdueȱtoȱtheȱscholars’ȱoverallȱassessmentȱofȱFo’sȱversion,
whichȱ isȱ consideredȱ untrustworthy.72ȱ Iȱ believeȱ thatȱ thisȱ conclusionȱ mustȱ be
reconsidered.ȱFo’sȱcontributionȱtoȱtheȱunderstandingȱofȱ“Nativitasȱrusticorum”
mustȱ beȱ addressedȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ gainȱ aȱ widerȱ understandingȱ ofȱ theȱ ambiguous
humorȱ andȱ tensionsȱ thatȱ characterizeȱ thisȱ challengingȱ poem.ȱ Aboveȱ all,ȱ this
popularȱoneȬmanȱshowȱhighlightsȱMatazone’sȱtextȱasȱaȱperformanceȱandȱvibrantly
presentsȱitȱtoȱaȱmodernȱaudienceȱonȱaȱpracticalȱlevel.ȱ
Inȱ hisȱ Misteroȱ Buffo,ȱ Foȱ reconstructsȱ aȱ newȱ versionȱ ofȱ theȱ poemȱ byȱ adding
originalȱ portionsȱ fromȱ otherȱ moreȱ recentȱ sources,ȱ suchȱ asȱ variousȱ “proverbiȱ e
tiritere”ȱ (proverbsȱ andȱ rhymes).73ȱ Throughȱ hisȱ revision,ȱ heȱ providesȱ aȱ new
perspectiveȱonȱtheȱpoem,ȱarguingȱthatȱMatazone’sȱpoemȱisȱanȱexampleȱofȱaȱrefined
typeȱofȱsatireȱwrittenȱbyȱaȱjesterȱandȱinspiredȱbyȱruralȱandȱpopularȱcultures.ȱIn
otherȱwords,ȱthroughȱthisȱactivism,ȱMatazoneȱemploysȱironyȱinȱorderȱtoȱsupport
exploitedȱpeasantsȱandȱtoȱdenounceȱtheirȱabusiveȱlandowners.ȱFoȱbelievesȱthatȱthe
jesterȱconcealsȱthisȱschemaȱthroughȱanȱapparentȱcondemnationȱofȱpeasants,ȱwhile
inȱrealityȱheȱtrulyȱaimsȱatȱcriticizingȱtheȱnobles’ȱbrutalityȱandȱegoism.ȱAsȱaȱresult,
theȱ performanceȱ becomesȱ anȱ instrumentȱ toȱ fosterȱ aȱ socialȱ debateȱ withinȱ the
community.ȱThroughȱthisȱalternativeȱperspective,ȱFoȱsuggestsȱthatȱtheȱmedieval
70
SeeȱTomȱBehan,ȱDarioȱFo:ȱRevolutionaryȱTheatreȱ(LondonȱandȱSterling,ȱVA:ȱPlutoȱPress,ȱ2000),ȱ99.
71
TonyȱMitchell,ȱDarioȱFo,ȱPeople’sȱCourtȱJesterȱ(LondonȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱMeuthen,ȱ1984),10.
72
AmongȱtheȱcitedȱstudiesȱrecentlyȱdevotedȱtoȱMatazone’sȱtext,ȱonlyȱVittorioȱDornettiȱaddresses
DarioȱFo’ȱsȱadaptation.ȱHeȱbrieflyȱmentionsȱitȱinȱaȱfootnoteȱdismissingȱitȱasȱ“assaiȱinfida”ȱ(rather
unreliable);ȱDornetti,ȱ“MatazoneȱdaȱCaligano”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ5),ȱ36–37ȱn.ȱ45.
73
FoȱstatesȱthatȱforȱhisȱversionȱofȱMatazone’sȱpoemȱheȱinsertedȱextractsȱfromȱmoreȱrecentȱproverbs
andȱrhymes,ȱspecificallyȱfocusingȱonȱmoreȱderogatoryȱones:ȱ“Ioȱmiȱsonoȱrifattoȱaiȱproverbiȱeȱalle
tiritereȱforseȱpiùȱrecentiȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱneiȱqualiȱc’eranoȱdentroȱloȱsfottòȱalȱcontadinoȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱcheȱeraȱunȱmodoȱper
lanciarsiȱcontroȱl’egoismo,ȱlaȱbrutalitàȱeȱlaȱviolenzaȱdeiȱsignoriȱfingendoȱdiȱprenderneȱadirittura
laȱdifesaȱdeiȱsignoriȱcontroȱiȱpoveriȱcontadini”ȱ(Iȱbasedȱitȱonȱproverbsȱandȱrhymes,ȱperhapsȱthose
mostȱrecentȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱinȱwhichȱthereȱwasȱtheȱteaseȱagainstȱtheȱpeasant.ȱ.ȱ.ȱthatȱwasȱaȱwayȱtoȱlungeȱoneself
againstȱtheȱegoism,ȱtheȱbrutalityȱandȱtheȱviolenceȱofȱtheȱnoblemenȱpretendingȱtoȱprotectȱthem
againstȱtheȱpoorȱpeasant);ȱcitedȱfromȱDarioȱFoȱ(2011,ȱSeptemberȱ6).ȱTelephoneȱinterview.
jesterȱpromotesȱaȱtypeȱofȱsatireȱmadeȱexclusivelyȱbyȱandȱforȱpeasantsȱratherȱthan
aȱsatireȱagainstȱthem.ȱ
LikeȱFo,ȱotherȱscholarsȱhaveȱalsoȱsupportedȱtheȱmilitantȱroleȱofȱtheȱmedieval
jesterȱwithinȱhisȱownȱsociety.74ȱHowever,ȱsomeȱhaveȱopposedȱFo’sȱviewȱofȱaȱproȬ
peasantȱjester.ȱInȱparticular,ȱtheȱjournalistȱandȱcriticȱofȱtheȱinfluentialȱnewspaper
L’Unità,ȱ Arturoȱ Lazzari,ȱ stronglyȱ criticizedȱ Fo’sȱ Misteroȱ Buffoȱ asȱ inaccurate.
AccordingȱtoȱLazzari,ȱMatazoneȱwasȱnotȱaȱjesterȱwhoȱsupportedȱpeasants.ȱOnȱthe
contrary,ȱheȱbelievesȱthatȱMatazoneȱwasȱlikelyȱanȱauthorȱassociatedȱwithȱtheȱurban
environmentȱwhoȱconverselyȱintendedȱtoȱcriticizeȱthem.75ȱFurthermore,ȱCostantino
MaederȱalsoȱquestionedȱFo’sȱmanipulationȱofȱtheȱoriginalȱmedievalȱsourceȱand
focusedȱonȱtheȱfactȱthatȱheȱ“reducesȱtheȱ‘Detto’ȱtoȱtheȱsecondȱpartȱalone.ȱBothȱthe
argumentȱbetweenȱtheȱpeasantsȱandȱtheȱlordsȱandȱtheȱsectionȱonȱtheȱbirthȱofȱthe
noblesȱ areȱ cutȱ out.”76ȱ Foȱ acknowledgesȱ thatȱ heȱ excludedȱ theseȱ scenesȱ forȱ no
particularȱreasons,ȱbutȱwithoutȱthemȱtheȱpoemȱtrulyȱsuffersȱaȱmajorȱloss,ȱbecause
itȱlacksȱitsȱoriginalȱambiguityȱandȱcomplexity.77ȱ
WhetherȱMatazoneȱsidedȱwithȱpeasantsȱorȱnobleman,ȱorȱwhetherȱheȱwasȱtruly
fromȱ theȱ contadoȱ orȱ theȱ city,ȱ itȱ isȱ hardȱ toȱ tell.ȱ Besides,ȱ reflectingȱ onȱ Darioȱ Fo’s
Misteroȱ Buffoȱ steersȱ usȱ toȱ focusȱ onȱ widerȱ issues.ȱ Evenȱ thoughȱ Foȱ admirably
emphasizesȱtheȱruralȱoriginȱandȱironyȱofȱMatazone,ȱhisȱinterpretationȱdoesȱnot
comeȱtoȱtermsȱwithȱtheȱtwoȱculturalȱtraditionsȱofȱtheȱ“antiȬpeasant”ȱandȱ“peasantȬ
author”ȱ satires.ȱ Furthermore,ȱ itȱ doesȱ notȱ emphasizeȱ theȱ possibilityȱ thatȱ both
peasantsȱandȱmembersȱfromȱtheȱhighȱandȱmiddleȱclassȱcouldȱhaveȱbeenȱtheȱpoem’s
targetȱ audience.ȱ Thus,ȱ Fo’sȱ approachȱ couldȱ beȱ enrichedȱ whenȱ considering
sociologicalȱ implicationsȱ andȱ historicalȱ aspectsȱ ofȱ theȱ time,ȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ clash
betweenȱruralȱandȱurbanȱspaces.ȱInȱfact,ȱauthorsȱwhoȱwereȱnotȱofȱtheȱpeasantȱclass
oftenȱwroteȱsatiresȱbecauseȱtheyȱopposedȱpeasant’sȱinfiltrationȱintoȱtheȱcity.ȱ
UnlikeȱFrenchȱandȱGermanȱsatires,ȱtheȱItalianȱsatiraȱdelȱvillanoȱoriginatedȱnot
onlyȱ fromȱ theȱ courtlyȱ traditionȱ butȱ alsoȱ fromȱ popularȱ cultureȱ andȱ widely
circulatedȱinȱtheȱurbanȱenvironmentȱasȱevidentȱfromȱtheȱwealthȱofȱproverbsȱand
sayingsȱaboutȱtheȱvillano’sȱslynessȱandȱdeceitfulness.ȱWhileȱinȱFranceȱandȱGermany
thereȱexistsȱaȱwealthȱofȱtextsȱwrittenȱbyȱnoblesȱagainstȱpeasants,ȱinȱItalyȱthisȱclash
74
CesareȱMolinariȱcomparesȱtheȱroleȱplayedȱbyȱjestersȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱtoȱtheȱroleȱplayedȱtoday
byȱourȱmodernȱmassȱmedia,ȱfromȱnewspaperȱtoȱtelevisionȱbroadcasts;ȱseeȱMolinari,ȱ“Ilȱdettoȱdei
villani”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ5),ȱ5–6.ȱ
75
SeeȱLugiȱAllegri,ȱDarioȱFo,ȱdialogoȱprovocatorioȱsulȱcomico,ȱilȱtragico,ȱlaȱfolliaȱeȱlaȱragioneȱ(Romeȱand
Bari:ȱLaterza,ȱ1990),ȱ128–29.
76
CostantinoȱMaederȱsuggestsȱthatȱFoȱintentionallyȱeliminatedȱtheseȱscenesȱperhapsȱtoȱsupportȱhis
ideologicalȱframework;ȱMaeder,ȱ“Misteroȱbuffo”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ68),ȱ77.
77
Darioȱ Foȱ explainsȱ whyȱ heȱ didȱ notȱ includeȱ otherȱ scenesȱ originallyȱ presentȱ inȱ “Nativitas
rusticorum”:ȱ“No,ȱnonȱc’èȱnessunaȱragione;ȱaȱmeȱinteressavaȱinȱprincipioȱquestaȱtrovataȱgeniale
diȱfareȱnascereȱilȱvillanoȱcomeȱincrocioȱfraȱl’asinoȱeȱl’uomo”ȱ(Thereȱisȱnoȱparticularȱreason;ȱatȱfirst
myȱmainȱfocusȱwasȱtheȱgeniusȱideaȱofȱtheȱnativityȱofȱtheȱ peasantȱ andȱ hisȱmixedȱnatureȱsplit
betweenȱmanȱandȱdonkey);ȱcitedȱfromȱDarioȱFoȱ(2011,ȱSeptemberȱ6).ȱTelephoneȱinterview.ȱ
isȱnotȱasȱprominent.ȱTheȱgreatȱmajorityȱofȱfourteenthȬȱandȱfifteenthȬcenturyȱtexts
displaysȱ theȱ tensionsȱ betweenȱ urbanȱ Italianȱ craftsmenȱ andȱ countrymenȱ who
transferredȱinȱcities.78ȱThisȱphenomenon,ȱasȱMerliniȱnoted,ȱdevelopedȱasȱaȱliterary
andȱculturalȱtrendȱwithinȱanȱurbanȱcontextȱandȱitsȱimplicationsȱvaryȱfromȱcomune
toȱcomuneȱaccordingȱtoȱgeographicalȱlocationsȱandȱlegalȱimplications.ȱ
Moreover,ȱauthorsȱwhoȱwereȱnotȱpeasantsȱwroteȱtextsȱnotȱexclusivelyȱagainst
them.ȱInstead,ȱtheyȱimitatedȱpeasantȱlanguageȱintroducingȱthemselvesȱasȱvillani.
Membersȱofȱallȱsocialȱclassesȱfromȱtheȱnobilityȱtoȱtheȱbourgeoisie,ȱandȱtoȱtheȱclergy
(likeȱ Ceccoȱ Angiolieri,ȱ Rusticoȱ Filippi,ȱ andȱ Guittoneȱ d’Arezzo)ȱ employedȱ a
comparableȱstyleȱandȱlexiconȱinȱtheirȱpoemsȱinȱorderȱtoȱridiculeȱdifferentȱtargets.79
Thisȱshowsȱthatȱaȱvariedȱgroupȱofȱauthorsȱexploitedȱknownȱtopoiȱtoȱattackȱtheir
ownȱtargets,ȱbutȱalso—asȱlikelyȱoccursȱinȱMatazone’sȱcase—denouncedȱvarious
abuses.ȱStartingȱfromȱtheȱmidȬthirteenthȱcentury,ȱvariousȱnorthernȱcomuniȱlike
BolognaȱandȱFlorenceȱabolishedȱtheȱserfȱpracticesȱandȱintroducedȱtheȱcontractȱof
mezzadria.ȱSuchȱaȱswitchȱfromȱtheȱmoreȱstableȱbutȱlessȱfairȱ“contrattoȱaȱlivella”ȱin
useȱduringȱtheȱhighȱMiddleȱAgesȱtoȱtheȱlessȱstableȱbutȱmoreȱfairȱ“contrattoȱdi
mezzadria”ȱ causedȱ bitterȱ controversiesȱ inȱ northernȱ Italy,ȱ asȱ evidentȱ bothȱ in
fictionalȱandȱlegalȱsources.80ȱ
InȱtheȱcaseȱofȱMatazone’sȱ“raxone,”ȱsetȱinȱLombardy,ȱtheȱclashȱbetweenȱrural
andȱurbanȱspacesȱreachedȱitsȱpeakȱwithȱtheȱLordshipȱofȱtheȱVisconti.ȱTheȱVisconti
enforcedȱtheȱmezzadriaȱcontractȱthatȱpromotedȱmoreȱequitableȱconditionsȱbetween
peasantsȱandȱnoblemen.ȱSeveralȱfactorsȱcontributedȱtoȱthisȱsupport.ȱTheȱVisconti
familyȱ wieldedȱ moreȱ controlȱ inȱ theȱ countrysideȱ notȱ merelyȱ toȱ superviseȱ and
enforceȱjustice,ȱbutȱeventuallyȱtoȱgainȱcontrolȱandȱtoȱsubdueȱtheȱsubstantialȱrural
estates,ȱwhichȱwereȱ underȱecclesiasticȱandȱaristocraticȱrule.81ȱSimilarȱeconomic
interestsȱwereȱalsoȱpresentȱinȱurbanȱareas.ȱInȱvariousȱLombardȱandȱTuscanȱcomuni,
citizensȱsecuredȱpeasants’ȱinterestȱandȱheldȱmembersȱofȱtheȱnobilityȱliableȱforȱany
abusesȱperpetratedȱagainstȱthem.ȱ
Thisȱ strategyȱ wasȱ motivatedȱ byȱ theȱ factȱ thatȱ theȱ cityȱ bourgeoisieȱ needed
peasants’ȱlaborȱforȱtheirȱownȱinterests,ȱthusȱitȱencouragedȱtheȱpeasants’ȱmigration
towardȱurbanȱcenters.82ȱAsȱevidentȱfromȱvariousȱstatutes,ȱtheȱurbanȱlawȱdefended
78
Merlini,ȱLaȱsatiraȱcontroȱilȱvillanoȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ6–7.
79
Amongȱtheȱalreadyȱcitedȱpoets,ȱtheȱMilaneseȱBovensinȱdellaȱRivaȱ(andȱhisȱ“Carminaȱdeȱmensibus
TractatoȱdeiȱMesi”)ȱshouldȱalsoȱbeȱadded;ȱContini,ȱPoetiȱdelȱDuecentoȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ798ȱn.ȱ213.ȱ
80
Seeȱ Brunoȱ Andreolli,ȱ Contadiniȱ suȱ terreȱ diȱ signori.ȱ Studiȱ sullaȱ contrattualisticaȱ agrariaȱ dell’Italia
medievale,ȱBrunoȱAndreolliȱandȱMassimoȱMontanari.ȱBibliotecaȱdiȱstoriaȱagrariaȱmedievale,ȱ16
(Bologna:ȱCLUEB,ȱ1999),ȱ20–26.
81
ȱAndreaȱGamberini,ȱ“IlȱcontadoȱdiȱMilanoȱnelȱTrecento,”ȱContadoȱeȱcittàȱinȱdialogo:ȱComuniȱurbani
eȱ communitaъȱ ruraliȱ nellaȱ Lombardiaȱ medievale,ȱ ed.ȱ Luisaȱ Chiappaȱ Mauri,ȱ Quaderniȱ diȱ Acmeȱ 62
(Milan:ȱCisalpinoȱIstitutoȱEditorialeȱUniversitario,ȱ2003),ȱ87.
82
GinoȱLuzzatto,ȱDaiȱserviȱdellaȱglebaȱagliȱalboriȱdelȱcapitalismo,ȱCollezioneȱstorica,ȱvol.ȱ1ȱ(Bari:ȱEditori
Laterza,ȱ1966),ȱ160.ȱAsȱevidentȱwithȱtheȱpreviousȱexampleȱofȱDante’sȱParadisoȱ16,ȱurbanȱareas
greatlyȱdevelopedȱdueȱtoȱpeasants’ȱinfiltrationȱinȱtheȱcity.ȱThisȱisȱalsoȱevidentȱfromȱearlierȱperiods,
rusticsȱfromȱnoblemenȱinȱtheȱcountryside,ȱbutȱsubjectedȱthemȱtoȱaȱrigidȱcontrolȱand
unfairȱconditionsȱinȱtheȱcity.ȱAȱpeasantȱwhoȱoffendedȱaȱcitizenȱwasȱliableȱtwiceȱas
muchȱ comparedȱ toȱ hisȱ victim,ȱ whoȱ typicallyȱ wasȱ eligibleȱ toȱ retaliateȱ without
consequences.83ȱInȱaddition,ȱpeasantsȱwhoȱlivedȱinȱtheȱurbanȱenvironmentȱwere
subjectȱtoȱheavyȱtaxation,ȱwereȱunableȱtoȱsellȱtheirȱgoodsȱfreely,ȱandȱwereȱexcluded
fromȱpoliticalȱlife.84ȱIfȱweȱconsiderȱtheseȱsociopoliticalȱandȱlegalȱinterests,ȱtheȱlast
partȱofȱMatazone’sȱpoemȱappearsȱproblematic.ȱInȱfact,ȱevenȱthoughȱtheȱvillano
jesterȱencouragesȱnoblemenȱtoȱtakeȱfullȱpossessionȱofȱtheȱpeasants’ȱshareȱandȱcheat
them,ȱ itȱ isȱ evidentȱ thatȱ thisȱ practiceȱ wasȱ notȱ endorsedȱ byȱ theȱ lawȱ andȱ thus
constitutedȱaȱbreachȱofȱcontractȱbetweenȱtheȱtwoȱpartiesȱinȱquestion.ȱHowever,ȱif
weȱ believeȱ thatȱ Matazoneȱ wasȱ associatedȱ withȱ theȱ urbanȱ environmentȱ andȱ its
interests,ȱ weȱ shouldȱ thenȱ beȱ carefulȱ inȱ concludingȱ thatȱ theȱ poemȱ proposesȱ to
improveȱsimplyȱpeasants’ȱlivelihood.ȱ
Conclusion
WhileȱreadingȱMatazone’sȱexquisiteȱandȱcomplexȱtext,ȱweȱshouldȱkeepȱinȱmindȱthe
resourcefulnessȱofȱhisȱsatire.ȱHisȱsatireȱseemsȱnotȱtoȱfavorȱonlyȱoneȱsideȱandȱone
socialȱgroup.ȱForȱthisȱreason,ȱweȱshouldȱconsiderȱtheȱdynamicȱinfiltrationȱand
mystificationȱofȱtwoȱequivalentȱmodelsȱofȱsatireȱthatȱareȱmostȱlikelyȱatȱplayȱwithin
theȱ “Nativitasȱ rusticorum.”ȱ Weȱ shouldȱ rethinkȱ theȱ wayȱ weȱ readȱ satiricalȱ texts
aboutȱ peasantsȱ fromȱ theȱ soȬcalledȱ satiraȱ delȱ villanoȱ genre.ȱ Ifȱ weȱ considerȱ the
coexistenceȱofȱtwoȱsatiricalȱtraditionsȱwithinȱeachȱpoem,ȱweȱwouldȱgainȱaȱmore
multiȬfacetedȱapproachȱthatȱwouldȱhelpȱusȱtoȱunderstandȱandȱappreciateȱtheir
complexity.ȱInȱaddition,ȱperformanceȱandȱmimicryȱbothȱplayȱanȱimportantȱroleȱin
theȱ poem,ȱ whileȱ itsȱ likelyȱ heterogeneousȱ audienceȱ whoȱ thrivedȱ inȱ its
contradictionsȱ wasȱ invitedȱ toȱ respondȱ toȱ theȱ numerousȱ sarcasticȱ andȱ satirical
allusionsȱandȱinnuendoes,ȱultimatelyȱrecognizingȱitselfȱinȱthisȱpoeticȱmirror.ȱ
Finally,ȱweȱshouldȱnotȱignoreȱtheȱnicknameȱofȱtheȱjesterȬauthorȱ“Matazone”(the
motleyȱfool).ȱTheȱmadȬjesterȱcreatesȱaȱnarrativeȱthatȱdefusesȱlogicȱandȱlaw,ȱmaking
itȱstillȱrelevantȱtoȱusȱtoday.ȱHeȱisȱperhapsȱnotȱonlyȱplayingȱtheȱpartȱofȱtheȱfool,ȱbut
alsoȱrepresentingȱtheȱallegoryȱofȱtheȱmattoȱasȱaȱcomicȱpersonaȱthatȱemergedȱfrom
asȱforȱexampleȱinȱtheȱcityȱtodayȱknownȱasȱMassaȱLombarda.ȱMassaȱwasȱfoundedȱinȱ1251ȱfollowing
theȱ infiltrationȱ ofȱ 87ȱ Lombardȱ peasantȱ familiesȱ fromȱ Marmiroloȱ nearȱ Mantovaȱ intoȱ the
uncultivatedȱlandȱofȱMassaȱS.ȱPauli,ȱlocatedȱnearȱImola.ȱTheȱsettlementȱwasȱfirstȱcalledȱMassaȱand
thenȱMassaȱlongobardorum;ȱseeȱMarioȱTabanelli,ȱUnaȱcittàȱdiȱRomagnaȱnelȱMedioȱevoȱeȱnelȱRinasciȬ
mento.ȱAvvenimentiȱeȱuominiȱdiȱRomagnaȱ(Brescia:ȱMagalini,ȱ1980).
83
InȱtheȱstatuteȱofȱFlorence,ȱpeasantsȱwereȱsanctionedȱtwiceȱthanȱcitizens.ȱInȱtheȱcityȱofȱRavennaȱthey
wereȱsanctionedȱfourȱtimesȱmoreȱthanȱcitizens;ȱseeȱMerlini,ȱSatiraȱcontroȱilȱvillanoȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ11.
84
Feo,ȱ“Dalȱpiusȱagricola”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ100ȱn.ȱ25.
medievalȱpopularȱculture.ȱAsȱJanȱHokensonȱnoticesȱtheȱmedievalȱfoolȱtradition
combinesȱ
theȱblessedȱinnocenceȱofȱtheȱchild,ȱtheȱnaïf,ȱtheȱidiotȱsacredȱtoȱChrist,ȱwhoseȱcomic
ignorantiaȱgaveȱlicenseȱtoȱtheȱlevelȱtheȱvainȱpretensionsȱofȱphilosophyȱandȱtheologians,
withȱ theȱ grotesqueȱ blasphemyȱ ofȱ theȱ saturnalian,ȱ theȱ profaner,ȱ theȱ unrepentant
sensualistȱmockingȱallȱmortalȱauthorityȱonȱthisȱstageȱofȱfools,ȱhisȱownȱfirstȱandȱlast.85ȱ
Besidesȱthisȱsubversiveȱvalue,ȱtheȱfoolȱalsoȱrepresentedȱ“normativeȱsocialȱvalue,
forȱ oneȱ ofȱ hisȱ comicȱ functionȱ isȱ toȱ castigateȱ profiteeringȱ protestsȱ andȱ lawless
barons,ȱallȱtheȱfoolishȱabusersȱofȱsocialȱrankȱandȱright.”86ȱHenceȱtheȱfoolȱisȱaȱliving
paradox;ȱheȱisȱbothȱrevolutionaryȱandȱreactionary,ȱasȱheȱstandsȱbeyondȱandȱwithin
socialȱstructuresȱandȱtraditions.ȱFromȱhisȱprivilegedȱpositionȱheȱshowsȱhisȱfaçade
ofȱinfallibilityȱinȱaȱconfusedȱworld.ȱHeȱisȱcharming,ȱwise,ȱlearned,ȱyetȱerraticȱand
plain.ȱAsȱhisȱiconographyȱsuggests,ȱheȱresemblesȱaȱhumbleȱChristȱthroughȱhis
simpleȱclothes,ȱbutȱheȱalsoȱhasȱtheȱlookȱofȱtheȱsavageȱmanȱwithȱaȱbizarreȱfeather
crown.ȱ Asȱ Ceciliaȱ Trocchiȱ suggested,ȱ Giotto’sȱ fourteenthȬcenturyȱ allegorical
representationȱofȱtheȱstultitiaȱinȱtheȱScrovegniȱChapelȱinȱPaduaȱisȱtheȱprecursorȱof
theȱfoolȱ(seeȱFig.1).87ȱGiotto’sȱdepictionsȱbecomeȱtheȱsourceȱforȱtheȱrepresentation
ofȱtheȱmattoȱinȱoneȱofȱtheȱfirstȱItalianȱtarotsȱcommissionedȱinȱMilanȱbyȱtheȱVisconti
familyȱinȱtheȱlateȱfifteenthȱcenturyȱ(seeȱFig.2).ȱAsȱbothȱimagesȱdemonstrate,ȱthe
Matto/Matazoneȱevokesȱrusticsȱandȱpeasantryȱbutȱalsoȱinstability—opposedȱtoȱthe
exemplaryȱvirtueȱofȱprudence.ȱMatazoneȱisȱthenȱtheȱvariableȱ“joker”ȱcardȱthatȱhas
authorityȱbutȱisȱalsoȱatȱtheȱmercyȱofȱhisȱaudience,ȱtheȱplayers,ȱasȱtheȱoriginalȱtarot
wasȱcreatedȱtoȱamuseȱ“signori”ȱandȱ“cavalieri.”88ȱAtȱtheȱend,ȱitȱdependsȱonȱthe
playersȱandȱwhatȱtheyȱhaveȱinȱtheirȱhands,ȱbutȱmostȱimportantly,ȱitȱisȱhowȱthey
decideȱtoȱplayȱtheȱgame.ȱ
85
Janȱ Hokenson,ȱ Theȱ Ideaȱ ofȱ Comedy:ȱ History,ȱ Theory,ȱ Critiqueȱ (Madison:ȱ Fairleighȱ Dickinson
86
SeeȱHokenson,ȱTheȱIdeaȱofȱComedyȱ(seeȱnoteȱ85),ȱ152.
87
CeciliaȱGattoȱTrocchi,ȱIȱTarocchi.ȱIlȱsapere:ȱEnciclopediaȱTascabileȱ74,ȱed.ȱRobertoȱBonchioȱ(Rome:
TascabiliȱEconomiciȱNewton,ȱ1995),ȱ88.
88
Theȱtermȱusedȱtoȱreferȱtoȱtarotȱwasȱ“leȱcarteȱdaȱtrionphi”ȱasȱevidentȱfromȱaȱ1442ȱrecordȱfromȱthe
RegistroȱdeiȱMandatiȱinȱFerrara,ȱwhichȱalsoȱmentionsȱthatȱtheȱtarotȱwereȱsupposedȱtoȱamuseȱknights
andȱnoblemen;ȱTrocchi,ȱIȱTarocchiȱ(seeȱnoteȱ87),ȱ9.
Fig.ȱ1.ȱFoolishnessȱ(Stultitia)ȱ(1303–1305).ȱGiotto,ȱtheȱScrovegniȱChapel,ȱPadua
PhotographedȱbyȱtheȱauthorȱfromȱAngeloȱRubini’sȱphotographȱprintedȱin
Giotto:ȱTheȱFrescoesȱofȱtheȱScrovegniȱChapelȱinȱPadua, ed. Giuseppe Basile
(Milan: Skira, 2002), 394.
Fig.ȱ2.ȱTheȱFoolȱ(ca.ȱ1460–1470).ȱBonifacioȱBembo,ȱViscontiȬSforzaȱTarot.
PhotographedȱbyȱtheȱauthorȱfromȱGertrudeȱMoakley,ȱTheȱTarotȱCardsȱPaintedȱby
BonifacioȱBemboȱforȱtheȱViscontiȬSforzaȱFamily;ȱanȱIconographicȱandȱHistoricalȱStudy
(NewȱYork:ȱTheȱNewȱYorkȱPublicȱLibrary,ȱ1966),ȱ113.
Chapterȱ19
BirgitȱWiedl
(InstituteȱforȱJewishȱHistoryȱinȱAustria,ȱSt.ȱPölten,ȱAustria)
“LazarusȱandȱAbraham,ȱourȱJewsȱofȱEggenburg”:
JewsȱinȱtheȱAustrianȱCountrysideȱinȱ
theȱFourteenthȱCentury
“Itȱ neverȱenteredȱmyȱmindȱtoȱliveȱinȱaȱvillageȱwithoutȱminyanȱandȱprayer,”ȱ a
JewishȱwomanȱinȱoneȱofȱtheȱresponsaȱofȱRabbiȱMeirȱbenȱBaruchȱofȱRothenburgȱob
derȱTauberȱ(ca.ȱ1250–1293),ȱtheȱfamousȱthirteenthȬcenturyȱscholar,ȱstates.1ȱLiving
inȱ theȱ countrysideȱ was,ȱ accordingȱ toȱ Rabbiȱ Meir,ȱ trying,ȱ cumbersome,ȱ and
arduous,ȱ andȱ thereforeȱ altogetherȱ notȱ desirable.ȱ Meir,ȱ whoȱ hadȱ studiedȱ in
Würzburg,ȱMainz,ȱandȱParis,ȱhadȱfoundedȱtheȱRothenburgȱJeshiwaȱthatȱattracted
studentsȱfromȱallȱoverȱEurope,ȱandȱhadȱspentȱhisȱlaterȱyearsȱinȱhisȱhometown,
Worms,ȱnotablyȱperceivedȱurbanȱandȱruralȱlivingȱspacesȱasȱbeingȱdiametrically
opposed,ȱwithȱurbanȱexistenceȱasȱtheȱ‘real’ȱwayȱofȱliving.
Cities,ȱheȱargued,ȱwereȱtheȱonlyȱenvironmentȱthatȱsafeguardedȱtheȱnecessary
requirementsȱforȱ‘proper’ȱJewishȱlife,ȱhence,ȱurbanȱJewishȱcommunitiesȱwereȱthose
thatȱprovidedȱtheirȱmembersȱwithȱinstitutionsȱandȱfacilitiesȱsuchȱasȱsynagogues,
mikhvot,ȱandȱcemeteries,ȱwhereasȱinȱtheȱcountryside,ȱtheȱlivingȱconditionsȱforȱthe
BeneiȱhaKefarim,ȱtheȱJewishȱpeopleȱinȱtheȱvillages,ȱwereȱtroublesomeȱatȱbest.ȱLiving
inȱtheȱcountrysideȱmeantȱlivingȱaway,ȱand,ȱmoreȱoftenȱthanȱnot,ȱtooȱfarȱawayȱfrom
theseȱessentialȱstructuresȱtoȱmakeȱuseȱofȱthemȱonȱaȱregularȱbasis,ȱorȱevenȱatȱany
1
MichaelȱToch,ȱ“EconomicȱActivitiesȱofȱGermanȱJewsȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,”ȱWirtschaftsgeschichteȱder
mittelalterlichenȱ Juden:ȱ Fragenȱ undȱ Einschätzungen,ȱ ed.ȱ id.ȱ Schriftenȱ desȱ Historischenȱ Kollegs,
Kolloquien,ȱ71ȱ(Munich:ȱR.ȱOldenbourgȱVerlag,ȱ2008),ȱ180Ȭ210;ȱhereȱ207.ȱTheȱresearchȱforȱthis
articleȱwasȱfundedȱbyȱtheȱAustrianȱScienceȱFundȱ(FWF)ȱwhoȱalsoȱfinancesȱtheȱongoingȱpublication
projectȱ“RegestenȱzurȱGeschichteȱderȱJudenȱinȱÖsterreich.”ȱTwoȱvolumesȱthatȱcoverȱtheȱtimeȱuntil
1365ȱ haveȱ alreadyȱ beenȱ publishedȱ (seeȱ notesȱ 4ȱ andȱ 40),ȱ theȱ thirdȱ volumeȱ (1366–1386)ȱ is
forthcomingȱinȱ2012.
640 BirgitȱWiedl
timeȱwhenȱtheȱneedȱarose.ȱLivingȱinȱtheȱcountrysideȱthereforeȱmeantȱforȱmedieval
Jewsȱthatȱtheyȱhadȱtoȱadaptȱtoȱmoreȱthanȱlivingȱalongȱwith,ȱandȱtogetherȱwith
anotherȱreligiousȱgroupȱthat,ȱhoweverȱcloseȱtheȱcontactsȱandȱhoweverȱintenseȱthe
culturalȱtransferȱmightȱhaveȱbeen,ȱremainedȱdifferentȱinȱmanyȱregards.2
Nevertheless,ȱ Jewishȱ existenceȱ inȱ Ashkenazicȱ Europeȱ wasȱ neverȱ exclusively
urban.ȱToȱwhichȱextentȱtheȱearlyȱmedievalȱcommercialȱbasesȱalongȱtheȱtradeȱroutes
wereȱactuallyȱsettlements,ȱisȱstillȱmuchȱdisputed;ȱforȱtheȱearlyȱMiddleȱAges,ȱweȱcan
assumeȱaȱveryȱlowȱnumberȱofȱJewsȱactuallyȱsettlingȱinȱNorthwestȱandȱCentral
Europe.3ȱTheȱJewsȱsuchȱasȱthoseȱmentionedȱinȱtheȱRaffelstettenerȱZollordnung,ȱan
earlyȱtenthȬcenturyȱtollȱregulationȱforȱUpperȱandȱLowerȱAustriaȱthatȱincludedȱthe
paymentȱobligationsȱforȱiudeiȱetȱceteriȱmercatoresȱ(“Jewsȱandȱotherȱmerchants”),
wereȱmostȱdefinitelyȱexactlyȱthat:ȱJewsȱwhoȱwereȱtravelingȱthroughȱtheȱBavarian
east,ȱ howeverȱ slowlyȱ andȱ withȱ howeverȱ manyȱ stops.4ȱ Thereȱ isȱ noȱ conclusive
evidenceȱ forȱ aȱ connectionȱ betweenȱ whatȱ isȱ referredȱ toȱ asȱ Judendörferȱ (“Jewish
villages”),ȱaȱquiteȱhighȱnumberȱofȱeleventhȬcenturyȱmarketȱtowns,ȱvillages,ȱand
farmsteadsȱinȱtheȱeasternȱAlpineȱareasȱthatȱincludeȱtheȱwordȱ‘Jud’ȱinȱtheirȱnames,
andȱactualȱJewishȱsettlementȱthatȱonlyȱgotȱgoingȱaboutȱtwoȱcenturiesȱlaterȱinȱthis
area;ȱnevertheless,ȱaȱlinkageȱtoȱstagingȱpostsȱand/orȱsheltersȱofȱJewishȱtradesmen
hasȱbeenȱsuggested.5ȱ
InȱtheȱnorthernȱandȱwesternȱareasȱofȱtheȱHolyȱRomanȱEmpireȱasȱwellȱasȱinȱthe
northȱofȱFrance,ȱmostȱofȱtheȱJewishȱruralȱsettlementsȱofȱtheȱhighȱMiddleȱAgesȱwere
setȱupȱinȱtheȱhinterlandȱofȱtheȱurbanȱcenters,ȱwhereasȱinȱtheȱsoutheast,ȱparticularly
inȱtheȱterritoriesȱofȱtoday’sȱAustria,ȱitȱshouldȱtakeȱupȱtoȱtheȱmidȬthirteenthȱcentury
thatȱanyȱJewsȱlivingȱoutsideȱtheȱcitiesȱwereȱmentionedȱatȱall–whichȱisȱaȱlotȱless
remarkableȱ ifȱ weȱ considerȱ howȱ lateȱ Jewishȱ settlementȱ inȱ theseȱ regionsȱ started
comparedȱtoȱtheȱareasȱofȱtheȱhugeȱJewishȱcommunities,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱRhineland.
2
RainerȱBarzen,ȱ“BeneiȱhaKefarimȱ–ȱdieȱLeuteȱausȱdenȱDörfern:ȱZurȱjüdischenȱSiedlungȱaufȱdem
LandeȱinȱAschkenasȱundȱZarfatȱimȱhohenȱundȱspäterenȱMittelalter,”ȱCampanaȱpulsanteȱconvocati.
FestschriftȱanläßlichȱderȱEmeritierungȱvonȱProf.ȱDr.ȱAlfredȱHaverkamp,ȱed.ȱFrankȱG.ȱHirschmannȱand
GerdȱMentgenȱ(Trier:ȱKliomedia,ȱ2005),ȱ21Ȭ37;ȱhereȱ21.ȱMeirȱtriedȱtoȱleaveȱtheȱrealmȱofȱtheȱHoly
RomanȱEmpireȱaroundȱ1286ȱwhenȱKingȱRudolphȱIȱimposedȱnewȱtaxesȱonȱtheȱJewry,ȱbutȱwas
caughtȱandȱimprisonedȱuntilȱhisȱdeathȱinȱ1293.
3
MichaelȱToch,ȱDieȱJudenȱimȱmittelalterlichenȱReich.ȱEnzyklopädieȱdeutscherȱGeschichte,ȱ44,ȱsec.ȱed.
(1998;ȱMunch:ȱOldenburg,ȱ2003),ȱ5–6,ȱspeaksȱofȱ‘noȱmoreȱthanȱaȱfewȱdozenȱJewishȱfamilies’ȱinȱthe
ninthȱcentury,ȱandȱ‘aȱfewȱhundredȱatȱmost’ȱinȱtheȱtenthȱ(myȱtranslation).
4
EvelineȱBruggerȱandȱBirgitȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱzurȱGeschichteȱderȱJudenȱinȱÖsterreichȱimȱMittelalter,ȱ1:
VonȱdenȱAnfängenȱbisȱ1338ȱ(Innsbruck,ȱVienna,ȱandȱBolzano:ȱStudienVerlag,ȱ2005),ȱ15,ȱn.ȱ1ȱ(forȱthe
internetȱversion,ȱseeȱhttp://www.injoest.ac.at/projekte/laufend/mittelalterliche_judenurkunden/,
lastȱaccessedȱonȱJan.ȱ16,ȱ2012).
5
MarkusȱWenninger,ȱ“DieȱSiedlungsgeschichteȱderȱinnerösterreichischenȱJudenȱimȱMittelalterȱund
dasȱ Problemȱ derȱ ‘Juden’ȬOrte,”ȱ Berichtȱ überȱ denȱ 16.ȱ österreichischenȱ Historikertagȱ 1984.
Veröffentlichungenȱ desȱ Verbandesȱ Österreichischerȱ Geschichtsvereine,ȱ 25ȱ (Vienna:ȱ Eigenverlagȱ des
VerbandesȱÖsterreichischerȱGeschichtsvereine,ȱ1985),ȱ190–217;ȱhereȱ194–208.
JewsȱinȱtheȱAustrianȱCountrysideȱ 641
Beforeȱtheȱyearȱ1200,ȱtheȱbeginningȱofȱaȱJewishȱcommunityȱcanȱbeȱproposedȱfor
Vienna6;ȱtheȱJewȱSchlom,ȱmasterȱofȱtheȱmint7ȱofȱDukeȱLeopoldȱVȱ(1157–1194)ȱand
mentionedȱaroundȱ1192/1196,ȱisȱtheȱfirstȱJewȱlivingȱonȱAustrianȱterritoryȱwhoȱis
knownȱbyȱname.8ȱ
Inȱtheȱ1220s,ȱRabbiȱIsaakȱbarȱMosche,ȱwhoȱcountedȱamongȱtheȱmostȱimportant
Ashkenazicȱscholars,ȱsettledȱdownȱinȱVienna9;ȱbigȬscaleȱJewishȱbusinessmen,ȱlike
theȱHungarianȱJewȱTeka,ȱextendedȱtheȱrangeȱofȱtheirȱactivitiesȱintoȱtheȱAustrian
territory;ȱandȱinȱtheȱfirstȱdecadesȱofȱtheȱthirteenthȱcenturyȱtheȱJewishȱcommunities
ofȱWienerȱNeustadtȱandȱKrems,ȱsecondȱlargestȱtoȱVienna,ȱstartedȱtoȱprosper.10ȱBy
theȱlateȱ1230s,ȱtheȱJewishȱpopulationȱinȱtheȱduchyȱofȱAustriaȱhadȱgrownȱtoȱan
extentȱthatȱitȱwarrantedȱtheȱattentionȱ ofȱ theȱ Austrianȱduke.ȱUpȱuntilȱthen,ȱthe
definitionȱofȱtheȱlegalȱandȱeconomicȱpositionȱofȱtheȱGermanȱJewryȱhadȱbeenȱthe
soleȱrightȱofȱtheȱHolyȱRomanȱEmperorȱtoȱwhoseȱtreasureȱtheyȱbelonged,ȱalthough
inȱmanyȱotherȱareasȱofȱtheȱEmpireȱtheȱEmperor’sȱprerogativeȱhadȱbyȱthenȱalready
beenȱreducedȱtoȱaȱmereȱclaimȱinȱtheȱcourseȱofȱtheȱtransitionȱofȱimperialȱrightsȱto
theȱregionalȱrulers.ȱ
TheȱAustrianȱDukeȱFredericȱIIȱ(1211–1246),ȱalreadyȱengagedȱinȱaȱpowerȱstruggle
withȱhisȱimperialȱnamesakeȱinȱtheȱ1230s,ȱmanagedȱtoȱassertȱhisȱrightsȱtoȱtheȱJews
livingȱinȱhisȱterritories,ȱevenȱthoughȱitȱshouldȱtakeȱuntilȱ1331ȱthatȱtheȱJudenregal,
theȱ ‘rightȱ toȱ theȱ Jews,’ȱ wasȱ officiallyȱ givenȱ toȱ theȱ (thenȱ Habsburg)ȱ dukesȱ of
Austria.11ȱFrederic’sȱ(asȱwellȱasȱhisȱsuccessors’)ȱinterestȱinȱ‘his’ȱJewsȱwasȱprimarily
economic,ȱandȱinȱhisȱducalȱprivilegeȱofȱ1244,ȱtheȱfirstȱencompassingȱdefinitionȱof
theȱlegalȱstandingȱofȱtheȱAustrianȱJews,ȱheȱgrantedȱtheȱAustrianȱJewryȱaȱseriesȱof
6
Inȱ1204,ȱtheȱ(byȱthenȱalreadyȱexisting)ȱVienneseȱsynagogueȱwasȱmentionedȱforȱtheȱfirstȱtime,
BruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱ1ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ18–19,ȱn.ȱ5.
7
Jewsȱasȱmastersȱofȱaȱmintȱwereȱnotȱuncommonȱinȱtheȱtwelfthȱandȱthirteenthȱcenturies;ȱseeȱToch,
Judenȱ imȱ mittelalterlichenȱ Reichȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 3),ȱ 7;ȱ Markusȱ Wenninger,ȱ “Judenȱ alsȱ Münzmeister,
ZollpächterȱundȱfürstlicheȱFinanzbeamteȱimȱmittelalterlichenȱAschkenas,”ȱWirtschaftsgeschichte
derȱmittelalterlichenȱJudenȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1),ȱ121–38
8
BruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱ1ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ16–18,ȱns.ȱ3ȱandȱ4.ȱSchlomȱandȱhisȱfamilyȱwereȱkilled
byȱcrusadersȱinȱ1196.ȱ
9
Avrahamȱ(Rami)ȱReiner,ȱ“FromȱRabbenuȱTamȱToȱR.ȱIsaacȱofȱVienna:ȱTheȱHegemonyȱofȱtheȱFrench
TalmudicȱSchoolȱinȱtheȱTwelfthȱCentury,”ȱTheȱJewsȱofȱEuropeȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(TenthȱtoȱFifteenth
Centuries),ȱ ed.ȱ Christophȱ Cluseȱ (Turnhout:ȱ Brepols,ȱ 2004),ȱ 273–83;ȱ hereȱ 273–76;ȱ Marthaȱ Keil,
“Gemeindeȱ undȱ Kulturȱ –ȱ Dieȱ mittelalterlichenȱ Grundlagenȱ jüdischenȱ Lebensȱ inȱ Österreich,”
Evelineȱ Brugger,ȱ Marthaȱ Keil,ȱ Christophȱ Lind,ȱ Albertȱ Lichtblau,ȱ andȱ Barbaraȱ Staudinger,
GeschichteȱderȱJudenȱinȱÖsterreichȱ(Vienna:ȱUeberreuter,ȱ2006),ȱ15–122;ȱhereȱ27ȱandȱ64.
10
EvelineȱBrugger,ȱ“VonȱderȱAnsiedlungȱbisȱzurȱVertreibungȱ–ȱJudenȱinȱÖsterreichȱimȱMittelalter,”
GeschichteȱderȱJudenȱinȱÖsterreichȱ(seeȱnoteȱ9),ȱ123–228;ȱhereȱ127–29.
11
OnȱMayȱ4,ȱ1331,ȱEmperorȱLudwigȱIVȱconfirmedȱaȱseriesȱofȱlegalȱtitlesȱforȱtheȱHabsburgȱdukes
AlbrechtȱIIȱandȱOtto,ȱamongȱtheseȱtheȱ‘rightsȱtoȱtheȱJews’;ȱseeȱBruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱ1ȱ(see
noteȱ4),ȱ278,ȱn.ȱ338.
642 BirgitȱWiedl
economicȱ privilegesȱ andȱ aȱ quiteȱ wideȬrangingȱ protectionȱ thatȱ suggestȱ thatȱ he

aimedȱatȱprovidingȱaȱfurtherȱincentiveȱforȱJewsȱtoȱsettleȱdownȱinȱAustria.12
Inȱ return,ȱ Fredericȱ andȱ hisȱ successorsȱ profitedȱ fromȱ aȱ prosperingȱ Jewish
population.ȱTheyȱsubjectedȱthemȱtoȱtaxationȱandȱmaintainedȱcontrolȱoverȱJewish
businessȱinȱgeneral,ȱwhichȱenabledȱthemȱtoȱraiseȱconsiderableȱamountsȱofȱmoney
whenverȱtheyȱneededȱto.ȱInȱadditionȱtoȱthat,ȱtheirȱcontrolȱoverȱJewishȱbusinessȱalso
helpedȱtheȱdukesȱtoȱkeepȱinȱcheckȱthoseȱmembersȱofȱtheȱnobilityȱwhoȱindebted
themselvesȱtoȱtheir,ȱtheȱdukes’,ȱJews.ȱTheȱducalȱprivilegeȱappliedȱtoȱallȱJewsȱin
Austria,ȱregardlessȱofȱtheirȱplaceȱofȱresidence.ȱWhileȱtheȱducalȱinterestȱlayȱmainly
withȱtheȱbiggerȱcommunities,ȱJewishȱsettlementȱinȱtheȱlesserȱpopulatedȱareasȱwas
notȱdisencouraged.ȱByȱmidȬthirteenthȱcentury,ȱJewsȱwereȱlivingȱinȱaȱnumberȱof
smallerȱ townsȱ inȱ theȱ countrysideȱ ofȱ today’sȱ Austria,ȱ suchȱ asȱ inȱ Tullnȱ (1267,
mentionȱofȱJewsȱinȱtheȱregulationsȱofȱtheȱbutchers’ȱguild)ȱandȱLaaȱanȱderȱThaya
(1277,ȱ townȱ charter)ȱ inȱ Lowerȱ Austria,13ȱ orȱ inȱ theȱ Carinthianȱ marketȱ townȱ of
Straßburg,ȱtheȱresidenceȱofȱtheȱbishopsȱofȱGurk.14ȱ
Apartȱfromȱlegalȱdocumentsȱsuchȱasȱroyalȱorȱducalȱprivileges,ȱtownȱchartersȱor
guildȱ regulations,ȱ theȱ documentsȱ thatȱ dealȱ withȱ dailyȱ interactionȱ between
ChristiansȱandȱJewsȱareȱmostlyȱbusinessȱcharters,ȱandȱhereinȱliesȱtheȱmajorȱsourceȬ
relatedȱproblemȱwhenȱdealingȱwithȱlow(er)ȬscaleȱJewishȱbusiness.ȱTransactions
betweenȱ membersȱ ofȱ theȱ nobilityȱ andȱ highȬrankingȱ financiers,ȱ thatȱ usually
includedȱhigh,ȱlongȬtermȱcredits,ȱwereȱmoreȱlikelyȱtoȱbeȱrecordedȱinȱwriting,ȱand,
ifȱaddedȱtoȱtheȱtreasure/archiveȱofȱaȱnobleȱfamily,ȱmoreȱlikelyȱtoȱbeȱpreserved;
thus,ȱtheȱtransmittedȱsourceȱmaterialȱfocusesȱheavilyȱonȱtheȱsocialȱandȱeconomic
eliteȱofȱbothȱChristianȱandȱJewishȱbusinessȱpartners.ȱLow,ȱshortȬtermȱloansȱandȱthe
transactionsȱofȱsmallȬscaleȱpawnȱbrokers,ȱhowever,ȱwereȱhardlyȱeverȱpreservedȱin
writing,ȱandȱwhileȱliteracyȱandȱaccessȱtoȱliterateȱpeople–as,ȱe.g.,ȱinȱtheȱ‘institution’
ofȱ townȱ writers–becameȱ moreȱ commonȱ inȱ theȱ urbanȱ centersȱ ofȱ theȱ thirteenth
century,ȱitȱremainedȱtheȱexceptionȱinȱtheȱruralȱareas.ȱDueȱtoȱthisȱscantȱappearance
ofȱ Jewsȱ dwellingȱ inȱ aȱ ruralȱ settingȱ inȱ theȱ sourceȱ material,ȱ anyȱ conclusive
12
BruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱ1ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ35–38,ȱn.ȱ25.ȱForȱtheȱpullȱfactorsȱinȱregardȱtoȱJewish
(im)migrationȱ inȱ general,ȱ seeȱ HansȬJörgȱ Gilomen,ȱ “Jüdischeȱ Migrationȱ inȱ dieȱ Städteȱ im
Spätmittelalterȱ—ȱ‘GanzȱIsraelȱistȱfüreinanderȱverantwortlichȱbeimȱTragenȱderȱLastȱdesȱExils’,”
MigrationȱalsȱsozialeȱHerausforderung:ȱHistorischeȱFormenȱsolidarischenȱHandelnsȱvonȱderȱAntikeȱbisȱzum
20.ȱ Jahrhundert,ȱ ed.ȱ Joachimȱ Bahlcke,ȱ Rainerȱ Leng,ȱ andȱ Peterȱ Scholz.ȱ Stuttgarterȱ Beiträgeȱ zur
historischenȱMigrationsforschung,ȱ8ȱStuttgart:ȱFranzȱSteinerȱVerlag,ȱ2011),ȱ123–48;ȱhereȱ127–28.
13
BruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱ1ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ61–62,ȱn.ȱ46ȱ(Tulln),ȱ73,ȱn.ȱ57ȱ(Laa),ȱBirgitȱWiedl,ȱ“Jews
andȱtheȱCity.ȱParametersȱofȱJewishȱUrbanȱLifeȱinȱLateȱMedievalȱAustria,”ȱUrbanȱSpaceȱinȱtheȱMiddle
AgesȱandȱtheȱEarlyȱModernȱAge,ȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassen.ȱFundamentalsȱofȱMedievalȱandȱEarlyȱModern
Cultureȱ4ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱdeGruyter,ȱ2009),ȱ273–308;ȱhereȱ293ȱandȱ297.
14
WilhelmȱWadl,ȱGeschichteȱderȱJudenȱinȱKärntenȱimȱMittelalter.ȱMitȱeinemȱAusblickȱbisȱzumȱJahreȱ1867.
DasȱKärntnerȱLandesarchiv,ȱ9.ȱ3rdȱed.ȱ(1981;ȱKlagenfurt:ȱVerlagȱdesȱKärntnerȱLandesarchivs,
2009),ȱ227.
deductionsȱregardingȱtheirȱsocialȱandȱeconomicȱstatusȱandȱtheirȱChristianȱclientele
areȱproblematicȱatȱbest.
TheȱearliestȱdocumentsȱofȱJewishȱbusinessȱactivitiesȱinȱtheȱcountrysideȱgenerally
showȱanȱurbanȱinvolvementȱfromȱoneȱorȱbothȱsidesȱofȱtheȱbusinessȱpartners.ȱIn
1305,ȱtheȱVienneseȱJewȱIsakȱsoldȱrevenuesȱatȱFalkenstein,ȱthatȱhadȱbeenȱhisȱprivate
property,ȱtoȱCountȱBertholdȱofȱMaidburg.15ȱWhileȱIsak,ȱ“servant”ȱofȱtheȱQueen
Elisabethȱ (derȱ [.ȱ .ȱ .]ȱ chueniginnenȱ jude)ȱ andȱ relatedȱ toȱ theȱ wealthiestȱ andȱ most
influentialȱfamilies,ȱwasȱdoubtlesslyȱaȱmemberȱofȱtheȱhigherȱsocialȱandȱeconomic
class,ȱfourȱotherȱJewsȱservedȱasȱwitnessesȱoutȱofȱwhomȱatȱleastȱoneȱ(alsoȱnamed
Isak)ȱwasȱlivingȱinȱMautern,ȱanȱoldȱbutȱcomparativelyȱsmallȱsettlementȱopposite
Kremsȱ onȱ theȱ southȱ bankȱ ofȱ theȱ Danube.16ȱ Thisȱ documentȱ representsȱ theȱ only
knownȱmentionȱofȱJewishȱpresenceȱinȱMautern,ȱandȱoneȱofȱtheȱearliestȱJewsȱwho
livedȱinȱtheȱcountrysideȱknownȱbyȱname.ȱ
Itȱ isȱ quiteȱ likelyȱ thatȱ anyȱ Jewsȱ whoȱ livedȱ thereȱ wereȱ membersȱ ofȱ theȱ Jewish
communityȱinȱtheȱtownȱofȱKremsȱthatȱhousedȱoneȱofȱtheȱbiggestȱcommunitiesȱin
theȱduchyȱofȱAustria.ȱWhileȱIsakȱofȱMauternȱthereforeȱwouldȱhaveȱhadȱeasyȱaccess
toȱtheȱsynagogueȱandȱtheȱotherȱfacilitiesȱatȱKremsȱandȱwouldȱhaveȱbeenȱableȱto
participateȱinȱtheȱcommunityȱprayersȱandȱfestiveȱceremonies,ȱhisȱcontemporary
Leb,ȱwhoȱlivedȱinȱtheȱvillageȱofȱGarsȱatȱtheȱriverȱKamp,ȱwouldȱhaveȱhadȱtoȱcover
aȱ distanceȱ ofȱ aboutȱ 30ȱ kilometersȱ downstreamȱ theȱ riverȱ throughȱ aȱ ratherȱ hilly
landscapeȱtoȱgetȱtoȱKrems.17ȱUnlikeȱIsakȱofȱMauternȱhowever,ȱwhoȱonlyȱappears
asȱaȱwitnessȱtoȱaȱbusinessȱtransactionȱofȱaȱhighȬrankingȱbusinessman,ȱLebȱhimself
wasȱ(toȱjudgeȱbyȱhisȱfewȱappearances)ȱanȱaccomplishedȱmoneylender:ȱinȱ1312,
threeȱbrothersȱofȱtheȱnobleȱfamilyȱofȱBuchbergȱpawnedȱtheirȱcastle,ȱseveralȱplots
ofȱland,ȱandȱtheȱvillageȱofȱOttenȱwithȱallȱitsȱrevenuesȱtoȱLebȱforȱtheȱsumȱofȱ150
poundȱ pennies,ȱ aȱ loanȱ thatȱ hadȱ presumablyȱ alreadyȱ beenȱ takenȱ outȱ byȱ their
father.18ȱ
TheȱBuchbergȱfamilyȱhadȱbeenȱinȱfinancialȱtroublesȱforȱseveralȱyears,ȱcounting
someȱofȱtheȱmostȱprestigiousȱJewishȱmoneylendersȱamongȱtheirȱcreditors,ȱand
continuedȱtoȱincurȱdebtsȱwithȱJewishȱbusinessȱpartnersȱinȱtheȱfollowingȱyears.ȱTied
15
EvelineȱBrugger,ȱAdelȱundȱJudenȱinȱNiederösterreich.ȱDieȱBeziehungenȱniederösterreichischerȱAdelsȬ
familienȱzurȱjüdischenȱFührungsschichtȱvonȱdenȱAnfängenȱbisȱzurȱPulkauerȱVerfolgungȱ1338ȱ(St.ȱPölten:
NiederösterreichischesȱInstitutȱfürȱLandeskunde,ȱ2004),ȱ51–53ȱandȱ119–20;ȱKlausȱLohrmann,ȱDie
WienerȱJudenȱimȱMittelalterȱ(BerlinȱandȱVienna:ȱPhilo,ȱ2000),ȱ131–32.
16
Seeȱ1100ȱJahreȱcivitasȱMutarensis.ȱMauternȱinȱMittelalterȱundȱfrüherȱNeuzeit.ȱAusstellungskatalog,
2nd.ȱed.ȱ(Mautern:ȱVerlagȱderȱGemeindeȱ1999).
17
AȱmedievalȱsynagogueȱatȱHadersdorfȱamȱKampȱ(whichȱwouldȱhaveȱshortenedȱLeb’sȱjourneyȱby
aboutȱ 5ȱ kilometers)ȱ isȱ onlyȱ reportedȱ byȱ theȱ veryȱ unreliableȱ Leopoldȱ Moses,ȱ Dieȱ Judenȱ in
Niederösterreichȱ(mitȱbesondererȱBerücksichtigungȱdesȱXVII.ȱJahrhunderts).ȱ(Vienna:ȱVerlagȱHeinrich
Glanz,ȱ1935),ȱ129;ȱseeȱalsoȱPierreȱGenée,ȱSynagogenȱinȱÖsterreichȱ(Vienna:ȱLöckerȱVerlag,ȱ1992),ȱ28.ȱ
18
644 BirgitȱWiedl
toȱtheȱdocumentȱfromȱ1312ȱwasȱaȱHebrewȱcharterȱfromȱafterȱ133019ȱthatȱwasȱissued
byȱtheȱJewishȱbrothersȱRachemȱandȱManoach,ȱsonsȱofȱJehudaȱhaKohen,ȱwhoȱsold
halfȱ ofȱ theȱ castleȱ Buchberg,ȱ thatȱ hadȱ fallenȱ toȱ them,ȱ toȱ Dukeȱ Albrechtȱ II
(1298–1358).ȱUnfortunately,ȱnoȱinformationȱasȱtoȱhowȱitȱhadȱcomeȱtoȱpassȱthat
RachemȱandȱManoachȱwereȱentitledȱtoȱsellingȱtheȱpawnȱorȱasȱtoȱwhereȱtheyȱlived
isȱ providedȱ inȱ theȱ textȱ ofȱ theȱ document,ȱ butȱ theȱ additionalȱ corroborationȱ by
MoscheȱbarȱGamliel,ȱtheȱVienneseȱRabbi,20ȱgivesȱevidenceȱtoȱtheȱfactȱthatȱtheyȱwere
membersȱofȱtheȱVienneseȱcommunity.ȱ
AnȱidentificationȱofȱLebȱwithȱRachemȱandȱManoach’sȱfatherȱJehuda,ȱasȱargued
forȱbyȱSpitzer,ȱisȱatȱleastȱproblematic21:ȱwhileȱnamesȱmeaningȱ‘lion’ȱwereȱusedȱas
kinnuim,ȱthatȱis,ȱvernacularȱorȱprofaneȱnames,ȱforȱJehudaȱ(dueȱtoȱtheȱcomparison
ofȱ Judahȱ toȱ aȱ youngȱ lionȱ inȱ Jacob’sȱ benediction,ȱ Genesisȱ 49:9),22ȱ thereȱ isȱ not
necessarilyȱanyȱconnectionȱbetweenȱtheȱ‘holyȱname,’ȱtheȱHebrewȱnameȱthatȱis
givenȱtoȱtheȱJewishȱboyȱatȱhisȱcircumcision,ȱandȱtheȱnameȱthatȱisȱusuallyȱused.23
AnotherȱappearanceȱofȱLebȱofȱGarsȱaȱfewȱyearsȱlaterȱfurtherȱspeaksȱagainstȱthis
identification;ȱandȱwhileȱitȱdisprovesȱanyȱconnectionȱofȱLebȱwithȱtheȱbigȱViennese
community,ȱitȱpointsȱatȱaȱmoreȱcontinuousȱpresenceȱofȱatȱleastȱoneȱJewishȱfamily
inȱGars:ȱinȱ1324,ȱLebȱhadȱmovedȱtoȱRetz,24ȱaȱsmallȱtownȱcloseȱtoȱMoraviaȱthatȱhad
beenȱnewlyȱfoundedȱonlyȱaȱfewȱdecadesȱearlier.ȱInȱhisȱbusinessȱdocumentsȱwith
theȱlocalȱlowerȱnobility,ȱheȱwasȱcalledȱ“LebȱtheȱJewȱofȱRetz,ȱsonȱofȱMenleinȱof
Gars”,ȱindicatingȱthatȱnotȱonlyȱheȱbutȱalsoȱhisȱfather–andȱthereforeȱpresumablyȱthe
wholeȱ family–hadȱ takenȱ upȱ residenceȱ inȱ Garsȱ forȱ atȱ leastȱ severalȱ years.ȱ The
wordingȱofȱtheȱcharterȱallowsȱtheȱassumptionȱthatȱMenleinȱwasȱnotȱonlyȱstillȱalive
inȱ1324ȱbutȱstillȱlivingȱinȱtheȱsmallȱLowerȱAustrianȱvillage.ȱ
Lebȱisȱaȱratherȱtypicalȱexampleȱ(ifȱweȱcanȱdeduceȱanyȱ‘typical’ȱcharacteristicsȱof
sourceȱ materialȱ thatȱ scarce)ȱ ofȱ aȱ Jewȱ livingȱ inȱ theȱ countrysideȱ whoȱ wasȱ yet
19
TheȱHebrewȱcharterȱwasȱtiedȱtoȱtheȱcharterȱfromȱ1312ȱwithȱaȱstringȱthatȱhasȱbeenȱremoved;ȱthe
charterȱisȱnowȱfiledȱunderȱtheȱdateȱ1330–1347ȱatȱtheȱAustrianȱStateȱArchivesȱatȱViennaȱ(HausȬ,
HofȬȱundȱStaatsarchivȱWien,ȱAURȱ1330–1347);ȱseeȱBruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱ1ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),
266–67,ȱ n.ȱ 317ȱ (fullȱ Hebrewȱ textȱ andȱ Germanȱ translation);ȱ Brugger,ȱ Adelȱ undȱ Judenȱ (seeȱ note
15),65–66.
20
Keil,ȱ“GemeindeȱundȱKultur”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ9),ȱ65.
21
ShlomoȱSpitzer,ȱ“NiederösterreichischeȱhebräischeȱUrkundenȱausȱdemȱ14.ȱJahrhundert,”ȱUnsere
Heimatȱ51ȱ(1980),ȱ185–91;ȱhereȱ187,ȱwithȱfn.ȱ5.
22
AlexanderȱBeider,ȱAȱDictionaryȱofȱAshkenazicȱGivenȱNames:ȱTheirȱOrigins,ȱStructure,ȱPronunciation,
andȱMigrationsȱ(Bergenfield,ȱNJ:ȱAvotaynu,ȱ2001),ȱ358.
23
Marthaȱ Keil,ȱ “‘Petachja,ȱ genanntȱ Zecherl’:ȱ Namenȱ undȱ Beinamenȱ vonȱ Judenȱ imȱ deutschen
SprachraumȱdesȱSpätmittelalters,”ȱPersonennamenȱundȱIdentität.ȱNamengebungȱundȱNamengebrauch
alsȱAnzeigerȱindividuellerȱBestimmungȱundȱgruppenbezogenerȱZuordnung,ȱed.ȱReinhardȱHärtel.ȱGrazer
grundwissenschaftlicheȱ Forschungen,ȱ 3,ȱ Schriftenreiheȱ derȱ Akademieȱ Friesach,ȱ 2ȱ (Graz:
AkademischeȱDruckȬȱundȱVerlagsanstalt,ȱ1997),ȱ119–146;ȱhereȱ120–21ȱandȱ133–35.
24
BruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱ1ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ225–26,ȱn.ȱ256ȱ(1324)ȱandȱ276,ȱn.ȱ334ȱ(1331,ȱwithȱno
mentionȱofȱtheȱfather);ȱBrugger,ȱAdelȱundȱJudenȱ(seeȱnoteȱ15),64,ȱ125–26ȱandȱ130–31ȱ(edition).
financiallyȱstrongȱenoughȱtoȱbeȱofȱinterestȱtoȱaȱnobleȱclientele,ȱalthoughȱheȱwasȱno
matchȱtoȱhisȱurbanȱcontemporaries,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱVienneseȱJewessȱGutmanin,ȱor
Nachmanȱ ofȱ theȱ Carinthianȱ townȱ ofȱ Friesachȱ thatȱ wasȱ underȱ theȱ rulershipȱ of
Salzburg.25ȱLeb’sȱlaterȱbusinessȱdealingsȱsuggestȱatȱleastȱconsiderableȱwealth;ȱin
1324,ȱheȱboughtȱaȱfeudalȱestateȱforȱ62ȱpoundȱpennies,ȱsevenȱyearsȱlater,ȱaȱtitheȱfor
95ȱpoundȱpennies,ȱbothȱlocatedȱinȱtheȱimmediateȱsurroundingsȱofȱhisȱresidence,
whichȱshedsȱnotȱonlyȱ(some)ȱlightȱonȱhisȱfinancialȱbackgroundȱbutȱalsoȱonȱhisȱclose
tiesȱwithȱtheȱruralȱareaȱheȱlivedȱin.26
AnotherȱsourceȬrelatedȱproblemȱthatȱaffectsȱbothȱurbanȱandȱruralȱJewsȱliesȱinȱthe
typeȱofȱtheȱtransmittedȱsourceȱmaterial.ȱBusinessȱcharters—ifȱtheȱtransactionȱwas
deemedȱimportantȱenoughȱtoȱwarrantȱaȱwrittenȱrecordȱatȱall—suchȱasȱobligations,
debentureȱ bonds,ȱ lettersȱ givenȱ outȱ toȱ theȱ guarantors,ȱ orȱ quittances,ȱ were
documentsȱthatȱlostȱtheirȱvalidityȱwhenȱeitherȱtheȱdebtȱhadȱbeenȱpaidȱbackȱorȱnew
arrangementsȱhadȱbeenȱmadeȱ(includingȱtheȱincreasinglyȱpopularȱ‘killing’ȱofȱthe
debtȱinȱtheȱlateȱfourteenthȱcentury—anȱannulmentȱofȱtheȱdebtȱbyȱducalȱorder).
Thisȱ meansȱ thatȱ evenȱ withȱ regardȱ toȱ theȱ ratherȱ randomȱ traditionȱ ofȱ written
documentsȱofȱtheȱlateȱMiddleȱAges,ȱtheȱpercentageȱofȱbusinessȱdocumentsȱlostȱto
usȱisȱparticularlyȱhigh.ȱSometimes,ȱaȱVȬshapedȱincisionȱwasȱcutȱintoȱanȱobligation
asȱaȱsignȱofȱcassation,ȱwhichȱwasȱkeptȱbyȱtheȱ(former)ȱdebtorsȱasȱaȱproofȱforȱthe
paybackȱ ofȱ theȱ debtȱ orȱ theȱ redemptionȱ ofȱ theȱ pawn;ȱ yetȱ theȱ majorityȱ ofȱ these
documentsȱ isȱ irrevocablyȱ lost.ȱ Anȱ exceptionȱ toȱ thisȱ areȱ monasteries,ȱ inȱ whose
archivesȱtheȱexpensiveȱparchmentȱwasȱsometimesȱputȱtoȱanotherȱuse:ȱmanyȱhigh
andȱlateȱmedievalȱchartersȱfoundȱtheirȱwayȱintoȱbookȱcovers,ȱeitherȱasȱaȱ‘filling’ȱor
asȱtheȱinsideȱpageȱofȱtheȱcover.27ȱ
TheȱpresenceȱofȱseveralȱJewsȱinȱtheȱWaldviertelȱarea,ȱtheȱnorthȬwestȱofȱtoday’s
LowerȱAustria,ȱinȱtheȱyearsȱ1316/1321ȱisȱdocumentedȱinȱaȱratherȱuniqueȱway:ȱat
someȱpointȱinȱtime,ȱannulledȱobligationsȱwereȱcutȱupȱandȱsewnȱtogetherȱtoȱform
pouchesȱ forȱ theȱ sealsȱ ofȱ chartersȱ thatȱ wereȱ deemedȱ moreȱ important.ȱ Onȱ these
snippetsȱcanȱbeȱfoundȱtheȱonlyȱevidenceȱthatȱtheȱJewȱAbraham,ȱwhoȱhadȱbeen
25
Nachman,ȱforȱexample,ȱgaveȱoutȱaȱloanȱofȱ(about)ȱ800ȱmarkȱsilver,ȱtheȱfamily,ȱoriginatingȱfromȱthe
StyrianȱtownȱofȱJudenburg,ȱownedȱhousesȱinȱViennaȱandȱhadȱ‘branchȱoffices’ȱinȱSalzburgȱand,
presumably,ȱ Regensburg;ȱ seeȱ Wadl,ȱ Geschichteȱ derȱ Judenȱ inȱ Kärntenȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 14),ȱ 209–22;
Gutmanin,ȱwidowȱandȱdaughterȬinȬlawȱofȱtwoȱprestigiousȱVienneseȱmoneylenders,ȱGutmanȱand
Lebman,ȱhadȱborrowedȱ430ȱpoundȱpenniesȱtoȱtheȱnobleȱfamilyȱofȱHagenbergȱ(BruggerȱandȱWiedl,
Regestenȱ1ȱ[seeȱnoteȱ4],ȱ308,ȱn.ȱ392ȱ[Nachman],ȱ233,ȱn.ȱ268ȱ[Gutmanin];ȱseeȱtheȱindexȱthereȱfor
furtherȱexamples).
26
BruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱ1ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ225–26,ȱn.ȱ256,ȱ276,ȱn.ȱ334.
27
SeeȱforȱexampleȱtheȱtwoȱobligationsȱtoȱtheȱVienneseȱJewȱEfferleinȱthatȱwereȱreȬusedȱasȱaȱbook
coverȱbyȱtheȱmonasteryȱofȱZwettl,ȱ
http://www.momȬca.uniȬkoeln.de/mom/ATȬStiAZ/Urkunden/1323Ȭ1325/charterȱ
andȱhttp://www.momȬca.uniȬkoeln.de/mom/ATȬStiAZ/Urkunden/1306_III_22/charterȱ
(lastȱaccessedȱonȱJan.ȱ16,ȱ2012).
646 BirgitȱWiedl
livingȱwithȱhisȱfatherȱatȱEggenburgȱaroundȱ1311,ȱhadȱmovedȱtoȱZwettlȱinȱorȱbefore
1316.ȱFurthermore,ȱtheseȱsealȱpouchesȱaddȱtoȱourȱknowledgeȱaboutȱthreeȱother
Jewsȱinȱtheȱarea:ȱSybotoȱandȱhisȱsonȱJoseph,ȱwhoȱlivedȱinȱtheȱsmallȱtownȱofȱHorn
(40ȱkilometersȱnorthȱofȱKrems)ȱandȱdidȱbusinessȱwithȱtheȱmonasteryȱofȱZwettl,28
andȱ Hendleinȱ ofȱ Gmündȱ (70ȱ kilometersȱ northwestȱ ofȱ Kremsȱ atȱ theȱ Bohemian
border),ȱwhoȱappearsȱasȱaȱbusinessȱpartnerȱofȱtheȱmonasteryȱofȱZwettlȱandȱthe
nunneryȱofȱSt.ȱBernhardȱinȱtheȱvicinityȱofȱZwettlȱ(seeȱFig.ȱ2).29
InȱtheȱarchivesȱofȱtheȱabbeyȱofȱLilienfeld,ȱanotherȱJewishȱfamilyȱcanȱbeȱtraced
thatȱhadȱtakenȱupȱresidenceȱinȱtheȱcountrysideȱinȱtheȱfirstȱhalfȱofȱtheȱfourteenth
century.ȱ Inȱ 1317,ȱ theȱ Jewessȱ Hadas,ȱ herȱ sonsȱ Sechleinȱ andȱ Smerilȱ andȱ “other
relativesȱlivingȱinȱTraiskirchen,”ȱaȱvillageȱaboutȱ25ȱkilometersȱsouthȱofȱVienna,ȱgot
intoȱaȱdisputeȱwithȱtheȱAbbeyȱofȱLilienfeldȱoverȱfourȱvineyardsȱwhichȱtheȱJews
claimedȱhadȱbeenȱpawnedȱtoȱthemȱpriorȱtoȱtheȱdonationȱtoȱtheȱmonasteryȱbyȱthe
formerȱowner.ȱByȱanȱarbitralȱverdictȱofȱKingȱFrederic’sȱrepresentatives,ȱtheȱJews
wereȱgrantedȱ16ȱpoundȱpennies,ȱplusȱhalfȱofȱtheȱvineyards’ȱharvestȱuntilȱHadas’s
death.30ȱAtȱleastȱherȱsonȱSmerilȱstayedȱinȱTraiskirchen,ȱwhereȱheȱcanȱbeȱtraced
doingȱbusinessȱwithȱtheȱlocalȱgentryȱandȱVienneseȱcitizens,ȱwhereasȱnoneȱofȱthe
otherȱfamilyȱmembersȱareȱmentionedȱagain.31ȱ
However,ȱtransactionsȱbetweenȱJewsȱandȱvillagers,ȱletȱaloneȱpeasants,ȱwhich
presumablyȱmadeȱupȱtheȱmajorityȱofȱtheȱclienteleȱofȱtheȱruralȱJewry,ȱwereȱhardly
everȱ evenȱ notedȱ down.ȱ Itȱ isȱ thereforeȱ difficult,ȱ ifȱ notȱ impossible,ȱ toȱ giveȱ a
conclusiveȱjudgmentȱasȱtoȱhowȱextensiveȱtheȱbusinssesȱofȱmostȱofȱtheȱruralȱJews
(asȱwellȱasȱtheirȱlowȬscaleȱurbanȱcounterparts)ȱwere.ȱTheȱ(preserved)ȱbusiness
documentsȱofȱJewsȱsuchȱasȱIsakȱofȱRaabs,32ȱLazarusȱandȱhisȱsonȱAbraham,ȱcalled
‘ourȱJews’ȱbyȱtheȱtownȱcouncilȱofȱEggenburg,33ȱAbrahamȱandȱJeschemȱofȱZwettl,34
Smerleinȱ ofȱ Krut,35ȱ andȱ theȱ Jewessesȱ Sternaȱ ofȱ Wolkersdorf36ȱ andȱ Hendleinȱ of
Stockstall37ȱhardlyȱeverȱincludeȱreferencesȱtoȱtoȱmoreȱthanȱ20–30ȱpoundȱpennies,
28
Bruggerȱ andȱ Wiedl,ȱ Regestenȱ 1ȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 4),ȱ 213–14,ȱ n.ȱ 234.ȱ Sybotoȱ andȱ Josephȱ areȱ otherwise
documentedȱinȱaȱmanuscriptȱkeptȱatȱtheȱlibraryȱofȱZwettl,ȱid.,ȱ209–10,ȱns.ȱ228–29.ȱ
29
BruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱ1ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ237–39,ȱns.ȱ275–76,ȱ265–66,ȱn.ȱ316.
30
31
BruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱ1ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ246,ȱn.ȱ288ȱ(1328),ȱandȱ259,ȱn.ȱ306ȱ(1329).
32
1330,ȱBruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱ1ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ269,ȱn.ȱ322.
33
1311,ȱBruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱ1ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ179–80,ȱn.ȱ178.
34
1315–1317ȱ(Abraham),ȱ1337ȱ(Jeschem),ȱBruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱ1ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ190,ȱn.ȱ196,ȱ
35
1390,ȱ Rudolfȱ Geyerȱ andȱ Leopoldȱ Sailer,ȱ Urkundenȱ ausȱ Wienerȱ Grundbüchernȱ zurȱ Geschichteȱ der
Wienerȱ Judenȱ imȱ Mittelalter.ȱ Quellenȱ undȱ Forschungenȱ zurȱ Geschichteȱ derȱ Judenȱ in
Deutschösterreichȱ10ȱ(Vienna:ȱDeutscherȱVerlagȱfürȱJugendȱundȱVolk,ȱ1931),ȱ112,ȱn.ȱ335.ȱKrutȱis
eitherȱGroßkrutȱorȱDürnkrut,ȱbothȱlocatedȱinȱtheȱnorthernȱWeinviertel,ȱnorthwestȱofȱVienna.
36
37
1383ȱandȱ1387,ȱGeyerȱandȱSailer,ȱUrkundenȱausȱWienerȱGrundbüchernȱ(seeȱnoteȱ35),ȱ19,ȱn.ȱ55,ȱ70–71,
oftenȱ less,ȱ whileȱ Sybotoȱ ofȱ Horn,ȱ aboutȱ whoseȱ otherȱ businessȱ transactionsȱ we
knowȱnothing,ȱhadȱatȱleastȱbeenȱableȱtoȱgiveȱoutȱaȱloanȱthatȱhad,ȱwithȱinterest,
addedȱupȱtoȱaȱsumȱofȱ130ȱpoundȱpennies.ȱInȱ1305,ȱaȱseferȱmizwotȱkatanȱ(“smallȱbook
ofȱregulations”)ȱwasȱwrittenȱforȱaȱJewȱJacobȱofȱHorn.38ȱWhetherȱthisȱJacobȱmight
beȱidentifiedȱwithȱaȱJewȱJacobȱwhoȱappearsȱinȱaȱbusinessȱcharterȱthatȱwasȱissued
inȱ Hornȱ inȱ 132739ȱ isȱ unclear,ȱ yetȱ possible,ȱ whichȱ wouldȱ suggestȱ aȱ continuous
presenceȱofȱ(somewhatȱwealthy)ȱJewsȱinȱtheȱtownȱforȱseveralȱdecades.
NoneȱofȱtheȱearlyȱbusinessȱdealingsȱofȱtheȱJewȱMosche,ȱsonȱofȱIsak,ȱwhoȱlived
inȱ theȱ marketȱ townȱ ofȱ Perchtoldsdorfȱ (ca.ȱ 15ȱ kilometersȱ southȱ ofȱ theȱ centerȱ of
Vienna,ȱ rightȱ atȱ today’sȱ cityȱ border)ȱ sinceȱ 1355,ȱ suggestȱ anyȱ highȱ financial
capacity.ȱTheȱpurchaseȱofȱaȱfarmstead,ȱandȱtheȱreȬsellingȱofȱitȱaȱyearȱlaterȱnever
exceedȱtheȱamountȱofȱ50ȱpounds,ȱandȱhisȱpossessionȱofȱaȱhouseȱatȱPerchtoldsdorf
onlyȱindicateȱaȱsufficientȱlivelihood.40ȱHisȱcorroborativeȱsignatureȱonȱaȱHebrew
charterȱofȱtheȱCarinthianȱJewȱAbrechȱofȱFriesachȱinȱ1357,ȱhowever,ȱpointsȱatȱmore
farȬreachingȱ businessȱ contacts,41ȱ andȱ aȱ documentȱ fromȱ 1361ȱ givesȱ proofȱ of
Mosche’sȱconsiderableȱcapacityȱasȱaȱmoneylender:ȱinȱaȱsettlementȱwithȱtheȱnoble
familyȱofȱSchaunberg,ȱtheȱAustrianȱDukeȱRudolphȱIVȱ(1339–1365)ȱagreedȱtoȱpay
offȱsomeȱofȱhisȱdebtsȱbyȱtakingȱoverȱtheȱSchaunbergs’ȱobligationsȱtowardȱMosche
ofȱPerchtoldsdorfȱthatȱhadȱamountedȱtoȱnoȱlessȱthanȱ1.200ȱpoundȱpennies.42ȱAȱnote
scribbledȱatȱtheȱbottomȱofȱtheȱdocumentȱsuggestsȱthatȱMoscheȱdidȱindeedȱgetȱhis
moneyȱfromȱthe—habituallyȱbroke—Austrianȱduke,ȱindicatingȱthatȱRudolphȱIV
didȱ notȱ wantȱ toȱ impairȱ theȱ financialȱ capacitiesȱ ofȱ someoneȱ heȱ deemedȱ useful.
n.ȱ197.
38
GermaniaȱJudaica,ȱII:ȱVonȱ1238ȱbisȱzurȱMitteȱdesȱ14.ȱJahrhunderts,ȱpartȱ1:ȱAachenȱ–ȱLuzern,ȱpartȱ2:
Maastrichtȱ–ȱZwolle,ȱed.ȱZviȱAvneriȱ(Tübingen:ȱJ.ȱC.ȱBȱMohr/PaulȱSiebeck,ȱ1968);ȱhereȱII/1,ȱ370.
39
40
1355,ȱ1358,ȱ1360ȱ(mentionȱofȱhisȱhouseȱinȱPerchtoldsdorf),ȱEvelineȱBruggerȱandȱBirgitȱWiedl,
RegestenȱzurȱGeschichteȱderȱJudenȱinȱÖsterreichȱimȱMittelalter,ȱ2:ȱ1339–1365ȱ(Innsbruck,ȱVienna,ȱand
Bolzano:ȱStudienVerlag,ȱ2010);ȱforȱtheȱinternetȱversion,ȱsee
http://www.injoest.ac.at/projekte/laufend/mittelalterliche_judenurkunden/,ȱlastȱaccessedȱonȱJan.
16,ȱ2012),ȱ172,ȱn.ȱ808,ȱ200,ȱn.ȱ868,ȱ241,ȱn.ȱ948.ȱTheȱentriesȱinȱGermaniaȱJudaica,ȱII/2ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ38),
648–49ȱ andȱ Germaniaȱ Judaica,ȱ III:ȱ 1350–1519,ȱ partȱ 1:ȱ Ortschaftsartikelȱ Aachȱ –ȱ Lychen,ȱ partȱ 2:
Ortschaftsartikelȱ MährischȬBudwitzȱ –ȱ Zwolle,ȱ partȱ 3:ȱ partȱ 3:ȱ Gebietsartikel,ȱ Einleitungsartikelȱ und
Indices,ed.ȱ Aryeȱ Maimon,ȱ Mordechaiȱ Breuer,ȱ andȱ Yacovȱ Guggenheimȱ (Tübingen:ȱ J.ȱ C.ȱ B
Mohr/PaulȱSiebeck,ȱ1987,ȱ1995,ȱ2003),ȱhereȱIII/2,ȱ1094–95ȱandȱ1605,ȱwithȱfn.ȱ189,ȱareȱsomewhat
problematicȱsinceȱtheyȱplaceȱMoscheȱfirmlyȱinȱVienna,ȱwithȱPerchtoldsdorfȱasȱhisȱ“secondary
residence;”ȱyetȱalthoughȱtheȱsourceȱmaterialȱgivesȱevidenceȱthatȱMoscheȱenjoyedȱstrongȱtiesȱtoȱthe
Vienneseȱcommunity,ȱheȱisȱalwaysȱcalledȱ“from/ofȱPerchtoldsdorf”ȱinȱtheȱsources.ȱ
41
42
BruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱ2ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ40),ȱ266,ȱn.ȱ999;ȱseeȱBirgitȱWiedl,ȱ“DieȱKriegskassenȱvoll
jüdischenȱ Geldes?ȱ Derȱ Beitragȱ derȱ österreichischenȱ Judenȱ zurȱ Kriegsfinanzierungȱ imȱ 14.
Jahrhundert,”ȱ Kriegȱ undȱ Wirtschaftȱ vonȱ derȱ Antikeȱ bisȱ insȱ 21.ȱ Jahrhundert,ȱ ed.ȱ Wolframȱ Dornik,
Walterȱ Iber,ȱ andȱ Johannesȱ Giessaufȱ (Innsbruck,ȱ Vienna,ȱ andȱ Bolzano:ȱ StudienVerlag,ȱ 2010),
241–60;ȱhereȱ244ȱandȱ250–51.
648 BirgitȱWiedl
Mosche’sȱfurtherȱbusinessȱcontactsȱmainlyȱconcernedȱmembersȱofȱtheȱViennese
citizenryȱ butȱ extendedȱ alsoȱ toȱ highȬrankingȱ noblemenȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ Countsȱ of
OrtenburgȱandȱPfannberg,ȱtheȱAustrianȱlordȱsteward,ȱand,ȱagain,ȱtheȱAustrian
dukesȱRudolphȱIVȱandȱAlbrechtȱIIIȱ(1349/1350–1395).43ȱAȱdocumentȱfromȱ1367
givesȱevidenceȱofȱMosche’sȱhighȱrankȱalsoȱinȱaȱsocialȱcontext:ȱtogetherȱwithȱthree
JewsȱfromȱVienna,ȱandȱoneȱofȱKorneuburgȱandȱÖdenburg/Sopronȱrespectively,
Moscheȱ isȱ namedȱ “Jewishȱ master”ȱ (Judenmeister)ȱ byȱ theȱ Austrianȱ dukesȱ who
demandedȱtheȱpaymentȱofȱ20.000ȱflorinȱfromȱtheȱJewsȱwhoȱhadȱstoodȱsuretyȱfor
anotherȱ Mosche,ȱ aȱ highȬrankingȱ moneylenderȱ fromȱ theȱ townȱ ofȱ Cilliȱ (Celje,
Slovenia).ȱ
Sinceȱ Moscheȱ ofȱ Cilliȱ (andȱ hisȱ brotherȱ Chatschim)ȱ hadȱ fledȱ fromȱ theȱ ducal
territory,ȱ theseȱ judenmeisterȱ wereȱ responsibleȱ forȱ collectingȱ theȱ money,
while—quiteȱuntypicalȱforȱguarantors—theȱdukesȱpromisedȱthemȱthatȱtheyȱwould
notȱ beȱ liableȱ forȱ theȱ sumȱ withȱ theirȱ ownȱ properties.44ȱ Theȱ statusȱ ofȱ theseȱ six
judenmeisterȱ isȱ notȱ clear—itȱ isȱ quiteȱ unlikelyȱ thatȱ theyȱ wereȱ rabbisȱ butȱ more
probableȱthatȱtheyȱwereȱparnassim,ȱtheȱheadsȱofȱtheȱrespectiveȱJewishȱcommunities,
whichȱ givesȱ possibleȱ evidenceȱ ofȱ anȱ establishedȱ Jewishȱ communityȱ at
Perchtoldsdorfȱaroundȱ1360.ȱTheȱcommunityȱatȱPerchtoldsdorfȱflourishedȱfromȱthe
1370sȱonward,ȱaȱsynagogueȱwasȱestablished,ȱandȱmoneylendersȱsuchȱasȱPatusch45
joinedȱMosche,ȱwhoȱcontinuedȱdoingȱbusinessȱtogetherȱwithȱhisȱsonȱMankutȱand
hisȱgrandsonȱNassan.ȱ
Theȱ presenceȱ ofȱ atȱ leastȱ twoȱ Jewishȱ familiesȱ engagedȱ inȱ moneylending
warrantedȱtheȱappearanceȱofȱJewishȱjudges,ȱChristiansȱwhoȱwereȱresponsibleȱfor
businessȱdealingsȱbetweenȱJewsȱandȱChristians,ȱthatȱcanȱbeȱtracedȱinȱtheȱsources
fromȱ1377ȱonwardȱuntilȱtheȱ1420sȱwhenȱJewishȱlifeȱwasȱbroughtȱtoȱaȱviolentȱend
inȱAustria.ȱLikeȱMosche’s,ȱPatusch’sȱfamilyȱwasȱbusinessȬwiseȱorientedȱtoward
43
BruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱ2ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ40),ȱ271,ȱn.ȱ1010ȱ(1362,ȱtheȱCountȱofȱPfannbergȱstands
suretyȱforȱaȱdebtȱofȱtheȱCountȱofȱOrtenburg),ȱ275,ȱn.ȱ1019ȱ(RudolphȱIVȱsettlesȱaȱdisputeȱbetween
hisȱservantȱCasparȱofȱAltmannsdorfȱandȱMosche),ȱHausȬ,ȱHofȬȱundȱStaatsarchivȱWienȱ(Austrian
StateȱArchivesȱVienna),ȱAURȱUk.ȱ1369ȱIȱ18ȱ(AlbrechtȱIIIȱannulsȱtheȱdebtsȱofȱhisȱlordȱstewartȱwith
theȱJewsȱMoscheȱofȱPerchtoldsdorfȱandȱJudmanȱofȱVienna).ȱMoscheȱmakesȱhisȱlastȱappearanceȱin
1381ȱ whenȱ sellingȱ aȱ vineyardȱ toȱ aȱ Vienneseȱ citizenȱ (Quellenȱ zurȱ Geschichteȱ derȱ Stadtȱ Wien,ȱ II:
RegestenȱausȱdemȱArchiveȱderȱStadtȱWien,ȱpartȱ1:ȱVerzeichnisȱderȱOriginalurkundenȱdesȱstädtischen
Archivsȱ1239–1411ȱ[Vienna:ȱVerlagȱdesȱAlterthumsȬVereinesȱzuȱWienȱbeiȱCarlȱKonegen,ȱ1898],ȱ243,
n.ȱ1019).
44
HausȬ,ȱ HofȬȱ undȱ Staatsarchivȱ Wienȱ (Austrianȱ Stateȱ Archivesȱ Vienna),ȱ AURȱ Uk.ȱ 1367ȱ VIȱ 16;
Christianȱ Lackner,ȱ Regestaȱ Habsburgica.ȱ Regestenȱ derȱ Grafenȱ vonȱ Habsburgȱ undȱ derȱ Herzogeȱ von
ÖsterreichȱausȱdemȱHauseȱHabsburg,ȱ5:ȱDieȱRegestenȱderȱHerzogeȱvonȱÖsterreichȱ(1365–1395),ȱpartȱ1:
1365–1370ȱ(ViennaȱandȱMunich:ȱOldenbourg,ȱ2007),ȱ97,ȱn.ȱ199.ȱKlausȱLohrmann,ȱJudenrechtȱund
JudenpolitikȱimȱmittelalterlichenȱÖsterreichȱ(ViennaȱandȱCologne:ȱBöhlauȱVerlag,ȱ1990),ȱ226.
45
PatuschȱisȱmentionedȱasȱJewȱofȱPerchtoldsdorfȱfromȱ1373ȱtoȱ1377,ȱQuellenȱzurȱGeschichteȱderȱStadt
Wien,ȱIII:ȱGrundbücherȱderȱStadtȱWien,ȱpartȱ1ȱ(Vienna:ȱVerlagȱdesȱAlterthumsȬVereinesȱzuȱWienȱbei
CarlȱKonegen,ȱ1898),ȱns.ȱ521,ȱ522,ȱ694,ȱandȱ909.
Vienna,ȱnamelyȱhisȱnephewȱLesirȱwhoȱcountedȱmanyȱcitizensȱofȱViennaȱamongȱhis
clienteleȱandȱquiteȱpossiblyȱlivedȱthereȱatȱleastȱpartȬtime.46ȱLesirȱservedȱasȱaȱparnass
inȱtheȱVienneseȱcommunityȱinȱ1386ȱandȱ1398,ȱforȱtheȱsecondȱtimeȱtogetherȱwithȱhis
sonȱ Chadgim,47ȱ andȱ oneȱ ofȱ Patusch’sȱ daughtersȱ wasȱ marriedȱ toȱ Tenichlein,ȱ a
Vienneseȱ moneylenderȱ andȱ rabbi.48ȱ Itȱ attestsȱ toȱ theȱ importanceȱ ofȱ the
Perchtoldsdorfȱ‘branch’ȱofȱtheȱfamilyȱthat,ȱwhenȱdoingȱbusinessȱwithȱtheȱPrioryȱof
Klosterneuburg,ȱTenichleinȱwasȱcalledȱ“JewȱofȱVienna,ȱsonȬinȬlawȱofȱPatuschȱof
Perchtoldsdorf,”49ȱjustȱasȱLesirȱwasȱreferredȱtoȱasȱ“Patusch’sȱnephew”ȱinȱmostȱof
theȱdocuments.
Residingȱinȱaȱruralȱareaȱdidȱthereforeȱnotȱnecessarilyȱequalȱhavingȱtoȱekeȱoutȱa
living,ȱnorȱdidȱitȱmeanȱaȱlimitationȱofȱtheȱclienteleȱtoȱsmallȬtownȱcitizenryȱand
peasants.ȱ BigȬdealȱ moneylendersȱ suchȱ asȱ Moscheȱ ofȱ Perchtoldsdorfȱ and,
particularly,ȱHetschelȱofȱHerzogenburg50ȱmightȱhaveȱbeenȱtheȱexception,ȱbutȱJews
likeȱNechlein,ȱsonȱofȱMaymon,ȱwhoȱ(both?)ȱlivedȱinȱWeiten,ȱwhichȱwasȱnothing
butȱaȱhamletȱaboutȱ15ȱkilometersȱnorthȱofȱMelk,ȱcouldȱatȱleastȱmusterȱtheȱfinancial
capacityȱtoȱlendȱaȱhundredȱpoundȱpenniesȱtoȱtheȱnobleȱfamilyȱofȱReichenstein.51
TheirȱappearanceȱisȱtheȱonlyȱevidenceȱofȱJewishȱpresenceȱapartȱfromȱtheȱmention
ofȱWeitenȱamongȱtheȱlistȱofȱbloodȱsitesȱofȱ1338ȱinȱtheȱNürnbergȱmemorialȱbook;ȱthe
allegedȱexistenceȱofȱaȱmedievalȱsynagogueȱwasȱalreadyȱinterpretedȱasȱaȱlegendȱin
theȱnineteenthȱcentury.52ȱSomeȱruralȱJewsȱwouldȱestablish,ȱorȱjoin,ȱcompaniesȱwith
highȬprofileȱmoneylenders,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱJewȱSchebleinȱwhoȱlivedȱinȱtheȱStyrian
marketȱtownȱofȱSchwanberg,ȱaboutȱ50ȱkilometersȱsouthȬwestȱofȱGraz,ȱbutȱinȱ1340
appearsȱtogetherȱwithȱhisȱnamesakeȱSchebleinȱofȱCilliȱ(Celje,ȱtoday’sȱSlovenia)ȱand
MendleinȱofȱGraz,ȱtwoȱfinanciersȱofȱtheȱhighȱnobility.53
Butȱevenȱifȱducalȱandȱnobleȱcustomersȱwereȱtooȱupscaleȱaȱtargetȱgroupȱforȱmost
ofȱtheȱJewishȱmoneylendersȱinȱtheȱcountryside,ȱtheyȱmanagedȱtoȱbuiltȱupȱtheir
ownȱcircle(s)ȱofȱclienteleȱwhichȱoftenȱextendedȱbeyondȱtheȱresidentsȱofȱtheȱtheir
immediateȱsurroundingsȱintoȱtheȱlowerȱsocialȱstrataȱofȱtheȱurbanȱcenters.ȱInȱthe
46
GeyerȱandȱSailer,ȱUrkundenȱausȱWienerȱGrundbüchernȱ(seeȱnoteȱ35),ȱ600ȱ(listȱofȱentriesȱforȱLesir);
Lohrmann,ȱJudenrechtȱundȱJudenpolitikȱ(seeȱnoteȱ44)ȱ176–77;
47
GeyerȱandȱSailer,ȱUrkundenȱausȱWienerȱGrundbüchernȱ(seeȱnoteȱ35),ȱ55,ȱn.ȱ147ȱ(1386),ȱ293,ȱn.ȱ959
(1398).
48
Keil,ȱ“GemeindeȱundȱKultur”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ9),ȱ65;ȱLohrmann,ȱJudenrechtȱundȱJudenpolitikȱ(seeȱnoteȱ44)
176–77,ȱ211ȱ(onȱTenichelsȱbusiness).
49
StiftsarchivȱKlosterneuburgȱ(ArchivesȱofȱtheȱMonasteryȱofȱKlosterneuburg),ȱUk.ȱ1372ȱIIIȱ2.
50
SeeȱtheȱcontributionȱofȱEvelineȱBruggerȱinȱthisȱvolume.
51
52
Genée,ȱSynagogenȱinȱÖsterreichȱ(seeȱnoteȱ17),ȱ28.
53
BruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱ2ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ40),ȱ15–16,ȱns.ȱ468–69,ȱtheȱidentificationȱofȱtheȱScheblein
thatȱ appearsȱ fromȱ 1342–1344ȱ withȱ eitherȱ Schebleinȱ ofȱ Cilliȱ orȱ Schebleinȱ ofȱ Schwanbergȱ is
questionable.
650 BirgitȱWiedl
JudenbuchȱderȱScheffstrasse,54ȱaȱmanuscriptȱrecordingȱtheȱdebtsȱofȱtheȱinhabitantsȱof
theȱScheffstrasse,ȱanȱareaȱoutsideȱtheȱVienneseȱcityȱwallsȱmostlyȱpopulatedȱby
craftsmen,ȱforȱtheȱyearsȱ1389–1420,ȱnonȬVienneseȱJewsȱappearȱinȱhighȱnumber:
Josepinȱ(Sara)ȱofȱFeldsbergȱandȱDavidȱofȱDrauburgȱ(Dravograd,ȱSlovenia)ȱgranted
asȱ manyȱ loansȱ asȱ localȱ Jews,ȱ andȱ farȱ moreȱ thanȱ theȱ membersȱ ofȱ theȱ most
prestigiousȱandȱwealthyȱSteussȱfamilyȱwhoȱwereȱpossiblyȱ‘outȱofȱrange’ȱforȱthe
averageȱcraftsman.ȱ
TheȱVienneseȱGrundbücherȱ(landȱregistersȱandȱrentȱrolls)ȱshowȱanȱonlyȱslightly
differentȱpicture—whileȱmoreȱbusinessȱdealingsȱofȱVienneseȱJews,ȱincludingȱhighȬ
rankingȱfinanciersȱsuchȱasȱRabbiȱMeirȱofȱErfurt,ȱDavidȱSteuss’sȱsonȬinȬlaw,ȱandȱhis
wifeȱHansüß,ȱareȱrecordedȱandȱmakeȱupȱtheȱbetterȱpartȱofȱtheȱentries.ȱJewsȱlike
HirschȱofȱLengbach,ȱSlomleinȱofȱZistersdorf,ȱand,ȱagain,ȱtheȱFeldsbergȱfamilyȱof
theȱJewessȱJosepinȱfigureȱprominently.ȱAȱcloserȱanalysisȱofȱtheseȱsources,ȱhowever,
uncoversȱaȱmainȱproblemȱthatȱarisesȱwhenȱdealingȱwithȱ‘countrysideȱJews’:ȱforȱa
goodȱpartȱofȱtheȱentries,ȱitȱisȱimpossibleȱtoȱdetermineȱwhereȱtheȱJewsȱinȱquestion
actuallyȱ lived.ȱ Denominationȱ byȱ originȱ isȱ quiteȱ commonȱ forȱ bothȱ Jewsȱ and
Christians,ȱmeaningȱthatȱtheȱ‘location’ȱthatȱusuallyȱfollowsȱtheirȱnames—“Slomlein
theȱJewȱofȱZistersdorf”—mightȱasȱwellȱhaveȱreferredȱonlyȱtoȱtheirȱoriginȱinstead
ofȱ theirȱ actualȱ placeȱ ofȱ residence.ȱ Evenȱ moreȱ problematicȱ areȱ documentsȱ that
identifyȱ Jewsȱ byȱ meansȱ ofȱ namingȱ aȱ prominentȱ relative,ȱ suchȱ asȱ “theȱ Jew
Schäftlein,ȱJosepinȱofȱFeldsberg’sȱsonȬinȬlaw,”ȱsinceȱ“ofȱFeldsberg”ȱcouldȱveryȱwell
beȱreferringȱtoȱJosepinȱonly.ȱThis,ȱnevertheless,ȱoffersȱevidenceȱsupportingȱthe
importanceȱofȱtheȱFeldsbergȱJewess,ȱwereȱitȱnotȱforȱtheȱfactȱthatȱJosepinȱherself,
whoȱisȱonlyȱdocumentedȱinȱVienneseȱsources,ȱmightȱhaveȱlivedȱinȱViennaȱatȱleast
partȬtimeȱasȱwell.55
Jewishȱsettlementȱinȱruralȱvillagesȱwasȱwithȱaȱfewȱexceptionsȱlimitedȱevenȱinȱthe
lateȱfourteenthȱcentury,ȱtheȱJewishȱpopulationȱwasȱoftenȱlikelyȱtoȱconsistȱofȱno
moreȱthanȱoneȱorȱtwoȱfamilies.ȱWeȱknowȱveryȱlittleȱaboutȱtheȱdailyȱlifeȱofȱthese
Jews,ȱandȱhowȱtheyȱcopedȱwith,ȱandȱovercameȱtheȱdifficultiesȱtheyȱhadȱtoȱface
whenȱlivingȱnotȱonlyȱdoorȱtoȱdoor,ȱbutȱquiteȱoftenȱtogetherȱinȱoneȱhouseȱwithȱtheir
Christianȱneighbors.ȱWhileȱitȱisȱtantamountȱtoȱaȱcommonplaceȱbyȱnowȱevenȱto
mentionȱtheȱnumerous,ȱandȱmanifoldȱdailyȱcontactsȱbetweenȱChristiansȱandȱJews
livingȱinȱaȱcity,ȱandȱtheȱculturalȱtranslationȱthatȱcameȱasȱanȱinevitableȱresultȱof
theseȱ contacts,ȱ Jewishȱ urbanȱ spaceȱ was,ȱ evenȱ ifȱ theȱ Jewsȱ wereȱ byȱ noȱ means
confinedȱtoȱit,ȱmoreȱclearlyȱdefinedȱthanȱinȱtheȱruralȱareas.ȱJewsȱinȱtheȱcountryside,
54
Arthurȱ Goldmann,ȱ Dasȱ Judenbuchȱ derȱ Scheffstraßeȱ zuȱ Wienȱ (1389–1420),ȱ mitȱ einerȱ Schriftprobe.
QuellenȱundȱForschungenȱzurȱGeschichteȱderȱJudenȱinȱDeutschȬÖsterreich,ȱ1ȱ(ViennaȱandȱLeipzig:
WilhelmȱBraumüller,ȱ1908);ȱonȱJudenbücherȱinȱAustriaȱinȱgeneral,ȱseeȱWiedl,ȱ“JewsȱandȱtheȱCity”
(seeȱnoteȱ13),ȱ291–92.
55
Keil,ȱ“NamenȱundȱBeinamen”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ23),ȱ124–25.
however,ȱoftenȱhadȱtoȱcelebrateȱtheirȱfeastsȱinsideȱaȱhouseȱ thatȱ wasȱ otherwise

occupiedȱbyȱChristians,ȱandȱtoȱrelyȱonȱtheirȱChristianȱneighborsȱthatȱtheyȱwould
atȱleastȱpartlyȱprovideȱtheirȱdailyȱneedsȱandȱaidȱthemȱinȱtheirȱdailyȱwork.ȱ
Apartȱ fromȱ houses,ȱ Jewishȱ ownershipȱ ofȱ vineyardsȱ wasȱ perhapsȱ theȱ most
commonȱformȱofȱJewishȱlandownershipȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱthatȱintegratedȱthe
owner,ȱbeȱtheyȱurbanȱorȱrural,ȱatȱleastȱpartlyȱintoȱtheȱcycleȱofȱruralȱwork.56ȱAlready
theȱearliestȱdocumentsȱonȱJewishȱexistenceȱinȱAustriaȱdealȱwithȱvineyards:57ȱthe
twelfthȬcenturyȱJewȱSchlom,ȱmasterȱofȱtheȱducalȱmint,ȱwasȱinvolvedȱinȱaȱlegal
disputeȱwithȱtheȱBavarianȱmonasteryȱofȱVornbachȱoverȱtheȱpropertyȱtitlesȱtoȱa
vineyard.ȱSchlomȱstatedȱthatȱtheȱvineyardȱhadȱbeenȱinȱhisȱpossessionȱandȱthatȱthe
Christianȱwhoȱhadȱsoldȱitȱtoȱtheȱmonasteryȱhadȱbeenȱhisȱofficialȱwhoȱhadȱonly
cultivatedȱtheȱvineyard.58ȱ
Theȱpossessionȱofȱaȱvineyardȱ(theȱlocationȱofȱwhichȱisȱunclear)ȱdoes,ȱhowever,
notȱmakeȱSchlomȱaȱcountryȬdweller.ȱWhileȱSchlomȱwasȱlivingȱinȱVienna,ȱwhere
aroundȱthisȱtimeȱtheȱfirstȱJewishȱcommunityȱwasȱbeingȱestablished,ȱtheȱcaseȱisȱnot
soȱclearȱforȱotherȱthirteenthȬcenturyȱJewsȱwho,ȱatȱleastȱtemporarily,ȱwereȱinȱthe
possessionȱofȱvineyards.ȱInȱ1239,ȱtheȱsubdeaconȱBlasiusȱconfirmedȱtheȱsurrender
ofȱ severalȱ estatesȱ toȱ theȱ monasteryȱ ofȱ Saintȱ Nicolaȱ atȱ Passau,ȱ includingȱ two
vineyardsȱatȱRossatzȱ(onȱtheȱsouthernȱbankȱofȱtheȱDanube,ȱca.ȱ10ȱkilometersȱwest
ofȱ Krems).ȱ Beforeȱ theȱ monasteryȱ couldȱ fullyȱ takeȱ possessionȱ ofȱ theȱ vineyards,
however,ȱtheyȱneededȱtoȱredeemȱthemȱforȱtheȱamountȱofȱtenȱpoundȱViennese
penniesȱfromȱtheȱJewȱBibas,ȱtoȱwhomȱBlasiusȱhadȱpledgedȱthem.59ȱInȱ1275,ȱthe
Prioryȱ ofȱ Klosterneuburgȱ soldȱ aȱ vineyardȱ toȱ Konradȱ ofȱ Tulln,ȱ theȱ Austrian
landschreiberȱ(“countyȱscribe”),ȱandȱhisȱwife,ȱwhoȱhadȱredeemedȱtheȱvineyardȱfrom
theȱJewessȱDreslinnaȱforȱ100ȱpoundȱpennies.60ȱBothȱtransactionsȱareȱexamplesȱfor
vineyardsȱthatȱhadȱbeenȱpledgedȱtoȱJewsȱbyȱtheirȱformerȱ(Christian)ȱownersȱwho,
inȱfailingȱtoȱredeemȱthem,ȱhadȱtoȱsellȱthemȱtoȱotherȱChristiansȱwhoȱwereȱableȱto
comeȱupȱwithȱtheȱrequiredȱamountȱofȱmoney.ȱVineyardsȱwereȱaȱpopularȱpawnȱof
Christianȱ debtors,ȱ particularlyȱ withȱ theȱ manifoldȱ varietiesȱ ofȱ possibilitiesȱ they
offered.ȱ
56
ForȱtheȱearliestȱnotionȱofȱJewishȱownershipȱofȱvineyardsȱinȱtheȱAshkenazicȱregion,ȱseeȱToch,
“EconomicȱActivities”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1),ȱ205–06.ȱSeeȱalsoȱGerdȱMentgen,ȱStudienȱzurȱGeschichteȱderȱJuden
imȱmittelalterlichenȱElsaß.ȱForschungenȱzurȱGeschichteȱderȱJuden,ȱAbteilungȱA:ȱAbhandlungen,ȱ2
(Hanover:ȱVerlagȱHahnscheȱBuchhandlung,ȱ1995),ȱ557–74.
57
Marthaȱ Keil,ȱ “Veltliner,ȱ Ausstich,ȱ Tribuswinkler:ȱ Zumȱ Weingenussȱ österreichischerȱ Judenȱ im
Mittelalter,”ȱ„Undȱwennȱschon,ȱdannȱBischofȱoderȱAbt”.ȱImȱGedenkenȱanȱGüntherȱHödlȱ(1941–2005),ȱed.
Christianȱ Domenig,ȱ Johannesȱ Grabmayer,ȱ Reinhardȱ Stauber,ȱ Karlȱ Stuhlpfarrer,ȱ andȱ Markus
Wenningerȱ(Klagenfurt:ȱKärntnerȱDruckerei,ȱ2006),ȱ53–72;ȱhereȱ55–56.
58
BruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱ1ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ16–17,ȱn.ȱ3.ȱSchlomȱwasȱmurderedȱbyȱcrusadersȱin
1196;ȱseeȱead.,ȱ17–18,ȱn.ȱ4.
59
BruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱ1ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ33,ȱn.ȱ22.
60
652 BirgitȱWiedl
Theȱ vineyardȱ itselfȱ couldȱ beȱ pawned,ȱ butȱ inȱ doingȱ soȱ theȱ ownerȱ facedȱ the
imminentȱ dangerȱ ofȱ losingȱ hisȱ propertyȱ ifȱ itȱ remainedȱ unredeemed,ȱ asȱ the
examplesȱaboveȱshow.ȱToȱavoidȱthis,ȱsomeȱdebtorsȱonlyȱpledgedȱtheȱannualȱcrop
yieldȱwhileȱtheȱestateȱitselfȱremainedȱinȱtheirȱpossession.61ȱInȱtheȱwineȬgrowing
partsȱofȱAustria,ȱparticularlyȱalongȱtheȱeasternȱDanube,ȱandȱinȱtheȱhinterlandȱof
theȱtownsȱofȱWienerȱNeustadtȱandȱMarburgȱ(Maribor,ȱSlovenia),ȱvineyardsȱwere
theȱmostȱcommonȱpledges.62ȱIfȱtheȱunredeemedȱvineyardȱ(orȱatȱleastȱcertainȱrights
toȱit)ȱhadȱpassedȱintoȱtheȱownershipȱofȱtheȱJewishȱcreditors,ȱtheyȱwere,ȱhowever,
underȱnoȱobligationȱtoȱresellȱitȱtoȱChristians,ȱbutȱquiteȱoftenȱkeptȱtheȱvineyardȱfor
someȱtimeȱandȱcultivatedȱitȱthemselves.ȱVineyardsȱwereȱincludedȱinȱtheȱproperty
onȱwhichȱtheȱtaxȱobligationsȱofȱtheȱJewsȱwereȱbasedȱon,63ȱandȱtheȱobligationȱofȱa
Jewishȱownerȱtowardȱtheȱrespectiveȱlordȱofȱtheȱvineyardȱdifferedȱinȱnoȱwayȱfrom
thoseȱofȱtheirȱChristianȱneighbors.ȱ
TheȱsonȱofȱtheȱwealthyȱJewishȱbusinessmanȱSchwärzlein,ȱMordechai,ȱhadȱmoved
fromȱ theȱ family’sȱ mainȱ seatȱ inȱ Vienna,ȱ whereȱ heȱ hadȱ beenȱ involvedȱ inȱ highȬ
rankingȱ businessȱ dealingsȱ withȱ hisȱ fatherȱ andȱ brothers,ȱ toȱ theȱ smallȱ townȱ of
Zistersdorf,ȱcloseȱtoȱtheȱHungarianȱborder,ȱandȱhadȱacquiredȱaȱvineyardȱthere
whichȱheȱseemedȱtoȱhaveȱcultivatedȱhimself.ȱInȱ1319,ȱheȱwasȱaccusedȱbyȱtheȱAbbey
ofȱHeiligenkreuzȱofȱnotȱhavingȱhandedȱoverȱhisȱannualȱdueȱofȱoneȱeimerȱ(‘bucket’,
ca.ȱ58ȱliters)ȱtoȱthemȱforȱseveralȱyears.ȱTheȱarbitrators,ȱtheȱAustrianȱcellarerȱ(who
wasȱresponsibleȱforȱdisputesȱconcerningȱvineyards)ȱKonradȱofȱKyburgȱandȱthe
Vienneseȱ Jewȱ Marusch,ȱ orderedȱ Mordechaiȱ toȱ payȱ anȱ annualȱ feeȱ ofȱ fifteen
Vienneseȱpenniesȱfromȱthisȱyearȱon,ȱyetȱthereȱisȱnoȱmentionȱofȱanyȱcompensation
paymentȱ forȱ theȱ pastȱ years.ȱ Theȱ involvementȱ ofȱ highȬprofileȱ officialsȱ (the
documentȱisȱcorroboratedȱwithȱtheȱsealȱofȱtheȱAustrianȱtreasurer,ȱresponsibleȱfor
theȱ Austrianȱ Jewry)ȱ andȱ theȱ surprisinglyȱ lenientȱ decisionȱ inȱ regardȱ toȱ any
compensationȱ wereȱ possiblyȱ dueȱ toȱ Mordechai’sȱ (andȱ hisȱ family’s)ȱ prominent
status,64ȱyetȱtheȱgeneralȱprocedureȱdiffersȱinȱnoȱwayȱfromȱsimilarȱdisputes,ȱeven
thoughȱ notȱ onlyȱ theȱ accusedȱ butȱ alsoȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ arbitratorsȱ wereȱ Jewish.ȱ The
verdictȱalsoȱhintsȱatȱMordechai’sȱcontinuingȱstayȱatȱZistersdorf;ȱunfortunately,ȱit
isȱhisȱlastȱappearanceȱinȱtheȱsources.ȱWhetherȱtheȱJewsȱthatȱlivedȱinȱZistersdorf
aroundȱ 1400,ȱ Yzckaȱ andȱ theȱ brothersȱ Josephȱ andȱ Slomlein,ȱ wereȱ relatedȱ to
Mordechai,ȱisȱunknown.65
61
Keil,ȱ“ZumȱWeingenussȱösterreichischerȱJuden”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ57),ȱ56.ȱThisȱpracticeȱwasȱgenerally
common;ȱseeȱMentgen,ȱJudenȱimȱmittelalterlicheȱElsaßȱ(seeȱnoteȱ56),ȱ566–68.
62
Keil,ȱ“ZumȱWeingenussȱösterreichischerȱJuden”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ57),ȱ57ȱ(onȱWienerȱNeustadt).
63
Keil,ȱ“ZumȱWeingenussȱösterreichischerȱJuden”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ57),ȱ58–60.
64
BruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱ1ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ203–04,ȱn.ȱ219;ȱLohrmann,ȱWienerȱJudenȱ(seeȱnoteȱ15),
45.
65
Geyerȱ andȱ Sailer,ȱ Urkundenȱ ausȱ Wienerȱ Grundbüchernȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 35),ȱ 14–15,ȱ n.ȱ 45ȱ (Yzckaȱ of
Zistersdorf,ȱtogetherȱwithȱHeskleinȱofȱRaabs),ȱ598ȱ(entriesȱofȱJoseph),ȱ608ȱ(entriesȱofȱSlomlein).ȱ
Apartȱfromȱbeingȱaȱvaluableȱpawn,ȱvineyardsȱandȱtheirȱfruitȱwereȱofȱvitalȱritual
importanceȱforȱmedievalȱJews.ȱKosherȱwineȱwasȱrequiredȱforȱallȱJewishȱfeasts,
weddings,ȱandȱcircumcisionsȱandȱwasȱthusȱneededȱbyȱbothȱruralȱandȱurbanȱJews.
Theȱproductionȱproceduresȱofȱkosherȱwineȱhadȱtoȱbeȱcarriedȱoutȱeitherȱbyȱthe
JewishȱownersȱthemselvesȱorȱotherȱJewsȱwhoȱwereȱcapableȱofȱmaintainingȱthe
ritualȱpurityȱofȱtheȱproduct.66ȱWhereasȱnonȬJewsȱwereȱoftenȱemployedȱasȱhelping
handsȱforȱthoseȱvineyardsȱinȱJewishȱpossessionȱthatȱwereȱnotȱintendedȱforȱpersonal
use,ȱvineyardsȱthatȱwereȱtoȱyieldȱkosherȱwineȱwereȱtoȱbeȱmaintainedȱbyȱJewsȱonly.
Otherȱthanȱthat,ȱhowever,ȱJewishȱviticultureȱfollowedȱtheȱsameȱrulesȱasȱthoseȱthat
appliedȱtoȱtheirȱChristianȱcontemporaries.ȱJewishȱwinemakersȱcultivatedȱtheȱsame
typesȱofȱvineȱasȱtheirȱChristianȱneighbors,ȱandȱweȱmustȱcertainlyȱnotȱdisregardȱthe
possibilityȱofȱaȱhelpingȱhandȱbeingȱofferedȱeveryȱnowȱandȱthenȱifȱneedȱarose.ȱIn
theȱ areasȱ dominatedȱ byȱ agriculture,ȱ theȱ organizationȱ ofȱ laborȱ wasȱ veryȱ much
governedȱbyȱtheȱcalendar:ȱharvestȱtimes,ȱsuchȱasȱgrapeȱgathering,ȱwereȱtheȱsame
forȱJewsȱandȱChristians,ȱandȱwereȱoftenȱorganizedȱ“byȱtheȱvineyard”,ȱmeaning
thatȱallȱthoseȱwhoȱownedȱaȱvineyardȱinȱaȱcertainȱareaȱwentȱtoȱgatherȱtheȱgrapes
together,ȱevenȱif,ȱasȱalreadyȱeleventhȬcenturyȱRabbiȱIsaakȱbarȱJehudaȱofȱMainz
confirmedȱinȱoneȱofȱhisȱresolutions,ȱtheȱdaysȱforȱharvestingȱwouldȱcollideȱwithȱthe
halfȬholidaysȱofȱsukkot.67ȱ
Evenȱmoreȱpragmaticȱsolutionsȱwereȱfoundȱforȱtheȱproblemȱthatȱoccurredȱwhen
Jewsȱwereȱoutȱharvestingȱtheirȱgrapesȱandȱhadȱnoȱpossibilityȱtoȱtakeȱtheirȱmeals
atȱ theȱ sukkah,ȱ theȱ temporary,ȱ twigȬcoveredȱ hutȱ constructedȱ forȱ theȱ holiday,ȱ as
rituallyȱrequired.ȱFifteenthȬcentury’sȱMoscheȱbarȱJakobȱMulinȱ(Maharil),ȱtheȱlater
RabbiȱofȱMainz,ȱreportedȱofȱhisȱteacher,ȱtheȱfamousȱRabbiȱShalomȱbarȱIsaakȱof
WienerȱNeustadt,ȱthatȱheȱhadȱtoldȱhimȱofȱJewsȱwhoȱwereȱworkingȱinȱtheȱvineyards
duringȱsukkotȱandȱsimplyȱtookȱtheirȱmealsȱ“inȱtheȱhutsȱtheȱpeasantsȱhadȱerectedȱin
theirȱfarmsteadsȱbecauseȱofȱtheȱheat”;ȱandȱevenȱShalomȱhimself,ȱwhenȱheȱwas
harvestingȱtheȱgrapesȱinȱhisȱvineyards,ȱsatȱ“underȱtheȱsameȱroofȱmadeȱofȱtwigsȱas
theȱnonȬJewsȱwhoȱdrankȱtheirȱwineȱthere.”ȱTheseȱpracticesȱdidȱnotȱonlyȱrootȱin
the—generallyȱimmenselyȱpractical—approachȱofȱaȱreligiousȱminorityȱbutȱalsoȱin
ritualȱconsiderations,ȱsinceȱproducingȱrituallyȱpureȱwine,ȱwhichȱcouldȱnotȱbeȱdone
byȱnonȬJewsȱbutȱhadȱtoȱbeȱaccomplishedȱaccordingȱtoȱtheȱseasonalȱworkȱcycle,ȱwas
consideredȱmoreȱimportantȱthanȱobservingȱtheȱrulesȱofȱsukkot.ȱNevertheless,ȱthese
scenesȱ alsoȱ giveȱ evidenceȱ ofȱ closeȱ everydayȱ contactsȱ thatȱ wentȱ farȱ beyondȱ the
66
SeeȱHaymȱSoloveitchik,ȱ“Halakhah,ȱTabooȱandȱtheȱOriginȱofȱJewishȱMoneylendingȱinȱGermany,”
TheȱJewsȱofȱEuropeȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(TenthȱtoȱFifteenthȱCenturies),ȱed.ȱChristophȱCluseȱ(Turnhout:
Brepols,ȱ 2004),ȱ 295–304,ȱ onȱ theȱ “tabooȱ ofȱ Gentileȱ wine”ȱ 296;ȱ Keil,ȱ “Zumȱ Weingenuss
österreichischerȱ Juden”ȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 57),ȱ 63–66ȱ (onȱ theȱ precautionsȱ takenȱ toȱ preventȱ ritual
contamination);ȱMentgen,ȱJudenȱimȱmittelalterlichenȱElsaßȱ(seeȱnoteȱ56),ȱ559–60.
67
Barzen,ȱ“LeuteȱausȱdenȱDörfern”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ2),ȱ28–29.
654 BirgitȱWiedl
occasionalȱmeetingȱonȱtheȱstreetsȱbutȱextendedȱtoȱsharingȱtheȱbreaksȱduringȱwhat
wasȱtypicalȱruralȱwork.68ȱ
Whenȱ Dukeȱ Rudolphȱ IVȱ settledȱ aȱ disputeȱ betweenȱ hisȱ servantȱ Casparȱ of
AltmannsdorfȱandȱMoscheȱofȱPerchtoldsdorfȱoverȱoutstandingȱdebts,ȱheȱordered
thatȱtheȱpaymentȱbeȱnotȱinȱmoneyȱbutȱinȱkind—Casparȱshouldȱhandȱoverȱtwoȱfuder
(1ȱfuderȱ=ȱ1811ȱliters)ȱofȱwineȱtoȱMosche.69ȱWhetherȱtheȱwineȱwasȱforȱconsumption
orȱresellingȱwasȱnotȱmentionedȱ(andȱneitherȱRudolph’sȱnorȱCaspar’sȱconcern);ȱand
althoughȱtheȱhandlingȱofȱChristianȱwineȱposedȱaȱcertainȱhalachicȱproblem,ȱthe
acceptanceȱofȱitȱasȱaȱformȱofȱdebtȱretirementȱwasȱexplicitelyȱallowedȱbyȱAshkenazic
rabbis.70ȱRepaymentȱofȱdebtsȱorȱinterestȱratesȱinȱtheȱformȱofȱwine,ȱorȱtheȱpawning
ofȱtheȱharvest,ȱwasȱsoȱcommonȱthatȱDukeȱAlbrechtȱIII,ȱwhenȱheȱfixedȱtheȱtaxȱrates
onȱmustȱandȱmashȱforȱViennaȱinȱ1374,ȱexplicitlyȱexemptedȱtheȱVienneseȱJewsȱfrom
thisȱobligationȱforȱbothȱtheirȱownȱwineȱ(pawȱwein)ȱandȱ“theȱwineȱthatȱwasȱgiven
toȱthemȱbecauseȱofȱdebts.”71ȱThatȱJewsȱwereȱpaidȱinȱkind—alreadyȱaȱdwindling
but,ȱparticularlyȱinȱtheȱruralȱareas,ȱstillȱprevailingȱmethodȱofȱpayment—alsoȱshows
theirȱintegrationȱintoȱbothȱtheȱregionalȱeconomyȱandȱtheȱseasonalȱcycleȱofȱrural
work.ȱWhenȱinȱ1311ȱtheȱjudgeȱandȱcouncilȱofȱEggenburgȱmediatedȱbetweenȱ“their
Jews”ȱLazarusȱandȱAbrahamȱandȱtheȱPrioryȱofȱZwettlȱwhoȱquarrelledȱoverȱthe
claimsȱtoȱaȱfarm,ȱtheȱcompromiseȱtheyȱreachedȱarrangedȱforȱaȱpaymentȱofȱoneȱmut
ofȱ cornȱ (i.e.ȱ rye,ȱ 1ȱ mutȱ =ȱ ca.ȱ 1844ȱ liters)ȱ toȱ theȱ Jews.72ȱ Inȱ 1376ȱ theȱ Jewessȱ Sara,
widowȱofȱJosephȱofȱFeldsberg,ȱwasȱtoȱreceiveȱcensumȱetȱfructus,ȱasȱnotedȱinȱthe
rentȬrollsȱofȱtheȱScottishȱAbbeyȱofȱVienna—presumablyȱaȱsortȱofȱrevenueȱfrom
eitherȱvineyardsȱand/orȱhousesȱsheȱowned.73
JewishȱpossessionȱofȱestatesȱandȱfarmsteadsȱdidȱnotȱnecessarilyȱimplyȱJewish
agriculturalȱactivity.74ȱTheȱtabooȱonȱGentileȱwineȱdidȱnotȱextendȱtoȱtheȱproduction
ofȱotherȱaliments;ȱaȱsufficientȱsupplyȱwithȱstapleȱfoodȱdidȱthereforeȱnotȱnecessitate
theȱdevelopmentȱofȱanȱextendedȱJewishȱagriculturalȱengagement.75ȱWhileȱurban
Jewsȱ engagedȱinȱaȱgreatȱvarietyȱofȱeconomicȱactivities,ȱsuchȱasȱcraftsmenȱ who
workedȱforȱbothȱtheȱJewishȱcommunityȱmembersȱandȱforȱaȱnonȬJewishȱclientele,
68
Keil,ȱ“ZumȱWeingenussȱösterreichischerȱJuden”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ57),ȱ61–63.
69
70
Keil,ȱ“ZumȱWeingenussȱösterreichischerȱJuden”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ57),ȱ54;ȱSoloveitchik,ȱ“Halakhah,ȱTaboo
andȱtheȱOriginȱofȱJewishȱMoneylending”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ66),ȱ296.
71
WienerȱStadtȬȱundȱLandesarchivȱ(MunicipalȱArchivesȱofȱVienna),ȱHauptarchivȱUrkundeȱn.ȱ842;
Christianȱ Lackner,ȱ Regestaȱ Habsburgica.ȱ Regestenȱ derȱ Grafenȱ vonȱ Habsburgȱ undȱ derȱ Herzogeȱ von
ÖsterreichȱausȱdemȱHauseȱHabsburg,ȱ5:ȱDieȱRegestenȱderȱHerzogeȱvonȱÖsterreichȱ(1365–1395),ȱpartȱ2:
1371–1375ȱ(ViennaȱandȱMunich:ȱBöhlauȱandȱOldenbourg,ȱ2010),ȱ199–200,ȱn.ȱ1154ȱ(withȱaȱlistȱof
fullȬtextȱeditions).
72
73
GeyerȱandȱSailer,ȱUrkundenȱausȱWienerȱGrundbüchernȱ(seeȱnoteȱ35),ȱ551,ȱn.ȱ1837.
74
Toch,ȱ“EconomicȱActivities”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1),ȱ206–07,ȱwithȱanȱanalysisȱofȱtheȱfewȱknownȱexceptions.
75
Toch,ȱJudenȱimȱmittelalterlichenȱReichȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ6.
JewishȱagriculturalȱactivitiesȱareȱscarcelyȱdocumentedȱforȱtheȱMiddleȱAges76;ȱand
whileȱ partȬtimeȱ farmingȱ ofȱ Jewsȱ livingȱ inȱ theȱ countrysideȱ isȱ highlyȱ likely,ȱ itȱ is
barelyȱtraceableȱinȱtheȱsources.ȱJewsȱwhoȱcameȱintoȱpossessionȱofȱruralȱestates,
suchȱasȱtheȱbrothersȱLubinȱandȱNekelo,ȱtaxȱfarmersȱofȱtheȱAustrianȱdukeȱ(andȱlater
Bohemianȱking)ȱPìemyslȱOtakarȱIIȱ(1232–1278),ȱoftenȱdidȱsoȱinȱtheȱcourseȱofȱaȱ(in
thisȱcaseȱsomewhatȱunclear)ȱbusinessȱtransaction.ȱTheȱtwoȱbrothersȱmanagedȱto
defendȱtheirȱtitleȱtoȱtheȱsixteenȱfeudalȱestatesȱagainstȱtheȱbishopȱofȱFreising,ȱyetȱthe
(continuous?)ȱ possessionȱ ofȱ theseȱ estatesȱ meantȱ additionalȱ income,ȱ notȱ rural
activity,ȱ forȱ theȱ twoȱ highȬrankingȱ Jewsȱ whoȱ enjoyedȱ notȱ onlyȱ closeȱ tiesȱ toȱ the
Austrianȱ ducalȱ butȱ alsoȱ theȱ Hungarianȱ royalȱ court.77ȱ Nevertheless,ȱ Jewish
possessionȱofȱ(evenȱfeudal)ȱruralȱestates,ȱannualȱduesȱandȱrents,ȱandȱevenȱtithes,
isȱdocumentedȱ(albeitȱscarcely)ȱthroughoutȱ theȱMiddleȱAges,ȱbothȱacquiredȱas
unredeemedȱ pledgesȱ andȱ boughtȱ property.ȱ Asȱ farȱ asȱ theȱ legalȱ proceduresȱ are
concerned,ȱJewsȱbought,ȱsold,ȱandȱreȬsoldȱtheseȱpossessionsȱjustȱasȱ‘normally’ȱas
Christiansȱdid,ȱsometimesȱevenȱinȱcompanyȱwithȱthem.78ȱ
Jewsȱwhoȱlivedȱinȱtheȱcloselyȱknitȱneighborhoodsȱofȱruralȱareasȱorȱsmallȱtowns
orȱ villagesȱ wereȱ oftenȱ participatingȱ inȱ theȱ dutiesȱ ofȱ theseȱ communities.ȱ By
royal/ducalȱconsent,ȱtheȱJewsȱofȱtheȱsmallȱLowerȱAustrianȱtownȱofȱLaaȱanȱder
Thayaȱ(ca.ȱ65ȱkilometersȱnorthȱofȱVienna,ȱatȱtheȱborderȱtoȱtoday’sȱCzechȱRepublic)
wereȱ requiredȱ fromȱ 1277ȱ onwardȱ toȱ shareȱ theȱ taxȱ loadȱ withȱ theȱ Christian
inhabitants,79ȱ theirȱ taxesȱ beingȱ includedȱ intoȱ theȱ town’sȱ taxesȱ insteadȱ of—as
usual—beingȱ aȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ collectiveȱ Jewishȱ taxȱ theȱ levyingȱ ofȱ whichȱ wasȱ the
responsibilityȱofȱtheȱrespectiveȱJewishȱcommunities.80ȱ
Howeverȱ closeȱ andȱ peacefulȱ theȱ neighborlyȱ contactsȱ mightȱ haveȱ been,ȱ the
relationsȱbetweenȱJewsȱandȱChristiansȱinȱaȱsmallȱcommunityȱremainedȱvolatileȱat
best.ȱUnlikeȱtheȱpogromsȱofȱtheȱlateȱthirteenthȱandȱearlyȱfourteenthȱcenturiesȱinȱthe
76
SeeȱinȱgeneralȱtheȱcollectionȱofȱarticlesȱbyȱMichaelȱToch,ȱPeasantsȱandȱJewsȱinȱMedievalȱGermany:
StudiesȱinȱCultural,ȱSocialȱandȱEconomicȱHistory.ȱVariorumȱcollectedȱstudiesȱseries,ȱ757ȱ(Aldershot:
AshgateȱVariorum,ȱ2003);ȱforȱanȱoverviewȱoverȱtheȱliterature,ȱseeȱToch,ȱ“EconomicȱActivities”ȱ(see
noteȱ1),ȱ179–80,ȱfn.ȱ*;ȱandȱ207–08,ȱwithȱaȱlistȱofȱoccupationsȱ208.
77
78
Whenȱ resellingȱ halfȱ ofȱ aȱ farmsteadȱ inȱ 1358,ȱ Moscheȱ ofȱ Perchtoldsdorfȱ confirmedȱ inȱ hisȱ sales
documentȱthatȱtheȱfarmsteadȱwasȱhisȱ‘boughtȱpossession’ȱ(Kaufgut)ȱandȱthatȱheȱhadȱaȱ‘regularȱbill
ofȱsale’ȱforȱit;ȱaȱcommonȱphraseȱtoȱcorroborateȱtheȱlegalityȱofȱtheȱtransactionȱ(BruggerȱandȱWiedl,
Regestenȱ 2ȱ [seeȱ noteȱ 40],ȱ 200,ȱ n.ȱ 868).ȱ Inȱ theȱ sameȱ year,ȱ Nikolausȱ Goldener,ȱ aȱ citizenȱ of
Marburg/MariborȱandȱtheȱJewȱChatschimȱsoldȱaȱrentȱofȱfourȱpoundsȱandȱaȱdutyȱofȱchickenȱand
eggsȱtoȱtheȱhospitalȱofȱMarburgȱ(id.,ȱ199,ȱn.ȱ867).
79
BruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱ1ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ74,ȱn.ȱ57.ȱTheȱprivilegeȱtoȱLaaȱwasȱissuedȱbyȱKing
RudolphȱI,ȱwhoȱwasȱdeȱfactoȱrulingȱtheȱduchyȱofȱAustriaȱinȱ1277,ȱwithȱaȱreferenceȱtoȱtwoȱolder,
ducalȱprivileges.
80
Lohrmann,ȱ Judenrechtȱ undȱ Judenpolitikȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 44)ȱ 113–14ȱ (onȱ Laa)ȱ andȱ 281–98ȱ (general
development);ȱKeil,ȱ“GemeindeȱundȱKultur”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ9),ȱ44–47;ȱBrugger,ȱ“JudenȱinȱÖsterreichȱim
Mittelalter”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ10),ȱ147–148;ȱWiedl,ȱ“JewsȱandȱtheȱCity”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ13),ȱ293.
656 BirgitȱWiedl
westernȱpartsȱofȱtheȱHolyȱRomanȱEmpireȱthatȱtookȱtheirȱoriginsȱinȱtheȱcitiesȱand
subsequentlyȱ wreakedȱ havocȱ onȱ bothȱ urbanȱ andȱ ruralȱ Jewishȱ settlement,81ȱ the
persecutionsȱ ofȱ Jewsȱ inȱ theȱ southȬeastȱ sprungȱ upȱ inȱ exactlyȱ theseȱ closeȬknit
communitiesȱofȱtheȱruralȱarea:ȱtheȱsmallȱtownsȱofȱLaaȱanȱderȱThaya,ȱKorneuburg,
andȱPulkauȱwereȱtheȱfirstȱplacesȱofȱpersecutionȱaroundȱ1300.ȱInȱthisȱtime,ȱnew
accusationsȱagainstȱJewsȱhadȱemerged,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱbloodȱlibelȱthatȱforȱtheȱfirstȱtime
sinceȱ antiquityȱ hadȱ appearedȱ inȱ midȬtwelfthȬcenturyȱ England,ȱ andȱ theȱ host
desecrationȱ accusationȱ thatȱ quicklyȱ spreadȱ fromȱ Parisȱ fromȱ 1290ȱ onwards
throughoutȱtheȱHolyȱRomanȱEmpire.82ȱ
WithȱtheȱtransubstantiationȱdoctrineȱhavingȱbeenȱdeclaredȱaȱChurchȱdogmaȱat
theȱFourthȱLateranȱCouncilȱinȱ1215,ȱtheseȱaccusationsȱagainstȱJewsȱofȱdesecrating
hostsȱbyȱstealingȱthemȱ(orȱhavingȱthemȱstolen)ȱandȱsubsequentlyȱmaltreatingȱthem
wereȱreinforcedȱinȱtheȱpublicȱmindȱandȱbecameȱinȱtheȱregionsȱofȱtoday’sȱAustria
theȱmostȱcommonȱtriggerȱforȱantiȬJewishȱoutbreaks.ȱAlreadyȱfourȱyearsȱafterȱthe
emergenceȱ ofȱ theȱ Parisȱ legend,ȱ theȱ firstȱ ofȱ theseȱ persecutionsȱ hitȱ theȱ Jewish
inhabitantsȱofȱaȱsmallȱtownȱinȱtheȱLowerȱAustrianȱcountryside:ȱInȱ1294,ȱtheȱJews
ofȱLaaȱanȱderȱThayaȱwereȱaccusedȱofȱhavingȱhiddenȱaȱstolenȱhostȱinȱaȱstable,ȱand,
sinceȱtheȱmereȱpossessionȱofȱaȱhostȱwaferȱwarrantedȱtheirȱguilt,ȱtheyȱwereȱkilled
immediately.83ȱ
81
Forȱtheȱvastȱliteratureȱonȱthisȱtopic,ȱseeȱtheȱoverviewsȱJudenȱundȱChristenȱzurȱZeitȱderȱKreuzzüge,
ed.ȱAlfredȱHaverkamp.ȱKonstanzerȱArbeitskreisȱfürȱmittelalterlicheȱGeschichte,ȱVorträgeȱund
Forschungen,ȱ47ȱ(Sigmaringen:ȱJanȱThorbeckeȱVerlag,ȱ1999);ȱandȱJörgȱR.ȱMüller,ȱ“Erezȱgeserahȱ–
‘LandȱofȱPersecution’:ȱPogromsȱagainstȱtheȱJewsȱinȱtheȱregnumȱTeutonicumȱfromȱc.ȱ1280ȱtoȱ1350,”
JewsȱofȱEuropeȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ9),ȱ245–60.
82
TheȱearliestȱmurderȱofȱJewsȱinȱtoday’sȱAustrianȱterritoryȱwasȱtheȱkillingȱofȱSchlomȱandȱhisȱfamily
thatȱ tookȱ placeȱ inȱ Viennaȱ inȱ 1196;ȱ seeȱ above.ȱ Forȱ anȱ overviewȱ overȱ theȱ persecutionsȱ onȱ the
groundsȱ ofȱ allegedȱ hostȱ waferȱ desecrations,ȱ seeȱ Friedrichȱ Lotter,ȱ “Hostienfrevelvorwurfȱ und
Blutwunderfälschungȱ beiȱ denȱ Judenverfolgungenȱ vonȱ 1298ȱ (“Rintfleisch”)ȱ undȱ 1336–1338
(“Armleder”),”ȱ Fälschungenȱ imȱ Mittelalter:ȱ internationalerȱ Kongressȱ derȱ Monumentaȱ Germaniae
Historica,ȱMünchen,ȱ16.ȱ–ȱ19.ȱSeptemberȱ1986.ȱMonumentaȱGermaniaeȱHistoricaȱSchriften,ȱ33/5:
FingierteȱBriefe,ȱFrömmigkeitȱundȱFälschung,ȱRealienfälschungenȱ(Hanover:ȱHahnscheȱBuchhandlung,
1988),ȱ533–83;ȱMiriȱRubin,ȱGentileȱTales.ȱTheȱNarrativeȱAssaultȱonȱLateȱMedievalȱJewsȱ(NewȱHaven,
CT,ȱandȱLondon:ȱYaleȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1999;ȱsec.ȱed.ȱPhiladelphia:ȱUniversityȱofȱPennsylvania
Press,ȱ2004,ȱtheȱquotesȱhereinȱreferȱtoȱtheȱfirstȱedition).ȱForȱtheȱritualȱmurderȱaccusation,ȱseeȱDie
Legendeȱ vomȱ Ritualmord.ȱ Zurȱ Geschichteȱ derȱ Blutbeschuldigungȱ gegenȱ Juden,ȱ ed.ȱ Rainerȱ Erb.
Dokumente,ȱ Texte,ȱ Materialien.ȱ Zentrumȱ fürȱ Antisemitismusforschungȱ derȱ Technischen
UniversitätȱBerlin,ȱ6ȱ(Berlin:ȱMetropol,ȱ1993);ȱJeremyȱCohen,ȱChristȱKillers:ȱtheȱJewsȱandȱtheȱPassion
fromȱtheȱBibleȱtoȱtheȱBigȱScreenȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱOxford:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2007),ȱandȱRichard
Utz,ȱ“RememberingȱRitualȱMurder:ȱTheȱAntiȬSemiticȱBloodȱAccusationȱNarrativeȱinȱMedievalȱand
ContemporaryȱCulturalȱMemory,”ȱGenreȱandȱRitual:ȱTheȱCulturalȱHeritageȱofȱMedievalȱRituals,ȱed.
EyolfȱØstrem,ȱMetteȱBirekdalȱBruun,ȱet.ȱal.ȱTRANSfigurationȱ1–2,ȱ2003ȱ(Copenhagen:ȱMuseum
TusculanumȱPress,ȱ2005),ȱ145–62,ȱallȱwithȱfurtherȱliterature.
83
ItȱisȱaȱsomewhatȱsadȱfactȱthatȱquiteȱaȱlotȱofȱtheȱknowledgeȱaboutȱruralȱJewish
settlementȱ stemsȱ fromȱ notesȱ onȱ Jewishȱ persecution,ȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ reportȱ ofȱ the
AnonymusȱLeobiensisȱofȱaȱpersecutionȱofȱJewsȱinȱStyriaȱandȱCarinthiaȱinȱ1312ȱthat
wasȱcausedȱbyȱtheȱallegedȱretrievalȱofȱaȱdesecratedȱhostȱatȱaȱJew’sȱhouseȱprope
Fuerstenvelde,ȱinȱtheȱproximityȱofȱtheȱStyrianȱtownȱofȱFürstenfeldȱ(forȱwhichȱno
Jewishȱinhabitantsȱareȱdocumentedȱforȱthatȱtime84),ȱsuggestingȱaȱruralȱsetting.85
ManyȱofȱtheȱJewishȱsettlementsȱinȱtoday’sȱGermany,ȱAustriaȱandȱBohemiaȱare
mentionedȱjustȱonce,ȱinȱwhatȱisȱknownȱasȱtheȱNürnbergerȱMemorbuch,ȱtheȱNürnberg
memorialȱ book,86ȱ aȱ medievalȱ collectionȱ ofȱ mostlyȱ namesȱ andȱ locations.ȱ The
memorialȱbookȱstartsȱitsȱlistsȱwithȱtheȱlocationsȱofȱ(thenȱformer)ȱJewishȱpresence
(Blutstätten,ȱ “bloodȱ sites”)ȱ thatȱ hadȱ fallenȱ preyȱ toȱ theȱ crusadersȱ inȱ 1096,ȱ and
continuesȱwithȱlistsȱofȱformerȱJewishȱsettlementsȱthatȱhadȱbeenȱaffectedȱbyȱthe
persecutionȱwavesȱdueȱtoȱallegedȱhostȱdesecrationsȱandȱbloodȱlibels,ȱsuchȱasȱthose
identifiedȱwithȱtheȱnamesȱArmleder,ȱRintfleisch,ȱandȱtheȱtownȱofȱDeggendorf,ȱand
theȱdevastatingȱpogromsȱthatȱfollowed,ȱandȱoftenȱpreceded,ȱoutbreaksȱofȱtheȱBlack
PlagueȱinȱmidȬfourteenthȱcentury.87ȱ
Theȱ geographicalȱ patternȱ ofȱ theseȱ settlements—ifȱ identifiable—suggestsȱ a
considerablyȱ moreȱ widespreadȱ Jewishȱ presenceȱ inȱ theȱ countrysideȱ than
documentedȱ byȱ otherȱ sources,ȱ particularlyȱ inȱ regardȱ toȱ theȱ settlementȱ ofȱ Jews
outsideȱofȱurbanȱcenters.ȱTheseȱpersecutionsȱandȱtheirȱconsequencesȱwouldȱchange
JewishȱsettlementȱpatternsȱinȱmanyȱareasȱofȱtheȱHolyȱRomanȱEmpire,ȱforȱinȱtheir
courseȱnotȱonlyȱtheȱlivesȱofȱmany,ȱmostȱof,ȱorȱevenȱallȱtheȱJewsȱlivingȱinȱaȱtownȱor
villageȱhadȱbeenȱwipedȱout,ȱbutȱalsoȱtheȱexistingȱcommunityȱstructures,ȱhowever
smallȱ andȱ ‘improvised’ȱ theyȱ mightȱ haveȱ been,ȱ hadȱ beenȱ destroyed.ȱ Chapels,
monasteriesȱorȱchurchesȱwereȱerectedȱatȱtheȱsitesȱofȱformerȱsynagogues,88ȱandȱin
smallȬscaleȱsettlementsȱtheȱsizeȱofȱwhichȱhadȱnotȱwarrantedȱtheȱestablishingȱofȱa
Jewishȱcommunity,ȱhousesȱthatȱhadȱbeenȱownedȱand/orȱinhabitedȱbyȱJewsȱwere
turnedȱintoȱsitesȱofȱChristianȱworship,ȱsuchȱasȱitȱwasȱtheȱcaseȱinȱtheȱsmallȱLower
84
Inȱ1342,ȱaȱJewȱMuschleinȱofȱFürstenfeldȱisȱdocumented,ȱBruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱ2ȱ(seeȱnote
40),ȱ31,ȱn.ȱ500.
85
86
SiegmundȱSalfeld,ȱDasȱMartyrologiumȱdesȱNürnbergerȱMemorbuches.ȱQuellenȱzurȱGeschichteȱder
JudenȱinȱDeutschland,ȱ3ȱ(Berlin:ȱLeonhardȱSimion,ȱ1898).ȱTheȱtermȱ“Memorbuch”ȱoriginatesȱfrom
theȱmidȬseventeethȱcentury;ȱseeȱAubreyȱPomerance,ȱ“‘BekanntȱinȱdenȱToren’:ȱNameȱundȱNachruf
inȱ Memorbüchern,”ȱ Erinnerungȱ alsȱ Gegenwart.ȱ Jüdischeȱ Gedenkkulturen,ȱ ed.ȱ Sabineȱ Hödlȱ and
EleonoreȱLappinȱ(BerlinȱandȱVienna:ȱPhilo,ȱ2000),ȱ33–54;ȱhereȱ24.ȱForȱtheȱlistȱofȱtheȱbloodȱsites
relatedȱtoȱPulkau,ȱseeȱBruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱ1ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ348–49,ȱn.ȱ455;ȱfurtherȱBarzen,
“LeuteȱausȱdenȱDörfern”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ2),ȱ25–26.
87
Müller,ȱ“LandȱofȱPersecution”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ81);ȱLotter,ȱ“Hostienfrevelvorwurf”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ82);ȱRubin,
GentileȱTalesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ82),ȱ48–57.
88
Rubin,ȱGentileȱTalesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ82),ȱ89–92.
658 BirgitȱWiedl
AustrianȱtownȱofȱKorneuburg.89ȱThus,ȱitȱwasȱmadeȱsureȱthatȱtheȱJewsȱ(andȱtheir
allegedȱcrimes)ȱstayedȱinȱtheȱcollectiveȱmemoryȱofȱtheȱChristianȱcommunityȱwhen
theirȱrealȱpresenceȱwasȱaȱthingȱofȱtheȱpast.
TheȱeventsȱthatȱbefellȱtheȱJewsȱofȱtheȱsmallȱAustrianȱtownȱofȱKorneuburgȱinȱ1305
areȱaȱmodelȱexampleȱofȱhowȱvolatileȱandȱprecariousȱtheȱ(upȱuntilȱthen)ȱpeaceful
neighborshipȱbetweenȱJewsȱandȱChristiansȱinȱaȱvillageȱcommunityȱwas.90ȱWhenȱa
bloodiedȱhostȱwaferȱwasȱfoundȱonȱtheȱthresholdȱofȱtheȱJewȱZerkel’sȱhouse,ȱthe
enragedȱmobȱkilledȱtheȱhouseȬowner,ȱZerkel,ȱandȱtenȱmoreȱJews,ȱpresumablyȱthe
entireȱ Jewishȱ populationȱ ofȱ Korneuburg.ȱ Theȱ courseȱ ofȱ eventsȱ andȱ its
consequencesȱareȱquiteȱrevealingȱinȱregardȱtoȱtheȱlivingȱconditionsȱofȱwhatȱwas
presumablyȱaȱsomewhatȱextendedȱJewishȱfamilyȱandȱtheirȱservantsȱinȱaȱsmallȱtown
inȱtheȱvicinityȱofȱVienna.ȱTheȱhouseȱatȱwhich’sȱdoorstepȱtheȱhostȱwasȱfoundȱis
throughoutȱ theȱ sourcesȱ calledȱ “theȱ Jew’sȱ house”,ȱ orȱ “Zerkel’sȱ house”,ȱ clearly
definingȱitȱasȱtheȱJew’sȱproperty.ȱ
Also,ȱseveralȱtestimoniesȱgivenȱatȱtheȱhugeȱinvestigationȱthatȱwasȱlaunchedȱby
theȱbishopȱofȱPassau,ȱindicateȱthatȱtheȱChristianȱpopulationȱofȱKorneuburg—the
Jews’ȱ immediateȱ neighbors—hadȱ notȱ shiedȱ awayȱ fromȱ enteringȱ theȱ “Jewish”
house,ȱnorȱwasȱthereȱanyȱcautionȱorȱreluctanceȱonȱtheȱChristianȱsideȱofȱallowing
theȱJewsȱtoȱenterȱtheirȱhouses,ȱandȱtheȱwayȱtheyȱaddressedȱeachȱotherȱspeaksȱof
moreȱthanȱjustȱoccasionalȱcontact.ȱTheseȱcloseȱrelationsȱnotwithstanding,ȱtheȱJews
knewȱ immediatelyȱ thatȱ theyȱ wereȱ inȱ mortalȱ dangerȱ whenȱ theyȱ foundȱ the
bloodstainedȱhostȱonȱtheirȱdoorstep,ȱandȱtheyȱwereȱjustifiedȱinȱfearingȱthatȱthe
mereȱaccusationȱofȱaȱ“typicallyȱJewish”ȱcrimeȱwasȱenoughȱforȱtheȱKorneuburg
citizensȱtoȱturnȱagainstȱtheirȱneighborsȱandȱmurderȱthemȱwithinȱwhatȱcouldȱnot
haveȱbeenȱmoreȱthanȱaȱfewȱhours.ȱ
WhileȱtheȱKorneuburgȱpersecutionȱremainedȱaȱlocalȱincident,ȱtheȱaccusationȱof
aȱhostȱdesecrationȱraisedȱagainstȱtheȱJewsȱofȱPulkau,ȱaȱtownȱaboutȱ80ȱkilometers
northȬwestȱ ofȱ Vienna,ȱ inȱ 1338ȱ broughtȱ aboutȱ theȱ firstȱ waveȱ ofȱ persecutionȱ in
Austriaȱthatȱwentȱbeyondȱtheȱlocalȱscope.91ȱPriorȱtoȱthat,ȱJewishȱpresenceȱatȱPulkau
89
BirgitȱWiedl,ȱ“TheȱHostȱonȱtheȱDoorstep.ȱPerpetrators,ȱVictims,ȱandȱBystandersȱinȱanȱAllegedȱHost
DesecrationȱinȱFourteenthȬCenturyȱAustria,”ȱCrimeȱandȱPunishmentȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱEarly
ModernȱAge,ȱed.ȱConnieȱScarborough.ȱFundamentalsȱofȱMedievalȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱCulture,ȱ11
(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱDeGruyter,ȱforthcoming,ȱ2012),ȱRubin,ȱGentileȱTalesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ82),ȱ57–65.
andȱ89–91ȱonȱtheȱerectionȱofȱsitesȱofȱChristinȱworshipȱoverȱformerȱJewishȱplaces;ȱforȱaȱgeneral
discussionȱofȱ‘culturalȱmemory’ȱandȱitsȱwaysȱofȱrememberingȱJews,ȱseeȱUtz,ȱ“RememberingȱRitual
Murder”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ82),ȱandȱCohen,ȱChristȱKillersȱ(seeȱnoteȱ82),ȱwithȱfurtherȱliterature.
90
Wiedl,ȱ“HostȱonȱtheȱDoorstep”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ89).
91
TheȱNürnbergȱmemorialȱbookȱnamesȱaltogetherȱ20ȱLowerȱAustrianȱtowns,ȱmarketȱtowns,ȱand
villagesȱ asȱ placesȱ ofȱ persecutionȱ (Pulkau,ȱ Eggenburg,ȱ Retz,ȱ Znaim,ȱ Horn,ȱ Zwettl,ȱ Raabs,
Falkenstein,ȱHadersdorfȱamȱKamp,ȱGarsȱamȱKamp,ȱRastenfeld,ȱMistelbach,ȱWeiten,ȱEmmersdorf,
Tulln,ȱKlosterneuburg,ȱPassau,ȱSt.ȱPölten,ȱLaaȱanȱderȱThaya,ȱandȱDrosendorf),ȱwithȱtheȱ(somewhat
questionable)ȱ additionȱ ofȱ theȱ Carinthianȱ townȱ ofȱ Villach,ȱ theȱ Moravianȱ townsȱ ofȱ Budweis,
isȱonlyȱdocumentedȱonce,ȱandȱitȱisȱhighlyȱlikelyȱthatȱtheȱJewȱMerchlein,ȱwhoȱis
recordedȱasȱhavingȱboughtȱaȱfieldȱinȱ1329,92ȱisȱtheȱsameȱMarquardusȱiudeusȱinȱfront
ofȱ whoseȱ houseȱ theȱ desecratedȱ hostȱ hadȱ allegedlyȱ beenȱ found.ȱ Althoughȱ the
AustrianȱdukesȱAlbrechtȱIIȱandȱOttoȱ(1301–1339)ȱwereȱableȱtoȱprotectȱtheȱhuge
communityȱinȱViennaȱ(who,ȱatȱtheȱinsistenceȱofȱtheȱVienneseȱcitizenry,ȱhadȱto
lowerȱtheȱinterestȱratesȱinȱreturn)93—andȱthereȱisȱnoȱmentionȱofȱpersecutionsȱinȱthe
biggerȱcommunitiesȱofȱKremsȱandȱWienerȱNeustadt—theȱincidentsȱatȱLaaȱand
Korneuburg,ȱandȱtheȱpogromsȱfollowingȱPulkauȱrevealedȱtheȱlimitsȱofȱtheȱducal
protectionȱthatȱcouldȱnotȱbeȱbroughtȱtoȱeffectȱquicklyȱenoughȱinȱtheȱruralȱareasȱto
warrantȱaȱsurvivalȱofȱtheȱlocalȱJewry.ȱ
AfterȱtheȱPulkauȱpersecutionsȱofȱ1338,ȱJewishȱ(reȬ)settlementȱfocussedȱforȱaȱlong
timeȱ ratherȱ onȱ theȱ urbanȱ centersȱ withȱ theirȱ alreadyȱ establishedȱ Jewish
communitiesȱthatȱcould,ȱatȱleastȱinȱtheȱperceptionȱofȱtheȱsurvivingȱJews,ȱprovide
moreȱefficientȱprotectionȱthanȱaȱruralȱsurrounding.94ȱTheȱurbanȱcentersȱofȱJewish
lifeȱinȱAustriaȱexperiencedȱanȱincreaseȱinȱtheirȱimportanceȱinȱtheȱsecondȱhalfȱofȱthe
fourteenthȱcentury,ȱwhichȱwasȱmainlyȱdueȱtoȱtheȱstrongȱducalȱprotectionȱthatȱkept
themȱ safeȱ fromȱ PlagueȬrelatedȱ pogromsȱ thatȱ wreakedȱ havocȱ onȱ manyȱ Jewish
communitiesȱofȱtheȱHolyȱRomanȱEmpireȱinȱtheȱmidȬfourteenthȱcentury.95ȱJewish
Erdberg,ȱJamnitz,ȱFratting,ȱLibisch,ȱTrebitsch,ȱFeldsberg,ȱTschaslau,ȱPrichowitz,ȱandȱtheȱBohemian
townȱofȱNeuhaus;ȱseeȱBruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱ1ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ348–49,ȱn.ȱ455,ȱandȱ333–35,ȱn.
434–36;ȱSeeȱfurtherȱManfredȱAnselgruberȱandȱHerbertȱPuschnik,ȱDiesȱtrugȱsichȱzuȱannoȱ1338.ȱPulkau
zurȱZeitȱderȱGlaubenswirrenȱ(Pulkau:ȱVerlagȱderȱStadtgemeinde,ȱ[1992]),ȱandȱBirgitȱWiedl,ȱ“Die
angeblicheȱ Hostienschändungȱ inȱ Pulkauȱ 1338ȱ undȱ ihreȱ Rezeptionȱ inȱ derȱ christlichenȱ und
jüdischenȱGeschichtsschreibung,”ȱmedaon.ȱMagazinȱfürȱjüdischesȱLebenȱinȱForschungȱundȱBildungȱ6
(2010),ȱinternetȱjournal;ȱseeȱhttp://medaon.de/pdf/A_WiedlȬ6Ȭ2010.pdfȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱJan.ȱ16,
2012).ȱRubin,ȱGentileȱTales,ȱ65–68ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ82),ȱwhoȱgivesȱ(withoutȱaȱsourceȱreference)ȱtheȱnumber
ofȱ ‘150ȱ Jewsȱ ofȱ Pulkau’ȱ whoȱ wereȱ killedȱ duringȱ theȱ persecutions,ȱ whichȱ isȱ byȱ farȱ tooȱ highȱ a
numberȱ forȱ thatȱ smallȱ Lowerȱ Austrianȱ town.ȱ Herȱ assessmentȱ thatȱ itȱ wasȱ Dukeȱ Otto’s
‘abandonment’ȱ ofȱ theȱ Austrianȱ duchyȱ inȱ favourȱ ofȱ theȱ ‘recentlyȱ annexed’ȱ Styriaȱ (whichȱ was
neitherȱ‘annexed’ȱnorȱrecentlyȱacquiredȱbyȱtheȱHabsburgsȱnorȱgovernedȱbyȱOttoȱalone)ȱthatȱmade
theȱPulkauȱpersecutionsȱpossibleȱisȱtheȱresultȱofȱaȱmisunderstanding:ȱsheȱignoresȱtheȱexistenceȱof
Otto’sȱbrother,ȱDukeȱAlbrechtȱIIȱ(whomȱsheȱmistakesȱforȱAlbrechtȱIIȱofȱSaxony,ȱtheȱbishopȱof
Passau),ȱwhoȱhadȱlearnedȱhisȱlessonȱandȱmanagedȱtoȱprotectȱtheȱAustrianȱJewsȱinȱ1349/1350.
92
93
94
RosemarieȱKosche,ȱ“ErsteȱSiedlungsbelegeȱnachȱ1350,”ȱGeschichteȱderȱJudenȱimȱMittelalterȱvonȱder
NordseeȱbisȱzuȱdenȱSüdalpen,ȱ1:ȱKommentarband,ȱed.ȱAlfredȱHaverkampȱ(Hanover:ȱVerlagȱHahnsche
Buchhandlung,ȱ 2002),ȱ 243–47;ȱ Barzen,ȱ “Leuteȱ ausȱ denȱ Dörfern”ȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 2),ȱ 27;ȱ Wenninger,
“SiedlungsgeschichteȱderȱinnerösterreichischenȱJuden”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ5),ȱ191–92.
95
TheȱJewishȱcommunityȱofȱKremsȱwasȱtheȱonlyȱoneȱthatȱwasȱaffectedȱbyȱaȱPlagueȬrelatedȱpogrom
inȱtheȱduchyȱofȱAustria;ȱtheȱeffectiveȱprotectionȱdukeȱAlbrechtȱIIȱmanagedȱtoȱwieldȱoverȱhisȱJews
earnedȱhimȱsomeȱscathingȱremarksȱfromȱtheȱecclesiasticalȱchroniclers;ȱseeȱBruggerȱandȱWiedl,
Regestenȱ2ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ40),ȱ94–101,ȱns.ȱ645–50;ȱseeȱalsoȱKosche,ȱ“Siedlungsbelege”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ94),ȱ245
(onȱAustriaȱandȱBohemia).
660 BirgitȱWiedl
lifeȱinȱtheȱcountryside,ȱhowever,ȱparticularlyȱinȱtheȱnorthȱofȱtheȱduchyȱofȱAustria,
hadȱsufferedȱaȱsubstantialȱblow,ȱandȱifȱatȱall,ȱitȱtookȱdecadesȱbeforeȱJewsȱreturned
toȱtheȱformerȱruralȱplacesȱofȱsettlementȱafterȱtheȱdevastatingȱpersecutionsȱofȱ1338.96
WithȱtheȱexceptionȱofȱtheȱtownȱofȱKlosterneuburg,ȱwhereȱJewishȱinhabitants
stayedȱbeyondȱ1338,97ȱweȱknowȱneitherȱofȱaȱcontinuousȱpresenceȱofȱJewsȱinȱanyȱof
theȱmarketȱtownsȱnorȱofȱaȱreȬsettlementȱofȱfamiliesȱthatȱhadȱlivedȱinȱtheȱafflicted
areasȱbefore.ȱTheȱlatterȱis,ȱhowever,ȱalsoȱaȱsourceȬrelatedȱproblem;ȱforȱallȱweȱknow,
theȱJewȱIsak,ȱwhoȱlivedȱinȱLaaȱanȱderȱThayaȱinȱ1357/1358,98ȱmightȱasȱwellȱhave
beenȱaȱformerȱinhabitantȱofȱtheȱsmallȱtown,ȱorȱwasȱrelatedȱtoȱformerȱinhabitants
theȱnamesȱofȱwhichȱareȱunknown.ȱInȱtheȱ1380s,ȱatȱleastȱtwoȱJewsȱlived,ȱorȱhad
lived,ȱ inȱ theȱ 1338ȱ bloodȱ siteȱ ofȱ Feldsbergȱ (Valtice,ȱ Czechȱ Republic);ȱ theȱ Jews
Frenclein99ȱ andȱ Joseph,ȱ whoseȱ widowȱ Saraȱ (Josepin)ȱ andȱ herȱ heirsȱ roseȱ toȱ be
amongȱtheȱmainȱmoneylendersȱtoȱtheȱinhabitantsȱofȱtheȱScheffstrasseȱinȱtheȱyears
1389ȱ toȱ 1420ȱ (suggestingȱ thatȱ she,ȱ orȱ atȱ leastȱ partȱ ofȱ herȱ family,ȱ hadȱ moved
there).100ȱYetȱasȱforȱLaa,ȱthereȱisȱnoȱevidenceȱasȱtoȱwhetherȱanyȱofȱtheȱFeldsberg
Jewsȱofȱtheȱlateȱfourteenthȱandȱearlyȱfifteenthȱcenturiesȱwereȱinȱanyȱwayȱrelated
toȱtheȱJewsȱthatȱhadȱonceȱlivedȱthere;ȱtheȱsameȱisȱtrueȱforȱtheȱJewȱHerschleinȱof
Hadersdorfȱ amȱ Kamp.101ȱ Inȱ Raabsȱ andȱ Eggenburg,ȱ Jewsȱ resettledȱ inȱ theȱ late
96
Forȱ theȱ followingȱ (market)ȱ towns,ȱ Jewishȱ presenceȱ canȱ beȱ tracedȱ inȱ theȱ secondȱ halfȱ ofȱ the
fourteenthȱcentury:ȱBruckȱanȱderȱLeitha,ȱEggenburg,ȱHainburg,ȱHerzogenburg,ȱKorneuburg,ȱLaa
anȱderȱThaya,ȱLangenlois,ȱMarchegg,ȱNeulengbach,ȱTulln,ȱWeikersdorf,ȱWeiten,ȱWeitra,ȱYbbs,ȱand
Zisterdorf.ȱQuiteȱuncertainȱ(sinceȱtheȱnamesȱmostȱlikelyȱreferredȱtoȱtheȱorigin,ȱnotȱtheȱplaceȱof
residence,ȱofȱtheȱJews)ȱareȱHadersdorfȱamȱKamp,ȱHimberg,ȱKrutȱ(whichȱisȱeitherȱGroßȬȱoder
Dürnkrut),ȱ Mistelbach,ȱ Reichenbach,ȱ Stockstall,ȱ Waidhofenȱ anȱ derȱ Ybbs,ȱ Waltersdorf,
Wullersdorf,ȱandȱZell;ȱseeȱGermaniaȱJudaicaȱIII/3ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ40),ȱ1979
97
SeeȱtheȱappearanceȱofȱtheȱJewessȱPlumeȱandȱherȱsonȬinȬlawȱinȱ1339ȱ(BruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegesten
2ȱ[seeȱnoteȱ40],ȱ9,ȱn.ȱ457).ȱTheȱdocument,ȱthatȱdealsȱwithȱaȱsuretyȱconcerningȱaȱdebtȱwithȱPlume,
isȱhoweverȱoneȱofȱtheȱfewȱbusinessȱdocumentsȱthatȱreferȱtoȱtheȱPulkauȱpersecution:ȱifȱtheȱpayback
ofȱtheȱdebtȱwouldȱbeȱmootȱ‘dueȱtoȱtheȱeventsȱconcerningȱtheȱJews,’ȱtheȱguarantorsȱtooȱshouldȱbe
freeȱofȱanyȱobligations.ȱPlumeȱisȱmentionedȱagainȱinȱ1343,ȱwhichȱmeansȱthatȱJewishȱlifeȱwasȱnot
completelyȱextinctȱinȱKlosterneuburgȱ(id.,ȱ34,ȱn.ȱ508).
98
BruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱ2ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ40),ȱ196,ȱn.ȱ859,ȱ204,ȱn.ȱ877.
99
GeyerȱandȱSailer,ȱUrkundenȱausȱWienerȱGrundbüchernȱ(seeȱnoteȱ35),ȱ15–16,ȱn.ȱ46ȱ(1383).
100
Saraȱappearsȱfirstȱinȱ1385ȱasȱ“Czaerln,ȱwidowȱofȱJoseph,”ȱGeyerȱandȱSailer,ȱUrkundenȱausȱWiener
Grundbüchernȱ(seeȱnoteȱ35),ȱ47,ȱn.ȱ120,ȱandȱcontinuesȱtoȱdoȱsoȱunderȱthisȱnameȱuntilȱ1395,ȱpartly
togetherȱwithȱanotherȱwidow,ȱPheblein.ȱInȱ1396,ȱJosephȱappearsȱaloneȱ(263,ȱn.ȱ862),ȱandȱthree
yearsȱlaterȱtogetherȱwithȱhisȱgrandmother,ȱhereȱcalledȱJosepinnȱ(307,ȱn.ȱ1005).ȱInȱtheȱJudenbuchȱder
Scheffstrasse,ȱsheȱshowsȱupȱ(asȱJosepin)ȱveryȱfrequently.ȱFromȱ1389ȱtoȱ1405,ȱbusinessȱisȱconducted
tooȱbyȱherȱsonsȬinȬlawȱSüßman,ȱSchäftlein,ȱandȱMendlein,ȱandȱupȱuntilȱ1417,ȱbyȱSchäftlein’sȱson
SmerleinȱandȱhisȱcousinȱDavidȱ(seeȱtheȱlistsȱofȱentriesȱinȱGoldmann,ȱJudenbuchȱderȱScheffstrasseȱ[see
noteȱ54],ȱ134,ȱ[David,ȱ1404],ȱ135ȱ[JosepinȱandȱMendlein,ȱ1390–1399ȱandȱ1391–1393ȱrespectively],
136ȱ [Schäftlein,ȱ 1389–1405],ȱ andȱ 137ȱ [Süßmanȱ andȱ Smerlein,ȱ 1398–1403ȱ andȱ 1415–1417
respectively],ȱ andȱ Geyerȱ andȱ Sailer,ȱ Urkundenȱ ausȱ Wienerȱ Grundbüchernȱ [seeȱ noteȱ 35],ȱ 606
[Schäftlein],ȱ610ȱ[Süßman]),ȱalthoughȱitȱisȱnotȱquiteȱclearȱwhetherȱallȱofȱthemȱlivedȱatȱFeldsberg.
101
TheȱJewȱSwerzl,ȱsonȱofȱHerschleinȱofȱHadersdorf,ȱisȱdocumentedȱasȱaȱhouseȱownerȱinȱKrems
fourteenthȱcentury,102ȱwhileȱinȱotherȱareas,ȱsuchȱasȱPulkauȱitselfȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱsmall
townsȱofȱRetz,ȱZwettl,ȱandȱHorn,ȱandȱtheȱvillageȱofȱGarsȱamȱKamp,ȱwhereȱJewish
presenceȱisȱdocumentedȱforȱtheȱtimeȱbeforeȱ1338,ȱnoȱsignsȱofȱ(reȬ)settlementȱhas
beenȱ tracedȱ (yet).ȱ Forȱ otherȱ marketȱ towns,ȱ namelyȱ Rastenfeld,ȱ Mistelbach,
Drosendorf,ȱandȱEmmersdorf,ȱtheȱnotesȱonȱtheȱextinctionȱofȱJewishȱlifeȱinȱ1338
remainedȱtheȱonlyȱreminderȱofȱitsȱentireȱexistence.
Yetȱevenȱforȱmanyȱregionsȱthatȱareȱnotȱcountedȱamongȱtheȱbloodȱsitesȱofȱtheȱ1338
persecution,ȱaȱtimeȱgapȱwhereȱnoȱJewishȱexistenceȱisȱtraceableȱcanȱbeȱnoted.ȱJews
mightȱstillȱhaveȱbeenȱpresentȱinȱtheȱ1350sȱinȱtheȱvillageȱofȱTraiskirchen,103ȱwhere
theȱfamilyȱofȱtheȱJewessȱHadasȱhadȱbeenȱlivingȱinȱtheȱearlyȱfourteenthȱcentury,
sinceȱ forȱ theȱ yearȱ 1351ȱ (andȱ againȱ inȱ 1363),ȱ aȱ (Christian)ȱ Jewishȱ judgeȱ is
documented.104ȱItȱshouldȱtakeȱuntilȱ1382ȱthatȱJewsȱreappearȱinȱtheȱsources,ȱwhen
theȱ Jewessȱ Twora,ȱ Merchleinȱ ofȱ Traiskirchen’sȱ sisterȬinȱ law,ȱ gaveȱ outȱ loansȱ to
Vienneseȱ citizens.105ȱ Theȱ connectionȱ toȱ Viennaȱ remainedȱ closeȱ overȱ theȱ next
decades:ȱwhileȱhisȱfatherȱEfferleinȱresidedȱinȱTraiskirchen,ȱthereȱisȱnoȱevidenceȱthat
theȱJewȱSeklein,ȱaȱquiteȱbusyȱmoneylenderȱforȱtheȱVienneseȱcitizenry,ȱeverȱlived
inȱTraiskirchenȱhimself.106ȱOtherȱ“JewsȱofȱTraiskirchen”,ȱsuchȱasȱChadgim107ȱand
Hendlein,108ȱ areȱ likewiseȱ bestȱ documentedȱ throughȱ theirȱ businessȱ contactsȱ to
citizensȱ ofȱ Vienna,ȱ whichȱ mightȱ indicateȱ atȱ aȱ secondary,ȱ orȱ evenȱ principal,
residenceȱinȱVienna;ȱwhileȱChadgim’sȱfatherȱMuschȱsharedȱEfferlein’sȱfateȱofȱonly
beingȱdocumentedȱthroughȱhisȱson’sȱbusinesses.ȱChadgim’sȱsonȱRachimȱcontinued
hisȱfather’sȱbusiness,ȱandȱcountedȱtheȱScottishȱAbbeyȱatȱViennaȱamongȱhisȱclientele
thatȱowedȱhimȱandȱtheȱJewȱJacobȱofȱWeitraȱ(140ȱkilometersȱnorthȬwestȱofȱVienna
atȱtheȱBohemianȱborder)ȱtheȱconsiderableȱsumȱofȱ370ȱpoundȱpennies.109ȱ
Whereasȱ theȱ orientationȱ towardȱ Viennaȱ mightȱ alsoȱ beȱ aȱ sourceȬrelated
‘distortion’ȱdueȱtoȱtheȱhigherȱnumberȱofȱdocuments,ȱparticularlyȱrentȱrollsȱand
aroundȱ1400,ȱGermaniaȱJudaicaȱII/1ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ38),ȱ313;ȱallegedly,ȱaȱsynagogueȱexistedȱinȱtheȱfifteenth
century,ȱbutȱnoȱtracesȱhaveȱbeenȱfoundȱyet;ȱseeȱGenée,ȱSynagogenȱinȱÖsterreichȱ(seeȱnoteȱ17),ȱ28.
102
HeskleinȱofȱRaabsȱandȱhisȱsonȱPfefferleinȱareȱdocumentedȱforȱ1383ȱandȱ1402;ȱseeȱGeyerȱandȱSailer,
UrkundenȱausȱWienerȱGrundbüchernȱ(seeȱnoteȱ35),ȱ14–15,ȱn.ȱ45ȱ(YzckaȱofȱZistersdorf,ȱHeskleinȱof
Raabs),ȱ342–43,ȱn.ȱ1133ȱ(Heskleinȱ[Heschken],ȱPfefferlein,ȱandȱJoseph),ȱandȱGoldmann,ȱJudenbuch
derȱScheffstrasseȱ(seeȱnoteȱ54),ȱ59,ȱn.ȱ223;ȱDavidȱofȱEggenburgȱwasȱaȱquiteȱimportantȱmoneylender
andȱducalȱtaxȱcollectorȱinȱtheȱ1370s;ȱseeȱLohrmann,ȱJudenrechtȱundȱJudenpolitikȱ(seeȱnoteȱ44)ȱ286.
103
GermaniaȱJudaicaȱIII/2ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ40),ȱ1461–62.
104
BruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱ2ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ40),ȱ114,ȱn.ȱ682,ȱ289,ȱn.ȱ1049.ȱ
105
GeyerȱandȱSailer,ȱUrkundenȱausȱWienerȱGrundbüchernȱ(seeȱnoteȱ35),ȱ5,ȱn.ȱ17,ȱ8,ȱn.ȱ28ȱ(bothȱ1382).
106
Geyerȱ andȱ Sailer,ȱ Urkundenȱ ausȱ Wienerȱ Grundbüchernȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 35),ȱ 604ȱ (listȱ ofȱ hisȱ entries,
1388–1399).
107
Geyerȱ andȱ Sailer,ȱ Urkundenȱ ausȱ Wienerȱ Grundbüchernȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 35),ȱ 594ȱ (listȱ ofȱ hisȱ entries,
1384–1396);ȱGoldmann,ȱJudenbuchȱderȱScheffstrasseȱ(seeȱnoteȱ54),ȱ51,ȱn.ȱ198ȱ(1389)
108
GeyerȱandȱSailer,ȱUrkundenȱausȱWienerȱGrundbüchernȱ(seeȱnoteȱ35),ȱ430,ȱn.ȱ1432ȱ(1408)
109
GeyerȱandȱSailer,ȱUrkundenȱausȱWienerȱGrundbüchernȱ(seeȱnoteȱ35),ȱ475–76,ȱn.ȱ1589ȱ(1412).
662 BirgitȱWiedl
landȱregisters,ȱthatȱhaveȱbeenȱtransmittedȱforȱVienna,ȱanȱexistenceȱofȱseveralȱlowȬ
toȱ midȬscaleȱdynastiesȱofȱJewishȱmoneylenders,ȱwhoȱeitherȱoriginatedȱfromȱor
residedȱinȱmarketȱtownsȱinȱtheȱLowerȱAustrianȱcountryside—JosepinȱofȱFeldsberg,
theȱTraiskirchenȱfamily,ȱHirschȱofȱLengbach—andȱmaintainedȱcloseȱtiesȱtoȱthe
Vienneseȱ community,ȱ canȱ beȱ clearlyȱ notedȱ forȱ theȱ lateȱ fourteenthȱ andȱ early
fifteenthȱ centuries.ȱ Whileȱ some,ȱ orȱ evenȱ many,ȱ ofȱ theseȱ seeminglyȱ ruralȱ Jews,
particularlyȱthoseȱfromȱtheȱnorthernȱareas,ȱmightȱinȱfactȱhaveȱonlyȱoriginatedȱfrom
theseȱmarketȱtowns,ȱthereȱisȱadditionalȱevidenceȱofȱprosperingȱJewishȱlifeȱinȱthe
southernȱregions.ȱ
Anȱ indicationȱ ofȱ Jewishȱ presenceȱ isȱ theȱ appearanceȱ ofȱ theȱ Judenrichterȱ (iudex
iudeorum,ȱ“Jewishȱjudge”),ȱanȱofficeȱthatȱhadȱbeenȱintroducedȱinȱtheȱ1244ȱprivilege
andȱ thatȱ remainedȱ quiteȱ uniqueȱ toȱ theȱ easternȱ partsȱ ofȱ today’sȱ Austriaȱ and
Slovenia.ȱTheȱJewishȱjudge—notȱtoȱbeȱmistakenȱwithȱtheȱjudge(s)ȱofȱtheȱBetȱDin,
theȱrabbinicalȱcourt—wasȱaȱChristian,ȱusuallyȱaȱmemberȱofȱtheȱurbanȱ(orȱmarket
town’s)ȱelite,ȱandȱresponsibleȱforȱsettlingȱdisputesȱbetweenȱJewsȱandȱChristians;
inȱadditionȱtoȱthat,ȱheȱoftenȱcorroboratedȱJewishȱbusinessȱdocumentsȱwithȱhisȱseal,
and,ȱinȱtheȱlateȱfourteenthȱandȱearlyȱfifteenthȱcenturies,ȱwasȱinvolvedȱinȱtheȱmore
comprehensiveȱjurisdictionalȱandȱeconomicȱcontrolȱofȱtheȱtownsȱoverȱtheirȱJew.110
Sinceȱ theȱ Jewishȱ judgeȱ keptȱ hisȱ titleȱ evenȱ whenȱ noȱ Jewsȱ wereȱ involvedȱ inȱ the
businessȱ transactionȱ thatȱ wasȱ documentedȱ inȱ theȱ respectiveȱ charter,ȱ the
appearanceȱofȱaȱJewishȱjudgeȱisȱsometimesȱamongȱtheȱearliestȱindicationsȱofȱJewish
presence,ȱ suchȱ asȱ itȱ wasȱ theȱ caseȱ withȱ theȱ Jewishȱ judgesȱ ofȱ Mödlingȱ and
Herzogenburg,ȱwhoȱsealedȱchartersȱinȱ1364ȱandȱ1369ȱrespectively.111ȱTheȱriseȱin
importanceȱ ofȱ Jewishȱ communitiesȱ suchȱ asȱ Traiskirchen,ȱ Mödling,ȱ and
Perchtoldsdorfȱalsoȱbearȱtestimonyȱtoȱaȱnewȱpatternȱofȱsettlementȱafterȱ1338ȱthat
hadȱshiftedȱgeographicallyȱfromȱtheȱnorthwestȱ(whereȱPulkauȱisȱlocated)ȱtoȱthe
south,ȱwhileȱonlyȱaȱfewȱplacesȱofȱlongȬtermȱJewishȱsettlementȱcontinuedȱtoȱexisted
inȱtheȱnorth.ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱViennaȱ(asȱwellȱasȱtheȱotherȱbigȱcities)ȱremainedȱa
mainȱ focusȱ ofȱ Jewishȱ migration,ȱ attractingȱ notȱ onlyȱ Jewsȱ fromȱ theȱ nearby
countrysideȱandȱtheȱadjacentȱcountriesȱbutȱfromȱasȱfarȱawayȱasȱnorthernȱItalyȱand
theȱRhineland.112
TheȱconstitutiveȱfacilitiesȱofȱaȱJewishȱcommunity,ȱnamelyȱsynagogues,ȱJewish
bathsȱ(includingȱtheȱritualȱbaths,ȱmikhvot),ȱandȱcemeteries,113ȱareȱdifficultȱtoȱtrace
110
Wiedl,ȱ“JewsȱandȱtheȱCity”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ13),ȱeadem,ȱ“JudenȱinȱösterreichischenȱStadtrechtenȱdes
Mittelalters”ȱÖsterreichischesȱArchivȱfürȱRechtȱundȱReligionȱ57.2ȱ(2010),ȱ257–72;ȱhereȱ259–60.
111
ForȱHerzogenburg,ȱseeȱtheȱcontributionȱofȱEvelineȱBruggerȱinȱthisȱvolume,ȱforȱMödling;ȱseeȱbelow.
112
GermaniaȱJudaicaȱIII/3ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ40),ȱ1979.
113
Additionalȱ facilitiesȱ wereȱ danceȱ and/orȱ assemblyȱ halls,ȱ slaughteringȱ houses,ȱ bakeries,ȱ and
hospitals,ȱthatȱwereȱusuallyȱonlyȱfoundȱinȱbigȱandȱprosperousȱcommunities;ȱseeȱforȱAustriaȱKeil,
“GemeindeȱundȱKultur”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ9),ȱ40–41,ȱandȱgenerallyȱGermaniaȱJudaicaȱIII/3ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ40),
2081–89.
(notȱonly)ȱinȱtheȱcountryside,ȱsinceȱafterȱanȱexpulsionȱand/orȱmurderingȱofȱthe
Jewishȱpopulation,ȱtheȱbuildingsȱthatȱhadȱhousedȱtheseȱinstitutionsȱwereȱeither
tornȱ downȱ orȱ putȱ toȱ anotherȱ use.ȱ Theȱ mostȱ evidenceȱ canȱ beȱ gatheredȱ for
synagogues,ȱbothȱinȱarchaeologicalȱexcavationsȱandȱdocuments,ȱalbeitȱmostȱofȱthe
latterȱdateȱfromȱcenturiesȱwhenȱearlyȱmodernȱdenominationsȱforȱtheȱhouse/plot
ofȱland,ȱthatȱhadȱlongȱceasedȱtoȱserveȱitsȱritualȱpurpose,ȱhintȱatȱitsȱformerȱfunction,
sometimesȱerroneouslyȱso.ȱOutsideȱtheȱurbanȱcenters,ȱmedievalȱsynagoguesȱare
documentedȱforȱtheȱLowerȱAustrianȱtownsȱofȱBruckȱanȱderȱLeitha,ȱNeulengbach,
Mödling,ȱ Eggenburg,ȱ Perchtoldsdorf,ȱ Neunkirchen,ȱ andȱ theȱ Styrianȱ townȱ of
Hartberg,ȱ whereasȱ forȱ Hadersdorfȱ amȱ Kampȱ andȱ Weiten,ȱ theȱ evidenceȱ is
questionableȱ (seeȱ above).114ȱ Despiteȱ theseȱ difficulties,ȱ synagoguesȱ canȱ beȱ of
immeasurableȱvalueȱwhenȱitȱcomesȱtoȱassessingȱtheȱexistence,ȱsize,ȱandȱprosperity
ofȱaȱJewishȱcommunity.ȱ
Theȱ beginningsȱ ofȱ theȱ Jewishȱ communityȱ atȱ Mödlingȱ areȱ onlyȱ scarcely
documentedȱinȱwrittenȱsources.ȱJewishȱpresenceȱbeforeȱ1350ȱisȱpossible;ȱaȱsonȱof
MoscheȱofȱPerchtoldsdorf,ȱIsak,ȱmightȱhaveȱresidedȱthere,ȱandȱVienneseȱJewsȱsuch
asȱZachariasȱheldȱproperty—mostȱlikelyȱvineyards—inȱMödling.115ȱInȱtheȱsecond
halfȱofȱtheȱfourteenthȱcentury,ȱtheȱfirstȱhintȱatȱJewishȱinhabitantsȱisȱtheȱexistence
ofȱaȱJewishȱjudgeȱwhoȱisȱdocumentedȱforȱtheȱyearsȱ1364ȱandȱ1365,ȱwhenȱMichael
Kolb,ȱ Jewishȱ judgeȱ ofȱ Mödling,ȱ corroboratedȱ twoȱ billsȱ ofȱ saleȱ withȱ hisȱ seal.116
Althoughȱ noȱ Jewsȱ wereȱ involvedȱ inȱ theseȱ transactions,ȱ membersȱ fromȱ theȱ big
JewishȱcommunitiesȱofȱViennaȱandȱWienerȱNeustadtȱwereȱperhapsȱalreadyȱliving
inȱMödlingȱaroundȱthatȱtime—inȱ1370,ȱLeubmann,ȱtheȱsonȱofȱVreudmanȱofȱWiener
Neustadt,ȱhadȱtakenȱupȱresidenceȱinȱMödling,117ȱandȱwithȱJoseph,ȱaȱmemberȱofȱthe
Steussȱ family,ȱ aȱ Jewȱ withȱ veryȱ strongȱ tiesȱ toȱ theȱ mostȱ prestigiousȱ Viennese
financiers,ȱhadȱmovedȱtoȱMödlingȱinȱ1377ȱatȱtheȱlatest.118ȱ
Writtenȱ evidenceȱ ofȱ theirȱ businessȱ activitiesȱ remainsȱ comparativelyȱ limited
though;ȱandȱforȱmostȱofȱtheȱJewishȱinhabitantsȱofȱMödling,ȱaȱsecondaryȱ(orȱeven
principal)ȱresidenceȱinȱViennaȱcanȱbeȱassumed.119ȱYetȱwhatȱgivesȱampleȱevidence
ofȱ theȱ importanceȱ (and,ȱ presumably,ȱ theȱ wealth)ȱ ofȱ theȱ Jewishȱ communityȱ at
114
SeeȱKeil,ȱ“GemeindeȱundȱKultur”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ9),ȱ17–24,ȱforȱaȱdescriptionȱofȱtheȱmedievalȱsynagogues
ofȱAustriaȱ(includingȱMarburg/MariborȱandȱÖdenburg/Sopronȱinȱtoday’sȱSloveniaȱandȱHungary
respectively).
115
Wiedl,ȱ“Kriegskassen”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ42),ȱ245–47.ȱSeeȱalsoȱGermaniaȱJudaicaȱII/2ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ38),ȱ544–45,
whereȱhoweverȱMelkȱisȱmistakenȱforȱMödlingȱ(concerningȱtheȱJewessȱRädel).
116
BruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱ2ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ40),ȱ319–20,ȱn.ȱ1110,ȱ326–27,ȱn.ȱ1124.ȱ
117
HausȬ,ȱHofȬȱundȱStaatsarchivȱWien,ȱAURȱ1370ȱXIȱ14.
118
Quellenȱ zurȱ Geschichteȱ derȱ Stadtȱ Wien,ȱ III:ȱ Grundbücherȱ derȱ Stadtȱ Wien,ȱ partȱ 3:ȱ Satzbuchȱ A1
(1373–1388)ȱ(Vienna:ȱVerlagȱdesȱVereinesȱfürȱGeschichteȱderȱStadtȱWien,ȱ1921),ȱ86,ȱn.ȱ3394ȱ(1377,
consobrinoȱSteussonisȱdeȱWienna);ȱGoldmann,ȱJudenbuchȱderȱScheffstrasseȱ(seeȱnoteȱ54),ȱ28–29,ȱn.ȱ111
(1394).ȱ
119
GermaniaȱJudaicaȱIII/2ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ40),ȱ878–89.
664 BirgitȱWiedl
Mödlingȱisȱtheȱsynagogueȱthat,ȱaccordingȱtoȱdrawingsȱandȱ(later)ȱreconstruction
plans,ȱ mustȱ haveȱ beenȱ quiteȱ extensive;ȱ inȱ additionȱ toȱ theȱ synagogue,ȱ one,ȱ or
perhapsȱevenȱtwoȱJewishȱbathsȱexisted.120ȱTheȱmostȱstunningȱpartȱhoweverȱisȱthe
entranceȱdoorȱtoȱtheȱsynagogue,ȱdatedȱbetweenȱ1350ȱandȱ(before)ȱ1420ȱandȱmade
fromȱironȱplatesȱthatȱwereȱrivetedȱtogether.ȱTheȱdoorȱisȱelaboratelyȱdecoratedȱwith
motifsȱthatȱcanȱalsoȱbeȱfoundȱinȱHebrewȱmanuscripts.121
Whileȱaȱmikhvaȱcouldȱ(more)ȱeasilyȱbeȱimprovisedȱbyȱmakingȱuseȱofȱaȱriver,ȱor
aȱpond,122ȱcommunalȱfacilitiesȱsuchȱasȱaȱkosherȱbutcherȱ(Schächter)ȱand/orȱtailor,
orȱaȱcemeteryȱwereȱdifficult,ȱifȱnotȱimpossible,ȱtoȱobtain.ȱItȱisȱquiteȱlikelyȱthatȱJews
livingȱinȱtheȱcountrysideȱknewȱhowȱtoȱprovideȱthemselvesȱwithȱkosherȱmeatȱby
butcheringȱtheȱanimalsȱthemselves.ȱSeveralȱregulationsȱthatȱforbadeȱtheȱJewsȱto
sellȱ thoseȱ partsȱ ofȱ theȱ slaughteredȱ animalsȱ theyȱ consideredȱ unfitȱ forȱ their
consumptionȱtoȱChristianȱcustomersȱhintȱatȱtheȱquiteȱcommonȱpracticeȱofȱJewish
inȬhouseȱslaughtering123;ȱlikewise,ȱtheȱuseȱofȱtheȱmunicipalȱslaughteringȱhouseȱis
documented.124ȱ Evenȱ ifȱ theȱ majorityȱ ofȱ theseȱ regulationsȱ wereȱ drawnȱ upȱ by
representativesȱofȱcities,ȱtheyȱalsoȱappliedȱtoȱJewsȱcomingȱinȱfromȱtheȱcountryside
onȱtheȱmarketȱdaysȱtoȱsellȱtheirȱproductsȱthere.
Theȱcemeteryȱthatȱwasȱboundȱtoȱseveralȱhalachicȱandȱritualȱregulations,ȱposed
aȱ realȱ problemȱ forȱ manyȱ Jewsȱ inȱ theȱ countryside,ȱ sinceȱ establishingȱ and
maintainingȱitȱnotȱonlyȱrequiredȱaȱcertainȱamountȱofȱpersonnelȱthatȱwasȱonlyȱtoȱbe
hadȱatȱaȱbiggerȱcommunity,ȱbutȱalsoȱincludedȱtheȱgrantingȱofȱaȱplotȱofȱlandȱbyȱthe
respectiveȱruler.125ȱAccordingȱtoȱJewishȱtradition,ȱtheseȱcemeteriesȱwereȱpurchased
‘forȱ eternity,’ȱ whichȱ alsoȱ meantȱ thatȱ onlyȱ theȱ biggerȱ communities,ȱ thoseȱ who
hopedȱ forȱ aȱ moreȱ continuousȱ existence,ȱ establishedȱ cemeteriesȱ atȱ all;ȱ inȱ the
territoryȱofȱmodernȬdayȱAustria,ȱmedievalȱJewishȱcemeteriesȱareȱdocumentedȱonly
forȱVienna,ȱKrems,ȱandȱWienerȱNeustadtȱ(theȱthreeȱmainȱcommunities)ȱasȱwellȱas
Salzburg,ȱVillach,ȱFriesach,ȱGraz,ȱJudenburg,ȱMarburg/Maribor,ȱandȱPettau/Ptuj
(bothȱinȱSlovenia).126ȱTherefore,ȱitȱwasȱmoreȱtheȱruleȱthanȱtheȱexceptionȱforȱrural
Jewsȱtoȱhaveȱno,ȱorȱatȱleastȱlimitedȱaccessȱtoȱaȱJewishȱcemeteryȱinȱtheirȱvicinity.
RuralȱJewsȱcopedȱinȱseveralȱways:ȱPrivateȱburialȱsitesȱwereȱestablishedȱinȱtowns
120
RolandȱBurgerȱet.ȱal.,ȱAusgelöscht.ȱVomȱLebenȱderȱJudenȱinȱMödlingȱ(MödlingȱandȱVienna:ȱedition
umbruch,ȱ1988),ȱ10–23.
121
Keil,ȱ“GemeindeȱundȱKultur”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ9),ȱ20–21,ȱwithȱillustration.
122
123
Wiedl,ȱ“JewsȱandȱtheȱCity”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ13),ȱ296–99;ȱead.,ȱ“JudenȱinȱösterreichischenȱStadtrechten”
124
125
MarthaȱKeil,ȱ“OrteȱderȱjüdischenȱÖffentlichkeit:ȱJudenviertel,ȱSynagoge,ȱFriedhof,”ȱEinȱThemaȱ–
zweiȱPerspektiven.ȱJudenȱundȱChristenȱinȱMittelalterȱundȱFrühneuzeit,ȱed.ȱEvelineȱBruggerȱandȱBirgit
Wiedlȱ(Innsbruck,ȱVienna,ȱandȱBolzano:ȱStudienVerlag,ȱ2007),ȱ170–86;ȱhereȱ179–81.
126
thatȱ housedȱ onlyȱ aȱ fewȱ Jewishȱ inhabitant,ȱ asȱ itȱ isȱ documentedȱ forȱ theȱ (today)
TyrolianȱtownȱofȱLienz.127ȱ
AlthoughȱtheȱChristianȱsurroundingsȱforȱtheȱJewsȱlivingȱinȱLienzȱwereȱurban,
thereȱwasȱneverȱenoughȱJewishȱpresenceȱtoȱinitiateȱtheȱestablishingȱofȱaȱJewish
community.128ȱInȱ1325,ȱaȱJudenhausȱ(Jewishȱhouse)ȱisȱmentionedȱthatȱwasȱsituated
insideȱtheȱinnerȱtownȱwall,ȱandȱaȱhundredȱyearsȱlater,ȱwhenȱJewishȱexistenceȱcame
toȱanȱendȱinȱLienzȱinȱtheȱwakeȱofȱaȱbloodȱlibelȱpersecutionȱinȱ1442/1443,ȱitȱwas
notedȱthatȱ“aȱnumberȱofȱJews”ȱ(etlicheȱJuden)ȱhadȱtakenȱupȱtheirȱresidenceȱinȱtwo
houses,ȱ raisingȱ theȱ populationȱ toȱ noȱ moreȱ thanȱ aȱ fewȱ families.129ȱ However
extensiveȱtheȱJewishȱpopulationȱatȱLienzȱmightȱhaveȱbeen,ȱtheȱnearestȱcemetery
wasȱtooȱfarȱaway:ȱaboutȱ110ȱkilometers,ȱinȱtheȱCarinthianȱtownȱofȱVillachȱthatȱwas
underȱtheȱruleȱofȱtheȱBishopȱofȱBamberg.ȱ
Villachȱhadȱallȱtheȱfeaturesȱaȱcommunityȱneeded,ȱinȱfactȱitȱhousedȱoneȱofȱthe
mostȱimportantȱJewishȱcommunitiesȱinȱtheȱsouthernȱregions,ȱwithȱitsȱcemetery
datingȱbackȱtoȱtheȱtwelfthȱcentury,ȱandȱaȱsynagogueȱthatȱwasȱfirstȱmentionedȱin
1342130;ȱyetȱevenȱifȱtheȱJewsȱofȱLienzȱhadȱbeenȱwillingȱtoȱcarryȱtheirȱdeceasedȱto
thatȱcemetery,ȱtheyȱwouldȱhaveȱfacedȱanȱimpossibleȱtaskȱdueȱtoȱtheȱsurrounding
mountains,ȱatȱleastȱinȱwinter.ȱAnotherȱsolutionȱwasȱfoundȱthatȱisȱtraceableȱthrough
aȱdocumentȱfromȱ1498,ȱlongȱafterȱtheȱextinctionȱofȱanyȱJewishȱpresence:ȱaȱfieldȱon
theȱsouthernȱbankȱofȱtheȱriverȱDrauȱ(whichȱmeansȱonȱtheȱoppositeȱbank)ȱwasȱsold,
calledȱderȱJudenfreythoff,ȱ“theȱJewishȱcemetery,”ȱindicatingȱthat,ȱatȱsomeȱtime,ȱthe
JewsȱofȱLienzȱhadȱestablishedȱtheirȱownȱburialȱgroundsȱdespiteȱtheȱabsenceȱofȱa
‘full’ȱJewishȱcommunity.131ȱ
ForȱmostȱofȱtheȱruralȱJews,ȱhowever,ȱgrantingȱtheirȱdeceasedȱaȱproperȱburial
meantȱhavingȱthemȱtransferredȱtoȱtheȱclosestȱcemeteryȱofȱanȱurbanȱcommunity,
whichȱ oftenȱ includedȱ theȱ coveringȱ ofȱ considerableȱ distances.ȱ Inȱ theȱ early
fourteenthȱ century,ȱ theȱ townȱ councilȱ ofȱ theȱ (then)ȱ Styrianȱ townȱ ofȱ Wiener
127
Markusȱ Wenninger,ȱ “Judenȱ imȱ Herrschaftsbereichȱ derȱ Grafenȱ vonȱ Görzȱ undȱ GörzȬTirol,”
SymposiumȱzurȱGeschichteȱvonȱMillstattȱundȱKärnten,ȱed.ȱFranzȱNikolaschȱ(Millstatt:ȱn.p.,ȱ2000);
Wadl,ȱGeschichteȱderȱJudenȱinȱKärntenȱ(seeȱnoteȱ14),ȱ229–33.
128
Aroundȱ1300,ȱtheȱJewȱIsakȱofȱLienzȱwasȱanȱinfluentialȱmoneylenderȱandȱtenantȱofȱtollsȱandȱmints
whoseȱbusinessȱcontactsȱreachedȱasȱfarȱasȱtheȱAdriaticȱSeaȱ(Wenninger,ȱ“JudenȱalsȱMünzmeister”
[seeȱnoteȱ7],ȱ125,ȱBrugger,ȱ“JudenȱinȱÖsterreichȱimȱMittelalter”ȱ[seeȱnoteȱ10],ȱ191).ȱDespiteȱthe
presenceȱofȱsuchȱaȱhighȬrankingȱbusinessman,ȱtheȱoverallȱextentȱofȱJewishȱexistenceȱinȱLienz
shouldȱnotȱbeȱoverȬestimatedȱ(Wenninger,ȱ“JudenȱinȱGörz”ȱ[seeȱnoteȱ127],ȱ120,ȱinȱcontrastȱtoȱWadl,
GeschichteȱderȱJudenȱinȱKärntenȱ[seeȱnoteȱ14],ȱ233,ȱwhoȱdeductsȱtheȱexistenceȱofȱaȱsynagogueȱfrom
theȱmentionȱofȱtheȱburialȱsite).
129
Wenninger,ȱ“JudenȱinȱGörz”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ127),ȱ120ȱandȱ130–33.ȱ
130
Wadl,ȱGeschichteȱderȱJudenȱinȱKärntenȱ(seeȱnoteȱ14),ȱ164–65,ȱBruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱ2ȱ(seeȱnote
40),ȱ30–31,ȱn.ȱ499.
131
Wadl,ȱGeschichteȱderȱJudenȱinȱKärntenȱ(seeȱnoteȱ14),ȱ233,ȱWenninger,ȱ“JudenȱinȱGörz”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ129),
120ȱwithȱfn.ȱ79.
666 BirgitȱWiedl
Neustadt,ȱsituatedȱatȱtheȱpassageȱfromȱAustriaȱtoȱStyria,ȱissuedȱaȱseriesȱofȱtoll
regulationsȱ inȱ theȱ courseȱ ofȱ whichȱ threeȱ citizensȱ wereȱ requiredȱ toȱ declareȱ the
customsȱofȱtheȱlastȱ30ȱyears,ȱaccordingȱtoȱwhichȱtheȱnewȱregulationsȱwereȱsettled.
Amongȱthese,ȱtheȱquestionȱofȱhowȱtoȱdealȱwithȱJewsȱwhoȱwereȱtransferringȱtheir
deceasedȱwasȱregulated:ȱifȱsuchȱaȱpartyȱwereȱtoȱpassȱtheȱtollȱstation,ȱnoȱofficialȱtax
wasȱrequired,ȱbutȱtheȱJewsȱshouldȱcomeȱtoȱanȱarrangementȱwithȱtheȱtollȱofficer
themselves.ȱJewsȱfromȱtheȱduchiesȱofȱAustriaȱorȱStyria—thoseȱwhoȱwereȱmost
likelyȱtoȱpassȱtheȱtollȱstation—wereȱexemptȱfromȱanyȱtollȱpayment,ȱwhichȱgives
evidenceȱforȱaȱratherȱfrequentȱ‘use’ȱofȱthisȱmethodȱofȱtransferringȱtheȱdeceased.132
DespiteȱtheȱfactȱthatȱJewishȱlifeȱinȱtheȱcountrysideȱcouldȱprosper,ȱaȱtendencyȱto
migrateȱtowardȱtheȱurbanȱcentersȱevenȱamongȱquiteȱsuccessfulȱruralȱbusinessmen
isȱ evident.133ȱ Theȱ familyȱ ofȱ theȱ mostȱ importantȱ moneylenderȱ toȱ theȱ Habsburg
dukesȱinȱtheȱsecondȱhalfȱofȱtheȱfourteenthȱcentury,ȱtheȱVienneseȱJewȱDavidȱSteuss,
originatedȱfromȱtheȱtownȱofȱKlosterneuburg,ȱwhereȱinȱtheȱshadowȱofȱtheȱPrioryȱof
theȱCanonsȱRegularȱ(whoȱmadeȱgoodȱbusinessȱpartners),ȱJewsȱhadȱsettledȱalready
inȱ theȱ lateȱ thirteenthȱ century.ȱ Whileȱ theȱ Steussȱ familyȱ owedȱ theirȱ wealthȱ and
importanceȱtoȱtheȱJewessȱPlume,ȱDavid’sȱgrandmother,ȱwhoȱhadȱspentȱherȱlifeȱin
Klosterneuburg,ȱalreadyȱPlume’sȱsonȱHendleinȱhadȱmovedȱtoȱVienna.134ȱMostȱof
theȱmoreȱsuccessfulȱmoneylendingȱfamiliesȱusuallyȱeitherȱhadȱfamilyȱmembers
thatȱlivedȱinȱtheȱbiggerȱcities,ȱorȱwereȱpartȬtimeȱlivingȱinȱtheȱcityȱthemselves,ȱwith
theȱruralȱabodeȱbeingȱmoreȱandȱmoreȱ‘degraded’ȱtoȱaȱsecondaryȱresidence.ȱ
Migrationȱfromȱurbanȱcentersȱtoȱtheȱcountrysideȱwasȱrare,ȱand,ȱifȱitȱhappened,
itȱwasȱoftenȱonlyȱtemporarily.ȱSomeȱmovesȱtoȱtheȱcountrysideȱmightȱhaveȱhad
professionalȱreasons:ȱAbrechȱofȱFriesach,ȱaȱhighȬprofileȱCarinthianȱmoneylender
ofȱ theȱ 1360s,ȱ whoȱ hadȱ negotiatedȱ theȱ donationȱ ofȱ theȱ cemeteryȱ ofȱ Friesachȱ in
1352,135ȱapparentlyȱ movedȱtoȱtheȱmarketȱtownȱofȱStraßburgȱforȱatȱleastȱaȱyear.
132
BruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱ1ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ189,ȱn.ȱ194.ȱ
133
Lohrmann,ȱJudenrechtȱandȱJudenpolitikȱ(seeȱnoteȱ44),ȱ211ȱ(withȱaȱlistȱofȱtownsȱandȱvillagesȱfrom
whereȱJewsȱhadȱmigratedȱtoȱViennaȱinȱtheȱsecondȱhalfȱofȱtheȱfourteenthȱcentury).ȱȱSee,ȱgenerally,
Gilomen,ȱ“JüdischeȱMigration”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ12),ȱforȱanȱoverviewȱoverȱtheȱresearchȱconcerningȱJewish
migration,ȱ124–25.
134
Wiedl,ȱ“Kriegskassen”ȱ (seeȱnoteȱ42),ȱ248–49;ȱEvelineȱBrugger,ȱ“LoansȱofȱtheȱFather:ȱBusiness
SuccessionȱinȱFamiliesȱofȱJewishȱMoneylendersȱinȱLateȱMedievalȱAustria,”ȱGenerationsȱinȱTowns.
SuccessionȱandȱSuccessȱinȱPreȬIndustrialȱUrbanȱSocieties,ȱed.ȱFinnȬEinarȱEliassenȱandȱKatalinȱSzende
(Newcastleȱ uponȱ Tyne:ȱ Cambridgeȱ Scholarsȱ Publishing,ȱ 2009),ȱ 112–129;ȱ hereȱ 117–18.ȱ This
migrationȱpatternȱcanȱevenȱbeȱdetectedȱbetweenȱcitiesȱwithȱsmallerȱandȱmoreȱimportantȱJewish
communities,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱSalzburgȬbasedȱfamilyȱofȱAron,ȱwhoseȱmembersȱoneȬbyȬoneȱmoveȱto
cityȱtownȱofȱRegensburg,ȱwhichȱmightȱnotȱhaveȱbeenȱaȱlargerȱtownȱbutȱhousedȱtheȱmuchȱmore
importantȱandȱflourishingȱJewishȱcommunity.
135
BruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱ2ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ40),ȱ134,ȱn.ȱ725.ȱInȱ1354,ȱtheȱbishopȱofȱBambergȱgave
permissionȱ toȱ erectȱ theȱ synagogueȱ atȱ Villachȱ toȱ aȱ Jewȱ Aschrokȱ ofȱ Friesach,ȱ who,ȱ despiteȱ the
misspelledȱname,ȱmightȱbeȱidentifiedȱwithȱAbrech;ȱseeȱid.,ȱ153,ȱn.ȱ767,ȱandȱWadl,ȱGeschichteȱder
JudenȱinȱKärntenȱ(seeȱnoteȱ14),ȱ166,ȱ223;ȱWiedl,ȱ“JewsȱandȱtheȱCity”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ13),ȱ282
AlthoughȱJewsȱlivedȱinȱStraßburgȱsinceȱtheȱlateȱthirteenthȱcentury,136ȱAbrech’sȱstay
thereȱ wasȱ mostȱ likelyȱ dueȱ toȱ theȱ factȱ thatȱ Straßburgȱ wasȱ theȱ residenceȱ ofȱ the
bishopsȱofȱGurk,ȱwhoȱwereȱamongȱhisȱbusinessȱpartners;ȱinȱ1354,ȱheȱhadȱobviously
alreadyȱreturnedȱtoȱFriesach.ȱAbrahamȱofȱObervellachȱhadȱbeenȱmasterȱofȱtheȱmint
ofȱtheȱCountsȱofȱGörzȱandȱhadȱdoneȱsomeȱadditionalȱbusinessȱthereȱthatȱcontinued
pastȱhisȱholdingȱtheȱoffice.137ȱOtherȱmoves,ȱhowever,ȱareȱlessȱeasilyȱexplained.
Hetschel,ȱ sonȱ ofȱ Rabbiȱ Israelȱ ofȱ Krems,ȱ exchangedȱ Kremsȱ forȱ Herzogenburg
aroundȱ1370,138ȱandȱ50ȱyearsȱearlier,ȱtwoȱsonsȱofȱimportantȱVienneseȱfinanciers,
Mordechai,ȱsonȱofȱSchwärzlein,ȱandȱKalman,ȱsonȱofȱLebman,ȱmovedȱtoȱZistersdorf
andȱHainburgȱrespectively.ȱ
Whileȱ Mordechaiȱ hadȱ beenȱ engagedȱ inȱ highȬendȱ moneylendingȱ withȱ his
brothersȱPessach,ȱMosche,ȱandȱIsakȱinȱViennaȱuntilȱ1317,139ȱKalmanȱhadȱnever
attainedȱtheȱsameȱimportanceȱasȱhisȱfatherȱandȱhisȱbrotherȱGutman;ȱwithȱtheȱmove
toȱ theȱ countryside,ȱ however,ȱ bothȱ ceasedȱ toȱ appearedȱ inȱ anyȱ businessȱ deals.
Prosperityȱcouldȱneverthelessȱbeȱgainedȱinȱtheȱ countrysideȱasȱwell—whenȱthe
Austrianȱ dukesȱ Albrechtȱ IIIȱ andȱ Leopoldȱ IIIȱ (1351–1386)ȱ appointedȱ fiveȱ tax
collectorsȱ(generallyȱknownȱasȱabsamer)ȱbetweenȱ1365ȱandȱ1379,ȱoneȱofȱthemȱwas
Davidȱ ofȱ Eggenburg,ȱ aȱ smallȱ townȱ inȱ theȱ northȱ ofȱ Lowerȱ Austria.140ȱ Inȱ the
followingȱ years,ȱ severalȱ membersȱ ofȱ theȱ Jewishȱ communityȱ atȱ Perchtoldsdorf
joinedȱtheȱoffice.141
Jewishȱfamiliesȱwhoȱwereȱaȱfewȱstepsȱlowerȱonȱtheȱbusinessȱscaleȱseemedȱtoȱbe
moreȱproneȱtoȱremainȱinȱtheȱcountryside—LebȱofȱGars,ȱwhoȱmovedȱtoȱtheȱslightly
biggerȱbutȱstillȱnotȱ‘urban’ȱtownȱofȱRetz,ȱhasȱbeenȱmentionedȱalready.ȱAbraham,
sonȱofȱLazarusȱofȱEggenburg,ȱmightȱbeȱidentifiedȱwithȱhisȱnamesakeȱwhoȱwas
livingȱinȱZwettlȱforȱsomeȱyears.142ȱTheȱtownsȱofȱEggenburgȱandȱZwettlȱareȱabout
136
Wadl,ȱGeschichteȱderȱJudenȱinȱKärntenȱ(seeȱnoteȱ14),ȱ226–29.
137
BruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱ2ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ40),ȱ274,ȱn.ȱ1018;ȱWadl,ȱGeschichteȱderȱJudenȱinȱKärntenȱ(see
noteȱ 14),ȱ 234;ȱ seeȱ forȱ otherȱ Jewishȱ mintȱ mastersȱ inȱ Carinthiaȱ (inȱ theȱ townsȱ ofȱ St.ȱ Veitȱ and
Völkermarkt)ȱid.,ȱ140.ȱ
138
SeeȱtheȱcontributionȱofȱEvelineȱBruggerȱinȱthisȱvolume.
139
Brugger,ȱAdelȱundȱJudenȱ(seeȱnoteȱ15),55–59,ȱparticularlyȱonȱtheȱconncetionȱtoȱtheȱBuchbergȱfamily.
140
ErnstȱFreiherrȱvonȱSchwindȱandȱAlphonsȱDopsch,ȱAusgewählteȱUrkundenȱzurȱVerfassungsȬGeschichte
derȱdeutschȬösterreichischenȱErblandeȱimȱMittelalterȱ(Innsbruck:ȱVerlagȱderȱWagnerschenȱUniversitätȬ
Buchhandlung,ȱ1895),ȱ266–68,ȱn.ȱ136;ȱLackner,ȱRegestaȱHabsburgicaȱ5/1ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ44),ȱ40,ȱn.ȱ47.ȱThe
originalȱdocumentȱhasȱbeenȱlost,ȱandȱtheȱ(undated)ȱcopiesȱonlyȱnameȱtwoȱofȱtheȱaltogetherȱfive
Jewishȱabsamer:ȱSwogelȱofȱLinzȱandȱDavidȱofȱEggenburg;ȱseeȱLohrmann,ȱJudenrechtȱundȱJudenpolitik
(seeȱnoteȱ44)ȱ286.
141
142
SeeȱBirgitȱWiedl,ȱ“DieȱZwettlerȱSiegeltaschen,ȱeinȱhistorischesȱPuzzle,”ȱZwischenȱdenȱZeilen:ȱ20
Jahreȱ Institutȱ fürȱ jüdischeȱ Geschichteȱ Österreichsȱ (2008),ȱ 32–38,ȱ (seeȱ forȱ theȱ internetȱ version:
http://injoest.ac.at/upload/JME2008_17_38.pdfȱlastȱaccessedȱonȱJan.ȱ16,ȱ2012).ȱSeeȱforȱtheȱfragments
BruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱ1ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ190–91,ȱn.ȱ196,ȱ196,ȱn.ȱ206,ȱ198–99,ȱn.ȱ210,ȱ213–14,ȱn.
234,ȱ237–ȱ39,ȱns.ȱ275–76,ȱ265–66,ȱn.ȱ316,ȱforȱscansȱseeȱwww.monasterium.netȱ(collaborativeȱarchive,
668 BirgitȱWiedl
50ȱkilometersȱapartȱandȱbothȱlocatedȱinȱtheȱhillyȱandȱforestȬdominatedȱnorthwest
ofȱLowerȱAustria,ȱwhichȱwouldȱhaveȱmeantȱratherȱsimilarȱlivingȱconditionsȱfor
Abraham,ȱatȱleastȱwithȱregardȱtoȱclimateȱandȱsurroundings.ȱWhileȱLazarusȱandȱhis
sonȱareȱtheȱonlyȱJewsȱdocumentedȱforȱEggenburgȱatȱthisȱtime,143ȱJewishȱpresence
atȱZwettlȱmightȱhaveȱbeenȱmoreȱextensiveȱthanȱitȱappearsȱatȱfirstȱglance.ȱAlthough
apartȱfromȱAbraham,ȱoneȱotherȱJewȱappearsȱinȱbusinessȱdocuments,144ȱaȱrabbinical
responseȱofȱtheȱfamousȱMeirȱofȱRothenburgȱfromȱtheȱlateȱthirteenthȱcenturyȱthat
dealsȱ withȱ theȱ reȬmarriageȱ ofȱ aȱ widowȱ afterȱ aȱ Jewȱ ofȱ Zwettlȱ whoȱ hadȱ been
murdered,ȱ allowsȱ aȱ differentȱ interpretation.ȱ Whenȱ Rabbiȱ Meirȱ cameȱ toȱ the
conclusionȱthatȱtheȱremarriageȱshouldȱbeȱallowed,ȱheȱdidȱsoȱunderȱtheȱcondition
thatȱRabbiȱEliezerȱ“asȱwellȱasȱtheȱotherȱrabbisȱthatȱareȱpresentȱthere”ȱagree.ȱWhile
theȱidentityȱofȱRabbiȱEliezerȱandȱtheȱothersȱremainȱunclear—theȱmanuscriptȱalso
mentionsȱKrems—itȱhasȱbeenȱsuggestedȱthatȱthereȱwasȱaȱrabbiȱpresentȱinȱZwettl,
atȱleastȱforȱsomeȱtime.145ȱ
AȱsimilarȱmigrationȱpatternȱofȱtheȱmembersȱofȱaȱJewishȱfamilyȱthatȱlivedȱinȱthe
countrysideȱcanȱbeȱtracedȱforȱtheȱbrothersȱJosephȱandȱSlomleinȱofȱZistersdorf:ȱin
1383,ȱtheȱJewsȱYczkaȱofȱZistersdorfȱandȱHeskleinȱofȱRaabsȱgrantedȱaȱloanȱtoȱthe
Scottishȱ Abbeyȱ inȱ Vienna.ȱ Inȱ 1402,ȱ Heskleinȱ stillȱ livedȱ inȱ Raabs,ȱ presumably
togetherȱ withȱ hisȱ sonȱ Pfefferlein,ȱ whileȱ hisȱ grandsonȱ Josephȱ hadȱ movedȱ to
Zistersdorf,ȱwhereȱheȱdidȱbusinessȱnotȱonlyȱtogetherȱwithȱhisȱbrotherȱSlomleinȱbut
also,ȱfromȱ1408ȱonwards,ȱwithȱFreudlein,ȱHesklein’sȱwidowȱ(andȱthusȱpresumably
hisȱgrandmother).146
AlreadyȱwithȱtheȱruleȱofȱdukeȱRudolphȱIVȱ(r.ȱ1358–1365),ȱtheȱducalȱprotection
ofȱtheȱAustrianȱJewsȱhadȱbegunȱtoȱwane.ȱTheȱlegalȱstatusȱofȱtheȱAustrianȱJewry
remainedȱunchangedȱfromȱ1244ȱuntilȱtheȱendȱofȱJewishȱlifeȱinȱAustria,ȱbutȱthe
ducalȱconceptȱofȱgrantingȱ(andȱactivelyȱexerting)ȱprotectionȱnotȱonlyȱinȱexchange
forȱtaxation,ȱbutȱalsoȱasȱanȱintegralȱpartȱofȱtheȱruler’sȱsovereignty147ȱthatȱhadȱbeen
ArchivbeständeȱZwettl,ȱStiftsarchiv).
143
Inȱtheȱsecondȱhalfȱofȱtheȱfourteenthȱcentury,ȱJewishȱsettlementȱinȱEggenburgȱseemedȱtoȱbeȱmore
extensiveȱsinceȱaȱsynagogueȱisȱdocumentedȱforȱthisȱtime;ȱseeȱKeil,ȱ“GemeindeȱundȱKultur”ȱ(see
noteȱ9),ȱ23;ȱGermaniaȱJudaicaȱIII/1ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ40),ȱ284–85.
144
Jeschem,ȱ1337,ȱBruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱ1ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ232,ȱn.ȱ418.ȱSeeȱEvelineȱBrugger,ȱ“‘...ȱdaz
wierȱschullenȱgeltenȱAbrahamȱdemȱjudenȱvonȱZwetel...’ȱMittelalterlicheȱSpurenȱjüdischenȱLebens
imȱWaldviertel,”ȱJüdischesȱLebenȱinȱZwettl.ȱKoexistenzȱundȱVerfolgung,ȱvomȱMittelalterȱbisȱinsȱ20.
Jahrhundert,ȱed.ȱFriedelȱMoll.ȱZwettlerȱZeitzeichen,ȱ13ȱ(Zwettl:ȱEigenverlagȱderȱStadt,ȱ2009),ȱ8–15.
145
SimchaȱEmanuel,ȱ“UnpublishedȱResponsaȱofȱR.ȱMeirȱofȱRothenburg”ȱJewsȱofȱEuropeȱinȱtheȱMiddle
Agesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ9),ȱ282–93;ȱhereȱ288–90.
146
Geyerȱ andȱ Sailer,ȱ Urkundenȱ ausȱ Wienerȱ Grundbüchernȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 35),ȱ 14–15,ȱ n.ȱ 45ȱ (Yzckaȱ of
Zistersdorf,ȱHeskleinȱofȱRaabs),ȱ342–43,ȱn.ȱ1133ȱ(Heskleinȱ[Heschken],ȱPfefferlein,ȱandȱJoseph),
429,ȱn.ȱ1430ȱ(Joseph,ȱSlomlein,ȱandȱFreudlein).ȱ
147
Toch,ȱJudenȱimȱmittelalterlichenȱReichȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ49–51ȱandȱ102–03ȱonȱtheȱideaȱofȱtheȱprotection
ofȱtheȱJewryȱasȱpartȱofȱtheȱ‘classicalȱvirtuesȱofȱaȱruler’ȱ(myȱtranslation).
atȱtheȱbaseȱofȱtheȱ1244ȱprivilege,ȱhadȱchangedȱintoȱmereȱfinancialȱexploitation.
Whileȱ itȱ wereȱ theȱ bigȱ communitiesȱ suchȱ asȱ Kremsȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ individualȱ and
particularlyȱwealthyȱJews,148ȱwhoȱsufferedȱmostȱfromȱtheȱducalȱpolicyȱtowardȱtheir
Jews,149ȱtheȱoverallȱsituationȱofȱtheȱAustrianȱJewryȱworsenedȱperceptiblyȱtoward
theȱendȱofȱtheȱcentury.ȱTheȱreasonsȱthatȱledȱtoȱtheȱwideȬrangingȱpersecutionsȱand
expulsionsȱofȱJewsȱinȱtheȱfifteenthȱcenturiesȱwereȱmanifold150;ȱeconomicȱrivalryȱof
Christiansȱwhoȱbeganȱtoȱpushȱ(officially)ȱintoȱtheȱmoneylendingȱsector,ȱantiȬJewish
conceptsȱ andȱ sentimentsȱ thatȱ wereȱ repeated,ȱ permeated,ȱ andȱ enhancedȱ by
theology,ȱliterature,ȱandȱiconographyȱalike,ȱtogetherȱwithȱtheȱrapidlyȱspreading
ideasȱofȱJewishȱwellȬpoisoning,ȱritualȱmurder,ȱandȱhostȱdesecrationȱbeingȱonlyȱthe
mostȱimportantȱones.ȱInȱAustria,ȱitȱwasȱtheȱeventsȱofȱtheȱViennaȱGesera,151ȱthe
murderingȱ andȱ expulsionȱ ofȱ theȱ Jewsȱ atȱ theȱ instigationȱ ofȱ Dukeȱ Albrechtȱ V
(1397–1439,ȱtheȱlaterȱKingȱAlbrechtȱII)ȱinȱ1420/1421ȱthatȱbroughtȱaȱviolentȱendȱto
Jewishȱ life.ȱ Inȱ theȱ textȱ ofȱ theȱ Gesera,ȱ theȱ Yiddishȱ narrationȱ thatȱ tellsȱ ofȱ the
incarcerationȱofȱtheȱVienneseȱJews,ȱtheirȱtortureȱandȱmurder,ȱaȱfewȱsitesȱofȱrural
settlementȱareȱmentionedȱasȱplacesȱofȱpersecution—Langenlois,ȱHerzogenburg,
Laa,ȱZistersdorf,ȱHainburg,ȱMarchegg,ȱMörtersdorf,ȱVitis,ȱandȱWinkel,ȱbearingȱa
lastȱwitnessȱtoȱaȱJewishȱlifeȱthatȱhadȱextendedȱbeyondȱtheȱboundariesȱofȱtheȱurban
centers.ȱ Whenȱ Jewsȱ startedȱ toȱ returnedȱ toȱ theȱ Austrianȱ territoriesȱ inȱ greater
numberȱ inȱ theȱ courseȱ ofȱ theȱ sixteenthȱ century,ȱ itȱ wouldȱ beȱ underȱ different
conditions,ȱwithȱnoȱperceptibleȱcontinuityȱofȱtheirȱmedievalȱancestors.152
148
DavidȱSteuss,ȱtheȱbyȱfarȱwealthiestȱJewishȱbusinessman,ȱwasȱimprisonedȱinȱ1383ȱandȱonlyȱsetȱfree
againstȱ aȱ ransomȱ ofȱ 50.000ȱ poundȱ pennies;ȱ seeȱ “Wienerȱ Annalenȱ 1348–1404,”ȱ Monumenta
GermaniaeȱHistorica,ȱDeutscheȱChroniken,ȱ6,ȱed.ȱJosefȱSeemüllerȱ(HanoverȱandȱLeipzig:ȱHahnsche
Buchhandlung,ȱ1909),ȱ231–242;ȱhereȱS.ȱ232.
149
Forȱaȱcloserȱlookȱatȱtheȱducalȱpolicy,ȱseeȱtheȱcontributionȱofȱEvelineȱBruggerȱinȱthisȱvolume.
150
GermaniaȱJudaicaȱIII/3ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ40),ȱ2298–2327,ȱforȱanȱanalysisȱofȱtheȱeconomicȱaspects,ȱseeȱDavid
Nirenberg,ȱ “Warumȱ derȱ Königȱ dieȱ Judenȱ beschützenȱ musste,ȱ undȱ warumȱ erȱ sieȱ verfolgen
musste,”ȱ Dieȱ Machtȱ desȱ Königs:ȱ Herrschaftȱ inȱ Europaȱ vomȱ Frühmittelalterȱ bisȱ inȱ dieȱ Neuzeit,ȱ ed.
BernhardȱJussenȱ(Munich:ȱBeck,ȱ2005),ȱ225–40ȱandȱ390–92,ȱforȱAustria,ȱseeȱBrugger,ȱ“Judenȱin
ÖsterreichȱimȱMittelalter”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ10),ȱ208–27.
151
Goldmann,ȱJudenbuchȱderȱScheffstrasseȱ(seeȱnoteȱ54),ȱ112–33ȱ(introductionȱandȱedition);ȱSamuel
Krauss,ȱ Dieȱ Wienerȱ Geserahȱ vomȱ Jahreȱ 1421ȱ (Viennaȱ andȱ Leipzig:ȱ Wilhelmȱ Braumüller,ȱ 1920),
particularlyȱ80–92ȱonȱtheȱJewishȱsettlementsȱhitȱbyȱtheȱpersecution.
152
Barbaraȱ Staudinger,ȱ “Gantzeȱ Dörfferȱ vollȱ Juden”.ȱ Judenȱ inȱ Niederösterreichȱ 1496–1670ȱ (Vienna:
Mandelbaumȱ Verlag,ȱ 2005),ȱ andȱ ead.,ȱ “Dieȱ Zeitȱ derȱ Landjudenȱ undȱ derȱ Wienerȱ Judenstadt
1496–1670/71”ȱGeschichteȱderȱJudenȱinȱÖsterreichȱ(seeȱnoteȱ9),ȱ229–338.
670 BirgitȱWiedl
Fig.ȱ1:ȱMainȱplacesȱofȱsmallȬtownȱandȱruralȱJewishȱsettlementȱinȱAustriaȱinȱthe
MiddleȱAgesȱ(smallerȱdots,ȱtheȱbiggerȱdotsȱindicateȱtheȱmainȱurbanȱcenters).
Fig.ȱ2:ȱTwoȱobligationsȱofȱArnoldȱvonȱFritzelsdorfȱandȱKonradȱvonȱKirchberg
forȱtheȱJewȱHendleinȱofȱGmünd,ȱaroundȱ1326,ȱbothȱcutȱupȱandȱusedȱasȱseal
pouchesȱ(ZisterzienserstiftȱZwettl,ȱArchivȱundȱBibliothek)
Chapterȱ20
EvelineȱBrugger
(InstituteȱforȱJewishȱHistoryȱinȱAustria,ȱSt.ȱPöltenȱ[Austria])
SmallȱTown,ȱBigȱBusiness:
AȱWealthyȱJewishȱMoneylenderȱinȱ
theȱAustrianȱCountryside
Sourcesȱ onȱ Jewishȱ moneyȬlending,ȱ especiallyȱ businessȱ charters,ȱ fromȱ theȱ late
medievalȱduchyȱofȱAustriaȱindicateȱthatȱ“dynasties”ȱofȱJewishȱfinanciersȱwereȱa
commonȱoccurrenceȱamongȱtheȱeconomicȱeliteȱofȱtheȱJewishȱcommunities.ȱSome
ofȱtheȱearliestȱsourcesȱonȱJewishȱbusinessȱtransactionsȱinȱAustria,ȱdatingȱfromȱthe
midȬthirteenthȱcentury,ȱalreadyȱdocumentȱfamilyȱmembersȱworkingȱtogether;ȱthis
practiceȱ canȱ beȱ foundȱ amongȱ manyȱ ofȱ theȱ moreȱ prominentȱ familiesȱ ofȱ Jewish
financiersȱduringȱtheȱfourteenthȱandȱearlyȱfifteenthȱcenturies,ȱwhichȱwereȱtheȱmost
prosperousȱtimeȱofȱJewishȱbusinessȱinȱAustria.ȱThereȱisȱplentyȱofȱevidenceȱfor
relatives—whetherȱ theȱ relationȱ wasȱ basedȱ onȱ bloodȱ orȱ onȱ marriage—working
togetherȱ inȱ theirȱ businessȱ dealings.ȱ Theȱ familyȱ membersȱ inȱ questionȱ weren’t
(always)ȱlivingȱinȱtheȱsameȱplace,ȱbutȱcooperatedȱwithȱrelativesȱwhoseȱbusiness
wasȱbasedȱinȱanotherȱtown,ȱsometimesȱevenȱanotherȱterritory.1ȱInȱmostȱofȱthese
cases,ȱweȱcanȱobserveȱaȱtendencyȱamongȱsuccessfulȱbusinessȱfamiliesȱtoȱgravitate
towardȱtheȱbigger,ȱmunicipalȱcenters—theȱmostȱimportantȱJewishȱbusinessmen
1
EvelineȱBrugger,ȱ“LoansȱofȱtheȱFather:ȱBusinessȱSuccessionȱinȱFamiliesȱofȱJewishȱMoneylenders
inȱLateȱMedievalȱAustria,”ȱGenerationsȱinȱTowns.ȱSuccessionȱandȱSuccessȱinȱPreȬIndustrialȱUrban
Societies,ȱed.ȱFinnȬEinarȱEliassenȱandȱKatalinȱSzendeȱ(NewcastleȱuponȱTyne:ȱCambridgeȱScholars
Publishing,ȱ2009),ȱ112–29;ȱhereȱ113–19.ȱOnȱtheȱtopicȱofȱJewishȱbusinessȱchartersȱinȱAustria,ȱseeȱthe
resultsȱofȱtheȱongoingȱpublicationȱprojectȱ“RegestenȱzurȱGeschichteȱderȱJudenȱinȱÖsterreich”
fundedȱ byȱ theȱ Austrianȱ Scienceȱ Fundȱ (FWF):ȱ Evelineȱ Bruggerȱ andȱ Birgitȱ Wiedl,ȱ Regestenȱ zur
GeschichteȱderȱJudenȱinȱÖsterreichȱimȱMittelalter.ȱVol.ȱ1:ȱVonȱdenȱAnfängenȱbisȱ1338.ȱVol.ȱ2:ȱ1339–1365.
Vol.ȱ3:ȱ1366–1386ȱ(Innsbruck,ȱVienna,ȱandȱBolzano:ȱStudienȱVerlag,ȱ2005,ȱ2010,ȱvol.ȱ3ȱforthcoming
inȱ2012):ȱhttp://injoest.ac.at/projekte/laufend/mittelalterliche_judenurkunden/index.php?lang=EN)
674 EvelineȱBrugger
andȱ Ȭwomenȱ wereȱ usuallyȱ foundȱ inȱ theȱ mostȱ importantȱ citiesȱ thatȱ housedȱ the
biggest,ȱmostȱprosperousȱJewishȱcommunities,ȱespeciallyȱinȱViennaȱandȱKrems.
EvenȱifȱaȱfamilyȱhadȱfarȬreachingȱbusinessȱconnectionsȱorȱevenȱ“branchȱoffices”ȱin
smallerȱcommunities,ȱtheyȱusuallyȱchoseȱtheȱmostȱimportantȱcityȱforȱtheirȱ“head
office”.ȱAȱbigȱcityȱprovidedȱmoreȱbusinessȱopportunitiesȱforȱtheȱeliteȱofȱJewish
financiers,ȱ whoseȱ clientsȱ usuallyȱ cameȱ fromȱ theȱ upperȬclassȱ citizenryȱ andȱ the
nobility.ȱ Inȱ addition,ȱ ducalȱ protectionȱ wasȱ strongerȱ andȱ moreȱ effective,ȱ thus
lesseningȱtheȱthreatȱofȱpersecutionȱforȱtheȱJewishȱpopulation.2
NotȱallȱJewishȱbusinessȱfamiliesȱwereȱinȱtheȱfinancialȱbusinessȱexclusively.ȱOn
theȱcontrary,ȱitȱwasȱquiteȱcommonȱamongȱtheȱJewishȱeliteȱtoȱhaveȱbothȱrabbisȱand
financiersȱ amongȱ theȱ membersȱ ofȱ aȱ family.ȱ Itȱ wasȱ notȱ rareȱ forȱ rabbisȱ toȱ be
moneylendersȱthemselves,ȱeither,ȱsinceȱaȱrabbiȱorȱscholarȱwasȱnotȱsupposedȱto
receiveȱfinancialȱcompensationȱforȱhisȱservicesȱandȱthereforeȱhadȱtoȱlookȱforȱother
meansȱtoȱmakeȱaȱliving.3ȱ
Oneȱofȱtheȱmostȱimpressiveȱexamplesȱofȱaȱfamilyȱwhoȱwasȱfamousȱbothȱforȱthe
scholarsȱandȱforȱtheȱwealthyȱbusinessmenȱitȱproducedȱisȱtheȱfamilyȱofȱRabbiȱIsrael
ofȱKrems.ȱIsrael’sȱsonȱHetschelȱ(Chaim)4ȱofȱHerzogenburgȱcountedȱamongȱthe
mostȱprominentȱJewishȱfinanciersȱinȱtheȱduchyȱofȱAustriaȱinȱtheȱsecondȱhalfȱofȱthe
fourteenthȱcentury,ȱbutȱalsoȱhadȱaȱreputationȱasȱaȱscholar.ȱHetschel’sȱsonȱAron
BlümleinȱwasȱrabbiȱinȱKrems,ȱthenȱinȱVienna,ȱwhereȱheȱfellȱvictimȱtoȱtheȱGesera,
theȱmurderȱorȱexpulsionȱofȱallȱAustrianȱJewsȱinstigatedȱbyȱDukeȱAlbrechtȱVȱin
1420/1421.ȱHetschel’sȱgrandsonȱRabbiȱIsraelȱIsserleinȱwasȱaȱfamousȱscholarȱinȱthe
StyrianȱtownsȱofȱMarburgȱ(Mariborȱinȱtoday’sȱRepublicȱofȱSlovenia)ȱandȱWiener
Neustadt,ȱbutȱalsoȱgaveȱloansȱonȱoccasion.ȱManyȱfamilyȱmembersȱofȱtheseȱrabbis
2
TheȱPulkauȱpersecutionȱinȱ1338,ȱwhichȱmarksȱtheȱfirstȱoutbreakȱofȱwideȬspreadȱviolenceȱagainst
theȱJewishȱpopulationȱinȱtheȱduchyȱofȱAustria,ȱdrasticallyȱshowedȱtheȱlimitsȱofȱtheȱprotectionȱthat
theȱauthoritiesȱwereȱableȱtoȱgiveȱtheȱJewsȱinȱmoreȱremoteȱplaces.ȱSeeȱEvelineȱBrugger,ȱ“Vonȱder
AnsiedlungȱbisȱzurȱVertreibung—JudenȱinȱÖsterreichȱimȱMittelalter,”ȱEvelineȱBrugger,ȱMartha
Keil,ȱAlbertȱLichtblau,ȱChristophȱLind,ȱandȱBarbaraȱStaudinger,ȱGeschichteȱderȱJudenȱinȱÖsterreich
(Vienna:ȱUeberreuter,ȱ2006),ȱ123–228;ȱhereȱ216–19,ȱandȱBirgitȱWiedl’sȱcontributionȱtoȱtheȱpresent
volume.
3
Marthaȱ Keil,ȱ “Gemeindeȱ undȱ Kultur—Dieȱ mittelalterlichenȱ Grundlagenȱ jüdischenȱ Lebensȱ in
Österreich,”ȱGeschichteȱderȱJudenȱinȱÖsterreichȱ(seeȱnoteȱ2),ȱ15–122;ȱhereȱ63–64.
4
MostȱmaleȱJewsȱwereȱgivenȱaȱsecular,ȱ“everyday”ȱnameȱinȱtheȱvernacularȱandȱaȱsacredȱHebrew
nameȱ(shemȱhaȬkodesh)ȱtoȱbeȱusedȱduringȱreligiousȱceremoniesȱandȱforȱofficialȱHebrewȱdocuments.
Marthaȱ Keil,ȱ “‘Petachja,ȱ genanntȱ Zecherl’:ȱ Namenȱ undȱ Beinamenȱ vonȱ Judenȱ imȱ deutschen
SprachraumȱdesȱSpätmittelalters,”ȱPersonennamenȱundȱIdentität.ȱNamengebungȱundȱNamengebrauch
alsȱAnzeigerȱindividuellerȱBestimmungȱundȱgruppenbezogenerȱZuordnung,ȱed.ȱReinhardȱHärtel.ȱGrazer
grundwissenschaftlicheȱ Forschungen,ȱ 3:ȱ Schriftenreiheȱ derȱ Akademieȱ Friesach,ȱ 2ȱ (Graz:
AkademischeȱDruckȬȱundȱVerlagsanstaltȱGraz,ȱAustria,ȱ1997),ȱ119–46;ȱhereȱ129–33.
SmallȱTown,ȱBigȱBusiness 675
wereȱactiveȱasȱmoneylenders;ȱseveralȱofȱtheȱmenȱalsoȱheldȱtheȱofficeȱofȱabsamer
(ducalȱtaxȱcollector)ȱforȱtheȱJewryȱofȱtheirȱterritory.5
Overall,ȱ theȱ descendantsȱ ofȱ Rabbiȱ Israelȱ ofȱ Kremsȱ wouldȱ constituteȱ aȱ rather
typical,ȱthoughȱperhapsȱexceptionallyȱsuccessful,ȱgroupȱamongȱtheȱeliteȱofȱJewish
familiesȱinȱlateȱmedievalȱAustriaȱifȱitȱweren’tȱforȱtheȱaforementionedȱHetschelȱof
Herzogenburg.
Theȱ smallȱ countrysideȱ townȱ ofȱ Herzogenburg,ȱ situatedȱ southȱ ofȱ theȱ river
Danubeȱaboutȱ60ȱkilometersȱwestȱofȱViennaȱinȱtheȱprovinceȱofȱLowerȱAustria,
developedȱoutȱofȱaȱmarketplaceȱnextȱtoȱaȱprioryȱofȱCanonsȱRegularȱ(foundedȱin
1112).ȱTheȱareaȱisȱruralȱevenȱtoday;ȱwinegrowingȱhasȱbeenȱtheȱmostȱimportant
branchȱofȱagricultureȱsinceȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱandȱevenȱthoughȱthereȱisȱevidenceȱof
tradeȱ(mostlyȱwine)ȱinȱandȱfromȱHerzogenburgȱduringȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱasȱwell,
itȱ wasȱ onȱ aȱ fairlyȱ smallȱ scale.6ȱ Evenȱ thoughȱ theȱ bigȱ andȱ importantȱ Jewish
communityȱofȱKremsȱwasȱonlyȱ20ȱkilometersȱaway,ȱthereȱisȱveryȱlittleȱevidenceȱof
JewishȱsettlementȱinȱHerzogenburgȱuntilȱtheȱmiddleȱofȱtheȱfourteenthȱcentury,ȱand
itȱisȱsurprising—toȱsayȱtheȱleast—thatȱaȱJewishȱbusinessmanȱofȱHetschel’sȱcaliber,
whoȱforȱaȱtimeȱwasȱtheȱsecondȱmostȱimportantȱJewishȱfinancierȱinȱtheȱduchyȱof
Austriaȱ(surpassedȱonlyȱbyȱtheȱfamousȱDavidȱSteussȱofȱVienna)7ȱwouldȱbeȱwilling
toȱchooseȱsuchȱaȱremoteȱplaceȱforȱhisȱmainȱresidenceȱduringȱwhatȱcanȱsafelyȱbe
consideredȱtheȱheydayȱofȱJewishȱmoneylendingȱinȱmedievalȱAustria.
InȱorderȱtoȱanalyzeȱtheȱpossibleȱreasonsȱforȱHetschel’sȱdecision,ȱitȱisȱnecessary
toȱputȱitȱinȱcontextȱwithȱtheȱgeneralȱsituationȱofȱJewsȱinȱtheȱmedievalȱduchyȱof
Austria.ȱJewishȱlifeȱinȱAustriaȱstartedȱlaterȱthanȱinȱmanyȱotherȱterritoriesȱofȱthe
HolyȱRomanȱEmpire;ȱitȱwasȱonlyȱduringȱtheȱfirstȱdecadesȱofȱtheȱthirteenthȱcentury
thatȱJewishȱcommunitiesȱbeganȱtoȱdevelop.ȱWhatȱfollowedȱwasȱaȱlengthyȱstruggle
forȱtheȱactualȱruleȱoverȱtheȱJewsȱbetweenȱtheȱAustrianȱdukeȱandȱtheȱemperor,
whichȱeventuallyȱendedȱinȱfavorȱofȱtheȱduke.ȱBasedȱonȱaȱgenerousȱducalȱprivilege
issuedȱinȱ1244,ȱtheȱAustrianȱdukesȱgrantedȱtheirȱJewsȱprotectionȱandȱfavorsȱin
exchangeȱforȱconsiderableȱtaxationȱandȱducalȱcontrolȱofȱJewishȱbusiness.8ȱThis
arrangementȱworkedȱsmoothlyȱduringȱtheȱthirteenthȱcentury,ȱwhichȱwasȱmostly
aȱ timeȱ ofȱ peaceȱ andȱ prosperityȱ forȱ theȱ Austrianȱ Jewry.ȱ Jewishȱ settlementȱ was
spreading;ȱfromȱtheȱmiddleȱofȱtheȱthirteenthȱcenturyȱonwards,ȱthereȱareȱnumerous
businessȱchartersȱthatȱshowȱJewsȱdoingȱbusiness—notȱonlyȱmoneylending,ȱbutȱalso
5
Germaniaȱ Judaicaȱ III/1,ȱ 2,ȱ 3:ȱ 1350–1519,ȱ ed.ȱ Aryeȱ Maimon,ȱ Mordechaiȱ Breuer,ȱ andȱ Yacov
Guggenheimȱ(Tübingen:ȱMohrȱ(Siebeck),ȱ1987,ȱ1995,ȱ2003),ȱIII/1,ȱ679ȱ(AronȱBlümlein);ȱIII/2,ȱ1606
(DavidȱSteuss),ȱ1625–1626ȱ(IsraelȱIsserlein).
6
Wolfgangȱ Hansȱ Payrich,ȱ Dasȱ Stiftȱ Herzogenburg.ȱ Dieȱ 875jährigeȱ Geschichteȱ desȱ AugustinerȬ
ChorherrenstiftesȱSt.ȱGeorgenȬHerzogenburgȱvonȱ1112–1987ȱ(KatholischȬtheologischeȱHochschule
Linz:ȱUnpublishedȱMaster’sȱthesis,ȱ1987),ȱ1–50.
7
OnȱDavidȱSteussȱandȱhisȱfamily,ȱseeȱBrugger,ȱ“LoansȱofȱtheȱFather”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1),ȱ117–18.
8
BruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegesten.ȱvol.ȱ1ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1),ȱ35–38,ȱn.ȱ25.
sellingȱandȱbuyingȱland—withȱnoblemen,ȱmonasteriesȱandȱtheȱinhabitantsȱbothȱof
theȱcitiesȱandȱofȱruralȱcommunities.9ȱ
Thisȱperiodȱwasȱoneȱofȱeconomicȱchange,ȱwhichȱincreasedȱtheȱimportanceȱof
moneyȬbasedȱeconomy.ȱEspeciallyȱnobleȱfamiliesȱoftenȱhadȱdifficultiesȱinȱcoping
withȱ thisȱ process,ȱ althoughȱ someȱ provedȱ remarkablyȱ aptȱ atȱ workingȱ theȱ new
systemȱ inȱ theirȱ favor.ȱ Inȱ theȱ courseȱ ofȱ theseȱ developments,ȱ thereȱ isȱ frequent
evidenceȱforȱtheȱraisingȱofȱmoneyȱfromȱJewishȱmoneylenders.ȱTheȱsourcesȱindicate
manyȱ financialȱ connectionsȱ betweenȱ theȱ eliteȱ ofȱ Jewishȱ financiersȱ andȱ noble
debtors.ȱBesides,ȱtheȱdukeȱhimselfȱmadeȱuseȱofȱJewishȱloans,ȱeitherȱtoȱsatisfyȱhis
ownȱ financialȱ needsȱ orȱ asȱ anȱ instrumentȱ ofȱ powerȱ inȱ hisȱ struggleȱ againstȱ the
opposingȱnobilityȱbyȱinterferingȱinȱtheȱbusinessȱtransactionsȱbetweenȱnoblemen
andȱtheirȱJewishȱcreditors.10
Thisȱ dependencyȱ onȱ ducalȱ protectionȱ leftȱ theȱ Jewsȱ inȱ Austrianȱ townsȱ inȱ a
precariousȱsituationȱduringȱtheȱfirstȱhalfȱofȱtheȱfourteenthȱcentury,ȱwhichȱbrought
aboutȱtheȱfirstȱmajorȱpersecutionsȱofȱJewsȱinȱtheȱduchyȱofȱAustria.11ȱAsȱopposed
toȱ mostȱ Germanȱ cities,ȱ Austrianȱ townsȱ hadȱ littleȱ powerȱ overȱ theȱ Jewish
communityȱ inȱ theirȱ midst,ȱ whichȱ alsoȱ meantȱ noȱ financialȱ profitȱ andȱ henceȱ no
reasonȱ toȱ valueȱ orȱ protectȱ them,ȱ whileȱ Jewishȱ businessȱ wasȱ oftenȱ seenȱ as
unwelcomeȱ competitionȱ andȱ Jewishȱ privilegesȱ wereȱ consideredȱ anȱ unfair
economicȱadvantageȱoverȱChristians.12ȱItȱisȱthereforeȱnoȱcoincidenceȱthatȱtheȱfirst
persecutionsȱwereȱcarriedȱoutȱbyȱtheȱcitizenryȱofȱtheȱtownsȱwhereȱtheȱJewsȱlived,
notȱ byȱ someȱ higherȱ authority,ȱ secularȱ orȱ ecclesiastical.ȱ Ducalȱ protectionȱ often
9
Brugger,ȱ“JudenȱinȱÖsterreichȱimȱMittelalter”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ2),ȱ127–29,ȱ169–80;ȱGermaniaȱJudaicaȱIII/3
10
Evelineȱ Brugger,ȱ Adelȱ undȱ Judenȱ inȱ Niederösterreich.ȱ Dieȱ Beziehungenȱ niederösterreichischer
AdelsfamilienȱzurȱjüdischenȱFührungsschichtȱvonȱdenȱAnfängenȱbisȱzurȱPulkauerȱVerfolgungȱ1338ȱ(St.
Pölten:ȱNiederösterreichischesȱInstitutȱfürȱLandeskunde,ȱ2004),ȱ32–39,ȱ59–64;ȱEvelineȱBrugger,ȱ“Do
mustenȱdaȱhinȱzueȱdenȱiudenȱvarn—dieȱRolle(n)ȱjüdischerȱGeldgeberȱimȱspätmittelalterlichen
Österreich,”ȱEinȱThema—zweiȱPerspektiven.ȱJudenȱundȱChristenȱinȱMittelalterȱundȱFrühneuzeit,ȱed.
EvelineȱBruggerȱandȱBirgitȱWiedlȱ(Innsbruck,ȱVienna,ȱandȱBolzano:ȱStudienVerlag,ȱ2007),ȱ122–38;
hereȱ123–30.
11
Brugger,ȱ“JudenȱinȱÖsterreichȱimȱMittelalter”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ2),ȱ210–19;ȱMiriȱRubin,ȱGentileȱTales.ȱThe
NarrativeȱAssaultȱonȱLateȱMedievalȱJewsȱ(NewȱHavenȱandȱLondon:ȱYaleȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1999),
57–65.ȱ Seeȱ alsoȱ Evelineȱ Brugger,ȱ “Neighbours,ȱ Businessȱ Partners,ȱ Victims:ȱ JewishȬChristian
Interactionȱ inȱ Austrianȱ Townsȱ Duringȱ theȱ Persecutionsȱ ofȱ theȱ Fourteenthȱ Century,”ȱ Intricate
InterfaithȱNetworks:ȱQuotidianȱJewishȬChristianȱContactsȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱed.ȱEphraimȱShoamȬ
Steinerȱ (Turnhout:ȱ Brepols,ȱ forthcoming,ȱ 2012);ȱ Birgitȱ Wiedl,ȱ “Theȱ Hostȱ onȱ theȱ Doorstep:
Perpetrators,ȱVictims,ȱandȱBystandersȱinȱanȱAllegedȱHostȱDesecrationȱinȱFourteenthȬCentury
Austria,”ȱCrimeȱandȱPunishmentȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱEarlyȱModernȱAge,ȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassen
andȱConnieȱScarborough.ȱFundamentalsȱofȱMedievalȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱCultureȱ(BerlinȱandȱNew
York:ȱWalterȱdeȱGruyter,ȱforthcoming).
12
BirgitȱWiedl,ȱ“JewsȱandȱtheȱCity:ȱParametersȱofȱJewishȱUrbanȱLifeȱinȱLateȱMedievalȱAustria,”
UrbanȱSpaceȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱEarlyȱModernȱAge,ȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassen.ȱFundamentalsȱof
MedievalȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱCulture,ȱ4ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱWalterȱdeȱGruyter,ȱ2009),ȱ273–308;
hereȱ281.
provedȱ ineffective,ȱ evenȱ thoughȱ theȱ dukesȱ usuallyȱ attemptedȱ toȱ punishȱ the
attackersȱ afterwards;ȱ thus,ȱ theyȱ wereȱ atȱ leastȱ ableȱ toȱ keepȱ theȱ Jewsȱ ofȱ Austria
mostlyȱ safeȱ duringȱ theȱ periodȱ ofȱ theȱ Blackȱ Plague,ȱ whichȱ broughtȱ aboutȱ the
persecutionȱofȱJewsȱinȱmanyȱotherȱterritoriesȱofȱtheȱHolyȱRomanȱEmpireȱaround
theȱmidȬfourteenthȱcentury.13
Yetȱ evenȱ inȱ Austria,ȱ sourcesȱ fromȱ theȱ decadesȱ afterȱ theȱ plagueȱ indicateȱ a
deteriorationȱofȱtheȱsituationȱofȱtheȱJewishȱpopulation.ȱBusinessȱchartersȱareȱmore
numerousȱthanȱbefore,ȱbutȱtheyȱindicateȱaȱdeclineȱinȱtheȱprotectionȱwhichȱJewish
businessȱreceivedȱfromȱtheȱduke.ȱTherefore,ȱwhileȱtheȱ“official”ȱlegalȱstatusȱofȱthe
AustrianȱJewsȱdidȱnotȱchange,ȱtheirȱactualȱpositionȱbecameȱmoreȱprecariousȱthan
before.ȱAȱclearȱindicationȱofȱthisȱphenomenonȱisȱtheȱgrowingȱnumberȱofȱTötbriefe
(“killingȱletters”),ȱducalȱdecreesȱthroughȱwhichȱtheȱdukeȱnullifiedȱtheȱdebtsȱof
noblemenȱ heȱ wishedȱ toȱ favorȱ withoutȱ anyȱ compensationȱ forȱ theȱ Jewish
moneylenderȱinȱquestion.14ȱHandȱinȱhandȱwithȱthatȱwentȱducalȱattemptsȱtoȱlimit
theȱmobilityȱofȱrichȱJewishȱbusinessmenȱbyȱseizingȱtheirȱpropertyȱifȱtheȱJewȱin
questionȱleftȱtheȱduke’sȱterritoryȱwithoutȱpermission.15
Theseȱactionsȱwereȱpartȱofȱanȱongoingȱdevelopmentȱthatȱslowlyȱchangedȱthe
overallȱ statusȱ ofȱ Austrianȱ Jewsȱ forȱ theȱ worseȱ inȱ theȱ courseȱ ofȱ theȱ fourteenth
century.ȱTheȱJewsȱbecameȱoneȱsourceȱofȱducalȱincomeȱamongȱmany,ȱwhileȱtheir
statusȱasȱaȱgroupȱunderȱtheȱdirectȱprotectionȱofȱtheȱdukeȱlostȱsignificance.ȱThe
looseningȱofȱtheȱducalȱprotectionȱcanȱprobablyȱbeȱseenȱmostȱclearlyȱinȱtheȱfactȱthat
fromȱtheȱ1330sȱonward,ȱtheȱdukeȱoccasionallyȱevenȱallowedȱaȱnoblemanȱtoȱwhom
heȱwasȱindebtedȱtoȱholdȱtheȱwealthiestȱJewsȱofȱaȱcityȱcaptiveȱuntilȱtheyȱhadȱpaid
himȱ theȱ moneyȱ theȱ dukeȱ owed.16ȱ Severalȱ timesȱ duringȱ theȱ 1370s,ȱ theȱ dukes
themselvesȱheldȱtheȱwealthiestȱAustrianȱJewsȱcaptiveȱtoȱextortȱenormousȱsumsȱof
ransomȱfromȱthem.17
YetȱbeforeȱtheȱJewishȱmoneylendingȱbusinessȱbeganȱtoȱfeelȱtheȱfullȱimpactȱofȱthis
policy,ȱtheȱthirdȱquarterȱofȱtheȱfourteenthȱcenturyȱbecameȱtheȱtimeȱofȱtheȱbiggest
businessȱtransactions.ȱItȱisȱduringȱthatȱperiodȱthatȱHetschelȱofȱHerzogenburgȱgot
hisȱremarkableȱcareerȱunderway.
Hetschelȱwasȱfirstȱmentionedȱinȱ1369,ȱwhenȱhisȱbrotherȱZecherlȱgrantedȱaȱsmall
loanȱofȱthreeȱpounds.ȱTheȱdocumentȱidentifiesȱHetschelȱandȱZecherlȱasȱtheȱsons
13
JörgȱR.ȱMüller,ȱ“Erezȱgezerah—‘LandȱofȱPersecution’:ȱPogromsȱAgainstȱtheȱJewsȱinȱtheȱregnum
Teutonicumȱ Fromȱ c.ȱ 1280ȱ toȱ 1350,”ȱ Theȱ Jewsȱ ofȱ Europeȱ inȱ theȱ Middleȱ Agesȱ (Tenthȱ toȱ Fifteenth
Centuries),ȱed.ȱChristophȱCluseȱ(Turnhout:ȱBrepols,ȱ2004),ȱ245–60;ȱhereȱ256–57;ȱMichaelȱToch,ȱDie
JudenȱimȱmittelalterlichenȱReich.ȱ2ndȱed.ȱEnzyklopädieȱdeutscherȱGeschichte,ȱ44ȱ(1998;ȱMunich:
Oldenburg,ȱ2003),ȱ62–63.
14
KlausȱLohrmann,ȱJudenrechtȱundȱJudenpolitikȱimȱmittelalterlichenȱÖsterreichȱ(ViennaȱandȱCologne:
Böhlau,ȱ1990),ȱ171–73.
15
Brugger,ȱ“LoansȱofȱtheȱFather”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1),ȱ119–23.
16
BruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegesten,ȱvol.ȱ1ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1),ȱ316–17,ȱn.ȱ407.
17
Lohrmann,ȱJudenrechtȱundȱJudenpolitikȱ(seeȱnoteȱ14),ȱ216–17.
ofȱMasterȱ(i.ȱe.,ȱRabbi)ȱIsraelȱofȱKrems.ȱThereȱisȱnoȱmentionȱinȱtheȱdocumentȱasȱto
whereȱIsrael’sȱsonsȱhadȱtheirȱresidence,ȱbutȱitȱbearsȱtheȱsealȱofȱtheȱJewishȱjudgeȱof
Herzogenburg,ȱwhoȱactedȱasȱwitness.18
Theȱ Jewishȱ judgeȱ (iudexȱ Iudeorum)ȱ wasȱ aȱ Christianȱ townȱ official,ȱ usuallyȱ a
memberȱofȱtheȱurbanȱelite,ȱwhoȱwasȱresponsibleȱforȱlegalȱmattersȱthatȱinvolved
bothȱJewishȱandȱChristianȱparties.ȱHeȱwasȱoftenȱaskedȱtoȱcorroborateȱbusiness
chartersȱwithȱhisȱsealȱbecauseȱveryȱfewȱJewsȱusedȱseals.19ȱSinceȱHerzogenburgȱwas
notȱtheȱresidenceȱofȱtheȱChristianȱdebtor,ȱtheȱinvolvementȱofȱtheȱJewishȱjudgeȱof
Herzogenburgȱ inȱ theȱ transactionȱ canȱ beȱ seenȱ asȱ anȱ indicationȱ thatȱ theȱ Jewish
creditorsȱlivedȱthereȱorȱatȱleastȱhadȱsomeȱconnectionȱtoȱtheȱtown.ȱThisȱisȱrather
surprisingȱinȱitselfȱbecauseȱthereȱisȱnoȱindicationȱatȱthisȱpointȱthatȱtheȱnumberȱof
JewsȱlivingȱinȱHerzogenburgȱwouldȱhaveȱwarrantedȱtheȱappointmentȱofȱaȱJewish
judgeȱforȱthem—evenȱmoreȱsoȱsinceȱtheȱofficeȱrarelyȱappearsȱatȱallȱinȱmarketȱtowns
likeȱHerzogenburg.ȱ
ThereȱareȱveryȱfewȱmentionsȱofȱJewsȱlivingȱinȱHerzogenburgȱbeforeȱtheȱmiddle
ofȱtheȱfourteenthȱcentury,ȱalthoughȱweȱknowȱofȱoneȱDavidȱofȱHerzogenburgȱwho
laterȱmovedȱtoȱRegensburg—oneȱofȱtheȱmostȱimportantȱJewishȱcommunitiesȱinȱthe
HolyȱRomanȱEmpire—andȱmadeȱaȱcareerȱasȱaȱbusinessmanȱthere,ȱindicatingȱa
surprisingȱconnectionȱbetweenȱaȱsmall,ȱunremarkableȱAustrianȱcountrysideȱtown
andȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ mainȱ centersȱ ofȱ Jewishȱ settlementȱ andȱ businessȱ activityȱ inȱ the
Empire.20ȱ Itȱ hasȱ beenȱ speculatedȱ thatȱ Hetschel’sȱ familyȱ originatedȱ from
Regensburgȱ becauseȱ inȱ theȱ fifteenthȱ century,ȱ Hetschel’sȱ grandsonȱ Rabbiȱ Israel
IsserleinȱmentionedȱtheȱgravesȱofȱhisȱforefathersȱinȱtheȱcityȱofȱRegensburg.21
WhileȱfamilyȱconnectionsȱbetweenȱtwoȱimportantȱJewishȱcommunitiesȱsuchȱas
KremsȱandȱRegensburgȱwereȱveryȱcommon,22ȱtheȱquestionȱremainsȱwhyȱaȱJewish
18
Niederösterreichischesȱ Landesarchivȱ (Provincialȱ Archivesȱ ofȱ Lowerȱ Austria),ȱ Urkundenȱ des
StändischenȱArchivsȱn.ȱ5360;ȱHanneloreȱGrahammer,ȱ“HetschelȱvonȱHerzogenburgȱundȱseine
Familie,”ȱ Studienȱ zurȱ Geschichteȱ derȱ Judenȱ inȱ Österreich,ȱ ed.ȱ Marthaȱ Keilȱ andȱ Klausȱ Lohrmann
(Vienna,ȱCologne,ȱandȱWeimar:ȱBöhlau,ȱ1994),ȱ100–20;ȱhereȱ100.
19
TheȱstandardȱmethodȱofȱcorroborationȱforȱHebrewȱdocumentsȱwasȱtheȱissuer’sȱ(andȱsometimes
theȱwitnesses’)ȱsignature.ȱOnlyȱaȱselectȱfewȱJews,ȱallȱmembersȱofȱtheȱfinancialȱelite,ȱchoseȱtoȱadapt
theȱChristianȱcustomȱofȱusingȱsealsȱinȱtheirȱbusinessȱdealingsȱwithȱnonȬJewishȱcustomersȱasȱa
demonstrationȱofȱtheirȱimportantȱposition.ȱMarthaȱKeil,ȱ“EinȱRegensburgerȱJudensiegelȱdesȱ13.
Jahrhunderts:ȱZurȱInterpretationȱdesȱSiegelsȱdesȱPeterȱbarȱMoscheȱhaLevi,”ȱAschkenas:ȱZeitschrift
fürȱGeschichteȱundȱKulturȱderȱJudenȱ1ȱ(1991),ȱ135–50;ȱhereȱ135–40.
20
GermaniaȱJudaicaȱIII/2ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ5),ȱ1178–230.ȱDavidȱofȱHerzogenburgȱmakesȱtwoȱappearancesȱin
sourcesȱfromȱRegensburgȱinȱtheȱ1350s:ȱBruggerȱandȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱ2ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1),ȱ120,ȱn.ȱ692,
167–68,ȱn.ȱ799.ȱInȱ1363,ȱDavidȱiudeus,ȱfiliusȱHedliniȱdeȱHerczogenburga—likelyȱtheȱsameȱDavid—is
mentionedȱinȱaȱrentȱrollȱofȱtheȱLowerȱAustrianȱmonasteryȱofȱGöttweig,ȱindicatingȱthatȱDavid
returnedȱtoȱHerzogenburgȱatȱsomeȱpointȱduringȱtheȱlateȱ1350sȱorȱearlyȱ1360s.ȱAdalbertȱFuchs,
UrkundenȱundȱRegestenȱzurȱGeschichteȱdesȱBenediktinerstiftesȱGöttweig.ȱVol.ȱ1:ȱ1058–1400.ȱFontes
RerumȱAustriacarum,ȱseriesȱII,ȱ51ȱ(Vienna:ȱGerold,ȱ1901),ȱ536,ȱn.ȱ602.
21
Grahammer,ȱ“HetschelȱvonȱHerzogenburg”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ18),ȱ102.
22
businessmanȱfromȱanȱimportantȱfamilyȱwouldȱleaveȱtheȱbigȱcommunitiesȱbehind
andȱchooseȱtheȱsmall,ȱruralȱtownȱofȱHerzogenburgȱasȱhisȱresidence.ȱ
Thereȱ areȱ numerousȱ sourcesȱ onȱ Hetschel’sȱ extensiveȱ businessȱ activitiesȱ in
Herzogenburgȱbetweenȱtheȱyearsȱ1369ȱandȱ1392,ȱbutȱtheyȱtellȱusȱlittleȱaboutȱhis
immediateȱfamilyȱexceptȱforȱtheȱstandardȱmentionȱofȱhisȱfatherȱIsraelȱofȱKrems.
TheȱnameȱofȱHetschel’sȱwifeȱisȱunknown;ȱtheȱbusinessȱcharterȱthatȱindicatesȱhis
deathȱinȱ1392ȱgivesȱusȱtheȱnamesȱofȱfourȱofȱhisȱfiveȱsons.ȱHisȱfifthȱandȱmostȱfamous
son,ȱRabbiȱAronȱBlümleinȱofȱViennaȱwhoȱdiedȱasȱaȱmartyrȱduringȱtheȱGesera,ȱis
onlyȱknownȱfromȱHebrewȱsources.23ȱHetschelȱhimselfȱalsoȱenjoyedȱaȱreputationȱas
aȱmanȱofȱlearning,ȱevenȱthoughȱhisȱscholarlyȱstandingȱdidȱnotȱmeasureȱupȱtoȱhis
importanceȱasȱaȱfinancier.24
Hetschel’sȱ familyȱ wasȱ extremelyȱ wellȬconnected,ȱ asȱ itȱ wasȱ theȱ normȱ forȱ the
membersȱ ofȱ theȱ Jewishȱ elite.ȱ Hetschelȱ himselfȱ upheldȱ hisȱ closeȱ connectionȱ to
Krems,ȱhisȱfather’sȱresidence,ȱthroughoutȱhisȱlife;ȱbesidesȱKrems,ȱhisȱrelationsȱcan
beȱfoundȱamongȱtheȱleadingȱmembersȱofȱtheȱJewishȱcommunitiesȱofȱViennaȱand
Salzburg.ȱHisȱsonȱAronȱBlümleinȱwasȱrabbiȱofȱKremsȱforȱatȱleastȱaȱdecadeȱbefore
heȱtookȱofficeȱinȱViennaȱinȱ1418.ȱBusinessȱtransactionsȱinȱKremsȱandȱViennaȱareȱon
recordȱ forȱ Hetschel’sȱ sonsȱ Zecherlȱ (Petachja,ȱ fatherȱ toȱ Rabbiȱ Israelȱ Isserlein),
Frenzlein,ȱandȱJeklein,ȱalthoughȱnoneȱofȱthemȱeverȱmatchedȱHetschel’sȱbusiness
standing;ȱhisȱfifthȱsonȱIsraelȱisȱonlyȱmentionedȱonceȱtogetherȱwithȱhisȱbrothersȱin
1392.25ȱ
Itȱ isȱ interestingȱ toȱ noteȱ thatȱ weȱ onlyȱ knowȱ theȱ nameȱ ofȱ oneȱ femaleȱ family
member:ȱRoslein,ȱwidowȱofȱHetschel’sȱsonȱFrenzlein,ȱwhoȱgrantedȱtwoȱloansȱin
1415ȱandȱ1416.26ȱItȱisȱratherȱunusualȱforȱtheȱwomenȱfromȱaȱfamilyȱofȱtheȱJewish
eliteȱtoȱremainȱalmostȱinvisibleȱinȱbusinessȱsources;ȱevenȱthoughȱnoȱotherȱJewish
womanȱ inȱ lateȱ medievalȱ Austriaȱ everȱ matchedȱ theȱ importanceȱ ofȱ Plumeȱ of
Klosterneuburg,ȱ“foundingȱmother”ȱtoȱtheȱSteussȱdynastyȱinȱVienna,ȱmanyȱJewish
womenȱ(mostȱoftenȱwidows)ȱtookȱpartȱinȱtheirȱfamily’sȱbusinessȱdealingsȱandȱwere
activeȱasȱmoneylendersȱtogetherȱwithȱotherȱfamilyȱmembersȱorȱonȱtheirȱown.27
23
Grahammer,ȱ“HetschelȱvonȱHerzogenburg”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ18),ȱ103,ȱ116–17.ȱGermaniaȱJudaicaȱIII/1ȱ(see
noteȱ5),ȱ679.
24
25
Grahammer,ȱ“HetschelȱvonȱHerzogenburg”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ18),ȱ117–20.
26
RudolfȱGeyerȱandȱLeopoldȱSailer,ȱUrkundenȱausȱWienerȱGrundbüchernȱzurȱGeschichteȱderȱWiener
JudenȱimȱMittelalter.ȱQuellenȱundȱForschungenȱzurȱGeschichteȱderȱJudenȱinȱDeutschösterreichȱ10ȱ(Vienna:
DeutscherȱVerlagȱfürȱJugendȱundȱVolk,ȱ1931),ȱ510–11,ȱn.ȱ1708,ȱn.ȱ1713.ȱRoslein’sȱnephewȱIsserlein,
sonȱofȱZecherlȱofȱKrems,ȱwhoȱactedȱasȱherȱbusinessȱpartnerȱinȱtheȱdocumentȱfromȱ1415,ȱwasȱthe
futureȱRabbiȱIsraelȱIsserleinȱofȱMarburg/WienerȱNeustadt.
27
MarthaȱKeil,ȱ“GeschäftserfolgȱundȱSteuerschulden:ȱJüdischeȱFrauenȱinȱösterreichischenȱStädten
desȱSpätmittelalters,”ȱFrauenȱinȱderȱStadt,ȱed.ȱGüntherȱHödlȱetȱal.ȱBeiträgeȱzurȱGeschichteȱder
StädteȱMitteleuropas,ȱ18—SchriftenreiheȱderȱAkademieȱFriesach,ȱ7ȱ(Linz:ȱLandesverlag,ȱ2003),
37–62;ȱ hereȱ 51.ȱ Marthaȱ Keil,ȱ “‘Maistrin’ȱ undȱ Geschäftsfrau:ȱ Jüdischeȱ Oberschichtfrauenȱ im
spätmittelalterlichenȱÖsterreich,”ȱDieȱjüdischeȱFamilieȱinȱGeschichteȱundȱGegenwart,ȱed.ȱSabineȱHödl
SomeȱofȱHetschel’sȱdescendantsȱoccasionallyȱappearȱasȱ“JewsȱofȱHerzogenburg”
inȱsourceȱtexts,ȱyetȱinȱmostȱcasesȱthisȱseemsȱtoȱhaveȱbeenȱanȱindicationȱofȱtheir
placeȱofȱorigin,ȱnotȱofȱtheirȱresidence.28ȱThereȱisȱgenerallyȱnotȱmuchȱtoȱsuggestȱthat
Hetschel’sȱfamilyȱeverȱconsideredȱHerzogenburgȱtheȱcenterȱofȱtheirȱlifeȱorȱtheir
businessȱactivities,ȱevenȱthoughȱHetschelȱhimselfȱseemsȱtoȱhaveȱspentȱmostȱofȱhis
adultȱlifeȱthere—inȱ1390,ȱshortlyȱbeforeȱhisȱdeath,ȱhisȱhouseȱinȱHerzogenburgȱis
mentionedȱinȱaȱcharterȱfromȱtheȱarchivesȱofȱtheȱHerzogenburgȱPriory.29
Hetschel’sȱ businessȱ contactsȱ withȱ Christianȱ customersȱ wereȱ notȱ focusedȱ on
Herzogenburgȱ atȱ all;ȱ theȱ aforementionedȱ charterȱ indicatingȱ theȱ locationȱ ofȱ his
houseȱ isȱ hisȱ onlyȱ mentionȱ inȱ theȱ prioryȱ archives,ȱ whichȱ containȱ mostlyȱ local
material.ȱHetschel’sȱusualȱcustomersȱwereȱmembersȱofȱtheȱChristianȱnobility,ȱboth
fromȱ Austriaȱ andȱ fromȱ neighboringȱ territories,ȱ orȱ ofȱ theȱ upperȱ classesȱ ofȱ the
Vienneseȱ citizenry;ȱ entireȱ municipalities,ȱ suchȱ asȱ Viennaȱ andȱ Brünnȱ (Brno)ȱ in
Moravia,ȱalsoȱcountedȱamongȱhisȱdebtors.ȱEvenȱthoughȱheȱalsoȱgrantedȱsmaller
loansȱ toȱ Vienneseȱ craftsmenȱ onȱ occasion,ȱ thereȱ isȱ noȱ indicationȱ thatȱ heȱ had
significantȱbusinessȱcontactsȱwithȱtheȱresidentsȱofȱtheȱtownȱheȱlivedȱin,ȱorȱwithȱthe
populationȱfromȱtheȱcloseȱvicinity.30ȱHetschelȱwasȱtheȱundisputedȱnumberȱtwo
amongȱtheȱAustrianȱJewishȱfinanciersȱofȱhisȱtime,ȱonlyȱsurpassedȱbyȱtheȱfamous
Davidȱ Steussȱ ofȱ Vienna;ȱ forȱ theȱ inhabitantsȱ ofȱ aȱ smallȱ countrysideȱ town,ȱ a
businessmanȱofȱhisȱstandingȱwasȱobviouslyȱoutȱofȱtheirȱleagueȱevenȱifȱheȱlived
rightȱnextȱtoȱthem.ȱ
Overall,ȱ itȱ appearsȱ thatȱ Hetschelȱ merelyȱ transferredȱ hisȱ familyȱ businessȱ toȱ a
branchȱofficeȱwithoutȱchangingȱtheȱwayȱthatȱbusinessȱwasȱrun.ȱPracticalȱproblems
withȱhisȱrelocationȱareȱunlikely:ȱJewishȱbusinessmenȱwereȱextremelyȱmobileȱasȱa
rule,ȱ andȱ whileȱ Christianȱ rulersȱ sometimesȱ punishedȱ themȱ ifȱ theyȱ leftȱ their
territory,ȱ thatȱ wasȱ notȱ anȱ issueȱ withȱ Hetschel’sȱ moveȱ fromȱ Kremsȱ to
Herzogenburg.31ȱNeitherȱwasȱtheȱsomewhatȱremoteȱlocationȱofȱHetschel’sȱnew
residence:ȱfirst,ȱbecauseȱheȱdidȱaȱlotȱofȱtravelingȱ(hisȱconnectionȱtoȱKrems,ȱhisȱplace
ofȱorigin,ȱinȱparticularȱremainedȱstrongȱthroughoutȱhisȱlife),ȱandȱalsoȱbecauseȱhis
statusȱasȱaȱfinancierȱforȱtheȱChristianȱelitesȱwasȱimportantȱenoughȱforȱprospective
creditorsȱtoȱcomeȱtoȱhimȱifȱnecessary.
TheȱquestionȱremainsȱwhyȱHetschelȱchoseȱHerzogenburgȱinȱtheȱfirstȱplace.ȱOther
importantȱ Jewishȱ businessmenȱ sometimesȱ relocatedȱ theirȱ businessȱ toȱ small,
comparativelyȱinsignificantȱplacesȱifȱtheȱrulerȱofȱtheȱterritoryȱmotivatedȱthemȱto
doȱsoȱbyȱpromisingȱthemȱaȱspecialȱprivilegeȱthatȱgrantedȱthemȱexemptionȱfromȱthe
generalȱfiscalȱobligationsȱofȱtheȱterritory’sȱJewry.ȱSuchȱaȱ“privileged”ȱJewȱwould
andȱMarthaȱKeilȱ(BerlinȱandȱBodenheimȱbeiȱMainz:ȱPhiloȱVerlag,ȱ1999),ȱ27–50;ȱhereȱ36.
28
Keil,ȱ“NamenȱundȱBeinamen”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ124–25.
29
StiftsarchivȱHerzogenburgȱ(ArchivesȱofȱtheȱHerzogenburgȱPriory),ȱA.n.115.
30
31
beȱgrantedȱspecialȱrightsȱbyȱtheȱruler,ȱwouldȱreceiveȱaȱbetterȱlegalȱstatusȱthanȱthe
otherȱJewsȱandȱdirectȱprotectionȱfromȱtheȱrulerȱinȱexchangeȱforȱpayingȱhisȱorȱher
taxesȱseparatelyȱinsteadȱofȱhavingȱtoȱcontributeȱtoȱtheȱgeneralȱJewishȱtaxȱofȱthe
territory.ȱSomeȱrulersȱevenȱtriedȱtoȱlureȱwealthyȱJewishȱbusinessmenȱawayȱfrom
neighboringȱterritoriesȱwithȱtheȱpromiseȱofȱsuchȱspecialȱprivileges.32ȱHowever,ȱwe
doȱnotȱknowȱofȱanyȱspecialȱducalȱprivilegesȱthatȱmightȱhaveȱencouragedȱHetschel
toȱmove,ȱandȱsinceȱheȱremainedȱinȱtheȱterritoryȱofȱtheȱsameȱrulerȱwhenȱmoving
fromȱ Kremsȱ toȱ Herzogenburg,ȱ itȱ seemsȱ unlikelyȱ thatȱ thisȱ wasȱ hisȱ reasonȱ for
relocatingȱhisȱbusiness.ȱMightȱHetschelȱhaveȱbeenȱtryingȱtoȱremoveȱhimselfȱaȱlittle
fromȱtheȱinfluenceȱofȱtheȱduke,ȱwhichȱwouldȱhaveȱbeenȱmuchȱmoreȱimmediateȱin
anȱurbanȱcenterȱlikeȱKremsȱor—evenȱmoreȱso—Vienna?ȱ
AȱcloserȱlookȱatȱtheȱducalȱpolicyȱtowardȱJewsȱinȱAustriaȱaroundȱ1370ȱprovides
someȱ cluesȱ whyȱ Hetschelȱ mightȱ haveȱ beenȱ keenȱ onȱ puttingȱ someȱ additional
distanceȱbetweenȱhimselfȱandȱtheȱHabsburgȱbrothersȱAlbrechtȱandȱLeopold,ȱwho
wereȱdukesȱofȱAustriaȱatȱtheȱtime.ȱAfterȱseveralȱdecadesȱofȱincreasingȱpressureȱon
Jewishȱ business,ȱ Albrechtȱ andȱ Leopoldȱ wentȱ oneȱ stepȱ furtherȱ inȱ 1370/1371.
Accordingȱtoȱnarrativeȱsources,ȱtheȱdukesȱtookȱallȱJewsȱinȱtheirȱcitiesȱcaptiveȱand
forcedȱthemȱtoȱpayȱenormousȱsumsȱofȱransomȱinȱorderȱtoȱregainȱtheirȱfreedom.33
TheȱJewryȱofȱKremsȱhadȱtoȱpayȱ40.000ȱpounds,ȱandȱsinceȱHetschelȱisȱfirstȱexplicitly
mentionedȱasȱaȱJewȱofȱHerzogenburgȱshortlyȱafter,ȱitȱseemsȱlikelyȱthatȱthisȱactȱof
ducalȱextortionȱwasȱhisȱreasonȱtoȱtryȱandȱseparateȱhimselfȱfinanciallyȱfromȱthe
Jewishȱ communityȱ ofȱ Kremsȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ avoidȱ havingȱ toȱ payȱ aȱ portionȱ ofȱ the
ransomȱ(which,ȱgivenȱhisȱfamily’sȱfinancialȱstanding,ȱwouldȱprobablyȱhaveȱbeen
substantialȱevenȱthoughȱHetschelȱhimselfȱwasȱstillȱatȱtheȱbeginningȱofȱhisȱcareer
inȱtheȱmoneylendingȱbusiness).34ȱTheȱdownsideȱwasȱthatȱgreaterȱdistanceȱtoȱthe
rulersȱalsoȱmeantȱweakerȱducalȱprotectionȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱaȱpersecution,ȱbutȱsince
theȱlastȱoutbreakȱofȱantiȬJewishȱviolenceȱinȱtheȱduchyȱofȱAustriaȱwasȱtwoȱdecades
inȱtheȱpastȱatȱtheȱtimeȱofȱHetschelȇsȱmove,ȱheȱprobablyȱconsideredȱitȱaȱriskȱworth
taking.
PerhapsȱHetschelȱchoseȱHerzogenburgȱbecauseȱtheȱaforementionedȱDavidȱof
Herzogenburg,ȱwhoȱhadȱmovedȱtoȱRegensburgȱtwentyȱyearsȱearlier,ȱwasȱrelated
toȱhimȱandȱthereforeȱprovidedȱanȱalreadyȱexistingȱfamilyȱconnectionȱtoȱtheȱplace.
ThereȱisȱnoȱevidenceȱforȱanȱestablishedȱJewishȱcommunityȱatȱtheȱtimeȱHetschel
movedȱthere,ȱbutȱtheȱexistenceȱofȱaȱJewishȱjudgeȱindicatesȱatȱleastȱaȱ(somewhat)
continuousȱ Jewishȱ presenceȱ forȱ someȱ time.ȱ Duringȱ Hetschel’sȱ timeȱ in
Herzogenburg,ȱweȱknowȱofȱseveralȱotherȱJewsȱlivingȱthereȱwhoȱwereȱnotȱpartȱof
32
Brugger,ȱ“JudenȱinȱÖsterreichȱimȱMittelalter”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ2),ȱ146–47;ȱWilhelmȱWadl,ȱGeschichteȱder
Judenȱ inȱ Kärntenȱ imȱ Mittelalter:ȱ Mitȱ einemȱ Ausblickȱ bisȱ zumȱ Jahreȱ 1867.ȱ 3rdȱ ed.ȱ Dasȱ Kärntner
Landesarchiv,ȱ9ȱ(1981;ȱKlagenfurt:ȱVerlagȱdesȱKärntnerȱLandesarchivs,ȱ2009),ȱ123–25.
33
Lohrmann,ȱJudenrechtȱundȱJudenpolitikȱ(seeȱnoteȱ14),ȱ216.
34
Hetschel’sȱ immediateȱ family.ȱ Sinceȱ severalȱ ofȱ themȱ hadȱ familyȱ connectionsȱ to
KremsȱjustȱlikeȱHetschelȱhadȱthem,ȱHetschel’sȱmoveȱtoȱHerzogenburgȱcouldȱhave
encouragedȱ otherȱ membersȱ ofȱ hisȱ communityȱ ofȱ originȱ toȱ followȱ hisȱ example.
Unlikeȱ Hetschel,ȱ thoseȱ Jewsȱ choseȱ theirȱ businessȱ partnersȱ amongȱ theȱ local
Christianȱ population:ȱ theȱ Jewȱ Trostl,ȱ sonȱ ofȱ Leubmanȱ amȱ Eckȱ ofȱ Krems,ȱ is
mentionedȱtwiceȱ(1372ȱandȱ1373)ȱinȱtheȱarchivesȱofȱtheȱHerzogenburgȱPriory35;ȱa
LeubmanȱofȱHerzogenburgȱmakesȱseveralȱappearancesȱinȱLowerȱAustrianȱcharters
fromȱtheȱ1370s,ȱindicatingȱthatȱthisȱmightȱbeȱaȱcaseȱofȱanȱentireȱfamilyȱmoving
fromȱKremsȱtoȱHerzogenburgȱandȱdoingȱbusinessȱthere.36ȱLeubmanȱseemsȱtoȱhave
spentȱtheȱrestȱofȱhisȱlifeȱinȱHerzogenburgȱandȱobviouslyȱdidȱwellȱthere—inȱ1382,
theȱJewessȱIstyr,ȱwidowȱofȱLeubmanȱofȱHerzogenburg,ȱcollectedȱaȱdebtȱfromȱa
prominentȱAustrianȱnobleman.37
ChartersȱfromȱtheȱarchivesȱofȱtheȱHerzogenburgȱPrioryȱcontainȱseveralȱfurther
mentionsȱofȱJewsȱinȱHerzogenburgȱduringȱtheȱlastȱyearsȱofȱHetschel’sȱlife:ȱthe
aforementionedȱcharterȱthatȱlocatesȱHetschel’sȱhouseȱwasȱissuedȱbyȱtheȱJewess
Grässel,ȱwidowȱofȱHemanȱofȱHerzogenburg,ȱandȱsealedȱbyȱtheȱJewishȱjudgeȱofȱthe
town.38ȱ Inȱ theȱ sameȱ yearȱ 1390,ȱ theȱ Jewȱ Efferl,ȱ brotherȬinȬlawȱ ofȱ Yrimanȱ of
Herzogenburg,ȱboughtȱaȱhouseȱinȱHerzogenburg,ȱprovingȱthatȱHetschelȱwasȱnot
theȱonlyȱJewȱtoȱownȱaȱresidenceȱthere.39
JewishȱpropertyȱcanȱbeȱtracedȱinȱHerzogenburgȱwellȱintoȱtheȱfifteenthȱcentury,
asȱcanȱtheȱcontinuingȱexistenceȱofȱtheȱofficeȱofȱJewishȱjudge.40ȱHetschel’sȱmoveȱto
Herzogenburgȱ couldȱ veryȱ wellȱ haveȱ advancedȱ theȱ developmentȱ ofȱ Jewish
settlementȱinȱhisȱnewȱplaceȱofȱresidence.ȱHowever,ȱevenȱtheȱpresenceȱofȱsuchȱan
importantȱperson,ȱwhoȱplayedȱaȱbigȱroleȱasȱaȱbusinessmanȱandȱalsoȱhadȱsome
standingȱasȱaȱscholar,ȱultimatelyȱdidn’tȱbringȱHerzogenburgȱintoȱtheȱ“innerȱcircle”
ofȱimportantȱJewishȱcommunitiesȱinȱtheȱduchyȱofȱAustria.ȱTheȱtownȱremainedȱa
ratherȱremoteȱcountrysideȱplaceȱasȱfarȱasȱJewishȱsettlementȱwasȱconcerned,ȱand
duringȱtheȱearlyȱfifteenthȱcentury,ȱweȱlearnȱofȱmostȱofȱitsȱJewishȱinhabitantsȱwhen
theyȱappearȱinȱtheȱsourcesȱasȱJewsȱ“ofȱHerzogenburg”ȱafterȱtheyȱhadȱmovedȱtoȱone
ofȱtheȱbiggerȱcommunities.ȱ
35
StiftsarchivȱHerzogenburgȱ(ArchivesȱofȱtheȱHerzogenburgȱPriory),ȱD.n.15a,ȱD.n.18.
36
Wienerȱ StadtȬȱ undȱ Landesarchivȱ (Municipalȱ andȱ Provincialȱ Archivesȱ ofȱ Vienna),ȱ BürgerȬ
spitalsurkundeȱ n.ȱ 258;ȱ Niederösterreichischesȱ Landesarchivȱ (Provincialȱ Archivesȱ ofȱ Lower
Austria),ȱUrkundenȱdesȱStändischenȱArchivsȱn.ȱ897,ȱn.ȱ957.
37
Niederösterreichischesȱ Landesarchivȱ (Provincialȱ Archivesȱ ofȱ Lowerȱ Austria),ȱ Urkundenȱ des
StändischenȱArchivsȱn.ȱ1078.
38
Seeȱfootnoteȱ29.
39
StiftsarchivȱHerzogenburgȱ(ArchivesȱofȱtheȱHerzogenburgȱPriory),ȱA.n.116.
40
Evelineȱ Brugger,ȱ “Hetschelȱ undȱ werȱ noch?ȱ Anmerkungenȱ zurȱ Geschichteȱ derȱ Judenȱ in
HerzogenburgȱimȱMittelalter,”ȱ900ȱJahreȱStiftȱHerzogenburg:ȱAufbrüche,ȱUmbrüche,ȱKontinuität,ȱed.
GüntherȱKatzlerȱandȱGabrieleȱStögerȬSpevakȱ(publisherȱtoȱbeȱdetermined,ȱforthcomingȱinȱ2012).
Still,ȱ Jewishȱ presenceȱ inȱ Herzogenburgȱ canȱ beȱ provedȱ untilȱ theȱ Geseraȱ of
1420/1421.ȱTheȱJewishȱreportȱofȱtheȱpersecutionsȱlistsȱHerzogenburgȱasȱoneȱofȱthe
destroyedȱ communities,ȱ butȱ unfortunatelyȱ doesȱ notȱ tellȱ usȱ howȱ manyȱ Jewish
inhabitantsȱtheȱtownȱusedȱtoȱhaveȱbeforeȱtheȱpersecutionȱhit.41
41
ArthurȱGoldmann,ȱDasȱJudenbuchȱderȱScheffstraßeȱzuȱWienȱ(1389–1420),ȱmitȱeinerȱSchriftprobe.
QuellenȱundȱForschungenȱzurȱGeschichteȱderȱJudenȱinȱDeutschȬÖsterreich.ȱ1ȱ(ViennaȱandȱLeipzig:
WilhelmȱBraumüller,ȱ1908),ȱ127;ȱSamuelȱKrauss,ȱDieȱWienerȱGeserahȱvomȱJahreȱ1421ȱ(Viennaȱand
Leipzig:ȱWilhelmȱBraumüller,ȱ1920),ȱ80.
Chapterȱ21
ScottȱL.ȱTaylor
(PimaȱCommunityȱCollege,ȱTucson)
Usosȱrerumȱrusticarum:ȱMalaeȱconsuetudines,ȱmaleȱusosȱlege
andȱPeasantȱRebellionȱasȱResistanceȱorȱ
AdaptationȱtoȱLegalȱChange
Aroundȱ1470,ȱtheȱBavarianȱnoblemanȱHansȱvonȱWestemachȱcomposedȱEinȱStraflied
containingȱtheȱquatrains:
Ichȱwaißȱainȱstät,ȱhulfȱbillichȱdarzþ.
aberȱlieberȱmachendsȱdenȱleutenȱunrþ:
dasȱsindȱdoctorȱundȱjuristen,ȱ
vorȱdenȱkannȱsichȱniemantȱfristen!
Siȱhandȱainȱbþchȱgenantȱdasȱdecretäl,
wasȱinȱgefelt,ȱdasȱseitȱesȱalleȱmal,
nachȱiremȱwillenȱtþndȱsisȱglosieren,
damitsȱunsȱlaienȱüberfuren.
Dieȱherrenȱundȱmenklichȱsindȱschuldigȱdaran,
wannȱesȱfeitȱvonȱinȱiederman:
seitȱmansȱinȱderȱfürstenȱretȱhabȱgenomen,
soȱseiȱvilȱunrätsȱinȱdieȱlandȱkomen.1
[Iȱknowȱofȱaȱprofessionȱthatȱfeignsȱaȱhand,
Yetȱcausesȱmuchȱuproarȱinȱtheȱland:
1
Stanzasȱ21–23,ȱitemȱ123AȱinȱDieȱhistorischenȱVolksliederȱderȱDeutschenȱvomȱ13.ȱBisȱ16.ȱJahrhundert,
Vol.ȱ1,ȱed.ȱRochusȱvonȱLiliencronȱ(Leipzig,ȱ1865,ȱreprintedȱHildesheim:ȱGeorgȱOlms,ȱ1966),ȱ558–61
hereȱ560.ȱForȱaȱdiscussionȱofȱHansȱvonȱWestemachȱasȱpoetȱandȱsocialȱcritic,ȱseeȱAlbrechtȱClassen,
“HansȱvonȱWestemach:ȱDerȱPfalzgrafȱhießȱdaȱziehenȱbaß.ȱPolitischeȱundȱmilitarischeȱDichtung
desȱdeutschenȱSpätmittelalters,”ȱAmsterdamerȱBeiträgeȱzurȱälterenȱGermanistikȱ26ȱ(1987):ȱ133–51.
686 ScottȱL.ȱTaylor
Iȱspeakȱofȱjuristsȱandȱdoctorsȱofȱlaw,
Aȱmoreȱharmfulȱlotȱyouȱneverȱsaw.
They’veȱgotȱaȱbookȱtheyȱcallȱ“Decretal”,
Itsȱmeaningȱtheyȱfeelȱfreeȱtoȱwheedle.ȱ
Glossesȱatȱrandomȱtheyȱinterject;
Withȱwhichȱusȱlaityȱtoȱsubject.
Atȱfaultȱinȱthisȱareȱlordsȱandȱothers,
Fromȱwhomȱeverybodyȱsuffers.
Sinceȱprincesȱinȱcouncilȱruledȱitȱmayȱsuffice,
Intoȱtheȱlandȱhasȱcomeȱmuchȱbadȱadvice.2]
ResentmentȱofȱlegalȱinnovationȱechoedȱacrossȱEuropeȱthroughoutȱtheȱhighȱandȱlate
MiddleȱAgesȱandȱintoȱtheȱFrühneuzeit,ȱacrossȱtheȱsocialȱspectrum.ȱOurȱinterest
here,ȱ however,ȱ isȱ toȱ examineȱ theȱ consequencesȱ ofȱ suchȱ innovationȱ inȱ rural
communitiesȱforȱwhomȱoftenȱconsuetudoȱestȱoptimusȱinterpresȱlegum,ȱi.e.,ȱcustomȱis
theȱbestȱinterpreterȱofȱtheȱlaw,ȱandȱmoreȱparticularlyȱtoȱconsiderȱtheȱroleȱofȱlawȱin
peasantȱuprisings.ȱOurȱargumentȱisȱthatȱratherȱthanȱbeingȱinherentlyȱconservative
orȱradical,ȱpeasantsȱwereȱquiteȱawareȱofȱwhichȱlegalȱinnovationsȱwereȱofȱbenefit
toȱtheirȱconcernsȱandȱwhichȱdisadvantagedȱtheirȱpositionȱinȱtheȱruralȱeconomy;
andȱoutȱofȱperceivedȱselfȬinterestȱresistedȱtheȱformerȱandȱadaptedȱtoȱtheȱlatter.
Grantedȱthatȱsuchȱrationalȱbehaviorȱcouldȱbearȱwidelyȱdisparateȱimpactsȱoverȱthe
veryȱlongueȬdurée,ȱtheȱhistoricalȱcontingenciesȱdefiningȱsuchȱoutcomesȱwereȱlikely
beyondȱtheȱpurviewȱofȱevenȱtheȱmostȱsophisticatedȱcontemporaries.
InȱhisȱrecentȱLustȱforȱLiberty,ȱSamuelȱCohnȱhasȱmadeȱaȱgreatȱeffortȱtoȱdistinguish
betweenȱeconomicȱandȱpoliticalȱrevolts,ȱtheȱformerȱsupposedlyȱdifferentiatedȱby
theirȱ foundationȱ inȱ economicȱ oppressionȱ andȱ exploitation,ȱ andȱ theirȱ animus
towardȱlandlordsȱinȱparticular;ȱtheȱlatterȱbeingȱdirectedȱagainstȱaristocraticȱclasses
andȱ magistratesȱ andȱ frequentlyȱ takingȱ placeȱ inȱ areasȱ ofȱ disproportionate
prosperity.3ȱCohn’sȱtypologyȱdovetailsȱwithȱMusson’sȱargumentȱthatȱuprisings
suchȱasȱtheȱGreatȱPeasantȱRevoltȱofȱ1381ȱthatȱterrorizedȱEnglandȱwereȱaȱproduct
ofȱ increasingȱ politicalȱ consciousnessȱ attendantȱ onȱ theȱ growthȱ ofȱ legal
consciousness.4ȱInȱsomeȱrespects,ȱtheseȱtypologiesȱareȱsimplyȱvariationsȱonȱFranz’s
2
TheȱtranslationȱisȱbasedȱinȱpartȱonȱtheȱfreerȱversionȱofȱGeraldȱStrauss,ȱed.ȱandȱtrans.,ȱManifestations
ofȱDiscontentȱinȱGermanyȱonȱtheȱEveȱofȱtheȱReformationȱ(Bloomington:ȱUniversityȱofȱIndianaȱPress,
1971),ȱ201–02.
3
SamuelȱK.ȱCohn,ȱJr.,ȱLustȱforȱLiberty:ȱTheȱPoliticsȱofȱSocialȱRevoltȱinȱMedievalȱEuropeȱ1200–1425:ȱItaly,
France,ȱFlandersȱ(Cambridge,ȱMA,ȱandȱLondon:ȱHarvardȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1984).
4
AnthonyȱMusson,ȱMedievalȱLawȱinȱContext:ȱTheȱGrowthȱofȱLegalȱConsciousnessȱfromȱMagnaȱCartaȱto
theȱ Peasants’ȱ Revolt.ȱ Manchesterȱ Medievalȱ Seriesȱ (Manchesterȱ andȱ Newȱ York:ȱ Manchester
UniversityȱPress,ȱ2001),ȱparticularlyȱChapterȱ6,ȱ217–55.
PeasantȱRebellionȱasȱResistanceȱ 687
dichotomyȱofȱOldȱversusȱGodlyȱlawȱrebellions,5ȱorȱinȱmoreȱsecularȱjargon,ȱBurke’s
traditionalistȱversusȱradicalȱrebellions.6
Asȱ withȱ allȱ historicistȱ approaches,ȱ anȱ unavoidableȱ airȱ ofȱ anachronism
accompaniesȱsuchȱtheories.ȱMedievalȱsociety,ȱruralȱandȱotherwise,ȱwasȱviewedȱby
medievalȱpeopleȱinȱorganicȱterms,ȱwithȱnoȱlineȱofȱdemarcationȱbetweenȱpolitical
andȱeconomic,ȱandȱgovernedȱbyȱcustomȱwhichȱitselfȱwasȱlaw.ȱIndeed,ȱitȱisȱfairȱto
sayȱthatȱlifeȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱwasȱcharacterizedȱbyȱtheȱubiquityȱofȱlaw,ȱwhich
definedȱone’sȱeveryȱdutyȱandȱeveryȱprerogative,ȱandȱofȱwhichȱoneȱcouldȱillȱbe
unawares.ȱFromȱtheȱpeasantȱrevoltȱinȱNormandyȱinȱ986ȱforward,ȱencroachments
onȱ theȱ traditionalȱ prerogativesȱ ofȱ theȱ peasantryȱ accordedȱ byȱ theȱ usosȱ rerum
rusticarumȱ wereȱ denouncedȱ asȱ malaeȱ consuetudinesȱ orȱ theȱ attemptȱ toȱ establish
mauveseȱcoustume.
Certainly,ȱinȱitsȱsimplestȱapplicationȱthisȱprincipleȱisȱevidentȱinȱFrance’sȱJacquerie
ofȱ1378.ȱOrderedȱbyȱtheȱregentȱofȱFranceȱtoȱstockȱtheirȱgarrisons,ȱaȱnumberȱofȱthe
knightsȱscarceȱonȱsuppliesȱwereȱevidentlyȱadvisedȱtoȱconfiscateȱtheȱprovisionsȱof
theirȱ ownȱ underlings.ȱ Accordingȱ toȱ theȱ Chroniqueȱ normandeȱ andȱ theȱ Istoreȱ et
Croniquesȱdeȱflandres,ȱtheȱpeasants,ȱamazedȱthatȱtheȱknightsȱwhoȱwereȱobligedȱto
protectȱthemȱinsteadȱseizedȱtheirȱgoods,ȱrushedȱuponȱtheȱknightsȱandȱnoblesȱand
lords,ȱandȱassembledȱthemselvesȱandȱkilledȱmany.7ȱAccordingȱtoȱCohn:
5
GüntherȱFranz,ȱDerȱdeutscheȱBauernkrieg,ȱ12thȱed.ȱ(1933;ȱDarmstadt:ȱWissenschafticheȱȱBuchgesellȬ
schaft,ȱ1984),ȱ1–91.
6
PeterȱBurke,ȱPopularȱCultureȱinȱEarlyȱModernȱEuropeȱ(NewȱYork:ȱHarperCollins,ȱ1978),ȱ173–78.
7
“Parȱceȱconseilȱprindrentȱaucunsȱdesȱbiensȱdeȱleursȱhomesȱoultrageusement,ȱtantȱqueȱlesȱpaisans
distrentȱqueȱlesȱchevaliers,ȱquiȱlesȱdevoientȱgarder,ȱavoientȱprinsȱconseilȱdeȱleurȱosterȱtouzȱleurs
biens.ȱPourȱceȱfaitȱs’esmeurentȱlesȱpaisansȱmoultȱmerveilleusementȱetȱcoururentȱsurȱlesȱchevaliers
etȱsurȱtouzȱlesȱnoblesȱetȱmesmesȱsurȱleursȱseigneursȱetȱs’assemblèrentȱetȱmoultȱcruelmentȱoccirent
pluseursȱnoblesȱfemmesȱetȱenffans,ȱetȱabatirentȱleursȱforteressesȱetȱleursȱmaisons”ȱ[Inȱaccordance
withȱthisȱadvice,ȱseveralȱoutrageouslyȱtookȱtheȱgoodsȱofȱtheirȱownȱmen,ȱsoȱthatȱtheȱpeasantsȱwere
distressedȱ thatȱ theȱ knightsȱ whoȱ wereȱ obligedȱ toȱ protectȱ themȱ hadȱ takenȱ counselȱ among
themselvesȱtoȱseizeȱallȱtheirȱgoods.ȱOnȱthisȱAccout,ȱtheȱpeasantsȱroseȱupȱprodigiouslyȱandȱrushed
uponȱtheȱknightsȱandȱuponȱallȱtheȱnoblesȱandȱevenȱuponȱtheirȱlordsȱandȱassembledȱthemselves
andȱmostȱcrueelyȱkilledȱseveralȱnobleȱwomenȱandȱchildren,ȱandȱbesiegedȱtheirȱfortressesȱandȱtheir
homes].ȱLaȱChroniqueȱNormandeȱduȱXIVeȱsiècleȱ(Paris:ȱA.ȱ&ȱE.ȱMolinier,ȱ1882),ȱ127–32.ȱTheȱnonȬ
NormanȱorȱIstoreȱetȱCroniquesȱdeȱFlandres.ȱCollectionȱdeȱchroniquesȱbelgesȱinédites,ȱpub.ȱParȱordre
duȱ gouvernement:ȱ Académieȱ royaleȱ desȱ sciences,ȱ desȱ lettresȱ etȱ desȱ beauxȱ artsȱ deȱ Belgique.
(Brussels:ȱCommissionȱroyaleȱd’histoire,ȱ1880),ȱ85–88,ȱmakesȱtheȱsameȱobservation:ȱ“Parȱceȱconseil
prirentȱaucunȱchevalierȱdesȱbiensȱdeȱleursȱhomesȱoutrageusementȱetȱtantȱqueȱpluiseurȱpaisant
disoyentȱqueȱliȱchevalierȱquiȱlesȱdevoyentȱwarder,ȱavoyentȱprisȱconseilȱensambleȱdeȱleurȱosterȱtous
leurȱbiens.ȱPourȱcheȱfaitȱs’esmeurentȱliȱpaysantȱdeȱBiauvesisȱmoultȱmervilleusement,ȱetȱcoururent
surȱ lesȱ chevaliersȱ etȱ meismesȱ surȱ leursȱ seigneurs,ȱ etȱ s’asamblèrentȱ grantȱ plentet,ȱ etȱ moult
cruellementȱochirentȱpluiseursȱnoblesȱfemmesȱetȱenffans,ȱetȱabatirentȱleursȱforterèchesȱetȱleurs
maisons.”ȱBothȱtextsȱareȱproducedȱinȱMarieȬThérèseȱdeȱMedeiros,ȱJacquesȱetȱChroniqueurs:ȱUne
étudeȱcomparéeȱdeȱrécitsȱcontemporainsȱrelatantȱlaȱJacquerieȱdeȱ1358.ȱNouvelleȱBibliothequeȱduȱMoyen
Age,ȱ7ȱ(Paris:ȱÉditionsȱHonoréȱChampion,ȱ1979),ȱ195–98.
WhileȱthisȱchroniclerȱaloneȱhintsȱatȱanȱunderlyingȱeconomicȱcauseȱforȱtheȱJacquerie,
evenȱheȱmentionsȱnoȱnewȱorȱincreasedȱfeudalȱduesȱorȱotherȱexactionsȱasȱsuch.8
Hence,ȱCohnȱconsidersȱthisȱrevoltȱtoȱbeȱtheȱproductȱofȱaȱpoliticalȱfailing,ȱrather
thanȱeconomic.ȱYet,ȱtheȱChroniqueȱnormande,ȱwhichȱalongȱwithȱtheȱcorresponding
nonȬNormanȱ Istoireȱ etȱ Croniquesȱ deȱ flandres,ȱ isȱ theȱ onlyȱ accountȱ providingȱ any
explanationȱforȱtheȱoutbreakȱofȱtheȱJacquerie,ȱclearlyȱunderstandsȱthatȱtheȱnobles
wereȱobligatedȱtoȱprotectȱtheȱpeasants,ȱinȱexchangeȱforȱwhichȱtheȱpeasantsȱowed
theirȱduesȱandȱexactions.ȱItȱisȱnotȱtheȱvalueȱofȱtheȱburdenȱperȱseȱsoȱmuchȱasȱthe
balanceȱbetweenȱtheȱburdensȱandȱtheȱbenefitsȱthatȱcounts.ȱForȱthisȱreason,ȱitȱis
muchȱeasierȱtoȱunderstandȱpeasantȱrevoltsȱinȱtermsȱofȱwhatȱBarringtonȱMoore,ȱJr.
referredȱtoȱasȱ“objectiveȱexploitation,”ȱaȱdiminutionȱinȱtheȱproportionȱofȱservices
providedȱ byȱ theȱ overlordȱ necessaryȱ toȱ theȱ agriculturalȱ cycleȱ andȱ theȱ social
cohesionȱofȱtheȱvillageȱweighedȱagainstȱtheȱprivilegesȱandȱmaterialȱrewardsȱthe
lordȱreceivesȱorȱdemandsȱinȱexchange.9ȱSoȱanalyzed,ȱrevoltsȱareȱcomprehensible
asȱ strategiesȱ appealingȱ toȱ theȱ logicȱ ofȱ theȱ situation,ȱ thoughȱ inȱ theȱ longȱ run
historicalȱ contingenciesȱ canȱ produceȱ ironicȱ consequences,ȱ asȱ shownȱ byȱ a
comparisonȱofȱtheȱ1381ȱEnglishȱPeasantȱRevoltȱandȱtheȱ1525ȱGermanȱBauernkrieg
(Peasants’ȱWar),ȱtwoȱruralȱrisingsȱtraditionallyȱcomparedȱwithȱeachȱotherȱonȱthe
basisȱ ofȱ theirȱ purportedȱ commonȱ ideologiesȱ foundedȱ onȱ religiousȱ reform,
anticlericalism,ȱandȱdivinelyȬsanctionedȱequality.10
PerhapsȱnowhereȱisȱMoore’sȱsocioȬeconomicȱcalculusȱmoreȱobviousȱthanȱinȱthe
caseȱofȱtheȱEnglishȱPeasants’ȱRevoltȱofȱ1381.ȱToȱunderstandȱtheȱcrisisȱofȱ1381,ȱitȱis
necessaryȱtoȱconsiderȱtheȱimpactȱofȱthirteenthȬcenturyȱlegislationȱonȱtheȱpattern
ofȱ landholdingȱ andȱ servicesȱ inȱ England.ȱ Inȱ particular,ȱ theȱ 1290ȱ statuteȱ Quia
emptores11ȱandȱproceedingsȱQuoȱwarranto12ȱexpandedȱatȱleastȱfromȱtheȱStatuteȱof
Gloucesterȱ twelveȱ yearsȱ earlier,ȱ facilitatedȱ theȱ alienation,ȱ andȱ asȱ important,
partabilityȱ ofȱ freeholds,ȱ andȱ terminatedȱ theȱ creationȱ ofȱ newȱ manorsȱ with
8
Cohn,ȱLustȱforȱLibertyȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ35.
9
BarringtonȱMoore,ȱJr.,ȱSocialȱOriginsȱofȱDictatorshipȱandȱDemocracy:ȱLordȱandȱPeasantȱinȱtheȱMaking
ofȱtheȱModernȱWorldȱ(Boston,ȱMA:ȱBeacon,ȱ1966),ȱChapterȱ9,ȱ451–83,ȱparticularlyȱhisȱnoteȱ32.ȱ
10
AsȱPaulȱFreedmanȱnotes,ȱthisȱviewȱwasȱcommonȱinȱolderȱscholarshipȱonȱtheȱGermanȱBauernkrieg.
“TheȱGermanȱandȱCatalanȱPeasantȱRevolts,”ȱAmericanȱHistoricalȱReviewȱ98ȱ(1993):ȱ39–54;ȱhereȱ40.
Theseȱincludeȱsuchȱ“classics”ȱasȱM(oise)ȱM(endelevich),ȱDeutschlandȱvorȱderȱReformation:ȱAbriss
derȱ Geschichteȱ politischenȱ Kampfesȱ inȱ Deutschlandȱ vorȱ derȱ Reformationȱ Deutsche,ȱ trans.ȱ Johannes
Nichtweissȱ(1952;ȱBerlin:ȱRüttenȱ&ȱLoening,ȱ1955),ȱandȱHorstȱGerlach,ȱDerȱenglischeȱBauernaufstand
vonȱ1381ȱundȱderȱdeutscheȱBauernkrieg:ȱEinȱVergleichȱ(MeisenheimȱamȱGlan:ȱA.ȱHain,ȱ1969).ȱForȱa
briefȱlistȱofȱsignificantȱpreȬ1980ȱworks,ȱseeȱTomȱScott,ȱ“TheȱPeasants’ȱWar:ȱAȱHistoriographical
Review:ȱPartȱI,”ȱTheȱHistoricalȱJournalȱ22ȱ(1979):ȱ693–720.ȱ
11
1290ȱc.ȱ1ȱ(Regnal.ȱ18ȱEdwȱ1).ȱ
12
Seeȱgenerally,ȱDonaldȱW.ȱSutherland,ȱQuoȱWarrantoȱProceedingsȱinȱtheȱReignȱofȱEdwardȱI:ȱ1278–1294
(Oxford:ȱClarendonȱPress,ȱ1963).
appurtenantȱrightsȱofȱcourtȬbaron.ȱInȱmanyȱrespects,ȱasȱStubbsȱhadȱsuggestedȱlong
ago,ȱthisȱdevelopmentȱbenefittedȱtenantsȱgenerally,ȱsokemen,ȱorȱthoseȱholding
landsȱ inȱ socage,ȱ aȱ tenancyȱ byȱ inferiorȱ butȱ certainȱ servicesȱ ofȱ husbandry,ȱ and
copyholders,ȱ essentiallyȱ tenantsȱ atȱ will,ȱ alike,ȱ sinceȱ itȱ endedȱ theȱ constant
multiplicationȱ ofȱ mesne,ȱ orȱ intermediate,ȱ lordsȱ standingȱ betweenȱ tenantȱ and
landlord,ȱeachȱjockeyingȱtoȱclaimȱvariousȱrentsȱandȱprerogatives.13ȱ
Byȱenhancementȱofȱtheȱsecurityȱofȱleaseholdȱtenure,ȱitȱcontributedȱasȱwellȱtoȱthe
tendencyȱawayȱfromȱdirectȱfarmingȱtowardȱleasingȱevidentȱinȱEnglishȱagriculture
afterȱ 1300,14ȱ therebyȱ acceleratingȱ simultaneouslyȱ theȱ tendencyȱ toward
manumission,ȱfreeholdersȱhavingȱnoȱentitlementȱtoȱmaintenanceȱandȱbeingȱmore
susceptibleȱtoȱrentȱincreases.ȱThoseȱlordsȱwhoȱcontinuedȱinȱdirectȱmanagement
wereȱoftenȱcompelledȱtowardȱaȱsortȱofȱ“welfareȱfeudalism”ȱtoȱassureȱtheȱsmooth
functioningȱofȱtheirȱestates,ȱaffordingȱmoreȱinfluentialȱpeasantsȱunprecedented
degreesȱofȱfreedom,15ȱasȱwellȱasȱunprecedentedȱaccessȱtoȱcourtsȱoutsideȱtheȱmanor,
givenȱ theȱ commercialȱ realitiesȱ ofȱ theȱ patchworkȱ Englishȱ manorialȱ system.16
Besides,ȱ thoseȱ actuallyȱ inȱ villenage—aȱ problematicȱ classificationȱ sinceȱ itȱ isȱ not
alwaysȱ easyȱ toȱ determineȱ whenȱ villenageȱ wasȱ personal,ȱ andȱ whenȱ itȱ was
tenurial—frequentlyȱhadȱclaimsȱtoȱfreedomȱasȱaȱconsequenceȱofȱjuryȱserviceȱorȱthe
holdingȱofȱfreeȱtenements,ȱandȱEnglishȱlawȱgenerallyȱfavoredȱliberty.ȱTheȱresult
wasȱtoȱdiminishȱseriouslyȱtheȱdeȱfacto,ȱifȱnotȱdeȱjure,ȱdistinctionsȱbetweenȱtenancies,
evenȱpettyȱserjeanties,ȱtechnicallyȱaȱtenureȱbyȱknightȱserviceȱdueȱtoȱtheȱmonarch,
butȱ petitȱ insofarȱ asȱ theȱ serviceȱ ratherȱ thanȱ personalȱ consistedȱ ofȱ renditionȱ ofȱ a
tokenȱimplementȱofȱwar,ȱbecomingȱsocagesȱinȱeffect.ȱSomeȱlords,ȱrealizingȱthat
historicȱrightsȱwereȱslippingȱaway,ȱtookȱmeasuresȱtoȱrecallȱandȱsafeguardȱtheir
historicȱrights.ȱSuchȱwasȱtheȱcaseȱinȱDarnallȱandȱOver,ȱmanorsȱbelongingȱtoȱthe
CisterciansȱofȱValeȱRoyalȱinȱChesire,ȱwhereȱtheȱabbotȱinȱassertingȱhisȱprerogatives
overȱtheȱvilleins,ȱorȱserfs,ȱfoundȱhimselfȱconfrontedȱwithȱlitigationȱbyȱpeasants
claimingȱtoȱbeȱfree.17ȱMostȱlordsȱwereȱnotȱsoȱvigilant.
13
WilliamȱStubbs,ȱTheȱConstitutionalȱHistoryȱofȱEnglandȱinȱitsȱOriginȱandȱDevelopment.ȱ3rdȱed.ȱ3ȱvols.
(1874–1878;ȱOxford:ȱClarendonȱPress,ȱ1880),ȱ2:454.
14
See,ȱe.g.,ȱAlexanderȱVolokh,ȱ“PropertyȱRightsȱandȱContractȱFormȱinȱMedievalȱEurope,”ȱAmerican
LawȱandȱEconomicsȱReviewȱ11ȱ(2009):ȱ399–450.
15
SeeȱJ(ames)ȱA(mbrose)ȱRaftis,ȱPeasantȱEconomicȱDevelopmentȱwithinȱtheȱEnglishȱManorialȱSystem
(Montreal:ȱMcGillȬQueen’sȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1996).
16
Onȱthisȱquestionȱofȱlitigationȱbyȱserfsȱinȱcourtsȱotherȱthanȱthoseȱofȱtheirȱlords,ȱgenerallyȱseeȱChris
Briggs,ȱ“SeignorialȱControlȱofȱVillagers’ȱLitigationȱbeyondȱtheȱManorȱinȱLaterȱMedievalȱEngland,”
HistoricalȱResearchȱ81ȱ(2008):ȱ399–422.
17
SeeȱTheȱLedgerȱBookȱofȱValeȱRoyalȱAbbeyȱ(LancasterȱandȱChesireȱRecordȱSociety,ȱ1914),ȱ117;ȱG.ȱG.
Coulton,ȱ Medievalȱ Village,ȱ Manor,ȱ andȱ Monasteryȱ (originallyȱ Theȱ Medievalȱ Villageȱ [Cambridge:
CambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1925)ȱ(NewȱYork,ȱEvanston,ȱandȱLondon:ȱHarperȱ&ȱRow,ȱ1960),ȱ131
andȱappendixȱ22.
Withȱ theȱ demographicȱ collapseȱ followingȱ theȱ firstȱ waveȱ ofȱ plagueȱ inȱ 1349,
however,ȱlordsȱdesperateȱtoȱretainȱwhateverȱlaborȱservicesȱtheyȱcouldȱclaimȱbegan
toȱdrudgeȱupȱlongȱsinceȱcommutedȱandȱoftenȱpettyȱobligationsȱagainstȱwhichȱthe
peasantryȱchafed,ȱasȱwellȱasȱresurrectingȱwhateverȱprofitableȱrightsȱtoȱcourtȬbaron,
thatȱ incidentȱ ofȱ manorialȱ jurisdictionȱ appertainingȱ toȱ copyholdersȱ asȱ wellȱ as
freeholdersȱowingȱsuitȱandȱserviceȱtoȱtheȱmanor,ȱtheyȱmayȱhaveȱpossessed,ȱwhich
customaryȱ rightsȱ hadȱ theȱ addedȱ advantageȱ ofȱ withstandingȱ theȱ moreȱ liberal
commonȱlaw.ȱIndeed,ȱoldȱcourtȱrollsȱwereȱsearchedȱforȱtheȱpedigreesȱofȱerstwhile
sokemenȱinȱtheȱprospectȱofȱdiscoveringȱnotȱonlyȱthatȱtheyȱwereȱbond,ȱbutȱthatȱas
aȱconsequenceȱanyȱofȱtheirȱfreeholdingsȱcouldȱbeȱforfeittedȱtoȱtheirȱlord.18ȱSuch
proceedingsȱwereȱemployedȱasȱwellȱtoȱintimidateȱpeasantsȱasȱbyȱtheȱAbbeyȱof
Meaux,ȱwhenȱtheȱvilleinsȱrebelledȱatȱWaghenȱinȱtheȱlateȱ1360s,19muchȱasȱpeasants
inȱKent,ȱinȱwhichȱshireȱthereȱappearsȱtoȱhaveȱbeenȱnoȱpersonalȱvillenage,ȱhad
withheldȱservicesȱatȱOxfordȱandȱWingham,ȱbothȱmanorsȱofȱtheȱarchbishopsȱof
Canterbury,ȱinȱtheȱ1350sȱandȱwouldȱdoȱagainȱinȱtheȱ1380s.20ȱ
Still,ȱresistanceȱwasȱrecurrent,ȱasȱinȱChevington,ȱwhereȱseventeenȱofȱtheȱtenants
ofȱBuryȬSt.ȱEdmundsȱrefusedȱreapingȱservicesȱinȱ1375,21ȱandȱwasȱperhapsȱbest
expressedȱbyȱJohnȱRobynesȱofȱShiptonȬonȬStout,ȱwhoȱledȱaȱ1378ȱrefusalȱofȱthe
tenantsȱtoȱhoeȱtheȱprior’sȱdemesneȱorȱtoȱstandȱinȱhisȱcourtȱonȱgroundsȱthatȱ“non
essetȱnisiȱstultitia.”22ȱSomeȱofȱtheȱtenantsȱmostȱresentfulȱofȱtheseȱobligationsȱseem
toȱhaveȱbeenȱfreeholdersȱofȱoneȱtenement,ȱbutȱhadȱacquiredȱanotherȱtechnicallyȱin
villeinȱ socageȱ requiringȱ theȱ performanceȱ ofȱ variousȱ laborȱ services,ȱ andȱ hence
subjectȱ toȱ Bracton’sȱ famousȱ prescription:ȱ etȱ semperȱ tenebiturȱ adȱ incerta.23ȱ Byȱ the
18
C(hristopher)ȱDyer,ȱ“TheȱSocialȱandȱEconomicȱBackgroundȱtoȱtheȱRuralȱRevoltȱofȱ1381,”ȱThe
Englishȱ Risingȱ ofȱ 1381,ȱ ed.ȱ R(odney)ȱ H(oward)ȱ Hiltonȱ andȱ T(revor)ȱ H(oward)ȱ Astonȱ (Oxford:
OxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1984),ȱ9–42;ȱhereȱ24.
19
Inȱparticular,ȱconsiderȱtheȱhistoryȱofȱtheȱlitigationȱofȱ1367ȱasȱsetȱforthȱbyȱAbbottȱBurton,ȱChronica
MonasteriiȱdeȱMelsaȱabȱannoȱ1150ȱusqueȱadȱannumȱ1406ȱEdwardȱAugustusȱBond,ȱed.,ȱ3ȱvols.ȱRerum
Britannicarumȱ Mediiȱ Aeviȱ Scriptoresȱ (ȱ Rollsȱ Series),ȱ 43ȱ (London:ȱ Longman,ȱ Brown,ȱ Green,
LongmansȱandȱRoberts,ȱ1866–1868),ȱIII:ȱ127–42.
20
N[igel]ȱE.ȱSaul,ȱScenesȱfromȱProvincialȱLife:ȱKnightlyȱFamiliesȱinȱSussexȱ1280–1400ȱ(Oxford:ȱOxford
UniversityȱPress,ȱ1986),ȱ121,ȱnoteȱ95;ȱR(odney)ȱH(oward)ȱHilton,ȱTheȱDeclineȱofȱSerfdomȱinȱMedieval
Englandȱ(London,ȱ1969),ȱ40;ȱNigel[ȱE.]ȱSaul,ȱRichardȱIII.ȱYaleȱEnglishȱMonarchsȱSeriesȱ(NewȱHaven:
YaleȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1997),ȱ61.
21
ChristopherȱDyer,ȱ“TheȱRisingȱofȱ1381ȱinȱSuffolk:ȱItsȱOrganizedȱParticipants,”ȱProceedingsȱofȱthe
SuffolkȱInstituteȱofȱArchaeologyȱ36ȱ(1988):ȱ278–81.
22
R(odney)ȱH(oward)ȱHilton,ȱTheȱEnglishȱPeasantryȱinȱtheȱLateȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(Oxford:ȱClarendonȱPress,
1975),ȱ61;ȱChristopherȱDyer,ȱ“SmallȬTownȱConflictȱinȱtheȱLaterȱMiddleȱAges:ȱEventsȱatȱshiptonȬonȬ
Stout,”ȱUrbanȱHistoryȱ19ȱ(1992):ȱ183–210;ȱhereȱ198;ȱColinȱPlatt,ȱKingȱDeath:ȱTheȱBlackȱDeathȱandȱits
aftermathȱinȱLate=MedievalȱEnglandȱ(TorontoȱandȱBuffalo:ȱUniversityȱofȱTorontoȱPress,ȱ1997),ȱ125.
23
“Purumȱautemȱvillenagiumȱest,ȱquodȱsicȱtenetur,ȱquodȱilleȱquiȱtenetȱinȱviellenagioȱsiveȱliberȱsive
servus,ȱfacietȱdeȱvillenagioȱquicquidȱeiȱpraeceptumȱfuerit,ȱnecȱscireȱdebeatȱseroȱquidȱfacereȱdebeat
inȱcrastino,ȱetȱsemperȱtenebiturȱadȱincerta”ȱ[However,ȱpureȱvillenageȱisȱthatȱsoȱheldȱthatȱheȱwho
1360s,ȱinȱadditionȱtoȱtheȱextensionȱofȱtheȱjurisdictionȱofȱtheȱjusticesȱofȱtheȱpeaceȱto
casesȱunderȱtheȱStatutesȱofȱLabourers,ȱitȱwasȱnotȱunusualȱforȱtheȱcourtsȱtoȱreinforce
obligationsȱ ofȱ allȱ typesȱ byȱ theȱ developmentȱ ofȱ writsȱ inȱ assumpsit,ȱ allowing
damagesȱforȱeitherȱnonfeasanceȱorȱmisfeasance.24ȱFurthermore,ȱcommencingȱin
thatȱ sameȱ decade,ȱ andȱ contraryȱ toȱ precedent,ȱ theȱ courtsȱ beganȱ countenancing
actionsȱ ofȱ debtȱ forȱ theȱ recoveryȱ ofȱ personalȱ judgments,ȱ aȱ practiceȱ Blackstone
describedȱ asȱ “beingȱ generallyȱ vexatiousȱ andȱ oppressive,ȱ byȱ harassingȱ the
defendantȱwithȱtheȱcostsȱofȱtwoȱactionsȱinsteadȱofȱone.”25
Peasants,ȱtoo,ȱlearnedȱtoȱuseȱtheȱsystemȱtoȱtheirȱadvantage,ȱbothȱasȱindividual
litigantsȱandȱasȱconsortia.ȱParliamentaryȱrecordsȱfromȱ1377ȱindicateȱpeasantsȱwere
collectingȱleviesȱfromȱtheirȱfellowsȱtoȱcoverȱtheȱexpensesȱofȱresistingȱtheirȱlords’
demands,ȱconductȱanticipatedȱasȱearlyȱasȱ1327ȱwhenȱtheȱvilleinsȱofȱGreatȱandȱLittle
Ogbourneȱ inȱ Wiltshireȱ pooledȱ theirȱ moniesȱ toȱ financeȱ theirȱ litigation.26ȱ Asȱ a
consequence,ȱ Englandȱ whichȱ hadȱ alreadyȱ becomeȱ arguablyȱ theȱ mostȱ litigious
countryȱoutsideȱtheȱnorthernȱItalianȱcityȬstates,ȱbecameȱevenȱmoreȱlitigiousȱtoȱthe
gleeȱofȱtheȱbarratrousȱlawyersȱwhoȱwithȱtheirȱinnovativeȱpleadingsȱandȱtheories
prosperedȱasȱneverȱbeforeȱinȱaȱsystemȱeverȱmoreȱrifeȱwithȱchamperty,ȱbriberyȱand
juryȱ intimidation.27ȱ Evenȱ Johnȱ Gower,ȱ whoȱ despisedȱ theȱ rebelliousȱ peasants,
paintingȱ theirȱ portraitȱ asȱ crazedȱ beastsȱ runȱ amuckȱ inȱ theȱ firstȱ bookȱ ofȱ hisȱ Vox
clamantis,ȱinȱtheȱsixthȱbookȱseemsȱtoȱrecognizeȱtheȱlawyers’ȱroleȱinȱbreakingȱdown
theȱsocialȱfabric,ȱwriting:
Nonȱresȱsetȱsompnoȱvisaȱfiguraȱrei;
Sicȱtibiȱcausidicusȱfingensȱquamȱsepeȱpericla,
Estȱubiȱplusȱrectum,ȱdiuaricabitȱiter:
Menteȱtibiȱloquiturȱdubia,ȱnamȱnemoȱdolose
holdsȱtheȱvillenage,ȱwhetherȱheȱbeȱfreeȱorȱserve,ȱonȱaccountȱofȱtheȱvillenageȱmustȱdoȱwhateverȱhe
isȱcommandedȱtoȱdo,ȱnorȱshouldȱheȱknowȱwhatȱheȱmustȱdoȱtheȱnextȱday,ȱandȱsoȱheȱwillȱalways
beȱheldȱtoȱindefiniteȱservices.]ȱHenryȱdeȱBracton,ȱDeȱLegibusȱetȱconsuetudinibusȱangliae,ȱed.ȱTravers
Twiss.ȱRerumȱBritannicarumȱmediiȱaeviȱscriptores,ȱorȱChroniclesȱandȱMemorialsȱofȱGreatȱBritain
andȱIrelandȱDuringȱtheȱMiddleȱAges:ȱRollsȱSeriesȱ(1878–1883;ȱNendeln/Liechtenstein]:ȱKraus,
1964),ȱBookȱIV,ȱCh.ȱ28,ȱ5.
24
Onȱthisȱandȱtheȱexpansionȱofȱactionsȱinȱdebt,ȱseeȱRobertȱPalmer,ȱEnglishȱLawȱinȱtheȱAgeȱofȱtheȱBlack
Deathȱ1348–81:ȱAȱtransformationȱofȱGovernanceȱandȱLawȱ(ChapelȱHillȱandȱLondon:ȱUniversityȱof
NorthȱCarolinaȱPress,ȱ1993),ȱ89–90.
25
WilliamȱBlackstone,ȱCommentariesȱonȱtheȱLawsȱofȱEngland,ȱ4ȱvols.ȱ(Oxford:ȱAtȱtheȱClarendonȱPress,
1765–1769),ȱ3:159.
26
Alanȱ Harding,ȱ “Theȱ Revoltȱ Againstȱ theȱ Justices,”ȱ Theȱ Englishȱ Rising,ȱ ed.ȱ R(odney_ȱ H(oward)
HiltonȱandȱT(revor)ȱH(oward)ȱAstonȱ(Cambridge:ȱCambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1987),ȱ165–93;
hereȱ191.
27
Barratryȱrefersȱtoȱtheȱstirringȱupȱofȱquarrelsȱandȱsuits,ȱparticularlyȱinȱlitigation,ȱ andȱ inȱ many
jurisdictionsȱ wasȱ andȱ isȱ aȱ criminalȱ offense.ȱ Champertyȱ refersȱ toȱ acquisitionȱ ofȱ anȱ interestȱ in
litigation,ȱparticularlyȱtheȱmaintenanceȱorȱfundingȱofȱlitigationȱatȱone’sȱownȱriskȱwithȱtheȱintention
ofȱsharingȱinȱtheȱproceedsȱrecovered.
Mentisȱsecuresȱvocibusȱesseȱpotest;
.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ
Causidiciȱnubsȱsuntȱetheraȱquiȱtenebrescunt,
Lucemȱquoȱsolisȱnemoȱvidereȱpotest;
Obfuscantȱetenimȱlegisȱclarissimaȱiura,ȱ
Etȱsuaȱnoxȱtetraȱvendicatȱesseȱdiem.ȱ.ȱ.28
[Soȱoftenȱdreamsȱdisturbȱmenȱwithoutȱcause,
Notȱtheȱthingȱbutȱaȱphantomȱofȱtheȱthingȱperceivedȱinȱsleep;
Soȱhowȱoftenȱaȱlawyer,ȱpretendingȱdangerȱtoȱyou,
Willȱdivertȱyourȱcourse,ȱwhenȱitȱisȱstraightest:
Withȱdoubtfulȱmindȱheȱspeaksȱtoȱyou,ȱforȱnoȱone
Ofȱfraudulentȱintentȱcanȱspeakȱwithȱcertainȱvoice.
.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.
Lawyersȱareȱcloudsȱthatȱdarkenȱtheȱskies,
Thatȱnoȱoneȱcanȱseeȱtheȱlightȱofȱtheȱsun;
Theyȱobscureȱtheȱmanifestȱjusticeȱofȱtheȱlaw,
Theirȱloathsomeȱnightȱpassesȱitselfȱoffȱforȱday.ȱ.ȱ.]
Caughtȱinȱthisȱdarkȱnight,ȱlargelyȱbetweenȱlordsȱandȱlaborers,ȱwereȱtheȱmiddling
tenants.ȱTheyȱcouldȱscarceȱaffordȱrisingȱlaborȱcosts,ȱonlyȱaggravatedȱonȱoneȱhand
byȱ theȱ lords’ȱ effortsȱ toȱ maintainȱ orȱ reimposeȱ servileȱ obligationsȱ asȱ againstȱ the
economicallyȱ mitigatingȱ expansionȱ ofȱ freeȱ labor,ȱ andȱ onȱ theȱ otherȱ the
government’sȱoftenȱviciousȱbutȱlargelyȱineffectualȱeffortsȱtoȱcontrolȱlaborȱcosts.ȱThe
latterȱlegislativeȱundertaking,ȱlikeȱmostȱillȬadvisedȱpriceȱcontrolsȱservedȱonlyȱto
promoteȱ laborȱ shortagesȱ andȱ furtherȱ wageȱ inflationȱ Littleȱ wonderȱ tenantsȱ felt
hardȬpressedȱtoȱfulfillȱtheirȱobligationsȱtoȱtheirȱlandlords.ȱAsȱaȱresult,ȱfertileȱlands
wereȱleftȱlyingȱwasteȱforȱwantȱofȱtenantsȱtoȱpayȱtheȱentryȱfines.
Theȱirrationalityȱofȱtheȱagriculturalȱsystemȱisȱdemonstratedȱbyȱtheȱmarketȱprice
ofȱgrainȱwhichȱatȱleastȱuntilȱtheȱlateȱ1370sȱvariedȱlittleȱfromȱaȱhalfȬcenturyȱbefore.29
Thisȱ doesȱ notȱ meanȱ thatȱ theȱ ruralȱ upperȱ classesȱ wereȱ havingȱ noȱ economic
difficulties,ȱforȱtheȱproliferationȱofȱvacantȱlands,ȱconfirmedȱnotȱonlyȱanecdotally
butȱbyȱtheȱdocumentedȱfallȱinȱlandȱprices,ȱindicatesȱdecreasedȱproductionȱwhich
cannotȱbeȱaccountedȱforȱbyȱaȱdeclineȱofȱtheȱpopulationȱalone.ȱTheȱabandonment
ofȱmarginalȱlandsȱforȱmoreȱfertileȱfieldsȱshouldȱhaveȱseenȱaȱriseȱinȱagricultural
efficiencyȱwhichȱwouldȱhaveȱcausedȱgrainȱpricesȱtoȱfall.ȱInstead,ȱtheȱpatchworkȱof
tenanciesȱ whichȱ hadȱ causedȱ lordsȱ toȱ becomeȱ moreȱ dependentȱ onȱ rentsȱ than
28
Voxȱclamantis,ȱTheȱCompleteȱWorks,ȱed.ȱG(eorge)ȱC(ampbell)ȱMcCaulay,ȱ4ȱvols.ȱ(Oxford:ȱOxford
UniversityȱPress,ȱ1902),ȱLiberȱSextus,ȱll.ȱ213–18;ȱ225–28.
29
J(ames)ȱE(dwin)ȱThroldȱRogers,ȱAȱHistoryȱofȱAgricultureȱandȱPricesȱinȱEngland,ȱ7ȱvols.ȱ(Oxford,
1866–1902),ȱI:ȱ84;ȱII:ȱ329–34;ȱGeorgeȱA.ȱHolmes,ȱTheȱEstatesȱofȱtheȱHigherrȱNobilityȱinȱFourteenthȬ
CenturyȱEngland.ȱCambridgeȱStudiesȱinȱEconomicȱHistoryȱ(Cambridge:ȱCambridgeȱUniversity
Press,ȱ1957),ȱ114;ȱSaul,ȱRichardȱIIȱ(seeȱnoteȱ20),ȱ59–60.
scientificȱfarmingȱsimultaneouslyȱpreventedȱmarketȱforcesȱfromȱrationalizingȱthe
usosȱrerumȱrusticarum.
Anyȱ senseȱ ofȱ communityȱ remainingȱ inȱ thisȱ fragmentingȱ countrysideȱ was
ultimatelyȱshatteredȱbyȱtheȱintroductionȱofȱtheȱpollȱtax.ȱThroughoutȱtheȱthirteenth
centuryȱandȱintoȱtheȱfourteenth,ȱtheȱfinancialȱdemandsȱofȱtheȱEnglishȱmonarchy
forȱmoreȱuniversalȱandȱdirectȱtaxation,ȱgeneralȱleviesȱinȱwhichȱnoblesȱunlikeȱtheir
continentalȱ counterpartsȱ wereȱ notȱ exempt,ȱ servedȱ toȱ uniteȱ theȱ interestsȱ of
magnatesȱ andȱ theȱ populationȱ atȱ large,ȱ justȱ asȱ theȱ returnȱ ofȱ membersȱ ofȱ the
assemblyȱbyȱshireȱratherȱthanȱbyȱtownȱasȱonȱtheȱcontinent,ȱprovidedȱopportunity
forȱlandedȱallianceȱbetweenȱmagnatesȱandȱgentry.30ȱGrantȱtheȱincreasingȱinability
ofȱ theȱ nobilityȱ toȱ maintainȱ order,ȱ andȱ theȱ spreadingȱ perceptionȱ thatȱ not
infrequentlyȱ theyȱ wereȱ indeedȱ principalȱ contributorsȱ toȱ thatȱ veryȱ disorder.
Concedeȱasȱwellȱtheȱgrowingȱawarenessȱthatȱtheȱroleȱofȱtheȱruralȱaristocracyȱin
promotingȱprosperityȱwasȱnotȱonlyȱdiminished,ȱbutȱinȱmanyȱcasesȱanȱeconomic
dragȱonȱtheȱfinancialȱfuture.ȱDespiteȱallȱthis,ȱtheȱupperȱclassesȱneverthelessȱcould
beȱseenȱasȱintegralȱtoȱaȱsortȱofȱsocialȱcontractȱwhereinȱtheȱlandownersȱservedȱasȱa
bufferȱbetweenȱtheȱfinancialȱdemandsȱofȱtheȱcentralȱgovernmentȱandȱtheȱdenizens
ofȱ theȱ localȱ shire.ȱ Theȱ regressiveȱ pollȱ taxȱ introducedȱ inȱ 1377ȱ threatenedȱ that
remainingȱfunctionȱofȱtheȱaristocracyȱandȱgentry,ȱthoughȱitȱwasȱdesignedȱasȱaȱone
off,ȱandȱreasonablyȱlow.ȱTheȱsecondȱpollȱtaxȱwasȱgraduated,ȱandȱtoȱsomeȱextent
wasȱwithinȱtheȱspiritȱofȱtheȱtheretoforeȱprevailingȱpersonalȱpropertyȱlevies.ȱButȱthe
illȬconceivedȱthirdȱpollȱtaxȱcouldȱhaveȱonlyȱcommunicatedȱtoȱtheȱpeasantryȱthat
theȱrepresentativesȱofȱtheȱshiresȱhadȱneitherȱintentionȱnorȱfortitudeȱtoȱmaintain
theirȱhistoricalȱfunctionȱofȱassuringȱfairȱapportionmentȱofȱgeneralȱlevies.
Thisȱ breakdownȱ inȱ theȱ socialȱ contractȱ isȱ evidentȱ inȱ pronouncementsȱ ofȱ the
peasantȱleadersȱthemselves.ȱGrantedȱthatȱmanyȱofȱtheȱchroniclesȱandȱevenȱmore
soȱ subsequentȱ worksȱ suchȱ asȱ Thomasȱ Walsingham’sȱ Historiaȱ Anglicanaȱ based
thereon,ȱ wereȱ concernedȱ inȱ advanceȱ ofȱ Deȱ haereticoȱ comburendoȱ inȱ 1403,ȱ with
demonstratingȱaȱlinkȱbetweenȱhereticalȱsectsȱsuchȱasȱtheȱLollards,ȱtheȱgreatȱEnglish
heresiarchȱ Wycliff,ȱ andȱ anyȱ movementȱ thatȱ couldȱ beȱ labeledȱ treasonous,31ȱ for
whichȱpurposeȱsurelyȱtheȱrevoltȱofȱ1381ȱcouldȱfillȱtheȱbill.ȱNotȱsurprisingȱthen,
paraphrasesȱofȱJohnȱBalle’sȱsermonȱatȱBlackheathȱdirectȱtheȱattentionȱofȱtheȱreader
30
Thisȱ isȱ aȱ majorȱ argumentȱ ofȱ J(ohn)ȱ R(obert)ȱ Maddicott,ȱ Theȱ Originsȱ ofȱ theȱ Englishȱ Parliament
924–1327ȱ(OxfordȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2010).
31
“DocuitȱetȱperverseȱdogmataȱperfidyȱJohannisȱWiclyf,ȱetȱopinionesȱquasȱtenuet,ȱetȱinsaniasȱfalsas,
etȱpluraȱquaeȱlongumȱforetȱrecitare.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ“ȱ[Heȱtaughtȱasȱwellȱtheȱperverseȱdoctrinesȱofȱtheȱperfidious
JohnȱWycliffeȱandȱopinionsȱwhichȱheȱheldȱandȱfalseȱabsurdities,ȱandȱothersȱwhichȱitȱwouldȱtake
muchȱtimeȱtoȱrepeat.ȱ.ȱ.].ȱChronicaȱMonasteriiȱS.ȱAlbaniȱThomaeȱWalsingham,ȱquondamȱmonachiȱS.
Albani,ȱHistoriaȱAnglica,ȱed.ȱHenryȱThomasȱRiley,ȱ2ȱvols.ȱRollsȱSeriesȱ(London:ȱLongman,ȱGreen
Longman,ȱRobertȱandȱGreen,ȱ1864),ȱII:32.
toȱtheȱpotentiallyȱsinisterȱagriculturalȱmetaphorȱofȱweeding,32ȱandȱhenceȱtoȱthe
tropeȱ“zizaniaȱcumȱtritico”ȱfromȱMatthewȱ13,ȱwhichȱwasȱcommonlyȱusedȱtoȱdescribe
theȱWycliffianȱheresy,ȱprovidingȱevenȱtheȱtitleȱofȱtheȱmostȱcompleteȱearlyȱfifteenthȬ
centuryȱcollationȱofȱWycliff’sȱerrors,ȱThomasȱNetter’sȱFasciculiȱzizaniorumȱmagistri
JohannisȱWyclifȱcumȱtritico.33ȱIndeed,ȱcontraryȱtoȱreceivedȱetymologicalȱwisdom
identifyingȱtheȱtermȱLollardȱwithȱlollen,ȱtoȱsing,ȱorȱinȱsomeȱcasesȱmumble,ȱone
couldȱpositȱanȱalternativeȱetymologyȱbasedȱonȱlollium,ȱaȱcommonȱlateȱmedieval
spellingȱofȱloliumȱ(tares),ȱi.e.,ȱthoseȱdisposedȱtowardȱorȱfosteringȱheterodoxy.ȱStill,
exceptȱinȱsomeȱexaggeratedȱsenseȱofȱcarnivalȱtheȱoverstatementsȱattributedȱtoȱthe
rebelsȱasȱindicativeȱofȱaȱpolicyȱofȱexterminationȱsoundȱhollow,ȱparticularlyȱsince
mostȱofȱthemȱwouldȱhaveȱbeenȱamongȱtheȱjurorsȱofȱtheȱcounty.ȱPerhapsȱmore
illuminatingȱandȱauthenticȱinȱregardȱtoȱtheȱrising’sȱinitialȱintentionsȱisȱBalle’sȱbrief
letterȱtoȱtheȱpeasantsȱofȱEssex:
IohonȱSchep,ȱsomȱtymeȱSeynteȱMarieȱprestȱofȱork,ȱandȱnowȱofȱcolchestre,ȱgretethȱwel
IohanȱNameles,ȱandȱIohanȱþeȱMullere,ȱandȱIohonȱCartere,ȱandȱbiddeþȱhemȱþatȱþeiȱbee
warȱ ofȱ gyleȱ inȱ borugh,ȱ andȱ stondethȱ togidreȱ inȱ Godesȱ name,ȱ andȱ biddeþȱ Peres
Plou3manȱgoȱtoȱhisȱwerk,ȱandȱchastiseȱwelȱHobbeȱþeȱRobbere,ȱandȱtakeþȱwiþȱ 3ow
IohanȱTrewman,ȱandȱalleȱhisȱfelawes,ȱandȱnoȱmo,ȱandȱlokeȱschappeȱ3ouȱtoȱonȱheued,
andȱnoȱmo.
32
“Continuansqueȱ sermonemȱ inceptum,ȱ nitebatur,ȱ perȱ verbaȱ proverbiiȱ quodȱ proȱ themate
sumpserat,ȱintroducereȱetȱprobare,ȱabȱinitioȱomnesȱparesȱcreatosȱaȱnatura,ȱservituȱtemperȱinjustem
oppressionemȱnequamȱhominumȱintroductam,ȱcontraȱDeiȱvoluntatem;ȱquia,ȱsiȱDeoȱplaciusset
servosȱcreaseȱutiqueȱinȱprincipioȱmundiȱconstituissetȱquisȱservus,ȱquisveȱdomnius,ȱfuturusȱfuisset.
Considerarentȱ igiturȱ jamȱ tempusȱ aȱ Deoȱ datumȱ eis,ȱ inȱ quo,ȱ depositoȱ servitutisȱ jugoȱ divitinae,
possent,ȱsiȱvellent,ȱliberatateȱdiuȱconcupitaȱgaudere.ȱQuaȱpropterȱmonuitȱutȱessentȱviriȱcordati,
etȱamoreȱboniȱpatrisȱfamiliasȱexcolentisȱagrumȱsuum,ȱetȱextirpantisȱacȱrescantisȱnoxiaȱgramina
quaeȱfrugesȱsolentȱopprimere,ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.”ȱ[Andȱcontinuingȱtheȱspeechȱheȱ hadȱ begun,ȱheȱundertook
throughȱtheȱwordsȱofȱtheȱproverbȱheȱhadȱadoptedȱforȱhisȱthemeȱtoȱimplyȱandȱproveȱthatȱfromȱthe
beginningȱallȱwereȱcreatedȱequalȱbyȱnature,ȱservitudeȱbeingȱunjustȱoppressionȱintroducedȱbyȱevil
menȱcontraryȱtoȱtheȱwillȱofȱGod;ȱforȱhadȱitȱpleasedȱgodȱtoȱcreateȱserves,ȱsurelyȱfromȱtheȱbeginning
heȱwouldȱofȱestablishedȱwhoȱinȱtheȱfutureȱshouldȱbeȱserf,ȱwhoȱlord.ȱLetȱthemȱthereforeȱnow
considerȱthatȱitȱwasȱgivenȱthemȱbyȱGodȱtoȱnowȱrejoiceȱinȱtheirȱlongȱdesiredȱliberty,ȱthrowingȱoff
asȱtheyȱwishedȱtheȱyokeȱofȱservitude.ȱTherefore,ȱheȱwarnedȱthemȱtoȱbeȱprudentȱhusbandmen,
cultivatingȱtheirȱfieldsȱandȱuprootingȱandȱdestroyingȱtheȱtaresexplainȱthatȱwereȱaccustomedȱto
strangleȱ theȱ grain.]ȱ Historiaȱ Anglia,ȱ II:33.ȱ Atȱ thisȱ point,ȱ Walsinghamȱ hasȱ Balleȱ advocateȱ the
dispatchȱofȱtheȱgreatȱlords,ȱtheȱjustices,ȱlawyersȱandȱjurors:ȱ“etȱipsiȱinȱpraesantiȱfacereȱfestinarent.
Primo,ȱ majoresȱ regniȱ dominosȱ occidendo,ȱ deinde,ȱ juridicos,ȱ justiciariosȱ etȱ juratoresȱ patris,
perimendo.”ȱ[andȱtheseȱthingsȱtheyȱshouldȱimmediatelyȱhastenȱtoȱdo:ȱfirst,ȱallȱtheȱgreatȱlordsȱof
theȱkingdomȱshouldȱbeȱkilled,ȱthenȱtheȱlawyers,ȱjusticesȱandȱjurorsȱ ofȱ theȱ countryȱshouldȱbe
destroyed.]ȱ
33
PublishedȱasȱFasciculiȱZizanoiorumȱMagistriȱJohannisȱWyclifȱCumȱTritico,ȱascribedȱtoȱThomasȱNetter
ofȱWalden,ȱed.ȱRev.ȱWalterȱWaddingtonȱShirley.ȱRollsȱSeries,ȱ5ȱ(London:ȱLongman,ȱBrown,ȱetȱal.,
1858).
IohanȱþeȱMullereȱhaþȱygroundeȱsmall,ȱsmall,ȱsmall;ȱÞeȱKyngesȱsoneȱofȱheueneȱschal
payeȱforȱal.ȱBeȱwarȱorȱyeȱbeȱwo;ȱKnoweþȱ3ourȱfreendȱfroȱourȱfoo;ȱHavethȱynow,ȱand
seithȱ‘Hoo”;ȱȱAndȱdoȱwelȱandȱbetter,ȱandȱflethȱsynne,ȱAndȱsekeþȱpees,ȱandȱholdȱ3ou
þerinne;ȱAndȱsoȱbiddeþȱIohanȱTrewmanȱandȱalleȱhisȱfelawes.34ȱ
[PastorȱJohn,ȱerstwhileȱpriestȱofȱSaintȱMarie’sȱinȱYork,ȱandȱnowȱofȱColchester,ȱgreets
wellȱJohnȱNamelessȱandȱJohnȱtheȱMiller,ȱandȱJohnȱCarter,ȱandȱbidsȱthemȱthatȱthey
beȱ waryȱ ofȱ guileȱ inȱ theȱ town,ȱ andȱ standȱ togetherȱ inȱ god’sȱ name,ȱ andȱ bidsȱ Piers
Plowmanȱtoȱgoȱtoȱhisȱwerk,ȱandȱchastiseȱwellȱBobȱtheȱRobber,ȱandȱtakeȱwithȱyou
JohnȱTrueman,ȱandȱallȱhisȱfellows,ȱandȱnoȱmore,ȱandȱlookȱtoȱappointȱtoȱyourselves
oneȱleader,ȱandȱnoȱmore.
JohnȱtheȱMillerȱhasȱgroundȱfinelyȱ/ȱtheȱKing’sȱsonȱofȱheavenȱshallȱpayȱforȱall.ȱ/ȱBe
waryȱorȱsufferȱwoe;ȱ/ȱKnowȱyourȱfriendȱfromȱyourȱfoe;ȱ/ȱHaveȱsufficientȱandȱcall
pause;ȱ/ȱAndȱdoȱwellȱandȱbetter,ȱandȱfleeȱsin,/Andȱseekȱpeaceȱandȱholdȱyourselves
therein;ȱ/ȱAndȱsoȱheȱbidsȱJohnȱTruemanȱandȱallȱhisȱfellows.”]
Forȱ hereȱ seemsȱ evidentȱ aȱ certainȱ carnivalesqueȱ reificationȱ ofȱ theȱ plaintsȱ of
Langlandȱ thatȱ castsȱ theȱ bombastȱ ofȱ theȱ reportedȱ rhetoricȱ inȱ theȱ lightȱ ofȱ the
grotesque.35ȱAndȱwhileȱtheȱchroniclesȱidentifyȱBalleȱwhetherȱasȱauthorȱorȱnot,ȱwith
theȱcouplet,ȱ“WhanȱAdamȱdalf,ȱandȱEveȱspan,ȱWoȱwasȱthaneȱaȱgentilman,”ȱthe
questionȱisȱwhatȱthatȱrhymeȱsignified,ȱperhapsȱlessȱtoȱBalle,ȱmoreȱimportantlyȱto
theȱpeasantsȱheȱaddressed.
ȱThereȱisȱnothingȱinherentlyȱrevolutionaryȱinȱeitherȱtheȱpronouncementȱnorȱthe
sentimentȱbehindȱthisȱbitȱofȱdoggerelȱappealingȱtoȱtheȱprelapsarianȱstate,ȱarguably
evenȱlessȱsoȱinȱEnglandȱthanȱonȱtheȱcontinent,ȱalthoughȱthere,ȱtoo,ȱasȱweȱshall
shortlyȱ see,ȱ theȱ epistolaryȱ proclamationȱ ofȱ Gregoryȱ I,ȱ dutifullyȱ recordedȱ in
Gratian’sȱDecretumȱCȱX11ȱQ2ȱcȱ68:
Cumȱredemptorȱnosterȱtotiusȱconditorȱcreaturaeȱadhocȱpropitiatesȱhumanumȱvoluit
carnemȱassumere,ȱutȱdivinitatisȱsuaeȱgratia,ȱdisrupto,ȱquoȱtenebamurȱcaptiȱvincula
servitutis,ȱpristinaeȱnosȱrestitueretȱlibertati
[Whenȱ ourȱ redeemer,ȱ makerȱ ofȱ allȱ creatures,ȱ disposedȱ toȱ beȱ merciful,ȱ deignedȱ to
assumeȱhumanȱflesh,ȱsoȱthatȱwithȱtheȱchainsȱholdingȱusȱcaptiveȱinȱservitudeȱbroken
byȱtheȱgraceȱofȱhisȱsurpassingȱmerit,ȱheȱrestoredȱusȱtoȱpristineȱliberty]
wasȱ echoedȱ byȱ authorsȱ suchȱ asȱ Eikeȱ vonȱ Repgowȱ inȱ theȱ thirteenthȬcentury
Sachsenspiegel,ȱandȱcarriedȱforwardȱinȱmoreȱthanȱoneȱregionalȱWeistum.36ȱAȱnumber
34
St.ȱAlbansȱMS.ȱBritishȱMuseumȱRoyalȱ13.ȱE.ȱixȱ(aboutȱ1400),ȱf.ȱ287ȱa.,ȱprintedȱinȱFourteenthȱCentury
VerseȱandȱProse,ȱed.ȱKennethȱSisamȱ(Oxford:ȱClarendonȱPress,ȱ1921),ȱ160–01.
35
MussonȱinȱpassingȱalsoȱnotesȱtheȱcarnivalȱqualityȱofȱtheȱPiersȱreferencesȱandȱtheȱallusionȱtoȱoutlaw
literatureȱ(i.e.,ȱRobin),ȱMedievalȱLaw,ȱnoteȱ4ȱabove,ȱatȱ253.
36
SeeȱGuidoȱKisch,ȱSachsenspiegelȱandȱBibleȱ(NotreȱDame:ȱUniversityȱofȱNotreȱDame,ȱ1990),ȱ133–40;
AlexanderȱIgnor,ȱÜberȱdasȱallgemeineȱRechtsdenkenȱEikesȱvonȱRepgow.ȱGörresȬGesellschaftȱzurȱPflege
derȱWissenschaft:ȱRechtsȬȱundȱstaatswissenschaftlicheȱVeröffentlichungenȱderȱGörresȬGesellschaft,
ofȱ scholarsȱ haveȱ arguedȱ thatȱ egalitarianȱ sentimentsȱ wereȱ commonȱ inȱ the
fourteenthȱcentury;ȱandȱinȱEngland,ȱtheȱdominantȱAugustinianȱandȱFranciscan
intellectualȱparadigmsȱmayȱhelpȱaccountȱforȱthisȱphenomenonȱwithinȱtheȱlarger
society.ȱTheȱforemostȱEnglishȱscholars,ȱJohnȱDunsȱScotusȱandȱWilliamȱofȱOckham,
bothȱ eitherȱ ignoredȱ orȱ rejectedȱ Aristotelianȱ formulationsȱ forȱ aȱ simpleȱ viewȱ of
dominiumȱquaȱremediumȱpeccatiȱandȱofȱtheȱcommunityȱmerelyȱasȱanȱaggregateȱof
individualȱpersonalities,ȱsuggestingȱthatȱelectionȱandȱconsentȱareȱtheȱraisonȱd’être
ofȱtheȱpoliticalȱcommunity.37ȱ
ThisȱsameȱthinkingȱofȱtheȱpostȬlapsarianȱstateȱasȱremedial,ȱwithȱtheȱconditioning
provisoȱofȱgrace,ȱliesȱatȱtheȱheartȱofȱWycliff’sȱreasoning,ȱthoughȱtheȱdoctrineȱis
derivedȱfromȱtheȱAugustinianȱRichardȱFitzralphȱinȱDeȱpauperieȱsalvatoris.38ȱThese
doctrinesȱareȱnotȱparticularlyȱrevolutionary,ȱforȱsinceȱonlyȱGodȱknowsȱwhoȱisȱin
aȱstateȱofȱgrace,ȱallȱdominiumȱisȱultimatelyȱinȱtheȱdispositionȱofȱcivilȱauthorities,ȱfor
undeniablyȱcivilȱgovernmentȱisȱordainedȱofȱGod.ȱOnȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱtheseȱtheories
militateȱinȱfavorȱofȱaȱprogramȱofȱlegalȱreform,ȱalbeitȱfromȱabove,ȱandȱsuchȱreform
wasȱwhatȱtheȱrebelsȱoriginallyȱsoughtȱfromȱRichard,ȱprimarilyȱanȱendȱtoȱtheȱpoll
tax,ȱwhichȱerrorȱinȱjudgmentȱtheȱgovernmentȱandȱtheȱcommonsȱwereȱunlikelyȱto
repeat,ȱandȱtheȱabrogationȱofȱvillenage,ȱwithȱwhichȱneitherȱkingȱnorȱparliament
hadȱ anyȱ intentionȱ ofȱ interfering,ȱ anyȱ moreȱ thanȱ theȱ Houseȱ ofȱ Lordsȱ wouldȱ a
centuryȱandȱaȱhalfȱlaterȱinȱ1537.ȱ
Whetherȱtheȱrebelsȱthoughtȱtheirȱdemandsȱwouldȱbeȱmetȱorȱwhetherȱtheȱincident
wasȱ pretenseȱ andȱ affectation,ȱ aȱ formȱ ofȱ protestȱ againstȱ misgovernanceȱ inȱ the
natureȱofȱcarnival,ȱisȱdifficultȱtoȱsay.ȱWhatȱisȱclearȱisȱthatȱwhileȱtheȱgovernment
mayȱhaveȱexactedȱaȱterribleȱrevenge,ȱmanyȱlandownersȱpunishedȱtheirȱpeasants
extremelyȱ lightly,ȱ beingȱ inȱ needȱ ofȱ theirȱ services,ȱ andȱ thatȱ someȱ ofȱ theȱ more
extremeȱmeasuresȱtakenȱtoȱresuscitateȱoldȱprivilegesȱwereȱabandoned.ȱTheȱtrend
towardȱleasingȱasȱmoreȱprofitableȱthanȱdemesneȱfarmingȱcontinued,ȱandȱthose
landsȱ thatȱ couldȱ notȱ beȱ rentedȱ wereȱ notȱ infrequentlyȱ enclosed.ȱ Essentially,ȱ a
negotiatedȱsettlementȱwasȱachieved,ȱbutȱpiecemealȱbetweenȱindividualȱlandlords
andȱtenants.
N.F.,ȱ42ȱ(Paderborn:ȱF.ȱSchöningh,ȱ1984),ȱ237;ȱPaulȱFreeman,ȱ“TheȱGermanȱandȱCatalanȱPeasant
Revolts,”ȱAmericanȱHistoricalȱReviewȱ98ȱ(1993):ȱ39–54;ȱhereȱ46–47.ȱForȱanȱEnglishȱtranslation,ȱsee
TheȱSaxonȱMirror:ȱAȱSachsenspiegelȱofȱtheȱFourteenthȱCentury,ȱtrans.ȱMariaȱDobozy.ȱTheȱMiddle
AgesȱSeriesȱ(Philadelphia:ȱUniversityȱofȱPennsylvaniaȱPress,ȱ1999).
37
Seeȱgenerally,ȱScottȱL.ȱTaylor,ȱ“PoliticalȱTheoryȱinȱMedievalȱStudies,”ȱHandbookȱofȱMedievalȱStudies:
Termsȱ–ȱMethodsȱ–ȱTrends,ȱ3ȱvols.ȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassenȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱDeȱGruyter,ȱ2010),
vol.ȱ1,ȱ1111–22.
38
Seeȱgenerally,ȱGordonȱLeff,ȱRichardȱFitzralph,ȱCommentatorȱofȱtheȱSentences:ȱAȱStudyȱofȱTheological
Orthodoxyȱ(Manchester:ȱUniversityȱofȱManchesterȱPress,ȱ1963).
Aȱsimilarȱpatternȱofȱlandlordȱdisengagementȱfollowedȱbyȱeffortsȱtoȱreassertȱold
prerogativesȱ precedesȱ theȱ Bauernkriegȱ ofȱ 1525,ȱ thoughȱ theȱ routeȱ toȱ that
confrontationȱtookȱaȱconsiderablyȱdifferentȱcourseȱthanȱinȱEngland.ȱInȱGermany,
anȱagrarianȱcrisisȱthatȱbeganȱaroundȱ1310ȱandȱcontinuedȱtoȱtheȱsixteenthȱcentury
resultedȱ inȱ precipitousȱ declinesȱ inȱ grain,ȱ andȱ hence,ȱ landȱ prices.39ȱ Asȱ a
consequence,ȱtheȱprocessȱofȱdevolutionȱalreadyȱunderwayȱacceleratedȱwithȱthe
acquiescenceȱofȱlordsȱwhoȱpreferredȱrentsȱtoȱservices.ȱAsȱtheȱmanorȱdisintegrated
intoȱ legallyȱ distinguishableȱ componentsȱ ofȱ Grundherrschaft,ȱ Leibherrschaftȱ and
Gerichtherrschaft,ȱGemeinder,ȱorȱcommunes,ȱevolvedȱtoȱfillȱtheȱvacuum,ȱfrequently
agreeingȱ toȱ jointȱ liabilityȱ forȱ anyȱ rentsȱ orȱ duesȱ onȱ theȱ communalȱ lands.40ȱ The
assembliesȱofȱpropertyȱholdingȱpeasants,ȱasideȱfromȱregulatingȱcommunityȱaffairs
wereȱalsoȱinȱchargeȱofȱcropȱrotation,ȱregulationsȱpertainingȱtoȱagriculturalȱwork
andȱmanagementȱofȱcommunalȱresources.ȱAsȱmanorsȱcontinuedȱtoȱdisintegrate,
theseȱcommunesȱclaimedȱasȱcommonȱlandsȱmuchȱofȱtheȱvacantȱpastures,ȱfields,
woodsȱ andȱ streams,ȱ alongȱ withȱ theȱ legalȱ rightsȱ theretoȱ andȱ theȱ jurisdiction
thereof.41ȱ Asȱ inȱ England,ȱ thoseȱ mostȱ vigilantȱ ofȱ theirȱ traditionalȱ rightsȱ and
prerogativesȱ wereȱ theȱ greatȱ ecclesiasticȱ lords,ȱ whoȱ moreȱ oftenȱ thanȱ theirȱ lay
brethren,ȱjealouslyȱguardedȱandȱoftenȱharshlyȱimposedȱtheirȱseigneurialȱrights,
probablyȱaccountingȱatȱleastȱinȱpartȱforȱtheȱanticlericalȱflavorȱofȱpeasantȱrisingsȱin
bothȱregions.42
Asȱaȱconsequenceȱofȱtheȱdepressionȱinȱagriculturalȱprices,ȱfarmersȱwereȱpushed
towardȱcropȱdiversification,ȱintensificationȱofȱmarkets,ȱassociationsȱwithȱindustry
andȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱprocessingȱactivities:ȱinȱshort,ȱwithȱcommercialȱmarkets.
Ironically,ȱ theȱ successȱ ofȱ suchȱ attemptsȱ toȱ avoidȱ theȱ vagariesȱ ofȱ traditional
agricultureȱhadȱtwoȱconsequencesȱofȱdisadvantageȱtoȱtheȱpeasants.ȱFirst,ȱsuchȱan
economyȱdemandedȱsimplerȱandȱmoreȱuniformȱproceduresȱthanȱthoseȱafforded
39
ThomasȱA.ȱBrady,ȱJr.,ȱCommunities,ȱPoliticsȱandȱReformationȱinȱEarlyȱModernȱEurope,ȱStudiesȱin
MedievalȱandȱReformationȱThoughtȱ68ȱ(Leiden,ȱBostonȱandȱCologne:ȱBrill,ȱ1998),ȱChapterȱ10:
“EconomicȱandȱSocialȱInstitutionsȱinȱLateȱMedievalȱGermany,”ȱoriginallyȱpublishedȱinȱGermany:
AȱNewȱSocialȱandȱEconomicȱHistory,ȱed.ȱBobȱScribnerȱ(London:ȱEdwardȱArnold,ȱ1996),ȱ259–90.ȱOn
theȱ agrarianȱ cycleȱ inȱ particular,ȱ seeȱ Thomasȱ W.ȱ Robisheaux,ȱ “Theȱ Worldȱ ofȱ theȱ Village,”ȱ A
HandbookȱofȱEuropeanȱHistory,ȱ1400–1600.ȱLateȱMiddleȱAges,ȱRenaissanceȱandȱReformation,ȱed.ȱThomas
A.ȱBrady,ȱHeikoȱA.ȱOberman,ȱandȱJamesȱD.ȱTracey.ȱ2ȱvols.ȱ(Leiden:ȱBrill,ȱ1994)ȱI:79–112.
40
Onȱthisȱprocess,ȱseeȱHeideȱWunder,ȱDieȱbäuerlicheȱGemeindeȱinȱDeutschland.ȱKleineȱVandenhoeckȬ
Reihe,ȱ1483ȱ(Göttingen:ȱVandenhoeckȱ&ȱRuprecht,ȱ1986).
41
Onȱwhichȱaspect,ȱseeȱPeterȱBlickle,ȱLandschaftenȱimȱAltenȱReich:ȱdieȱStaatlicheȱFunktionȱdesȱgemeinen
MannesȱinȱOberdeutschlandȱ(Munich:ȱBeck,ȱ1973).
42
Indeed,ȱthereȱisȱevidenceȱofȱwidespreadȱclericalȱforgeries.ȱSeeȱPeterȱBlickle,ȱFromȱtheȱCommunal
ReformationȱtoȱtheȱRevolutionȱofȱtheȱCommonȱMan.ȱStudiesȱinȱMedievalȱandȱReformationȱThought,
64ȱ(Leiden,ȱBoston,ȱandȱCologne:ȱBrill,ȱ1998),ȱ152;ȱFranz,ȱBauernkriegȱ(seeȱnoteȱ5),ȱ11;ȱJ.ȱHäine,ȱ“Der
Klosterbuchȱ zuȱRorschachȱundȱderȱSt.ȱGallerȱKriegȱ1489–90,”ȱMitteilungenȱzurȱvaterländischen
Geschichte,ȱed.ȱHistorischenȱVereinȱdesȱKantonsȱSt.ȱGallenȱ26ȱ(1895):ȱ1–272.
byȱtheȱGermanȱlaw,ȱandȱtheȱobviousȱmodelȱforȱsuchȱlegalȱreformȱwasȱtheȱCorpus
jurisȱcivilis.ȱInȱ1495,ȱMaximilianȱIȱreconstitutedȱtheȱReichskammergericht,ȱproviding
thatȱhalfȱitsȱjudgesȱwereȱtoȱbeȱuniversityȱtrainedȱlawyers,ȱwhichȱqualificationȱsoon
engulfedȱtheȱentireȱbody.ȱOtherȱtribunalsȱwereȱsoonȱinspiredȱbyȱthisȱmove,ȱalong
withȱ theȱ practiceȱ ofȱ courtsȱ referringȱ casesȱ toȱ universityȱ faculties,ȱ muchȱ inȱ the
mannerȱbyȱwhichȱgovernmentsȱinȱtheȱItalianȱcityȬstatesȱsoughtȱconsilia.ȱInȱthisȱway,
Germanȱ lawȱ wasȱ toȱ becomeȱ perhapsȱ moreȱ Romanizedȱ thanȱ thatȱ ofȱ anyȱ other
region,ȱatȱleastȱoutsideȱtheȱItalianȱpeninsula.
Second,ȱthisȱcommercialization,ȱcomingȱasȱitȱdidȱatȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱasȱterritorial
princesȱundertookȱtoȱestablishȱtheirȱauthority,ȱplacedȱaȱstrainȱonȱtheȱnobilityȱfor
cash,ȱ whichȱ onlyȱ intensifiedȱ withȱ theȱ inflationaryȱ pressuresȱ ofȱ theȱ sixteenth
century,ȱasȱtheȱmoneyȱsupplyȱexplodedȱdueȱtoȱNewȱWorldȱspecie,ȱasȱwellȱasȱthe
rapidȱ expansionȱ ofȱ Germanȱ mining.43ȱ Thisȱ largelyȱ accountsȱ forȱ theirȱ efforts,
commencingȱinȱtheȱmidȬfifteenthȱcenturyȱtoȱrecoverȱanyȱrightsȱthatȱcouldȱgenerate
cash.ȱTowardȱthisȱend,ȱRomanȱlaw,ȱatȱleastȱchezȱIrneriusȱandȱPlacentius,ȱwhose
viewsȱincludingȱtheȱdenigrationȱofȱcustomȱwouldȱprovideȱtheȱfoundationȱforȱthe
newȱjuridicalȱscienceȱweȱcallȱtheȱcivilȱlaw,ȱwasȱparticularlyȱusefulȱinȱovercoming
customaryȱrightsȱwhetherȱtoȱcommonȱlandsȱorȱjurisdiction,ȱasȱwasȱitsȱtendencyȱto
equateȱvillenageȱwithȱtheȱsevereȱRomanȱlawȱofȱslavery,ȱandȱwhichȱtendedȱtoȱlook
atȱservitudeȱasȱdidȱThomasȱAquinas,ȱinȱAristoteleanȱterms,ȱasȱwouldȱhisȱdisciples,
PtolemyȱofȱLuccaȱandȱGilesȱofȱRome.ȱIndeed,ȱitȱcanȱbeȱarguedȱthatȱasȱinȱEngland
inȱ midȬfourteenthȱ century,ȱ Germanyȱ inȱ theȱ fifteenthȱ witnessedȱ anȱ aristocratic
effortȱtoȱrevitalizeȱserfdom,ȱalbeitȱmoreȱprolongedȱandȱmoreȱsuccessfulȱthanȱthe
endeavorsȱofȱtheirȱcousinsȱacrossȱtheȱchannel.
Itȱisȱhardlyȱsurprising,ȱtherefore,ȱthatȱwhileȱEnglishȱpeasantsȱfrequentlyȱsought
protectionȱofȱtheȱcommonȱlawȱagainstȱcustomaryȱlaw,ȱoneȱofȱtheȱmostȱfrequently
heardȱdemandsȱinȱtheȱplethoraȱofȱGermanȱpeasantȱrevoltsȱthatȱprecededȱtheȱgreat
Bauernkriegȱofȱ1525ȱwasȱtheȱprohibitionȱofȱRomanȱlawȱorȱforeignȱjurists,ȱinȱthe
nameȱofȱestablishingȱdasȱalteȱRecht,ȱoftenȱevidencedȱbyȱtheȱappositeȱWeisthümer,
whichȱ inȱ turnȱ incorporatedȱ theȱ ideasȱ ofȱ theȱ Sachsenspiegel.44ȱ Readȱ againstȱ this
background,ȱtheȱappealȱofȱtheȱTwelveȱArticlesȱtoȱcontemporaryȱLutheranȱideology
seemȱ littleȱ moreȱ thanȱ aȱ sixteenthȬcenturyȱ “modernȱ languageȱ redaction”ȱ of
traditionalȱpleasȱfoundedȱonȱcenturiesȱoldȱprinciples.ȱInȱ1514,ȱinȱWürttemberg,
43
Onȱ theȱ explosionȱ inȱ Germanȱ miningȱ activity,ȱ seeȱ Michaelȱ Mitterauer,ȱ “Produktionsweise,
SiedlungsstrukturȱunderȱSozialformenȱimȱÕsterreichischenȱMontanwesenȱdesȱMittelaltersȱunden
FrühenȱNeuzeit,”ȱÖsterreichischenȱMontanwesen,ȱProduktion,ȱVerteilung,ȱSozialformenȱ,ȱed.ȱid..ȱSozialȬ
undȱwirtschafthistorischeȱStudienȱ(Vienna:ȱVerlagȱfürȱGeschichteȱundȱPolitik,ȱ1974),ȱ234–315.
Tyrolȱ productionȱ ofȱ silverȱ tripledȱ betweenȱ 1470ȱ andȱ 1520.ȱ Seeȱ Rolfȱ Sprandel,ȱ “Gewerbeȱ und
Handelȱ1350–1500,”ȱHandbuchȱderȱdeutschenȱWirtschaftsȬȱundȱSozialgeschichteȱvol.ȱI,ȱed.ȱHermann
AudinȱandȱWolfgangȱZornȱ(Stuttgart:ȱUnionȱVerlag,ȱ1971),ȱ340–02.
44
Onȱthisȱpoint,ȱseeȱnoteȱ36ȱabove.
whereȱDukeȱUlrichȱhadȱattemptedȱtoȱliquidateȱhisȱinheritedȱdebtsȱbyȱaȱsystemȱof
taxationȱ involvingȱ theȱ reductionȱ ofȱ weightsȱ andȱ measures,ȱ theȱ Armeȱ Konrad
emerged,ȱtoȱwhichȱtheȱDukeȱmadeȱsomeȱconcessionsȱandȱcalledȱtheȱLandtag,ȱor
diet,ȱwhichȱdrewȱupȱaȱlistȱofȱgrievances,ȱparagraphsȱ15ȱandȱ16ȱofȱwhichȱprovided:
15.ȱItemȱesȱsollȱauchȱbedachtȱwardenȱdieȱBeschwerdȱderȱGelehrten,ȱdannȱsieȱmerklich
undȱtäglichȱbeiȱallenȱGerichtenȱdurchȱdasȱganzȱLandȱmitȱirȱHandlungȱeinbrechen,ȱalso
dasȱ jetzȱ undȱ einer,ȱ demȱ rechtensȱ Notȱ ist,ȱ mitȱ 10ȱ Guldenȱ Darvonȱ nitȱ kompt,ȱ der
vielleichtȱ vorȱ 12ȱ Jahrenȱ mitȱ 10ȱ Άȱ dieȱ Sachȱ garȱ hettȱ usgemacht.ȱ Damitȱ wardenȱ vil
NeverungenȱbeimȱarmenȱMannȱufgebracht,ȱalso,ȱwaȱdemȱkeinȱEinsehenȱgeschicht,ȱso
muessȱ manȱ inȱ jeglichȱ Dorfȱ mitȱ derȱ Zeitȱ ainȱ Doctorȱ [oder]ȱ zwenȱ setzen,ȱ dieȱ Recht
sprechen.
16.ȱItemȱnachdemȱinȱVertregenȱundȱsonstȱinȱaltenȱBreuchenȱundȱBewohnhaitenȱbei
Stettenȱ undȱ Dörfernȱ durchȱ dieȱ Doctoresȱ vilȱ Zerrittungenȱ geschehenȱ demȱ gmeinen
Mannȱ zueȱ verderblichemȱ Nachteilȱ undȱ Schaden,ȱ dasȱ dannȱ deshalbȱ ainȱ gemeine
Ordnungȱ undȱ Landsrechtȱ fürgenommen,ȱ ausgeschribenȱ undȱ verkündtȱ werdeȱ und
sonstȱdieȱStettȱundȱDörferȱbeiȱirenȱGerichten.ȱUsrichtungenȱundȱaltenȱGewohnhaiten
onverhindertȱderȱDoctorȱhalbȱpleigen,ȱwieȱvonȱalterȱgewestȱist.45
[15.ȱDueȱconsiderationȱshouldȱbeȱgivenȱtoȱtheȱplagueȱofȱlearnedȱlawyersȱthatȱhasȱbeen
infestingȱtheȱlegalȱbusinessȱinȱeveryȱcourtȱinȱtheȱland,ȱtheȱresultȱbeingȱthatȱtheȱcostȱof
litigationȱwhichȱtwelveȱyearsȱagoȱcameȱtoȱonlyȱpennies,ȱnowȱrunsȱtoȱtenȱguldenȱor
more.ȱ Theseȱ areȱ grievousȱ innovationsȱ forȱ theȱ commonȱ man,ȱ andȱ theyȱ oughtȱ toȱ be
broughtȱtoȱanȱend,ȱlestȱeachȱvillageȱsoonȱneedȱhireȱoneȱorȱtwoȱdoctorsȱofȱlawȱtoȱhandle
judicialȱbusiness;
16.ȱInasmuchȱasȱtheseȱlearnedȱlawyersȱandȱjuristsȱhaveȱcausedȱdisruptionȱandȱdisarray
amongȱ theȱ agreementsȱ andȱ otherȱ ancientȱ customsȱ andȱ usagesȱ inȱ ourȱ townȱ and
villages—muchȱtoȱtheȱinjuryȱandȱdisadvantageȱofȱtheȱcommonȱman—thereȱshouldȱbe
instituted,ȱdrawnȱup,ȱandȱpromulgatedȱaȱgeneralȱreformationȱandȱrenovationȱofȱthe
lawȱofȱourȱland;ȱifȱnot,ȱtownsȱandȱvillagesȱshouldȱbeȱleftȱtoȱtheirȱwontedȱcustoms,ȱlaws
andȱcourts,ȱasȱtheseȱhaveȱcomeȱdownȱtoȱusȱfromȱancientȱtimes,ȱlawyersȱandȱdoctorsȱof
jurisprudenceȱnothwithstanding.46]
OnȱtheȱveryȱeveȱofȱtheȱBauernkrieg,ȱpeasantsȱinȱJune,ȱ1524,ȱirateȱatȱdemandsȱthey
abandonȱtheȱharvestȱinȱorderȱtoȱcollectȱsnailȱshellsȱtoȱserveȱasȱspoolsȱforȱtheȱladies
ofȱtheȱmanor,ȱroseȱupȱagainstȱCountȱSigmundȱvonȱLupfen,ȱsoreȱpressedȱfinancially
dueȱtoȱtheȱprodigalityȱofȱhisȱfather,ȱandȱturnedȱtoȱDukeȱUlrichȱofȱWürttemberg,
whoȱ wasȱ seekingȱ aȱ causeȱ toȱ returnȱ fromȱ exileȱ imposedȱ byȱ theȱ Hapbsburgs,
circumstancesȱ thatȱ wouldȱ serveȱ asȱ theȱ catalystȱ forȱ theȱ greatȱ 1525ȱ uprising.
45
Württembergischeȱ Landtagsaktenȱ Iȱ (16ȱ Juneȱ 1514)ȱ printedȱ inȱ Quellenȱ zurȱ Geschichteȱ des
Bauernkrieges,ȱed.ȱGüntherȱFranz.ȱAusgewählteȱQuellenȱzurȱdeutschenȱGeschichteȱderȱNeuzeit,
2ȱȱ(Munich:ȱR.ȱOldenbourg,ȱ1963),ȱ#8,ȱ50–53.
46
Strauss,ȱed.ȱandȱtrans.,ȱManifestationsȱofȱDiscontentȱ(seeȱnoteȱ2),ȱ151–52.
Ultimately,ȱ theȱ complaintsȱ ofȱ theȱ Stühlingenȱ peasantsȱ wereȱ arbitratedȱ and
transferredȱtoȱtheȱImperialȱChamberȱCourt,ȱandȱtheȱlistȱ ofȱ fiftyȬnineȱarticlesȱis
amongȱ theȱ mostȱ completeȱ ofȱ complaintsȱ byȱ theȱ peasantsȱ againstȱ theȱ nobility,
detailingȱtheȱdegreeȱtoȱwhichȱaȱdesperateȱlordȱwouldȱundertakeȱtoȱfinesseȱtheȱlegal
systemȱforȱprofit,ȱincludingȱconfiscationȱofȱbothȱstolenȱandȱpersonalȱpropertyȱof
thieves,ȱchargingȱvictimsȱorȱtheirȱsurvivorsȱforȱcostsȱofȱcriminalȱtrials,ȱdenialȱof
manyȱ traditionalȱ peasantȱ prerogativesȱ suchȱ asȱ woodȬgathering,ȱ prohibitionȱ of
tradeȱinȱsaltȱorȱfowl,ȱassertionȱofȱpreeminentȱrightsȱinȱtreasureȱtroveȱorȱotherȱfound
property,ȱlevyingȱofȱnewȱtaxes,ȱclaimsȱofȱnewȱbanalȱservitudes,ȱandȱofȱcourse,ȱjury
intimidation.47ȱ Theȱ collationȱ isȱ notableȱ asȱ wellȱ forȱ theȱ wantȱ ofȱ anyȱ mentionȱ of
religiousȱdoctrine;ȱtheȱpeasants’ȱconcernsȱwereȱpurelyȱpracticalȱandȱeconomic,
untilȱ aȱ handfulȱ ofȱ clerics—Hubmaierȱ atȱ Walshut,ȱ Carlstadtȱ atȱ Rothenburg,
WesterburgȱatȱFrankfurt,ȱPfeifferȱandȱMüntzerȱatȱMühlhausen–gainedȱcontrolȱof
theȱrhetoric,ȱifȱnotȱtheȱideology,ȱofȱtheȱrisingsȱofȱ1524–1525.
OneȱneedȱnotȱhaveȱadoptedȱanȱeschatologicalȱorȱMessianicȱviewȱofȱsocietyȱto
appreciateȱtheȱlegitimacyȱofȱmanyȱofȱtheȱpeasantȱgrievances.ȱSebastianȱFranck,ȱno
greatȱfriendȱofȱtheȱpeasant,ȱorȱofȱtheȱcommonȱmanȱgenerally,ȱconcededȱasȱmuch
inȱhisȱchronicle,ȱwriting:
TheȱGospelȱteachesȱusȱtoȱsufferȱoppressionȱandȱinjustice,ȱnotȱtoȱriseȱupȱagainstȱthem.
Itȱisȱonlyȱbecauseȱthisȱparticularȱinsurrectionȱgrewȱoutȱofȱaȱprotestȱagainstȱoppressive
tithes,ȱdeathȱduties,ȱforcedȱlabor,ȱtributes,ȱinterestȱpayments,ȱandȱseriousȱgrievances,
thatȱ Iȱ mentionȱ itȱ hereȱ soȱ thatȱ inȱ theȱ futureȱ meȱ mayȱ learnedȱ toȱ keepȱ ourȱ weapons
sheathedȱandȱrefrainȱfromȱcallingȱGod’sȱangerȱandȱourȱdestructionȱuponȱourȱheads.48
Indeed,ȱtheȱmoderationȱofȱpeasantȱdemandsȱallowedȱGeorgeȱofȱWaldburgȱtoȱsign
theȱWeingartenȱTreatyȱendingȱtheȱSwabianȱphaseȱofȱtheȱwarȱwithȱlessȱdestruction
andȱbloodshedȱthanȱtheȱsubsequentȱFranconianȱandȱThuringianȱphases.ȱToȱsome
extent,ȱFranzȱwasȱrightȱinȱcharacterizingȱtheȱrevoltȱasȱaȱconfrontationȱbetweenȱthe
lawȱofȱtheȱpeopleȱandȱthatȱofȱtheȱlords,ȱandȱmoreȱsoȱwhenȱheȱestimated,ȱ“Der
Bauernkriegȱ istȱ einȱ Gliedȱ inȱ demȱ Kampfȱ derȱ Deutschenȱ umȱ dasȱ Reich”49ȱ (The
Peasants’ȱWarȱisȱpartȱofȱtheȱfightȱwhichȱtheȱGermansȱwageȱforȱtheȱEmpire).ȱ
Andȱwhileȱtheȱmainȱbodyȱofȱtheȱrebellionȱwasȱbrutallyȱsuppressed,ȱasȱtheȱrevolt
hadȱbeenȱinȱEnglandȱinȱ1381,ȱsoȱtooȱinȱGermanyȱnegotiationsȱwithȱlordsȱoften
producedȱ whatȱ Blickleȱ hasȱ labeledȱ “contractsȱ ofȱ lordship”ȱ whichȱ softenedȱ the
burdensȱ ofȱ serfdom,ȱ restoredȱ customaryȱ rights,ȱ reducedȱ laborȱ services,ȱ and
47
TheȱtextȱappearsȱinȱFranz,ȱQuellenȱzurȱGeschichteȱdesȱBauernkriegesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ45),ȱ101–23.
48
Strauss,ȱnoteȱ2ȱabove,ȱatȱ169,ȱfromȱSebastianȱFranck,ȱChronik,ȱGeschichteȱundȱZeitbuchȱalleraller
Nam(m)hafftigstenȱundȱGedechtnusswierdigstenȱGeystlichenȱundȱWeltlichenȱSachenȱoderȱHandlugenȱvon
anbeginȱ derȱ Weltȱ nachȱ erschaffungȱ desȱ erstenȱ Menschen,ȱ bissȱ auffȱ dasȱ gegenwertigeȱ jarȱ Christi
MDLXXXV,ȱexpandedȱbyȱCalonivmȱGhönneirvmȱ(Basel:ȱHenricpetri,ȱ1585),ȱpar.ȱdlxxix–dclxxxi.ȱ
49
DerȱDeutscheȱBauernkriegȱ(seeȱnoteȱ5),ȱ288.
improvedȱopportunitiesȱforȱlegalȱappeals.50ȱWeisthümerȱthemselvesȱcontinuedȱto
proliferateȱ untilȱ aboutȱ 1600,ȱ andȱ oftenȱ reflectedȱ theseȱ newȱ andȱ negotiated
“customs.”ȱ Generally,ȱ speaking,ȱ whereȱ dietsȱ engagedȱ inȱ negotiationsȱ withȱ the
peasants,ȱ breadȱ andȱ butterȱ issuesȱ wereȱ resolvedȱ toȱ theȱ peasants’
satisfaction—moreȱ“political”ȱ(i.e.,ȱrevolutionary)ȱdemandsȱwereȱrejectedȱoutȱof
hand.ȱ Evenȱ these,ȱ however,ȱ indicatedȱ aȱ paradigmȱ basedȱ onȱ dietsȱ andȱ estates
fundamentallyȱatȱoddsȱwithȱwhatȱnowȱisȱidentifiedȱasȱtheȱprincipalȱcharacteristics
ofȱtheȱearlyȱmodernȱstate:ȱtheȱerosionȱofȱfeudalȱrelationships,ȱtheȱweakeningȱof
differencesȱ betweenȱ ruralȱ andȱ urbanȱ codesȱ ofȱ law,ȱ theȱ restrictionsȱ ofȱ legal
autonomyȱ forȱ city,ȱ districtȱ andȱ villageȱ courts,ȱ theȱ gradualȱ transformationȱ of
heterogeneousȱfeudalȱtenantsȱintoȱaȱhomogeneousȱbodyȱofȱsubjects,ȱtheȱtaxation
ofȱ burghers,ȱ peasantsȱ andȱ minersȱ inȱ similarȱ measure,ȱ andȱ increasedȱ leviesȱ for
militaryȱservice.51
Andȱ inȱ someȱ respects,ȱ thisȱ aversionȱ ofȱ theȱ Germanȱ peasantȱ toȱ theȱ inherent
qualitiesȱ ofȱ theȱ modernȱ stateȱ definesȱ theȱ greatestȱ differenceȱ betweenȱ theȱ 1381
Englishȱrebellionȱandȱtheȱ1525ȱBauernkrieg,ȱthoughȱthatȱdifferenceȱwouldȱhave
significanceȱlargelyȱinȱtheȱlongueȱdurée.ȱForȱwhileȱbothȱwereȱconcernedȱmoreȱwith
alleviationȱofȱfinancialȱburdensȱperceivedȱasȱdisproportionateȱthanȱwithȱassertion
ofȱ anyȱ newȱ “political”ȱ rights,ȱ purelyȱ byȱ chance,ȱ inȱ attemptingȱ toȱ protectȱ what
prerogativesȱheȱhadȱachievedȱduringȱaȱperiodȱofȱseigniorialȱbenignȱneglect,ȱthe
Englishȱrusticusȱfoundȱhimselfȱonȱtheȱsideȱofȱlegalȱdevelopmentsȱfavoringȱtheȱearly
modernȱstateȱandȱtoȱwhichȱheȱeagerlyȱadapted,ȱwhichȱinnovationsȱtheȱGerman
peasant,ȱ alsoȱ inȱ defenseȱ ofȱ hisȱ prerogatives,ȱ soughtȱ atȱ allȱ costsȱ toȱ resist.ȱ Asȱ it
happened,ȱtheȱ1559ȱjudicialȱreformsȱofȱFerdinandȱI,ȱconfirmedȱinȱtheȱInterimȱof
1597,ȱ wouldȱ giveȱ theȱ ownersȱ ofȱ estatesȱ theȱ powerȱ toȱ administerȱ allȱ mattersȱ of
lowerȱjudicialȱauthority,ȱeliminatingȱinȱoneȱstrokeȱtheȱpowerȱbothȱofȱLeibherrenȱand
ofȱVögte,ȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱjurisdictionȱofȱtheȱcommunes.ȱ
Whileȱimprovingȱinȱmanyȱrespectsȱtheȱpositionȱofȱtheȱhousedȱpeasantry,ȱwho
avoidedȱtheȱsometimesȱmeddlingȱpowersȱofȱtheȱcommuneȱandȱgainedȱrelatively
freeȱ alienabilityȱ ofȱ theirȱ land,ȱ inȱ manyȱ regionsȱ ofȱ theȱ empire,ȱ theȱ contractȱ of
emphyteusis52ȱcreatedȱaȱnewȱkindȱofȱconditionalȱownership,ȱwhichȱalongȱwithȱthe
impartibilityȱofȱpropertyȱwouldȱcreateȱaȱsymbiosisȱbetweenȱpeasantȱandȱstateȱas
50
Peterȱ Blickle,ȱ Fromȱ theȱ Communalȱ Reformationȱ toȱ theȱ Revolutionȱ ofȱ theȱ Commonȱ Man.ȱ Studiesȱ in
MedievalȱandȱReformationȱThought,ȱ64ȱ(Leiden,ȱBoston,ȱandȱCologne:ȱBrill,ȱ1998),ȱ181–84.
51
Blickle,ȱFromȱtheȱCommunalȱReformationȱ(seeȱnoteȱ50),ȱ119;ȱseeȱalsoȱhisȱDieȱRevolutionȱvonȱ1525,ȱ2nd
ed.ȱ(1975;ȱMunichȱandȱVienna:ȱOldenbourg,ȱ1981).
52
Emphyteusisȱ isȱ aȱ leaseholdȱ inȱ civilȱ law,ȱ whetherȱ inȱ perpetuityȱ orȱ forȱ aȱ termȱ ofȱ years,ȱ upon
reservationȱnotȱonlyȱofȱanȱannualȱcanon,ȱorȱrent,ȱbutȱuponȱtheȱfurtherȱconditionȱthatȱtheȱlessee
shouldȱimproveȱtheȱpropertyȱinȱsomeȱrespect,ȱwhetherȱbyȱbuilding,ȱcultivatingȱorȱotherwise,ȱand
certainlyȱbyȱavoidingȱwaste.ȱInȱgeneral,ȱwithȱtheȱexceptionȱofȱthatȱlatterȱconditionȱagainstȱwaste,
theȱholder,ȱorȱemphyteuta,ȱisȱentitledȱtoȱenjoyȱandȱalienateȱtheȱpropertyȱasȱifȱitȱwereȱhisȱown
householdersȱwereȱforcedȱtoȱfunctionȱasȱunpaidȱbureaucratsȱofȱtheȱregime.53ȱBy
thatȱ time,ȱ Thomasȱ Littleton,ȱ chezȱ Coke,54ȱ hadȱ longȱ sinceȱ pronouncedȱ most
eloquently:ȱLibertasȱestȱnaturalisȱfacultasȱejusȱquodȱcuiqueȱfacereȱlibet,ȱnisiȱquodȱdeȱjure
autȱviȱprohibeturȱ[Libertyȱisȱthatȱnaturalȱfacultyȱthatȱallowsȱoneȱtoȱdoȱwhateverȱone
pleasesȱunlessȱrestrainedȱbyȱlawȱorȱforceȱ],ȱwhichȱmentalitéȱprovidedȱstimulusȱfor
anȱ upwardȱ mobilityȱ ofȱ theȱ peasantryȱ whoseȱ gentrifiedȱ descendantsȱ would
successfullyȱchallengeȱtheȱEnglishȱnobilityȱinȱaȱcivilȱwarȱoverȱwhatȱCokeȱwould
haveȱdeemedȱtheȱprescriptiveȱcustomsȱofȱtheȱrealm,ȱcontemporaneousȱwithȱthe
disastrousȱ Thirtyȱ Years’ȱ Warȱ thatȱ wreakedȱ havocȱ onȱ Germany,ȱ allowedȱ many
Westernȱlordsȱtoȱregainȱpeasantsȱlands,ȱandȱplungedȱherȱnortheasternȱpeasantry
intoȱaȱservitudeȱworseȱthanȱanyȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges.
ȱ
ȱ
53
Onȱthisȱdevelopment,ȱseeȱHermannȱRebel,ȱPeasantȱClasses:ȱTheȱBureaucratizationȱofȱPropertyȱand
FamilyȱRelationsȱunderȱHabsburgȱAbsolutismȱ1511–1636ȱ(Princeton,ȱNJ:ȱPrincetonȱUniversityȱPress,
1983),ȱ160–67.
54
SirȱEdwardȱCoke,ȱTheȱFirstȱPartȱofȱtheȱInstitutesȱofȱtheȱLawsȱofȱEngland,ȱorȱaȱcommentaryȱonȱLittleton.
16thȱed.ȱ(1628;ȱLondon:ȱHansard,ȱ1809),ȱ116.
Chapterȱ22
SharonȱD.ȱKing
(UCLAȱCenterȱforȱMedievalȱandȱRenaissanceȱStudies,ȱLosȱAngeles,ȱCA)
VillageȱPeople:ȱTheȱPresenceȱofȱtheȱRuralȱinȱLateȬ
MedievalȱFrenchȱComedies
Fromȱ Aristotleȱ onward,ȱ comedyȱ inȱ Westernȱ perspectiveȱ hasȱ centeredȱ onȱ the
concernsȱofȱtheȱlowerȱclasses.1ȱThusȱitȱshouldȱcomeȱasȱnoȱsurpriseȱthatȱtheȱissues,
motifs,ȱcharacters,ȱandȱsettingsȱofȱtheȱmenuȱpeupleȱandȱtheȱruralȱspacesȱtheyȱoccupy
areȱ partȱ andȱ parcelȱ ofȱ manyȱ ofȱ theȱ comicȱ popularȱ playsȱ ofȱ fifteenthȱ andȱ early
sixteenthȬcenturyȱFrance.2ȱAsȱscholarsȱsuchȱasȱDubyȱandȱFreedmanȱhaveȱobserved,
ruralȱpeoplesȱwereȱpillarsȱofȱmedievalȱsociety,ȱifȱfarȱdownȱonȱtheȱtotemȱpole,ȱtheir
laborȱsupplyingȱfoodstuffsȱandȱotherȱcommoditiesȱnecessaryȱtoȱtheȱpopulaceȱasȱa
whole.3ȱDespiteȱtheȱharshȱexigenciesȱofȱpeasantȱlifeȱinȱthisȱperiod—someȱofȱwhich
comeȱacrossȱquiteȱclearlyȱinȱtheȱfarces—thereȱwasȱplentyȱaudiencesȱwouldȱhave
foundȱtoȱlaughȱaboutȱinȱtheȱtheatricalȱdepictionȱofȱpeasantsȱandȱtheirȱagrarian
contextsȱonstage.4ȱFields,ȱgrovesȱandȱcountrysideȱfeatureȱprominentlyȱasȱplacesȱof
1
“Comedyȱisȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱanȱimitationȱofȱcharactersȱofȱaȱlowerȱtypeȱ.ȱ.ȱ.”ȱAristotle,ȱPoetics,ȱV,ȱCriticalȱThinking
SinceȱPlato,ȱed.ȱHazardȱAdamsȱ(NewȱYork:ȱHarcourtȱBrace,ȱ1971),ȱ51.
2
InȱthisȱpostȬAuerbachȱera,ȱitȱisȱprobablyȱusefulȱtoȱacknowledgeȱthatȱthereȱisȱonlyȱincomplete
correspondenceȱbetweenȱrepresentationȱandȱtheȱrealityȱbehindȱit.ȱThoughȱwhatȱoccursȱinȱthese
textsȱisȱfictional,ȱandȱmoreoverȱskewedȱtowardsȱtheȱmakingȱofȱcomedy,ȱthereȱareȱstillȱelements
thatȱgroundȱtheȱfictionsȱinȱsomethingȱcloserȱtoȱrealityȱthanȱpureȱandȱsimpleȱfantasy.
3
Georgesȱ Duby,ȱ Ruralȱ Economyȱ andȱ Countryȱ Lifeȱ inȱ theȱ Medievalȱ West,ȱ trans.ȱ Cynthiaȱ Postan
(Columbia,ȱSC:ȱUniversityȱofȱSouthȱCarolinaȱPress,ȱ1968),ȱoriginallyȱpublishedȱasȱL’économieȱrurale
etȱ laȱ vieȱ desȱ campagnesȱ dansȱ l’occidentȱ médiévalȱ (Paris:ȱ Aubier,ȱ Editionsȱ Montaigne,ȱ 1982);ȱ Paul
Freedman,ȱImagesȱofȱtheȱMedievalȱPeasantȱ(Stanford:ȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1999).
4
Historiansȱacknowledgeȱtheȱheavyȱburdens,ȱbothȱinȱtheȱformȱofȱtaxesȱandȱbackbreakingȱlaborȱwith
onlyȱrudimentaryȱfarmȱequipment,ȱplacedȱonȱruralȱpopulationsȱinȱFranceȱfollowingȱtheȱHundred
Years’ȱWar.ȱSeeȱRobertȱBoutruche,ȱ“TheȱDevastationȱofȱRuralȱAreasȱduringȱtheȱHundredȱYears’
704 SharonȱD.ȱKing
work,ȱ adventure,ȱ andȱ mischiefȱ forȱ theȱ charactersȱ ofȱ theȱ farces.ȱ So,ȱ too,ȱ doȱ the
techniques,ȱimplements,ȱandȱproductsȱofȱfarmingȱandȱlivestockȱrearing,ȱalongȱwith
theȱworkȱdoneȱbyȱsmallȱtradesmenȱofȱtheȱvillage.5ȱOfȱinterestȱisȱthatȱtheȱplays,
thoughȱnoȱstrangerȱtoȱtheȱstereotypesȱofȱpeasantsȱasȱignorantȱorȱsometimesȱakin
toȱtheȱbeastsȱtheyȱraise,6ȱdepictȱmoreȱofȱaȱrangeȱofȱcharacterȱtypesȱthanȱoneȱmight
suspect.ȱ Ruralȱ charactersȱ runȱ theȱ gamutȱ fromȱ clumsyȱ ignoramusesȱ toȱ savvy
pragmatists,ȱfromȱcravenȱlechersȱtoȱskilledȱinnocents.ȱAndȱwhenȱtheȱextantȱcomic
playsȱofȱtheȱlateȬmedievalȱperiodȱinȱFranceȱtouchȱonȱmattersȱofȱcourtȱandȱnobility,
itȱisȱusuallyȱtoȱplaceȱthemȱinȱhumorousȱcontrastȱwithȱtheȱlessȱrefinedȱclasses,ȱand
noneȱemergeȱunscathedȱfromȱtheȱencounter.7ȱThisȱsubjectȱisȱaȱvastȱundertaking,
meritingȱ anȱ inȬdepthȱ analysisȱ suchȱ asȱ isȱ foundȱ inȱ Wilhelmȱ Blankenburg’s
venerableȱ studyȱ ofȱ theȱ treatmentȱ ofȱ Frenchȱ peasantryȱ inȱ fabliaux,ȱ orȱ František
Graus’sȱmoreȱrecentȱexaminationȱofȱtheȱparodicȱtreatmentȱofȱupperȱandȱlower
classesȱinȱtwelfthȬȱandȱthirteenthȬcenturyȱFrenchȱliterature.8ȱThisȱbriefȱoverview
ofȱFrenchȱfarcesȱ(asȱwellȱasȱaȱfewȱsottiesȱandȱfarcesȱallegorisées)ȱofȱtheȱlateȬmedieval
/ȱearlyȬmodernȱperiodsȱthatȱdealȱwithȱmattersȱandȱcharactersȱoutsideȱofȱanȱurban
context,ȱtoȱwhichȱIȱhaveȱdelimitedȱthisȱstudy,9ȱisȱintendedȱtoȱsuggestȱhowȱthese
popularȱplaysȱconveyedȱtheȱpresenceȱofȱtheȱruralȱinȱwaysȱthatȱeitherȱsetȱtheȱstage
forȱcomedyȱorȱcreatedȱitȱoutright.
WarȱandȱtheȱAgriculturalȱRecoveryȱofȱFrance,”ȱTheȱRecoveryȱofȱFranceȱinȱtheȱFifteenthȱCentury,ȱed.
PeterȱSherveyȱLewis;ȱtrans.ȱG.ȱF.ȱMartinȱ(NewȱYork:ȱHarperȱ&ȱRow,ȱ1972),ȱ23–59.ȱ
5
Iȱamȱnotȱengagingȱinȱtheȱrecentȱscholarlyȱdebateȱregardingȱtheȱemergenceȱandȱredefinitionȱofȱthe
medievalȱvillageȱasȱencellulement.ȱSeeȱTheȱRuralȱHistoryȱofȱMedievalȱEuropeanȱSocieties:ȱTrendsȱand
Perspectives,ȱed.ȱIsabelȱAlfonso.ȱTheȱMedievalȱCountryside,ȱ1ȱ(Turnhout,ȱBelgium:ȱBrepols,ȱ2007),
andȱAutourȱduȱ“village”:ȱétablissementsȱhumains,ȱfinagesȱetȱcommunautésȱruralȱentreȱSeineȱetȱRhin,ȱed.
JeanȬMarieȱ Yanteȱ andȱ AnneȬMarieȱ BultotȬVerleysenȱ (LouvainȬlaȬNeuve:ȱ L’Instituteȱ d’Etudes
Médiévales,ȱ2010).ȱAsȱnotedȱabove,ȱtheȱvillagesȱinȱanyȱcaseȱareȱworksȱofȱfiction.
6
SeeȱFreedman,ȱImagesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ1–5.
7
Thereȱareȱcertainlyȱexceptions:ȱPattesȬouaintesȱcentersȱaroundȱuniversityȱshenanigansȱ(and,ȱas
BernardȱFaivreȱhasȱobserved,ȱseemsȱmuchȱmoreȱlikeȱaȱsottieȱorȱallegoryȱthanȱaȱdomesticȱfarce).
Ragot,ȱMusardeȱetȱBabilleȱpitsȱtwoȱParisianȱwasherwomenȱagainstȱaȱbeggar,ȱnoneȱfaringȱparticularly
wellȱexceptȱinȱtheȱrhetoricalȱprowessȱofȱtheirȱepithets.ȱCapitaineȱMalȱàȱPoint,ȱaȱvariantȱonȱfranc
archerȱcomicȱplaysȱ(seeȱnoteȱ45),ȱhasȱtwoȱmilitaryȱbraggartsȱvyingȱwithȱeachȱotherȱinȱtellingȱstories,
andȱrecruitingȱtwoȱdestituteȱcooksȱasȱtheyȱwageȱimaginativeȱbattlesȱagainstȱfoodstuffs.ȱForȱaȱbrief
summaryȱofȱPattesȬouaintes,ȱseeȱFaivre,ȱRépertoireȱdesȱfarcesȱfrançaises:ȱdesȱoriginesȱàȱTabarinȱ(Paris:
ImprimerieȱNationale,ȱ1993),ȱ328–29;ȱseeȱalsoȱPetitȱdeȱJulleville’sȱRépertoireȱduȱthéâtreȱcomiqueȱen
FranceȱauȱMoyenȬAgeȱ(Paris:ȱLéopoldȱCerf,ȱ1886),ȱ206–08.ȱForȱRagot,ȱMusardeȱetȱBabille,ȱseeȱFaivre,
Répertoireȱ(seeȱnoteȱ7),ȱ366–67;ȱforȱCapitaineȱMalȱàȱPoint,ȱseeȱFaivre,ȱRépertoireȱ(seeȱnoteȱ7),ȱ82–83.
8
WilhelmȱBlankenburg,ȱDerȱVilainȱinȱderȱSchilderungȱderȱaltfranzösischenȱFabliauxȱ(Greifswald:ȱDruck
vonȱJ.ȱAbel,ȱ1902);ȱKathrynȱGravdal,ȱVilainȱandȱCourtois:ȱTransgressiveȱParodyȱinȱFrenchȱLiterature
ofȱtheȱTwelfthȱandȱThirteenthȱCenturies.ȱRegentsȱStudiesȱinȱMedievalȱCultureȱ(Lincoln:ȱUniversity
ofȱNebraskaȱPress,ȱ1989).
9
Thereȱisȱalsoȱoneȱreferenceȱtoȱaȱrelevantȱpoemȱinȱtheȱfootnotes.
TheȱPresenceȱofȱtheȱRuralȱinȱLateȬMedievalȱFrenchȱComedies 705
Theȱrealitiesȱofȱlifeȱexȱurbeȱprovideȱgreatȱ“localȱcolor”ȱtoȱtheȱfarcesȱofȱtheȱlateȬ
medievalȱ period,ȱ givingȱ temporalȱ andȱ materialȱ qualifiersȱ toȱ otherwiseȱ very
universalȱcomedy.ȱThoseȱengagedȱinȱsemiruralȱorȱvillageȱtrades,ȱwithȱallȱtheir
encodedȱstereotypes,ȱcomeȱbeforeȱusȱonstage,ȱwhetherȱtheirȱworkȱorȱtheȱfruitsȱof
theirȱlaborȱbeȱobviousȱorȱabsent.ȱTheseȱincludeȱ(butȱareȱnotȱlimitedȱto)10ȱcheating
millers,ȱwhoȱmayȱinȱturnȱbeȱcheatedȱonȱ(Leȱmeunierȱdeȱquiȱleȱdiableȱemporteȱl’ameȱen
enfer,ȱLeȱmeunierȱetȱleȱgentilhomme),ȱbelligerentȱfishwivesȱ(L’antechristȱetȱtroisȱfemmes,
Lesȱfemmesȱquiȱfontȱaccroireȱàȱleursȱmarisȱdeȱvessiesȱqueȱceȱsontȱlanternes),ȱandȱcrafty
and/orȱ ribaldȱ itinerantȱ tinkersȱ (Leȱ chauldronnier,ȱ Lesȱ femmesȱ quiȱ fontȱ écurerȱ leurs
chaudrons;ȱLeȱchauldronnier,ȱleȱsavetier,ȱetȱleȱtavernier).11ȱTheȱplaysȱalsoȱpresentȱaȱhost
ofȱshiftlessȱand/orȱfoolishȱtravelingȱcobblersȱ(MartinȱdeȱCambrai;ȱLeȱsavetierȱAudin;
Leȱ savetierȱ Calbain;ȱ Leȱ savetier,ȱ leȱ moine,ȱ laȱ femme,ȱ leȱ portier;ȱ Leȱ savetier,ȱ Marguet,
Jaquet,ȱProserpine;ȱLeȱsavetierȱquiȱneȱrépondȱqueȱchansons;ȱLesȱdeuxȱsavetiers),ȱstingy
tripeȬsellersȱ(Unȱaveugle,ȱsonȱvaletȱetȱuneȱtripière;ȱLaȱtripière),ȱandȱoneȱquarrelsome
milkmaidȱwithȱnoȱscruplesȱaboutȱtakingȱonȱtheȱlawȱ(Leȱsavetier,ȱleȱsergent,ȱetȱla
laitière).12ȱ
Theȱkeepingȱandȱsellingȱofȱchickensȱseemsȱtoȱhaveȱbeenȱanȱespeciallyȱfavorite
ruralȱ tradeȱ depictedȱ inȱ theȱ farcesȱ ofȱ thisȱ period,ȱ beȱ itȱ evokedȱ throughȱ actual
hawkingȱ ofȱ poultry13ȱ (Leȱ marchandȱ deȱ volailleȱ etȱ lesȱ deuxȱ voleurs,ȱ Lesȱ femmesȱ qui
vendentȱamourettesȱenȱgrosȱetȱenȱdétail)ȱorȱthroughȱfranticȱloversȱhavingȱrecourseȱto
chickenȱcoopsȱinȱwhichȱtheyȱmustȱhideȱfromȱenragedȱhusbandsȱ(Leȱpoulaillerȱà
quatreȱpersonnages,14ȱLesȱdeuxȱgentilshommesȱetȱleȱmeunier).15ȱTheȱtasksȱofȱmaking
wine—andȱtheȱjoysȱofȱpurchasingȱandȱconsumingȱit—areȱevokedȱinȱatȱleastȱfive
farces:ȱLeȱpourpointȱrétréci,ȱPernetȱquiȱvaȱauȱvin,ȱLeȱtestamentȱdeȱPathelin,ȱLaȱnourrice
etȱlaȱchambrière,ȱandȱLourdaudȱetȱTardȱHabile.16
10
Indeed,ȱitȱisȱhardȱtoȱknowȱwhatȱtradesȱtoȱomitȱfromȱthisȱlisting,ȱasȱmostȱareȱarguablyȱrural;ȱone
couldȱ conceivablyȱ includeȱ alsoȱ fabricatorsȱ ofȱ skatesȱ (Celuyȱ quiȱ gardeȱ lesȱ patins,ȱ Leȱ patinier),ȱ a
chimneysweepȱ(Leȱrammoneurȱdeȱcheminées),ȱandȱaȱhostȱofȱvillageȱpriests,ȱinȱfarcesȱtooȱnumerous
toȱnumber.
11
Again,ȱthisȱlistȱisȱmeantȱtoȱindicateȱareasȱforȱstudy;ȱsomeȱofȱtheseȱfarcesȱwillȱnotȱbeȱanalyzedȱhere.
12
TheȱtradeȱofȱwaterȬcarrierȱisȱalsoȱacknowledgedȱinȱoneȱfarceȱ(Leȱporteurȱd’eau)ȱ,ȱthoughȱtheȱtrade
isȱfranklyȱincidentalȱtoȱtheȱplot.
13
MayȱIȱbeȱforgivenȱtheȱpun.
14
AlsoȱknownȱasȱLeȱpoulierȱàȱquatreȱpersonnages.ȱTheȱmoreȱmodernizedȱspellingȱisȱgivenȱinȱFaivre’s
Répertoireȱ(seeȱnoteȱ7),ȱ351–53.
15
AlsoȱknownȱasȱLeȱpoulaillerȱàȱsixȱpersonnages,ȱinȱFaivre’sȱlistingȱ(seeȱnoteȱ7).ȱTheȱmotifȱofȱlovers
hidingȱinȱ(orȱunderneath)ȱchickenȱcoops,ȱofȱcourse,ȱisȱhardlyȱanȱunfamiliarȱone;ȱseeȱBoccaccio,
Decameron,ȱV,ȱ10.
16
AsȱwellȱasȱinȱtheȱpreviouslyȱmentionedȱLeȱchaudronnier,ȱleȱsavietier,ȱetȱleȱtavernier.ȱOneȱmightȱbe
temptedȱtoȱincludeȱinȱthisȱlistȱtheȱcontributionsȱmadeȱbyȱ“Leȱvigneron”ȱinȱtheȱRogerȱdeȱCollerye’s
1530ȱallegoricalȱsottie,ȱexceptȱthatȱtheȱcharacter’sȱspeechesȱfocusȱnotȱonȱtheȱgrowingȱofȱwineȱgrapes
butȱonȱtheȱabundantȱwheatȱcropȱandȱtheȱstinginessȱofȱbakersȱwhoȱsellȱshortenedȱloavesȱofȱbread
toȱtheȱhungryȱmasses.ȱSeeȱdeȱCollerye,ȱSatyreȱpourȱlesȱhabitansȱd’Auxerre,ȱinȱRecueilȱgénéralȱdes
Farmȱworkersȱgoingȱtoȱlaborȱinȱtheirȱfieldsȱoftenȱgiveȱtheȱoccasionȱforȱallȱkinds
ofȱillicitȱliaisonsȱinȱtheseȱcomicȱplays.ȱInȱLeȱretrait,ȱaȱfarceȱprobablyȱinȱlargeȱpart
derivedȱfromȱtheȱCentȱnouvellesȱnouvelles,17ȱtheȱhusband’sȱdepartureȱtoȱworkȱ“aux
champs”ȱprovidesȱtheȱopportunityȱforȱtheȱwife’sȱloverȱtoȱbeȱletȱinȱbyȱtheȱhousehold
servant,ȱGuillot.ȱToȱbeȱsure,ȱtheȱloverȱthenȱhasȱtoȱcontendȱwithȱthisȱallȬtooȬclever
fool,ȱwhoȱnearlyȱscotchesȱtheȱaffairȱbyȱdroppingȱhintsȱofȱillicitȱactivitiesȱtoȱthe
husband.ȱTheȱlatter’sȱsuddenȱappearanceȱbackȱatȱtheȱhouse,ȱGuillotȱslylyȱsuggests,
mustȱmeanȱtheȱfarmerȱhasȱtendedȱtoȱhisȱwheatȱinȱrecordȱtime:ȱ“Vraymentȱvosȱblés
sontȱbienȱsaclés,”ȱ(Lȱ237;ȱYourȱwheatȱmustȱbeȱwellȱweededȱindeed!)—anȱironic
remarkȱguaranteedȱtoȱtipȱoffȱtheȱhusband.18ȱTheȱcuckoldedȱhusbandȱinȱLeȱvilain,
saȱfemmeȱetȱleȱcuré,ȱaȱvariantȱofȱtheȱhilariousȱMartinȱdeȱCambrai,ȱcomesȱhomeȱfrom
workingȱ inȱ theȱ fieldȱ toȱ dineȱ andȱ returnsȱ toȱ hisȱ fieldsȱ toȱ workȱ andȱ nap,ȱ inȱ the
intervalȱforbiddingȱhisȱscoldȱofȱaȱwifeȱtoȱentertainȱtheȱpriestȱ(anȱinterdictionȱwhich
ofȱcourseȱsheȱignores).19ȱ
Itȱisȱpreciselyȱtoȱsecureȱhisȱwifeȱagainstȱthisȱtypeȱofȱextramaritalȱadventureȱwith
theȱ localȱ clericalȱ representativesȱ thatȱ theȱ laborerȱ husband,ȱ inȱ Laȱ femmeȱ quiȱ fut
dérobéeȱàȱsonȱmariȱenȱsaȱhotte,20ȱresortsȱtoȱratherȱextraordinaryȱhomespunȱmeasures,
whichȱofȱcourseȱareȱstillȱcomicallyȱthwarted.ȱTheȱfarmer,ȱagainȱaȱkinderȱifȱnot
muchȱgentlerȱversionȱofȱtheȱcynicalȱhusbandȱinȱMartinȱdeȱCambrai,ȱurgesȱhisȱwife
toȱaccompanyȱhimȱtoȱharvestȱtheȱfieldsȱofȱhemp,21ȱwhere,ȱifȱtheyȱwantȱtoȱhaveȱan
abundantȱyieldȱfromȱtheirȱliberalȱsowing,ȱ“Cultiverȱleȱfaultȱdeȱbonneȱheure”ȱ(Lȱ6;
Itȱ mustȱ beȱ reapedȱ early).ȱ Theȱ wife,ȱ ifȱ notȱ pregnant,ȱ isȱ apparentlyȱ barefoot,
complainingȱofȱsoreȱfeetȱtoȱexcuseȱherselfȱfromȱtheȱtask:ȱ“Ilȱmeȱtientȱauxȱjambesȱet
auxȱpiedz”ȱ(Lȱ21;ȱ“It’sȱgotȱmeȱinȱtheȱlegsȱandȱfeet”).ȱTheȱhusbandȱusesȱallȱmanner
ofȱ pleasȱ toȱ persuadeȱ her,ȱ vowingȱ toȱ buyȱ herȱ aȱ pairȱ ofȱ shoesȱ fromȱ aȱ huckster,
insistingȱherȱpresenceȱwillȱgiveȱhimȱmoreȱheartȱtoȱdoȱhisȱwork,ȱpromisingȱtoȱbring
sotties,ȱvol.ȱ2,ȱed.ȱEmileȱPicotȱ(Paris:ȱLibrairieȱdeȱFirminȱDidotȱetȱCie,ȱ1904),ȱ347–72.
17
Anonymous,ȱLeȱretrait,ȱinȱRecueilȱdeȱfarces,ȱ1450–1550,ȱed.ȱAndréȱTissier,ȱvol.ȱIȱ(Genève:ȱDroz,
1986),ȱ179–242.ȱForȱclarity,ȱhereafterȱIȱwillȱreferȱtoȱthisȱcollectionȱusingȱtheȱfollowingȱformat:
Tissier,ȱvolumeȱ(year),ȱpages.ȱForȱaȱdiscussionȱofȱLeȱretrait’sȱrelationshipȱtoȱNouvelleȱLXXIIȱofȱthe
Centȱnouvellesȱnouvelles,ȱseeȱTissier,ȱIȱ(1986),ȱ183–89.
18
Itȱisȱtoȱbeȱnotedȱthatȱinȱthisȱplay,ȱasȱwithȱtheȱchickenȬcoopȱfarces,ȱtheȱoutdoorȱprivyȱisȱusedȱasȱa
placeȱforȱtheȱloverȱtoȱhide,ȱthoughȱheȱmostȱcertainlyȱdoesȱnotȱescapeȱunmarkedȱfromȱtheȱordeal.
19
GrahamȱA.ȱRunnalls,ȱ“Uneȱfarceȱinédite:ȱLaȱfarceȱduȱvilain,ȱsaȱfemmeȱetȱleȱcuré,”ȱRomaniaȱCVIȱ(1985):
456–80.
20
Anonymous,ȱFarceȱdeȱlaȱfemmeȱquiȱfutȱdesrobéeȱàȱsonȱmariȱenȱsaȱhoteȱetȱmiseȱuneȱpierreȱenȱsonȱlieu,
RecueilȱdeȱfarcesȱfrançaisesȱinéditesȱduȱXVeȱsiècle,ȱed.ȱGustaveȱCohenȱ(Cambridge,ȱMA:ȱTheȱMedieval
AcademyȱofȱAmerica,ȱ1949),ȱ179–85.
21
Hempȱwasȱnotȱanȱuncommonȱmedievalȱcrop,ȱforȱuseȱasȱaȱfibreȱasȱwellȱasȱaȱfood.ȱItȱisȱmentioned
inȱJeanȬBruyerinȱChampier’sȱ1560ȱtreatiseȱDeȱreȱcibariaȱasȱaȱfoodȱcommonlyȱraisedȱinȱareasȱorȱtimes
whenȱsufficientȱprovisionsȱwereȱlacking.ȱSeeȱMadeleineȱFerrières,ȱSacredȱCow,ȱMadȱCow:ȱAȱHistory
ofȱFoodȱFears,ȱtrans.ȱJodyȱGladdingȱ(NewȱYork:ȱColumbia,ȱ2006),ȱ142–43ȱ[originallyȱpublishedȱas
Histoireȱdesȱpeursȱalimentaires:ȱDuȱMoyenȱâgeȱàȱl’aubeȱduȱXXeȱSiècleȱ(Paris:ȱEditionsȱduȱSeuil,ȱ2002)].
aȱbottleȱalongȱsoȱtheyȱcanȱmakeȱmerry.ȱAndȱtoȱresolveȱherȱchiefȱobjectionȱofȱhaving
toȱwalk,ȱheȱvolunteersȱtoȱcarryȱherȱoutȱtoȱtheȱfieldsȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱinȱaȱsack.ȱButȱthereȱisȱno
escapeȱfromȱmischief:ȱevenȱsoȱaccoutered,ȱandȱsoȱfarȱoutȱinȱtheȱcountryside,ȱthe
wifeȱisȱasȱmuchȱaȱbullsȬeyeȱofȱtemptationȱasȱherȱhusbandȱisȱaȱtargetȱofȱsport.ȱTwo
ribaldȱclergyȱmembersȱconspireȱtoȱputȱaȱlargeȱrockȱinȱherȱplaceȱinȱtheȱsackȱwhile
theyȱhaveȱaȱrompȱwithȱtheȱacquiescingȱwife,ȱconvincingȱtheȱallȬtooȬgullibleȱfarmer
sheȱ hasȱ beenȱ convertedȱ toȱ stoneȱ becauseȱ ofȱ hisȱ sinȱ ofȱ jealousy.22ȱ Theȱ ironyȱ is
palpable:ȱtheȱliteralȱstoneȱheȱwouldȱordinarilyȱconsiderȱmerelyȱanȱobstacleȱasȱhe
plowedȱhisȱfieldȱnowȱweighsȱhimȱdownȱmetaphoricallyȱwithȱguilt—untilȱheȱcries
pardonȱandȱisȱreunitedȱwithȱhisȱwifeȱatȱtheȱplay’sȱend.
Oneȱofȱtheȱmostȱmasterfulȱofȱfarcesȱthatȱinvolveȱworkersȱtoilingȱonȱtheȱland—in
thisȱcase,ȱaȱvineyard—isȱPierreȱGringoire’sȱ1512ȱCarnivalȱplayȱRaoulletȱPloyart.23
Verily,ȱthisȱisȱoneȱplowmanȱthatȱhasȱnoȱpeers.24ȱNorȱwouldȱanyȱwishȱtoȱbe,ȱfor,
accordingȱtoȱhisȱexasperatedȱwife,ȱtheȱunfortunateȱRaoulletȱhasȱaȱplowȱthatȱisȱno
longerȱwhatȱitȱonceȱwasȱandȱwillȱnotȱstandȱupȱtoȱtheȱtask.ȱHisȱwife,ȱclaimingȱthat
theȱproperȱtillingȱisȱnotȱbeingȱdoneȱonȱtheȱperfectlyȱarableȱlandȱsheȱhasȱtoȱoffer,
urgesȱhimȱtoȱhireȱoutȱhisȱfieldȱworkȱtoȱtwoȱdandies,ȱDireȱandȱFaireȱ(Wordsȱand
Deeds);ȱinȱtheȱfaceȱofȱhisȱreluctance,ȱsheȱundertakesȱtheȱlaborȱonȱtheȱsly.ȱTheȱtask
isȱaccomplished,ȱnotȱsurprisingly,ȱbyȱDeedsȱ(whoseȱenthusiasmȱforȱtheȱplowing
isȱcommentedȱonȱbyȱtheȱcheekyȱhouseholdȱservantȱMausecret)ȱtoȱtheȱwife’sȱdelight
andȱtheȱpoorȱusurpedȱplowman’sȱdismay.ȱTheȱfarce,ȱofȱcourse,ȱisȱinȱfactȱaȱbawdy
extendedȱplayȱonȱwordsȱaboutȱanotherȱkindȱofȱfertilityȱentirely,ȱthoughȱoneȱjust
asȱnecessaryȱtoȱhumanȱexistence.25ȱStill,ȱitȱcomesȱrepleteȱwithȱfarmȱterminology,
including,ȱ butȱ byȱ noȱ meansȱ limitedȱ to,ȱ theȱ doubleȬsensȱ expressionsȱ “houe,”
“besches,”ȱ “fouller,”ȱ “jumelles,”ȱ andȱ “renverserȱ laȱ terre”ȱ (hoe,ȱ spades,ȱ dig,
22
TheȱabundanceȱofȱphilanderingȱpriestsȱinȱtheȱruralȱfarcesȱofȱthisȱperiodȱinȱFranceȱseemsȱtoȱindicate
thatȱtheseȱwereȱcharactersȱplausibleȱenoughȱtoȱbeȱconsideredȱstandardȱentertainment.ȱAtȱtheȱvery
leastȱtheirȱpresenceȱsupportsȱwhatȱhistoriansȱnowȱassert:ȱthatȱruralȱclergy,ȱfarȱfromȱtheirȱabsentee
stereotypes,ȱ wereȱ quiteȱ vigorousȱ membersȱ ofȱ theȱ countrysideȱ communitiesȱ theyȱ served.ȱ See
GraemeȱSmall,ȱLateȱMedievalȱFrance.ȱEuropeanȱHistoryȱinȱPerspectiveȱ(Houndmills,ȱBasingstoke,
Hampshire,ȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱPalgraveȱMacmillan,ȱ2009),ȱ88–93.
23
Tissier,ȱIIȱ(1987),ȱ231–85.ȱForȱaȱrecentȱstudyȱofȱGringoire’sȱentireȱentertainmentȱ(comprisingȱfour
plays),ȱseeȱAlanȱHindley,ȱ“PierreȱGringoire,ȱSatireȱandȱCarnival,”ȱCourtȱandȱHumourȱinȱtheȱFrench
Renaissance:ȱEssaysȱinȱHonourȱofȱProfessorȱPaulineȱSmith,ȱed.ȱSarahȱAlynȱStaceyȱ(Oxford,ȱBern,ȱetȱal.:
PeterȱLang,ȱ2009),ȱ183–98.
24
AnotherȱpunȱforȱwhichȱIȱbegȱforgivenessȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱDespiteȱtheȱsharedȱprofessionȱ(andȱtheȱpresenceȱof
theȱtwoȱallegoricalȱcharacters/workmen),ȱGringoire’sȱbawdyȱplayȱdoesȱnotȱseemȱtoȱbeȱderivedȱin
anyȱwayȱfromȱtheȱEnglishȱnarrativeȱpoemȱPiersȱPlowmanȱanalyzedȱinȱtheȱIntroductionȱtoȱthis
volume.ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱDanielȱF.ȱPigg.
25
Forȱ aȱ moreȱ detailedȱ studyȱ ofȱ thisȱ genreȱ ofȱ dramatizedȱ extendedȱ metaphor,ȱ Iȱ referȱ toȱ my
forthcomingȱstudyȱ“AȱPartȱforȱHerȱ(W)hole:ȱMetaphoricalȱAbstractionsȱofȱMaleȱandȱFemaleȱin
Lateȱ Medievalȱ Frenchȱ Comedy,”ȱ Medievalȱ Humour:ȱ Laughter,ȱ Smilesȱ andȱ Sneersȱ ,ȱ ed.ȱ Sally
Vaughn,ȱKatrinȱBeyer,ȱandȱClaudiaȱEschȱ(Turnhout,ȱBelgium:ȱBrepols,ȱn.d.).
pressboards,ȱturnȱoverȱtheȱearth).26ȱAndȱtheȱplayȱunderscores,ȱinȱitsȱownȱgleefully
offcolorȱway,ȱtheȱruralȱnecessitiesȱofȱplowingȱandȱplanting:
Doublette:ȱ
Enȱeffectȱmaȱterreȱestȱenȱbruit.
Ilȱneȱfaultȱqueȱtrouverȱouvriers
Quiȱyȱbesognentȱvoulentiers
Etȱquiȱaientȱdesȱbeschesȱfriandes.ȱ (Lȱ76–81)
[Wife:ȱ
Inȱsooth,ȱmyȱfield’sȱaboutȱtoȱflower
Let’sȱfindȱsomeȱfellowȱwithȱmanpower
Who’sȱwilling,ȱandȱisȱnotȱafraid
Toȱworkȱhisȱfirmȱandȱfriskyȱspade!27]
Thereȱareȱaȱnumberȱofȱfarcesȱinȱwhichȱtheȱruralȱsettingȱisȱkeyȱtoȱtheȱcomicȱeffect.
Inȱ Lesȱ troisȱ amoureuxȱ deȱ laȱ croix,ȱ itȱ isȱ aȱ secludedȱ cross28ȱ somewhereȱ inȱ the
countrysideȱandȱfarȱfromȱpryingȱeyesȱthatȱprovidesȱtheȱbackdropȱforȱaȱfiendishȱcon
game:ȱ threeȱ friendsȱ haveȱ unknowinglyȱ eachȱ madeȱ anȱ amorous—and
prepaid—assignationȱthereȱwithȱtheȱselfsameȱwoman,ȱwhoȱpleadsȱherȱsuspicious
husbandȱwillȱtroubleȱthemȱshouldȱtheyȱpressȱtheirȱsuitȱatȱherȱhouse.ȱTheȱthreeȱare
scheduledȱtoȱmeetȱherȱinȱaȱnotȬtooȬremoteȱlocation,ȱ“Aȱuneȱcroixȱquiȱestȱcyȱprès”
(Lȱ119;ȱatȱaȱcrossȱnearȱhere),ȱandȱcomeȱattired,ȱasȱtheirȱrapaciousȱparamourȱhas
requested,ȱinȱtheȱrespectiveȱguisesȱofȱpriest,ȱdeath,ȱandȱdevil.ȱOfȱcourseȱtheȱthree
confoundȱandȱterrifyȱeachȱotherȱbeforeȱdiscoveringȱthey’veȱbeenȱhad.ȱ
Inȱ likeȱ manner,ȱ theȱ villageȱ fountainȱ fromȱ whichȱ maidservantsȱ wouldȱ obtain
water—asȱwellȱasȱflirtȱandȱvieȱforȱaȱsuitor’sȱattentions—isȱtheȱlocusȱofȱopportunity
inȱ theȱ farceȱ Minceȱ deȱ Quaire.29ȱ Theȱ twoȱ youngȱ womenȱ whoȱ meetȱ thereȱ are
temporarilyȱrivalsȱforȱtheȱ(purchased)ȱaffectionsȱofȱMince,ȱwhoȱhasȱaȱbucketȱof
coldȱwaterȱdashedȱonȱhisȱhopesȱasȱwellȱasȱhisȱpersonȱwhenȱheȱtriesȱtoȱrenegeȱon
hisȱdeal.ȱInȱLesȱchambrières,ȱtoo,ȱtheȱlocalȱfountainȱisȱwhereȱtwoȱwomenȱservants
jockeyȱforȱplaceȱinȱline,ȱgossipȱamicablyȱaboutȱtheirȱmasters,ȱand,ȱwhenȱincitedȱby
theȱallegoricalȱfigureȱDébat,ȱeruptȱintoȱaȱknockȬdown,ȱdragȬoutȱfightȱ(withȱthreats
ofȱbucketsȱbreakingȱoverȱheads)ȱuntilȱreconciledȱbyȱaȱpassingȱFranciscan.30ȱThe
26
EvenȱmoreȱcopiousȱvineyardȬtendingȱterminologyȱisȱtoȱbeȱfoundȱinȱtheȱdecidedlyȱlessȱamusing
anonymousȱpoemȱ“LeȱDébatȱdeȱlaȱVigneȱetȱduȱLaboureur,”ȱinȱwhichȱtheȱfarmerȱtakesȱtheȱvineȱto
taskȱforȱhisȱwoesȱandȱinȱturnȱisȱgivenȱaȱsoundȱverbalȱdrubbingȱbyȱtheȱmalignedȱvine,ȱwhoȱaccuses
theȱworkmanȱofȱstinginessȱandȱanȱoverfondnessȱforȱhisȱendȱproduct.ȱSeeȱ“LeȱDébatȱdeȱlaȱVigne
etȱduȱLaboureur,”ȱRecueilȱdeȱpoésiesȱfrançoisesȱdesȱXVeȱetȱXVIeȱsiècles:ȱmorales,ȱfacétieuses,ȱhistoriques,
vol.ȱII,ȱed.ȱAnatoleȱdeȱMontaiglonȱ(Paris:ȱA.ȱJannet,ȱ1855),ȱ317–24.
27
MyȱunpublishedȱtranslationȱisȱtitledȱRowleyȱPlowbender.ȱCopyrightȱ2011ȱSharonȱD.ȱKing.
28
Orȱcrossroads;ȱbothȱareȱpossibleȱreadings.ȱSeeȱȱRecueil,ȱed.ȱCohenȱ(seeȱnoteȱ20),ȱ57–66.
29
Theȱnameȱmightȱbeȱtranslatedȱasȱ“SlimȱPickens.”ȱSeeȱRecueil,ȱed.ȱCohenȱ(seeȱnoteȱ20),ȱ171–77.
30
Anonymous,ȱLesȱchambrières,ȱRecueil,ȱed.ȱCohenȱ(seeȱnoteȱ20),ȱ413–20.
supposedlyȱ dumbstruckȱ (yetȱ stillȱ amazinglyȱ chatty)ȱ wifeȱ inȱ theȱ farceȱ Leȱ grand
voyageȱetȱpèlerinageȱdeȱSainteȱCaquetteȱtraversesȱtheȱsylvanȱcountrysideȱwithȱher
exasperatedȱhusbandȱtoȱfindȱaȱcureȱforȱherȱallegedȱmutenessȱatȱtheȱshrineȱofȱher
saint.31ȱYetȱtheȱwildsȱareȱperhapsȱnotȱallȱthat,ȱasȱmoreȱthanȱonceȱsheȱisȱdesperate
toȱfindȱaȱsecludedȱplaceȱtoȱrelieveȱherself:ȱ“Jeȱneȱsçayȱlieuȱoùȱjeȱm’acroppe,ȱ/ȱTant
ayȱdeȱpaourȱqueȱl’onȱmeȱvoye”ȱ(Lȱ181–82;ȱIȱdon’tȱknowȱwhereȱIȱcanȱsquatȱdown
/ȱI’mȱsoȱafraidȱsomeoneȱwillȱseeȱme).ȱAndȱtheȱriverȱinȱwhichȱpeopleȱlaunderȱsoiled
linensȱisȱcentralȱtoȱtheȱplot,ȱifȱnotȱactuallyȱpresentȱonstage,ȱinȱTarabin,ȱTarabas,ȱet
TribouilleȱMesnage.32ȱIntendingȱtoȱsendȱtheirȱservantȱTribouilleȱMesnageȱtoȱitsȱbanks
toȱdoȱtheȱwashing,ȱtheȱdisputingȱhusbandȱandȱwifeȱheapȱincreasinglyȱacrimonious
discourseȱuponȱeachȱotherȱwhileȱpilingȱtheirȱdirtyȱlaundryȱ(identifiedȱwithȱscentȬ
specificȱstains)ȱhigherȱandȱhigherȱonȱtheȱputȬuponȱservant.33ȱDisgusted,ȱTribouille
endsȱupȱliterallyȱthrowingȱinȱtheȱtowelȱonȱtheȱwholeȱgrubbyȱaffair.ȱ
Sometimesȱitȱisȱtheȱfruitfulnessȱorȱsimpleȱroutinesȱofȱcountryȱlifeȱthatȱprovides
theȱsalientȱdetailȱaroundȱwhichȱmuchȱofȱtheȱfarce’sȱcomedyȱturns.ȱTheȱhealing
touchȱofȱherbs,ȱimaginaryȱorȱotherwise,ȱisȱalludedȱtoȱinȱLesȱfemmesȱquiȱfontȱbaster
leursȱmarisȱauxȱcorneilles.34ȱTheȱcuckoldȬtoȬbeȱhusbandȱPierreȱisȱsentȱonȱaȱfool’s
errand—“paistreȱ/ȱAuxȱchamps”ȱ(Lȱ72–73;ȱtoȱforageȱinȱtheȱfields)—toȱgatherȱa
nonexistentȱ medicinalȱ rootȱ inȱ theȱ priest’sȱ garden.ȱ Toȱ addressȱ hisȱ wife’sȱ faked
maladyȱofȱtoothache,ȱinȱaȱfakedȱsympatheticȬmagicalȱway,ȱtheȱdupedȱhusbandȱis
assuredȱheȱmustȱpluckȱtheȱ“dronos”ȱherbȱfromȱtheȱgroundȱwithȱhisȱteeth.ȱHis
companionȱinȱmisery,ȱDando,ȱlikewiseȱdiscoversȱthatȱheȱhasȱbeenȱsentȱoutȱintoȱthe
countrysideȱ(whileȱhisȱwifeȱcuckoldsȱhim)ȱquiteȱliterallyȱonȱaȱwildȬgooseȱchase:ȱto
watchȱtheȱflightȱofȱbirdsȱinȱorderȱtoȱpredictȱtheȱadventȱofȱrainȱorȱwinds.ȱTheȱnotȬsoȬ
imaginaryȱ comfortsȱ ofȱ bucolicȱ lifeȱ areȱ heraldedȱ inȱ playsȱ suchȱ asȱ Guillermeȱ qui
mangeaȱ lesȱ figuesȱ duȱ curé,ȱ inȱ whichȱ theȱ mealȱ offeredȱ toȱ theȱ priest’sȱ guestsȱ isȱ to
culminateȱinȱaȱdessertȱofȱtwoȱperfectȱfreshȱfigs—untilȱtheȱpriest’sȱbadinȱservant
Guillermeȱpreemptivelyȱraidsȱtheȱfruitȱbasket,ȱnotȱonceȱbutȱtwice.35ȱ
31
Anonymous,ȱLeȱgrandȱvoyageȱetȱpèlerinageȱdeȱSainteȱCaquette,ȱTissier,ȱIIȱ(1987),ȱ17–72.
32
Anonymous,ȱFarceȱàȱIIIȱpersonnagesȱ(alsoȱknownȱasȱTarabinȬTarabas),ȱRecueil,ȱed.ȱCohenȱ(seeȱnote
20),ȱ95–101.ȱSeeȱalsoȱFaivre,ȱRépertoireȱ(seeȱnoteȱ7),ȱ411–12.
33
Fewȱfarcesȱexhibitȱmoreȱrhetoricallyȱscatologicalȱprowessȱthanȱthisȱone;ȱthisȱmayȱhaveȱsomething
toȱdoȱwithȱwhatȱFreedmanȱhasȱnotedȱasȱtheȱrecurringȱstereotypeȱofȱpeasantsȱbeingȱlinkedȱwith
mattersȱofȱexcretionȱ(myȱaphoristicȱtakeȱonȱthis:ȱ“Peasantsȱhappen”).ȱAȱusefulȱreferenceȱisȱthe
sectionȱ“StupidityȱandȱExcrement”ȱinȱFreedman,ȱImagesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ150–56,ȱasȱwellȱasȱNicolino
Applauso’sȱstudyȱofȱtheȱsatirical,ȱsometimesȱscatological,ȱyetȱseriousȱevocationȱofȱtheȱpeasantȱin
thisȱvolume.
34
Anonymous,ȱLesȱfemmesȱquiȱfontȱbasterȱleursȱmarisȱauxȱcorneilles,ȱRecueil,ȱed.ȱCohenȱ(seeȱnoteȱ20),
227–34.
35
Anonymous,ȱGuillermeȱquiȱmangeaȱlesȱfiguesȱduȱcuré,ȱinȱAncienȱThéâtreȱFrançois,ȱvol.ȱI,ȱed.ȱViolletȱle
Ducȱ(Paris:ȱP.ȱJannet,ȱ1854),ȱ328–50.ȱTheȱplay’sȱtitleȱcontainsȱaȱnaughtyȱplayȱonȱwords,ȱ“figues”
connotingȱtheȱmaleȱgenitaliaȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱfemale,ȱaȱkindȱofȱallȬpurposeȱgenderedȱfruit.ȱSeeȱRobert
InȱtheȱallegoricalȱfragmentȱTraitéȱplaisant.ȱ.ȱ.ȱdeȱFigue,ȱNoèzȱetȱChastègne,ȱtheȱvery
presenceȱofȱtheȱthreeȱcomestiblesȱtestifiesȱtoȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱtheȱfertileȱorchards
fromȱwhenceȱtheyȱcome:ȱ“Apportéesȱdesȱchampsȱsurȱtablesȱ/ȱPourȱsubstanterȱle
corpsȱ humain”ȱ (6;ȱ Broughtȱ fromȱ theȱ fieldsȱ toȱ tablesȱ /ȱ Toȱ nourishȱ theȱ human
body).36ȱTheyȱargueȱtheirȱrelativeȱstatus,ȱfigȱandȱchestnutȱboastingȱthatȱtheyȱareȱa
cutȱaboveȱtheȱlowlyȱapplesȱandȱpears,ȱandȱpityingȱtheȱpoorȱwalnut,ȱfitȱonlyȱtoȱfeed
“Pauvresȱgens”ȱ(6;ȱpoorȱfolk)ȱwhoȱcanȱonlyȱaffordȱwaterȱtoȱdrink.37ȱSimilarly,ȱin
theȱequallyȱfragmentaryȱLeȱvilainȱetȱsonȱfilsȱJacob,ȱtheȱladȱwhoȱrebelsȱagainstȱhis
father’sȱwishȱthatȱheȱgoȱtoȱschoolȱtoȱbecomeȱaȱclerkȱisȱappeasedȱbyȱtheȱfruitsȱof
ruralȱlife—literally:ȱheȱisȱbribedȱwithȱ“.ȱ.ȱ.ȱdesȱpommesȱdedansȱtonȱsac.ȱ/ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ/ȱDes
noisȱauȱflacȱ/ȱEtȱungȱgrosȱcartierȱdeȱfromaige”ȱ(8–9;ȱsomeȱapplesȱinȱyourȱsack,
walnutsȱthatȱgoȱcrack,ȱandȱaȱbigȱwedgeȱofȱcheese).38ȱForthwithȱheȱisȱpoppedȱinto
theȱaforementionedȱbag,ȱtoȱbeȱcartedȱoffȱ“Tandisȱqueȱleȱsacȱdurera”ȱ(9;ȱAsȱlongȱas
theȱsackȱholdsȱup).ȱAndȱinȱLaȱfarceȱnouvelleȱdesȱesbahisȱ(whichȱisȱinȱfactȱaȱsottie),
Dameȱ Justiceȱ ratherȱ smuglyȱ callsȱ attentionȱ toȱ theȱ nurturingȱ abundanceȱ of
crops—enoughȱ grainȱ toȱ makeȱ cheapȱ breadȱ andȱ sufficientȱ grapesȱ forȱ good
wine—whichȱ staveȱ offȱ hungerȱ andȱ keepȱ theȱ commonȱ peopleȱ satisfiedȱ and
content.39ȱTheȱthirdȱfoolȱadmitsȱsheȱhasȱaȱpoint:ȱ“Nousȱavonsȱceȱqueȱnousȱavons
/ȱLesȱbledsȱsontȱbeauxȱetȱlesȱvinsȱbons”ȱ(Lȱ101–02;ȱWeȱdoȱhaveȱwhatȱweȱhaveȱ/ȱThe
wheatȱ crop’sȱ good,ȱ theȱ wineȱ isȱ fine.)ȱ Yetȱ atȱ thisȱ juncture,ȱ theȱ foolsȱ allȱ turnȱ on
Justice,ȱpepperingȱherȱwithȱleadingȱquestionsȱthatȱdemonstrateȱhowȱabsentȱsheȱhas
beenȱfromȱtheȱpublicȱsphere—beginningȱwithȱtheȱrampantȱadulterationȱofȱflourȱin
bakeriesȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.
Indeed,ȱallȱisȱnotȱpureȱandȱsimpleȱpleasureȱinȱtheseȱcomicȱplays,ȱnoȱmatterȱhow
pastoralȱtheȱsetting.ȱTheȱanonymousȱSwissȱtextȱJanotȱdansȱleȱsac40ȱhasȱtheȱfoolish
ȱhusbandȬwhoȬwouldȬbeȬsaintȱmeetȱtheȱrockyȱroadȱofȱruralȱcommunitiesȱmost
intimatelyȱ whenȱ heȱ isȱ luredȱ intoȱ aȱ sack—aȱ recurringȱ themeȱ inȱ medieval
farce41—withȱpromisesȱofȱfindingȱParadise.ȱHeȱfindsȱhisȱwayȱquiteȱaȱroughȱone,ȱas
Palter,ȱTheȱDuchessȱofȱMalfi’sȱApricots,ȱandȱOtherȱLiteraryȱFruitsȱ(Columbia:ȱUniversityȱofȱSouth
CarolinaȱPress,ȱ2002),ȱ147–65.
36
ChâtaigneȱdeȱToucy,ȱTraitéȱplaisantȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱdeȱFigue,ȱNoèzȱetȱChastègne,ȱLeȱchasseurȱbibliographe,ȱed.
AnatoleȱdeȱMontaiglon,ȱ2èmeȱannée,ȱno.ȱ4ȱ(Paris:ȱFrançois,ȱLibraire,ȱAprilȱ1863),ȱ3–13.
37
Inȱtheȱsecondȱpartȱofȱtheȱfragment,ȱtheyȱrelateȱthemselvesȱtoȱbenefices;ȱtheȱthirdȱsectionȱisȱmissing.
38
Anonymous,ȱ“L’enfantȱmisȱauxȱécoles,”ȱLeȱchasseurȱbibliographe,ȱed.ȱAnatoleȱdeȱMontaiglonȱ(Paris:
François,ȱLibraire,ȱSept.ȱ1862),ȱ5–9.ȱTheȱplayȱisȱlistedȱinȱFaivre’sȱRépertoireȱ(seeȱnoteȱ7)ȱasȱLeȱvilain
etȱsonȱfilsȱJacob.
39
Anonymous,ȱLaȱfarceȱnouvelleȱdesȱesbahis,ȱRecueil,ȱed.ȱCohenȱ(seeȱnoteȱ20)ȱ,ȱ21–25.
40
TheȱoldȱtextȱwasȱtheȱanonymousȱFarceȱàȱcinqȱpersonnages,ȱed.ȱPaulȱAebischer,ȱTroisȱfarcesȱfrançaises
inéditesȱ(Paris:ȱChampion,ȱ1924),ȱ13–29.ȱTheȱnewȱeditionȱisȱtitledȱLaȱfarceȱdeȱJanotȱdansȱleȱsac,ȱed.
MarieȬClaireȱGérardȬZaiȱandȱSimoneȱdeȱReyff.ȱTextesȱlittérairesȱfrançais,ȱ388ȱ(Genève:ȱDroz,ȱ1990).
41
Thisȱmotifȱmayȱbeȱfound,ȱinȱadditionȱtoȱtheȱplaysȱmentionedȱhereȱ(i.e.ȱJanotȱdansȱleȱsac.;ȱLeȱvilain
.ȱ.ȱ.;ȱLaȱfemmeȱquiȱfutȱdesrobée.ȱ.ȱ.;ȱLeȱsavetier,ȱleȱsergent,ȱetȱlaȱlaitiere,ȱandȱCautelleux,ȱBaratȱetȱleȱvilain),
heȱisȱdraggedȱoverȱandȱbumpedȱagainstȱstonesȱandȱpebbles:ȱ“Quiȱdyableȱaȱmisȱcy
ceȱ chilliout?”ȱ (Lȱ 230;ȱ Whoȱ theȱ devilȱ putȱ thatȱ stoneȱ there?).ȱ Ofȱ courseȱ such
indignities,ȱasȱwellȱasȱthatȱofȱhavingȱhisȱ“culȱescorchié”ȱ(Lȱ209;ȱbumȱskinned)ȱall
amountȱtoȱaȱruseȱbyȱtheȱconnivingȱwifeȱandȱherȱloverȱtoȱplayȱaȱhumiliatingȱprank
onȱhim.ȱ
InȱEustacheȱDeschamps’sȱFarceȱdeȱMestreȱTrubertȱetȱd’Antrongnart,ȱaȱwilyȱpeasant
outsmartsȱanȱavariciousȱattorneyȱ(takingȱhimȱtoȱtheȱcleanersȱinȱaȱmedievalȱversion
ofȱstripȱcraps)ȱwhomȱtheȱpeasantȱhadȱengagedȱtoȱbringȱaȱthiefȱtoȱjustice.ȱTheȱthief’s
crimeȱaroundȱwhichȱthisȱoneupmanshipȱrevolvesȱseemsȱpettyȱinȱtheȱextreme:ȱhis
stealingȱ aȱ singleȱ almondȱ fromȱ theȱ peasant’sȱ garden,ȱ aboutȱ whichȱ theȱ peasant
waxesȱindignantȱindeed:ȱ“.ȱ.ȱ.ȱc’estȱunȱdegréȱ/ȱDeȱlarrecinȱetȱdeȱmesfait”ȱ(Lȱ24–25,
it’sȱanȱissueȱ/ȱofȱtheftȱandȱmalfeasance).42ȱTheȱlargerȱissueȱofȱruralȱlifeȱinvolvesȱthe
citifiedȱ lawyer,ȱ whoȱ claimsȱ heȱ hasȱ happilyȱ representedȱ “.ȱ .ȱ .ȱ ducs,ȱ contes,
chevaliers”ȱ(Lȱ227;ȱdukes,ȱcounts,ȱknights)ȱandȱwhoȱisȱyetȱbeatenȱquiteȱhandilyȱby
theȱrusticȱfarmer,ȱwhoȱmakesȱsureȱtheȱjudgesȱheȱchoosesȱ(hisȱallegoricallyȬtinged
friendsȱBarat,ȱHasartȱandȱFeintise)ȱqueueȱupȱonȱhisȱsideȱinȱtheirȱfinalȱassessment.
Inȱ someȱ farces,ȱ theȱ comicȱ elementȱ liesȱ primarilyȱ withinȱ theirȱ imaginatively
evokedȱruralȱcharacters.ȱItȱisȱusefulȱtoȱnoteȱthatȱtheseȱcategoriesȱoftenȱoverlap,ȱas
theyȱcertainlyȱdoȱinȱtheȱlastȱplayȱcited.ȱWhoȱcanȱforgetȱtheȱcraftyȱshepherdȱinȱthe
quintessentiallyȱmetatheatricalȱPathelin,ȱwhoȱlearnsȱonlyȱtooȱwellȱfromȱtheȱmaster
conȬmanȱhowȱtoȱbleatȱinnocentlyȱbeforeȱtheȱjudgeȱinȱorderȱtoȱwinȱhisȱcaseȱ(the
storyȱputȱforthȱbyȱlawyerȱPathelinȱisȱthatȱtheȱpoorȱsimpletonȱthinksȱheȱisȱoutȱinȱthe
fieldsȱwatchingȱhisȱsheep)?ȱOfȱcourseȱtheȱruséȱshepherdȱthenȱoutwitsȱPathelinȱby
reprisingȱhisȱroleȱwhenȱtheȱattorney’sȱfeeȱcomesȱdue.ȱSalientȱdetailsȱthatȱbespeak
ruralȱhardshipsȱ withȱ someȱbasisȱinȱtheȱhistoricalȱrecordȱemergeȱinȱtheȱberger’s
accountȱofȱtendingȱsheep:ȱhavingȱkeptȱtheȱflocksȱforȱyears,ȱandȱyetȱbeenȱillȬpaid
andȱ poorlyȱ clothed,ȱ theȱ shepherdȱ admitsȱ toȱ Pathelinȱ heȱ hasȱ bumpedȱ offȱ and
consumedȱnotȱaȱfewȱofȱtheȱsheepȱinȱhisȱkeeping,ȱpassingȱthemȱoffȱasȱdiseased:ȱ“Et
puysȱjeȱluyȱfaisoysȱentendre,ȱ/ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ/ȱQue’[ilz]ȱmouroientȱdeȱlaȱclavelée”ȱ(Lȱ1052–54;
Andȱ thenȱ Iȱ explainedȱ toȱ himȱ /ȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ /ȱ Thatȱ theyȱ diedȱ ofȱ sheepȬpox).43ȱ Pathelin’s
inȱRejouiȱd’amours,ȱandȱinȱtwoȱ“Tabarinic”ȱfarces,ȱLesȱdeuxȱpourceaulxȱandȱLeȱvoyageȱauxȱIndesȱ(see
Faivre,ȱRépertoireȱ[seeȱnoteȱ7],ȱ443–45).ȱOneȱcanȱalsoȱseeȱtheȱmotifȱoperatingȱinȱtheȱ“content”Ȭladen
sackȱofȱLeȱmeunierȱdeȱquiȱleȱdiableȱporteȱl’âmeȱenȱenfer.
42
LaȱfarceȱdeȱMestreȱTrubertȱetȱd’AntrognartȱinȱEustacheȱDeschamps,ȱOeuvresȱcomplètes,ȱvol.ȱVII,ȱed.
GastonȱRaynaudȱ(Paris:ȱLibrairieȱdeȱFirminȱDidotȱetȱCie,ȱ1891),ȱ155–74.
43
MaîtreȱPathelin,ȱtheȱplayȱwithȱitsȱextensiveȱannotationsȱcomprisingȱtheȱwholeȱofȱTissier,ȱVIIȱ(1993).
Theȱvolumeȱpresentsȱtwoȱannotatedȱversionsȱofȱtheȱtext;ȱIȱamȱreferringȱtoȱtheȱtopmost,ȱTexteȱI.ȱThe
clavelée,ȱorȱsheepȬpox,ȱwasȱaȱterribleȱplagueȱofȱlivestockȱreferencedȱbyȱotherȱwritersȱinȱtheȱearly
modernȱperiod,ȱsuchȱasȱRabelais.ȱSeeȱBritishȱMedicalȱJournal,ȱJuly–Dec.ȱ1863,ȱvol.ȱ2,ȱed.ȱWilliamȱO.
Markhamȱ(London:ȱHoneymanȱforȱBMJ,ȱ1863),ȱ142–50.ȱForȱaȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱclaveléeȱinȱcontext
ofȱotherȱdiseases,ȱseeȱFerrières,ȱSacredȱCow,ȱMadȱCow,ȱ17.
characterȱ pullsȱ offȱ hisȱ manipulationȱ aȱ bitȱ betterȱ inȱ theȱ sequelȱ farceȱ Leȱ nouveau
Pathelin:ȱ theȱ cunningȱ tricksterȱ convincesȱ aȱ gullibleȱ villageȱ merchantȱ whoȱ sells
locallyȬobtainedȱfurs44ȱthatȱaȱpriestȱowesȱhimȱmoneyȱandȱpersuadesȱtheȱsameȱpriest
thatȱtheȱhaplessȱmerchantȱwishesȱtoȱmakeȱconfession.ȱPathelinȱleavesȱtheȱtwoȱto
increasingȱmiscommunication—andȱcomedy—whileȱheȱabscondsȱwithȱtheȱpelts.ȱ
Otherȱ kindsȱ ofȱ charactersȱ fromȱ theȱ countrysideȱ aboundȱ inȱ theseȱ plays,ȱ both
confirmingȱandȱbreakingȱstereotypes:ȱstalwartȱandȱoutspokenȱfarmers,ȱguileless
produceȱvendors,ȱbrazenȱandȱquarrelsomeȱdairymaids.ȱInȱColin,ȱfilsȱdeȱThévotȱle
maire,ȱaȱsturdyȱpeasantȱwomanȱwhoȱraisesȱcows,ȱchickensȱandȱgeeseȱonȱherȱhemp
farmȱindignantlyȱbringsȱtheȱtheftȱofȱaȱrooster,ȱherȱbestȱlayingȱhen,ȱsomeȱgoslings,
andȱtwoȱfreshȱcheesesȱbeforeȱtheȱlocalȱmagistrate—theȱmayor—andȱrepeatedly
demandsȱjusticeȱforȱherȱlosses.45ȱUnfortunately,ȱsaidȱmayorȱisȱalsoȱfatherȱofȱthe
chickenȱthief—aȱfrancȱarcherȱmanquéȱrecentlyȱreturnedȱfromȱtheȱwarȱwithȱtheȱprize
ofȱaȱpilgrimȱmistakenlyȱtakenȱasȱprisoner.46ȱTheȱoutragedȱwomanȱconfrontsȱthe
cowardlyȱyoungȱmanȱbeforeȱhisȱindulgentȱpapa,ȱrepeatedlyȱidentifyingȱtheȱculprit
andȱ furtherȱ accusingȱ himȱ ofȱ ravagingȱ herȱ jardinȱ potager,ȱ asȱ sheȱ witnessedȱ him
allowingȱ“saȱjumentȱpaistreȱ/ȱEnȱmonȱjardin”ȱ(Lȱ47–48,ȱhisȱmareȱtoȱgrazeȱ/ȱinȱmy
garden).ȱBloodȱbeingȱthickerȱthanȱchickenȱfat,ȱofȱcourse,ȱtheȱaggrievedȱscoldȱgets
noȱsatisfaction,ȱevenȱafterȱattemptingȱtoȱbribeȱThévotȱwithȱfarmȬfreshȱapplesȱand
cheese.ȱ
Anotherȱfarce,ȱLeȱmarchantȱdeȱpommes,ȱoffersȱfoodȱforȱcomedyȱviaȱaȱcheerful,ȱif
scatterbrained,ȱappleȱandȱeggȱseller,47ȱwho,ȱthoughȱstoneȬdeaf,ȱentersȱtheȱstage
singingȱandȱmusesȱaboutȱhisȱquandary:ȱ“.ȱ.ȱ.ȱporteraiȱgeȱ/ȱMesȱeuxȱ&ȱmesȱpommes
ensemble?”ȱ(3;ȱshouldȱIȱbringȱbothȱmyȱeggsȱandȱmyȱapplesȱtogetherȱ[toȱsell]?)
Onceȱatȱtheȱmarketplace,ȱheȱspeaksȱofȱhisȱcountryȬgrownȱproduceȱwithȱrealȱpride;
hisȱapplesȱ“.ȱ.ȱ.ȱsontȱplusȱdoucesȱqueȱmiel”ȱ(p.ȱ8;ȱareȱsweeterȱthanȱhoney).ȱYetȱhis
afflictionȱ makesȱ itȱ comicallyȱ impossibleȱ forȱ himȱ toȱ fieldȱ aȱ singleȱ question
44
Theȱtextȱmentionsȱsquirrelȱfurȱ(“quarreauxȱdeȱgris”)ȱandȱrabbitȱfurȱ(“d’aumure”)ȱthatȱwillȱbeȱused
toȱlineȱclothing.ȱLeȱnouveauȱPathelin,ȱTissier,ȱVIIIȱ(1994),ȱ17–123.ȱSeeȱespeciallyȱLȱ219–245.
45
Colin,ȱfilsȱdeȱThévotȱleȱmaire,ȱinȱTissier,ȱVȱ(1989),ȱ163–228.ȱItȱisȱalsoȱknownȱasȱThévotȱquiȱvientȱde
Naplesȱetȱamaineȱunȱturcȱprisonnierȱ(Recueil,ȱed.ȱCohenȱ[seeȱnoteȱ20],ȱ35–41).
46
Itȱwasȱaȱstereotypeȱofȱtheȱwanderingȱroguesȱknownȱasȱfrancȱarchiers,ȱofȱwhichȱthereȱareȱnumerous
monologuesȱ andȱ farces,ȱ toȱ boastȱ ofȱ stealingȱ allȱ kindsȱ ofȱ domesticatedȱ animals—especially
chickens—fromȱtheȱfarmsȱandȱcountrysideȱtheyȱpassedȱthrough.ȱSeeȱSharonȱD.ȱKing,ȱ“Gasping
AtȱStrawȱMen:ȱTheȱPoliticsȱofȱFearȱinȱEarlyȱModernȱFrenchȱFarce,”ȱViatorȱ32ȱ(2001),ȱed.ȱBlair
Sullivanȱ(Turnhout,ȱBelgium:ȱBrepols,ȱ2001),ȱ229–44.ȱThereȱareȱotherȱtextsȱdealingȱwithȱtheȱsame
issueȱnotȱmentionedȱinȱtheȱstudy,ȱincludingȱanotherȱnearlyȱwholeȱThévotȱplayȱ(Thévotȱleȱmaire,
Perruche,ȱsaȱfemme,ȱetȱColinȱleurȱfils)ȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱfarceȱL’aventureux,ȱGuermouset,ȱGuillot,ȱetȱRignot.
Forȱaȱbriefȱdiscussionȱofȱtheseȱtexts,ȱseeȱFaivre,ȱRépertoireȱ(seeȱnoteȱ7),ȱ54–55,ȱ415–18.ȱ
47
Anonymous,ȱLeȱMarchantȱdeȱpommesȱetȱd’eulx,ȱl’Apoincteur,ȱleȱSergentȱetȱdeulxȱFemmes,ȱinȱRecueilȱde
farces,ȱmoralitésȱetȱsermonsȱjoyeux,ȱvol.ȱIV,ȱed.ȱLeȱRouxȱdeȱLincyȱandȱFrancisqueȱMichelȱ(Paris:
Techener,ȱ1837),ȱno.ȱ70.ȱ
accuratelyȱaboutȱhisȱmerchandise,ȱandȱheȱunwittinglyȱcausesȱaȱfightȱtoȱbreakȱout
betweenȱtwoȱhousewivesȱ(withȱtheȱmarketȱattendantȱhavingȱtoȱsummonȱofȱthe
localȱ authorities).ȱ Hisȱ isȱ aȱ variantȱ ofȱ theȱ eternallyȱ baffledȱ character,ȱ deafȱ or
otherwiseȱdistracted,ȱwhoȱmisinterpretsȱatȱeveryȱturn.48ȱ
And,ȱasȱinȱJanotȱdansȱleȱsac,ȱsomeȱrusticȱcharactersȱdisplayȱaȱmeanȱstreak.ȱInȱthe
farceȱLeȱsavetier,ȱleȱsergentȱetȱlaȱlaitière,ȱaȱmaladroitȱcountryȱmilkmaid’sȱincreasingly
acerbicȱverbalȱaltercationȱwithȱtheȱvillageȱcobbler,ȱwhomȱsheȱhasȱinadvertently
splashedȱ withȱ theȱ milkȱ sheȱ carriesȱ onȱ herȱ head,ȱ turnsȱ dark—literally.49ȱ The
sergeantȱwhoȱattemptsȱtoȱmakeȱpeaceȱbetweenȱthemȱonlyȱsucceedsȱinȱunitingȱthe
twoȱagainstȱhim,ȱandȱgetsȱaȱpotȱofȱpitchȱdumpedȱoverȱhisȱheadȱasȱhisȱthanks,ȱas
wellȱ asȱ beingȱ inȱ shortȱ orderȱ stuffedȱ intoȱ aȱ sack,ȱ subjectedȱ toȱ aȱ vigorous
trouncing—“Danssonsȱ surȱ leȱ sacȱ ungȱ petit,”ȱ theȱ cobblerȱ suggestsȱ (Lȱ 422;ȱ Let’s
danceȱonȱtheȱsackȱaȱbit)—andȱfinallyȱtossedȱintoȱaȱlatrineȱpit.
Severalȱfarcesȱcompareȱruralȱcharactersȱtoȱtheȱdraughtȱanimalsȱtypicalȱofȱthe
agrarianȱ worldȱ ofȱ thisȱ era,ȱ andȱ unsurprisingly,ȱ noneȱ fareȱ wellȱ inȱ the
juxtaposition.50ȱDonkeysȱseemȱtoȱhaveȱbeenȱaȱfavoredȱonstageȱcomparison.51ȱInȱLe
pontȱauxȱânes,ȱaȱwife’sȱcontrarinessȱandȱobstinacyȱisȱcomparedȱtoȱtheȱproverbial
stubbornnessȱofȱdonkeys:ȱtheȱhusbandȱisȱcounseledȱbyȱtheȱitalianateȱfauxȬsage
MessireȱDominéȱDéȱtoȱgoȱtoȱtheȱAsses’ȱBridge,ȱwhereȱheȱwillȱfindȱtheȱsolutionȱto
herȱrefusalȱtoȱobeyȱhim.52ȱOnceȱthere,ȱheȱseesȱaȱwoodcutterȱurgingȱhisȱreluctant
jennyȱ toȱ passȱ overȱ theȱ bridge,ȱ bribingȱ herȱ withȱ promisesȱ ofȱ goodȱ pastureȱ and
cursingȱherȱwithȱsheepȬpoxȱasȱsheȱrefusesȱtoȱbudge.ȱFinallyȱtheȱwoodcutterȱresorts
toȱtheȱobvious,ȱifȱhardlyȱhumaneȱsolution:ȱ“Puisȱqueȱj’ayȱceȱbastonȱdeȱhoux,ȱ/ȱJe
vousȱfrotterayȱlesȱcostez”ȱ(Lȱ217–18;ȱSinceȱIȱhaveȱthisȱhollyȱstick,ȱ/ȱIȱwillȱbeatȱyou
onȱ allȱ sides).ȱ Farceȱ beingȱ aȱ staunchȱ supporterȱ ofȱ theȱ statusȱ quo,ȱ theȱ husband
48
Inȱtheȱtwentiethȱcentury,ȱaȱvariantȱofȱthisȱcharacterȱcouldȱbeȱfoundȱinȱtheȱfilmȱSeeȱNoȱEvil,ȱHearȱNo
Evil,ȱdirectedȱbyȱArthurȱHillerȱ(1989),ȱwithȱtheȱdeafȱcharacterȱplayedȱbyȱGeneȱWilder.
49
Anonymous,ȱLeȱsavetier,ȱleȱsergentȱetȱlaȱlaitière,ȱTissier,ȱVIIIȱ(1994),ȱ211–74.ȱTheȱsergeant’sȱultimate
conditionȱwouldȱseemȱtoȱconformȱtoȱtheȱstereotypeȱofȱtheȱvillainȱbeingȱassociatedȱbothȱwithȱdirt
andȱexcrement;ȱseeȱnoteȱ33.
50
AssimilatingȱpeasantsȱtoȱanimalsȱwasȱaȱcommonȱstereotypeȱofȱtheȱMiddleȱAges.ȱSeeȱFreedman,
Imagesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ1–2,ȱ134–35.
51
Anyȱ comparisonȱ toȱ donkeysȱ wouldȱ probablyȱ haveȱ beenȱ seenȱ asȱ ratherȱ overȬtheȬtop.
Bartholomaeusȱ Anglicusȱ (Bartholomewȱ theȱ Englishman)’sȱ Deȱ proprietatibusȱ rerum,ȱ which,ȱ as
AlbrechtȱClassenȱstatesȱinȱtheȱIntroductionȱtoȱthisȱvolume,ȱwasȱaȱstandardȱreferenceȱworkȱof
naturalȱhistoryȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(translatedȱintoȱFrenchȱinȱ1322),ȱdescribesȱassesȱasȱtheȱlowest
ofȱtheȱlow,ȱ“dull,ȱandȱwitlessȱandȱforgetful,”ȱtoȱbeȱpitiedȱevenȱbyȱtheȱmostȱwretchedȱvillein.ȱSee
FrancisȱKlingender,ȱAnimalsȱinȱArtȱandȱThoughtȱtoȱtheȱEndȱofȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(Cambridge,ȱMA:ȱMIT
Press,ȱ1971),ȱ358.ȱSuchȱanȱextremeȱcomparisonȱwouldȱnoȱdoubtȱhaveȱaddedȱnotȱaȱlittleȱtoȱthe
humorȱofȱtheȱplays.
52
Anonymous,ȱLeȱpontȱauxȱânes,ȱTissier,ȱVIȱ(1990),ȱ63–111.ȱTheȱreputationȱofȱdonkeysȱtoȱbeȱobstinate,
fromȱwhenceȱcameȱtheȱexpressionȱfoundȱinȱtheȱplay’sȱtitle,ȱisȱbrieflyȱdiscussedȱinȱtheȱheadnoteȱto
theȱplay,ȱ70–75.
predictablyȱreturnsȱhomeȱandȱusesȱthisȱmisogynisticȱsolutionȱtoȱgoodȱresult—for
him,ȱthoughȱhardlyȱforȱhisȱwife.53ȱ
InȱCautelleux,ȱBaratȱetȱleȱvillain,ȱtwoȱmiscreantsȱconspireȱtoȱstealȱaȱveryȱdimwitted
peasant’sȱprizedȱdonkey,ȱofȱwhichȱheȱisȱinordinatelyȱfond:ȱ“Avant,ȱBaudetȱtout
bellement,ȱ/ȱDieuȱteȱgartȱdeȱmal,ȱjeȱl’enȱprie”ȱ(Lȱ49–50;ȱGoȱahead,ȱdonkey,ȱgently,
gently,ȱ/ȱGodȱkeepȱyouȱfromȱharm,ȱIȱpray)ȱtheȱpeasantȱcoaxesȱtheȱcreature.54ȱWhile
theȱpeasantȱisȱatȱtheȱmarketplace;ȱtheȱfirstȱrogueȱslipsȱtheȱbridleȱaroundȱhisȱown
neckȱandȱpretendsȱtoȱbeȱtheȱcreature,ȱrestoredȱtoȱhisȱhumanȱformȱafterȱservingȱa
sentenceȱofȱsevenȱyearsȱinȱPurgatoryȱinȱtheȱformȱofȱanȱass.ȱTheȱtwoȱpromptlyȱmake
oneȱofȱtheȱpeasantȱbyȱmilkingȱhimȱofȱcharityȱmoneyȱasȱwell.ȱ
Inȱanotherȱplayȱtheȱcomparisonȱisȱlessȱexpected,ȱifȱjustȱasȱamusing:ȱJeninotȱquiȱfit
unȱ roiȱ deȱ sonȱ chatȱ opensȱ withȱ aȱ middleȬclassȱ coupleȱ fromȱ Paris,ȱ perhapsȱ too
upwardlyȱmobileȱforȱtheirȱownȱgood,ȱhiringȱaȱsimpletonȱbadinȱfromȱtheȱcountry
asȱservant.55ȱAmongȱtheȱmanyȱbunglingsȱheȱmakesȱofȱhisȱorders,ȱJeninotȱparsesȱthe
husband’sȱinstructionȱtoȱ“Gentimentȱmenerȱtaȱmaistresseȱ/ȱAȱlaȱgrandȱmesseȱà
NostreȱDame”ȱ(Lȱ272–73;ȱgentlyȱleadȱyourȱmistressȱ/ȱtoȱtheȱhighȱmassȱatȱNotre
Dame)ȱasȱaȱrequestȱtoȱdriveȱtheȱwifeȱsomewhereȱasȱoneȱwouldȱaȱdonkey.ȱJeninot
isȱconfused:ȱ“Elleȱn’aȱbrideȱniȱlicol,ȱ/ȱCommentȱvoulezȬvousȱqueȱ(je)ȱlaȱmaine?”ȱ(L
276–77;ȱSheȱhasȱneitherȱbridleȱnorȱharness,ȱhowȱshouldȱIȱleadȱher?).ȱButȱtheȱfoolish
ladȱgamelyȱjumpsȱonȱtheȱwoman’sȱback,ȱyellingȱtheȱrequisiteȱ“Hay,ȱhayȱdia”ȱ(285)
oneȱwouldȱuseȱtoȱurgeȱonȱaȱheadstrongȱcreature,ȱandȱofȱcourseȱisȱbewilderedȱwhen
heȱisȱbeatenȱforȱwhatȱheȱbelievesȱwasȱsimplyȱfollowingȱorders.
Atȱleastȱtwoȱfarcesȱtakeȱtheȱassimilationȱofȱruralȱmanȱwithȱhisȱlivestockȱeven
further,ȱwithȱresultsȱbothȱcomicalȱandȱpathetic.ȱInȱLeȱfol,ȱleȱmari,ȱlaȱfemmeȱetȱleȱcuré,
theȱprologueȱannouncesȱtheȱmotifȱstraightȱaway:ȱheȱwillȱspeakȱofȱ“.ȱ.ȱ.ȱcesȱbones
famesȱ/ȱQuiȱfontȱleursȱmarisȱsanblerȱanes”ȱ(Lȱ36–37;ȱtheseȱgoodȱwivesȱ/ȱWhoȱmake
53
AsȱTissierȱnotes,ȱaȱprimaryȱsourceȱforȱthisȱstoryȱisȱBoccaccio’sȱDecameron,ȱIX,ȱ9,ȱinȱwhichȱthe
husband,ȱseekingȱfromȱtheȱwisdomȱofȱSolomonȱaȱwayȱtoȱdealȱwithȱhisȱwife’sȱstubbornness,ȱisȱsent
toȱ Goosebridgeȱ andȱ thereȱ discoversȱ aȱ similarȱ exampleȱ toȱ follow.ȱ Seeȱ Tissier,ȱ VI,ȱ 69–75.ȱ An
excellentȱessayȱthatȱanalyzesȱthisȱtaleȱfromȱaȱfeministȱperspectiveȱisȱLouiseȱO.ȱVasvári,ȱ“’Buon
cavalloȱ eȱ malȱ cavalloȱ vuoleȱ sprone,ȱ eȱ buonaȱ feminaȱ eȱ malaȱ feminaȱ vuolȱ Bastone’:ȱ Medieval
CulturalȱFictionsȱofȱWifeȬBattering,“ȱDiscourseȱonȱLove,ȱMarriage,ȱandȱTransgressionȱinȱMedievalȱand
EarlyȱModernȱLiterature,ȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassen.ȱMedievalȱandȱRenaissanceȱTextsȱandȱStudies,ȱ278,
ed.ȱ(Tempe,ȱAZ:ȱArizonaȱCenterȱforȱMedievalȱandȱRenaissanceȱStudies,ȱ2004),ȱ313–36.ȱ
54
Anonymous,ȱCautelleux,ȱBaratȱetȱleȱvillain,,ȱRecueil,ȱed.ȱCohenȱ(seeȱnoteȱ20),ȱ87–93.ȱTheȱpeasant’s
solicitudeȱforȱtheȱcreatureȱindicatesȱaȱkindȱofȱbrotherlyȱaffinityȱforȱdonkeysȱ(againȱindicatingȱhis
lowȱstatus),ȱwhichȱisȱborneȱoutȱinȱhisȱfallingȱforȱeveryȱlineȱtheȱscoundrelsȱfeedȱhim.
55
Anonymous,ȱJeninotȱquiȱfitȱunȱroiȱdeȱsonȱchatȱ,ȱTissier,ȱVȱ(1989),ȱ17–58.ȱThisȱplayȱisȱaȱgoodȱexample
ofȱtheȱstereotypicalȱcomicȱsubgenre,ȱfoundȱasȱequallyȱthroughoutȱfarceȱasȱitȱisȱinȱmodernȱsitcoms:
theȱoverlyȱrefinedȱdenizensȱofȱtheȱcityȱtanglingȱwithȱ(supposedly)ȱignorantȱcountryȱfolk.ȱHereȱit
isȱtheȱrusticȱcharacterȱthatȱmakesȱfoolsȱoutȱofȱhisȱpresumedȱsuperiors.
theirȱhusbandsȱseemȱlikeȱasses).56ȱMartin,ȱaȱlazyȱ(indeed,ȱseeminglyȱnarcoleptic)
farmȱworkerȱhasȱaȱscoldȱforȱaȱwife,ȱMallensenhée,ȱwho,ȱperhapsȱunsurprisingly,
hasȱbeenȱcanoodlingȱwithȱtheȱlocalȱpriest.ȱTheȱtwoȱlovers,ȱfindingȱtheȱhusband
onceȱagainȱasleepȱinȱtheȱfieldȱheȱshouldȱbeȱworking,57ȱmakeȱhimȱtheȱfigureȱofȱgreat
sportȱbyȱtyingȱasses’ȱearsȱandȱaȱtailȱonȱhim,ȱleadingȱhimȱtoȱbelieveȱheȱhasȱtruly
metamorphosed,ȱMidasȬlike,ȱintoȱaȱdonkey:ȱ“Suisȱjeȱdoncȱdevenuȱane?ȱ/ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ/ȱJeȱay
laȱcueȱetȱlesȱaurelhes”ȱ(Lȱ176,ȱ178;ȱSoȱhaveȱIȱturnedȱintoȱanȱass?ȱ/ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ/ȱIȱhaveȱan
ass’sȱtailȱandȱears).ȱMakingȱlemonadeȱoutȱofȱthisȱlemonyȱdeception,ȱhisȱwifeȱoffers
Martinȱhayȱandȱhitchesȱhimȱtoȱaȱcartȱtoȱtakeȱwheatȱtoȱtheȱmill,ȱwhichȱheȱresignedly
pulls.58ȱ Similarly,ȱ inȱ theȱ farceȱ Georgeȱ leȱ veau,ȱ theȱ harriedȱ ifȱ admittedly
featherbrainedȱpeasantȱhusbandȱGeorge,ȱwhoȱhasȱlegitimateȱifȱfruitlessȱquestions
asȱtoȱhisȱancestry,ȱisȱledȱtoȱbelieveȱ(byȱtheȱconnivingȱpriestȱandȱhisȱownȱwife)ȱthat
heȱhasȱbeenȱturnedȱintoȱaȱcalf,ȱoneȱthatȱisȱdecidedlyȱnotȱgolden.59ȱForciblyȱcladȱin
leatherȱbyȱtheȱtwoȱconspirators,ȱGeorgeȱacknowledgesȱheȱmustȱhenceforthȱobey
theȱcommandsȱofȱhisȱspouse.ȱ
BothȱplaysȱdoȱrhetoricalȱbasseȬdansesȱaroundȱtheȱconceptȱofȱbeingȱmadeȱaȱ“beste,”
inȱbothȱtheȱsenseȱofȱ“beast”ȱandȱ“stupid.”ȱInȱtheȱfirstȱplay,ȱtheȱwife,ȱlamentingȱher
man’sȱlackadaisicalȱworkȱinȱtheȱgarden,ȱremarks:ȱ“Encoreȱdeviendrésȱvosȱbeste!”
(Lȱ75;ȱYou’reȱbecomingȱstupidȱagain),ȱandȱlaterȱ“.ȱ.ȱ.ȱjeȱvosȱferayȱsanblerȱbeste,”ȱ(L
162;ȱIȱwillȱmakeȱyouȱseemȱlikeȱaȱbeast).ȱInȱGeorge,ȱtheȱhusbandȱqueriesȱtheȱpriest
pointȬblank:ȱ“PensezȬvousȱqueȱsoysȱuneȱbeste?”ȱ(Lȱ82;ȱDoȱyouȱthinkȱIȱamȱaȱ[stupid]
beast?),ȱaȱwordȱrepeatedȱbyȱtheȱpriestȱasȱindicativeȱofȱpoorȱGeorge.60ȱAndȱforȱgood
56
Anonymous,ȱLeȱfol,ȱleȱmari,ȱlaȱfame,ȱetȱleȱcuré,ȱ“MoralitéȱetȱfarcesȱdesȱmanuscritsȱLaurenzianaȬ
Ashburnham,ȱno.ȱ115ȱetȱ116,”ȱed.ȱPaulȱAebischer,ȱAchivumȱromanicumȱXIIIȱ(1929):ȱ501–13.ȱInȱthe
prologueȱtoȱthisȱplay,ȱthereȱisȱalsoȱanȱintriguingȱmentionȱofȱanȱinvasionȱofȱ“langostes”ȱcoming
downȱfromȱAvignonȱtoȱMarseilles;ȱthoughȱitȱisȱhighlyȱunlikelyȱthatȱthisȱisȱanȱaccurateȱpieceȱof
ruralȱmedievalȱreportage,ȱoneȱdoesȱwonderȱwhatȱpresumablyȱenvironmentalȱfactorsȱmightȱhave
precipitatedȱsuchȱaȱswarm.
57
Aebischerȱnotes,ȱwithȱsomeȱreluctance,ȱthatȱthisȱprobablyȱhasȱechoesȱofȱtheȱkindȱofȱ“labor”ȱmade
explicitȱinȱGringoire’sȱplayȱRaoulletȱPloyartȱ(Aebischer,ȱArchivumȱromanicum,ȱ[seeȱnoteȱ56],ȱ502).
58
Thisȱisȱreminiscentȱofȱtheȱproverbialȱtaleȱofȱtheȱmanȱwhoȱthoughtȱheȱwasȱaȱchicken,ȱaȱsituationȱfor
whichȱtheȱwifeȱfoundȱtheȱupside:ȱitȱwasȱindeedȱaȱpity,ȱsheȱwasȱwontȱtoȱsay,ȱbutȱtheyȱcertainlyȱhad
useȱ forȱ theȱ eggs.ȱ Aȱ similarȱ metamorphosis,ȱ thoughȱ inȱ termsȱ ofȱ “real”ȱ fantasy,ȱ occursȱ in
Shakespeare’sȱcenturyȬlaterȱcomedyȱAȱMidsummerȱNight’sȱDream,ȱinȱwhichȱtheȱmischievousȱPuck
turnsȱtheȱpoorȱweaverȱBottom’sȱheadȱintoȱaȱdonkey’s,ȱwhichȱabsurdlyȱarousesȱQueenȱTitania’s
passion.ȱ Theȱ comicȱ acceptanceȱ ofȱ aȱ human’sȱ transformationȱ intoȱ animal,ȱ whetherȱ inȱ formȱ or
simplyȱ inȱ function,ȱ continuesȱ toȱ delightȱ inȱ another,ȱ muchȱ laterȱ kindȱ ofȱ Westernȱ comedy,ȱ the
sitcom.ȱInȱTheȱSimpsonsȱ“TreehouseȱofȱHorrorȱXI”ȱminiȬepisodeȱ“ScaryȱTalesȱCanȱComeȱTrue”ȱ(a
twistedȱretellingȱofȱHanselȱandȱGretel)ȱtheȱtransformedȱHomerȬHenȱatȱtheȱendȱprovidesȱenormous
eggs,ȱensuringȱthatȱhisȱfamilyȱ“willȱneverȱgoȱhungry.”
59
Anonymous,ȱGeorgeȱleȱveauȱ,ȱTissier,ȱXIȱ(1997),ȱ61–113.
60
Iȱnoteȱinȱpassingȱthatȱthisȱplayȱcontainsȱanȱinstanceȱofȱtheȱphraseȱ“LetȱGeorgeȱdoȱit”ȱ(Lȱ196,ȱ“Or
ça,ȱça,ȱlaissezȱfaireȱàȱGeorge”)ȱthatȱaccordingȱtoȱH.ȱL.ȱMenckenȱ(inȱTheȱAmericanȱLanguage:ȱA
PreliminaryȱInquiryȱIntoȱtheȱDevelopmentȱofȱEnglishȱinȱtheȱUnitedȱStatesȱ[NewȱYork:ȱA.ȱA.ȱKnopf,
reason:ȱinȱthisȱplay,ȱGeorgeȱconstructsȱhisȱidentityȱbyȱcomparingȱandȱcontrasting
himselfȱwithȱotherȱanimals.ȱHeȱseesȱhimselfȱ“netȱcommeȱungȱoeufȱdeȱpoulle”ȱ(L
221;ȱasȱcleanȱasȱaȱhen’sȱegg)ȱbutȱnotȱdescendedȱfromȱtheȱmonarchy,ȱwhomȱhe
misidentifiesȱasȱhavingȱ“lesȱcrapaulxȱ/ȱEnȱ[les]ȱarmes.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ”ȱ(L.ȱ224–25;ȱtoadsȱ/ȱOn
[the]ȱcoatȱofȱarms).ȱHeȱmayȱbeȱaȱ“filzȱdeȱvache”ȱ(Lȱ380;ȱsonȱofȱaȱcow),ȱbutȱnotȱone
“d’oysonȱneȱd’oye”(Lȱ375;ȱofȱaȱgoslingȱorȱaȱgoose).ȱAsȱaȱ“veauȱdeȱdisme,”ȱ(Lȱ391)
aȱtithingȱorȱ“fattedȱcalf”—aȱmedievalȱmetaphorȱforȱanȱidiot—ȱGeorgeȱisȱlikenedȱto
theȱbeastsȱofȱburdenȱheȱhimselfȱhadȱkeptȱtoȱpayȱthatȱowedȱtoȱtheȱchurch:ȱ“Aȱton
curéȱlaȱdismeȱrendreȱ/ȱDeȱtonȱbestial”ȱ(Lȱ304–05;ȱToȱyourȱpriestȱ[youȱmust]ȱpayȱthe
titheȱ/ȱOnȱyourȱlivestock).ȱAtȱtheȱplay’sȱend,ȱheȱisȱurgedȱtoȱgoȱonȱallȱfoursȱandȱeven
moosȱinȱabjectȱacceptanceȱofȱhisȱnewȬfoundȱcharacter.61ȱAsȱscholarsȱhaveȱnoted,
thisȱ ratherȱ complexȱ comedyȱ bearsȱ almostȱ postmodernȱ hallmarksȱ ofȱ identity
confusion.62ȱ
Thereȱareȱstillȱotherȱfarcesȱthatȱjuxtaposeȱpresumedȱgenteel,ȱgentrified,ȱorȱ(more)
upperȬclassȱcharactersȱwithȱthoseȱofȱpeasantsȱorȱvillagers,ȱtoȱhumorousȱends.ȱAt
leastȱfiveȱplaysȱpresentȱcluelessȱcountryȱbumpkinsȱwhoȱattemptȱtoȱmatchȱwitsȱwith
connivingȱcityȱorȱtownȱswindlers,ȱwithȱpredictablyȱcomicȱresults.ȱTroisȱGalantsȱet
PhlipotȱinvolvesȱoneȱofȱtheȱthreeȱcitifiedȱdandiesȱspoofingȱGod’sȱvoiceȱinȱaȱchurch
soȱasȱtoȱfoolȱtheȱvillageȱidiotȱPhlipot,ȱforȱwhomȱtheȱtrioȱhaveȱutterȱdisdain.63ȱThe
gallantȱpromisesȱtheȱcredulousȱandȱbedazzledȱPhlipotȱmasteryȱofȱanyȱprofession
heȱchooses,ȱevenȱthoughȱheȱisȱpresentlyȱ“enȱl’estatȱd’ingnoranceȱ[sic]”ȱ(Lȱ69,ȱinȱa
stateȱ ofȱ ignorance).64ȱ Theȱ threeȱ takeȱ onȱ severalȱ artfulȱ disguises—shoemakers,
soldiers,ȱandȱfinallyȱenemyȱsoldiers—toȱfurtherȱdupeȱtheȱpoorȱbadin,ȱwhoȱbecomes
soȱovercomeȱwithȱharshȱorders,ȱfastȱchanges,ȱandȱbodilyȱinsultsȱthatȱheȱlongsȱfor
hisȱ simpleȱ villageȱ life:ȱ “.ȱ .ȱ .ȱ maintenantȱ jȱ l’entens;ȱ /ȱ Maisȱ aulxȱ villagesȱ ontȱ bon
tempsȱ/ȱEtȱgrosȱhonneurȱetȱgrosȱcredict”ȱ(Lȱ465–66;ȱnowȱIȱunderstandȱ/ȱInȱvillages
thereȱareȱgoodȱtimesȱ/ȱandȱgreatȱhonorȱandȱcredit).ȱ
InȱArqueminationȱanȱevenȱmoreȱdunderheadedȱvillagerȱisȱsentȱtoȱtownȱbyȱhisȱwife
toȱsellȱeggsȱandȱcheeseȱinȱorderȱtoȱ“makeȱmoney”ȱforȱshoes,ȱwhichȱheȱisȱhardȱput
1919];ȱhereȱIȱconsultedȱtheȱonlineȱversion:ȱhttp://www.bartleby.com/185/52.html;ȱbeforeȱfn.ȱ11)
originatedȱinȱfifteenthȬcenturyȱFranceȱandȱwasȱtoȱenjoyȱaȱrenaissanceȱofȱsortsȱinȱtheȱU.S.ȱinȱthe
earlyȬmidȱtwentiethȱcentury.ȱIȱhaveȱasȱyetȱnotȱbeenȱableȱtoȱconfirmȱaȱFrenchȱsourceȱforȱthisȱphrase
otherȱthanȱthisȱone,ȱhowever.
61
ThisȱstandsȱinȱcontrastȱtoȱtheȱdeliberateȱandȱcynicalȱbleatsȱofȱtheȱshepherdȱinȱPathelin,ȱdoneȱasȱa
ruseȱtoȱoutfoxȱtheȱmasterȱtrickster.
62
Seeȱ theȱ discussionȱ inȱ theȱ headnoteȱ ofȱ Georgeȱ leȱ veau,ȱ 63–66,ȱ 69–74;ȱ seeȱ alsoȱ Giovannaȱ Angeli,
“Persuasionȱabsurdeȱetȱmanqueȱd’identitéȱdansȱleȱthéâtreȱcomiqueȱdeȱlaȱfinȱduȱmoyenȱâge,”ȱLa
langue,ȱleȱtexte,ȱetȱleȱjeu,ȱLeȱMoyenȱFrançais,ȱno.ȱ19ȱ(Montréal:ȱCERES,ȱ1986),ȱ1–17.
63
Anonymous,ȱ Troisȱ Galantsȱ etȱ Phlipot,ȱ Tissier,ȱ IIȱ (1987),ȱ 289–361.ȱ Theȱ termȱ “galant”ȱ indicated
someoneȱwhoȱpaidȱmoreȱcourtȱtoȱwomenȱthanȱtoȱaȱking,ȱbutȱalsoȱwasȱaȱkindȱofȱstereotypical
“chevalierȱd’aventure”ȱ(Tissier,ȱII,ȱ293).
64
Asȱopposedȱto,ȱsay,ȱaȱstateȱofȱgrace.
toȱunderstand.ȱThereȱheȱencountersȱtwoȱpagesȱwhoȱseeȱinȱhimȱaȱrichȱopportunity
forȱsport:ȱ“Monstrerȱluyȱfaultȱunȱtourȱdeȱpaigeȱ/ȱPourȱluyȱapprendreȱunȱpeuȱsa
court”ȱ(Lȱ117–18;ȱWeȱshouldȱteachȱhimȱaȱpage’sȱtrickȱ/ȱSoȱheȱwillȱlearnȱhowȱthings
areȱdone).65ȱAppealingȱtoȱhisȱgreedȱasȱwellȱasȱmanipulatingȱhisȱgullibleȱnature,
theyȱurgeȱhimȱtoȱbecomeȱanȱalchemistȱandȱturnȱhisȱbaseȱmaterialsȱintoȱpiecesȱof
silver,ȱusingȱhisȱownȱheadȱtoȱbeatȱthemȱtogether.ȱInanity—andȱincidentallyȱthe
fillingȱforȱaȱfineȱcheeseȱtart—ensues.66ȱ
Similarly,ȱtheȱstubborn,ȱlazy,ȱchattyȱfieldȱlaborerȱColinetȱinȱtheȱfarceȱLaȱfemme,
leȱbadinȱetȱdeuxȱvoisins67ȱknowsȱlittleȱmoreȱthanȱtheȱpigsȱonȱhisȱfarm—indeed,ȱhis
firstȱappearanceȱonstageȱinvolvesȱhimȱrelievingȱhimself—butȱheȱdoesȱknowȱhe
wantsȱmoreȱthanȱ“painȱbisȱetȱdesȱchataignes”ȱ(7;ȱdarkȱbreadȱandȱchestnuts)ȱfor
dinner.ȱIndeed,ȱhisȱwholeȱsoul—thatȱisȱtoȱsay,ȱhisȱstomach—criesȱoutȱforȱbacon:
“Duȱ lartȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ laȱ ventreȱ m’enȱ sue”ȱ (10;ȱ Baconȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ myȱ bellyȱ isȱ sweatingȱ forȱ it).
Impassiveȱtoȱtheȱpleasȱofȱhisȱwife,ȱwhoȱoffersȱinsteadȱaȱfineȱredȱhen,ȱheȱsetsȱoutȱfor
theȱcityȱtoȱsellȱsugarȬpeasȱtoȱgetȱsalt,ȱaȱsenseȱofȱtheȱtimeȱinvolvedȱtoȱcureȱbacon
evidentlyȱnotȱoneȱofȱhisȱgifts.ȱOnceȱthereȱheȱisȱwaylaidȱandȱbamboozledȱbyȱtwo
cleverȱcitoyensȱlookingȱforȱsport.ȱTheyȱsetȱaboutȱbargainingȱforȱtheȱpeas,ȱclaiming
toȱbeȱfromȱoutȱofȱtownȱ(Rouen),ȱandȱofferingȱtoȱpayȱhimȱtomorrowȱforȱpeasȱtoday.
Tooȱ lateȱ Colinȱ wisesȱ upȱ toȱ theirȱ ploy.ȱ Butȱ thereȱ isȱ aȱ callȬbackȱ toȱ theȱ joke:ȱ the
fancifulȱBiblicalȱnameȱofȱZorobabelȱusedȱbyȱtheȱchiefȱconȬmanȱcropsȱupȱinȱthe
priest’sȱ readingȱ atȱ theȱ massȱ heȱ attendsȱ toȱ cleanseȱ hisȱ soulȱ ofȱ (their)ȱ iniquity.
Convincedȱthatȱheȱhasȱfoundȱ“l’hommeȱàȱmesȱpoys”ȱ(ȱ27,ȱtheȱmanȱwithȱmyȱpeas),
Colinȱ inȱ desperationȱ evenȱ triesȱ toȱ bribeȱ theȱ bewilderedȱ priestȱ withȱ hisȱ farm’s
productsȱ(wine,ȱwheat,ȱoats,ȱmilk,ȱcheese,ȱandȱeggs)ȱtoȱgetȱlopsidedȱrepaymentȱfor
hisȱlostȱpeas.ȱ
Finally,ȱinȱtheȱbustling,ȱchaoticȱFarceȱdesȱfemmesȱquiȱvendentȱamourettesȱenȱgrosȱet
enȱdétail,ȱtheȱdimwittedȱladȱfromȱtheȱbackwoods,ȱVilloireȱ(whichȱtheȱtextȱitselfȱcalls
sotereauȱdeȱvillaige,ȱtheȱvillageȱidiot),ȱisȱastoundedȱatȱtheȱcity’sȱgrandeurȱonȱhisȱfirst
tripȱtoȱtheȱParisȱmarketplace,ȱwhereȱheȱhasȱcomeȱtoȱsellȱhisȱroosters68:
65
Anonymous,ȱFarceȱnouvelleȱdeȱarquemination,ȱed.ȱÉmileȱPicotȱ(Paris:ȱHenriȱLeclerc,ȱ1914),ȱextraitȱof
Bulletinȱduȱbibliophile.ȱOnline,ȱHathiȱTrustȱDigitalȱLibrary,
at:ȱhttp://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015030862901ȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱDec.ȱ14,ȱ2011).
Theȱlastȱphraseȱisȱsomewhatȱofȱaȱpun:ȱtheȱtermȱ“apprendreȱsaȱcourt”ȱmeantȱlearnȱhowȱaȱcourtier
behaves,ȱhisȱmannerȱandȱstyle,ȱetc.,ȱbutȱhereȱitȱalsoȱseemsȱtoȱmeanȱlearnȱwhatȱmischiefȱcourtiers
make.ȱTheȱtermȱ“tourȱdeȱpage”ȱwasȱ(byȱtheȱseventeenthȱcenturyȱatȱleast)ȱaȱwayȱofȱsayingȱaȱdirty
trickȱ(c.f.ȱDictionnairesȱd’autrefois).
66
Echoingȱaȱthemeȱweȱhaveȱseenȱbefore,ȱtheȱwifeȱlikensȱhisȱstupidityȱtoȱthatȱofȱdonkeys,ȱcallingȱhim
“unȱâneȱparfaict”ȱ(Lȱ394).
67
Anonymous,ȱLaȱfemme,ȱleȱbadinȱetȱdeuxȱvoisins,ȱRecueilȱdeȱfarces,ȱmoralitésȱ(seeȱnoteȱ47),ȱvol.ȱIII,ȱno.
50.ȱInȱFaivre’sȱRépertoireȱ(seeȱnoteȱ7),ȱitȱisȱlistedȱunderȱtheȱtitleȱL’hommeȱàȱmesȱpois.
68
Anonymous,ȱFarceȱdesȱfemmesȱquiȱvendentȱamourettesȱenȱgrosȱetȱenȱdétail,ȱRecueil,ȱed.ȱCohenȱ(seeȱnote
20),ȱ295–301.
Qu’ilȱfaitȱbeauȱenȱsiȱgrosȱvillaige,
QueȱParis!ȱC’estȱungȱtrèsbeauȱlieu!
Qu’ilȱyȱaȱdeȱchevaulx,ȱmonȱdieu,
Etȱaussiȱdeȱgensȱparȱlesȱrues!
Haro!ȱqueȱlesȱmaisonsȱsontȱdrues!
A!ȱilȱyȱenȱaȱplusȱdeȱmille!ȱ (Lȱ296–301)
[It’sȱsoȱbeautifulȱinȱsuchȱaȱbigȱvillage
AsȱParisȱis!ȱIt’sȱaȱlovelyȱplace!
MyȱGod,ȱhowȱmanyȱhorsesȱthereȱare,
Asȱwellȱasȱcrowdsȱofȱpeopleȱinȱtheȱstreets!
Whoaȱthere!ȱHowȱthickȱtheȱhousesȱgrow!
There’sȱgotȱtoȱbeȱmoreȱthanȱaȱthousandȱofȱthem!]
Ultimately,ȱVilloire’sȱtripȱprovesȱunfruitful;ȱhisȱattemptsȱtoȱpurchaseȱwhatȱthe
womenȱ areȱ sellingȱ areȱ rebuffedȱ mostȱ forcefully,ȱ andȱ heȱ mustȱ chaseȱ afterȱ his
escapedȱ chickens:ȱ “Etȱ siȱ ayȱ perduȱ mesȱ cochetz”ȱ (Lȱ 350;ȱ andȱ nowȱ I’veȱ lostȱ my
roosters).ȱ
Perhapsȱ nowhereȱ isȱ theȱ tropeȱ ofȱ cityȱ slickersȱ takingȱ on—butȱ bestingȱ only
temporarily—countryȱinnocentsȱmoreȱpointedȱthanȱinȱtheȱfarceȱofȱMahuetȱbadin,
natifȱdeȱBagnolet,ȱquiȱvaȱàȱParisȱauȱmarché.69ȱAnȱenterprisingȱruralȱbonneȱfemmeȱfrom
theȱvillageȱofȱBagnoletȱsendsȱsonȱMahuetȱtoȱParisȱtoȱsellȱherȱfarmȬfreshȱeggsȱand
cream.ȱThisȱbadinȱniaisȱofȱtheȱfirstȱwater70ȱseemsȱterrifiedȱofȱleavingȱhisȱfamiliar
surroundingsȱ toȱ ventureȱ toȱ theȱ city,ȱ withȱ itsȱ alienȬappearingȱ crenellatedȱ walls
surroundingȱit:ȱ“SontȬilzȱfaisȱdeȱformagesȱdurs?”ȱ(Lȱ80;ȱAreȱtheyȱmadeȱfromȱhard
cheese?).ȱHeȱisȱfurtherȱastonishedȱbyȱallȱtheȱhustleȱandȱbustle:ȱ“Saincteȱsangȱbieu,
queȱdeȱgens!ȱ/ȱBeauȱsireȱDieu,ȱqueȱdeȱcarneaux!”ȱ(Lȱ82–83,ȱHolyȱdamnȱblood,ȱwhat
aȱ crowd!ȱ Goodȱ lordȱ God,ȱ whatȱ crenellations!),ȱ andȱ quiteȱ perplexedȱ asȱ toȱ the
realitiesȱofȱcityȱlife:ȱ“OùȱmeneȬonȱpaistreȱpourceaux?ȱ/ȱIlȱn’yȱaȱherbeȱneȱverdure”
(Lȱ 84–85;ȱ Whereȱ doesȱ oneȱ sendȱ pigsȱ toȱ pasture?ȱ /ȱ Thereȱ isȱ neitherȱ grassȱ nor
greenery).71ȱMahuetȱfallsȱpreyȱtoȱtwoȱsavvyȱParisianȱconȬartistsȱwhoȱpreyȱonȱhis
69
Anonymous,ȱMahuet,ȱbadin,ȱnatifȱdeȱBagnolet,ȱquiȱvaȱàȱParisȱauȱmarché,ȱTissier,ȱXȱ(1996),ȱ119–81.
Thereȱareȱtwoȱversionsȱonȱfacingȱpages;ȱforȱmyȱreferencesȱIȱuseȱtheȱlongerȱversionȱthatȱisȱfound
onȱtheȱright.
70
AnȱexcellentȱtextȱdelineatingȱthisȱtheatricalȱcharacterȱinȱallȱhisȱmanyȱvariantsȱinȱtheȱlateȬmedieval
/ȱearlyȬmodernȱperiodsȱisȱtoȱbeȱfoundȱinȱCharlesȱMazouer,ȱLeȱpersonnageȱduȱnaïfȱdansȱleȱthéâtre
comiqueȱduȱmoyenȱâgeȱàȱMarivaux.ȱBibliothèqueȱfrançaiseȱetȱromane.ȱSérieȱC:ȱÉtudesȱlittéraires,ȱ76
(Paris:ȱLibrairieȱKlincksieck,ȱ1979).ȱ
71
Theȱvigorous,ȱprosperousȱcityscapeȱofȱParis—walls,ȱcrenellations,ȱcrowds,ȱtheȱlackȱofȱaȱcommon
green—isȱ thusȱ evokedȱ inȱ aȱ fewȱ quickȱ phrasesȱ thatȱ setȱ theȱ stageȱ forȱ theȱ contrastȱ withȱ the
backwoodsȱsimpleton.ȱAȱcomplementaryȱstudyȱofȱtheȱartisticȱdepictionȱofȱcityscapesȱofȱroughly
thisȱsameȱeraȱmayȱbeȱfoundȱinȱPeterȱAinsworth’sȱessayȱ“AȱPassionȱforȱTownscape:ȱDepictionsȱof
theȱCityȱinȱaȱBurgundianȱManuscriptȱofȱFroissart’sȱChroniques,”ȱRegionsȱandȱLandscapes:ȱRealityȱand
literalism:ȱhisȱmother’sȱadmonitionȱtoȱsellȱonlyȱtoȱ“leȱprixȱduȱmarché”ȱ(Lȱ88;ȱthe
marketȱprice),ȱwhichȱheȱtakesȱtoȱbeȱaȱperson.ȱTheȱwomanȱpartnerȱofȱtheȱconniving
pair,ȱinȱtheȱlingo,ȱ“sawȱhimȱcoming”:ȱ“C’estȱd’ungȱsoterelȱ/ȱQueȱj’ayȱtrouvéȱparmy
laȱ halle,”ȱ (Lȱ 125–26,ȱ He’sȱ aȱ littleȱ foolȱ /ȱ Thatȱ Iȱ foundȱ inȱ theȱ middleȱ ofȱ the
marketplace).ȱHerȱsharperȱpartnerȱGaulthierȱconfirmsȱthatȱMahuetȱseemsȱanȱeasy
mark:ȱ“Bienȱsembleȱsot,ȱparȱmaȱfoy,”ȱ(Lȱ137;ȱHe’sȱaȱfool,ȱallȱright,ȱinȱfaith).ȱThey
pokeȱfunȱatȱMahuetȱthroughoutȱtheirȱinteractionȱwithȱhim,ȱblackeningȱhisȱface
whileȱpretendingȱtoȱcleanȱit,ȱevenȱhavingȱtheȱgallȱtoȱtellȱthemselvesȱthatȱtheirȱcaper
isȱanȱactȱofȱcharity:ȱ
Carȱonȱpeutȱbienȱsansȱvillenie
Aȱungȱfolȱremonstrerȱsaȱfollye
Pourȱl’adviserȱuneȱautreȱfois.ȱ
C’estȱaumosne.ȱ (Lȱ175–78)
[Forȱoneȱmay,ȱwithȱnoȱbaseness
Pointȱoutȱhisȱfollyȱtoȱaȱfool
Soȱthatȱheȱmayȱtakeȱheedȱanotherȱtime.ȱ
It’sȱcharity.]
Inȱtheȱend,ȱhowever,ȱMahuetȱmanagesȱtoȱrecoverȱsomeȱofȱhisȱdignity,ȱifȱnotȱhis
produce.ȱGaulthier,ȱwhoȱhadȱpretendedȱtoȱbeȱtheȱ“marketȱprice”ȱandȱobtainedȱthe
eggsȱforȱfree,ȱsuggestsȱMahuetȱremoveȱtheȱcreamȱpotȱstuckȱonȱhisȱhandȱbyȱstriking
itȱagainstȱtheȱfirstȱpersonȱheȱmeets;ȱMahuet,ȱtrueȱtoȱform,ȱtakesȱhimȱatȱhisȱword,
turnsȱandȱconksȱGaulthierȱsmartlyȱonȱtheȱhead.ȱ“SainctȱMor,ȱlesȱtrompeursȱsont
trompez,”ȱ (Lȱ 233;ȱ Byȱ Saintȱ Maurus,ȱ theȱ trickstersȱ areȱ outsmarted),ȱ hisȱ female
partnerȱconcedes.ȱTheȱplay’sȱconclusionȱproffersȱanotherȱtimeȬhonoredȱmotifȱin
comicalȱguise:ȱthatȱofȱtheȱurbanȱexperienceȱthatȱtransformsȱtheȱpersonȱfromȱthe
provinces.ȱ Mahuet,ȱ whoseȱ sootȬcakedȱ faceȱ rendersȱ himȱ unrecognizableȱ byȱ his
terrifiedȱmotherȱuponȱhisȱreturn,ȱbelievesȱheȱhasȱbeenȱchanged—literally—byȱhis
sojournȱinȱParis:ȱ“Jeȱvoyȱbienȱdonquesȱ/ȱQu’onȱm’aȱchangéȱàȱParis”ȱ(Lȱ279–80;ȱSo
Iȱnowȱseeȱ/ȱThatȱIȱhaveȱbeenȱexchangedȱinȱParis).ȱHeȱconcludesȱheȱmustȱreturnȱto
Parisȱsoȱheȱmayȱtryȱtoȱfindȱhimselfȱonȱtheȱmorrow.72
Theȱcontrastȱbetweenȱlifeȱinȱtheȱcountrysideȱandȱthatȱoutsideȱit,ȱbeȱitȱwithinȱcity
wallsȱorȱivoryȱtowers,ȱisȱcomicȱfodderȱforȱtwoȱotherȱfarces.ȱTheȱweaklyȬplotted
dialogueȬcumȬfarceȱLesȱEnfansȱdeȱBorgneuxȱhasȱtheȱsharpȬwittedȱifȱcravenȱpeasants
Thibautȱ andȱ Guillotȱ weighing,ȱ inȱ unabashedlyȱ explicitȱ terms,ȱ theȱ plusesȱ and
ImaginationȱinȱLateȱMedievalȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱEurope,ȱed.ȱPeterȱAinsworthȱandȱTomȱScottȱ(Oxford
andȱNewȱYork:ȱPeterȱLang,ȱ2000),ȱ69–111.
72
TheȱblackeningȱmightȱsuggestȱaȱtimeȬhonoredȱmotifȱofȱtheȱvilleinȱasȱdirtyȱorȱdarkȬskinned,ȱexcept
thatȱhereȱitȱisȱuncharacteristicȱandȱalienating,ȱcausingȱconfusionȱandȱconsternationȱtoȱhisȱmother.
SeeȱFreedman,ȱImagesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ139–50.
minusesȱofȱcityȱgirlsȱwhoȱareȱ“siȱpallesȱauȱvisage”ȱ(Lȱ283;ȱsoȱpaleȱinȱtheȱface)ȱand
theirȱcampestralȱsistersȱwhoȱareȱ“aussiȱbellesȱsoubzȱlesȱdraps”ȱ(Lȱ285;ȱalsoȱpretty
underȱtheȱsheets).73ȱTheȱcynicalȱpairȱconcludesȱthatȱ“laȱvilleȱput”ȱ(Lȱ305;ȱtheȱcity
stinks)ȱandȱthatȱtheȱonlyȱpleasureȱtoȱbeȱfoundȱliesȱ“auxȱchampsȱavecȱsesȱfilletes”
(Lȱ 304;ȱ inȱ theȱ openȱ fieldȱ withȱ itsȱ [country]ȱ girls),ȱ andȱ makeȱ hasteȱ toȱ the
countryside.ȱ
MuchȱmoreȱdramaticallyȱengagingȱisȱMaistreȱMiminȱétudiant,ȱwhichȱpresents,ȱas
oneȱ criticȱ hasȱ noted,ȱ severalȱ livelyȱ scenesȱ ofȱ countryȱ livingȱ asȱ itȱ lampoonsȱ the
pretensionsȱofȱscholarlyȱlearning.74ȱMimin,ȱaȱsimpleȱvillageȱladȱ(trulyȱsimple,ȱbeing
aȱbadinȬcharacter)ȱisȱsentȱtoȱschoolȱtoȱstudyȱtoȱbecomeȱaȱclerk,ȱbutȱlearnsȱhisȱLatin
lessonsȱ soȱ wellȱ heȱ isȱ saidȱ toȱ haveȱ forgottenȱ howȱ toȱ speakȱ French.ȱ Likeȱ the
transformedȱMahuet,ȱheȱisȱalienatedȱbyȱhisȱcontactȱwithȱexistenceȱoutsideȱhisȱrural
sphere,ȱhisȱspeechȱsaidȱtoȱbeȱnoȱmoreȱcomprehensibleȱ“qu’unȱAngloys”ȱ(Lȱ15;ȱof
anȱEnglishman).ȱHisȱparentsȱatȱhisȱfamilyȱfarm,ȱespeciallyȱhisȱdynamoȱofȱaȱmother,
justȱreturnedȱbreathlesslyȱfromȱtheȱvillageȱovensȱwithȱtheȱlatestȱgossip,ȱsetȱoutȱto
bringȱhimȱhomeȱandȱreȬeducateȱhimȱsoȱthatȱheȱwillȱbeȱableȱtoȱmarryȱandȱhaveȱa
family,ȱasȱheȱisȱexpectedȱtoȱdo.75ȱAtȱtheȱschool,ȱMimin’sȱpompousȱMagisterȱreveals
himselfȱfitȱonlyȱtoȱwearȱtheȱdunceȬcap,ȱhavingȱtaughtȱhisȱwillingȱpupilȱnothingȱbut
gibberishȬLatin.ȱSoȱdeludedȱisȱtheȱteacherȱthatȱheȱbelievesȱ(orȱatȱleastȱsaysȱthatȱhe
believes)ȱMiminȱwillȱrivalȱallȱtheȱclerksȱinȱRome,ȱParis,ȱorȱPavia.ȱAfterȱattempting
toȱ coaxȱ Miminȱ intoȱ speakingȱ French—usingȱ hisȱ fiancéeȱ asȱ bait76—theȱ mother
succeedsȱinȱrestoringȱherȱson’sȱnativeȱtongueȱbyȱputtingȱMimin’sȱheadȱinȱaȱcage
andȱforcingȱhimȱtoȱrepeatȱherȱwordsȱlikeȱaȱtalkingȱbird.ȱTheȱproblemȱresolved,ȱthe
familyȱheadsȱbackȱtoȱtheȱcountryȱandȱtoȱtheȱprospectȱofȱaȱgooseȱfreshȱfromȱthe
barnyard,ȱroastedȱtoȱcelebrateȱtheȱprodigalȱson’sȱreturn.ȱ
Numerousȱfarcesȱcontrastȱruralȱinnocentsȱwithȱpredatoryȱnobility,ȱbothȱsmall
andȱ large.ȱ Inȱ Leȱ curia,77ȱ theȱ powerȱ inequitiesȱ ofȱ earlyȱ modernȱ maleȬfemale
relations—theȱfaithfulȱwifeȱisȱatȱtheȱmercyȱbothȱofȱherȱhusband’sȱignoranceȱasȱwell
asȱtheȱseigneur’sȱlechery—asȱwellȱasȱofȱtheȱchampartȱsystemȱofȱfarming,ȱareȱbriefly
exposedȱandȱexploredȱforȱtheirȱcomicȱpotential,ȱthoughȱtheȱendȱresultȱseemsȱmore
73
Anonymous,ȱ Farceȱ desȱ enfansȱ deȱ Borgneux,ȱ Recueil,ȱ ed.ȱ Cohenȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 20),ȱ 211–17.ȱ Faivre’s
Répertoireȱ(seeȱnoteȱ7)ȱhasȱitȱasȱEnfantsȱdeȱBagneux.
74
Anonymous,ȱMaistreȱMiminȱétudiant,ȱTissier,ȱIIIȱ(1988),ȱ215–72.
75
Andȱ thus,ȱ asȱ Tissierȱ notes,ȱ conformingȱ toȱ theȱ lawsȱ ofȱ nature.ȱ Theȱ necessityȱ forȱ sexȱ and
reproductionȱisȱcomicallyȱemphasizedȱinȱthisȱplay,ȱwithȱtheȱmotherȱgushingȱoverȱherȱson’sȱ“tool”
andȱMiminȱmurmuringȱsalaciousȱpseudoȬLatinȬladenȱinanitiesȱinȱhisȱfiancée’sȱear.
76
Tissierȱpointsȱoutȱthatȱtheȱyoungȱwomanȱisȱstillȱtotingȱherȱdoll,ȱyetȱisȱevidentlyȱinȱchargeȱofȱthe
kitchen,ȱasȱsheȱisȱboilingȱmilkȱwhenȱherȱfutureȱinȬlawsȱcomeȱtoȱcall.ȱSeeȱMimin,ȱLȱ57–112.
77
Anonymous,ȱJoyeuseȱfarceȱàȱtroisȱpersonnes,ȱthoughȱlistedȱasȱLeȱcuriaȱinȱFaivre,ȱRépertoireȱ(seeȱnote
7),ȱ126–27.ȱTheȱtextȱofȱtheȱplayȱonline,ȱcanȱbeȱfoundȱfoundȱat:
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b8619699t.r=.langESȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱDec.ȱ14,ȱ2011).
poignantȱthanȱhumorous.78ȱIndeed,ȱtheȱsexuallyȱadventurousȱwife,ȱaȱfrequentlyȬ
encounteredȱcharacterȱinȱfarces,ȱstandsȱinȱmarkedȱcontrastȱtoȱtheȱwouldȬbeȱfidelity
ofȱthisȱplay’sȱwifeȱ(andȱbrandȬnewȱmother),ȱwhoȱhasȱcaughtȱtheȱeyeȱofȱtheirȱlocal
overlordȱ(“leȱcuria,”ȱorȱinȱmodernȱFrench,ȱ“leȱcurial”).79ȱTheȱoverlordȱoffersȱto
leaseȱoutȱhisȱfertileȱlandsȱtoȱbeȱlaboredȱbyȱtheȱpeasantȱcobblerȱPierrou,ȱwhoȱhas
lostȱtheȱwealthȱofȱhisȱfarmȱandȱitsȱlivestockȱtoȱmaraudingȱsoldiers.80ȱTheȱcurial,
cynicallyȱ reasoningȱ thatȱ heȱ canȱ hireȱ theȱ peasantȱ toȱ gainȱ accessȱ toȱ theȱ young
woman—“D’unaȱ pierreȱ jeȱ foyȱ deuxȱ cou”ȱ (9;ȱ withȱ oneȱ stoneȱ Iȱ willȱ hitȱ two
times)—contrivesȱtoȱhaveȱtheȱformerȱwidower,ȱdesperateȱtoȱdoȱanythingȱtoȱsatisfy
hisȱnewȱlandlord,ȱassistȱinȱseducingȱhisȱownȱwife.ȱTakingȱadvantageȱofȱPierrou’s
naiveté,ȱ theȱ lordȱ asksȱ theȱ wifeȱ toȱ lendȱ himȱ herȱ “gaffry”ȱ (inȱ modernȱ French
“gaufrier”)ȱ orȱ waffleȱ iron,ȱ anȱ implementȱ whichȱ evidentlyȱ onceȱ carriedȱ aȱ more
complexȱsignificationȱcodeȱthanȱitȱdoesȱatȱpresent.81ȱ
Somewhatȱlostȱinȱtheȱdeȱrigueurȱanalysisȱofȱtheȱmeanȱtrickȱplayedȱonȱtheȱcouple
areȱtheȱintriguingȱdetailsȱofȱfarmingȱthatȱslipȱintoȱthisȱplay.ȱTheȱpeasantȱwaxes
eloquentȱ asȱ heȱ anticipatesȱ choosingȱ theȱ fourȱ oxenȱ heȱ willȱ needȱ (asȱ wellȱ asȱ a
replacementȱyoke)ȱtoȱworkȱtheȱcurial’sȱland,ȱcallingȱthemȱbyȱname.ȱHeȱisȱequally
enthusiasticȱaboutȱtheȱcropsȱheȱwillȱsow,ȱusingȱaȱformȱofȱrotation:ȱinȱtheȱoneȱfield
(alsoȱnamedȱspecifically;ȱtheȱcurialȱadmitsȱtheȱpeasantȱknowsȱhisȱlandsȱwell)ȱthat
wasȱsownȱwithȱfavaȱbeans,ȱheȱwillȱsowȱturnips82ȱandȱgrains.83ȱPierrouȱfretsȱabout
78
Again,ȱ Iȱ doȱ notȱ suggestȱ thatȱ theȱ playȱ givesȱ anȱ accurateȱ representationȱ ofȱ métayage,ȱ butȱ itȱ is
reasonableȱtoȱassumeȱthatȱtheȱsystem,ȱandȱitsȱeasyȱabuseȱbyȱanȱunscrupulousȱpersonȱinȱaȱposition
ofȱpower,ȱwereȱsocietalȱgivensȱthatȱcouldȱbeȱeasilyȱunderstoodȱbyȱaudiencesȱinȱtheȱlocalityȱofȱLyon
inȱtheȱlateȱsixteenthȱcentury.ȱAȱusefulȱstudyȱofȱtheȱsystemsȱofȱhiringȱoutȱlandȱtoȱbeȱworkedȱin
Westernȱ Europeȱ isȱ Lesȱ revenusȱ deȱ laȱ terre:ȱ complant,ȱ champart,ȱ métayageȱ enȱ Europeȱ occidentale,
IX–XVIIIȱsièclesȱ(Auchȱ:ȱDeыpcotȱetȱDiffusion,ȱComiteыȱdeыpartementalȱduȱtourismeȱduȱGers,ȱ1987).
SeeȱalsoȱSmall,ȱLateȱMedievalȱFranceȱ(seeȱnoteȱ22),ȱ60–64.
79
Theȱtext,ȱpublishedȱinȱLyonȱinȱ1595—andȱthusȱmuchȱlaterȱthanȱtheȱotherȱtextsȱinȱthisȱstudy—offers
anȱ intimateȱ glimpseȱ ofȱ theȱ differenceȱ ofȱ peasantȱ dialectȱ (here,ȱ Savoyard)ȱ visȬàȬvisȱ theȱ more
FrenchifiedȱspeechȱofȱtheȱmiddleȱorȱupperȱclassesȱinȱSavoy,ȱasȱwellȱasȱdetailsȱofȱ“desȱmomentsȱde
laȱvieȱrurale.”ȱSeeȱGastonȱTuaillon,ȱLaȱlittératureȱenȱfrancoprovençalȱ(Grenoble:ȱELLUG,ȱUniversité
Stendhal,ȱ2001),ȱ98–107.
80
Savoyȱ wasȱ aȱ hotlyȱ contestedȱ areaȱ inȱ theȱ lateȱ sixteenthȱ andȱ earlyȱ seventeenthȱ centuries.ȱ See
Tuaillon,ȱLaȱlittérature,ȱ92–94.
81
Iȱreferȱagainȱtoȱmyȱforthcomingȱessayȱonȱtheȱgenreȱofȱcomedicȱextendedȱmetaphor;ȱseeȱnoteȱ25.
ItȱtakesȱaȱbitȱofȱanȱimaginativeȱstretchȱtoȱrelateȱtheȱdoubleȬsidedȱmedievalȱwaffleȬiron,ȱrectangular
orȱovalȱinȱshape,ȱfilledȱwithȱbatterȱ(toȱmakeȱcookies,ȱnotȱbreakfastȱpastries)ȱandȱplacedȱoverȱaȱfire
toȱbake,ȱtoȱtheȱfemaleȱsexualȱorgans.ȱAȱusefulȱvisualȱresourceȱisȱanȱantiqueȱgaufrierȱfoundȱonline,
atȱhttp://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moule_%C3%A0_gaufresȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱDec.ȱ14,ȱ2011).
82
Theȱtermȱheȱusesȱisȱ“raves,”ȱalsoȱknownȱasȱturnipȱmustardȱ(brassicaȱrapa).ȱAccordingȱtoȱatȱleastȱone
medievalȱtextȱonȱplantsȱandȱtheirȱrelationȱtoȱhumanȱhealth,ȱtheyȱwereȱusefulȱinȱpromotingȱvirility
inȱtheȱcarnalȱact.ȱTheyȱalsoȱneededȱtoȱbeȱcookedȱtwice.ȱTurnipsȱwereȱconsideredȱquintessential
fareȱforȱpoorȱfolk.ȱSeeȱCarméliaȱOpsomer,ȱL’artȱdeȱvivreȱenȱsanté:ȱimagesȱetȱrecetteȱduȱmoyenȱâge.ȱLe
Tacuinumȱ sanitatisȱ (manuscritȱ 1041)ȱ deȱ laȱ Bibliothèqueȱ deȱ lȇUniversitéȱ deȱ Liègeȱ (Alleur,ȱ Belgium:
feesȱtoȱcoverȱtheȱlivestock’sȱequipment:ȱ“Quiȱpayeraȱlouȱforgeajou”ȱ(p.ȱ7;ȱwhoȱwill
payȱtheȱblacksmith?)ȱandȱdickersȱwithȱhisȱnewȱlandlordȱoverȱhavingȱaȱmilchȬcow
andȱdividingȱtheȱmilk,ȱbutterȱandȱcheeseȱtheȱcowȱwillȱbeȱproducing,ȱfollowingȱher
calvingȱ inȱ aȱ fortnightȱ (forȱ which,ȱ likeȱ anyȱ goodȱ farmer,ȱ heȱ showsȱ notȱ aȱ little
anxiety).ȱHeȱevenȱanticipatesȱtheȱoxenȱandȱcow’sȱneedȱforȱaȱsaltȬlickȱseveralȱtimes
aȱyear:ȱ“Yȱfauȱbinȱassalaȱlaȱvachyȱ/ȱEtȱlouȱBouȱ.ȱ.ȱ.”ȱ(p.ȱ8;ȱAndȱyouȱmustȱgiveȱaȱgood
measureȱofȱsaltȱtoȱtheȱcowȱ/ȱAndȱtheȱcattleȱ.ȱ.ȱ.).ȱLater,ȱafterȱtheȱwaffleȬironȱhasȱbeen
lent,ȱhowsoeverȱunwillingly,ȱPierrouȱreturnsȱhome,ȱbeseechingȱhisȱwifeȱtoȱprovide
theȱhomelyȱcomfortsȱofȱaȱpeasant’sȱtable:ȱcookedȱturnipsȱandȱaȱdishȱofȱhotȱsoupȱ(p.
14).ȱWhenȱheȱfinallyȱgraspsȱtheȱmeaningȱofȱtheȱsadȱexpressionȱonȱherȱface,84ȱthe
incensedȱ Pierrouȱ vowsȱ toȱ pursueȱ theȱ curial,ȱ armedȱ toȱ theȱ teethȱ withȱ sword,
halberd,ȱand,ȱbothȱtellinglyȱandȱcomically,ȱaȱtoolȱofȱhisȱtrade:ȱaȱtrancheȬferranche,
aȱkindȱofȱhoe.ȱHeȱisȱdissuadedȱbyȱhisȱresignedȱwifeȱfromȱmakingȱtheirȱsituation
worse,ȱbutȱhasȱonlyȱharshȱwordsȱforȱherȱatȱtheȱend,ȱasȱheȱcontemplatesȱhowȱheȱhas
beenȱmadeȱaȱlaughingstock.
Otherȱfarcesȱplacingȱtheȱnobilityȱinȱoppositionȱtoȱtheȱlowerȱclassesȱhaveȱtheȱlast
comicallyȱ emergingȱ first,ȱ orȱ atȱ leastȱ comingȱ outȱ even.85ȱ Inȱ Leȱ meunierȱ etȱ le
gentilhomme,ȱtheȱmillerȱisȱdepictedȱasȱtheȱquintessentialȱmedievalȱvillageȱcrook.86
EditionsȱduȱPerron,ȱ1991),ȱ72.
83
Theȱblacksmithȱcallsȱthemȱ“granneȱballe,”ȱgrainsȱwhichȱhaveȱbeenȱproducingȱconsistently,ȱand
whichȱheȱopinesȱwillȱmaintainȱsuchȱaȱgoodȱyield.ȱAnȱexcellentȱstudyȱofȱmedievalȱmethodsȱand
mannersȱofȱraisingȱcropsȱinȱgeneral,ȱandȱtheȱpracticeȱofȱrotatingȱcropsȱinȱparticular,ȱmayȱbeȱfound
inȱSamuelȱLeturcq,ȱLaȱvieȱruraleȱenȱFranceȱauȱMoyenȱAge,ȱXe–XVeȱsiècle.ȱCollectionȱCursus.ȱSérie
HistoireȱCursusȱ(Paris:ȱArmandȱColin,ȱ2004).ȱAȱthirteenthȬcenturyȱrecordȱofȱthreeȬkindsȱcrop
rotationȱ(twoȱdifferentȱkindsȱofȱcereals,ȱthenȱfallowȱearth)ȱinȱtheȱparishȱofȱSt.ȬMartinȱdeȱTournai
givesȱusȱanȱexampleȱofȱhowȱthisȱworkedȱinȱanotherȱareaȱofȱFrance,ȱthoughȱitȱisȱofȱlimitedȱuse,
beingȱ aȱ recordȱ datingȱ fromȱ threeȱ centuriesȱ earlierȱ thanȱ theȱ farce.ȱ Seeȱ Giovanniȱ Cherubini,
AgricolturaȱeȱsocietàȱruraleȱnelȱMedioevo:ȱmontecoronaroȱdallaȱsignoriaȱdellȇabbaziaȱdelȱTrivioȱalȱdominio
diȱFirenze.ȱBibliotecaȱstoricaȱtoscana,ȱ15ȱ(Florence:ȱOlschki:ȱ1972),ȱ95–96.
84
HeȱlikensȱitȱtoȱthatȱofȱRenardȱwhoȱhasȱlostȱhisȱtail,ȱfromȱtheȱmedievalȱbeastȬfableȱpopularȱwith
ruralȱandȱurbanȱaudiencesȱalike.
85
Theȱ ratherȱflatȱfarceȱofȱLeȱGentilhommeȱetȱsonȱpageȱhasȱtheȱtwoȱantagonistȱcharactersȱasȱmuch
dialoguingȱwithȱtheȱaudienceȱasȱharassingȱeachȱother;ȱtheȱfalseȱboastsȱofȱtheȱmiserableȱnobleman
areȱundercutȱatȱeveryȱturnȱbyȱtheȱsnideȱcommentsȱofȱhisȱservant.ȱButȱtheȱpageȱisȱnotȱclearlyȱaȱrural
character,ȱ whichȱ actuallyȱ oftenȱ provesȱ toȱ beȱ theȱ caseȱ inȱ ruralȱ settingsȱ withinȱ lateȬmedieval
literature.ȱSeeȱFarceȱjoyeuseȱàȱdeulxȱpersonnages,ȱRecueilȱdeȱfarces,ȱmoralitésȱ(seeȱnoteȱ47),ȱvol.ȱI,ȱno.
8.ȱInȱHeinrichȱWittenwiler’sȱDerȱRingȱ(ca.ȱ1400)ȱweȱareȱpresentedȱwithȱaȱvillageȱcommunity,ȱbut
thenȱweȱalsoȱmeetȱaȱphysicianȱandȱotherȱcharactersȱofȱaȱmoreȱelevatedȱstatus.ȱSeeȱtheȱdiscussion
ofȱthisȱtextȱbyȱAlbrechtȱClassenȱinȱhisȱIntroductionȱtoȱthisȱvolume,ȱsectionȱZ.
86
Anonymous,ȱFarceȱnouvelleȱduȱmusnierȱetȱduȱgentilhomme,ȱàȱquatreȱpersonnages,ȱcȇestȱàȱsçavoirȱlȇabbé,
leȱmusnier,ȱleȱgentilhommeȱetȱsonȱpage;ȱinȱRecueilȱdeȱlivretsȱsinguliersȱetȱraresȱdontȱlaȱréimpressionȱpeut
seȱjoindreȱauxȱréimpressionsȱdéjàȱpubliésȱ[sic]ȱparȱCaronȱ(Paris:ȱGuiraudet,ȱ1829).ȱInȱtheȱelectronic
catalogueȱofȱtheȱBibliothèqueȱNationaleȱ<http://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb33388950x/PUBLIC>
(lastȱaccessedȱonȱDec.ȱ14,ȱ2011).
Heȱisȱspecificallyȱcalledȱ“larron”ȱ(thief)ȱbyȱtheȱabbot,ȱwhoȱfurtherȱwarnsȱhimȱthat
asȱLentȱapproachesȱ“.ȱ.ȱ.ȱilȱteȱfautȱabstenirȱ/ȱDeȱdesroberȱleȱbléȱauxȱgens”ȱ(p.ȱ4;ȱyou
mustȱ desistȱ /ȱ fromȱ stealingȱ people’sȱ wheat).ȱ Still,ȱ asȱ Westernȱ narrativesȱ from
ReynardȱandȱRobinȱHoodȱtoȱTheȱAȬTeamȱandȱLeverageȱtellȱus,ȱcrooksȱhaveȱtheir
uses.ȱTheȱabbot,ȱconfrontedȱbyȱaȱmostȱignobleȱnoblemanȱattemptingȱtoȱextortȱ(with
threatsȱofȱenforcedȱforfeitureȱorȱbodilyȱinjury)ȱaȱhugeȱloanȱforȱtheȱabbeyȱsittingȱon
hisȱlands,87ȱturnsȱinȱdespairȱtoȱtheȱmillerȱforȱaȱwayȱout.ȱDisguisingȱhimselfȱasȱthe
priest,ȱtheȱmillerȱfacesȱoffȱagainstȱtheȱhaughtyȱgentilhomme,ȱwhoȱhasȱdemanded,
usingȱaȱvenerableȱfabulistȱmotif,ȱanȱanswerȱtoȱthreeȱimpossibleȱquestionsȱinȱorder
forȱtheȱabbotȱtoȱescapeȱpayment.ȱTrueȱtoȱanȱequallyȱvenerableȱcomicȱform,ȱthe
shrewdȱmillerȱbestsȱtheȱgentlemanȱatȱhisȱownȱgame,ȱsoȱthatȱnobleȱandȱplayȱboth
concludeȱ“Aȱtrompeurȱtrompeurȱ&ȱdemy”ȱ(p.ȱ26;ȱToȱaȱtrickster,ȱaȱtricksterȱandȱa
half).ȱTheȱmillerȱevenȱmanagesȱtoȱrubȱitȱinȱhowȱofȱ“siȱvilȱprix”ȱ(p.ȱ24;ȱsuchȱlittle
value)ȱaȱnoblemanȱreallyȱis:ȱtheȱanswerȱheȱgivesȱtoȱtheȱsecondȱquestion—how
muchȱtheȱnoblemanȱwasȱworth—isȱ29ȱdeniers,ȱoneȱlessȱthanȱtheȱpriceȱJudasȱpaid
forȱJesus.88ȱ
EvenȱmoreȱtrouncedȱbyȱmillerlyȱwilesȱareȱtheȱtwoȱgentlemenȱinȱtheȱpreviouslyȬ
referencedȱfarceȱofȱLesȱdeuxȱgentilshommesȱetȱleȱmeunier.89ȱAgainȱweȱseeȱtheȱallȬtooȬ
easyȱ exploitationȱ ofȱ theȱ smallȱ tradesmanȱ byȱ theȱ moneyedȱ class,ȱ butȱ withȱ a
delightfullyȱtwistedȱoutcome.ȱTheȱindebtedȱmillerȱfeelsȱutterlyȱpowerlessȱvisȬàȬvis
thoseȱinȱpower,ȱagainstȱwhomȱheȱcannotȱevenȱexpectȱjustice:ȱ“Onȱneȱplaideȱpoinct
sansȱargent,”ȱheȱcomplainsȱtoȱhisȱwifeȱ(Lȱ79;ȱYouȱcan’tȱgoȱtoȱtrialȱwithoutȱmoney).
Theȱtwoȱcadsȱofȱnobility,ȱwhoȱownȱtheȱmill,ȱattemptȱtoȱseduceȱtheȱmiller’sȱcomely
wife,ȱopenlyȱreferringȱtoȱherȱasȱ“leȱgibierȱde.ȱ.ȱ.ȱchasse”ȱ(Lȱ23;ȱgameȱtoȱbeȱhunted).
Theȱ astuteȱ wife,ȱ knowingȱ theirȱ weaknessȱ forȱ her,ȱ devisesȱ aȱ trickȱ toȱ getȱ outȱ of
payingȱ theirȱ backȱ rentȱ onȱ theȱ mill:ȱ sheȱ luresȱ firstȱ theȱ one,ȱ thenȱ theȱ otherȱ into
comingȱtoȱherȱhomeȱonȱpretextȱofȱanȱillicitȱrendezȬvous,ȱinȱtheȱprocessȱobtaining
handsomeȱsumsȱfromȱeachȱone.ȱSheȱthenȱimmediatelyȱshutsȱthemȱintoȱtheȱchicken
coop.ȱToȱpileȱevenȱmoreȱhumorousȱfodderȱonȱtheirȱpredicament,ȱtheȱmiller,ȱinȱon
theȱruse,ȱsummonsȱtheȱgentlemen’sȱownȱwivesȱthereȱandȱseducesȱeachȱoneȱquite
successfully,ȱtoȱtheȱexcruciatingȱchagrinȱofȱtheȱnobles,ȱwhoȱareȱtrappedȱinsideȱthe
coopȱ andȱ forcedȱ toȱ watch.ȱ Theirȱ venalityȱ isȱ exposed,ȱ theȱ miller’sȱ debtsȱ are
summarilyȱreleased,ȱandȱtheȱmillerȱconcludesȱhappilyȱthatȱsometimes,ȱindeed,
whatȱgoesȱaroundȱdoesȱcomeȱaround:ȱ“Qu’àȱtrompeurȱtromperyeȱluyȱvient”ȱ(L
730;ȱtoȱaȱtrickster,ȱtrickeryȱcomesȱbackȱtoȱhim).ȱ
87
Threeȱhundredȱecus,ȱorȱfiveȱhundredȱfrancs,ȱaccordingȱtoȱtheȱtext.
88
Asȱhasȱbeenȱnoted,ȱtheȱGentilhommeȱisȱputȱinȱanȱimpossibleȱposition;ȱifȱheȱresistsȱthis,ȱheȱisȱin
effectȱcontradictingȱholyȱwrit.ȱSeeȱFaivre,ȱRépertoireȱ(seeȱnoteȱ7),ȱ300–01.
89
Anonymous,ȱLesȱdeuxȱgentilshommesȱetȱleȱmeunier,ȱTissier,ȱIȱ(1986),ȱ307–94.ȱItȱisȱanotherȱfarceȱbased
onȱaȱfabliau,ȱthoughȱwithȱsignificantȱdifferencesȱinȱcharacterȱandȱmotivation.ȱSeeȱTissier,ȱI,ȱ315–21.
Anotherȱ exploitativeȱ noblemanȱ getsȱ hisȱ comeuppance,ȱ ifȱ notȱ anȱ allȬout
shellacking,ȱbyȱaȱmoreȬshrewdȬthanȬnotȱvillager,ȱinȱtheȱfarceȱofȱLeȱGentilhommeȱet
Naudet.90ȱNaudet,ȱcalledȱaȱ“unȱsotȱpleinȱdeȱsotȱlangaige”ȱ(Lȱ349;ȱaȱfoolȱfullȱofȱfoolish
words)ȱbutȱinȱnoȱwiseȱactingȱlikeȱone,91ȱisȱcuckoldedȱbyȱhisȱallȬtooȬcompliantȱwife
andȱtheȱnobleman,ȱwhoȱconspireȱtoȱsidelineȱtheȱputȬuponȱpeasantȱbyȱsendingȱhim
onȱallȱkindȱofȱerrands.92ȱNaudetȱisȱrequestedȱtoȱtakeȱtheȱgentleman’sȱhorseȱforȱa
walkȱtoȱcoolȱitȱdown,93ȱthenȱheȱisȱsentȱoffȱtoȱfetchȱwine,ȱandȱfinally,ȱtoȱgetȱhimȱout
ofȱtheȱwayȱlongȱenoughȱforȱtheirȱassignation,ȱisȱpackedȱoffȱtoȱdeliverȱaȱletterȱtoȱthe
noble’sȱwife.ȱNaudet,ȱfeigningȱignorance,ȱfailsȱatȱnearlyȱeveryȱtaskȱgiven,ȱeven
thoughȱheȱpretendsȱtoȱdoȱpreciselyȱwhatȱisȱaskedȱofȱhim.ȱByȱshowing,ȱratherȱthan
telling,ȱtheȱgentleman’sȱwifeȱwhatȱherȱhusbandȱwasȱupȱtoȱwithȱhisȱownȱspouse
(andȱthusȱkeepingȱhisȱwordȱtoȱtheȱletter),ȱNaudetȱgetsȱtheȱbittersweetȱrevengeȱof
cuckoldingȱhisȱupperclassȱrival.ȱHeȱcallsȱattentionȱtoȱthisȱtitȬforȬtatȱarrangement
inȱ hisȱ finalȱ addressȱ toȱ theȱ gentleman,ȱ whoseȱ coat—andȱ symbolically,ȱ his
identity—heȱhadȱalsoȱappropriatedȱonȱtheȱsly:
QuandȱdeȱNaudetȱtiendrésȱleȱlieu,
NaudetȱseroitȱMonsieur,ȱparȱDieu.ȱ
Gardezȱdoncȱvostreȱseigneurie,
EtȱNaudetȱsaȱnaudeterie.ȱ (Lȱ401–04)
[WhenȱyouȱareȱinȱNaudet’sȱplace,
NaudetȱwillȱbeȱMilord,ȱbyȱGod.
Keepȱtoȱyourselfȱyourȱlordliness
AndȱNaudetȱwon’tȱstrayȱfromȱhisȱNaudiness.]
90
Anonymous,ȱLeȱGentilhommeȱetȱNaudet,ȱTissier,ȱIȱ(1986),ȱ245–303.ȱFaivre’sȱtitleȱisȱLeȱgentilhomme,
Lison,ȱNaudet,ȱetȱlaȱdamoiselle.ȱAccordingȱtoȱTissier,ȱthisȱplayȱmayȱalsoȱbeȱaȱlooseȱadaptationȱofȱone
ofȱtheȱCentȱnouvellesȱnouvellesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ7).
91
ThereȱhasȱbeenȱquiteȱsomeȱscholarlyȱdiscussionȱasȱtoȱwhatȱkindȱofȱcharacterȱNaudetȱis.ȱIȱtendȱto
takeȱmyȱcuesȱfromȱaȱcharacter’sȱactionsȱratherȱthanȱwhatȱothersȱonstageȱcallȱsomeone,ȱandȱitȱseems
evidentȱthatȱNaudetȱisȱmuchȱmoreȱcleverȱthanȱheȱletsȱon.ȱThisȱisȱnoȱgawkingȱMahuetȱorȱeven
credulousȱPierrot.ȱIfȱNaudetȱwereȱdressedȱasȱaȱbadinȱ(i.e.ȱwearingȱaȱbiggins),ȱthatȱwouldȱalsoȱhave
peggedȱhimȱasȱaȱtype—whichȱwouldȱhaveȱprovedȱveryȱengagingȱforȱaudiencesȱasȱtheyȱsawȱhim
squaringȱoffȱagainstȱhisȱnobleȱfoeȱwithȱaȱcanninessȱdisguisedȱonlyȱveryȱthinlyȱasȱineptitude.ȱSee
J.ȬC.ȱ Aubailly,ȱ “Facétieȱ narréeȱ etȱ facétieȱ jouée,”ȱ Réforme,ȱ Humanisme,ȱ Renaissance,ȱ vol.ȱ VII
([Montpellier]:ȱAssociationȱd’eыtudeȱsurȱl’humanisme,ȱlaȱReыformeȱetȱlaȱRenaissance,ȱ1978);ȱseeȱalso
J.ȬCh.ȱPayen,ȱ“UnȱancêtreȱdeȱFigaro:ȱleȱbadinȱNaudetȱdansȱlaȱfarceȱduȱGentilhomme”ȱMélangesȱde
littératureȱetȱdȇhistoireȱoffertsȱàȱGeorgesȱCouton,ȱed.ȱJeanȱJehasseȱ(Lyon:ȱPressesȱUniversitairesȱde
Lyon,ȱ1981),ȱ15–22.
92
Theȱplayȱalsoȱpresentsȱotherȱruralȱrealities,ȱsuchȱasȱPierrotȱbeingȱsentȱoutȱtoȱfetchȱfirewoodȱ(Lȱ33)
andȱcoolingȱdownȱaȱflagonȱofȱwineȱinȱaȱbucketȱofȱcoldȱwaterȱ(Lȱ130).
93
Theȱplayȱactivelyȱdealsȱwithȱequineȱmatters:ȱbesidesȱhavingȱtoȱbeȱcooledȱdown,ȱtheȱhorseȱisȱsaid
toȱbeȱtormentedȱwithȱflies,ȱisȱaccusedȱofȱbeingȱskittishȱtoȱcertainȱriders,ȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱstabled,ȱand
evenȱknowsȱitsȱwayȱhome.ȱTissier’sȱanalysisȱofȱtheȱprobableȱstagingȱsuggestsȱtheȱstandardȱtwoȬ
menȬinȬaȬhorseȬsuit.
Inȱtwoȱfarces,ȱcharactersȱthatȱsymbolizeȱtheȱruralȱareȱcontrastedȱwithȱthoseȱwho
epitomizeȱtheȱurbanȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱurbane.ȱTheȱribaldȱfarceȱLeȱFaulconnierȱdeȱville,
whichȱsatirizesȱtheȱtraditionalȱmaleȱbastionȱofȱhunting,ȱpresentsȱaudiencesȱwithȱthe
tripleȱthreatȱofȱaȱlecherousȱandȱcunningȱParisianȱdandyȱ(theȱ“Faulconnierȱdeȱville”
inȱ question)ȱ onȱ theȱ prowlȱ forȱ women;ȱ aȱ highlyȱ trainedȱ countryȱ falconerȱ or
huntsmanȱ(“LeȱFaulconnierȱchampestre”)ȱasȱskilledȱatȱhisȱhuntȱasȱhisȱcityȱcousin
but,ȱdespiteȱtheȱhornȱinȱhisȱhand,ȱasȱinnocentȱasȱaȱbabe;ȱandȱaȱgreedy,ȱgrasping
nobleman.94ȱ Theȱ firstȱ halfȱ ofȱ theȱ playȱ isȱ aȱ virtualȱ debateȱ culminatingȱ inȱ poetic
flourishesȱbetweenȱtheȱfirstȱtwoȱcharacters,ȱwhoȱvauntȱtheirȱrespectiveȱprowesses
inȱdominatingȱtheirȱvisionȱofȱtheȱwildȱworldȱinȱaȱgameȱofȱoneȬupmanship.ȱWhile
theȱcountryȱhuntsmanȱmustȱblowȱhisȱhornȱtoȱflushȱoutȱhisȱbestialȱprey,95ȱtheȱcity
slickerȱ merelyȱ whistlesȱ toȱ attractȱ his,ȱ andȱ theȱ questȱ isȱ on.ȱ Theȱ twoȱ similarly
compareȱtheirȱweaponry,ȱoneȱliteral,ȱoneȱmetaphorical,ȱwithȱcomicalȱresults.ȱThe
countryȱhunterȱadmitsȱheȱtakesȱpleasureȱnotȱmerelyȱinȱseekingȱhisȱpreyȱofȱwild
boarȱ orȱ deer,ȱ asȱ heȱ sitsȱ highȱ onȱ hisȱ hackneyȱ accompaniedȱ byȱ hisȱ twoȱ orȱ three
faithfulȱhounds,ȱbutȱinȱcontemplatingȱtheȱimmenseȱjoysȱofȱtheȱnaturalȱworld96:
Jeȱcongnoisȱlesȱquartiersȱduȱboysȱ/ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ/
Aussiȱnulȱneȱsçauroitȱcomprendre
Laȱjoyeusetéȱquiȱyȱest,
Laȱbelleȱpetiteȱherbeȱyȱcroist
Etȱleȱrossignolȱyȱchante.ȱ (Lȱ82,ȱ86–89)
[Iȱknowȱallȱtheȱplacesȱinȱtheȱwoodsȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ
Andȱnoȱoneȱcouldȱunderstand
Theȱdelightȱthatȱisȱthere,
Theȱbeautifulȱgrassȱgrowingȱthere
Andȱtheȱnightingaleȱsinging.]
94
Anonymous,ȱLaȱfarceȱduȱfaulconnierȱdeȱville,ȱquiȱemmaineȱlaȱbesteȱprivee,ȱRecueil,ȱed.ȱCohenȱ(seeȱnote
20),ȱ203–09.ȱItȱisȱimportantȱtoȱnoteȱthatȱtheȱ“Faulconnierȱchampestre,”ȱwhileȱquiteȱcomfortably
positionedȱwithinȱtheȱruralȱsphere,ȱisȱnoȱpeasant;ȱheȱisȱaȱhorsemanȱandȱhasȱaȱpageȱtoȱattendȱhim;
seeȱLȱ92–109.ȱ
95
Judgingȱfromȱtheȱreactionȱofȱtheȱcityȱhunterȱtoȱtheȱsoundȱofȱtheȱhorn,ȱheȱmayȱbeȱsufferingȱfrom
aȱhangover:ȱ“.ȱ.ȱ.ȱtuȱmeȱrompsȱbienȱlaȱteste”ȱ(Lȱ35;ȱyou’reȱbustingȱmyȱheadȱopen).ȱSuchȱdissipation
wouldȱonlyȱaddȱtoȱtheȱhumorȱofȱtheȱcharacterȱandȱtheȱsituation.
96
Forȱ aȱ discussionȱ ofȱ theȱ societalȱ significanceȱ ofȱ theȱ traditionalȱ maleȱ bastionȱ ofȱ huntingȱ inȱ the
MiddleȱAges,ȱseeȱRobertȱFossier,ȱTheȱAxeȱandȱtheȱOath:ȱOrdinaryȱLifeȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱtrans.ȱLydia
G.ȱCochraneȱ(2007;ȱPrincetonȱandȱOxford:ȱPrincetonȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2010),ȱ208–15.ȱTheȱcountry
falconer’sȱ rhetoricȱ evokesȱ theȱ “landscape”ȱ conceptȱ ofȱ theȱ medievalȱ forest,ȱ withȱ itsȱ highly
romanticizedȱcourtlyȱassociations.ȱSeeȱAlbrechtȱClassen’sȱIntroductionȱtoȱthisȱvolume,ȱsectionȱE.
Aȱnoblemanȱchancesȱuponȱtheȱpair,ȱaccusingȱthemȱofȱpoachingȱonȱhisȱlandsȱand
callingȱuponȱthemȱtoȱshowȱhimȱdueȱreverence.97ȱInȱpartȱtoȱdefendȱhimselfȱfrom
suspicion,ȱ theȱ cityȱ huntsmanȱ showsȱ offȱ hisȱ wolfȬwhistle,ȱ whichȱ effectively
summonsȱaȱnubileȱyoungȱwoman.ȱButȱneitherȱcountryȱhunterȱnorȱgentlemanȱare
adeptȱatȱcapturingȱthisȱgame:ȱbothȱareȱhoodwinkedȱbyȱtheȱcityȱsophisticateȱinto
playingȱ blindȱ man’sȱ bluffȱ forȱ theȱ chanceȱ toȱ passȱ timeȱ withȱ theȱ silentȱ lass,
whereuponȱtheȱdandyȱhastilyȱdecampsȱwithȱherȱasȱprize,ȱorȱmoreȱaptly,ȱprey.98ȱ
Theȱ otherȱ playȱ ofȱ thisȱ type,ȱ theȱ mordantlyȱ satiricalȱ fool’sȱ playȱ Folleȱ Bobance,
opensȱwithȱtheȱMotherȱFoolȱofȱlateȬmedievalȱglamour,ȱFolleȱBobance,ȱsummoning
aȱ trioȱ ofȱ allegoricalȱ characters:ȱ Gentleman,ȱ Merchant,ȱ andȱ Peasant.ȱ Inȱ this
pointedlyȱdidacticȱsottieȱmoralisée,ȱwithȱitsȱhintȱofȱaȱcapitalistȱupdatingȱofȱtheȱthree
estates,99ȱtheȱpeasant’sȱtraditionalȱvirtuesȱofȱhardȱworkȱandȱaccumulationȱofȱlands
andȱlivestockȱproveȱnoȱmatchȱforȱtheȱtemptationsȱofȱriotousȱliving—noȱmoreȱthan
theȱ nobleman’sȱ courtlyȱ polishȱ orȱ theȱ merchant’sȱ sharpȱ businessȱ acumen.ȱ Folle
Bobanceȱtemptsȱtheseȱcharacters,ȱwhoȱareȱfromȱtheȱoutsetȱidentifiedȱasȱherȱfools,
cajolingȱ themȱ toȱ sellȱ allȱ theyȱ haveȱ toȱ buyȱ herȱ pearlȱ ofȱ greatȱ price:ȱ styleȬ
impassioned,ȱ dissoluteȱ revelry.100ȱ Alongȱ withȱ hisȱ fellows,ȱ theȱ hardscrabbling
peasantȱlaborerȱsuccumbsȱtoȱherȱseduction,ȱsellingȱaȱscoreȱofȱpigsȱandȱaȱscoreȱof
cattleȱalongȱwithȱhisȱfieldsȱandȱvineyards;ȱsheȱhasȱpersuadedȱhimȱtoȱrunȱthrough
themȱall,ȱtoȱspendȱonȱgoodȱtimesȱandȱfinery:ȱ
Jeȱmengerayȱetȱbléȱetȱgrange
Etȱlesȱraisinsȱtousȱenȱverjusȱ/ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ/ȱ
Parȱlabeurȱj’ayȱestéȱdeceus;ȱ
Mieulxȱvaultȱgaudirȱetȱdespencer.ȱ (ȱ272–73)ȱ
[Iȱhaveȱconsumedȱbothȱwheatȱandȱfarm
AndȱtheȱstillȬgreenȱgrapesȱ/ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ/
Workingȱhasȱdisappointedȱme;
Itȱisȱbetterȱtoȱmakeȱmerryȱandȱspend.]
97
Heȱcallsȱthemȱ“villainsȱgentilloys”ȱ(Lȱ280;ȱnobilifiedȱpeasants).
98
Theȱfemaleȱcharacterȱevokesȱanȱalmostȱdeconstructionistȱ“presenceȱofȱabsence,”ȱbeingȱliterally
muteȱduringȱherȱentireȱtimeȱonstageȱ(theȱdirectionsȱspecifyȱ“Icyȱvientȱuneȱbelleȱfilleȱdeȱdehorsȱsans
motȱdire”).ȱTheȱgameȱisȱsaidȱtoȱoriginateȱfromȱaȱwarriorȱinȱtheȱ10thȱcenturyȱwhoȱhadȱhisȱeyesȱput
out.ȱSeeȱhttp://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/ColinȬmaillardȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱDec.ȱ14,ȱ2011).
99
Traditionallyȱheldȱtoȱbeȱchurch,ȱnobility,ȱandȱpeasantry,ȱinȱthatȱorder.ȱSeeȱGeorgesȱDuby,ȱLesȱtrois
ordres,ȱou,ȱL’imaginaireȱduȱféodalismeȱ(Paris:ȱGallimard,ȱ1978);ȱseeȱalsoȱFreedman,ȱImagesȱ(seeȱnote
3),ȱ20–24.ȱItȱisȱanȱintriguingȱbutȱunprovenȱinstanceȱofȱwhatȱseemsȱtheȱascendanceȱofȱtheȱmerchant
classȱduringȱtheȱearlyȱmodernȱperiod.
100
Anonymous,ȱFolleȱBobance,ȱAncienȱThéâtreȱFrançois,ȱvol.ȱII,ȱed.ȱViolletȱleȱDucȱ(Paris:ȱP.ȱJannet,ȱ1854),
264–91.ȱTheȱtitleȱisȱoftenȱmodernizedȱasȱBombance.ȱItȱisȱalsoȱlistedȱinȱPicot’sȱcollectionȱofȱfool’s
plays,ȱRecueilȱgénéralȱdeȱsotties,ȱI,ȱ235–70.
Hisȱtwoȱcompanionsȱinȱyieldingȱtoȱtemptationȱalsoȱofferȱupȱallȱtheyȱhave;ȱtheir
opulenceȱinȱlivingȱaboveȱtheirȱmeansȱdiffersȱfromȱtheȱpeasantȱworker’sȱprodigality
onlyȱinȱdegree.101ȱToȱbeȱsure,ȱatȱtheȱend,ȱwhenȱtheȱthreeȱhaveȱspentȱitȱallȱ(even
moneyȱlentȱtoȱthemȱinȱgoodȱfaith),ȱfairȬweatherȱfriendȱFolleȱBobanceȱabandons
themȱtoȱtheȱChateauȱdeȱpouvretéȱ(castleȱofȱpoverty),ȱwhereȱtheyȱmustȱliveȱoutȱtheir
livesȱinȱhardshipȱandȱmisery.
Weȱ willȱ neverȱ knowȱ fullyȱ toȱ whatȱ extentȱ theȱ presenceȱ ofȱ theȱ ruralȱ was
representedȱonstageȱinȱthisȱperiod.ȱWhatȱweȱdoȱknowȱisȱthat,ȱofȱtheȱ176ȱextant
farcesȱofȱtheȱlateȬmedievalȱ/ȱearlyȬmodernȱperiods,ȱwellȱoverȱaȱthirdȱ(byȱmyȱcount
66),ȱ areȱ firmlyȱ rootedȱ inȱ theȱ country,ȱ beȱ itȱ viaȱ setting,ȱ plotȱ orȱ character.102
Intriguingly,ȱwhileȱmanyȱfarcesȱthatȱcontrastȱnoble/ȱcityȱandȱlowerȱclass/ȱrural
charactersȱ(generallyȱshowingȱoneȱclassȱtryingȱtoȱhoodwinkȱtheȱother),ȱthereȱare
nearlyȱasȱmanyȱvillainsȱemergingȱtriumphantȱasȱthereȱareȱupperȬclassȱcharacters;
inȱmanyȱplaysȱtheȱcharactersȱendȱinȱaȱvirtualȱdraw.103ȱAndȱwhileȱtheȱplaysȱdo
presentȱ someȱ ofȱ chiefȱ comicalȱ characteristicsȱ regardingȱ peasantryȱ inȱ theȱ late
MiddleȱAges—rusticsȱasȱcontemptible,ȱswarthyȱandȱdirty,ȱignorantȱofȱreligion,
associatedȱwithȱexcrement—theseȱqualifiersȱareȱbyȱnoȱmeansȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱstory
forȱtheȱcharactersȱthatȱinhabitȱtheȱfarces.104ȱOftenȱgullible,ȱsometimesȱastoundingly
stupid,ȱbutȱonlyȱoccasionallyȱsoiled,ȱtheȱruralȱcharactersȱinȱlateȬmedievalȱFrench
farcesȱ alsoȱ comeȱ acrossȱ asȱ clever,ȱ resourceful,ȱ evenȱ wilyȱ businessmenȱ or
tradeswomen.ȱSomeȱareȱstubbornȱorȱoutspoken,ȱsomeȱasȱadeptȱatȱfindingȱwaysȱto
getȱoutȱofȱworkȱasȱothersȱareȱatȱtumblingȱintoȱanȱillicitȱliaison.ȱStereotypesȱdoȱplay
theirȱpart:ȱthereȱareȱmoreȱsimpletonȱ maleȱpeasantȱcharactersȱthanȱfemale,ȱand
moreȱcheatingȱcountryȱwivesȱthanȱhusbands.ȱItȱisȱofȱsomeȱnoteȱthatȱtheȱfemale
101
Asȱoneȱcriticȱhasȱpointedȱout,ȱtheȱgentleman’sȱextravaganceȱandȱsartorialȱsplendorȱisȱconsidered
theȱmostȱextreme—andȱthusȱtoȱbeȱimitated—accordingȱtoȱtheȱMotherȱFool.ȱSeeȱPaulineȱM.ȱSmith,
Theȱ AntiȬCourtierȱ Trendȱ inȱ Sixteenthȱ Centuryȱ Frenchȱ Literature.ȱ Travauxȱ d’humanismeȱ et
Renaissance,ȱ84ȱȱ(Geneva:ȱDroz,ȱ1966),ȱ83.
102
IȱuseȱFaivre’sȱlisting,ȱandȱIȱdoȱnotȱconsiderȱtheȱTabarinicȱfarcesȱinȱthisȱaccountingȱ(seeȱnoteȱ7).
103
Inȱmyȱcalculation,ȱpeasantsȱoutwinkȱorȱovercomeȱcityȱorȱnobleȱcharactersȱinȱatȱleastȱfiveȱfarces:
MestreȱTrubert,ȱPathelin,ȱMaistreȱMimin,ȱLeȱmeunierȱetȱleȱgentilhomme,ȱandȱDeuxȱgentilhommes.ȱCity
scoundrelsȱorȱcorruptȱnoblesȱbestȱguilelessȱpeasantsȱinȱCautelleux,ȱJeninot,ȱTroisȱgalantsȱetȱPhlipot,
Arquemination,ȱ L’hommeȱ àȱ mesȱ pois,ȱ Lesȱ femmesȱ quiȱ vendentȱ amourettes,ȱ andȱ Leȱ curia.ȱ (Iȱ amȱ not
lumpingȱplaysȱthatȱpitȱpeasantsȱagainstȱlocalȱpriestsȱorȱunscruptulousȱwivesȱintoȱthisȱimpromptu
survey.)ȱPlaysȱinvolvingȱsomeȱkindȱofȱrural/urbanȱstruggleȱthatȱmoreȱorȱlessȱendsȱinȱaȱtieȱinclude
Mahuet,ȱLesȱenfansȱdeȱBagneux,ȱLeȱgentilhommeȱetȱNaudet,ȱLeȱfaulconnierȱdeȱville,ȱandȱFolleȱBobance.ȱThis
mightȱtendȱtoȱcorroborateȱwhatȱtheȱIntroductionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱhasȱalludedȱtoȱalready,ȱthatȱthe
rigidȱseparationȱbetweenȱnobleȱandȱpeasant,ȱorȱcityȱdwellerȱandȱrusticȱvillager,ȱmightȱbeȱmoreȱof
aȱprojectionȱthanȱanȱaccurateȱdepictionȱofȱmedievalȱlife.ȱSeeȱAlbrechtȱClassen’sȱcommentsȱinȱthe
Introductionȱ toȱ thisȱ volume,ȱ sectionȱ 10;ȱ cf.ȱ alsoȱ theȱ commentsȱ byȱ Nicolinoȱ Applausoȱ inȱ his
contributionȱtoȱthisȱvolume.
104
SeeȱFreedman,ȱImagesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ133–56.ȱSoȱasȱnotȱtoȱcreateȱinterpretiveȱexpectations,ȱIȱchoseȱnot
toȱlistȱtheseȱcharacteristicsȱatȱtheȱbeginning.
charactersȱnearlyȱalwaysȱshowȱintellectualȱacuity—inȱfindingȱwaysȱtoȱbeȱmaritally
faithfulȱasȱwellȱasȱadventurous,ȱinȱmarshallingȱresourcesȱtoȱprotectȱandȱincrease
theirȱagriculturalȱproductsȱasȱwellȱasȱdefendȱtheirȱhomesȱandȱtheirȱagencyȱwithin
it.105ȱOnȱtheȱmain,ȱtheȱfarmersȱandȱvillagersȱwhoȱpopulateȱFrenchȱfarcesȱofȱthe
fifteenthȱandȱearlyȱsixteenthȱcenturiesȱofferȱaȱremarkablyȱequitableȱviewȱofȱhuman
nature.ȱInȱtheȱcountrysideȱthatȱwasȱconjuredȱupȱonȱtheȱtheatricalȱscaffoldȱandȱin
theȱpublicȱsquare,ȱcharactersȱbothȱfoolishȱandȱshrewd,ȱsavvyȱandȱstupid,ȱ met,
connived,ȱswindled,ȱwereȱwisedȱup—andȱleftȱpeopleȱlaughing.106
105
IȱcallȱattentionȱtoȱSherriȱOlson’sȱexcellentȱstudyȱofȱwomen’sȱculturalȱhistoryȱinȱmedievalȱEngland
inȱthisȱvolume,ȱ“Women’sȱPlaceȱandȱWomen’sȱSpaceȱinȱtheȱMedievalȱVillage.ȱHerȱaccountȱofȱthe
recordsȱofȱtheȱmultitaskingȱEnglishȱwomenȱwhoȱwoveȱtheirȱwayȱintoȱaȱruralȱplaceȱofȱtheirȱown
resonatesȱwellȱwithȱtheȱdynamic,ȱvigorousȱfemaleȱcharactersȱinȱtheȱfarcesȱaboutȱFrenchȱruralȱspace
aȱcenturyȱorȱtwoȱlater.ȱ
106
Iȱamȱalwaysȱinformedȱbyȱtheȱexcellentȱstudyȱofȱhowȱfarceȱoperates:ȱBernadetteȱReyȬFlaud’sȱLa
farce,ȱouȱlaȱmachineȱàȱrire:ȱthéorieȱd’unȱgenreȱdramatique,ȱ1450–1550ȱ(Genève:ȱDroz,ȱ1984).ȱForȱuseful
recentȱstudiesȱonȱhumorȱinȱthatȱperiod,ȱseeȱtheȱcollectionȱofȱarticlesȱinȱLaughterȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges
andȱ Earlyȱ Modernȱ Times:ȱ Epistemologyȱ ofȱ aȱ Fundamentalȱ Humanȱ Behavior,ȱ itsȱ Meaning,ȱ and
Consequences,ȱ ed.ȱ Albrechtȱ Classen.ȱ Fundamentalsȱ ofȱ Medievalȱ andȱ Earlyȱ Modernȱ Culture,ȱ 5
(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱDeȱGruyter,ȱ2010).
Chapterȱ23
ElizabethȱChesneyȱZeguraȱ
UprootedȱTreesȱandȱSlaughteredȱPeasants:
TheȱSavagingȱofȱRuralȱSpaceȱinȱAriosto’sȱOrlandoȱFuriosoȱ(1532)
Fromȱ theȱ labyrinthineȱ forestsȱ whereȱ knightsȱ errantȱ wander,ȱ toȱ theȱ idyllicȱ loci
amoeniȱwhereȱtheyȱpauseȱtoȱrest,ȱdream,ȱandȱseekȱrefugeȱfromȱtheȱwarȱandȱviolence
aroundȱ them,ȱ depictionsȱ ofȱ ruralȱ spaceȱ permeateȱ Ludovicoȱ Ariosto’sȱ Orlando
Furioso.1ȱ Inspiredȱ inȱ partȱ byȱ theȱ pastoralȱ versesȱ ofȱ classicalȱ writersȱ including
HesiodȱandȱVirgil,ȱandȱbyȱtheȱbucolicȱsettingsȱfavoredȱbyȱSannazaroȱandȱBoiardo
inȱRenaissanceȱItaly,ȱtheȱcountryȱlandscapesȱthatȱOrlandoȱandȱhisȱfellowȱpaladins
traverseȱareȱalsoȱaȱlegacyȱofȱtheȱromanceȱtraditionȱthatȱAriostoȱbothȱappropriates
andȱparodiesȱinȱhisȱmockȱepic.ȱFromȱtheȱTristanȱlegendsȱtoȱtheȱArthurianȱcycleȱand
beyond,ȱ romanceȱ landscapesȱ typicallyȱ vacillateȱ betweenȱ castleȱ andȱ country,
eschewingȱurbanȱlocalesȱandȱtheȱstarkȱrealismȱthatȱoftenȱaccompaniesȱthemȱin
favorȱofȱdarkȱwoods,ȱmysteriousȱgardens,ȱfogȬshroudedȱseascapes,ȱandȱotherȱloci
ofȱ enchantment.ȱ Inȱ manyȱ ways,ȱ Ariostoȱ invokesȱ thisȱ traditionȱ inȱ hisȱ Orlando
Furiosoȱ(firstȱversionȱinȱ1516,ȱfinal,ȱcompletedȱversionȱprintedȱinȱ1532),ȱwithȱits
meanderingȱknightsȱandȱdamselsȱinȱdistressȱwhoȱnavigateȱforestsȱandȱstreambeds,
cliffsȱandȱcaves,ȱtreacherousȱmountainȱslopesȱandȱwaveȬsweptȱbeaches,ȱturbulent
oceansȱandȱcloudȬstuddedȱskies.ȱ
Thisȱisȱonlyȱoneȱsideȱofȱhisȱhybridȱandȱunstableȱtopography,ȱhowever,ȱwhichȱis
byȱ turnsȱ urbanȱ andȱ courtly,ȱ utopianȱ andȱ arcadian,ȱ imaginaryȱ andȱ realistic.ȱ To
1
EvocationsȱofȱtheȱlocusȱamoenusȱinȱAriosto’sȱOrlandoȱFurioso,ȱwhichȱappearȱearlyȱinȱtheȱfirstȱcanto
(cf.ȱ1.14–15,ȱwhereȱtheȱfleeingȱAngelicaȱhappensȱuponȱFerrarù,ȱwhoȱ“hadȱwithdrawnȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱearly
fromȱtheȱbattle”ȱtoȱ“slakeȱhisȱthirstȱandȱtoȱrest,”ȱ2)ȱandȱreappearȱmanyȱtimesȱthereafter,ȱareȱfarȱtoo
numerousȱtoȱlistȱhere.ȱQuotationsȱinȱItalianȱfromȱtheȱOrlandoȱFurioso,ȱaccompaniedȱbyȱcantoȱand
stanzaȱnumbers,ȱareȱtakenȱfromȱLudovicoȱAriosto,ȱOpere,ȱed.ȱAdrianoȱSeroniȱ(Milan:ȱMursia,
1961).ȱUnlessȱotherwiseȱnoted,ȱEnglishȱtranslationsȱinȱtheȱremainderȱofȱthisȱpaperȱareȱfromȱGuido
Waldman,ȱOrlandoȱFuriosoȱ(Oxford:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1973),ȱaȱproseȱrenderingȱofȱAriosto’s
fortyȬsixȱcantoȱpoem.ȱReferencesȱtoȱtheȱtranslationȱareȱindicatedȱbyȱpageȱnumbersȱonly.
730 ElizabethȱChesneyȱZeguraȱ
understandȱtheȱcomplexȱmetaphoricalȱresonancesȱofȱOrlando’sȱmadness,ȱwhich
explodesȱ violentlyȱ ontoȱ aȱ peacefulȱ countryȱ settingȱ occupiedȱ byȱ peasants,
shepherds,ȱ andȱ farmersȱ inȱ cantosȱ 23ȱ andȱ 24,ȱ weȱ mustȱ examineȱ theȱ broader
topographicalȱcontextȱinȱwhichȱAriostoȱinscribesȱthisȱpivotalȱepisode.
Againstȱtheȱauthor’sȱfancifulȱ“natural”ȱbackdrop,ȱwhichȱisȱrifeȱwithȱdemonsȱand
monstersȱandȱtooȱviolentȱtoȱqualifyȱasȱbucolic,ȱtheȱaccoutrementsȱofȱcivilization
neverthelessȱfigureȱprominentlyȱinȱtheȱOrlandoȱFurioso.ȱAriosto’sȱdescriptionsȱof
cities,ȱ courts,ȱ andȱ castles,ȱ andȱ hisȱ predilectionȱ forȱ bothȱ utopianȱ andȱ arcadian
discourse,ȱgenerateȱaȱtensionȱbetweenȱnatureȱandȱcultureȱthatȱinformsȱhisȱentire
mockȱepic,ȱincludingȱOrlando’sȱovertlyȱruralȱmadnessȱscene.ȱPreviouslyȱportrayed
asȱaȱuomoȱuniversaleȱ(“RenaissanceȱMan”),ȱtheȱprotagonistȱmutesȱintoȱaȱcrazedȱuomo
naturaleȱ (naturalȱ man)ȱ whoȱ paradoxicallyȱ savagesȱ natureȱ byȱ uprootingȱ trees,
hurlingȱrocks,ȱandȱmassacringȱpeasantsȱuponȱlearningȱofȱhisȱladyȱlove’sȱmarriage
toȱaȱsimpleȱSaracenȱsoldier.ȱ
Orlando’sȱaberrantȱreturnȱto,ȱandȱyetȱdestructionȱof,ȱnatureȱmayȱderiveȱinȱpart
fromȱSt.ȱPaul’sȱepistleȱtoȱtheȱCorinthians,ȱwhichȱimplicitlyȱcharacterizesȱtheȱnatural
manȱasȱaȱfoolȱorȱmadmanȱwhoseȱunreasonȱblindsȱhimȱtoȱtheȱwisdomȱofȱGod’s
teachings:ȱ“Butȱ[the]ȱnaturalȱmanȱdoesȱnotȱreceiveȱtheȱthingsȱofȱtheȱSpiritȱofȱGod,
forȱtheyȱareȱfollyȱtoȱhim;ȱandȱheȱcannotȱknowȱ[them]ȱbecauseȱtheyȱareȱspiritually
discerned”ȱ(1ȱCorinthiansȱ2.14).2ȱ
Fromȱaȱpurelyȱtheologicalȱperspective,ȱtheȱprotagonist’sȱselfȬdestructiveȱloveȱfor
aȱpaganȱwomanȱcertainlyȱfiguresȱasȱbothȱaȱcivicȱandȱspiritualȱlapse:ȱnotȱonlyȱisȱhe
blindȱtoȱ“theȱthingsȱofȱtheȱSpiritȱofȱGod”ȱthatȱaffordȱChristiansȱaȱspiritualȱcompass,
butȱ heȱ hasȱ abandonedȱ theȱ defenseȱ ofȱ Christendomȱ toȱ followȱ theȱ enemy,ȱ inȱ a
misguidedȱconflationȱofȱcourtlyȱandȱdivineȱlove.3ȱYetȱarguablyȱtheȱprotagonist’s
2
IȱhaveȱincludedȱtheȱDarbyȱtranslationȱofȱtheȱBibleȱbothȱforȱitsȱuseȱofȱtheȱtermsȱ“naturalȱman”ȱand
“folly,”ȱwhichȱwasȱoftenȱusedȱinterchangeablyȱwithȱ“madness”ȱinȱRenaissanceȱtexts;ȱandȱforȱthe
painstakingȱlinguisticȱresearchȱandȱanalysisȱofȱancientȱtextsȱthatȱinformȱit.ȱSee
ȱhttp://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Corinthians%202:14&version=DARBYȱ(last
accessedȱonȱSeptemberȱ30,ȱ2011).ȱInȱcomparison,ȱseeȱtheȱLatinȱVulgateȱversionȱofȱthisȱtext,ȱwhich
alsoȱfocusesȱonȱstultitiaȱorȱfolly:ȱ“AnimalisȱautemȱhomoȱnonȱpercipitȱeaȱquaeȱsuntȱSpiritusȱDei
stultitiaȱestȱenimȱilliȱetȱnonȱpotestȱintellegereȱquiaȱspiritaliterȱexaminatur”:ȱ
ȱhttp://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/www/Vulgate/1_Corinthians.htmlȱ[lastȱaccessedȱonȱSeptember
30,ȱ2011]).ȱWhileȱseveralȱmodernȱItalianȱtranslationsȱofȱtheȱNewȱTestamentȱreferȱtoȱ“follia”ȱrather
thanȱ“pazzia”ȱforȱtheȱEnglishȱ“folly”ȱandȱtheȱLatinȱ“stultitia,”ȱmoreover,ȱtheȱfollowingȱtranslation
fromȱtheȱBibbiaȱRivedutaȱ(RevisedȱBible)ȱrefersȱtoȱtheȱnaturalȱman’sȱsenseȱthatȱgodlyȱthingsȱare
“pazzia,”ȱinȱaȱperceptualȱreversalȱthatȱimplicitlyȱreflectsȱhisȱownȱmadness:ȱ“Orȱl’uomoȱnaturale
nonȱriceveȱleȱcoseȱdelloȱSpiritoȱdiȱDio,ȱperchéȱgliȱsonoȱpazzia;ȱeȱnonȱleȱpuòȱconoscere,ȱperchéȱle
siȱgiudicanoȱspiritualmente.”ȱSee:
http://lasacrabibbiaelaconcordanza.lanuovavia.org/la_sacra_bibbia_46_1_corinzi.html#pco2_2
(lastȱaccessedȱonȱSeptemberȱ30,ȱ2011).ȱ
3
Thisȱ confusionȱ hingesȱ uponȱ theȱ nameȱ “Angelica,”ȱ whichȱ isȱ aȱ tongueȬinȬcheekȱ andȱ parodical
referenceȱtoȱtheȱ“donnaȱangelicata”ȱofȱcourtlyȱpoetry,ȱwhoseȱpurityȱandȱspiritualityȱostensibly
UprootedȱTreesȱandȱSlaughteredȱPeasants 731
breakdownȱisȱalsoȱaȱfunctionȱofȱtheȱwarringȱcultural,ȱpsychological,ȱandȱnatural
forcesȱthatȱareȱembeddedȱwithinȱAriosto’sȱshiftingȱlandscapes.ȱ
Deeplyȱinfluencedȱbyȱromanceȱtradition,ȱcastlesȱandȱcourtsȱrangingȱfromȱAlcina’s
realmȱ(cantosȱ6–7)ȱtoȱAtlante’sȱpalaceȱ(cantosȱ2–4,ȱ12)ȱaboundȱinȱAriosto’sȱsequel
toȱtheȱOrlandoȱInnamorato,ȱmanyȱofȱthemȱenlivenedȱbyȱsweetȱmusic,ȱdancing,ȱand
anȱexplosionȱofȱdecorativeȱartsȱinspiredȱbyȱRenaissanceȱesthetics.ȱForȱtheȱmostȱpart
theseȱedificesȱareȱneitherȱurbanȱnorȱ“social”ȱspaces,ȱnotwithstandingȱtheirȱexternal
wallsȱthatȱculturalȱhistoriansȱviewȱasȱmarkersȱofȱcityȱbuildingȱinȱtheȱera.4ȱInstead
theyȱfunctionȱasȱromanceȱsitesȱofȱentrapment,ȱdissension,ȱorȱinjustice;ȱasȱstylized
vehiclesȱ ofȱ allegoryȱ orȱ solitaryȱ retreatsȱ intoȱ melancholyȱ andȱ selfȬpity;ȱ andȱ as
illusoryȱ “pleasureȱ domes”ȱ thatȱ distanceȱ paladinsȱ includingȱ Orlandoȱ fromȱ the
civitas,ȱofferingȱthemȱmomentaryȱrespiteȱfromȱtheirȱcivicȱcommitments.5ȱ
Notwithstandingȱtheȱantisocial,ȱdystopicȱnatureȱofȱtheseȱcommunalȱspacesȱand
theȱrarityȱofȱcityscapesȱinȱAriosto’sȱeighthȬcenturyȱplot,ȱwhichȱtakesȱplaceȱpriorȱto
theȱ formationȱ ofȱ largeȱ urbanȱ communitiesȱ throughoutȱ medievalȱ Europe,ȱ the
OrlandoȱFuriosoȱneverthelessȱfunctionsȱhistoricallyȱandȱthematicallyȱasȱaȱtaleȱofȱtwo
cities:ȱinȱadditionȱtoȱchroniclingȱtheȱmedievalȱdefenseȱofȱParisȱagainstȱMoorish
invaders,ȱ Ariosto’sȱ mockȱ epicȱ prophesiesȱ theȱ gloryȱ ofȱ Renaissanceȱ Ferrara,
unfoldingȱprimarilyȱinȱtheȱgeographicalȱandȱtemporalȱspaceȱbetweenȱtheseȱtwo
loci.6ȱ
ennobledȱtheȱpoetȱwhoȱadoredȱher,ȱbringingȱhimȱcloserȱtoȱGod,ȱaȱcommonȱnotionȱinȱallȱmedieval
courtlyȱloveȱpoetry.
4
SeeȱR.ȱS.ȱLopezȱandȱH.ȱA.ȱMiskimin,ȱ“TheȱEconomicȱDepressionȱofȱtheȱRenaissance,”ȱTheȱEconomic
HistoryȱReview,ȱNewȱSeries,ȱ14.3ȱ(1962):ȱ408–26.
5
Forȱexample,ȱAtlante’sȱmagicȱcastle,ȱwhereȱknightsȱbecomeȱentrappedȱinȱaȱvainȱandȱlabyrinthine
questȱ forȱ theȱ objectȱ ofȱ theirȱ obsessionsȱ (12.9–15),ȱ isȱ designedȱ toȱ keepȱ Ruggieroȱ inȱ aȱ stateȱ of
perpetualȱinnocenceȱandȱyouth,ȱtoȱprotectȱhimȱfromȱhisȱcivicȱandȱmaritalȱdestiny,ȱandȱtoȱdeferȱhis
entryȱintoȱtheȱworldȱofȱexperienceȱandȱsubsequentȱdeath.ȱInȱcontrast,ȱAlcina’sȱenchantedȱrealm
(cantosȱ6–7)ȱallegoricallyȱrepresentsȱtheȱtemptationȱofȱlussuria,ȱorȱlustȱandȱsensuality,ȱforȱwhich
AstolfoȱandȱRuggieroȱabandonȱtheirȱcivicȱduties;ȱandȱtheȱmoreȱrealisticȱScottishȱcastleȱ(cantosȱ4–5)
fromȱwhichȱRinaldoȱrescuesȱGinevraȱisȱrifeȱwithȱdeceit,ȱtreachery,ȱandȱlegallyȱsanctionedȱinjustice.
EvenȱtheȱpalatialȱabodeȱofȱtheȱMantuanȱknightȱ(cantosȱ42–43),ȱwhoȱoffersȱRinaldoȱtheȱopportunity
toȱassayȱhisȱwife’sȱfidelity,ȱisȱluxuriousȱbutȱsolitary.ȱItȱisȱfilledȱwithȱRenaissanceȱart,ȱbutȱdevoid
ofȱtheȱlifeȱandȱenergyȱthatȱhisȱwifeȱ(whoseȱfidelityȱheȱchallengedȱsoȱdoggedlyȱthatȱsheȱfinally
abandonedȱhim)ȱandȱtheirȱeventualȱchildrenȱwouldȱhaveȱbroughtȱhim.ȱTrue,ȱthereȱareȱexceptions
toȱtheseȱsocietalȱantiȬmodels,ȱincludingȱLogistilla’sȱallegoricalȱrealm,ȱwhereȱreasonȱprevails,ȱand
perhapsȱtheȱcityȱofȱFerrara;ȱbutȱoverall,ȱcastleȱlifeȱinȱtheȱOrlandoȱFuriosoȱisȱmoreȱdystopicȱthan
utopian.ȱ
6
Indeed,ȱhumanistsȱwereȱinclinedȱtoȱviewȱtheȱinterregnumȱbetweenȱclassicalȱantiquityȱandȱtheir
ownȱtimeȱasȱaȱculturalȱwasteland,ȱaȱthemeȱthatȱAriostoȱtouchesȱonȱatȱtheȱbeginningȱofȱCantoȱ34
withȱhisȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱHarpiesȱthatȱreducedȱItalyȱtoȱaȱstateȱofȱblindnessȱ(“accecata”ȱ34.1),ȱerror
(“error”ȱ34.1)ȱandȱpovertyȱ(“povertà”ȱ34.2)ȱforȱsoȱmanyȱyears.ȱ
Evenȱ inȱ theȱ intersticesȱ ofȱ hisȱ text,ȱ whereȱ ruralȱ landscapesȱ abound,ȱ Ariosto
weavesȱscatteredȱallusionsȱtoȱurbanȱspacesȱintoȱhisȱexordia,ȱhisȱnarrativeȱasides
andȱ divagations,ȱ andȱ hisȱ storyline.ȱ Inȱ hisȱ accountȱ ofȱ theȱ siegeȱ ofȱ Parisȱ (cantos
14–17),ȱ forȱ example,ȱ theȱ Ferrareseȱ authorȱ describesȱ theȱ beleagueredȱ Frankish
cityscapeȱ withȱ remarkableȱ realism.ȱ Asȱ Michaelȱ Murrinȱ pointsȱ out,ȱ Ariosto’s
avoidanceȱofȱtheȱmarvelousȱinȱthisȱepisodeȱandȱhisȱpainstakingȱportrayalȱofȱ“aȱreal
city”ȱwithȱburningȱhouses,ȱruinedȱchurches,ȱandȱwailingȱwomenȱ(17.13)ȱ“edged
militaryȱfictionȱdecisivelyȱtowardȱhistory”ȱandȱawayȱfromȱromance.7ȱ
Despiteȱ theȱ quantityȱ andȱ varietyȱ ofȱ Ariosto’sȱ predominantlyȱ ruralȱ vignettes,
then,ȱ whichȱ showcaseȱ magiȱ inȱ caves,ȱ meadowsȱ strewnȱ withȱ bodies,ȱ peasants
runningȱthroughȱtheȱfields,ȱandȱrusticȱloveȱscenesȱinȱsecludedȱglens,ȱmanyȱwould
argueȱthatȱhisȱprimaryȱfocusȱliesȱelsewhere:ȱnotȱonȱtheȱcountrysideȱwhereȱpaladins
escapeȱ civicȱresponsibilities,ȱbutȱratherȱ onȱtheȱcivitasȱthatȱtheyȱmustȱdefendȱor
(re)build.ȱInȱhisȱtributesȱtoȱcontemporaryȱnavigatorsȱandȱartistsȱandȱhisȱflatteryȱof
hisȱpatrons,ȱAstolfoȱandȱIppolitoȱEste,ȱAriostoȱalmostȱinvitesȱusȱtoȱreadȱtheȱOrlando
Furiosoȱ asȱ aȱ paeanȱ toȱ cultureȱ ratherȱ thanȱ nature.ȱ Inȱ purelyȱ quantitativeȱ terms,
countryȱsettingsȱmayȱwellȱoutnumberȱcourtsȱandȱcitiesȱinȱtheȱmockȱepic’sȱfortyȬsix
cantos,ȱespeciallyȱifȱweȱincludeȱbattlefieldsȱandȱmeadowsȱdespoiledȱbyȱmarauding
soldiersȱasȱruralȱspace.ȱ
Yetȱuponȱcloserȱinspection,ȱtheȱdefenseȱofȱParisȱandȱromanceȱbetweenȱRuggiero
andȱ Bradamante,ȱ whoseȱ unionȱ setsȱ theȱ stageȱ forȱ civicȱ progressȱ andȱ the
constructionȱofȱaȱutopianȱcityȱstateȱinȱtheȱmarshesȱofȱeasternȱItaly,ȱserveȱasȱanchors
thatȱlendȱAriosto’sȱmassiveȱandȱmeanderingȱmasterworkȱitsȱoverarchingȱstructural
7
MichaelȱMurrin,ȱ“TheȱSiegeȱofȱParis,”ȱModernȱLanguageȱNotesȱ103.1ȱ(Januaryȱ1988),ȱItalianȱIssue:
PerspectivesȱonȱAriosto’sȱOrlandoȱFuriosoȱ:ȱ134–53;ȱhereȱ153.ȱBuildingȱuponȱtheȱscholarshipȱofȱPio
Rajnaȱ(Leȱfontiȱdell’OrlandoȱFurioso.ȱ2ndȱed.ȱ[Florence:ȱSansoni,ȱ1900]),ȱEdmundȱGardnerȱ(TheȱKing
ofȱCourtȱPoets:ȱAȱStudyȱofȱtheȱLife,ȱTimes,ȱandȱWorkȱofȱLodovicoȱAriostoȱ[1906;ȱLondon:ȱConstable,
1968]),ȱGiulioȱBertoniȱ(L’OrlandoȱFuriosoȱeȱlaȱrinascenzaȱaȱFerraraȱ[Modena:ȱOrlandini,ȱ1919]),ȱand
BarbaraȱReynoldsȱ(trans.,ȱOrlandoȱFuriosoȱ(TheȱFrenzyȱofȱOrlando):ȱAȱRomanticȱEpicȱ[HarmondsȬ
worth:ȱPenguin,ȱ1975–1977],ȱpts.ȱ1–2)ȱ,ȱMurrinȱalsoȱnotesȱthatȱ“mostȱmodernȱcriticsȱhaveȱstressed
theȱfantasyȱinȱtheȱOrlandoȱFurioso,ȱbutȱitȱwasȱratherȱtheȱrealismȱofȱcertainȱscenesȱwhichȱaffected,
perhapsȱevenȱgenerated,ȱaȱnewȱapproachȱtoȱheroicȱpoetryȱinȱtheȱlaterȱsixteenthȱcentury.ȱMore
particularly,ȱtheȱpoetȱpresentedȱAgramante’sȱassaultȱonȱParisȱwithȱaȱplasticityȱunprecedentedȱin
previousȱromance”ȱ(134).ȱMurrinȱgoesȱonȱtoȱsayȱthatȱ“theȱItalianȱwarsȱ[ofȱtheȱRenaissance]ȱmade
senseȱoutȱofȱAriosto’sȱ[medieval]ȱplotȱandȱwereȱinȱanyȱcaseȱtheȱbackgroundȱrequiredȱbyȱtheȱpoet’s
rhetoricalȱ situation”ȱ (141).ȱ Withȱ occasionalȱ errors,ȱ theȱ Ferrareseȱ poetȱ actuallyȱ mapsȱ out
contemporaryȱfifteenthȬȱandȱsixteenthȬcenturyȱParisȱ(seeȱReynolds,ȱtrans.ȱ[seeȱnoteȱ7],ȱ1.474–77)
andȱdescribesȱmilitaryȱpracticesȱandȱtechnologyȱthatȱpostdateȱthoseȱofȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱincluding
fortifiedȱcampsȱorȱ“mobileȱfortressȱcit[ies],”ȱaȱpontoonȱbridgeȱ(16.31),ȱandȱexplodingȱminesȱ(27.24).
Ariosto’sȱdescriptionȱofȱwoodenȱhouses,ȱhighlyȱflammable,ȱisȱalsoȱconsistentȱwithȱtheȱcityscape
ofȱlateȱfifteenthȬcenturyȱParis;ȱandȱhisȱfocusȱonȱlargeȱnumbersȱofȱcivilianȱcasualtiesȱisȱfarȱmore
reflectiveȱofȱmilitaryȱpracticesȱinȱtheȱItalianȱWarsȱofȱtheȱearlyȱsixteenthȱcenturyȱthanȱofȱromance
warfareȱ(Murrin,ȱ139–40).
andȱ thematicȱ coherence.ȱ Inȱ contrast,ȱ theȱ author’sȱ myriadȱ ruralȱ andȱ courtly
episodes,ȱwhereȱknightsȱerrantȱdashȱoffȱtoȱsaveȱdamselsȱinȱdistress,ȱfollowȱtheir
hearts,ȱ andȱ deferȱ theirȱ publicȱ obligationsȱ figureȱ asȱ digressionsȱ thatȱ coȬoptȱ this
centralȱcivicȱstorylineȱonȱnumerousȱoccasions—partlyȱinȱtheȱinterestȱofȱsuspense
andȱtoȱpleaseȱaȱcourtlyȱaudienceȱweanedȱonȱBoiardo’sȱfancifulȱsubplots,ȱandȱpartly
toȱ exploreȱ theȱ vagariesȱ ofȱ humanȱ psychologyȱ andȱ theȱ “other”ȱ side(s)ȱ of
civilization.ȱ
Ultimately,ȱbothȱtypesȱofȱsettingsȱareȱcrucialȱcomponentsȱofȱAriosto’sȱnarrative,
whichȱ vacillatesȱ betweenȱ arcadianȱ andȱ utopianȱ goals:ȱ forȱ Ruggieroȱ and
Bradamante’sȱdescendants,ȱtheȱnarratorȱtellsȱus,ȱwillȱatȱonceȱrestoreȱ“laȱprimaȱetà
deȱl’oro”ȱ(3.18;ȱ“theȱfirstȱGoldenȱAge”),ȱimplicitlyȱrootedȱinȱanȱagrarianȱpast,ȱand
foundȱanȱadvancedȱRenaissanceȱcityȱstate,ȱwhereȱ“benignȱeȱbuonȱgoverno”ȱ(3.18;
“benignȱandȱgoodȱgovernance”)ȱcoexistsȱwithȱtechnologicalȱadvances.8ȱ
FewȱepisodesȱrevealȱtheȱintricaciesȱofȱthisȱpolemicȱbetterȱthanȱOrlando’sȱ“gran
follia”ȱ(23–24),ȱsituatedȱatȱtheȱexactȱmidȬpointȱofȱtheȱpoem’sȱfortyȬsixȱcantos,ȱwhich
illustratesȱtheȱhybridityȱofȱAriosto’sȱcompositionalȱstrategies,ȱtheȱtensionȱbetween
natureȱandȱcultureȱthatȱinformsȱhisȱwork,ȱandȱtheȱcomplexityȱofȱhisȱtreatmentȱof
ruralȱspace.ȱItȱisȱuponȱthisȱextendedȱepisode,ȱwhichȱpitsȱnatureȱagainstȱcultureȱand
cultureȱ againstȱ natureȱ inȱ aȱ kaleidoscopicȱ mazeȱ ofȱ competingȱ perspectives,
ambiguousȱ symbolsȱ andȱ metaphors,ȱ andȱ shiftingȱ thematicȱ resonancesȱ and
narrativeȱmodes,ȱthatȱthisȱpaperȱwillȱfocus.9ȱ
WhileȱtheȱauthorȱidealizesȱtheȱrusticȱsettingȱwhereȱAngelicaȱnursesȱMedoroȱback
toȱhealthȱwithȱsalubriousȱherbsȱinȱaȱsimpleȱfarmhouse,ȱforȱexample,ȱthisȱsame
peacefulȱcountryȱglenȱimprobablyȱignitesȱOrlando’sȱmadnessȱwhenȱheȱglimpses
amorousȱcarvingsȱonȱtheȱtrees,ȱproclaimingȱhisȱlady’sȱloveȱforȱanother.10ȱDriven
madȱbyȱtheȱknowledgeȱthatȱAngelicaȱhasȱspurnedȱhim,ȱtheȱpaladinȱenactsȱaȱreturn
toȱnatureȱthatȱdrawsȱuponȱGoldenȱAgeȱtropes:ȱcastingȱoffȱhisȱarmorȱand,ȱwithȱit,
hisȱpublicȱidentity,ȱtheȱFrenchȱwarriorȱlivesȱonȱacornsȱ(“giande,”ȱ24.12),ȱwildȱgame
(goats,ȱfawns,ȱbears,ȱandȱboars,ȱwhichȱheȱeatsȱ“carcassȱandȱall,”ȱ285;ȱ24.13),ȱandȱthe
“humbleȱfare”ȱ(284;ȱ“povereȱvivande,”ȱ24.12)ȱofȱshepherds.11ȱ
8
Theȱtranslationsȱareȱmine.ȱ
9
ManyȱscholarsȱhaveȱnotedȱtheȱambiguitiesȱofȱAriosto’sȱtext,ȱasȱwellȱasȱhisȱpenchantȱforȱassociating
signifiersȱwithȱmultipleȱsignifiedsȱandȱforȱshiftingȱhisȱperspectiveȱtoȱrevealȱnewȱdimensionsȱof
“old”ȱ symbolsȱ andȱ metaphors.ȱ See,ȱ forȱ example,ȱ Eduardoȱ Saccone,ȱ “Wood,ȱ Garden,ȱ Locus
AmoenusȱinȱAriosto’sȱOrlandoȱFurioso,”ȱModernȱLanguageȱNotesȱ112.ȱ1ȱ(Jan.ȱ1997):ȱ1–20.
10
AsȱRenzoȱNegriȱpointsȱout,ȱ“Eȱsingolareȱcheȱilȱcataclismaȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱsiȱannunciȱeȱsiȱvolgaȱsuȱdiȱunȱplacido
sfondoȱdiȱnatura”ȱ(“Itȱisȱoddȱthatȱtheȱcataclysmȱshouldȱbeginȱandȱunfoldȱagainstȱaȱplacidȱnatural
background”).ȱSeeȱhisȱInterpretazioneȱdell’”OrlandoȱFurioso”ȱ(Milano:ȱMarzorati,ȱ1972),ȱ82.
11
Forȱ moreȱ onȱ Ariosto’sȱ useȱ ofȱ theȱ Goldenȱ Ageȱ tropeȱ andȱ aȱ discussionȱ ofȱ itsȱ importanceȱ in
Renaissanceȱ literature,ȱ seeȱ Elizabethȱ A.ȱ Chesney,ȱ Theȱ Countervoyageȱ ofȱ Rabelaisȱ andȱ Ariosto:ȱ A
ComparativeȱReadingȱofȱTwoȱRenaissanceȱMockȱEpicsȱ(Durham,ȱNC:ȱDukeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1982),
26–28;ȱandȱHarryȱLevin,ȱTheȱMythȱofȱtheȱGoldenȱAgeȱinȱtheȱRenaissanceȱ(Bloomington,ȱIN:ȱIndiana
Yetȱhereȱtheȱanalogyȱwithȱtheȱ“nobleȱsavage”ȱends,ȱasȱOrlandoȱuprootsȱtreesȱand
bushesȱ(“ramiȱetȱceppiȱeȱtronchiȱeȱsassiȱeȱzolleȱ/ȱnonȱcessòȱdiȱgittar,”ȱ23.131)ȱinȱhis
furor,ȱbeheadsȱaȱfrightenedȱshepherdȱ(“unoȱneȱpiglia,ȱeȱdelȱcapoȱloȱscema,”ȱ24.5),
battersȱ theȱ horsesȱ andȱ oxenȱ ofȱ neighboringȱ farmers,ȱ andȱ devastatesȱ bothȱ their
fieldsȱandȱtheȱsurroundingȱcountryside.ȱItȱisȱuponȱthisȱpivotalȱandȱpowerfulȱscene,
situatedȱatȱtheȱmidpointȱofȱAriosto’sȱhybridȱandȱparadoxicalȱmockȱepic,ȱthatȱthis
paperȱwillȱfocus.ȱInȱit,ȱIȱproposeȱtoȱexploreȱtheȱsymbolicȱandȱrealȬworldȱresonances
ofȱbothȱOrlando’sȱmadnessȱandȱtheȱpastoralȱlandscapeȱheȱravages;ȱtheȱproblematic
interactionsȱbetweenȱhumansȱandȱruralȱspaceȱthatȱinformȱtheȱepisode;ȱand,ȱfinally,
theȱtensionsȱbetweenȱnatureȱandȱcultureȱthatȱpermeateȱtheȱOrlandoȱFuriosoȱandȱthe
Renaissanceȱasȱaȱwhole.ȱ
Inȱ theȱ courseȱ ofȱ thisȱ analysis,ȱ Iȱ willȱ alsoȱ beȱ supplementingȱ traditional
psychologicalȱandȱsymbolicȱmodesȱofȱinterpretationȱwithȱanȱexaminationȱofȱthe
narrator’sȱ changingȱ perspectivesȱ andȱ theȱ wayȱ thisȱ enrichesȱ hisȱ potential
“message,”ȱwithȱaȱlookȱatȱtheȱeffectȱofȱwordȱpaintingȱandȱpictorialȱelementsȱwithin
hisȱ narrative,ȱ andȱ withȱ aȱ discussionȱ ofȱ theȱ socioȬpoliticalȱ andȱ ecological
implicationsȱofȱ“laȱgranȱfollia.”ȱ
DespiteȱtheȱextraordinaryȱmagnitudeȱofȱOrlando’sȱdementia,ȱscholarsȱrightly
noteȱ theȱ psychologicalȱ realismȱ ofȱ hisȱ initialȱ responseȱ toȱ Angelica’sȱ marriage.12
Uponȱreadingȱherȱamorousȱcarvings,ȱtheȱpaladinȱengagesȱinȱclassicȱdenial,ȱtelling
himselfȱherȱwordsȱcannotȱbeȱtrue:ȱ“Vaȱcolȱpensierȱcercandoȱinȱmilleȱmodiȱ/ȱnon
crederȱquelȱch’alȱsuoȱdispettoȱcrede,”ȱtheȱauthorȱtellsȱus;ȱ“ch’altraȱAngelicaȱsia
crederȱ siȱ sforza,ȱ /ȱ ch’abbiaȱ scrittoȱ ilȱ suoȱ nomeȱ inȱ quellaȱ scorza”ȱ (23.103;ȱ “He
searchedȱinȱhisȱmindȱforȱanyȱnumberȱofȱexcusesȱtoȱrejectȱwhatȱheȱcouldȱnotȱhelp
believing;ȱheȱtriedȱtoȱpersuadeȱhimselfȱitȱwasȱsomeȱotherȱAngelica,”ȱ278).ȱ
Theȱpaladinȱevenȱimaginesȱthatȱtheȱnameȱ“Medoro,”ȱbyȱvirtueȱofȱtheȱ“or”ȱand
“do”ȱembeddedȱwithinȱit,ȱisȱanȱimperfectȱanagramȱofȱOrlando,ȱdiscreetlyȱcarved
onȱtheȱtreeȱtrunksȱbyȱAngelicaȱtoȱveilȱtheȱtrueȱobjectȱofȱherȱdesire:ȱ“Fingerȱquesto
Medoroȱellaȱsiȱpuote,”ȱheȱventures;ȱ“forseȱch’aȱmeȱquestoȱcognomeȱmette”ȱ(23.104;
“CanȱsheȱperhapsȱbeȱinventingȱthisȱMedor?ȱPerhapsȱbyȱthisȱnameȱsheȱmeansȱme,”
278).ȱByȱnowȱclutchingȱatȱstraws,ȱOrlandoȱfinallyȱspeculatesȱinȱdesperationȱthatȱa
thirdȱpartyȱmustȱhaveȱinscribedȱAngelica’sȱnameȱonȱtheȱtreesȱandȱstoneȱinȱanȱeffort
toȱdiscreditȱhisȱladyȱandȱarouseȱhisȱownȱjealousy:ȱ“Pensaȱcomeȱ/ȱpossaȱesserȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ/
cheȱvogliaȱalcunȱcosìȱinfamareȱilȱnomeȱ/ȱdeȱlaȱsuaȱdonnaȱeȱcredeȱeȱbramaȱetȱspera,
/ȱoȱgraverȱluiȱd’insopportabilȱsomeȱ/ȱtantoȱdiȱgelosia,ȱcheȱseȱneȱpèra”ȱ(23.114;ȱ“He
hopedȱagainstȱhopeȱthatȱitȱmightȱsimplyȱbeȱsomeoneȱtryingȱtoȱbesmirchȱhisȱlady’s
UniversityȱPress,ȱ1969),ȱ22,ȱ28.
12
Forȱ aȱ discussionȱ ofȱ theȱ psychologicalȱ verisimilitudeȱ ofȱ Orlando’sȱ madness,ȱ see,ȱ forȱ example,
EnricoȱNencioni,ȱ“Leȱtreȱpazzie:ȱOrlando,ȱKingȱLear,ȱDonȱChisciotte,”ȱid.,ȱSaggiȱcriticiȱdiȱletteratura
italianaȱ(Florence:ȱSucc.ȱLeȱMonnier,ȱ1898),ȱ143–75;ȱChesney,ȱTheȱCountervoyageȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11).
nameȱthisȱway,ȱorȱtoȱchargeȱhimȱwithȱaȱburdenȱofȱjealousyȱsoȱunendurableȱthatȱhe
wouldȱdieȱofȱit,”ȱ279).ȱTheȱonlyȱdrawbackȱisȱtheȱshapeȱofȱtheȱinscriptions,ȱwhich
stronglyȱresembleȱAngelica’sȱhandwriting:ȱ“[Aveva]ȱquel,ȱsiaȱchiȱsiȱvogliaȱstato,
/ȱmoltoȱlaȱmanȱdiȱleiȱbeneȱimitato,”ȱheȱrationalizes,ȱinȱoneȱfinalȱattemptȱtoȱallayȱhis
fearȱ (23.114;ȱ “Whoeverȱ itȱ wasȱ whoȱ hadȱ doneȱ thisȱ hadȱ copiedȱ herȱ handȱ most
skilfully,”ȱ279).
Whenȱaȱfarmingȱcoupleȱconfirmsȱhisȱsuspicions,ȱhowever,ȱOrlandoȱlashesȱout
inȱ rageȱ notȱ atȱ them,ȱ butȱ atȱ theȱ trees.ȱ Muchȱ likeȱ thoseȱ whoȱ wouldȱ “shootȱ the
messenger,”ȱtheȱFrenchȱknightȱseeksȱtoȱeradicateȱtheȱnewsȱthatȱhasȱshatteredȱhis
worldȱ byȱ defacingȱ aȱ streamsideȱ caveȱ andȱ thenȱ uprootingȱ theȱ treesȱ thatȱ bear
witnessȱtoȱAngelica’sȱloveȱforȱMedoro:ȱ“Tagliòȱloȱscrittoȱeȱ‘lȱsasso,ȱeȱsinȱalȱcieloȱ/
aȱ voloȱ alzarȱ fe’ȱ leȱ minuteȱ schegge.ȱ /ȱ Infeliceȱ quell’antro,ȱ etȱ ogniȱ steloȱ /ȱ inȱ cui
MedoroȱeȱAngelicaȱsiȱlegge”ȱ(23.130;ȱ“[He]ȱslashedȱatȱtheȱwordsȱandȱtheȱrockȬface,
sendingȱtinyȱsplintersȱshootingȱskywards.ȱ/ȱAlasȱforȱtheȱcave,ȱandȱforȱeveryȱtrunk
onȱ whichȱ theȱ namesȱ ofȱ Medorȱ andȱ Angelicaȱ wereȱ written,”ȱ 281).ȱ Thereȱ is,
moreover,ȱaȱparadoxicalȱlogicȱinȱtheȱprotagonist’sȱdestructiveȱrampage.ȱWithȱthe
perfectȱspecularityȱofȱaȱDanteanȱcontrapasso,ȱOrlando’sȱdevastationȱofȱruralȱspace
respondsȱ toȱ theȱ devastationȱ thatȱ natureȱ hasȱ visitedȱ onȱ him.ȱ Angelica’sȱ locus
amoenus,ȱwhichȱnurturedȱherȱloveȱforȱMedoroȱandȱprovidedȱanȱescapeȱfromȱthe
attentionsȱofȱherȱsuitors,ȱisȱnotȱamenableȱtoȱOrlando.ȱIndeed,ȱitȱisȱtheȱopposite—a
locusȱhorridus.13ȱ
Ifȱtheȱpaganȱprincess,ȱearlierȱdescribedȱasȱaȱlambȱcryingȱforȱitsȱmotherȱ(1.34),ȱis
symbolicallyȱrestoredȱtoȱtheȱbosomȱofȱnature,ȱbecomingȱaȱnurturerȱinȱherȱown
rightȱasȱsheȱtendsȱMedoro’sȱwounds,ȱOrlandoȱseesȱtheȱdeathȱofȱhisȱdreamsȱinȱthe
fertileȱ landscape,ȱ inȱ aȱ shiftȱ ofȱ perspectiveȱ thatȱ isȱ distinctivelyȱ Ariostan:ȱ one
woman’sȱparadise,ȱheȱsuggests,ȱisȱanotherȱman’sȱhell,ȱasȱ“Mother”ȱNature—inȱone
swiftȱspinȱofȱFortune’sȱwheel14—turnsȱunmaternalisticȱandȱrebuffsȱOrlando’sȱcry
forȱ succor,ȱ anticipatingȱ theȱ monstrousȱ “mères,ȱ nonȬmères”ȱ ofȱ d’Aubigné’s
apocalypticȱpoetryȱ(LesȱTragiques,ȱ“Misèresȱ,”ȱI,ȱv.ȱ497).15ȱ
13
SeeȱRosariaȱPatanèȱCeccantini,ȱIlȱmotivoȱdelȱlocusȱamoenusȱnell’OrlandoȱfuriosoȱeȱnellaȱGerusalemme
liberataȱ(Lausanne:ȱUniversityȱofȱLausanne,ȱ1996),ȱ35:ȱ“IlȱlocusȱamoenusȱdiȱAngelicaȱeȱMedoroȱsi
trasformaȱinȱlocusȱhorridusȱperȱOrlando”ȱ(“AngelicaȱandȱMedoro’sȱlocusȱamoenusȱisȱtransformed
intoȱaȱlocusȱhorridusȱforȱOrlando”).
14
Indeed,ȱSacconeȱattributesȱtheȱvicissitudesȱofȱtheȱlocusȱamoenusȱinȱAriostoȱalmostȱexclusivelyȱto
fortuneȱ(“Wood,ȱGarden,ȱLocusȱAmoenus”ȱ[seeȱnoteȱ9],ȱ9–10).
15
Ariostoȱhimselfȱemphasizesȱtheȱfigurativeȱ“death”ȱofȱOrlando,ȱandȱcomparesȱhisȱdespairȱtoȱa
livingȱ“hell”:ȱ“Nonȱson,ȱnonȱsonoȱioȱquelȱcheȱpaioȱinȱviso:ȱ/ȱquelȱch’eraȱOrlandoȱèȱmortoȱetȱè
sotterra;ȱ/ȱlaȱsuaȱdonnaȱingratissimaȱl’haȱucciso:ȱ/ȱsì,ȱmancandoȱdiȱfé,ȱgliȱhaȱfattoȱGuerra.ȱ/ȱIoȱson
loȱspirtoȱsuoȱdaȱluiȱdiviso,ȱ/ȱch’inȱquestoȱinfernoȱtormentandosiȱerra”ȱ(23.128;ȱ“Iȱamȱnotȱwhoȱmy
faceȱproclaimsȱme.ȱTheȱmanȱwhoȱwasȱOrlandoȱisȱdeadȱandȱburied,ȱslainȱbyȱhisȱmostȱthankless
ladyȱ whoȱ assailedȱ himȱ byȱ herȱ betrayal.ȱ Iȱ amȱ hisȱ spiritȱ sunderedȱ fromȱ him,ȱ andȱ wandering
tormentedȱinȱitsȱownȱhell,”ȱ281).
Ifȱ theȱ countrysideȱ thatȱ Orlandoȱ decimatesȱ isȱ anȱ outwardȱ projectionȱ ofȱ his
internalȱ landscape,16ȱ itȱ isȱ alsoȱ imbuedȱ withȱ aȱ symbolismȱ ofȱ itsȱ ownȱ thatȱ helps
elucidateȱbothȱtheȱreasonsȱforȱhisȱbreakdownȱandȱitsȱfigurativeȱimplicationsȱwithin
theȱtext.ȱClearlyȱtheȱbotanicalȱ“slates”ȱonȱwhichȱAngelicaȱandȱMedoroȱinscribe
theirȱloveȱforȱoneȱanotherȱalsoȱfigureȱasȱtheȱTreeȱofȱKnowledge,ȱofferingȱOrlando
anȱunpalatableȱtruthȱthatȱshattersȱhisȱillusionsȱandȱhisȱidentityȱasȱChristendom’s
noblestȱhero,ȱreducingȱhimȱinsteadȱtoȱaȱbestial,ȱfallenȱstate.17ȱWhileȱheȱdoesȱnot
“see”ȱhisȱnakednessȱliterally,ȱlikeȱAdamȱandȱEveȱinȱtheȱGardenȱofȱEden,ȱheȱcasts
offȱhisȱarmorȱandȱbecomesȱnaked,ȱinȱaȱmeaningfulȱreversalȱofȱtheȱbiblicalȱtrope
andȱhisȱidentityȱasȱaȱheroȱwhoȱisȱchosenȱandȱprotectedȱbyȱGod:ȱ“Maglieȱeȱpiaster
siȱstracciòȱdiȱdosso.ȱ/ȱQuiȱrimanȱl’elmo,ȱeȱlàȱrimanȱloȱscudo,ȱ/ȱlontanȱgliȱarnesi,ȱe
piùȱlontanȱl’usbergo:ȱ/ȱ[.ȱ.ȱ.]ȱ/ȱEtȱpoiȱsiȱsquarciòȱiȱpanni,ȱeȱmostròȱignudoȱ/ȱl’ispido
ventreȱeȱtuttoȱ‘lȱpettoȱeȱ‘lȱtergo”ȱ(23.133–34;ȱ“HeȱstrippedȱoffȱhisȱarmourȱandȱchainȬ
mail,”ȱtheȱnarratorȱtellsȱus.ȱ“Theȱhelmetȱlandedȱhere,ȱtheȱshieldȱthere,ȱmoreȱpieces
ofȱarmourȱfurtherȱoff,ȱtheȱbreastplateȱfurtherȱstillȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱThenȱheȱtoreȱoffȱhisȱclothes
andȱexposedȱhisȱhairyȱbellyȱandȱallȱhisȱchestȱandȱback,”ȱ282).ȱ
LikeȱEdgar,ȱandȱindeedȱtheȱagingȱmonarchȱhimself,ȱwhoȱdivestsȱhimselfȱofȱ“all
theȱborrowedȱarticlesȱofȱcivilisationȱandȱtearsȱoffȱhisȱclothes”ȱinȱKingȱLear,ȱOrlando
isȱ“theȱthingȱitself”ȱasȱheȱstormsȱmadlyȱthroughȱtheȱcountrysideȱwithoutȱloveȱor
theȱaccoutrementsȱofȱcivilization,ȱbothȱofȱwhichȱstructuredȱandȱgaveȱmeaningȱto
hisȱ priorȱ existence.18ȱ Oneȱ isȱ remindedȱ ofȱ Agilulf,ȱ theȱ perfectȱ butȱ nonȬexistent
16
Patanè,ȱIlȱmotivoȱdelȱlocusȱamoenus,ȱ29,ȱnotesȱtheȱanthropomorphicȱqualityȱofȱlandscapesȱinȱgeneral,
andȱofȱtheȱlocusȱamoenusȱandȱlocusȱhorridusȱinȱparticular,ȱinȱbothȱAriostoȱandȱTassoȱ:ȱ“L’Ariostoȱe
ilȱTassoȱsiȱsonoȱispiratiȱaȱquestoȱmotivoȱperȱrappresentareȱunȱpaesaggioȱ‘antromorfico’,ȱcioèȱun
paesaggioȱcheȱcorrispondaȱalloȱstatoȱd’animoȱdelleȱdueȱprotagonisteȱdelleȱscene”.ȱ
17
Inȱ herȱ “Genius,ȱ Madness,ȱ andȱ Knowledge:ȱ Ficino,ȱ Landino,ȱ andȱ Ariosto’sȱ Lovers”ȱ (Quaderni
d’Italianisticaȱ26.2ȱ[Januaryȱ2005]:ȱ3–27),ȱJuliaȱCozzarelliȱtellsȱusȱthatȱ“theȱFuriosoȱisȱflushȱwith
Ariosto’sȱ referencesȱtoȱaȱschismȱinȱtheȱconceptȱofȱtheȱself,ȱespeciallyȱconnectedȱtoȱtheȱlossȱ of
reason.ȱHeȱoftenȱrefersȱtoȱtheȱweaknessȱofȱreasonȱinȱtheȱfaceȱofȱstrongȱpassions.ȱAndȱheȱcouches
Orlando’sȱpsychologicalȱstruggleȱinȱwordsȱrelatedȱtoȱselfȬidentityȱandȱitsȱloss.ȱTheȱpoetȱeven
foreshadowsȱOrlando’sȱmetaphoricalȱdeathȱthroughȱmadnessȱwhenȱheȱdescribesȱhimȱasȱlostȱinȱa
forest.ȱTheȱnarratorȱexplainsȱthatȱOrlandoȱhadȱwanderedȱfromȱtheȱtrail,ȱ“comeȱeraȱuscitoȱdiȱse
stesso”ȱ(“justȱasȱheȱhadȱstrayedȱfromȱhisȱtrueȱself”;ȱ12.88)ȱ”ȱ(6).
18
SeeȱSergejȱMacura,ȱ“‘TheȱThingȱItself’:ȱIronicȱHermeneuticsȱofȱtheȱSubjectȱinȱKingȱLear,”ȱTrans:
Revueȱ deȱ littératureȱ généraleȱ etȱ comparéeȱ 11ȱ (Julyȱ 2009):ȱ 1–12:ȱ “Onȱ seeingȱ hisȱ ownȱ selfȱ inȱ the
existentialȱmirror,ȱleftȱatȱtheȱmercyȱofȱtheȱelements,ȱbereftȱofȱallȱattributesȱofȱkingship,ȱabandoned
byȱhisȱtrainȱofȱattendants,ȱbanishedȱbyȱhisȱtwoȱdaughtersȱthatȱheȱthoughtȱblameless,ȱaccompanied
onlyȱwithȱaȱprofessionalȱfool,ȱaȱfakeȱmadmanȱandȱaȱheartȬrentȱservant,ȱLearȱsaysȱtoȱEdgar:ȱ“‘Thou
artȱtheȱthingȱitself’”(51),ȱequatingȱhumanȱessenceȱandȱhumanȱexistenceȱonȱtheȱexampleȱofȱaȱsingle
man,ȱaȱconcreteȱembodimentȱofȱaȱsuffer[ing]ȱthatȱisȱatȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱtheȱsuffer[ing]ȱofȱEdgarȱand
theȱsuffer[ing]ȱofȱLearȱandȱofȱallȱpoorȱnakedȱwretches,ȱwhereverȱtheyȱare.ȱItȱisȱatȱthisȱpointȱthat
heȱbreaksȱupȱwithȱallȱtheȱborrowedȱarticlesȱofȱcivilizationȱandȱtearsȱoffȱhisȱclothes,ȱsteppingȱinto
theȱorderȱofȱnature,ȱawareȱofȱtheȱlossȱofȱitemsȱnotȱnecessaryȱforȱtheȱultimateȱcognitionȱofȱman’s
condition—heȱ nowȱ followsȱ suitȱ ofȱ Edgarȱ andȱ exhibitsȱ himselfȱ bothȱ asȱ theȱ equilibriumȱ ofȱ the
knightȱinȱItaloȱCalvino’sȱIlȱcavaliereȱinesistente:ȱallȱformȱandȱnoȱcontent,ȱheȱceases
toȱexistȱwhenȱheȱcastsȱoffȱhisȱarmorȱorȱoutwardȱidentity,ȱdissipatingȱintoȱaȱpuddle
ofȱnothingness.19ȱ
Ariosto’sȱlinkageȱofȱOrlando’sȱmadnessȱtoȱtheȱTreeȱofȱKnowledgeȱisȱparticularly
apt,ȱgivenȱtheȱpaladin’sȱrepeatedȱcharacterizationȱasȱaȱmanȱofȱgreatȱ“sense”ȱand
intellectualȱacumen.ȱLikeȱCalvino’sȱAgilulf,ȱheȱwasȱsteepedȱinȱtheȱprotocolsȱof
knighthoodȱandȱchivalryȱpriorȱtoȱhisȱbreakdown,ȱaccedingȱtoȱwomen’sȱpleasȱtoȱbe
rescuedȱandȱmen’sȱchallengesȱtoȱhisȱhonorȱwithȱaȱfastidious,ȱalmostȱrobotic,ȱsense
ofȱduty.ȱWhenȱMandricardoȱchallengesȱOrlandoȱtoȱaȱduelȱshortlyȱbeforeȱtheȱlatter’s
“granȱfollia,”ȱinȱfact,ȱtheȱFrankishȱpaladinȱregretfullyȱwishesȱthatȱtheȱSaracenȱcould
“seeȱhimȱonȱtheȱinside”ȱ(“vo’ȱcheȱmiȱveggiȱdentro,ȱcomeȱfuore,”ȱ23.75),20ȱrather
thanȱconfrontingȱhisȱpublicȱpersona.ȱ
Moreȱimportantlyȱforȱourȱpurposes,ȱOrlandoȱisȱalsoȱ aȱ polyglot,ȱadeptȱinȱthe
languagesȱofȱhumanisticȱinquiry:ȱtheȱtextȱcarvedȱonȱtheȱtreeȱ“eraȱscrittoȱinȱarabico,
subjectȱ andȱ objectȱ ofȱ thatȱ naturalȱ philosophy,ȱ givingȱ anotherȱ meaningȱ toȱ theȱ aboveȬquoted
sentence,ȱ thatȱ Learȱ mayȱ beȱ theȱ thingȱ itself,ȱ too.ȱ Shortlyȱ afterȱ thisȱ passionateȱ initiation,ȱ Lear
explicitlyȱdesires:ȱ‘Firstȱletȱmeȱtalkȱwithȱthisȱphilosopherȱ(52),’ȱ‘thisȱsameȱlearnedȱTheban(53),’ȱ‘I
willȱkeepȱstillȱwithȱmyȱphilosopher[54].’ȱNotȱhavingȱtakenȱcareȱofȱhisȱessenceȱwhenȱheȱshould
have,ȱLearȱnowȱembracesȱunpreparedlyȱtheȱsignifierȱofȱphilosophicalȱwisdom,ȱwhileȱweȱmayȱsee
sheerȱlunacyȱasȱtheȱsignified.ȱTheȱattemptsȱofȱdefiningȱ‘man’ȱareȱactuallyȱpresentȱinȱtheȱwholeȱtext,
andȱnoȱdefinitionȱseemsȱtoȱfitȱit—fromȱblissfulȱtoȱignorant,ȱfromȱheavenlyȱtoȱbeastly,ȱfromȱanimate
toȱinanimate;ȱweȱfaceȱtautologyȱinȱtheȱpredicateȱ‘thing,’ȱandȱtheȱmirrorȱofȱothernessȱ(thou)ȱmay
wellȱbeȱaȱselfȬdescriptiveȱutteranceȱofȱLear”ȱ(2)ȱ(http://trans.univȬparis3.fr/spip.php?article369ȱ[last
accessedȱonȱSeptemberȱ30,ȱ2011]).ȱ
19
SeeȱItaloȱCalvino,ȱIlȱcavaliereȱinesistente,ȱinȱIȱnostriȱantenatiȱ(Torino:ȱEinaudi,ȱ1960),ȱ101–02:ȱ“Aiȱpiedi
d’unaȱquercia,ȱsparsiȱinȱterra,ȱeranoȱunȱelmoȱrovesciatoȱdalȱcimieroȱcolorȱdell’iride,ȱunaȱcorazza
bianca,ȱiȱcosciali,ȱiȱbracciali,ȱleȱmanopole,ȱtuttiȱinsommaȱiȱpezziȱdell’armaturaȱdiȱAgilulfo,ȱalcuni
dispostiȱcomeȱnell’intenzioneȱdiȱformareȱunaȱpiramideȱordinata,ȱaltriȱrotolatiȱalȱsuoloȱallaȱrinfusa.
.ȱ.ȱ.ȱL’armaturaȱèȱvuota,ȱnonȱvuotaȱcomeȱprima,ȱvuotaȱancheȱdiȱquelȱqualcosaȱcheȱeraȱchiamatoȱil
cavaliereȱAgilulfoȱeȱcheȱadessoȱèȱdissoltoȱcomeȱunaȱgocciaȱnelȱmare”ȱ(“Atȱtheȱfootȱofȱanȱoakȱtree,
scatteredȱoverȱtheȱground,ȱwereȱanȱoverturnedȱhelmetȱwithȱaȱcrestȱofȱiridescentȱplumes,ȱaȱwhite
breastplate,ȱgreaves,ȱarmpieces,ȱbasinet,ȱgauntlets,ȱinȱfactȱallȱtheȱpiecesȱofȱAgilulf’sȱarmor,ȱsome
disposedȱasȱifȱinȱanȱattemptȱatȱanȱorderedȱpyramid,ȱothersȱrolledȱhaphazardlyȱonȱtheȱground.ȱ[.
.ȱ.]ȱTheȱarmorȱwasȱempty,ȱnotȱemptyȱlikeȱbefore,ȱbutȱemptyȱofȱthatȱsomethingȱgoingȱbyȱtheȱname
ofȱSirȱAgilulfȱwhichȱwasȱnowȱdissolvedȱlikeȱaȱdropȱinȱtheȱsea,”ȱTheȱNonexistentȱKnightȱandȱthe
Clovenȱ Viscount,ȱ trad.ȱ Archibaldȱ Colquhounȱ [Newȱ York:ȱ Harcourtȱ Brace,ȱ 1977],ȱ 131–32).ȱ The
parallelsȱwithȱOrlando’sȱidentityȱcrisis,ȱexpressedȱinȱpartȱbyȱhisȱscatteredȱarmorȱinȱtheȱ“gran
follia,”ȱ areȱ farȱ fromȱ coincidental:ȱ inȱ factȱ Calvino’sȱ novellaȱ isȱ heavilyȱ inspiredȱ byȱ theȱ Orlando
FuriosoȱandȱisȱnarratedȱbyȱBradamante.ȱLuciaȱReȱprovidesȱanȱexcellentȱsummaryȱofȱtheseȱparallels
inȱ herȱ chapterȱ entitledȱ “Ariostoȱ andȱ Calvino:ȱ Theȱ Adventuresȱ ofȱ aȱ Reader,”ȱ Ariostoȱ Today:
ContemporaryȱPerspectives,ȱed.ȱDonaldȱBeecher,ȱMassimoȱCiavolella,ȱandȱRobertoȱFediȱ(Toronto:
UniversityȱofȱTorontoȱPress,ȱ2003),ȱ211–27.
20
Theȱtranslationȱisȱmine.ȱDrawingȱuponȱtheȱfactȱthatȱOrlandoȱproceedsȱtoȱremoveȱhisȱhelmetȱinȱthis
scene,ȱsoȱthatȱMandricardoȱcanȱlookȱhimȱsquarelyȱinȱtheȱface,ȱGuidoȱWaldmanȱtranslatesȱthe
aboveȱpassageȱasȱfollows:ȱ“Iȱshallȱhaveȱyouȱlookȱwithinȱmeȱasȱwellȱasȱwithout,”ȱ275.
cheȱ‘lȱconteȱ/ȱintendeaȱcosìȱbenȱcomeȱlatino:ȱ/ȱfraȱmolteȱlingueȱeȱmolteȱch’avea
pronte,ȱ/ȱprontissimaȱaveaȱquellaȱilȱpaladino”ȱ(23.110;ȱ“[It]ȱwasȱwrittenȱinȱArabic,
whichȱtheȱcountȱknewȱasȱwellȱasȱheȱknewȱLatinȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱHeȱknewȱmanyȱandȱmanyȱa
tongue,”ȱ279).ȱThisȱlinguisticȱprowess,ȱinȱcombinationȱwithȱhisȱskillȱandȱtraining
inȱmanlyȱartsȱsuchȱasȱfencingȱandȱjousting,ȱmakesȱhimȱaȱsmallȬscaleȱversionȱofȱthe
uomoȱuniversaleȱorȱRenaissanceȱMan,ȱwhoseȱhubristicȱquestȱforȱtruth,ȱknowledge,
power,ȱandȱbeautyȱisȱaȱcommonplaceȱofȱtheȱeraȱinȱwhichȱAriostoȱwrote.ȱWhen
OrlandoȱglimpsesȱanȱalternativeȱtruthȱonȱtheȱTreeȱofȱKnowledge,ȱhowever,ȱand
deciphersȱitȱbyȱdintȱofȱhisȱuncommonȱlearning,ȱitȱnotȱonlyȱclashesȱwithȱtheȱidentity
heȱhasȱfashionedȱforȱhimselfȱasȱaȱmanȱwhoȱneverȱfails,ȱbutȱalsoȱchallengesȱhis
intellectȱtoȱtheȱbreakingȱpoint,ȱasȱheȱstrugglesȱtoȱunderstandȱtheȱunthinkable:ȱ“Ma
nonȱsiȱvanti,ȱseȱgiàȱn’ebbeȱfrutto,”ȱAriostoȱtellsȱus,ȱ“ch’unȱdannoȱorȱn’ha,ȱcheȱpuò
scontargliȱilȱtutto”ȱ(23.110;ȱ“Heȱwasȱnotȱtoȱboastȱifȱformerlyȱhisȱknowledgeȱhad
helpedȱ him—theȱ painȱ itȱ nowȱ broughtȱ himȱ quiteȱ discountedȱ everyȱ former
advantage,”ȱ279).ȱ
Notȱonlyȱdoȱhisȱvastȱwisdomȱandȱlearningȱfailȱhim,ȱprovidingȱhimȱnoȱresource
forȱcopingȱwithȱAngelica’sȱmarriage,ȱbutȱthisȱsingleȱpieceȱofȱinassimilableȱtruth
compromisesȱtheȱveryȱfoundationsȱofȱhisȱcarefullyȱcultivatedȱworldȱview,ȱcausing
theȱentireȱedifice,ȱwithȱ“allȱitsȱborrowedȱarticlesȱofȱcivilisation,”ȱtoȱcollapse.21ȱWhat
weȱareȱleftȱwithȱisȱaȱ“naturalȱman,”ȱcompletelyȱstrippedȱofȱallȱtheȱtrappingsȱof
civilization—butȱunlikeȱnonȬviolentȱexamplesȱofȱthisȱarchetype,ȱincludingȱKing
Lear,ȱEdgar,ȱtheȱpeacefulȱshepherdsȱofȱArcadianȱliterature,ȱorȱevenȱtheȱidealized
“goodȱsavage”ȱofȱEarlyȱModernȱtravelȱlore,ȱOrlandoȱisȱprofoundlyȱviolent.22ȱ
21
ForȱanȱinterestingȱinterpretationȱofȱtheȱreasonsȱforȱOrlando’sȱfixationȱonȱAngelica,ȱtheȱultimate
causeȱofȱhisȱbreakdown,ȱandȱtheȱironicȱresonancesȱofȱtheȱEdenicȱsettingȱwhereȱitȱtakesȱplace,ȱsee
Peterȱ DeSaȱ Wiggins,ȱ Figuresȱ inȱ Ariosto’sȱ Tapestry:ȱ Characterȱ andȱ Designȱ inȱ theȱ Orlandoȱ Furioso
(Baltimore:ȱTheȱJohnsȱHopkinsȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1986),ȱ111:ȱ“Ariosto’sȱmainȱconcernȱisȱtoȱstudy
theȱemergenceȱofȱaȱHerculeanȱmadnessȱfromȱaȱman’sȱinabilityȱtoȱacceptȱanȱunalterableȱcondition
ofȱlife—theȱothernessȱofȱotherȱpeople.ȱForȱtheȱOrlandoȱofȱAriosto’sȱpoem,ȱAngelicaȱisȱnotȱthe
eternalȱfeminine,ȱbutȱtheȱeternalȱother,ȱtheȱfocusȱofȱtheȱlaborȱthatȱdrivesȱhimȱmad.ȱOrlando’sȱquest
forȱAngelicaȱisȱtheȱmostȱvehementȱofȱallȱtheȱquestsȱinȱtheȱFuriosoȱforȱaȱlostȱEdenȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱTheȱOrlando
ofȱtheȱOrlandoȱFuriosoȱdoesȱnotȱcraveȱAngelicaȱsoȱmuchȱasȱheȱcravesȱaȱprelapsarianȱworldȱwhere
faithȱcanȱbeȱreplacedȱbyȱcertainȱknowledge.”ȱWigginsȱgoesȱonȱtoȱexplainȱOrlando’sȱfixationȱon
Angelicaȱwithinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱ“theȱtroubadours,ȱtheȱdolceȱstilȱnovo,ȱandȱPetrarca”ȱ(111),ȱtraditions
thatȱpositȱwomanȱasȱaȱsymbolȱofȱsalvation.ȱ
22
ThatȱAriostoȱwasȱinȱpartȱinspiredȱbyȱtheȱtalesȱofȱreturningȱnavigatorsȱinȱhisȱdepictionȱofȱOrlando
isȱplausible,ȱgivenȱhisȱreferencesȱtoȱtheȱvoyagesȱofȱdiscoveryȱinȱhisȱdescriptionȱofȱVascoȱdaȱGama’s
routeȱ (15.22),ȱ hisȱ allusionsȱ toȱ Pizzarroȱ andȱ othersȱ asȱ “iȱ capitanȱ diȱ Carloȱ quinto”ȱ (15.23),ȱ his
mentionȱ ofȱ Cortezȱ byȱ name,ȱ parallelsȱ betweenȱ hisȱ paladins’ȱ itinerariesȱ andȱ thoseȱ ofȱ the
conquistadores,ȱ andȱ theȱ vogueȱ forȱ travelȱ literatureȱ atȱ theȱ Estenseȱ court.ȱ Seeȱ Chesney,ȱ The
Countervoyageȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱ21,ȱasȱwellȱasȱRomeoȱRosario,ȱLeȱScoperteȱamericaneȱnellaȱcoscienza
italianaȱ delȱ cinquecentoȱ (Milan:ȱ Ricciardi,ȱ 1971);ȱ Giulioȱ Bertoni,ȱ Laȱ bibliotecaȱ estenseȱ (Torino:
Loescher,ȱ1902);ȱandȱMicheleȱVernero,ȱLaȱgeografiaȱnell’OrlandoȱFuriosoȱ(Torino:ȱBonioȱandȱRossi,
Inȱadditionȱtoȱitsȱconnectionȱwithȱknowledge,ȱOrlando’sȱmadnessȱalsoȱparodies
hisȱmilitaryȱfeatsȱandȱsatirizesȱtheȱmadnessȱofȱwar,ȱwhichȱnotȱonlyȱmaimsȱandȱkills
knightsȱ whoȱ battleȱ oneȱ another,ȱ butȱ alsoȱ producesȱ sufferingȱ thatȱ extendsȱ far
beyondȱtheȱbattlefieldȱandȱintoȱneighboringȱfarmland.ȱWithoutȱbelaboringȱ the
pointȱthatȱOrlandoȱhimselfȱisȱaȱcasualtyȱofȱwar,ȱpsychologicallyȱdamagedȱbyȱthe
crescendoȱofȱviolenceȱandȱincreasinglyȱmechanical,ȱroboticȱkillingȱheȱengagesȱin
forȱhisȱcountry,ȱweȱcannotȱhelpȱbutȱnoteȱparallelsȱbetweenȱthisȱheroicȱcarnageȱand
theȱpaladin’sȱmadȱdecimationȱofȱtheȱcountryside,ȱslaughterȱofȱfarmȱanimals,ȱand
butcheryȱofȱfarmersȱandȱpeasantsȱfollowingȱhisȱbreakdown.23ȱEvenȱpriorȱtoȱhis
“follia,”ȱtheȱFrankishȱheroȱ“tagliaȱeȱfendeȱeȱfiereȱeȱforaȱeȱtronca”ȱ(23.61;ȱ“sliced,
skewered,ȱspeared,ȱandȱlopped,”ȱ273)ȱenemyȱsoldiers,ȱsplittingȱ“aȱcrownȱinȱtwo”
(273;ȱ“feceȱdueȱpartiȱdeȱlaȱtesta,”ȱ23.60),ȱandȱ“lev[ando]ȱdalȱbustoȱilȱcapoȱnetto”
(23.60;ȱ“ȱ[slicing]ȱaȱheadȱoffȱitsȱshoulders,”ȱ273).ȱ
Servingȱasȱaȱmirrorȱimageȱofȱhisȱwartimeȱheroics,ȱtheȱpaladin’sȱinsaneȱviolence
differsȱ fromȱ itsȱ “sane”ȱ counterpartȱ inȱ twoȱ respectsȱ only:ȱ inȱ theȱ identityȱ ofȱ his
victimsȱandȱinȱtheȱweaponsȱheȱuses.ȱWhileȱtheȱheroicȱOrlandoȱslaysȱhisȱSaracen
enemiesȱinȱhonorableȱcombat,ȱhisȱcrazedȱalterȬegoȱbutchersȱanimalsȱandȱfarmers
indiscriminately;ȱandȱwhereȱtheȱheroȱwieldedȱaȱlanceȱorȱsword,ȱhisȱdementedȱtwin
hurlsȱ boulders,ȱ brandishesȱ anȱ uprootedȱ tree,ȱ slaysȱ twoȱ shepherdsȱ withȱ the
beheadedȱcarcassȱofȱanotherȱpeasant,ȱandȱ“aȱpugni,ȱadȱurti,ȱaȱmorsi,ȱaȱgraffi,ȱa
calci,ȱ/ȱcavallaȱeȱbuoiȱrompe,ȱfracassaȱeȱstrugge”ȱ(283;ȱ“[kills]ȱhorseȱandȱoxenȱ.ȱ.ȱ.
byȱdintȱofȱpunches,ȱthumps,ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱbites,ȱkicksȱandȱscratches,”ȱ24.7).ȱLestȱweȱmissȱthe
connectionȱbetweenȱtheȱvaliantȱsoldierȱandȱcrazedȱmarauder,ȱAriostoȱemphasizes
theȱdementedȱpaladin’sȱ“incredibilȱprove”ȱandȱ“possanzaȱestrema”ȱ(24.5;ȱ “the
madman’sȱ incredibleȱ featsȱ andȱ hisȱ prodigiousȱ strength,”ȱ 283),ȱ usingȱ heroic
languageȱtoȱshowcaseȱtheȱscene’sȱparodicalȱquality,ȱwhichȱhingesȱprimarilyȱon
ironicȱparallelsȱbetweenȱtheȱwarriorȱandȱmadman.ȱ
Despiteȱtheȱepisode’sȱtragicȱconsequencesȱforȱlocalȱpeasants,ȱinȱfact,ȱandȱthe
pathosȱofȱOrlando’sȱdescentȱintoȱmadness,ȱmanyȱreadersȱhaveȱcommentedȱonȱthe
darkȱhumorȱofȱthisȱepisode.ȱ“Theȱscenesȱofȱovertȱmadnessȱareȱruthlesslyȱcomic”
(133),ȱ contendsȱ Peterȱ DeSaȱ Wiggins,ȱ drawingȱ ourȱ attentionȱ toȱ theȱ buffoonish,
marionetteȬlikeȱqualityȱofȱtheȱpaladin’sȱburlesqueȱfeats,ȱwhichȱdehumanizeȱhis
1913).ȱItȱisȱalsoȱlikelyȱthatȱAriostoȱdrawsȱuponȱpreviousȱdepictionsȱofȱmadȱknights,ȱsuchȱasȱLaȱFolie
Tristan,ȱwhereȱTristanȱdisguisesȱhimselfȱasȱaȱfoolȱorȱmadmanȱtoȱgainȱaccessȱtoȱtheȱcourtȱofȱMarc
andȱIseut;ȱandȱYvain,ȱouȱleȱchevalierȱauȱlion,ȱwhereȱtheȱprotagonistȱgoesȱmadȱandȱwandersȱnaked
throughȱ theȱ forestȱ followingȱ hisȱ rejectionȱ byȱ hisȱ wifeȱ Laudine,ȱ whomȱ heȱ hasȱ angeredȱ byȱ his
overlongȱabsenceȱfromȱhome.ȱNeitherȱofȱtheseȱcharactersȱisȱparticularlyȱviolent,ȱhowever.
23
AsȱWiggins,ȱFiguresȱinȱAriosto’sȱTapestryȱ(seeȱnoteȱ21),ȱpointsȱout,ȱOrlando’sȱ“madnessȱturnsȱhim
intoȱaȱcaricatureȱofȱhisȱformerȱselfȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱHisȱmadnessȱatȱthisȱstageȱrepresentsȱnothingȱmoreȱthanȱan
intensification,ȱstrippedȱofȱallȱsaneȱappearances,ȱofȱhisȱbehaviorȱsinceȱhisȱintroductionȱinȱcantoȱ8”
(131).ȱ
rusticȱvictimsȱandȱanesthetizeȱreadersȱwithȱtheȱsameȱfarcical,ȱslapstickȱcrueltyȱthat
weȱseeȱinȱmodernȱcartoons.ȱNumerousȱtheoriesȱofȱlaughter,ȱandȱtheȱincongruity
modelȱinȱparticular,ȱshedȱlightȱonȱtheȱmainspringsȱofȱAriosto’sȱunlikelyȱhumor:ȱfor
theȱextraordinaryȱcarnageȱthatȱOrlandoȱinflictsȱonȱtheȱruralȱsettingȱandȱitsȱpeaceȬ
lovingȱresidentsȱclashesȱdramatically,ȱunexpectedly,ȱandȱabsurdlyȱwithȱbothȱthe
idyllicȱsurroundingsȱthatȱheȱbesmirchesȱandȱtheȱradicalȱheroismȱofȱhisȱformerȱlife.ȱ
Moreover,ȱtheȱauthorȱportraysȱtheȱatrocitiesȱthroughȱaȱshiftingȱlensȱthatȱelicits
multipleȱresponsesȱfromȱreaders,ȱrangingȱfromȱlaughterȱtoȱpathosȱandȱdiscomfort.
Asȱaȱresult,ȱtheȱdarkȱhumorȱofȱOrlando’sȱmadnessȱsceneȱinȱnoȱwayȱdetractsȱfrom
itsȱseriousȱcontent,ȱbutȱratherȱenhancesȱandȱprovidesȱaȱvehicleȱforȱAriosto’sȱsatire:
first,ȱbyȱrevealingȱwar’sȱabsurdityȱinȱaȱcomic,ȱdeprecatoryȱlight;ȱandȱsecond,ȱby
unveilingȱtheȱwideȬrangingȱhavocȱitȱwreaksȱonȱlocalȱpopulations,ȱtheirȱlands,ȱand
theirȱlivestock.ȱ
WhileȱAriostoȱwouldȱhaveȱbeenȱaȱchildȱlivingȱinȱReggioȬEmiliaȱduringȱtheȱWar
ofȱFerraraȱ(1482–1484),24ȱheȱwasȱalmostȱcertainlyȱaȱwitnessȱtoȱtheȱdevastationȱof
laterȱ warsȱ duringȱ hisȱ travelsȱ andȱ duringȱ portionsȱ ofȱ theȱ Greatȱ Italianȱ Wars
(1494–1559)ȱ inȱ whichȱ battalionsȱ fromȱ Ferrara,ȱ underȱ theȱ commandȱ ofȱ Duke
Alfonsoȱd’Este,ȱparticipated.ȱThisȱhistoricalȱcontextȱatȱonceȱinspiresȱhisȱmilitary
satireȱandȱinformsȱhisȱaccountsȱofȱmedievalȱbattles,ȱaddingȱtoȱtheȱrealismȱofȱhis
depictionsȱofȱviolenceȱandȱdevastation.ȱDespiteȱhisȱglorificationȱofȱtheȱ“goodness”
ofȱknightsȱofȱoldȱ(3;ȱ“Ohȱgranȱbontàȱde’ȱcavallieriȱantiqui,”ȱ1.22),ȱAriosto’sȱattitude
towardȱwarȱisȱbyȱnoȱmeansȱuncritical:ȱlikeȱcountlessȱotherȱhumanists,ȱheȱdeplores
theȱinventionȱofȱfirearmsȱandȱgunpowderȱ(11.22–28),ȱdrawsȱourȱattentionȱtoȱthe
“corpsesȱhere,ȱcorpsesȱthere”ȱ(141;ȱ“Orȱmiraȱquesti,ȱorȱquelliȱmorti,”ȱ14.32–40)ȱthat
areȱ aȱ factȱ ofȱ lifeȱ inȱ timesȱ ofȱ war,ȱ andȱ subvertsȱ hisȱ ownȱ descriptionȱ ofȱ military
24
ExactlyȱhowȱmuchȱtheseȱeventsȱaffectedȱtheȱyoungȱLudovicoȱisȱuncertain.ȱHisȱfatherȱNiccolò,ȱa
citadelȱcommander,ȱwasȱbrieflyȱtransferredȱwithȱhisȱwifeȱandȱchildrenȱtoȱRovigoȱinȱ1481,ȱwhen
theȱmaraudingȱVenetiansȱwereȱalreadyȱthreateningȱtheȱgarrison;ȱandȱinȱAugustȱofȱtheȱnextȱyear,
theȱcitizensȱofȱRovigoȱsurrenderedȱpeacefully,ȱasȱtheȱAriostoȱfamilyȱlostȱallȱitsȱpossessionsȱthere.
InȱNovemberȱofȱ1482,ȱNiccolòȱandȱhisȱfamilyȱmovedȱbackȱtoȱReggio,ȱ“whichȱwasȱsufferingȱless
thanȱtheȱrestȱofȱtheȱEstensianȱdominionȱfromȱtheȱravagesȱofȱwar,ȱbutȱdidȱnotȱpassȱcompletely
exempt”ȱ [Gardner,ȱ Theȱ Kingȱ ofȱ Courtȱ Poets,ȱ 13).ȱ Inȱ cantoȱ 19,ȱ stanzaȱ 83ȱ ofȱ theȱ Orlandoȱ Furioso,
however,ȱtheȱpoetȱwritesȱasȱanȱeyewitnessȱtoȱtheȱravagesȱofȱwar:ȱ“Hoȱvedutoȱbombardeȱaȱquella
guiseȱ/ȱleȱsquadreȱaprir,ȱcheȱfe’ȱloȱstuolȱMarfisa”ȱ(“Iȱhaveȱseenȱbombardsȱsplitȱranksȱapartȱtheȱway
Marfisaȱtoreȱthroughȱtheȱenemy,”ȱ226).ȱSeeȱalsoȱhisȱMadrigalȱXVI:ȱ“Ioȱvenniȱdoveȱleȱcampagne
rosseȱ/ȱeranȱdelȱsangueȱbarbaroȱeȱlatino,ȱ/.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ/ȱeȱvidiȱunȱmortoȱeȱlȇaltroȱsìȱvicino,ȱ/ȱcheȱsenzaȱpremer
lor,ȱquasiȱilȱterrenoȱ/ȱAȱmolteȱmigliaȱnonȱdavaȱilȱcaminoȱ/ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ/ȱVidiȱuscirȱcrudeltà,ȱcheȱneȱdevria
/ȱtuttoȱilȱmondoȱd’orrorȱrimanerȱpieno”ȱ(http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ITA1875/_P22.HTM#96
[lastȱaccessedȱonȱOctoberȱ23,ȱ2011];ȱ“IȱcameȱwhereȱtheȱfieldsȱwereȱredȱwithȱbarbarianȱandȱItalian
blood,ȱ/ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ/ȱandȱIȱsawȱoneȱcorpseȱandȱanotherȱsoȱcloseȱtoȱitȱ/ȱthatȱwithoutȱsteppingȱonȱthem,ȱthe
groundȱ/ȱforȱmanyȱmilesȱdidȱnotȱleaveȱaȱpathȱ/ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ/ȱIȱsawȱsuchȱcruelty,ȱthatȱtheȱwholeȱworldȱ/
shouldȱremainȱfilledȱwithȱtheȱhorrorȱofȱit”ȱ[myȱtranslation].ȱ
pageantryȱbyȱhoningȱinȱonȱfamilialȱemblemsȱconnotingȱbrokenness.25ȱTheȱchaotic,
surrealisticȱ remindersȱ ofȱ Paoloȱ Uccelloȱ thatȱ informȱ theseȱ panoramasȱ areȱ also
presentȱinȱOrlando’sȱmadnessȱscene,ȱwhereȱflyingȱarmor,ȱrocks,ȱtrees,ȱandȱbody
partsȱ crowdȱ theȱ “canvas”ȱ andȱ vieȱ forȱ positionȱ inȱ theȱ foreground,ȱ whileȱ “a
thousandȱmenȱstreamȱdown”ȱ(283;ȱ“Vederȱdaiȱmontiȱsdrucciolarneȱmille,”ȱ24.8)
fromȱaȱvanishingȱpointȱupȱinȱtheȱhills,ȱ“perȱfareȱalȱpazzoȱunȱvillanescoȱassalto”
(24.8;ȱ“readyȱtoȱwageȱaȱpeasantȱwarȱagainstȱtheȱmadman,”ȱ283).26ȱ
Despiteȱ Guidoȱ Waldman’sȱ provocativeȱ translationȱ ofȱ theȱ termȱ “villanesco
assalto”ȱasȱ“peasantȱwar,”ȱwhichȱrecallsȱtheȱrumblingsȱofȱdiscontentȱamongȱvilains
orȱvillaniȱinȱtheȱsixteenthȱcentury,ȱtheseȱwordsȱwereȱalreadyȱpresentȱinȱtheȱ1516
andȱ1521ȱeditionsȱofȱtheȱOrlandoȱFurioso,ȱwellȱbeforeȱtheȱGermanȱPeasants’ȱWarȱof
1524–1525.ȱWhileȱthisȱtimelineȱeliminatesȱtheȱpossibilityȱthatȱAriostoȱwasȱreferring
specificallyȱtoȱthisȱNorthernȱuprising,ȱhowever,ȱwhichȱwouldȱhaveȱbeenȱknown
toȱhimȱbyȱ1532,ȱtheȱepisode’sȱgeneralȱsocioȬeconomicȱresonancesȱareȱnevertheless
inescapable:ȱforȱinȱtheȱmadman’sȱtriumphȱoverȱtheȱvillaniȱorȱpeasants,ȱweȱfindȱyet
anotherȱexampleȱofȱaȱpowerfulȱnobleman,ȱtheȱcrazedȱCountȱofȱAnglante,ȱabusing
hisȱsocialȱinferiorsȱandȱfigurativelyȱ“bitingȱtheȱhand”ȱthatȱprovidesȱhisȱshelter,ȱhis
clothing,ȱandȱhisȱfood.
Onȱoneȱlevel,ȱAriostoȱdoesȱlittleȱonȱtheȱsurfaceȱtoȱencourageȱourȱsympathyȱfor
theseȱunnamed,ȱhardworkingȱpeasants,ȱwhoȱareȱrootedȱinȱcontemporaryȱreality
ratherȱthanȱinȱtheȱidyllicȱlandscapesȱofȱArcadiaȱwhereȱidealizedȱshepherdsȱdream
andȱsingȱofȱlove.27ȱInstead,ȱtheȱnarratorȱcallsȱthemȱanȱ“empiaȱturba”ȱ(283),ȱorȱa
wicked,ȱungodlyȱthrong,ȱandȱcomparesȱthemȱtoȱaȱforceȱofȱnature,ȱhostileȱtoȱour
heroȱandȱunleashedȱinȱallȱitsȱfury:ȱ
Qualȱvenirȱsuolȱnelȱsalsoȱlitoȱl’ondaȱ
mossaȱdaȱl’austroȱch’aȱprincipioȱscherzo,ȱ
cheȱmaggiorȱdeȱlaȱprimaȱèȱlaȱseconda,ȱ
eȱconȱpiùȱforzaȱpoiȱsegueȱlaȱterza,ȱ
etȱogniȱvoltaȱpiùȱl’umoreȱabonda,ȱ
eȱneȱl’arenaȱpiùȱstendeȱlaȱsferza;
25
Theseȱincludeȱaȱ“lanceȱbrokenȱinȱthree”ȱ(101),ȱaȱ“boatȱsinkingȱatȱsea”ȱ(102),ȱ“aȱcleftȱmountain”
(102),ȱandȱaȱ“clovenȱchair”ȱ(102).
26
WhileȱneitherȱaȱpeasantȱarmyȱnorȱsoldiersȱstreamȱdownȱfromȱtheȱhillsȱinȱUccello’sȱthreeȬpaneled
BattleȱofȱSanȱRomano,ȱpaintedȱinȱtheȱmid–1400s,ȱbothȱhisȱuseȱofȱperspectiveȱandȱtheȱthematically
incongruentȱ(butȱhistoricallyȱcommon)ȱpresenceȱofȱsoldiers,ȱhorses,ȱfarmers,ȱandȱwildlifeȱinȱthe
paintingsȱanticipateȱAriosto’sȱdepictionȱofȱOrlando’sȱmadness.
27
SeeȱCeccantini,ȱIlȱmotivoȱdelȱlocusȱamoenus,ȱ16:ȱ“AlȱpariȱdeiȱGreciȱd’unȱtempo,ȱiȱpastoriȱvirgiliani
sonoȱdunqueȱchiamatiȱarcadiȱnonȱperȱlaȱloroȱorigine,ȱmaȱperchéȱvalentiȱnelȱcantoȱbucolico.”ȱThe
authorȱmoreoverȱpointsȱoutȱAriosto’sȱtendencyȱtoȱinformȱhisȱlandscapesȱandȱlociȱamoeni,ȱeven
thoseȱthatȱareȱmostȱfanciful,ȱwithȱ“l’improntaȱdelȱconcreto”ȱ(54)ȱorȱreflectionsȱonȱreality.
talȱcontraȱOrlandoȱl’empiaȱturbaȱcresce,ȱ
cheȱgiùȱdaȱbalzeȱscendeȱetȱdiȱvalliȱesce.ȱ (24.9)
Imagineȱwaves,ȱdrivenȱbyȱtheȱSouthȱWindȱ
whichȱearlierȱhadȱbeenȱplayful,ȱbreakingȱonȱtheȱshore.ȱ
Theȱsecondȱwaveȱisȱhigherȱthanȱtheȱfirst,ȱ
theȱthirdȱfollowsȱwithȱgreaterȱforce;ȱ
andȱeachȱtime,ȱtheȱwaterȱbuildsȱupȱmoreȱ
andȱseethesȱmoreȱwidelyȱacrossȱtheȱbeach.ȱ
Thusȱdidȱtheȱpitilessȱmobȱincreaseȱ (283).
However,ȱcloserȱinspectionȱofȱtheȱtextȱrevealsȱtheȱreasonȱforȱtheȱpeasants’ȱhostility
andȱ theirȱ attackȱ onȱ Orlando,ȱ whoȱ hasȱ pollutedȱ theirȱ stream:ȱ “Ramiȱ eȱ ceppiȱ e
tronchiȱeȱsassiȱeȱzolleȱ/ȱnonȱcessòȱdiȱgittarȱneȱleȱbell’onde,”ȱtheȱnarratorȱtellsȱus,ȱ“fin
cheȱdaȱsommoȱadȱimoȱsìȱturbolle,ȱ/ȱcheȱnonȱfuroȱmaiȱpiùȱchiareȱnéȱmonde”ȱ(23.131;
“Branches,ȱstumps,ȱandȱboughs,ȱstonesȱandȱclodsȱheȱkeptȱhurlingȱintoȱtheȱlovely
watersȱuntilȱheȱsoȱcloudedȱthemȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱthatȱtheyȱwereȱclearȱandȱpureȱneverȱagain,”
281).ȱTheȱcrazedȱpaladinȱalsoȱuprootsȱ“cerriȱeȱd’altreȱpianteȱantiche”ȱ(23.135;ȱ“oaks
andȱotherȱageȬoldȱtimber,”ȱ282),ȱandȱslaughtersȱtheȱcountryȱfolk’sȱlivestock.ȱWhen
theȱshepherdsȱfleeȱtheȱmadmanȱfollowingȱtheȱbeheadingȱofȱaȱfellowȱherdsman,
Ariostoȱtellsȱus,ȱOrlandoȱturnsȱuponȱtheirȱflocksȱ(“eraȱgiàȱvoltoȱalȱloroȱarmento,”
24.6),ȱkillingȱtheȱpeasants’ȱsheepȱandȱbutcheringȱtheirȱhorsesȱandȱoxen.ȱIndeed,ȱthe
carnageȱ thatȱ theȱ paladinȱ inflictsȱ isȱ soȱ cataclysmicȱ thatȱ nearbyȱ farmersȱ or
“agricoltori”ȱabandonȱtheirȱ“ploughs,ȱhoes,ȱandȱsickles”ȱ(283)ȱinȱfear,ȱstrewing
theseȱtoolsȱofȱtheirȱlivelihoodȱacrossȱtheȱfieldsȱandȱsacrificingȱtheirȱcropsȱtoȱthe
maraudingȱsoldier.ȱ
Takenȱ outȱ ofȱ context,ȱ wordsȱ suchȱ asȱ “campi”ȱ (fields),ȱ “falci”ȱ (sickles),ȱ and
“aratri”ȱ(ploughs)ȱironicallyȱpaintȱaȱbucolicȱagriculturalȱsceneȱworthyȱofȱBrueghel,
whereȱ farmersȱ toilȱ unheroically,ȱ butȱ peacefullyȱ andȱ productively,ȱ toȱ provide
foodstuffȱnotȱjustȱ forȱthemselves,ȱbutȱforȱtheirȱcommunityȱandȱtheȱregionȱasȱa
whole.ȱWhatȱresultsȱisȱaȱhybridȱmontageȱofȱpastoral,ȱagricultural,ȱandȱmilitary
elements,ȱenrichedȱbyȱtheȱiconographyȱofȱmadnessȱandȱnaturalȱdisaster:ȱimages
ofȱwar,ȱplunder,ȱdeath,ȱandȱdestructionȱexplodeȱviolentlyȱintoȱtheȱforegroundȱof
aȱradicallyȱdifferentȱ“original”ȱcanvas,ȱwhichȱlingers—visibleȱandȱyetȱabsent—as
aȱ traceȱ withinȱ theȱ background,ȱ drawingȱ ourȱ gazeȱ repeatedlyȱ toȱ aȱ Goldenȱ Age
tableau,ȱpresentȱonlyȱinȱourȱmemories,ȱthatȱhasȱbeenȱeffaced.ȱ
Inȱthisȱdiscordantȱpanoramaȱofȱaȱshatteredȱparadise,ȱwithȱitsȱdisturbingȱ“before
andȱafter”ȱviewsȱofȱaȱsingleȱlandscape,ȱAriostoȱoffersȱreadersȱaȱglimpseȱofȱthe
agriculturalȱ devastationȱ visitedȱ onȱ Italyȱ byȱ repeatedȱ invasions,ȱ marauding
mercenariesȱandȱforeignȱtroops,ȱandȱpersistentȱdomesticȱwarfareȱduringȱtheȱlate
fifteenthȱ andȱ earlyȱ sixteenthȱ centuries.28ȱ Farȱ fromȱ beingȱ atypicalȱ ofȱ Ariosto,
remindersȱsuchȱasȱtheseȱofȱtheȱundersideȱofȱtheȱRenaissanceȱappearȱrepeatedly
throughoutȱ theȱ Orlandoȱ Furioso,ȱ momentarilyȱ jarringȱ theȱ deceptiveȱ façadeȱ of
harmonyȱ (“armonia”)ȱ andȱ serenityȱ (“serenità”)ȱ thatȱ spurredȱ criticsȱ ofȱ theȱ late
nineteenthȱ andȱ earlyȱ twentiethȱ centuriesȱ toȱ labelȱ theȱ authorȱ “detached,”
undisturbedȱbyȱtheȱrealȬworldȱproblemsȱembeddedȱwithȱhisȱtext,ȱandȱemotionally
removedȱfromȱtheȱpathosȱandȱviolenceȱofȱhisȱnarrative.ȱAsȱreadersȱofȱhisȱSatires
andȱtheȱcomedyȱLenaȱknow,ȱhowever,ȱnothingȱcouldȱbeȱfartherȱfromȱtheȱtruth.
Glimpsesȱofȱcontemporaryȱpoliticalȱtensions,ȱsocialȱinjustices,ȱandȱabusesȱofȱpower
figureȱ repeatedlyȱ inȱ hisȱ texts,ȱ notȱ simplyȱ inȱ hisȱ explicitȱ condemnationȱ ofȱ the
HarpiesȱthatȱpreyȱonȱRenaissanceȱItalyȱ(34.1–3),ȱbutȱalsoȱinȱtheȱtopicalȱallusions
andȱimplicitȱparallelsȱwithȱrealȱlifeȱthatȱinformȱhisȱfiction.ȱ
Asȱweȱunravelȱtheȱ“knot”ȱofȱOrlando’sȱhybridȱrepresentationȱasȱbothȱaȱ“natural
man”ȱandȱaȱculturalȱicon,ȱimportantȱinsightsȱaboutȱtheȱinteractionsȱofȱhumansȱand
ruralȱspaceȱandȱaboutȱtheȱtensionsȱbetweenȱnatureȱandȱcultureȱthroughoutȱthe
OrlandoȱFuriosoȱbeginȱtoȱemerge.29ȱForȱallȱhisȱbestialityȱfollowingȱhisȱbreakdown,
Orlandoȱrepresentsȱhighȱculture,ȱatȱleastȱofȱaȱsort:ȱasȱtheȱCountȱd’Anglanteȱandȱa
militaryȱhero,ȱheȱbelongsȱtoȱtheȱnoblesseȱd’épéeȱofȱmedievalȱFranceȱand,ȱbyȱvirtue
ofȱhisȱeducationȱandȱlinguisticȱsophistication,ȱtoȱtheȱworldȱofȱlearnedȱRenaissance
cultureȱasȱwell.ȱNeitherȱtheȱlocusȱamoenusȱwhereȱAngelicaȱnursedȱMedoroȱbackȱto
healthȱnorȱtheȱsurroundingȱcountrysideȱisȱOrlando’sȱownȱhabitat,ȱyetȱheȱplunders
andȱdefacesȱitȱthoughtlessly,ȱvandalizingȱandȱappropriatingȱwhatȱisȱnotȱhisȱown
withȱcavalierȱdisregardȱforȱitsȱuseȱvalueȱtoȱothersȱorȱforȱitsȱinnateȱworth.30ȱ
28
Inȱhisȱ“TheȱEconomyȱofȱRenaissanceȱItaly:ȱTheȱPreconditionsȱforȱLuxuryȱConsumption,”ȱIȱTatti
Studies:ȱEssaysȱinȱtheȱRenaissance,ȱvol.ȱ2ȱ(Florence:ȱOlschki,ȱ1987),ȱ15–39,ȱRichardȱGoldthwaiteȱalso
pointsȱoutȱtheȱeconomicȱimportanceȱofȱwarȱforȱsmallerȱItalianȱcitesȱofȱtheȱRenaissance:ȱ“War,ȱin
otherȱwords,ȱwasȱanȱeconomicȱactivityȱinȱItalyȱthatȱredistributedȱwealthȱinȱaȱwayȱthatȱdidȱnot
happenȱelsewhereȱinȱEurope;ȱandȱitsȱprofitsȱpaidȱforȱmuchȱofȱtheȱpatronageȱinȱFerrara,ȱMantua,
Urbinoȱandȱaȱhostȱofȱsmallerȱplaces”ȱ(25).ȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱtheȱsatireȱofȱwarȱinȱOrlando’sȱmadness
sceneȱreflectsȱnotȱonlyȱonȱcontemporaryȱpoliticsȱandȱonȱtheȱruralȱdevastationȱthatȱresultedȱfrom
theseȱongoingȱbattles,ȱbutȱalsoȱonȱtheȱeconomicȱramificationsȱofȱwar,ȱwhichȱfueledȱurbanȱgrowth
andȱluxuryȱconsumptionȱinȱtownsȱatȱtheȱexpenseȱofȱruralȱpopulations.ȱ
29
EduardoȱSacconeȱdisagrees.ȱ“Itȱisȱnotȱtheȱopposition,ȱsay,ȱbetweenȱnatureȱandȱcultureȱthatȱmatters
inȱAriosto,”ȱheȱcontendsȱ(“Wood,ȱGarden,ȱLocusȱAmoenus”ȱ[seeȱnoteȱ9],ȱ6).ȱ
30
AsȱRosariaȱPatanèȱCeccantiniȱpointsȱout,ȱthisȱparadigmȱisȱlongstanding:ȱevenȱinȱclassicalȱworks,
theȱlocusȱamoenusȱfrequentlyȱoffersȱsuccorȱandȱsolaceȱtoȱaristocrats.ȱ(Ilȱmotivoȱdelȱlocusȱamoenus,ȱ11,
13).ȱ Withoutȱ specificallyȱ statingȱ thatȱ Orlando’sȱ moralityȱ isȱ typicallyȱ aristocratic,ȱ moreover,
Wigginsȱportraysȱhimȱasȱanȱunthinkingȱandȱsomewhatȱirresponsibleȱknightȱwhoȱ“standsȱinȱaȱvast
moralȱ middleȱ groundȱ whereȱ muchȱ harmȱ isȱ accomplishedȱ andȱ someȱ good,ȱ butȱ bothȱ by
inadvertence”ȱ(FiguresȱinȱAriosto’sȱTapestryȱ[seeȱnoteȱ21],ȱ110)ȱThisȱdescriptionȱmightȱeasilyȱapply
toȱanyȱnumberȱofȱRenaissanceȱnoblemen,ȱwhoȱhadȱlittleȱunderstandingȱofȱ“theȱOther”ȱandȱthus
littleȱinklingȱofȱtheȱwaysȱtheirȱdailyȱroutinesȱimpactedȱthoseȱaroundȱthem—sometimesȱpositively,
butȱoftenȱinȱveryȱadverseȱways.ȱOrlando’sȱassumptionȱthatȱAngelica—oneȱofȱtheȱspoilsȱofȱwar—is
Literally,ȱofȱcourse,ȱheȱisȱmad.ȱAriostoȱtellsȱusȱthatȱOrlando’sȱ“everyȱsenseȱwas
darkened”ȱ(282;ȱ“Inȱtantaȱrabbia,ȱinȱtantoȱfurorȱvenne,ȱ/ȱcheȱrimaseȱoffuscatoȱin
ogniȱ senso,”ȱ 23.134),ȱ alongȱ withȱ hisȱ powersȱ ofȱ reason.ȱ Yetȱ theȱ reflexesȱ ofȱ a
noblemanȱremain:ȱnotȱhisȱsenseȱofȱnoblesseȱoblige,ȱtoȱbeȱsure,ȱwhichȱwasȱaȱlearned
behaviorȱ castȱ offȱ withȱ hisȱ armor,ȱ butȱ ratherȱ anȱ atavisticȱ senseȱ ofȱ entitlement,
arguablyȱ basedȱ uponȱ rankȱ andȱ power,ȱ whichȱ isȱ ironicallyȱ identicalȱ toȱ its
uncivilizedȱdouble—theȱlawȱofȱtheȱjungle.ȱWhatȱresultsȱisȱaȱheroȬturnedȬmonster,
whoseȱmight,ȱlikeȱthatȱofȱMolière’sȱDomȱJuan,ȱisȱuntemperedȱbyȱconcernȱforȱothers
orȱconsiderationsȱofȱconscience.31ȱWhenȱheȱbeheadsȱaȱshepherdȱandȱusesȱtheȱtrunk
ofȱtheȱman’sȱbodyȱasȱaȱbludgeon,ȱheȱdoesȱsoȱ“conȱlaȱfacilitàȱcheȱtorriaȱalcunoȱ/ȱda
l’orborȱpome,ȱoȱvagoȱfiorȱdalȱpruno”ȱ(24.5;ȱ“withȱtheȱeaseȱofȱaȱpersonȱpluckingȱan
appleȱfromȱaȱtreeȱorȱaȱdaintyȱbloomȱfromȱaȱbriar,”ȱ283),ȱAriostoȱtellsȱus;ȱsimilarly,
heȱ uprootsȱ treesȱ effortlesslyȱ “comeȱ fosserȱ finocchi,ȱ ebuliȱ oȱ aneti”ȱ (23.135;ȱ “as
thoughȱtheyȱwereȱsoȱmanyȱceleryȬstalks,”ȱ282).ȱ
Theȱauthor’sȱgoal,ȱonȱtheȱoneȱhand,ȱisȱtoȱshowcaseȱtheȱprotagonist’sȱphysical
strength;ȱ yetȱ byȱ divorcingȱ Orlando’sȱ brawnȱ fromȱ theȱ contextȱ thatȱ legitimized
it—namely,ȱ fromȱ theȱ “honorable”ȱ contextȱ ofȱ nationalȱ defense,ȱ helpingȱ the
oppressed,ȱ andȱ upholdingȱ theȱ faith—Ariostoȱ separatesȱ “might”ȱ fromȱ “right,”
interrogatesȱtheȱentireȱconceptȱofȱheroism,ȱandȱshiftsȱourȱattentionȱtoȱtheȱprofound
abuseȱofȱpowerȱthatȱinformsȱtheȱscene.ȱInsteadȱofȱstandingȱaloneȱinȱtheȱserviceȱof
others,ȱeitherȱtoȱleadȱhisȱmenȱorȱsaveȱtheȱdowntrodden,ȱOrlandoȱsinglehandedly
overpowersȱ thousandsȱ ofȱ peasants,ȱ inȱ aȱ meaningfulȱ reversalȱ ofȱ theȱ chivalric
paradigm:ȱ“Conȱspuntoniȱetȱarchiȱeȱspiediȱeȱfrombeȱ/ȱ[potreste]ȱvederȱdaiȱmonti
hisȱforȱtheȱtaking,ȱwithoutȱregardȱforȱherȱownȱfeelings,ȱreflectsȱthisȱmindset,ȱwhichȱweȱalsoȱseeȱin
nouvelleȱ8ȱofȱMargueriteȱdeȱNavarre’sȱHeptaméron.ȱInȱthatȱstory,ȱaȱmarriedȱmanȱplotsȱtoȱsleepȱwith
hisȱwife’sȱmaidservant,ȱandȱwhileȱtheȱplanȱisȱfoiled,ȱaȱfemaleȱstorytellerȱremarksȱafterwardsȱthat
servingȱgirlsȱareȱroutinelyȱdismissedȱforȱtheȱtransgressionsȱofȱtheirȱmasters:ȱ“OùȱavezȬvousȱveu,
responditȱSaffredent,ȱqueȱnousȱayonsȱpourchasséȱlesȱchamberieresȱdeȱnozȱfemmes?ȱ—ȱSiȱcellesȱà
quiȱilȱtouche,ȱditȱLongarine,ȱvouloientȱdireȱlaȱvérité,ȱlȇonȱtrouveroitȱbienȱchamberiereȱàȱquiȱlȇon
aȱdonnéȱcongéȱavantȱsonȱquartier”ȱ(Heptaméron,ȱed.ȱMichelȱFrançoisȱ[Paris:ȱGarnier,ȱ1960],ȱ47;
“Whoȱ toldȱ you,ȱ answeredȱ Saffredent,ȱ thatȱ weȱ chaseȱ afterȱ ourȱ wives’ȱ servingȱ girls?—Ifȱ those
involvedȱwouldȱtellȱtheȱtruth,ȱsaidȱLongarine,ȱoneȱwouldȱfindȱmanyȱaȱchambermaidȱwhoȱhasȱbeen
dismissedȱbeforeȱherȱtime”ȱ[myȱtranslation]).ȱPresumablyȱtheseȱdismissalsȱtookȱplaceȱatȱtheȱbehest
ofȱsuspiciousȱwivesȱorȱwhenȱtheȱmaidȱbecameȱpregnantȱandȱhadȱtoȱleaveȱtheȱhousehold,ȱwithȱor
withoutȱseveranceȱpay;ȱbutȱevenȱinȱtheȱlatterȱcase,ȱtheȱfinancialȱrepercussionsȱforȱtheȱservingȱgirl’s
extendedȱfamilyȱwouldȱhaveȱbeenȱenormous.ȱMoreȱdramaticallyȱbutȱsomewhatȱmoreȱfancifully,
theȱpestilenceȬriddenȱpeasantsȱofȱtheȱworldȱinsideȱPantagruel’sȱmouthȱ(Rabelais,ȱPantagruel,ȱch.
32),ȱwhoȱ“meur[ent]ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱtantȱqueȱleȱchariotȱcourtȱparȱlesȱrues”ȱ(ch.ȱ32;ȱ“dieȱsoȱfastȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱthatȱtheȱcart’s
alwaysȱrunningȱaboutȱtheȱstreets”ȱ[GargantuaȱandȱPantagruel,ȱtrans.ȱJ.ȱM.ȱCohenȱ[Harmondsworth:
Penguin,ȱ1955],ȱ274),ȱareȱbeingȱpoisonedȱbyȱtheȱUtopianȱprince’sȱbadȱbreath—aȱbyproductȱofȱhis
ownȱoverconsumptionȱtoȱwhichȱtheȱseeminglyȱbenignȱgiantȱisȱtotallyȱoblivious.ȱȱȱ
31
SeeȱCristianaȱLardo,ȱIȱmostriȱdell’Orlandoȱfurioso:ȱspecchiȱdellaȱnaturaȱumanaȱ(Florence:ȱCasaȱEditrice
LeȱLettere,ȱ2010),ȱ141–60.
sdrucciolarneȱmilleȱ/ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ/ȱtalȱcontraȱOrlandoȱl’empiaȱturbaȱcresce,ȱ/ȱcheȱgiùȱda
balzeȱscendeȱeȱdiȱvalliȱesce.ȱ/ȱFeceȱmorirȱdieceȱpersoneȱeȱdiece,ȱ/ȱcheȱsenzaȱordine
alcunȱgliȱandaroȱinȱmano”ȱ(24.9–10;ȱ“Youȱcouldȱhaveȱseenȱaȱthousandȱmen,”ȱsays
Ariosto,ȱ“armedȱwithȱpikesȱandȱbows,ȱspears,ȱandȱslings,ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱcomingȱdownȱfrom
theȱhillsȱandȱoutȱofȱtheȱvalleysȱagainstȱOrlando.ȱ/ȱOutȱofȱthatȱdisorderlyȱthrongȱten
heȱkilled,ȱ[.ȱ.ȱ.]ȱandȱthenȱanotherȱten.”ȱ(283).ȱ
InȱthisȱpassageȱweȱinitiallyȱempathizeȱwithȱOrlando,ȱtheȱbeleagueredȱnobleman,
whomȱweȱhaveȱadmiredȱforȱ23ȱcantos.ȱAriostoȱreinforcesȱourȱidentificationȱwith
theȱ highȬbornȱ heroȱ byȱ addressingȱ (andȱ perhapsȱ implicating)ȱ hisȱ ownȱ “lord,”
CardinalȱIppolitoȱd’Este,ȱinȱCantoȱ24ȱ(“Signor,ȱneȱl’altroȱcantoȱioȱviȱdiceaȱ.ȱ.ȱ./,”24.
4),ȱpersuadingȱusȱasȱwellȱasȱhisȱpatronȱtoȱviewȱtheȱscene,ȱandȱtoȱcommiserateȱwith
CountȱAnglante’sȱdegradation,ȱthroughȱnobleȱeyes.ȱAsȱEdwardȱSacconeȱpointsȱout,
however,ȱ“oneȱofȱ[Ariosto’s]ȱmainȱteachingsȱisȱtoȱdistrustȱappearances,”ȱevenȱthose
thatȱheȱhimselfȱhasȱgenerated.ȱ“InȱfactȱrealityȱinȱAriostoȱalmostȱneverȱappearsȱto
beȱsimpleȱorȱmonolithic,”ȱSacconeȱgoesȱonȱtoȱsay.ȱ“Itȱisȱalwaysȱatȱleastȱdouble,
ambiguousȱorȱambivalent.”32ȱ
Asȱaȱresult,ȱtheȱmadnessȱsceneȱvacillatesȱbetweenȱtwoȱperspectives:ȱthatȱofȱthe
patheticȱ heroȱ andȱ thatȱ ofȱ theȱ beleagueredȱ peasants,ȱ whoȱ haveȱ noȱ realȱ defense
againstȱtheȱonslaughtȱofȱpowerȱandȱprivilege.ȱInitially,ȱweȱhearȱtheȱ“din”ȱ(282)ȱof
Orlando’sȱdestructiveȱfurorȱthroughȱtheȱearsȱofȱshepherdsȱ(“Iȱpastorȱcheȱsentito
hannoȱ ilȱ fracasso,”ȱ 24.136),ȱ whoȱ comeȱ closerȱ toȱ seeȱ whatȱ hasȱ happenedȱ (“vi
vengonoȱaȱvederȱcheȱcosaȱèȱquesta,”ȱ23.136);ȱandȱweȱviewȱtheȱmadman’sȱrampage
throughȱtheȱherdsmen’sȱfrightenedȱeyesȱ(“visteȱdelȱpazzoȱl’incredibilȱproveȱ/ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.
/ȱsiȱvoltanȱperȱfuggir,”ȱ24.5)ȱandȱfromȱtheȱvantageȱofȱneighboringȱfarmers,ȱwho
climbȱatopȱhousesȱandȱchurchesȱtoȱcontemplateȱ“l’orrendaȱfuria”ȱ(24.7),ȱorȱthe
horrendousȱfury.ȱJustȱaȱfewȱstanzasȱlater,ȱhowever,ȱtheȱnarratorȱabruptlyȱchanges
hisȱ andȱ ourȱ perspectiveȱ toȱ coincideȱ withȱ thatȱ ofȱ Orlando,ȱ soȱ thatȱ weȱ hearȱ the
peasants’ȱshoutsȱandȱtheȱshrillȱofȱtheirȱhorns,ȱtrumpets,ȱandȱclarionsȱasȱhostile
fanfare,ȱmuchȱasȱtheȱcountȱdoes.ȱRatherȱthanȱsharingȱtheȱworkers’ȱfrightenedȱgaze
andȱidentifyingȱwithȱtheirȱplight,ȱmoreover,ȱasȱAriostoȱpersuadedȱusȱtoȱdoȱjustȱa
fewȱversesȱearlier,ȱreadersȱmomentarilyȱ“see”ȱ(“potresteȱȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱȱvederȱdaiȱmonti,”
24.8)ȱtheȱapproachingȱfarmersȱandȱherdsmenȱasȱtheȱ“Other,”ȱasȱanȱ“evil”ȱ(“empia,”
24.9)ȱarmyȱthatȱisȱplottingȱaȱ“villainousȱassault”ȱ(“villanescoȱassalto,”ȱ24.8)ȱagainst
Orlando—beforeȱAriostoȱswitchesȱhisȱperspectiveȱonceȱagainȱtoȱrevealȱhisȱhero’s
ownȱvillany.ȱ
32
However,ȱ whatȱ Ariostoȱ offersȱ usȱ isȱ notȱ aȱ simple,ȱ verticalȱ equivalencyȱ betweenȱ signifierȱ and
signified,ȱ whereȱ oneȱ peelsȱ awayȱ surfaceȱ meaningȱ toȱ unveilȱ whatȱ liesȱ underȱ it.ȱ Rather,ȱ the
movementȱisȱfromȱ“oneȱsurfaceȱtoȱanother,”ȱsaysȱSacconeȱ(“Wood,ȱGarden,ȱLocusȱAmoenus”ȱ[see
noteȱ9],ȱ12),ȱ“thatȱnormallyȱcomplements,ȱmodifiesȱorȱcorrectsȱtheȱprecedingȱone.”ȱ
Inȱhisȱjourneyȱthroughȱtheȱlookingȱglassȱofȱmadness,ȱtheȱdefenderȱweȱadmired
hasȱbecomeȱanȱoppressorȱwhomȱweȱdeplore,ȱtheȱselfsameȱmonsterȱthatȱhisȱheroic
doubleȱopposed.ȱOneȱisȱremindedȱagainȱofȱItaloȱCalvino,ȱbutȱthisȱtimeȱofȱhisȱCloven
Viscount,ȱwhereȱaȱbraveȱknight,ȱsplitȱinȱtwoȱbyȱanȱenemy’sȱblow,ȱbecomesȱtwo
differentȱpeople:ȱaȱgoodȱmanȱandȱhisȱevilȱtwin,ȱmoreȱdifferentȱfromȱoneȱanother
thanȱ Lindorȱ andȱ theȱ Countȱ inȱ Beaumarchais’sȱ Barberȱ ofȱ Sevilleȱ andȱ Marriageȱ of
Figaro.33ȱ Theȱ sameȱ isȱ trueȱ ofȱ Orlando,ȱ whoseȱ madȱ incarnationȱ isȱ asȱ cruelȱ and
destructiveȱasȱhisȱsaneȱcounterpartȱisȱcourteous,ȱwellȬintentioned,ȱandȱreflective.
Ariostoȱusesȱhisȱhero’sȱdescentȱintoȱmadnessȱtoȱreflectȱcriticallyȱonȱtheȱjoiningȱof
powerȱandȱamorality:ȱ“unȱgrandȱseigneurȱméchantȱhomme,”ȱsaysȱSganarelle,ȱthe
complicitȱservantȱinȱMolière’sȱDomȱJuan,ȱ“estȱuneȱterribleȱchose”ȱ(1.1;ȱ“Aȱgreatȱlord
whoȱisȱaȱwickedȱmanȱisȱaȱterribleȱthing”).34ȱThisȱkeyȱinsightȱaboutȱtheȱdangersȱof
powerȱandȱprivilegeȱinformsȱAriosto’sȱportrayalȱofȱlocalȱpeasants,ȱwhoȱcower,ȱflee,
orȱ“standȱfarȱaway”ȱ(284)ȱwhenȱfacedȱwithȱOrlando’sȱpowerȱandȱcruelty.ȱ
Evenȱpriorȱtoȱhisȱbreakdown,ȱinterestinglyȱenough,ȱtheȱheroȱhasȱceasedȱtoȱbeȱa
championȱofȱtheȱsimpleȱfolk.ȱInȱstrikingȱcontrastȱtoȱAngelica,ȱwhoȱforgotȱthatȱ“ella
fusseȱ/ȱfigliaȱdelȱmaggiorȱreȱch’abbiaȱilȱLevante”ȱ(23.120;ȱ“forgettingȱthatȱsheȱwas
daughterȱofȱtheȱgreatestȱmonarchȱofȱtheȱEast,”ȱ280)ȱwhileȱtendingȱMedoroȱand
sharingȱaȱherdsman’sȱcottage,ȱOrlandoȱisȱrepulsedȱbyȱtheȱsimpleȱhouseȱandȱthe
farmerȱ withȱ whomȱ heȱ findsȱ lodging:ȱ “Quelȱ letto,ȱ quellaȱ casa,ȱ quelȱ pastoreȱ /
immantinenteȱinȱtant’odioȱgliȱcasca,ȱ/ȱcheȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱpigliaȱl’armeȱeȱilȱdestriero,ȱetȱesce
fuoreȱ/ȱperȱmezzoȱilȱbosco”ȱ(23.124;ȱ“Theȱbed,ȱtheȱhouse,ȱtheȱherdsmanȱfilledȱhim.
.ȱ.ȱwithȱsuchȱrevulsionȱ[that]ȱheȱfetchedȱhisȱarmsȱandȱhisȱsteedȱandȱwentȱoutȱinto
.ȱ.ȱ.ȱtheȱwood,”ȱ281)ȱtoȱbeȱalone.ȱOnȱtheȱsurface,ȱtheȱhero’sȱdistasteȱforȱtheȱsimple
abodeȱ seemsȱ moreȱ psychologicalȱ thanȱ sociological,ȱ stemmingȱ purelyȱ fromȱ his
discoveryȱthatȱAngelicaȱandȱMedorȱsleptȱtogetherȱunderȱtheȱpeasant’sȱroof.ȱBut
thereȱareȱhintsȱthroughoutȱtheȱepisodeȱthatȱsomethingȱelseȱisȱafootȱasȱwell,ȱasȱthe
paladin’sȱstrengthȱincreasesȱinȱdirectȱproportionȱtoȱhisȱfrenzy.ȱInȱtheȱwakeȱofȱhis
rampage,ȱforȱinstance,ȱOrlandoȱleavesȱtheȱtreesȱinȱsuchȱaȱstate,ȱsaysȱtheȱnarrator,
“ch’ombraȱnéȱgieloȱ/ȱaȱpastorȱmaiȱnonȱdaranȱpiù,ȱnéȱaȱgregge”ȱ(23.130;ȱ“thatȱnever
moreȱwouldȱtheyȱaffordȱcoolȱshadeȱtoȱshepherdȱorȱflock,”ȱ281).ȱInȱfellingȱthese
“olmiȱvecchi”ȱandȱ“pianteȱantiche”ȱ(23.135;ȱ“ancientȱelms,”ȱ“ageȱoldȱtimber,”ȱ280),
theȱ crazedȱ heroȱ ofȱ Christendomȱ leavesȱ anȱ ecologicalȱ footprintȱ thatȱ willȱ take
decades,ȱifȱnotȱcenturies,ȱtoȱrepair.ȱ
ThisȱunconventionalȱreadingȱofȱOrlando’sȱ“granȱfollia”ȱfindsȱfurtherȱsupportȱin
Ariosto’sȱuseȱofȱrhetoricȱandȱsymbolsȱwithinȱtheȱtext.ȱAsȱdeplorableȱasȱOrlando’s
violenceȱtowardȱtrees,ȱhorses,ȱandȱoxenȱmayȱbe,ȱitȱisȱhisȱslaughterȱofȱshepherds
andȱsheepȱinȱparticular—GoldenȱAgeȱsymbolsȱofȱinnocence,ȱnonȬviolence,ȱandȱthe
33
SeeȱCalvino,ȱTheȱNonexistentȱKnightȱandȱtheȱClovenȱViscountȱ(seeȱnote19),ȱ143–246.ȱ
34
Molière,ȱTartuffeȱandȱOtherȱPlays,ȱtrans.ȱDonaldȱFrameȱ(NewȱYork:ȱSignet,ȱ1967),ȱ320.
responsibleȱ husbandingȱ ofȱ naturalȱ resources—thatȱ drawsȱ ourȱ attentionȱ most

forcefullyȱtoȱtheȱplightȱofȱtheȱpeasants,ȱcausingȱusȱtoȱseeȱtheȱcountȱthroughȱtheir
downtrodden,ȱdisempoweredȱeyes.ȱ“Alcun’ȱpastorȱalȱsuonȱtrasseȱinȱquelȱlatoȱ/ȱlor
stella,ȱoȱqualcheȱlorȱgraveȱpeccato”ȱ(24.4;ȱ“Someȱshepherdsȱwereȱattractedȱtoȱthe
noise,”ȱsaysȱtheȱnarrator,ȱ“whetherȱbyȱtheirȱstars,ȱorȱforȱsomeȱwickedȱmisdeedsȱof
theirs,”ȱ283).ȱIfȱweȱinitiallyȱsenseȱthatȱAriostoȱisȱblamingȱtheȱshepherdsȱforȱtheir
ultimateȱfate,ȱwhatȱfollowsȱrapidlyȱdispelsȱthatȱmisperception:ȱnotȱonlyȱareȱthe
transgressionsȱ Orlando’sȱ ratherȱ thanȱ theirs,ȱ butȱ theȱ ironicȱ referenceȱ toȱ their
“misdeeds”ȱevokesȱtheȱfearȱofȱaȱservantȱbeforeȱaȱcapriciousȱmaster,ȱwhoȱattributes
malfeasanceȱ toȱ underlingsȱ whereȱ noneȱ exists,ȱ punishingȱ themȱ forȱ phantom
offenses.ȱByȱtheȱsameȱtoken,ȱtheȱshepherd’sȱpeaceable,ȱnurturingȱcontrolȱoverȱhis
sheepȱ figuresȱ aȱ modeȱ ofȱ governanceȱ diametricallyȱ opposedȱ bothȱ toȱ Orlando’s
brandȱofȱpower,ȱandȱtoȱtheȱautocraticȱcontrolȱofȱMachiavellianȬstyleȱprincesȱin
RenaissanceȱItaly.ȱ
Attributingȱ sensitivityȱ towardȱ theȱ lowerȱ classesȱ toȱ Ariosto,ȱ aȱ memberȱ ofȱ the
lesserȱnobility,ȱmayȱinitiallyȱseemȱimplausible.35ȱCertainlyȱtheȱauthorȱexpresses
sympathyȱforȱtheȱ“poverhomini”ȱorȱpoorȱpeopleȱofȱtheȱprovinceȱofȱGarfagnana,
whereȱheȱservedȱasȱgovernorȱfromȱ1520ȱtoȱ1524,ȱinȱhisȱLetters.36ȱYetȱheȱalsoȱdecries
theirȱ internalȱ feuds,ȱ pettyȱ thievery,ȱ andȱ penchantȱ forȱ crimeȱ andȱ violence,
admittingȱthatȱheȱwouldȱlikeȱtoȱseeȱfourȱorȱfiveȱ(“quattroȱoȱcinqueȱcheȱsonoȱin
questaȱprovincia”)ȱofȱthemȱhanged.37ȱMoreover,ȱhisȱutopianȱportrayalȱofȱFerrara
seemsȱ toȱ suggestȱ thatȱ theȱ cityȱ stateȱ itselfȱ wasȱ aȱ modelȱ ofȱ justiceȱ andȱ humane
governance,ȱandȱthatȱAriostoȱhimself,ȱasȱaȱcelebratedȱpoetȱunderȱtheȱprotectionȱof
theȱEsteȱfamily,ȱwouldȱhaveȱlittleȱfamiliarity,ȱfirstȬhandȱorȱotherwise,ȱwithȱthe
seigniorialȱ oppressionȱ ofȱ peasantsȱ outlinedȱ inȱ theȱ madnessȱ scene.ȱ Fromȱ a
Gramscianȱperspective,ȱhowever,ȱAntonioȱPiromalliȱarguesȱthatȱtheȱEstensiȱwere
mastersȱ ofȱ publicȱ relationsȱ ratherȱ thanȱ trulyȱ benevolentȱ orȱ fairȬmindedȱ rulers,
basingȱhisȱanalysisȱonȱtheȱanonymousȱDiarioȱferrareseȱandȱotherȱpopularȱwritings
ofȱtheȱlateȱfifteenthȱandȱearlyȱsixteenthȱcenturies.ȱ
Heȱnotesȱthatȱpoverty,ȱ hunger,ȱandȱdiseaseȱwereȱrampantȱamongȱtheȱunder
classes,ȱatȱleastȱduringȱtheȱVenetianȱWarȱofȱ1482–1484ȱunderȱtheȱruleȱofȱErcoleȱI,
whileȱAriostoȱwasȱstillȱaȱchild;ȱandȱthatȱtheȱdukesȱmanipulatedȱandȱexploitedȱlocal
peasants,ȱtradesmen,ȱandȱevenȱtheȱmiddleȱclassesȱandȱlowerȱrankingȱaristocrats
35
AsȱGardnerȱpointsȱoutȱinȱhisȱKingȱofȱCourtȱPoets,ȱ“onȱhisȱimperialȱvisitȱtoȱFerraraȱinȱ1469,ȱFrederick
IIIȱcreatedȱ[Ariosto’sȱfatherȱandȱtheȱlatter’sȱbrothers]ȱCountsȱofȱtheȱLateranȱCouncilȱandȱofȱthe
HolyȱRomanȱEmpire”ȱ(6),ȱaȱtitleȱthatȱonlyȱNiccolòȱandȱoneȱofȱhisȱnephewsȱseemsȱtoȱhaveȱactually
used.ȱ Inȱ fact,ȱ “weȱ haveȱ amusingȱ evidenceȱ inȱ theȱ comediesȱ ofȱ [Lodovico]ȱ thatȱ theseȱ lavishly
bestowedȱtitlesȱofȱnobilityȱwereȱnot—byȱhimȱatȱleast—takenȱseriously”ȱ(6).ȱ
36
Lettere,ȱed.ȱAngeloȱStellaȱ(Milan:ȱMondadori,ȱ1965),ȱ297;ȱcitedȱbyȱGiorgioȱMasi,ȱ“’TheȱNightingale
inȱaȱCage’:ȱAriostoȱandȱtheȱEsteȱCourt,”ȱAriostoȱTodayȱ(seeȱnoteȱ19),ȱ71–92;ȱhereȱ84.
37
Letters,ȱ297;ȱcitedȱbyȱMasi,ȱ“TheȱNightingale”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ19),ȱ84.
toȱfundȱtheirȱelaborateȱbanquets,ȱtheirȱcolorfulȱpageantsȱandȱluxuriousȱgarments,
theirȱambitiousȱartisticȱandȱarchitecturalȱprojects,ȱandȱtheirȱongoingȱwarsȱagainst
Venice.38ȱPiromalli’sȱcaseȱmayȱ(orȱmayȱnot)ȱbeȱoverstated,ȱbutȱaȱkernelȱofȱtruthȱis
almostȱcertainlyȱthere.ȱIndeed,ȱLopezȱandȱMiskiminȱcontendȱthatȱlocalȱrulersȱand
townspeopleȱ inȱ muchȱ ofȱ Renaissanceȱ Italyȱ wereȱ essentiallyȱ “hungryȱ parasites
feedingȱonȱtheȱtributeȱofȱhalfȬstarvedȱpeasants”ȱ(414).ȱ
Thatȱ Ariostoȱ himselfȱ hadȱ ambivalentȱ feelingsȱ towardȱ hisȱ patronsȱ isȱ also
abundantlyȱclear,ȱnotwithstandingȱtheȱencomiasticȱveneerȱofȱhisȱofficialȱdiscourse.
Inȱ hisȱ Satires,ȱ theȱ authorȱ repeatedlyȱ assertsȱ hisȱ independence,ȱ expressesȱ his
displeasureȱ atȱ beingȱ underappreciatedȱ andȱ treatedȱ likeȱ aȱ servantȱ byȱ hisȱ Este
patrons,ȱandȱvoicesȱhisȱfrustrationȱatȱrepercussionsȱleveledȱagainstȱhimȱforȱacting
asȱaȱfreeȱagent.39ȱEvenȱinȱtheȱOrlandoȱFurioso,ȱmodernȱscholarshipȱsuggestsȱthat
38
SeeȱAntonioȱPiromalli,ȱLaȱculturaȱaȱFerraraȱalȱtempoȱdiȱLudovicoȱAriosto,ȱ2ndȱed.ȱBibliotecaȱdiȱcultura,
61ȱ(1953;ȱRome:ȱBulzoni,ȱ1975).ȱCitingȱtheȱDiaroȱFerrareseȱdall’annoȱ1409ȱsinoȱalȱ1502,ȱed.ȱGiuseppe
Pardiȱ(Bologna:ȱZanichelli,ȱ1933),ȱ75,ȱPiromalliȱnotesȱthatȱ“laȱguerraȱcontroȱVeneziaȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱnonȱè
volutaȱdalȱpopoloȱeȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱprocuraȱunaȱgrandeȱcarestiaȱtantoȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱcheȱ‘morinoȱmolteȱpersoneȱdaȱfame
etȱfuȱgranteȱmoria;ȱetȱcosìȱhavessemoȱfocho,ȱaqua,ȱcarastia,ȱpesteȱetȱguerra’”ȱ(26;ȱ“Theȱpeopleȱare
againstȱtheȱVenetianȱWar,ȱwhichȱisȱcausingȱaȱfamineȱsoȱsevereȱthatȱmanyȱcitizensȱhaveȱdiedȱof
hunger,ȱandȱthereȱisȱwidespreadȱpestilence;ȱandȱthusȱweȱhaveȱfire,ȱwater,ȱfamine,ȱplague,ȱand
war”ȱ [myȱ translation]).ȱ Evenȱ thoughȱ theseȱ conditionsȱ predatedȱ Ariosto’sȱ arrivalȱ inȱ Ferrara,
Piromalliȱnotesȱpocketsȱofȱdiscontentȱtowardȱ“laȱpoliticaȱdispendiosaȱeȱdissipatrice”ȱ(“theȱlavish
andȱwastefulȱpolitics”)ȱofȱtheȱEstensiȱthroughoutȱtheȱperiod:ȱ“Nonȱmancaronoȱsentimentiȱmotivati
diȱopposizioneȱdichiarataȱallaȱpoliticaȱeȱallaȱdinastiaȱdegliȱEstensiȱeȱsiȱespresseroȱcomeȱfuȱpossible,
conȱgestiȱisolateȱdiȱribellioneȱoȱconȱformeȱdiȱsobillazioneȱfinoȱalȱ‘bollettino’ȱeȱalȱ‘bischizo’ȱinȱrima
.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ[E]sistevanoȱinsommaȱinȱdeterminateȱstratiȱdelȱpopoloȱeȱdiȱaltreȱclassiȱsocialiȱsentimentiȱdi
libertà,ȱdiȱpaceȱeȱdiȱavversioneȱall’egemoniaȱdellaȱcasaȱdominante”ȱ(28;ȱ“Thereȱwasȱnoȱlackȱof
oppositionȱdirectedȱatȱtheȱEstenseȱdynastyȱandȱtheirȱpolitics,ȱwhichȱwasȱexpressedȱinȱtheȱonlyȱway
possible,ȱthroughȱisolatedȱgesturesȱofȱrebellionȱandȱincendiaryȱpamphletsȱandȱsatiricalȱversesȱ.ȱ.
.Inȱshort,ȱaȱsenseȱofȱfreedom,ȱasȱwellȱasȱantiȬwarȱsentimentsȱandȱanȱaversionȱtoȱtheȱrulingȱclass’s
hegemony,ȱ existedȱ inȱ certainȱ strataȱ amongȱ theȱ peopleȱ andȱ otherȱ classesȱ ofȱ societyȱ ”ȱ [my
translation]).
39
See,ȱforȱexample,ȱAriosto’sȱFirstȱSatire,ȱwrittenȱjustȱafterȱhisȱrefusalȱinȱOctober,ȱ1517ȱtoȱaccompany
Cardinalȱ Ippolitoȱ d’Esteȱ toȱ Hungary.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ epistle,ȱ whichȱ theȱ poetȱ addressesȱ toȱ hisȱ brother
AlessandroȱandȱtoȱhisȱfriendȱLudovicoȱdaȱBagno,ȱbothȱofȱwhomȱfollowedȱIppolitoȱtoȱHungary,
Ariostoȱwondersȱifȱtheȱcardinalȱcontinuesȱtoȱmalignȱhimȱandȱwhetherȱanyȱofȱhisȱfriendsȱhaveȱhad
theȱcourageȱtoȱdefendȱhimȱpublicly:
Ioȱdesideroȱintendereȱdaȱvoi,
Alessandroȱfratel,ȱcompareȱmioȱBagno,
s’inȱcorteȱèȱricordanzaȱpiùȱdiȱnoi;
ȱseȱpiùȱilȱsignorȱmeȱaccusa;ȱseȱcompagno
perȱmeȱsiȱlievaȱeȱdiceȱlaȱcagione
perȱche,ȱpartendoȱgliȱaltri,ȱioȱquiȱrimagno;
ȱ o,ȱtuttiȱdottiȱneȱlaȱadulazione
(l’arteȱcheȱpiùȱtraȱnoiȱsiȱstudiaȱeȱcole),
l’aiutateȱaȱbiasmarmeȱoltraȱragione.
ȱPazzoȱchiȱalȱsuoȱsignorȱcontradirȱvole,
Ariosto’sȱpanegyricsȱareȱdoubleȬedged,ȱbeginningȱwithȱtheȱironicȱsuggestionȱthat
hisȱdebtȱtoȱIppolitoȱisȱsoȱsmallȱthatȱheȱcanȱrepayȱitȱwithȱwordsȱandȱinkȱ(“Quelȱch’io
viȱ debbo,ȱ possoȱ diȱ paroleȱ /ȱ pagareȱ inȱ parteȱ eȱ d’operaȱ d’inchiostro,”ȱ 1.3),40ȱ and
continuingȱwithȱhisȱrevelationȱthatȱpoetsȱroutinelyȱlieȱtoȱpleaseȱtheirȱpatrons,ȱan
assertionȱ thatȱ underminesȱ hisȱ ownȱ panegyrics:ȱ “Nonȱ sìȱ pietosoȱ Enea,ȱ néȱ forte
Achilleȱ/ȱfu,ȱcomeȱèȱfama,ȱnéȱsìȱfieroȱEttore;ȱ/ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ/ȱmaȱiȱdonatiȱpalazziȱeȱleȱgranȱville
/ȱdaiȱdescendentiȱlor,ȱgliȱhaȱfattoȱporreȱ/ȱinȱquestiȱsenzaȱfinȱsublimiȱonoriȱ/ȱda
l’onorateȱmanȱdegliȱscrittori”ȱ(35.25;ȱ“Aeneasȱwasȱnotȱasȱdevoted,ȱnorȱAchillesȱas
strong,ȱnorȱHectorȱasȱferociousȱasȱtheirȱreputationsȱsuggestȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱWhatȱhasȱbrought
themȱtheirȱsublimeȱrenownȱhaveȱbeenȱtheȱwritersȱhonoredȱwithȱgiftsȱofȱpalaces
andȱgreatȱestatesȱdonatedȱbyȱtheseȱheroes’ȱdescendants,”ȱ425).ȱAriosto’sȱimplicit
admissionȱthatȱhisȱownȱencomiumȱisȱvacuousȱandȱthatȱheȱflattersȱhisȱpatronsȱfor
materialȱgainȱfindsȱsupportȱinȱhisȱextendedȱcomparisonsȱofȱIppolitoȱtoȱequivocal
literaryȱandȱhistoricalȱfiguresȱ(forȱexample,ȱHyppolitus,ȱPhaeton,ȱandȱNero)ȱand
inȱtheȱquestionsȱheȱraisesȱaboutȱtheȱdynasty’sȱlegitimacy.41ȱ
seȱbenȱdicesseȱch’haȱvedutoȱilȱgiorno
pienoȱdiȱstelleȱeȱaȱmezzanotteȱilȱsole.
.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ
Ditegliȱ[alȱsignore]ȱcheȱpiùȱtostoȱch’esserȱservo
Torròȱlaȱpovertadeȱinȱpazienza.ȱ (SatireȱI,ȱ1–12,ȱ245–46;ȱpp.ȱ1119,ȱ1125)
[Iȱwishȱtoȱhearȱfromȱyou,
brotherȱAlessandroȱandȱmyȱfriendȱBagno,
ifȱatȱcourtȱweȱareȱstillȱremembered;
ȱifȱourȱlordȱstillȱaccusesȱme;ȱifȱanyȱfriend
standsȱupȱforȱmeȱandȱexplainsȱtheȱreason
thatȱIȱremainedȱhere,ȱwhenȱothersȱleft;
ȱorȱif,ȱlearnedȱinȱtheȱskillsȱofȱadulation
(theȱartȱthatȱisȱmostȱstudiedȱandȱcultivatedȱamongȱus),
youȱhelpȱhimȱblameȱmeȱunjustly.
ȱHeȱwhoȱcontradictsȱhisȱlordȱisȱmad,
evenȱifȱhisȱmasterȱsaysȱheȱhasȱseenȱtheȱday
fullȱofȱstarsȱandȱtheȱsunȱatȱmidnight.
.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ
Tellȱ(Ippolito)ȱthatȱratherȱthanȱbeingȱaȱservant
Iȱwillȱtakeȱpovertyȱandȱbearȱitȱpatiently.ȱ(Myȱtranslation)]
40
NumerousȱscholarsȱhaveȱnotedȱtheȱambiguousȱimplicationsȱofȱthisȱpseudoȬencomiasticȱinvocation,
includingȱMarioȱApollonioȱandȱPioȱFontana,ȱed.,ȱinȱAriosto,ȱOrlandoȱFuriosoȱ(Brescia:ȱLaȱScuola,
1971),ȱ47;ȱandȱChesney,ȱTheȱCountervoyageȱ(seeȱnoteȱ11),ȱ111ȱ(“Whenȱtheȱpoetȱoffersȱwordsȱandȱink
inȱexchangeȱforȱIppolito’sȱservices,ȱtheȱimplicitȱnothingȬforȬnothingȱequationȱunderminesȱthe
entireȱpatronageȱsystem”).ȱ
41
SeeȱAlbertȱAscoli,ȱAriosto’sȱBitterȱHarmony:ȱCrisisȱandȱEvasionȱinȱtheȱItalianȱRenaissanceȱ(Princeton,
NJ:ȱPrincetonȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1987),ȱ219,ȱ275,ȱ341,ȱ381–89,ȱandȱ392,ȱforȱanȱinȬdepthȱanalysisȱof
Ariosto’sȱ criticismȱ ofȱ Ippolitoȱ d’Este.ȱ Nero,ȱ forȱ example,ȱ isȱ theȱ “ravagerȱ ofȱ hisȱ homeland,
murdererȱofȱliteratiȱsuchȱasȱSenecaȱandȱLucan”ȱ(382),ȱwhileȱ“theȱnameȱ‘Ippolito’ȱcarriesȱopenly,
etymologically,ȱtheȱmeaningȱofȱ‘loosedȱorȱunreinedȱhorse’ȱ(fittingȱepithetȱandȱepitaphȱforȱaȱmaster
Whatȱarguablyȱremains,ȱafterȱweȱexcavateȱbeneathȱtheȱlayersȱofȱhollow,ȱstylized
praise,ȱareȱveiledȱechoesȱofȱinjusticesȱthatȱAriostoȱhimselfȱexperiencedȱatȱtheȱhands
ofȱcapriciousȱmasters;ȱmemoriesȱofȱhisȱownȱfinancialȱhardshipȱfollowingȱtheȱdeath
ofȱhisȱfather,ȱwhenȱtheȱlotȱofȱcaringȱforȱnineȱsiblingsȱfellȱtoȱhim,ȱtheȱeldestȱchild;
andȱprofoundȱambivalenceȱaboutȱEstenseȱpoliciesȱandȱpractices,ȱwhichȱledȱtoȱan
unprecedentedȱ floweringȱ ofȱ theȱ arts,ȱ onȱ theȱ oneȱ hand,ȱ andȱ toȱ widespread
corruption,ȱsycophancy,ȱandȱabusesȱofȱpower,ȱ onȱtheȱother.ȱ Inȱadditionȱtoȱthe
literaryȱtraditionsȱthatȱheȱinvokesȱinȱ“laȱgranȱfollia,”ȱthen,ȱrangingȱfromȱHomer’s
depictionȱofȱAjaxȱtoȱChrétienȱdeȱTroyes’sȱportrayalȱofȱYvain’sȱ“wildȱman”ȱepisode,
theȱsceneȱalsoȱbearsȱtheȱimprintȱofȱhisȱpersonalȱexperiences,ȱobservations,ȱand
reflections.ȱ Andȱ fromȱ thisȱ perspective,ȱ theȱ questionȱ ofȱ whetherȱ Ariostoȱ could
identifyȱ withȱ theȱ beleagueredȱ peasantsȱ inȱ cantosȱ 23ȱ andȱ 24ȱ seemsȱ moot:ȱ asȱ a
provincialȱ “servo”ȱ whoȱ sufferedȱ injusticesȱ ofȱ hisȱ own,ȱ heȱ could,ȱ andȱ heȱ did,
understandȱtheȱcountryȱfolk’sȱfearȱandȱresentment.ȱ
Indeed,ȱtheȱpersonalityȱtraitȱthatȱpreventedȱAriostoȱfromȱbeingȱaȱsuccessfulȱlord
inȱhisȱownȱright,ȱheȱcontended,ȱwasȱhisȱsurfeitȱofȱcompassionȱ(“hoȱtroppoȱpietà
[Masi,ȱ84])ȱandȱselfȬidentificationȱwithȱhisȱsubjects;ȱandȱwhileȱOrlando’sȱruralȱand
disempoweredȱvictimsȱmayȱdefendȱthemselvesȱwithȱ“spuntoniȱetȱarchiȱeȱspiediȱe
frombe”ȱ(24.8;ȱ“pikesȱandȱbows,ȱspears,ȱandȱslings,”ȱ283),ȱratherȱthanȱwithȱthe
“wordsȱandȱink”ȱ(1.3)ȱthatȱareȱtheȱtoolsȱofȱAriosto’sȱownȱtrade,ȱtheyȱareȱultimately
kindredȱspiritsȱwhoȱworkȱhard,ȱtakeȱcareȱofȱtheirȱown,ȱandȱcultivateȱtheȱresources
allottedȱtoȱthem.ȱ
IfȱOrlandoȱdoublesȱasȱaȱchivalricȱheroȱandȱcruelȱnobleman,ȱarguablyȱheȱisȱalso,
byȱ virtueȱ ofȱ hisȱ associationȱ withȱ humanisticȱ culture,ȱ theȱ paradoxical
personificationȱ ofȱ civilization’sȱ encroachmentȱ on,ȱ andȱ destructionȱ of,ȱ natural
resources.ȱGivenȱhisȱdietȱofȱacorns,ȱaȱtropeȱassociatedȱwithȱtheȱGoldenȱAgeȱmyth
inȱRenaissanceȱliterature,ȱthisȱreadingȱclashesȱwithȱourȱinitialȱreadingsȱofȱtheȱscene,
whereȱ Orlandoȱ appearsȱ toȱ beȱ theȱ “naturalȱ man”—notȱ preciselyȱ innocent,ȱ like
shepherdsȱinȱpastoralȱnarratives,ȱbutȱcertainlyȱnotȱcorrupt.ȱInȱfact,ȱtheȱacornsȱhe
consumesȱ traditionallyȱ figureȱ theȱ simpleȱ desires,ȱ absenceȱ ofȱ greed,ȱ andȱ barter
economiesȱofȱpreȬmarketȱsocieties.ȱIfȱweȱtraceȱtheseȱacornsȱbackȱtoȱtheirȱsourceȱin
Cantoȱ23,ȱhowever,ȱaȱcompletelyȱdifferentȱinterpretationȱsuperimposesȱitselfȱon
ofȱhorsesȱdestroyedȱbyȱhisȱownȱsteeds)”ȱ(385);ȱandȱPhaeton,ȱalsoȱassociatedȱwithȱunrulyȱhorses,
fellȱ toȱ hisȱ deathȱ “fromȱ anȱ ungovernedȱ chariot”ȱ (384).ȱ Ippolitoȱ wasȱ alsoȱ reputedȱ toȱ beȱ an
unappreciativeȱreaderȱofȱtheȱOrlandoȱFurioso,ȱwhoseȱdismissalȱofȱAriosto’sȱmasterworkȱasȱ“utter
nonsenseȱ(‘tanteȱcoglionerie,ȱMesserȱLudovico’)”ȱ(389)ȱwouldȱbecomeȱlegendary.ȱFinally,ȱAscoli
tacklesȱ“theȱquestionȱofȱtheȱlegitimacyȱofȱEstenseȱrule,ȱwhichȱshouldȱseparateȱthemȱfromȱthe
dangerouslyȱextralegalȱillegitimacyȱofȱtheȱtyrant.ȱThatȱlegitimacyȱdependsȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱonȱtheȱlegitimacy
ofȱRuggieroȱasȱfamilyȱfounder.ȱ[This]ȱmythȱofȱoriginsȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱisȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱaȱwayȱofȱbuildingȱupȱtheȱpoet’s
patronsȱforȱaȱfall—mockingȱtheirȱauthorityȱbyȱtyingȱitȱtoȱaȱtransparentlyȱfictionalȱgenealogy,ȱto
aȱlittleȱknightȱwhoȱneverȱwas”ȱ(219–20).
Ariosto’sȱsurfaceȱallusionsȱtoȱtheȱGoldenȱAgeȱmyth.ȱForȱinȱadditionȱtoȱuprooting
pine,ȱelm,ȱbeach,ȱandȱashȱtreesȱinȱhisȱinitialȱfrenzy,ȱOrlandoȱalsoȱtearsȱoaksȱfrom
theȱground,ȱlikelyȱtheȱselfsameȱtreesȱwhoseȱfruitȱheȱlaterȱgathersȱforȱsustenance.ȱ
Notȱonlyȱdoesȱheȱpolluteȱtheȱstreamȱwithȱtheirȱdetritus,ȱbutȱheȱalsoȱcurtailsȱthe
trees’ȱ productivityȱ andȱ devastatesȱ theȱ ecosystemȱ byȱ eliminatingȱ them,ȱ atȱ once
reducingȱaȱkeyȱsourceȱofȱflourȱforȱtheȱlocalȱpopulationȱandȱdeprivingȱlocalȱwildlife
ofȱaȱstapleȱinȱtheirȱdiet.ȱ
Admittedly,ȱAriostoȱhimselfȱsaysȱnothingȱaboutȱtheȱecologicalȱramificationsȱof
Orlando’sȱ rampageȱ inȱ hisȱ narrative,ȱ andȱ weȱ runȱ theȱ riskȱ ofȱ imposingȱ an
anachronisticȱinterpretationȱonȱhisȱtextȱbyȱsubjectingȱitȱtoȱmodernȱecoȬcriticism:
“Conservationistȱ philosophy,ȱ inȱ theȱ senseȱ ofȱ preservingȱ nature,ȱ isȱ aȱ modern
concept,”ȱpointsȱoutȱJ.ȱV.ȱThirgood.42ȱYetȱwithinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱuprootedȱoaks,
Orlando’sȱdietȱofȱacornsȱisȱalmostȱcertainlyȱironic,ȱremindingȱusȱthatȱtheȱnobleman
hasȱnotȱonlyȱdestroyedȱtheȱtrees,ȱbutȱalsoȱconsumedȱtheirȱfruitȱandȱdevouredȱother
species,ȱ notablyȱ bearsȱ andȱ boarsȱ (24.13;ȱ “orsiȱ eȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ cingiai”)ȱ thatȱ drawȱ their
sustenanceȱfromȱacorns.ȱInȱthisȱsense,ȱheȱhasȱfelledȱnotȱonlyȱtheȱTreeȱofȱKnowledge
butȱtheȱTreeȱofȱLifeȱasȱwell,ȱdisruptingȱnaturalȱcyclesȱandȱtheȱinterconnectedness
ofȱallȱfloraȱandȱfauna—surelyȱanȱactȱofȱmadness.ȱ
GivenȱAriosto’sȱfulsomeȱpraiseȱofȱculturalȱprogressȱinȱRenaissanceȱFerrara,ȱit
mayȱseemȱunlikelyȱthatȱheȱwouldȱuseȱOrlando’sȱmadnessȱtoȱcritiqueȱhumankind’s
overȬconsumptionȱ ofȱ naturalȱ resources,ȱ ourȱ decimationȱ ofȱ forestsȱ toȱ construct
furnitureȱandȱtillȱtheȱsoil,ȱandȱourȱdestructionȱofȱnativeȱhabitatsȱtoȱsatisfyȱourȱown
hunger.ȱIndeed,ȱonȱtwoȱoccasionsȱ(3.48;ȱ43.61)ȱtheȱFerrareseȱpoetȱpraisesȱpastȱand
previousȱ rulersȱ ofȱ Ferraraȱ forȱ constructingȱ aȱ thrivingȱ cityȱ andȱ courtȱ atop
uninhabitableȱ marshland.ȱ Ercoleȱ d’Esteȱ willȱ makeȱ “campiȱ fertilissimi”ȱ (3.48;
“fertileȱfields,”ȱ26)ȱfromȱ“leȱpaludi”ȱorȱswamps,ȱprophesiesȱMelissa,ȱandȱthenȱbuild
“muroȱeȱfossa”ȱ(3.48;ȱ“wallsȱandȱtrenches,”ȱ26)ȱtoȱprotectȱhisȱpeople.ȱInȱaddition
toȱitsȱ“argini”ȱandȱ“mura”ȱ(43.59;ȱ“dykes”ȱandȱ“walls,”ȱ515),ȱFerraraȱwillȱalsoȱboast
“lietiȱeȱpieniȱcampiȱdiȱrichezza”ȱ(43.61;ȱ“cheerful,ȱopulentȱfields,”ȱ516),ȱ“pianteȱȱ
.ȱ .ȱ .ȱ d’ogniȱ sorteȱ rara”ȱ (43.58;ȱ “plantsȱ ofȱ everyȱ species,”ȱ 515)ȱ andȱ “tanteȱ spezie
d’animali”ȱ (43.58;ȱ “asȱ manyȱ kindsȱ ofȱ animalȱ asȱ exist,”ȱ 515),ȱ marvelsȱ Rinaldo,
reaffirmingȱtheȱvalueȱofȱlifeȱformsȱthatȱhisȱdementedȱcousinȱOrlandoȱdestroyed.
Uponȱtheȱmarshland,ȱheȱgoesȱonȱtoȱsay,ȱtheȱEstensiȱwillȱfosterȱ“tuttiȱiȱliberaliȱe
degniȱ studi”ȱ (43.60;ȱ “everyȱ humaneȱ study,”ȱ 516);ȱ andȱ heȱ hopes,ȱ butȱ doesȱ not
promise,ȱ thatȱ theyȱ willȱ useȱ theirȱ “senno”ȱ andȱ “iustizia”ȱ (43.62;ȱ “wisdomȱ and
justice,”ȱ516)ȱtoȱpromoteȱpeace,ȱabundance,ȱandȱhappinessȱ(“conȱpaceȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱtiȱtenga
inȱabondanziaȱetȱinȱletizia,”ȱ43.62)ȱamongȱtheirȱpeople.ȱ
42
J.ȱV.ȱThirgood,ȱManȱandȱtheȱMediterraneanȱForest:ȱAȱHistoryȱofȱResourceȱDepletionȱ(LondonȱandȱNew
York:ȱAcademicȱPress,ȱ1981),ȱ29.
WhileȱthisȱutopianȱparadiseȱthatȱAriostoȱdepictsȱisȱnotȱentirelyȱrural,ȱbutȱrather
anȱartfulȱblendȱofȱcityȱandȱcountry,ȱhisȱdiscourseȱandȱhisȱvisionȱareȱunabashedly
ecological,ȱ atȱ leastȱ inȱ aȱ limitedȱ sense:ȱ admittedly,ȱ theȱ poetȱ hasȱ noȱ interestȱ in
preservingȱtheȱnaturalȱswamplandȱuponȱwhichȱ Ferraraȱwasȱbuilt,ȱbutȱheȱdoes
advocateȱ (re)forestationȱ (orȱ atȱ leastȱ controlledȱ newȱ plantȱ growth)ȱ andȱ the
(re)introductionȱ ofȱ animalȱ populationsȱ intoȱ theȱ Poȱ deltaȱ habitat,ȱ asȱ wellȱ as
aggressiveȱfloodȱcontrolȱandȱpeacefulȱconditionsȱthatȱkeepȱmaraudingȱarmiesȱat
bay,ȱinȱorderȱtoȱprotectȱtheseȱpreservesȱandȱtheȱpeopleȱwhoȱcultivateȱthem.ȱGiven
theȱ frequentȱ floodwatersȱ thatȱ threatenedȱ townsȱ andȱ villagesȱ inȱ theȱ area,ȱ the
widespreadȱdeforestationȱthatȱresultedȱfromȱwarȱandȱoverȬcultivation,ȱandȱthe
sophisticatedȱ geologicalȱ engineeringȱ requiredȱ toȱ makeȱ Ferrara’sȱ marshlands
habitable,ȱinȱfact,ȱresidentsȱofȱnortheasternȱItalyȱwereȱparticularlyȱaccustomedȱto
thinkingȱenvironmentally,ȱatȱleastȱwithinȱanȱeconomicȱcontext.ȱ
Theirȱlivelihoodsȱandȱtheirȱveryȱsurvivalȱwereȱcontingentȱuponȱtheirȱabilityȱto
planȱ forȱ naturalȱ disasters,ȱ understandȱ theirȱ environment,ȱ andȱ respondȱ toȱ its
challenges.ȱInȱadditionȱtoȱdrainingȱswampsȱtoȱlimitȱtheȱincidenceȱofȱwaterȬborne
disease,ȱandȱtoȱincreaseȱtheȱacreageȱofȱarableȱland,ȱtheyȱhadȱbegunȱtoȱrotateȱcrops
andȱleaveȱfieldsȱfallowȱtoȱmaximizeȱagriculturalȱproductivityȱbyȱtheȱtimeȱofȱthe
Renaissance.ȱAriostoȱseemsȱtoȱtakeȱthisȱecologicalȱperspectiveȱoneȱstepȱfurtherȱin
theȱOrlandoȱFurioso,ȱhowever,ȱasȱheȱportraysȱtheȱshiftsȱofȱFerrara’sȱtopography,
flora,ȱ andȱ faunaȱ overȱ time;ȱ reflectsȱ criticallyȱ onȱ theȱ squanderingȱ ofȱ natural
resourcesȱ andȱ devastationȱ ofȱ theȱ ecosystemȱ inȱ Orlando’sȱ madnessȱ scene;ȱ and
advocatesȱtheȱrestorationȱofȱenvironmentalȱharmony,ȱandȱtheȱcreationȱofȱaȱthriving
bionetworkȱwhereȱaȱwastelandȱonceȱexisted,ȱinȱtheȱutopianȱ“future”ȱofȱFerrara.
Fromȱaȱstructuralȱperspective,ȱinȱfact,ȱitȱseemsȱclearȱthatȱAriostoȱintendedȱusȱto
interpretȱhisȱprotagonist’sȱ“granȱfollia”ȱandȱhisȱdecimationȱofȱruralȱspaceȱwithin
thisȱ context:ȱ forȱ Orlando’sȱ madnessȱ scene,ȱ anȱ antiȬmodelȱ ofȱ environmental
stewardshipȱlocatedȱatȱtheȱexactȱcenterȱofȱtheȱpoem,ȱisȱsandwichedȱbetweenȱtwo
symmetricalȱ“bookends”—oneȱinȱcantoȱ3ȱandȱtheȱotherȱinȱcantoȱ43,ȱthreeȱcantos
fromȱtheȱconclusion—thatȱstandȱasȱhortatoryȱmodelsȱofȱhowȱbestȱtoȱ“cultivate
one’sȱgarden.”ȱ
Asȱ bothȱ theȱ Orlandoȱ Furiosoȱ andȱ Satiresȱ haveȱ shownȱ us,ȱ Ariosto’sȱ praiseȱ of
Renaissanceȱ cultureȱ andȱ hisȱ encomiumȱ ofȱ theȱ Esteȱ rulersȱ inȱ noȱ wayȱ preclude
acerbicȱjabsȱatȱhisȱpatrons;ȱandȱclearlyȱtheȱoppositeȱisȱtrueȱasȱwell.ȱForȱratherȱthan
simplyȱcriticizingȱtheirȱabusesȱofȱpower,ȱtheȱpoetȱurgesȱIppolitoȱandȱAstolfoȱd’Este
toȱmakeȱhisȱutopianȱvisionȱaȱrealityȱbyȱbuildingȱuponȱpositiveȱachievementsȱthat
heȱoutlinesȱinȱhisȱparadoxicalȱencomia;ȱandȱbyȱensuringȱthatȱtheirȱwellȬpublicized
GoldenȱAge,ȱsoȱoftenȱextolledȱbyȱwritersȱofȱtheȱperiod,ȱtrulyȱachievesȱtheȱidyllic
promiseȱofȱitsȱname—notȱjustȱthroughȱtheȱaccumulationȱofȱmaterialȱwealthȱinȱa
courtlyȱ orȱ urbanȱ setting,ȱ butȱ throughȱ aȱ concertedȱ effortȱ toȱ combineȱ theirȱ cityȬ
buildingȱambitionsȱwithȱaȱreturnȱtoȱtheȱjustice,ȱarcadianȱinnocence,ȱcommunal
sharing,ȱandȱnaturalȱharmonyȱinvokedȱbyȱHesiod.43ȱ
Thisȱ socialȱ andȱ environmentalȱ idealȱ isȱ aȱ farȱ cryȱ fromȱ theȱ flawedȱ worldȱ that
AriostoȱdescribesȱinȱhisȱSatires,ȱhowever.ȱAsȱaȱproponentȱofȱmediocritasȱ(“mediocre
formaȱ/ȱsempreȱlodai,ȱsempreȱdannaiȱleȱestreme,”ȱSat.ȱ5,ȱ170–71),ȱheȱreflectsȱat
lengthȱonȱtheȱwastefulȱoverconsumptionȱofȱnaturalȱandȱmaterialȱresourcesȱbyȱhis
privilegedȱcontemporaries.44ȱInȱadditionȱtoȱmockingȱtheirȱextravaganceȱ(“Quante
collane,ȱquanteȱcappeȱnuoveȱ/ȱperȱdignitàȱsiȱcomprano,”ȱ3.271–72;ȱ“Whatȱaȱlotȱof
necklacesȱ andȱ newȱ cloaksȱ theyȱ buyȱ forȱ theȱ sakeȱ ofȱ dignity”ȱ [myȱ translation]),
whichȱisȱultimatelyȱnoȱlessȱwastefulȱthanȱOrlando’sȱuselessȱuprootedȱtrees,ȱAriosto
arguesȱthatȱourȱwantsȱandȱlevelsȱofȱconsumptionȱshouldȱbeȱproportionalȱtoȱour
needs:ȱifȱaȱmanȱhasȱfoodȱtoȱeaseȱhisȱhungerȱ(“cheȱnonȱdigiuniȱquandoȱvirraȱtrarse
/ȱl’ingoradaȱfame,”ȱSat.ȱ3,ȱ247–48),ȱheȱclaims,ȱasȱwellȱasȱwarmȱshelterȱandȱaȱroof
overȱhisȱheadȱ(“abbiaȱfuocoȱeȱtettoȱ/ȱseȱdalȱfreddoȱoȱdalȱsolȱvuolȱripararse,”ȱSat.ȱ3,
248–49),ȱ whatȱ moreȱ canȱ heȱ possiblyȱ wantȱ orȱ needȱ (“cheȱ meȱ puòȱ dareȱ piùȱ di
questo”ȱSat.ȱ3,ȱ253–54)?ȱToȱexceedȱtheseȱlimits,ȱheȱimplies,ȱisȱbothȱimmoralȱand
irrational.ȱ
Ultimately,ȱbothȱtheȱhistoricalȱrecordȱandȱtheȱpoet’sȱownȱwritingsȱlendȱsupportȱto
theȱinterpretationȱofȱOrlando’sȱmadnessȱoutlinedȱabove,ȱsuggestingȱthatȱAriosto
embeddedȱbothȱecologicalȱinsightsȱandȱanȱallegoryȱaboutȱseigniorialȱoppression
intoȱ hisȱ protagonist’sȱ decimationȱ ofȱ theȱ ruralȱ landscapeȱ andȱ hisȱ massacreȱ of
shepherds,ȱfarmers,ȱandȱlivestockȱinȱcantosȱ23ȱandȱ24.ȱThatȱtheȱpoetȱwasȱcriticalȱof
theȱEsteȱfamilyȱandȱofȱIppolitoȱinȱparticularȱisȱnoȱsecret;ȱbutȱinȱourȱhasteȱtoȱaddȱa
newȱ pieceȱ toȱ thisȱ interpretiveȱ puzzle,ȱ weȱ mustȱ notȱ forgetȱ thatȱ Ariostoȱ had
completedȱ mostȱ ofȱ theȱ madnessȱ sceneȱ byȱ 1516,ȱ wellȱ beforeȱ hisȱ breakȱ withȱ the
cardinal.ȱInȱoneȱsense,ȱhowever,ȱthisȱfactȱstrengthensȱratherȱthanȱweakensȱour
hypothesis,ȱ byȱ minimizingȱ theȱ likelihoodȱ thatȱ Ariosto’sȱ powerfulȱ portrayalȱ of
environmentalȱ destructionȱ andȱ aristocraticȱ oppressionȱ stemmedȱ fromȱ petty
vindictivenessȱoverȱhisȱownȱfallȱfromȱfavor.ȱ
Whatȱweȱdiscoverȱinsteadȱinȱhisȱprotagonist’sȱ“ruralȱrampage”ȱisȱconcernȱforȱthe
resȱpublica,ȱmusingsȱaboutȱtheȱdestructivenessȱofȱwarȱandȱenvironmentalȱwaste,
andȱaȱsurprisingȱsensitivityȱtoȱtheȱplightȱofȱtheȱlowerȱclasses—precipitatedȱinȱpart
43
Seeȱ Hesiod,ȱ Theȱ Worksȱ andȱ Days,ȱ inȱ Theȱ Onlineȱ Medievalȱ andȱ Classicalȱ Library,ȱ 11.109–26
(http://omacl.org/Hesiod/works.htmlȱ[lastȱaccessedȱonȱSeptemberȱ30,ȱ2011]).
44
Seeȱ Goldthwaite,ȱ “Theȱ Economyȱ ofȱ Renaissanceȱ Italy”ȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 28),ȱ 15:ȱ “Ifȱ anyȱ distinctive
economicȱactivityȱmarksȱtheȱperiod,ȱitȱisȱconspicuousȱconsumption.ȱTheȱincreasedȱproductionȱof
art,ȱandȱofȱluxuryȱgoodsȱinȱgeneral,ȱisȱoneȱofȱtheȱmostȱcharacteristicȱfeaturesȱofȱtheȱRenaissance;
andȱindeedȱitȱisȱatȱthisȱtimeȱthatȱartȱcreatedȱconsciouslyȱasȱsuchȱemergesȱasȱaȱdistinctȱcategoryȱof
goods.”
byȱAriosto’sȱownȱselfȬidentificationȱasȱaȱ“servo,”ȱandȱinȱpartȱbyȱhisȱobservations
ofȱinjusticesȱaroundȱhim.ȱ
Whileȱthereȱisȱnoȱ recordȱofȱpeasantȱuprisingsȱinȱFerraraȱafterȱtheȱfourteenth
century,ȱhistoryȱtellsȱusȱthatȱpovertyȱandȱaȱgrowingȱgapȱbetweenȱtheȱrichȱandȱthe
poorȱ wereȱ rampantȱ throughoutȱ Italyȱ inȱ theȱ 1500sȱ asȱ well.ȱ Mastersȱ ofȱ public
relations,ȱtheȱEstensiȱcertainlyȱsupportedȱalmsȱforȱtheȱpoorȱandȱpublicȱworks;ȱyet
theirȱexpendituresȱforȱwar,ȱlavishȱliving,ȱtheȱpurchaseȱofȱobjetsȱd’art,ȱextravagant
pageantsȱandȱsumptuousȱbanquets,ȱandȱtheȱupkeepȱofȱfamousȱwritersȱandȱartists
tookȱtheirȱtollȱonȱtheȱducalȱtreasury,ȱwhichȱwasȱmoreȱheavilyȱinvestedȱinȱkeeping
upȱ appearancesȱ andȱ fosteringȱ humanisticȱ scholarshipȱ thanȱ inȱ redistributing
wealth.ȱ
Likeȱotherȱhumanistsȱwhoȱprofitedȱfromȱcourtlyȱextravaganceȱandȱtheirȱprinces’
patronageȱofȱtheȱarts,ȱAriostoȱclearlyȱhadȱmixedȱfeelingsȱaboutȱtheȱlureȱofȱhigh
culture,ȱonȱtheȱoneȱhand,ȱandȱruralȱlife,ȱonȱtheȱother:ȱandȱwhileȱheȱpraisesȱtheȱEste
family’sȱinnovationsȱandȱtheȱbrillianceȱofȱtheirȱcourt,ȱheȱalsoȱyearnedȱatȱtimesȱfor
aȱsimpler,ȱbucolicȱlife,ȱandȱforȱtheȱlibertyȱtoȱspeakȱhisȱmindȱhonestly.ȱThisȱconflict
informsȱOrlando’sȱmadnessȱsceneȱand,ȱindeed,ȱtheȱentireȱFurioso.ȱ
Finally,ȱforȱthoseȱwhoȱmightȱobjectȱthatȱourȱinterpretationȱisȱtooȱseriousȱorȱtoo
politicalȱ forȱ aȱ sceneȱ thatȱ isȱ fundamentallyȱ comicȱ andȱ escapist,ȱ letȱ usȱ noteȱ that
Ariostoȱthrivesȱuponȱparadoxes,ȱwhichȱpermeateȱhisȱhybridȱworkȱfromȱstartȱto
finish.ȱHeȱroutinelyȱincludesȱrealȬworldȱdetailsȱinȱhisȱfantasy,ȱshiftsȱperspectives
inȱaȱwayȱthatȱturnsȱscenesȱandȱmoralȱissuesȱupsideȱdownȱandȱinsideȱout,ȱandȱlaces
hisȱencomiaȱwithȱsatire.ȱWhileȱAriostoȱisȱclearlyȱreflectingȱonȱtheȱecologicalȱand
humanȱdamageȱthatȱOrlandoȱhasȱwroughtȱinȱhisȱ“granȱfollia,”ȱhowever,ȱweȱhave
noȱ concreteȱ evidenceȱ thatȱ heȱ isȱ blamingȱ theȱ realȬworldȱ decimationȱ ofȱ natural
resourcesȱ onȱ theȱ upperȱ classes,ȱ andȱ onȱ theirȱ tendencyȱ toȱ bite—or,ȱ indeed,
amputate—theȱhandȱthatȱfeedsȱthem.ȱWhatȱweȱdoȱseeȱinȱOrlandoȱisȱanȱoldȬschool
heroȱwhoseȱrampageȱveryȱnearlyȱcripplesȱtheȱfuture.ȱ
Fromȱthisȱperspective,ȱitȱisȱnoȱcoincidenceȱthatȱAriostoȱdownstagesȱhisȱhero’s
anachronisticȱ storylineȱ atȱ theȱ poem’sȱ conclusion,ȱ supplantingȱ hisȱ conflicted
medievalȱethosȱwithȱtheȱforwardȬlookingȱmarriageȱofȱBradamanteȱandȱRuggiero,
ancestorsȱofȱtheȱEsteȱdynasty,ȱandȱitsȱpromiseȱofȱaȱbetterȱtomorrow.ȱWhetherȱthey
fulfilled—orȱweȱourselvesȱcanȱdeliverȱon—thisȱpromiseȱremainsȱaȱquestionȱforȱthe
ages.
ȱ
Chapterȱ24
KyleȱDiRobertoȱ
RepresentationsȱofȱtheȱPlowmanȱandȱtheȱProstituteȱin
PuritanȱandȱAntiȬPuritanȱSatire:ȱOrȱtheȱRhetoricȱof
PlainnessȱandȱtheȱReformationȱofȱtheȱPopularȱinȱthe
HarveyȱNasheȱQuarrel
InȱElizabethanȱliterature,ȱtheȱcourtȱandȱtheȱcountryȱoftenȱdidȱnotȱdefineȱactual
placesȱ orȱ populations.ȱ Inȱ fact,ȱ depictionsȱ ofȱ theȱ courtierȱ andȱ theȱ rusticȱ were
frequentlyȱ literaryȱ constructionsȱ thatȱ representedȱ rhetoricalȱ stancesȱ andȱ their
ideologicalȱ positions.ȱ Thisȱ isȱ apparentȱ inȱ aȱ popularȱ sixteenthȬcenturyȱ battle
betweenȱ Puritansȱ andȱ popularȱ writersȱ overȱ theȱ aestheticsȱ ofȱ popularȱ art.ȱ This
literaryȱ fliting,ȱ knownȱ asȱ theȱ Harveyȱ Nasheȱ Quarrelȱ (1579–1596),ȱ primarily
involvedȱtheȱPuritansȱGabrielȱHarvey,ȱGabriel’sȱbrotherȱRichard,ȱandȱhisȱstudent
EdmundȱSpenserȱonȱoneȱsideȱandȱtheȱpopularȱwritersȱRobertȱGreene,ȱThomas
Nashe,ȱJohnȱLyly,ȱand,ȱlater,ȱBenȱJonsonȱonȱtheȱother.ȱTheȱquarrelȱbeganȱwith
Spenser’sȱ publicationȱ ofȱ Theȱ Shepheardesȱ Calenderȱ (1579).ȱ Inȱ Theȱ Shepheardes
Calender,ȱ Spenserȱ attemptedȱ toȱ appropriateȱ theȱ popularityȱ ofȱ vernacularȱ and
colloquialȱliteratureȱalongȱwithȱ“theȱextraordinaryȱpowerȱofȱtheȱplowmanȱconceit
duringȱ [the]ȱ ageȱ ofȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ reform”ȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ makeȱ ofȱ himselfȱ aȱ populistȱ poet
laureate,ȱanȱ“EnglishȱVirgil.”1ȱThroughȱtheȱpublicationȱofȱaȱnewȱgenreȱofȱpastoral,
basedȱonȱclassicalȱsourcesȱandȱtheȱrhetoricȱofȱPuritanȱschoolmasters,ȱlikeȱPeter
Ramus,ȱSpenserȱattemptedȱtoȱpurgeȱpopularȱcultureȱofȱitsȱcarnivalesqueȱdisorder,
justȱasȱearlierȱreformersȱhadȱpurgedȱreligionȱofȱitsȱabuses.2ȱ
1
Albertȱ Charlesȱ Hamiltonȱ Theȱ Spenserȱ Encyclopediaȱ (1990;ȱ Torontoȱ andȱ Buffalo:ȱ Universityȱ of
TorontoȱPress,ȱ1997),ȱ717.ȱ
2
AbrahamȱFraunce,ȱinȱfact,ȱwroteȱoneȱofȱhisȱmanualsȱonȱRamistȱrhetoric,ȱTheȱShepherdesȱLogike
756 KyleȱDiRoberto
GabrielȱHarvey’sȱThreeȱWittyȱandȱFamiliarȱLettersȱ(1580)ȱexacerbatedȱSpenser’s
assaultȱ onȱ popularȱ cultureȱ andȱ drewȱ theȱ wrathȱ ofȱ popularȱ writers.ȱ Harvey
attemptedȱ toȱ createȱ anewȱ theȱ aestheticsȱ ofȱ popularȱ artȱ byȱ constructingȱ an
oppositionȱ inȱ termsȱ ofȱ genderȱ betweenȱ representationsȱ ofȱ theȱ plowmanȱ asȱ a
masculineȱvoiceȱofȱtheȱpeopleȱandȱrepresentationȱofȱpopularȱartistsȱasȱeffeminizing
purveyorsȱofȱfeminineȱdeceptionȱandȱsensuality.ȱHisȱlettersȱtoȱandȱfromȱSpenser
denigratedȱtheȱstyleȱofȱpopularȱwriters,ȱsuchȱasȱGreeneȱandȱLyly,ȱbyȱassociating
theirȱ styleȱ withȱ theȱ garbȱ ofȱ courtiers.ȱ Harveyȱ malignedȱ theirȱ worksȱ as
“womanish,”ȱ characterizedȱ byȱ apishȱ andȱ grotesqueȱ “oysterȱ Ruffs”ȱ and
“unkodpeased,”ȱorȱunmanly,ȱ“halfeȱhose.”3ȱHarvey,ȱinstead,ȱpromotedȱaȱrhetoric
ofȱplainnessȱandȱsimplicityȱandȱcreatedȱaȱvirileȱfightingȱimageȱofȱmasculinityȱout
ofȱtheȱpiousȱplowman.ȱAsȱHarveyȱasserted,ȱheȱcameȱinȱtoȱprintȱ“toȱdefendȱhimself,
manfully,ȱatȱtheȱpaperȬbar”ȱagainstȱtheȱruralȱfigureȱ“RobinȱGoodȬfellow”ȱ(oneȱof
RobertȱGreene’sȱpenȱnames).4ȱHeȱdidȱso,ȱheȱclaimed,ȱtoȱprotectȱtheȱinstitutionsȱof
learningȱandȱartȱfromȱtheȱ“encroachingȱpock”ȱofȱtheȱpopularȱwritersȱandȱtheir
“curtisanȱschoole.”5ȱHisȱlatterȱattacksȱonȱGreene,ȱinȱfact,ȱsuggestȱheȱwasȱasȱenvious
asȱheȱwasȱoutragedȱthatȱGreene’sȱpopularityȱwasȱgreaterȱthanȱSpenser’s.ȱInȱhis
FourȱLettersȱ(1592)ȱheȱlamentsȱthat,ȱ“theȱCountesseȱofȱPembrookesȱArcadiaȱisȱnot
greeneȱ inoughȱ forȱ quesasieȱ stomackes,”ȱ butȱ theȱ massesȱ hadȱ toȱ haveȱ “Greenes
Arcadiaȱandȱ[he]ȱbeleevesȱmostȱeagerlyȱlongedȱforȱGreenesȱFaerieȱQueene.”6
WhileȱdepictingȱpopularȱwritersȱasȱRobinȱHoodȱfiguresȱandȱcourtesans,ȱbothȱthe
Harveysȱ andȱ Spenserȱ portrayedȱ themselvesȱ asȱ ruralȱ plowmen,ȱ when,ȱ inȱ fact,
judgingȱbyȱGabrielȱHarvey’sȱletterȱtoȱSpenserȱ(1580),ȱGabrielȱandȱSpenserȱwere
plottingȱtheirȱadvancementȱatȱcourt.ȱRatherȱthanȱrepresentingȱrealȱfiguresȱfromȱthe
courtȱ orȱ country,ȱ theȱ Harveys’ȱ representationȱ ofȱ popularȱ writersȱ asȱ courtiers
forgedȱparallelsȱbetweenȱtheȱcourtiers’ȱtraditionalȱqualitiesȱofȱluxuriantȱabundance
andȱ duplicity,ȱ andȱ popularȱ writers’ȱ effeminizingȱ theatricalityȱ andȱ grotesque
sensualȱabundanceȱinȱart.7ȱTheȱstyleȱofȱpopularȱwritersȱtheyȱcharacterizedȱasȱa
demonstratingȱRamists’ȱmethodȱthroughȱSpenser’sȱShepheardesȱCalender.ȱMaryȱMcCormick,ȱ“A
CriticalȱEditionȱofȱAbrahamȱFraunce’sȱShepherdesȱLogike”ȱandȱTwooeȱGeneralȱDiscourses,”ȱPh.D.
diss.,ȱ St.ȱ Louisȱ Universityȱ 1968.ȱ Johnȱ King,ȱ Englishȱ Reformationȱ Literature:ȱ Tudorȱ Originsȱ ofȱ the
ProtestantȱTraditionȱ(Princeton:ȱPrincetonȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1982),ȱ22.ȱAlsoȱseeȱMikeȱRodmanȱJones,
RadicalȱPastoral,ȱ1381–1594:ȱAppropriationȱandȱtheȱWritingȱofȱReligiousȱControversyȱ(Farnham,ȱSurrey,
andȱBurlington,ȱVT:ȱAshgate,ȱ2011).ȱ
3
GabrielȱHarvey,ȱThreeȱproperȱwittieȱfamiliarȱLetters,ȱlatelyȱpassedȱbetweenȱtwoȱUniversityȱmen,ȱtouching
theȱEarthquakeȱinȱAprilȱlast,ȱandȱourȱEnglishȱreformedȱVersifying.ȱ1580.ȱTheȱWorksȱofȱGabrielȱHarvey
forȱtheȱfirstȱtimeȱcollectedȱandȱedited,ȱwithȱmemorialȬintroduction,ȱnotesȱandȱillustration,ȱetc.,ȱed.
AlexanderȱBallochȱGrosart.ȱ3ȱvols.ȱTheȱHuthȱLibraryȱ(NewȱYork:ȱAMSȱPress,ȱ1966),ȱ1:84.ȱ
4
GabrielȱHarvey,ȱPiercesȱSupererogation.ȱ1596.ȱinȱTheȱWorksȱofȱGabrielȱHarveyȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3)ȱ2:52–53.ȱ
5
Harvey,ȱPiercesȱSupererogationȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ2:52.
6
GabrielȱHarvey,ȱFourȱLettersȱandȱCertainȱSonnets,ȱinȱTheȱWorksȱofȱGabrielȱHarveyȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ1:22.ȱ
7
AsȱPatriciaȱParkerȱclaims,ȱandȱHarvey’sȱassociationȱofȱ“whor[ish]ȱtales”ȱwithȱ“cornuȱcopiae”
RepresentationsȱofȱtheȱPlowmanȱandȱtheȱProstitute 757
carnalȱ“cornuȱcopiae.”ȱGabrielȱclaimedȱthisȱcopiousȱstyleȱhadȱproducedȱ“whoreson
talesȱ ofȱ aȱ tub”ȱ andȱ thatȱ popularȱ writers,ȱ whomȱ bothȱ Gabrielȱ andȱ Richard
associatedȱwithȱtheȱcourtiers’ȱcoatȱofȱdoubleȱ“piledȱvelvet,”ȱwereȱ“sophistersȱ.ȱ.ȱ.
aȱgenerationȱofȱcurroption.ȱ.ȱ.ȱwhore[s]ȱofȱBabylon,”ȱ“butterȬwhores,”ȱandȱ“oysterȬ
whore[s].”ByȱcontrastȱtheȱHarvey’sȱandȱSpenserȱlinkedȱtheirȱownȱliteraryȱstyle
withȱtheȱ“sheepsȱrussetȱcoate”ȱofȱtheȱplowman.ȱTheȱHarveysȱclaimedȱtoȱfearȱthe
corruptionȱofȱtheȱ“wool,”ȱofȱcommonȱsense,ȱandȱtheirȱ“plainȱspeeches”ȱbyȱthese
“curtisans.”8ȱ
Popularȱ writers,ȱ onȱ theȱ otherȱ hand,ȱ especiallyȱ Robertȱ Greeneȱ andȱ Thomas
Nashe,ȱstrategicallyȱwroteȱpamphletsȱtoȱundermineȱtheȱassociationȱofȱtheȱPuritan
withȱ theȱ Plowman,ȱ whileȱ embracingȱ theȱ designationsȱ ofȱ themselvesȱ as
representativesȱofȱtheȱfeminineȱgrotesqueȱinȱpopularȱart.ȱTheȱgrotesqueȱtheyȱtied
toȱexpressionsȱofȱtheȱcarnal,ȱtheȱuproarious,ȱandȱtheȱunbridledȱinȱcarnivalesque
culture,ȱandȱyet,ȱtheyȱalsoȱoftenȱcompletelyȱinvertedȱtheȱoppositionsȱcreatedȱby
theseȱ Puritanȱ rhetoricians.ȱ Greene’sȱ Quipȱ forȱ anȱ Upstartȱ Courtier,ȱ forȱ example,
createdȱlinksȱbetweenȱPuritansȱandȱcourtiersȱthatȱsuggestedȱthatȱGabrielȱHarvey,
aȱPuritanȱschoolmasterȱandȱtheȱringleaderȱofȱthisȱreformȱofȱtheȱpopular,ȱwasȱthe
trueȱcourtier.ȱInȱQuipȱHarveyȱisȱtheȱcourtierȱcharacterȱVelvetȱBreeches.ȱMoreover,
Greeneȱ pointsȱ toȱ theȱ artificialityȱ ofȱ academicsȱ andȱ theȱ uncharitableȱ economic
practicesȱassociatedȱwithȱtheȱrisingȱPuritanȱurbanȱclass,ȱinȱQuip,ȱinȱorderȱtoȱsuggest
theȱcourtierȱpracticeȱofȱeconomicȱfraudȱasȱconsistentȱwithȱPuritanȱideology.ȱ
Likewise,ȱThomasȱNasheȱechoesȱGreene’sȱaccusationsȱinȱPierceȱPennilessȱand
suggestsȱthatȱtheȱrevelationȱofȱcorruptionȱandȱinjustice,ȱassociatedȱwithȱLangland’s
PiersȱPlowman,ȱisȱanȱattributeȱofȱartistsȱlikeȱhimself,ȱwhoȱrevealȱtheȱfraudulent
reformȱpracticedȱbyȱfalselyȱpiousȱPuritans,ȱwhoȱhypocriticallyȱattemptedȱtoȱadapt
theȱ voiceȱ ofȱ popularȱ cultureȱ toȱ theirȱ ownȱ causeȱ whileȱ claimingȱ toȱ reformȱ it.
confirms,ȱlinguisticȱcopiaȱwasȱassociated,ȱinȱtheȱearlyȱmodernȱperiod,ȱwithȱanȱaberrantȱfeminine
sexualityȱthatȱthreatenedȱmasculinity.ȱTheȱtheatricalȱwasȱlikewiseȱaȱthreatȱtoȱmasculinity;ȱasȱthe
writingȱofȱStephenȱGossonȱattests,ȱitȱ“effeminated”ȱtheȱmind.ȱPatriciaȱA.ȱParker,ȱLiteraryȱFatȱLadies:
Rhetoric,ȱGender,ȱPropertyȱ(LondonȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱMethuen,ȱ1987),ȱ8–35.ȱStephenȱGosson,ȱThe
SchoolȱofȱAbuseȱ(1579)ȱ(London:ȱTheȱShakespeareȱSociety,ȱ1841),ȱ19.
8
Harvey,ȱPiercesȱSupererogationȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ2:52,ȱ232–33,ȱ343.ȱRichardȱHarvey,ȱPlainȱPercevalȱthe
PeaceȬmakerȱ inȱ Englandȱ Sweetlyȱ Indeavoringȱ withȱ hisȱ Bluntȱ Persuasionsȱ toȱ Botchȱ Upȱ a
ReconcilationȱBetweenȱMarȬtonȱandȱMarȬtotherȱ(1590).ȱ(EarlyȱEnglishȱBooksȱOnline),ȱ12.Whileȱit
mayȱseemȱthatȱHarveyȱisȱwritingȱonlyȱinȱoppositionȱtoȱpopularȱculture,ȱinȱfact,ȱhisȱpublicationȱof
theȱThreeȱLettersȱrevealsȱthatȱheȱisȱratherȱreformȱmindedȱthanȱagainstȱtheȱpopularȱasȱsuch.ȱHe
writesȱtoȱSpenserȱtoȱ“send.ȱ.ȱ.ȱsomeȱoddeȱfreshȱpaultingȱthreehalfepennieȱPamphlet.ȱ.ȱ.ȱorȱsome
BalductumȱTragicallȱBalletȱinȱRyme,ȱandȱwithoutȱReason,”ȱandȱheȱwishesȱthatȱ“someȱlearned,ȱand
wellȱadvisedȱUniversityȱman,ȱwouldeȱundertakeȱtheȱmatter,ȱandȱbestowȱsomeȱpaynesȱinȱdeede
uponȱ[this]ȱfamousȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱmateriall.”ȱHarvey,ȱThreeȱLettersȱinȱTheȱWorksȱofȱGabrielȱHarveyȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),
1:62.
758 KyleȱDiRoberto
SuggestingȱPierceȱPennilessȱ(1592)ȱasȱtheȱoriginalȱsourceȱforȱHarvey’sȱappropriation
ofȱtheȱidentityȱofȱtheȱplowmanȱinȱPiercesȱSupererogationȱ(1596),ȱforȱexample,ȱNashe
pointsȱtoȱtheȱhypocrisyȱofȱHarvey’sȱbecomingȱaȱpopularȱwriterȱbyȱassociatingȱwith
ratherȱthanȱreformingȱNashe’sȱwriting.ȱHeȱclaimsȱHarvey,ȱ“takesȱaȱnewȱlessonȱof
Plutarch,ȱ inȱ makingȱ benefitȱ ofȱ hisȱ enemiesȱ &ȱ borrowsȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ theȱ nameȱ ofȱ Piers
Pennilessȱ(oneȱofȱmyȱBookes),ȱwhichȱheȱknewȱtoȱbeȱmostȱsaleble,ȱ(passingȱthrough
sixeȱImpressions,)ȱtoȱhelpȱhisȱbedredȱstuffeȱtoȱlimpȱoutȱofȱPowlesȱChurchyard.”9
Inȱ otherȱ words,ȱ Harvey’sȱ writingȱ wouldȱ haveȱ beenȱ tooȱ feebleȱ toȱ leaveȱ the
bookstallsȱ ifȱ itȱ wereȱ notȱ forȱ Harvey’sȱ associationȱ ofȱ himselfȱ withȱ Nashe’sȱ redȬ
bloodedȱplowmanȱidentity.
Manyȱofȱtheȱpopularȱwritersȱinvolvedȱinȱthisȱbattleȱoverȱtheȱaestheticȱinȱpopular
artȱwereȱcourtiers,ȱinȱtheȱsenseȱthatȱtheyȱalsoȱwereȱtryingȱtoȱadvanceȱatȱcourt,ȱand
noneȱofȱtheseȱwritersȱwasȱaȱruralȱfigure.ȱWhatȱwasȱsignificantȱinȱtheȱwritingȱof
bothȱpopularȱwritersȱandȱPuritans,ȱtherefore,ȱwasȱnotȱactualȱplowmenȱorȱcourtiers,
butȱ theȱ ideologyȱ expressedȱ inȱ theirȱ representationsȱ ofȱ theseȱ figures.ȱ Inȱ fact,
throughȱ theȱ courseȱ ofȱ theȱ Puritans’ȱ argumentȱ withȱ popularȱ writers,ȱ theȱ term
courtierȱisȱsoȱobviouslyȱonlyȱaȱvehicleȱforȱtheirȱprejudiceȱinȱart,ȱregardingȱwhat
theyȱconsideredȱfeminineȱdisorder,ȱthatȱitȱquicklyȱgivesȱwayȱtoȱtheȱrepresentation
ofȱtheȱpopularȱwriterȱsolelyȱasȱprostituteȱratherȱthanȱasȱcourtier.ȱTherefore,ȱthis
paperȱexaminesȱPuritanȱandȱpopularȱideologyȱexpressedȱthroughȱrepresentations
ofȱtheȱplowmanȱandȱtheȱprostitute.ȱItȱdoesȱnotȱlookȱatȱactualȱcourtiers,ȱprostitutes,
orȱplowmen,ȱorȱotherȱruralȱfiguresȱbutȱatȱtheȱPuritans,ȱwho,ȱsubscribingȱtoȱanȱantiȬ
carnivalesqueȱbiasȱinȱart,ȱusedȱtheȱgenderedȱoppositionȱofȱtheȱplowmanȱandȱthe
courtierȱtoȱreformȱwhatȱtheyȱconceivedȱofȱasȱaȱsinfulȱcorporealȱtheatricality.ȱItȱalso
examinesȱ theȱ popularȱ artists’ȱ counterȱ attack,ȱ especiallyȱ theirȱ defenseȱ ofȱ the
carnivalesque.ȱ Throughȱ representationsȱ ofȱ theȱ plowmanȱ andȱ theȱ prostitute,
popularȱ writersȱ indictȱ theȱ Puritans’ȱ economicȱ practices,ȱ lackȱ ofȱ charity,ȱ and
hypocrisyȱwhileȱrevealingȱmuchȱaboutȱtheirȱownȱideologyȱconcerningȱnotȱjustȱtheir
personalȱartisticȱpreferencesȱbutȱalsoȱtheȱpotentialȱattackȱonȱintellectualȱlibertyȱat
stakeȱinȱtheȱPuritanȱconstructionȱofȱaȱ“plainȱandȱsimple”ȱaestheticȱsensibility.10ȱ
9
ThomasȱNashe,ȱHaveȱwithȱYouȱtoȱSaffronȱWaldenȱorȱGabrielȱHarvey’sȱHuntȱisȱUpȱ(1596),ȱed.ȱRonald
BrunlessȱMckerrow.ȱ5ȱvols.ȱ(London:ȱA.ȱH.ȱBullen,ȱ1904),ȱ3:35.
10
Thisȱstudyȱlooksȱatȱtheȱconstructionȱofȱaestheticȱsensibilityȱconcerningȱtheȱpastoralȱandȱsoȱdoes
notȱbindȱitselfȱtoȱanyȱparticularȱmanifestationȱofȱthisȱgenreȱ(i.e.,ȱpoetry,ȱprose,ȱandȱdrama)ȱbut
ratherȱexaminesȱtheȱwritingsȱinȱtheȱgenreȱthatȱareȱrelativeȱtoȱtheȱargument.ȱTheȱargumentȱisȱthat
Puritansȱattemptedȱtoȱpurgeȱtheȱcarnivalesqueȱpastoralȱofȱfeminineȱdisorderȱandȱthatȱpopular
writersȱwroteȱtoȱdefendȱit,ȱasȱitȱrepresentedȱforȱthemȱartisticȱliberty.ȱMoreover,ȱthisȱessayȱtraces
theȱdevelopmentȱofȱbothȱtheȱPuritanȱandȱtheȱpopularȱwriters’ȱaestheticȱ senseȱconcerningȱthe
pastoralȱandȱitsȱcarnivalesqueȱexpressionsȱthroughȱsuchȱdebatesȱasȱtheȱantiȬCiceronianȱmovement,
theȱMarprelateȱaffair,ȱandȱtheȱmoreȱgeneralȱPuritanȱreformȱofȱCarnivalȱinȱpopularȱculture.ȱIt
providesȱ anyȱ necessaryȱ backgroundȱ informationȱ asȱ theȱ argumentȱ unfolds.ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ the
Ramistȱ ideologyȱ thatȱ influencedȱ theȱ Harvey’sȱ antiȬCiceronism,ȱ i.e.,ȱ theȱ antiȬfeminismȱ that
ȱAsȱPatriciaȱParkerȱhasȱalreadyȱobserved,ȱthisȱbattleȱbetweenȱpopularȱartistsȱand
Puritansȱ wasȱ aȱ longȱ timeȱ coming.ȱ Earlierȱ inȱ theȱ century,ȱ popularȱ writersȱ had
becomeȱassociatedȱwithȱaȱ“corruptingȱandȱenervating”ȱfemininityȱthatȱbecameȱa
“preoccupationȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱofȱtheȱschoolmaster.”11ȱThisȱfemininityȱwasȱassociatedȱwithȱthe
CiceronianȱorȱAsiaticȱstyleȱinȱliterature,ȱaȱverbalȱ“copia”ȱofȱvoluptuousȱdescription
andȱ linguisticȱ play.ȱ Thisȱ effeminateȱ styleȱ wasȱ alsoȱ associatedȱ withȱ youthful
prodigality,ȱyouthȱbeingȱconceivedȱasȱaȱperiodȱinȱone’sȱlifeȱofȱgenderȱambiguity
markedȱwithȱaȱlackȱofȱrestraint.ȱAsȱParkerȱargues,ȱthisȱCiceronianȱstyleȱhadȱbeen
contrastedȱbyȱscholars,ȱsuchȱasȱLipsiusȱandȱErasmusȱofȱRotterdam,ȱwithȱ“theȱmore
virileȱ Atticȱ [style]”ȱ whichȱ wasȱ terseȱ andȱ thereforeȱ thoughtȱ toȱ beȱ manlyȱ and
disciplined.ȱ“Erasmus’sȱCiceronianusȱ(1528)ȱspeaksȱofȱseekingȱinȱvainȱinȱCiceronian
eloquenceȱforȱsomethingȱ‘masculine’ȱandȱofȱhisȱownȱdesireȱforȱaȱ‘moreȱmasculine
style,’”ȱwhileȱLipsiusȱclaimsȱnoȱlongerȱtoȱlikeȱtheȱCiceronianȱorȱAsiaticȱStyle:ȱ“I
haveȱbecomeȱaȱman,ȱandȱmyȱtastesȱhaveȱchanged.ȱAsiaticȱfeastsȱhaveȱceasedȱto
pleaseȱme;ȱIȱpreferȱtheȱAttic.”12ȱTheȱschoolmasterȱRamus,ȱinȱBrutinaeȱQuaestiones,
blamesȱ Ciceroȱ forȱ makingȱ rhetoricȱ theȱ whoreȱ ofȱ wisdomȱ ratherȱ thanȱ its
“handmaid”;ȱheȱaddsȱthatȱtheȱsoftnessȱofȱCicero’sȱstyleȱisȱ“scarcelyȱadequateȱfor
aȱ nobleȱ man,”ȱ andȱ thatȱ heȱ “spurn[s]ȱ andȱ condemn[s]ȱ itȱ asȱ worthyȱ ofȱ an
unassumingȱwomanȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.”13ȱRamusȱwarnsȱthatȱ“theȱlureȱofȱAsiaticȱexuberance
ratherȱthanȱtheȱcriticalȱjudgmentȱofȱRomanȱseriousness”ȱisȱharmful.14ȱMoreover,
likeȱLipsius,ȱheȱassociatesȱCicero’sȱstyleȱwithȱaȱdangerousȱlackȱofȱrestraintȱthat,ȱif
practicedȱ inȱ youth,ȱ cannotȱ laterȱ beȱ overcome.ȱ Heȱ cautionsȱ thatȱ fromȱ earlyȱ on
Ciceroȱwasȱ“steepedȱinȱAsiaticȱverbosity”ȱandȱthatȱbecauseȱofȱthisȱ“heȱlaterȱfound
itȱ impossibleȱ toȱ restrainȱ andȱ checkȱ himself.”15ȱ Thisȱ genderedȱ rhetoricȱ (noteȱ its
preoccupationȱwithȱmanlyȱstylesȱandȱstylesȱworthyȱonlyȱofȱwomenȱinȱtheȱabove
quotes)ȱcreatedȱanȱoppositionȱbetweenȱaȱ“whor[ish]”ȱcopiousȱandȱundisciplined
useȱofȱlanguageȱandȱaȱdisciplinedȱmasculineȱstyleȱwhichȱappealedȱtoȱPuritans.ȱThe
Harveysȱ andȱ Spenserȱ adaptedȱ thisȱ reformationȱ ofȱ Ciceronianȱ copiaȱ intoȱ their
reformationȱofȱpopularȱliterature.ȱTheȱplainȱstyle,ȱlikeȱtheȱAttic,ȱwasȱcharacterized
promptedȱtheȱPuritanȱreformȱofȱpopularȱculture,ȱisȱdiscussedȱinȱdetailȱthroughoutȱtheȱwholeȱof
theȱessay.ȱFinally,ȱthisȱessayȱconfinesȱitselfȱtoȱPuritanȱandȱpopularȱwriters’ȱrepresentationsȱof
masculineȱruralȱfigures,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱplowman,ȱtheȱyeoman,ȱandȱtheȱshepherd,ȱandȱfiguresȱof
feminineȱdisorder,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱcourtier,ȱtheȱprostitute,ȱandȱtheȱshrewȱasȱtheyȱreflectȱPuritanȱand
popularȱwriters’ȱbattleȱoverȱtheȱaestheticsȱofȱpopularȱartȱthroughȱtheȱgenreȱofȱtheȱpastoral.ȱFinally,
thisȱessayȱwasȱtakenȱfromȱchapterȱtwoȱofȱmyȱdissertationȱentitled,ȱ“GrotesqueȱTransformations
andȱtheȱDiscourseȱofȱConversionȱinȱRobertȱGreene’sȱWorkȱandȱShakespeare’sȱFalstaff.”ȱ
11
Parker,ȱLiteraryȱFatȱLadiesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ7),ȱ11.
12
13
PetrusȱRamus,ȱJamesȱJ.ȱMurphy,ȱandȱCaroleȱElizabethȱNewlands,ȱPeterȱRamus’sȱAttackȱonȱCicero:
TextȱandȱTranslationȱofȱRamus’sȱBrutinaeȱQuaestionesȱ(Davis,ȱCA:ȱHermagorasȱPress,ȱ1992),ȱ29–34.
14
Ramus,ȱBrutinaeȱQuaestionesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ13),ȱ29.
15
Ramus,ȱBrutinaeȱQuaestionesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ13),ȱ8.
760 KyleȱDiRoberto
byȱaȱdisciplinedȱlackȱofȱwordiness,ȱaȱ“manly”ȱinsistenceȱonȱreasonȱinȱart,ȱandȱthe
rejectionȱ ofȱ corporealȱ pleasure,ȱ especiallyȱ theȱ overuseȱ ofȱ metaphor.ȱ Asȱ Parker
pointsȱout,ȱrhetoriciansȱhaveȱlinkedȱwomenȱwithȱtheȱ“deceitȱ[and]ȱdoublenessȱ.ȱ.
.ȱ ofȱ tropes.”16ȱ Theȱ Harveysȱ certainlyȱ condemnedȱ thisȱ linguisticȱ playfulnessȱ in
popularȱwriters’ȱworks,ȱtheirȱuseȱofȱpunsȱandȱparodyȱinȱcarnivalesqueȱsatires,ȱas
wellȱ asȱ theȱ visualȱ voluptuousnessȱ ofȱ theirȱ romances.ȱ Spenser,ȱ too,ȱ wroteȱ to
overturnȱthisȱstyle.ȱ
InȱoppositionȱtoȱtheȱHarveys’ȱPuritanȱartisticȱideology,ȱwhichȱsubscribedȱtoȱaȱ
“oneȬtoȬoneȱratioȱbetweenȱwordȱandȱthing,”ȱpopularȱartists’ȱuseȱofȱpunsȱasȱwell
asȱ metaphorsȱ suggestedȱ anȱ infiniteȱ regressȱ ofȱ meaningȱ andȱ language’s
participationȱ inȱ theȱ creationȱ ofȱ truthȱ ratherȱ thanȱ itsȱ useȱ asȱ aȱ vehicleȱ forȱ the
expressionȱofȱtruth.17ȱThisȱcopia,ȱorȱabundanceȱofȱmeaningȱandȱwords,ȱandȱthe
bodilyȱpleasureȱitȱprovokedȱwasȱfraughtȱwithȱsexualȱimplicationsȱforȱearlyȱmodern
Puritansȱandȱrepresentedȱtheȱsinȱofȱunrestrainedȱappetiteȱandȱtheȱevilȱtemptation
ofȱsensualȱdelight.18ȱSpenser’sȱDameȱExcess,ȱasȱParkerȱpointsȱout,ȱisȱanȱexemplary
representationȱ ofȱ theseȱ convictions,ȱ butȱ soȱ isȱ Spenser’sȱ Duessa.ȱ Spenser’s
representationȱofȱDuessaȱreflectsȱhisȱideologyȱonȱwriting;ȱherȱabundanceȱevokes
theȱfrighteninglyȱrepulsiveȱfeminineȱgrotesqueȱthatȱoverwhelmsȱtheȱconstruction
ofȱ masculineȱ identityȱ andȱ emphasizesȱ theȱ loathsomenessȱ ofȱ theȱ carnalȱ in
Ciceronianȱexcess.ȱOtherȱauthorsȱinȱtheȱperiodȱrepresentedȱtheȱgrotesqueȱfeminine
asȱcomedic.ȱForȱexample,ȱthroughȱtheȱlaughterȱprovokingȱgrotesquelyȱfeminine
Falstaffȱ andȱ Hal’sȱ equallyȱ funnyȱ copiousȱ descriptionsȱ ofȱ Falstaff,ȱ Shakespeare
highlightsȱtheȱpleasureȱinȱtheȱcorporealȱexperienceȱofȱabundance,ȱespeciallyȱin
HenryȱIVȱPartȱOne.ȱSpenser’sȱsuppressionȱofȱthisȱcomicȱaspectȱofȱtheȱgrotesque
suggestsȱtheȱfearȱofȱlaughterȱthatȱtheȱgrotesqueȱprovokedȱinȱthoseȱdistrustfulȱof
unrestrainedȱbodilyȱreactionsȱtoȱthisȱeffeminizingȱart.19ȱInȱtheȱPuritanȱbattleȱwith
16
Parker,ȱLiteraryȱFatȱLadiesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ7),ȱ111.ȱ
17
AccordingȱtoȱSisterȱMaryȱMcCormickȱ(aȱstudentȱofȱWalterȱOng)ȱinȱherȱcriticalȱeditionȱofȱAbraham
Fraunce’sȱTheȱShepherdesȱLogike,ȱRamusȱinsistedȱonȱaȱ“oneȬtoȬoneȱratioȱbetweenȱwordȱandȱthing”
inȱwhichȱcaseȱtheȱslippingȱofȱtheȱsignifierȱandȱtheȱsignifiedȱinȱtheȱconstructionȱofȱmeaningȱthat
takesȱplaceȱinȱtheȱuseȱofȱpunsȱwouldȱbeȱtroublesomeȱtoȱhisȱideologyȱpointingȱasȱitȱdoesȱtoȱthe
instabilityȱofȱlanguage.ȱMoreover,ȱmetaphorȱcreatesȱmeaningȱbyȱforgingȱconnectionsȱbetween
thingsȱthatȱappearȱtoȱbeȱunrelated,ȱaddingȱnewȱwaysȱofȱunderstandingȱandȱtherebyȱthreatening
theȱviewȱthatȱlanguageȱcorrespondsȱtoȱaȱrealityȱindependentȱofȱtheȱcreativeȱinfluenceȱofȱlanguage.
Metaphorȱ alsoȱ confirmsȱ theȱ polysemicȱ natureȱ ofȱ languageȱ thatȱ threatensȱ theȱ correspondence
theoryȱofȱlanguageȱandȱrealityȱ(TheȱShepherdesȱLogikeȱ[seeȱnoteȱ2],ȱ43).ȱ
18
FraunceȱclaimsȱheȱwritesȱTheȱShepherdesȱLogikeȱtoȱfacilitateȱRamistȱlogicȱandȱsoȱ“correctȱthoseȱwho
haveȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱdefacedȱtheȱrightȱuseȱofȱliberalȱartsȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱorȱpervertedȱgoodȱmanners,ȱasȱartsȱofȱlovinge,
magike,ȱquaffinge,ȱwithȱtheȱrestȱofȱthatȱheathenishȱrable.”ȱFraunce,ȱTheȱShepherdesȱLogikeȱ(seeȱnote
2),ȱ58–59.
19
Inȱtheȱearlyȱmodernȱperiod,ȱlaughterȱwasȱunderstoodȱasȱaȱsemiȬsexualȱexperience,ȱandȱtheȱlack
ofȱcontrolȱthatȱitȱprovokedȱinȱtheȱbodyȱwasȱsuggestiveȱofȱtheȱdangerouslyȱweakeningȱpower
Puritansȱassociatedȱwithȱtheȱfeminine.ȱAccordingȱtoȱGailȱKernȱPastor,ȱLaurentȱJoubertȱarguesȱin
popularȱ culture,ȱ theȱ objectȱ againstȱ whichȱ theȱ Puritanȱ authorȱ strugglesȱ isȱ “this
temptress,”ȱtheȱtemptressȱbeingȱinȱthisȱcase,ȱaccordingȱtoȱParker,ȱtheȱ“dilatedȱbody
ofȱtheȱtext”ȱorȱtheȱ“ensnarementȱofȱCreatedȱPleasure.”20ȱTheȱpopularȱartist,ȱasȱwell
asȱtheȱfeminineȱgrotesqueȱinȱpopularȱart,ȱrepresentedȱthisȱdisorderedȱfemaleȱinȱthe
Puritans’ȱ battleȱ withȱ sinfulȱ art,ȱ andȱ thusȱ becameȱ notȱ onlyȱ objectsȱ ofȱ scorned
fascinationȱbutȱalsoȱobjectsȱofȱreformation.ȱ
ThisȱbattleȱbetweenȱtheȱPuritanȱandȱpopularȱwriterȱoverȱtheȱreformȱofȱpopular
artȱtakesȱplaceȱthroughȱrepresentationsȱofȱgenderȱinȱtheȱpastoralȱgenre,ȱaȱpopular
andȱacademicȱgenreȱassociatedȱwithȱtheȱcarnivalesque.ȱInȱSpenser’sȱShepheardes
Calender,ȱwrittenȱalmostȱaȱdecadeȱbeforeȱtheȱMarprelateȱaffairȱ(underȱtheȱtutelage
ofȱGabrielȱHarvey),ȱSpenserȱconstructedȱaȱpuritanicalȱmasculineȱpastoralȱidentity.21
Theȱruralȱfiguresȱthatȱhadȱbeenȱassociatedȱvariouslyȱinȱtheȱcarnivalesqueȱpastoral
traditionȱwithȱtheȱshepherd,ȱtheȱpiousȱplowman,ȱtheȱrebelȱplowman,ȱandȱevenȱthe
licentiousȱ plowȱ boys,ȱ Spenserȱ subordinatedȱ underȱ theȱ characterȱ ofȱ theȱ pious
plowmanȱplaguedȱbyȱloveȱandȱsoȱexiledȱfromȱanȱidealȱstateȱofȱbeing.22ȱReplacing
theȱshepherdȱofȱtheȱpopularȱcarnivalesqueȱpastoralȱ(theȱoftenȱbawdyȱoutlawȱRobin
Hood)ȱwithȱtheȱProtestantȱtraditionȱofȱtheȱpiousȱplowman,ȱandȱidentifyingȱhimself
withȱthisȱplowman,ȱSpenserȱassociatedȱtheȱshepherdȱwithȱtheȱPuritanȱcauseȱand
theȱPuritanȱcauseȱwithȱearlyȱreform.23ȱHowever,ȱasȱAlbrechtȱClassenȱpointsȱoutȱin
Traitéȱ duȱ risȱ (1579)ȱ thatȱ “Inȱ laughterȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ ourȱ willȱ toȱ bodilyȱ controlȱ isȱ overcomeȱ byȱ aȱ violent
solicitationȱfromȱtheȱbodyȱbelowȱ.ȱ.ȱ.”ȱFurthermore,ȱPastorȱclaimsȱthatȱ“Laughterȱisȱforȱ[forȱcertain
thinkersȱinȱtheȱperiod]ȱaȱbodilyȱphenomenonȱthatȱoneȱoughtȱtoȱfindȱastonishingȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ‘whoȱcould
notȱbeȱamazedȱuponȱseeingȱtheȱentireȱbodyȱthrownȱintoȱmotionȱandȱshakingȱwithȱanȱindescribable
stirȱforȱtheȱpleasureȱofȱtheȱsoul.’”ȱGailȱKernȱPastor,ȱTheȱBodyȱEmbarrassed:ȱDramaȱandȱtheȱDiscipline
ofȱShameȱinȱEarlyȱModernȱEngland.ȱ(Ithaca,ȱNY,ȱandȱLondon:ȱCornellȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1993),ȱ123,
124.ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱLaughterȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱTimes:ȱEpistemology
ofȱ aȱ Fundamentalȱ Humanȱ Behavior,ȱ itsȱ Meaning,ȱ andȱ Consequences,ȱ ed.ȱ Albrechtȱ Classen.
FundamentalsȱofȱMedievalȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱCulture,ȱ5ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱDeȱGruyter,ȱ2010).
20
21
Atȱ theȱ endȱ ofȱ theȱ 1580s,ȱ aȱ groupȱ ofȱ anonymousȱ Puritanȱ authors,ȱ knownȱ asȱ theȱ “Martin
Marprelate”ȱwriters,ȱadaptedȱtheȱpopularȱstyleȱofȱtheȱcarnivalesqueȱstageȱclownȱandȱlampooned
theȱprelacyȱthroughȱtheȱpublicationȱofȱpamphletsȱthatȱsoonȱbecameȱextremelyȱpopular.ȱSeeingȱthe
effectivenessȱofȱtheȱMarprelateȱwriters’ȱadaptationȱofȱthisȱpopularȱstyle,ȱtheȱbishopsȱunderȱattack
hiredȱLyly,ȱNashe,ȱandȱGreene,ȱtoȱanswerȱtheseȱPuritanȱauthorsȱinȱaȱlikeȱmanner,ȱthusȱcreating
theȱMarprelateȱaffair.ȱ
22
E.ȱK.ȱChamber’sȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱwooingȱthemeȱinȱploughȱplaysȱandȱfestivitiesȱrevealsȱmarked
similaritiesȱbetweenȱculturalȱassociationȱofȱtheȱplowmanȱandȱtheȱshepherdȱinȱtheȱpastourelle
tradition,ȱsuggestingȱaȱsharedȱmotifȱbetweenȱtheseȱruralȱfiguresȱwhichȱSpenserȱreinterpretsȱinȱthe
Shepheardesȱ Calender,ȱ reformingȱ bothȱ theȱ shepherd’sȱ andȱ theȱ plowman’sȱ merriment.ȱ Seeȱ E.K.
Chambers,ȱTheȱEnglishȱFolkȬPlayȱ(Oxford:ȱClaredonȱPress,ȱ1933).ȱ
23
LawrenceȱManleyȱclaimsȱthatȱ“TheȱmedievalȱplowmanȱwhoȱhadȱinȱearlyȱTudorȱcomplaintȱstill
representedȱtheȱvirtueȱofȱallȱmembersȱofȱaȱunitaryȱestateȱofȱcommonersȱwasȱreplacedȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱbyȱthe
pastoralȱ shepherd,ȱ whoseȱ veryȱ beingȱ wasȱ definedȱ byȱ aȱ newȱ oppositionȱ betweenȱ rural
husbandmenȱandȱurbanȱmerchants.”ȱByȱtheȱtimeȱofȱtheȱShepheardesȱCalender,ȱtheȱfigureȱofȱthe
762 KyleȱDiRoberto
theȱIntroductionȱtoȱtheȱpresentȱvolume,ȱtheȱoriginalȱstoryȱofȱPiersȱPlowman,ȱas
usedȱbyȱLangland,ȱhadȱ“portrayedȱthroughȱtheȱlensȱofȱreligiousȱallegoryȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱthe
socialȱ conditionsȱ ofȱ [Langland’s]ȱ time,ȱ bothȱ inȱ theirȱ concreteȱ economic
manifestationsȱ andȱ inȱ idealistȱ terms.”24ȱ Spenser’sȱ agendaȱ isȱ moreȱ moralȱ and
aestheticȱ thanȱ economic.25ȱ Castingȱ himselfȱ andȱ Gabrielȱ Harveyȱ as
shepherds/plowmen,ȱ withinȱ theȱ Calender,ȱ referringȱ toȱ himselfȱ asȱ Colinȱ Clout
(Skelton’sȱ Piersȱ figure)ȱ andȱ Harveyȱ asȱ Hobbinell,ȱ Spenserȱ highlightsȱ hisȱ and
Harveys’ȱrolesȱasȱreformersȱofȱcarnivalȱratherȱthanȱasȱeconomicȱreformers.26ȱThe
plowmanȱinȱtheȱShepheard’sȱCalender,ȱlikeȱtheȱPuritans,ȱspeaksȱoutȱagainstȱtheȱMay
gamesȱandȱagainstȱtheȱfeminineȱdisorderȱ(hereȱrepresentedȱasȱlove)ȱthatȱkeepsȱthe
shepherdȱfromȱaȱharmoniousȱstateȱofȱexistenceȱandȱthreatensȱtrueȱart.27ȱAȱdecade
later,ȱtheȱHarveysȱwillȱdrawȱfromȱtheȱCalenderȱforȱtheirȱcarnivalesqueȱmasculine
identityȱinȱtheȱMarprelateȱAffair.ȱInȱPiercesȱSupererogationȱandȱinȱPlainȱPerceval,ȱthe
Harveysȱuseȱtheȱidentityȱofȱtheȱplowmanȱtoȱattackȱtheȱdisorderȱofȱpopularȱwriters,
emphasizingȱ theȱ virileȱ fightingȱ imageȱ ofȱ theȱ plowmanȱ inȱ theirȱ constructionȱ of
masculinityȱandȱopposingȱthisȱidentityȱtoȱthatȱofȱpopularȱwriting;ȱtheȱlatterȱthey
treatȱ asȱ representativeȱ ofȱ aȱ disorderedȱ femininityȱ (worseȱ thenȱ “Longȱ Megȱ of
Westminsterȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱorȱMaidȱMarian”)ȱthatȱcorruptsȱanȱotherwiseȱmoralȱsociety.28ȱ
ȱSpenser’sȱattackȱonȱfeminineȱdisorderȱinȱtheȱgenreȱofȱtheȱpastoralȱutilizesȱthe
elegiacȱconventionȱtoȱreplaceȱtheȱgrotesqueȱfemaleȱofȱaȱpopularȱpastoralȱwithȱa
feminineȱidentityȱasȱabsence,ȱpresentingȱwomenȱwhoȱareȱeitherȱlostȱorȱcompletely
outȱofȱreach:ȱtheȱdeadȱDido,ȱtheȱbetrayingȱRosalind,ȱandȱQueenȱElizabeth.ȱHeȱdoes
awayȱwithȱtheȱpopularȱfeminineȱpastoralȱconventionsȱassociatedȱwithȱtheȱfigure
ofȱtheȱpluckyȱshepherdessȱofȱtheȱMayȱGames,ȱballads,ȱandȱtheȱpastourelleȱwhenȱhe
stripsȱtheȱpastoralȱofȱitsȱcomedyȱandȱbawdiness,ȱsuchȱasȱthatȱfoundȱinȱtheȱwitty
plowmanȱassociatedȱPuritansȱwithȱshepherds,ȱperhapsȱallowingȱurbanȱmerchantsȱtoȱmanipulate
aȱrhetoricȱthatȱappealedȱtoȱtheȱruralȱpoorȱandȱsoȱbetterȱnegotiateȱthatȱopposition.ȱGreeneȱand
Nashe’sȱparodyȱofȱtheȱHarvey’sȱeconomicȱmotivesȱinȱusingȱtheȱvoiceȱofȱtheȱshepherd/plowman,
whichȱIȱanalyzeȱlaterȱinȱthisȱchapter,ȱsuggestsȱasȱmuch.ȱLawrenceȱManley,ȱLiteratureȱandȱCulture
inȱEarlyȱModernȱLondonȱ(Cambridge,ȱNewȱYork,ȱetȱal.:ȱCambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1995),ȱ75.ȱ
24
SeeȱAlbrechtȱClassen’sȱIntroductionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱ(“RuralȱSpace”),ȱ74.
25
GreeneȱandȱNashe’sȱplowmanȱcounterȬcritique,ȱwithȱitsȱblatantȱeconomicȱfocus,ȱbyȱopposition
drawsȱattentionȱtoȱSpenser’sȱprimarilyȱmoralȱandȱaestheticȱconcerns,ȱindictingȱPuritansȱasȱpart
ofȱ anȱ emergingȱ urbanȱ class,ȱ andȱ suggestingȱ Puritans’ȱ culturalȱ reformȱ asȱ aȱ mereȱ screenȱ for
obscuringȱtheȱpredatoryȱpracticesȱthatȱpopularȱwritersȱthreatenȱtoȱuncover.ȱ
26
AccordingȱtoȱPaulȱAlpers:ȱ“thereȱisȱeveryȱreasonȱtoȱacceptȱE.ȱK.’sȱwordȱthatȱColinȱCloutȱrepresents
theȱpoetȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱSpenser’sȱcontemporariesȱreferredȱtoȱhimȱasȱ‘Colin,’ȱlaterȱinȱhisȱcareer,ȱSpenser
unambiguouslyȱusedȱtheȱnameȱofȱhimselfȱinȱBookȱVIȱofȱTheȱFaerieȱQueen.”ȱPaulȱAlpers,ȱWhatȱis
Pastoral?ȱ(ChicagoȱandȱLondon:ȱUniversityȱofȱChicagoȱPress,ȱ1997),ȱ181.
27
SeeȱAlpers,ȱWhatȱisȱPastoral?ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ26),ȱ179,ȱwhoȱclaims,”ColinȱCloutȱisȱdepictedȱasȱexiledȱby
loveȱfromȱtheȱworldȱwhichȱheȱonceȱsharedȱwithȱhisȱfellowsȱandȱtoȱwhichȱHobbinollȱurgesȱhimȱto
return.”
28
Harvey,ȱPiercesȱSupererogationȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ65.
andȱ bawdyȱ banterȱ betweenȱ shepherdsȱ vyingȱ forȱ theirȱ love,ȱ orȱ shepherdesses
defeatingȱ theirȱ wouldȬbeȱ lovers.ȱ Theseȱ mirthfulȱ andȱ celebratoryȱ songsȱ ofȱ the
shepherdsȱandȱshepherdessesȱrepresentedȱdisorderȱinȱtheirȱlinguisticȱplayfulness.
Theȱshepherdess’sȱbanterȱwasȱoftenȱfunny,ȱasȱinȱherȱwittyȱbanterȱwithȱherȱwouldȬ
beȱassailantȱknightsȱ orȱ withȱherȱcherishedȱlover,ȱ RobinȱHood.ȱItȱcouldȱalsoȱbe
erotic,ȱasȱinȱtheȱvividȱdescriptionsȱofȱloversȱandȱtheirȱsuggestionsȱofȱsexualȱacts,
andȱoftenȱitȱwasȱbothȱwhenȱtheseȱelementsȱwereȱcombined.ȱ
InȱresponseȱtoȱthisȱPuritanȱassaultȱonȱtheȱcarnivalesqueȱinȱart,ȱGreeneȱandȱNashe
embracedȱtheȱgrotesqueȱfeminineȱidentityȱinȱallȱitsȱsexual,ȱcomedic,ȱandȱverbal
disorderȱinȱtheȱpamphletsȱMenaphonȱ(1589),ȱAȱDisputationȱBetweenȱaȱHeȱConyȬcatcher
andȱaȱSheȱConyȬcatcherȱ(1592),ȱHaveȱwithȱYouȱtoȱSaffronȱWaldonȱ(1596),ȱandȱPierce
Pennilessȱ (1592).ȱ Celebratingȱ theȱ licentiousnessȱ ofȱ theȱ disorderedȱ feminineȱ in
language,ȱcharacter,ȱandȱcontent,ȱGreeneȱandȱNasheȱwroteȱtoȱdefendȱpleasureȱin
artȱandȱtoȱupholdȱtheȱfreedomȱofȱtheȱshepherd’sȱpopularȱambiguousȱmasculine
identity.ȱTheirȱshepherd/plowmanȱwasȱassociatedȱinȱaȱpositiveȱwayȱwithȱfeminine
corporeality.
Althoughȱ theȱ battleȱ overȱ theȱ reformationȱ ofȱ theȱ carnivalesqueȱ hadȱ begun
betweenȱtheȱHarveys,ȱSpenser,ȱandȱtheȱpopularȱwritersȱatȱleastȱasȱearlyȱasȱwith
Harvey’sȱlettersȱtoȱSpenser,ȱitȱwasȱwithȱtheȱpublishingȱofȱtheȱmoreȱradicalȱPuritan,
MartinȱMarprelateȱ(1588–1589),ȱwhoȱwasȱwillingȱtoȱuseȱtheȱcomedicȱinȱpopular
writingȱtoȱreachȱaȱlargerȱaudience,ȱthatȱtheȱbattleȱoverȱtheȱcarnivalesqueȱbecame
particularlyȱpronounced.ȱPopularȱwritersȱenteredȱtheȱMarprelateȱfrayȱwithȱaȱmore
openȱvehemence,ȱoutragedȱbyȱtheȱhypocrisyȱofȱPuritansȱwritingȱinȱtheȱgenreȱthey
hadȱsoȱlongȱopposedȱbutȱalsoȱobviouslyȱrelishingȱtheȱeaseȱbyȱwhichȱtheyȱcould
nowȱlampoonȱPuritanȱhypocrisyȱinȱtheȱarts.ȱ
InȱPapȱHatchetȱ(1589),ȱLyly,ȱconflatingȱtheȱantiȬCiceronianȱHarveysȱandȱSpenser
withȱMarprelate,ȱrevealsȱtheȱhypocrisyȱofȱPuritansȱwhoȱcondemnedȱpopularȱstyles
asȱ copious,ȱ light,ȱ andȱ vulgarȱ andȱ thenȱ usedȱ theȱ sameȱ methodsȱ toȱ appealȱ toȱ a
popularȱaudience.ȱLylyȱcautionsȱMartin:
toȱfindȱfaultȱwithȱnoȱbroadȱterms,ȱforȱIȱhaveȱmeasuredȱyoursȱwithȱmine,ȱ&ȱIȱfindȱyours
broaderȱjustȱbyȱtheȱlist.ȱSayȱnotȱmyȱspeachesȱareȱlight,ȱforȱIȱhaveȱweighedȱyoursȱand
mine,ȱandȱIȱfindȱyoursȱlighterȱbyȱtwentyȱgrainsȱthanȱtheȱallowance.ȱForȱnumberȱyou
exceed,ȱforȱyouȱhaveȱthirtieȱribauldȱwordsȱforȱmyȱoneȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ29
HumorouslyȱweighingȱtheȱdifferenceȱbetweenȱpopularȱwritersȱandȱtheȱMarprelate
writers,ȱLylyȱimpliesȱanȱincongruityȱinȱtheȱPuritans’ȱnewȱstyleȱunderȱtheȱHarveys
andȱSpenser.ȱCounteringȱtheȱaccusationȱofȱcopiousness,ȱhisȱparodicȱmeasuringȱof
artȱsuggestsȱthatȱPuritansȱhaveȱbeenȱdoingȱjustȱthat—preposterouslyȱmeasuring
29
JohnȱLyly,ȱPappeȱwithȱanȱHatchet:ȱAlias,ȱaȱFiggeȱforȱmyȱGodȱSonneȱ(1589).ȱTheȱCompleteȱWorksȱofȱJohn
Lyly,ȱed.ȱRichardȱWarwickȱBond,ȱ3ȱvols.ȱ(Oxford:ȱClarendonȱPress,ȱ1902),ȱ3:394.
764 KyleȱDiRoberto
art.ȱPopularȱwritersȱoftenȱcondemnedȱPuritansȱforȱhavingȱmindsȱforȱbusinessȱbut
notȱforȱart.30ȱLylyȱassumesȱtheirȱpersonaȱandȱdeterminesȱthat,ȱinȱfact,ȱtheȱPuritans
areȱnowȱguiltierȱthanȱheȱisȱofȱcopiousness.
Lyly’sȱmockeryȱilluminatesȱaȱcriticallyȱimportantȱbyȬproductȱofȱtheȱquarrelȱover
popularȱcultureȱbetweenȱpopularȱartistsȱandȱPuritans:ȱtheȱexaggeratedȱpresence
inȱ eachȱ others’ȱ writingȱ ofȱ theȱ opponents’ȱ style.ȱ Thisȱ phenomenonȱ hasȱ created
criticalȱconfusionȱaroundȱtheȱMarprelateȱaffairȱandȱtheȱHarveyȬNasheȱ quarrel,
makingȱcriticsȱmistakenlyȱattributeȱmoralȱintentionsȱtoȱpopularȱwriters,ȱsuchȱas
NasheȱandȱGreene,ȱandȱaȱtrueȱspiritȱofȱCarnivalȱtoȱPuritans.ȱCritics’ȱmisattribution
hasȱdisruptedȱlongstandingȱcriticalȱperceptionsȱofȱtheȱrelationshipȱofȱPuritansȱto
theȱcarnivalesque.ȱ
Scholarsȱ haveȱ longȱ writtenȱ aboutȱ theȱ Puritans’ȱ moralȱ objectionsȱ toȱ popular
cultureȱinȱtheȱlateȱTudorȱperiod.ȱPeterȱBurke,ȱinȱPopularȱCultureȱinȱEarlyȱModern
England,ȱobservesȱthatȱsuchȱobjectionsȱareȱwellȱknownȱandȱwellȱdocumented.31ȱHe
discussesȱ “Calvin’sȱ campaignȱ againstȱ festivityȱ inȱ theȱ 1570s,”ȱ theȱ “English
Anglican,”ȱ asȱ opposedȱ toȱ “Puritan,”ȱ sympathyȱ “forȱ festiveȱ tradition,ȱ andȱ the
“oppositionȱ ofȱ Englishȱ Puritansȱ toȱ popularȱ recreation.”32ȱ Keithȱ Thomas,ȱ inȱ his
oftenȱquotedȱ“TheȱPlaceȱofȱLaughterȱinȱTudorȱandȱStuartȱEngland,”ȱclaimsȱthat
TheȱPuritanȱattackȱonȱholyȱdaysȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ[was]ȱonlyȱpartȱofȱthisȱmuchȱwiderȱmovementȱto
stampȱoutȱallȱthoseȱsourcesȱofȱentertainmentȱwhichȱinvolvedȱtheȱtemporaryȱsuspension
orȱinversionȱofȱtheȱsocialȱorder.33
Thomas’sȱaccountȱofȱtheȱPuritanȱattackȱonȱpopularȱcultureȱisȱconfirmedȱinȱJonas
Barish’sȱAntiȬTheatricalȱPrejudiceȱandȱinȱE.ȱK.ȱChambers’ȱstudyȱofȱtheȱElizabethan
stage.ȱThoughȱheȱdoesȱnotȱdistinguishȱbetweenȱPuritansȱandȱProtestants,ȱMikhail
Bakhtinȱ remarksȱ thatȱ theȱ Protestantsȱ whoȱ objectedȱ toȱ Carnivalȱ “deploredȱ the
jokingȱandȱdegradingȱuseȱofȱsacredȱtextȱinȱfamiliarȱverbalȱintercourse.”ȱ34
30
SeeȱtheȱprefaceȱbyȱSisterȱMaryȱMartinȱMcCormickȱinȱherȱcriticalȱeditionȱofȱAbrahamȱFraunce’s
ShepherdesȱLogikeȱ(seeȱnote2).ȱTheȱPuritanȱphilosophyȱofȱPeterȱRamusȱwasȱveryȱmuchȱpreoccupied
withȱbalanceȱandȱsoȱtheȱmeasuringȱofȱartȱandȱitsȱpracticalȱapplication.ȱInȱfact,ȱRamusȱseemsȱtoȱbe
measuringȱartȱinȱBrutinaeȱQusestionesȱwhenȱheȱcomplainsȱofȱsuchȱthingsȱasȱtheȱlengthȱofȱaȱperiod
beingȱ“fourȱcola.”ȱ(seeȱfootnoteȱ13),ȱ131.ȱAlso,ȱseeȱBenȱJonson’sȱSadȱShepherdȱinȱwhichȱJonson’s
charactersȱ complainȱ ofȱ Puritans’ȱ economicȱ viewȱ ofȱ holidayȱ celebrations.ȱ Benȱ Jonson,ȱ F.G.
Waldron,ȱandȱPeterȱWhallev.ȱTheȱSadȱShepherd,ȱorȱaȱTaleȱofȱRobinȱHoodȱaȱFragmentȱ(London:ȱJ.
Nichols,ȱ1783),ȱ79.
31
PeterȱBurke,ȱPopularȱCultureȱinȱEarlyȱModernȱEuropeȱ(NewȱYork:ȱHarperȱ&ȱRow,ȱ1978),ȱ219.
32
Burke,ȱPopularȱCultureȱinȱEarlyȱModernȱEuropeȱ(seeȱnoteȱ31),ȱ300.ȱ
33
Keithȱ Thomas,ȱ “Theȱ Placeȱ ofȱ Laughterȱ inȱ Tudorȱ andȱ Stuartȱ England,”ȱ Theȱ Timesȱ Literary
Supplementȱ21ȱ(Januaryȱ1977):ȱ77–81;ȱhereȱ80.
34
Mikhailȱ Bakhtin,ȱ Rabelaisȱ andȱ Hisȱ World,ȱ trans.ȱ Hélènȱ Iswolskyȱ (1965;ȱ Bloomington:ȱ Indiana
Moreȱrecently,ȱhowever,ȱaȱgrowingȱnumberȱofȱscholarsȱ(JohnȱKing,ȱPaulȱWhite,
Graceȱ Tiffany,ȱ Josephȱ Blackȱ andȱ Kristenȱ Poole)ȱ haveȱ begunȱ toȱ pointȱ outȱ the
seeminglyȱ contradictoryȱ evidenceȱ ofȱ theȱ useȱ ofȱ aȱ carnivalesqueȱ styleȱ amongst
supposedlyȱ Puritanȱ authorsȱ afterȱ 1570.ȱ Pointingȱ inȱ particularȱ toȱ theȱ Martin
Marprelateȱwriters,ȱRichardȱandȱGabrielȱHarvey,ȱandȱevenȱStevenȱGossonȱand
Philipȱ Stubbs,ȱ theseȱ criticsȱ renderȱ problematicȱ theȱ workȱ ofȱ earlierȱ scholarship.
Someȱ haveȱ goneȱ soȱ farȱ asȱ toȱ suggestȱ anȱ uninterruptedȱ continuityȱ between
Elizabethanȱ Puritansȱ andȱ theirȱ carnivalesqueȱ Protestantȱ predecessors.35ȱ For
example,ȱ theyȱ suggestȱ thatȱ theȱ inversionȱ ofȱ hierarchyȱ andȱ theȱ attemptȱ to
overthrowȱecclesiasticalȱauthorityȱbyȱtheȱrhetoricȱofȱtheȱlowlyȱlaypersonȱassociated
withȱtheȱfigureȱofȱPiersȱPlowmanȱareȱinstancesȱofȱtheȱcarnivalesqueȱinȱPuritan
writing.ȱ Josephȱ Blackȱ writesȱ thatȱ theȱ Marprelateȱ writersȱ attemptȱ toȱ linkȱ this
rhetoricȱ toȱ thatȱ ofȱ earlyȱ reformersȱ byȱ appropriatingȱ theȱ “plainȱ speech”ȱ ofȱ the
Ploughmanȱtradition:
Aȱ1592ȱPresbyterianȱpetitionȱattributedȱtoȱJobȱThrokmortonȱdefendsȱMartinȱbyȱallying
himȱwithȱanȱoppositionalȱcultureȱthatȱreachedȱbackȱthroughȱTyndale,ȱBarnes,ȱHooper,
andȱHughȱLatimer,ȱtoȱJohnȱWycliffe,ȱPiersȱPloughman,ȱandȱtheȱpseudoȬChaucerian
Ploughman’sȱTale.36
JobȱThrokmorton,ȱofȱcourse,ȱisȱthoughtȱtoȱbeȱoneȱofȱtheȱMartinȱMarpelateȱwriters.ȱ
Inȱ fact,ȱ theseȱ scholars’ȱ analysisȱ ofȱ Puritanȱ carnivalesqueȱ rhetoricȱ inȱ the
Marprelateȱaffairȱoughtȱtoȱincludeȱanotherȱcarnivalesqueȱfigure,ȱalmostȱcompletely
overlookedȱ byȱ critics,ȱ theȱ feminineȱ grotesque,ȱ orȱ disorderlyȱ female.ȱ Whether
figuredȱ asȱ anȱ oysterȱ wife,ȱ oldwife,ȱ alewife,ȱ fishwife,ȱ orȱ prostitute,ȱ herȱ unruly
“railing”ȱ voiceȱ isȱ soȱ intrinsicallyȱ linkedȱ toȱ theȱ rhetoricȱ ofȱ Carnivalȱ thatȱ her
presenceȱisȱmoreȱindicativeȱofȱCarnivalȱthanȱisȱPiers’ȱ“plainȱspeech.”ȱLikeȱPiers,
sheȱ representsȱ inȱ Puritanȱ textsȱ theȱ inversionȱ ofȱ hierarchy,ȱ signalingȱ toȱ those
familiarȱwithȱtheȱcarnivalesqueȱtheȱabusedȱsubordinate’sȱoverthrowȱofȱanȱunjust
authority.37ȱAnȱexemplaryȱrepresentationȱofȱthisȱfigureȱisȱDameȱLawson.ȱInȱThe
35
See,ȱforȱexample,ȱKristenȱPool,ȱRadicalȱReligionȱFromȱShakespeareȱtoȱMilton:ȱFiguresȱofȱNonconformity
inȱ Earlyȱ Modernȱ Englandȱ (Cambridge:ȱ Cambridgeȱ Universityȱ Press,ȱ 2000);ȱ Graceȱ Tiffany
“PuritanismȱinȱComicȱHistory:ȱDestabilizingȱHierarchyȱinȱtheȱHenryȱPlays,”ȱShakespeareȱStudies
2ȱ(1998):ȱ256–87;ȱtheȱintroductionȱtoȱTheȱMartinȱMarprelateȱTracts:ȱModernizedȱandȱAnnotatedȱEdition,
ed.ȱJosephȱBlackȱ(Cambridge:ȱCambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2008)ȱbyȱJosephȱBlack;ȱPaulȱWitfield
White,ȱTheatreȱandȱReformation:ȱProtestantism,ȱPatronageȱandȱPlayingȱinȱTudorȱEnglandȱ(Cambridge:
CambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1993);ȱandȱJohnȱKing’sȱEnglishȱReformationȱLiteratureȱ(seeȱnoteȱ2).
36
MartinȱMarprelate,ȱTheȱMartinȱMarprelateȱTractsȱ(seeȱnoteȱ35),ȱxxix.
37
See,ȱforȱexample,ȱGretchenȱMieszkowski’sȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱrepresentationsȱofȱfeminineȱtrickery
asȱ “underminningȱ conventionalȱ powerȱ structures”ȱ inȱ herȱ essayȱ “Oldȱ Ageȱ andȱ Medieval
Misogyny:ȱTheȱOldȱWoman”ȱ(299–319;ȱhereȱ312),ȱandȱKarenȱPratt’sȱobservation,ȱinȱ“DeȱVetula:ȱthe
FigureȱofȱtheȱOldȱWomanȱinȱMedievalȱFrenchȱLiterature,”ȱthatȱthisȱ“giftȱforȱoutwittingȱhusbands
andȱ lovers,ȱ couldȱ alsoȱ representȱ forȱ someȱ readers,ȱ aȱ positiveȱ imageȱ ofȱ femaleȱ intellectual
766 KyleȱDiRoberto
Epistle,ȱMartinȱcallsȱherȱ“theȱshrewȱofȱPaul’sȱGate”;ȱsheȱisȱnotȱonlyȱanȱ“enemyȱto
allȱdumbȱdogsȱandȱtyrannicalȱprelatesȱinȱtheȱland”ȱbutȱalsoȱsoȱskillfulȱinȱwitȱasȱto
beȱableȱtoȱputȱtyrannicalȱprelatesȱinȱtheirȱplace.38ȱ
Martinȱ claimsȱ thatȱ sheȱ shutȱ theȱ bishopȱ upȱ whenȱ heȱ threatenedȱ herȱ with
Bridewell,ȱtheȱwomen’sȱjail,ȱbyȱansweringȱhisȱchargeȱwithȱtheȱremarkȱthatȱ“she
wasȱanȱhonestȱcitizen’sȱwife,ȱaȱmanȱwellȱknown,ȱandȱthereforeȱbadeȱhisȱgrace,ȱan
heȱwould,ȱsendȱhisȱUncleȱShorieȱthither.”39ȱMartinȱaddsȱtoȱherȱreplyȱtheȱrhetorical
florishȱofȱlaughterȱandȱlaudsȱherȱprowessȱinȱputtingȱdownȱtheȱbishop:ȱ“Haȱhaȱha:
now,ȱgoodȱyourȱgrace,ȱyouȱshallȱhaveȱsmallȱgainsȱinȱmeddlingȱ withȱMargaret
Lawson.”40ȱMartin’sȱmockingȱlaughterȱandȱshiftingȱfamiliarityȱwithȱDameȱLawson
(hisȱcallingȱherȱMargaretȱonceȱsheȱhasȱputȱtheȱbishopȱinȱhisȱplace)ȱallyȱtheȱpower
ofȱtheȱshrew’sȱcolloquialȱvoiceȱwithȱMartin’sȱownȱcarnivalesqueȱvoiceȱthroughout
theseȱpamphlets.ȱLikeȱMartin’sȱcolloquialȱattackȱonȱtheȱbishops,ȱherȱneighborly
familiarityȱ withȱ theȱ bishop’sȱ “uncleȱ Shorie”ȱ isȱ whatȱ overturnsȱ theȱ bishop’s
authority.ȱ
ȱ However,ȱ thoughȱ theȱ moreȱ radicalȱ Puritans,ȱ theȱ Marprelateȱwriters,
incorporatedȱtheȱfiguresȱofȱtheȱplowmanȱandȱtheȱshrewȱintoȱtheirȱtexts,ȱtheyȱwere
notȱadvocatesȱofȱaȱpopularȱcarnivalesqueȱinȱgeneral.ȱTheȱpresenceȱofȱCarnivalȱin
theirȱwritingȱwasȱdueȱtoȱtheirȱattemptȱtoȱtransformȱtheȱcarnivalesqueȱfromȱwhat
itȱhadȱbecomeȱinȱpopularȱcultureȱtoȱsomethingȱmoreȱbeneficialȱtoȱPuritanismȱand
toȱ takeȱ backȱ aȱ large,ȱ powerfulȱ audience:ȱ theȱ masses.ȱ Theȱ Marprelateȱ writers
defendedȱtheirȱadaptationȱofȱthisȱstyleȱagainstȱtheȱadmonitionsȱofȱtheirȱPuritan
audience,ȱclaimingȱthatȱ“jestingȱisȱlawfulȱbyȱcircumstance”ȱandȱreassuringȱthem
that,ȱatȱanyȱrate,ȱtheyȱneverȱ“profanedȱtheȱwordȱinȱanyȱjest.”41ȱThisȱsuggestsȱthat
Puritansȱinȱgeneralȱwereȱnotȱproponentsȱofȱtheȱcarnivalesqueȱbutȱthatȱsomeȱwere
openȱ toȱ itsȱ possibleȱ transformationȱ byȱ appropriation.ȱ Inȱ fact,ȱ theȱ Marprelate
writersȱareȱtransformingȱCarnivalȱinȱtheirȱreassuranceȱthatȱtheȱsacredȱwordȱwas
neverȱprofanedȱbyȱjest,ȱforȱasȱBakhtinȱreveals,ȱinȱCarnivalȱtheȱsacredȱandȱprofane
cohabitate.42ȱ
ȱ TheȱMarprelateȱwriters’ȱuseȱofȱtheȱcarnivalesqueȱprovokedȱtheȱwrathȱofȱboth
popularȱwritersȱandȱtheȱHarveyȱbrothers—theirȱPuritanȱalliesȱinȱtheȱadaptationȱof
theȱcarnivalesqueȱtoȱaȱPuritanȱideology.ȱForȱtheȱHarveys,ȱMarprelate’sȱreforming
ofȱtheȱchurchȱwasȱasȱimportantȱasȱtheȱHarveys’ȱreformingȱofȱtheȱcarnivalesque.ȱIt
superiorityȱ (321–42;ȱ hereȱ 341).”ȱ Bothȱ essaysȱ appearedȱ inȱ Oldȱ Ageȱ inȱ theȱ Middleȱ Agesȱ andȱ the
Renaissance:ȱInterdisciplinaryȱApproachesȱtoȱaȱNeglectedȱTopic,ȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassen.ȱFundamentals
ofȱMedievalȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱCulture,ȱ2ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱDeȱGruyter,ȱ2007).ȱ
38
Marprelate,ȱTheȱMartinȱMarprelateȱTractsȱ(seeȱnoteȱ35),ȱ13.
39
Marprelate,ȱTheȱMartinȱMarprelateȱTractsȱ(seeȱnoteȱ35),ȱ13.ȱ
40
Marprelate,ȱTheȱMartinȱMarprelateȱTractsȱ(seeȱnoteȱ35),ȱ14.
41
Marprelate,ȱTheȱMarprelateȱTractsȱ(seeȱnoteȱ35),ȱ115.
42
SeeȱBakhtin,ȱRabelaisȱ(seeȱnoteȱ34),ȱ285.
wasȱnotȱenoughȱthatȱtheȱsacredȱwordȱwasȱnotȱprofanedȱbyȱjest.ȱJest,ȱitself,ȱand
femaleȱdisorderȱwereȱtheȱprimaryȱtargetsȱofȱtheȱHarveys’ȱreform.43ȱOnȱtheȱother
sideȱ ofȱ theȱ controversy,ȱ theȱ Marprelateȱ authorsȱ offendedȱ popularȱ writersȱ by
hypocriticallyȱposturingȱasȱtheirȱadversaries.ȱTheȱpopularȱwritersȱretaliatedȱwith
antiȬMarprelateȱpamphlets,ȱlikeȱPapȱHatchet,ȱbutȱitȱisȱwithȱtheirȱtrueȱadversaries’
entranceȱ intoȱ theȱ fray—theȱ Harveyȱ brothers—thatȱ theȱ realȱ battleȱ overȱ the
carnivalesqueȱcommenced.
ȱ InȱPlainȱPercevalȱ(1590),ȱRichardȱHarveyȱreveals,ȱthroughȱaȱveiledȱallusionȱto
Ramism,ȱ howȱ greatȱ aȱ partȱ theȱ schoolmasters’ȱ ideologyȱ wasȱ playingȱ inȱ the
universitiesȱ ofȱ Englandȱ andȱ howȱ greatȱ aȱ roleȱ itȱ wouldȱ playȱ inȱ theirȱ own
reformationȱofȱtheȱcarnivalesque.ȱ
Whenȱtheȱsteelȱandȱtheȱflintȱbeȱknockedȱtogether,ȱaȱmanȱmayȱlightȱaȱmatchȱbyȱthe
sparkle:ȱsurelyȱbutȱIȱthinkȱtenderȱbeȱverieȱdankȱnowȱadaisȱandȱthoughȱlightȱbyȱleisure:
forȱthereȱhathȱbeenȱstrikingȱandȱjarringȱeverȱsinceȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱaȱlearnedȱmanȱsomewhatȱonȱthy
side,ȱMartin,ȱseemedȱtoȱpersuadeȱthatȱcontentionȱforȱgoodȱmattersȱwasȱgood.ȱIȱhave
seenȱthem,ȱwhichȱhaveȱseenȱsuchȱhurlyȱburliesȱaboutȱaȱcoupleȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱAristotleȱ&ȱRamus
.ȱ.ȱ.ȱsuchȱaȱquoileȱwithȱproȱandȱcontraȱsuchȱbeggingȱergoes,ȱtilȱtheyȱhaveȱgoneȱfroȱArt
togitherȱbyȱtheȱears,ȱ&ȱmadeȱtheirȱconclusionsȱendȱwithȱaȱclunchȬfist,ȱfightȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱlike
thoseȱchildrenȱwhichȱsittingȱinȱtheȱchimneyȱcorner,ȱsomeȱatȱoneȱsideȱsomeȱatȱanother,
withȱ theȱ fireȱ inȱ theȱ middle;ȱ fellȱ toȱ itȱ withȱ firebrands,ȱ whenȱ theyȱ shouldȱ haveȱ but
warmedȱthemselvesȱandȱawayȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱoneȱlittleȱhouseȱofȱdessention,ȱisȱableȱtoȱsetȱaȱwhole
house,ȱaȱtowne,ȱanȱuniversitie,ȱaȱcitie,ȱaȱwholeȱRealmeȱonȱfire.44
Byȱechoingȱtheȱevangelicalismȱofȱearlyȱprotestantȱmartyrsȱinȱthisȱveiledȱallusion
toȱ theȱ controversyȱ ofȱ Ramists’ȱ rhetoricȱ inȱ theȱ universities,ȱ theȱ Harveysȱ were
reassuringȱMartinȱthatȱtheyȱwereȱcarryingȱonȱtheȱlightȱofȱMartin’sȱargumentȱifȱnot
hisȱstyleȱthroughȱaȱreformationȱofȱartȱthatȱpurgedȱliteratureȱofȱfeminineȱcorruption
inȱtheȱveinȱofȱRamus’sȱantiȬCiceronianism.ȱRamus,ȱandȱmanyȱotherȱschoolmasters,
asȱ Parkerȱ shows,ȱ wereȱ responsibleȱ forȱ aȱ moreȱ vehementȱ antiȬCiceronian
movementȱ (reallyȱ anȱ antiȬgrotesqueȱ femininityȱ movement)ȱ thatȱ theȱ Harveys
wouldȱ championȱ inȱ theirȱ warȱ withȱ popularȱ writers.ȱ Theseȱ schoolmasters
introducedȱtheȱPuritanȱ“plainȱstyle”ȱinȱprose,ȱaȱstyleȱcolloquialȱbutȱnotȱgrotesque.45
43
Althoughȱ theȱ targetȱ ofȱ Harvey’sȱ reformȱ areȱ notȱ actualȱ womenȱ butȱ representationsȱ ofȱ female
disorderȱ byȱ men,ȱ Pamelaȱ Brownȱ suggestsȱ thatȱ thereȱ wereȱ concreteȱ threatsȱ ofȱ female
insubordinationȱ inȱ actualȱ womenȱ jokingȱ andȱ composingȱ “mockingȱ verse”ȱ andȱ “inversionary
humorȱ[that]ȱcouldȱextendȱfarȱbeyondȱtheȱholidayȱpleasureȱofȱ‘womenȱonȱtop’ȱintoȱdayȬtoȬdayȱlife
.ȱ.ȱ.”ȱinȱtheȱperiod,ȱwhichȱmayȱhaveȱcontributedȱtoȱtheȱanxietyȱofȱschoolmastersȱlikeȱHarveyȱand
theirȱdesireȱtoȱsilenceȱevenȱtheȱrepresentationȱofȱsuchȱdisorder.ȱPamelaȱAllenȱBrown,ȱBetterȱaȱShrew
ThanȱaȱSheep:ȱWomen,ȱDrama,ȱandȱtheȱCultureȱofȱJestȱinȱEarlyȱModernȱEnglandȱ(Ithaca,ȱNY:ȱCornell
44
RichardȱHarvey,ȱPlainȱPercevalȱ(seeȱnoteȱ8),ȱ20.ȱ
45
Inȱfact,ȱParkerȱattributesȱanȱantiȬCiceronismȱtoȱAschamȱthatȱisȱreallyȱmoreȱfittingȱforȱRamus,
768 KyleȱDiRoberto
TheȱcolloquialȱstyleȱthatȱhadȱbeenȱadaptedȱbyȱtheȱMarprelateȱwritersȱalludedȱto
thisȱRamists’ȱplainȱstyleȱbutȱitsȱgrotesqueȱhumor,ȱasȱinȱtheȱfigureȱofȱDameȱLawson,
wasȱinȱneedȱofȱaȱfurtherȱreformation,ȱasȱwasȱtheȱpopularȱcarnivalesqueȱwritingȱof
theȱantiȬMarprelateȱwriters.ȱHarvey’sȱmentioningȱofȱtheȱfeudȱinȱtheȱuniversities
involvingȱAristoteliansȱ(Ciceronians)ȱversusȱRamistsȱwasȱaȱwellȬknownȱallusion
toȱ theȱ controversyȱ surroundingȱ theȱ reformationȱ ofȱ theȱ artsȱ andȱ theȱ continued
acceptanceȱofȱtraditionalȱphilosophyȱatȱtheȱuniversitiesȱthatȱinvolvedȱNasheȱand
Greene,ȱonȱoneȱside,ȱopposedȱtoȱRamism,ȱandȱbothȱtheȱHarveyȱbrothers,ȱonȱthe
other,ȱwhoȱlecturedȱandȱpublishedȱinȱsupportȱofȱRamism.46
ThroughȱhisȱuseȱofȱtheȱrhetoricȱofȱtheȱReformation,ȱRichardȱHarveyȱsuggestedȱhis
reformationȱofȱtheȱartsȱasȱoneȱallȱProtestantsȱshouldȱembrace.ȱHisȱrepresentation
ofȱ aȱ lightȱ ofȱ dissentionȱ thatȱ isȱ ableȱ toȱ setȱ aȱ house,ȱ city,ȱ andȱ realmȱ onȱ fireȱ and,
especially,ȱhisȱrepeatedȱuseȱofȱtheȱwordȱ“light,”ȱechoesȱtheȱsermonȱonȱtheȱmount
(Matthewȱ5:14–16).ȱProtestantȱevangelists,ȱaccordingȱtoȱJohnȱKing,ȱtheȱeditorȱof
Foxe’sȱBookȱofȱMartyrs,ȱtookȱthisȱpassageȱasȱaȱscripturalȱpredictionȱofȱtheȱProtestant
Reformation,ȱ
Yeȱareȱtheȱlightȱofȱtheȱworlde.ȱAȱcitieȱthatȱisȱsetȱonȱaȱhill,ȱcannotȱbeȱhid.ȱNetherȱdoȱmen
lightȱaȱcandle,ȱandȱputȱitȱunderȱaȱbushel,ȱbutȱonȱaȱcandleȱstick,ȱandȱitȱgivethȱlightȱunto
allȱthatȱareȱinȱtheȱhouse.ȱ
whoseȱmoreȱvehementȱattackȱonȱtheȱfeminineȱcopiousnessȱofȱCiceroȱactuallyȱprovokedȱAscham’s
defenseȱofȱCiceroȱinȱtheȱSchoolmaster.ȱNevertheless,ȱforȱallȱofȱtheseȱschoolmasters,ȱevenȱAscham,
grotesqueȱ femininityȱ andȱ itsȱ copiousnessȱ wereȱ clearlyȱ aȱ problem.ȱ Asȱ Walterȱ Ongȱ pointsȱ out,
Ramusȱ providedȱ aȱ “businessȱ stressȱ onȱ rhetoric”ȱ thatȱ appealedȱ toȱ Puritanȱ schoolmastersȱ and
Calvinistsȱinȱgeneral.ȱMoreover,ȱheȱcontributedȱtoȱtheȱplainȱstyleȱagainstȱwhichȱCiceroniansȱwrote.
AccordingȱtoȱOng,ȱaȱ“patristicȱandȱmedievalȱloveȱofȱornateness”ȱproducedȱ“theȱlushnessȱmet
amongȱmanyȱwritersȱmoreȱorȱlessȱofȱtheȱepiscopalȱparty”ȱinȱtheȱseventeenthȱcentury.ȱWalterȱJ.
Ong,ȱ“TudorȱWritingȱonȱRhetoric,”ȱStudiesȱinȱtheȱRenaissanceȱ15ȱ(1968):ȱ36–69;ȱhereȱ64,ȱ67.ȱ
46
Ramismȱconsistedȱofȱ“aȱdefiniteȱsetȱofȱphilosophicalȱandȱliteraryȱattitudesȱderivedȱfromȱtheȱParis
artsȱprofessorȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱPeterȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱRamus.”ȱThisȱessayȱisȱconcernedȱwithȱtheȱ“literaryȱattitudes”ȱofȱRamus
whichȱ areȱ expressedȱ inȱ theȱ antiȬCiceronianȱ movementȱ andȱ theȱ promotionȱ ofȱ theȱ plainȱ style
discussedȱinȱmoreȱdepthȱearlierȱinȱthisȱessayabove.ȱAccordingȱtoȱOngȱ,”thereȱ[was]ȱaȱconsiderable
readingȱofȱRamistȱworksȱbyȱstudentsȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱandȱaȱgoodȱdealȱofȱshoutingȱforȱandȱagainstȱRamismȱby
sophistersȱ orȱ otherȱ youthfulȱ universityȱ disputants,ȱ whoȱ areȱ echoedȱ andȱ improvedȱ byȱ Robert
Greene,ȱNashe,ȱandȱtheȱHarveys.”ȱWalterȱJ.ȱOng,ȱRamus,ȱMethod,ȱandȱtheȱDecayȱofȱDialogue:ȱFrom
theȱArtȱofȱDiscourseȱtoȱtheȱArtȱofȱReasonȱ(Chicago:ȱUniversityȱofȱChicagoȱPress,ȱ1996),ȱ3,ȱ303.ȱRobert
Greeneȱ andȱ Nasheȱ representȱ theȱ ‘sophists’‘ȱ sideȱ ofȱ course.ȱ Seeȱ alsoȱ Nashe’sȱ referenceȱ toȱ this
controversyȱinȱTheȱAnatomy,ȱGabrielȱHarvey’sȱCiceronianusȱandȱRichardȱHarvey’sȱEphemeron,ȱsive
Paean,ȱ inȱ gratiamȱ perpurgataeȱ reformatqueȱ dialecticaeȱ (1583).ȱ Alsoȱ seeȱ Ong,ȱ “Tudorȱ Writingȱ on
Rhetoric,”ȱinȱwhichȱAristoteliansȱareȱreferredȱtoȱasȱCiceroniansȱ(seeȱnoteȱ45),ȱ66.ȱ
KingȱaddsȱthatȱFoxeȱalludesȱtoȱtheȱsameȱscriptureȱinȱhisȱ“artisticȱembellishment”
ofȱtheȱconversationȱbetweenȱtheȱmartyrsȱLatimerȱandȱRidleyȱthatȱwasȱreportedȱto
haveȱtakenȱplaceȱjustȱbeforeȱtheyȱwereȱtoȱbeȱburned.ȱLatimerȱsaysȱtoȱRidley:ȱ“Be
ofȱgoodȱcheer,ȱRidley;ȱandȱplayȱtheȱman.ȱWeȱshallȱthisȱday,ȱbyȱGod’sȱgrace,ȱlight
upȱ suchȱ aȱ candleȱ inȱ Englandȱ asȱ Iȱ trustȱ willȱ neverȱ beȱ putȱ out.”47ȱ Theȱ Harvey
brothers’ȱuseȱofȱthisȱrhetoricȱsuggestsȱtheȱfervorȱwithȱwhichȱtheyȱapproachedȱtheir
reformationȱofȱtheȱcarnivalesqueȱandȱtheirȱhopeȱofȱextendingȱanȱacceptanceȱof
theirȱartisticȱideologyȱamongȱallȱProtestants.ȱ
Inȱtheirȱreformation,ȱtheȱHarveyȱbrothersȱbelievedȱthatȱtheȱMarprelateȱwriters
didȱnotȱgoȱfarȱenough.ȱTheyȱmayȱhaveȱintroducedȱtheȱplainȱstyleȱinȱtheirȱuseȱofȱthe
colloquial,ȱbutȱtheyȱhadȱyetȱtoȱpurgeȱfullyȱtheirȱartisticȱlanguageȱofȱtheȱcriminality
ofȱ “feminine”ȱ excessȱ andȱ duplicity,ȱ toȱ completelyȱ “playȱ theȱ man,”ȱ asȱ they
variouslyȱtookȱonȱtheȱvoiceȱofȱtheȱscoldȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱplowman.ȱRichardȱclaims
thatȱMartin’sȱstyle,ȱlikeȱthatȱofȱpopularȱwriters,ȱisȱfeminineȱandȱcontagious:ȱ“When
[Martin]ȱbeganȱtoȱskoldȱfirst,ȱyouȱshouldȱhaveȱbetookeȱhimȱtoȱanȱostler,ȱtoȱwalke,
whileȱyouȱhadȱcaldȱanȱofficerȱtoȱchamberȱhisȱtong.ȱSoȱifȱyouȱhadȱdone,ȱhisȱown
poisonȱwouldȱhaveȱfesteredȱinȱhisȱownȱflesh.”48ȱTheȱHarveysȱevokeȱtheȱimageȱof
theȱshrewȱinȱdescribingȱMartin,ȱbutȱtheȱpopularȱartistsȱareȱclearlyȱdeceptiveȱand
sinful.ȱ
Theirȱwritingȱrepresentsȱevilȱdoingȱandȱseduction.ȱItȱisȱaȱ“fouleȱDevillȱthatȱbrings
foorthȱ changeableȱ covredȱ urchins,ȱ whichȱ canȱ glisterȱ likeȱ aȱ gloseȱ worneȱ neare
gold.”49ȱMartinȱisȱfightingȱtheȱgoodȱfight.ȱHisȱonlyȱfaultȱisȱmixingȱtheȱmessageȱof
reformationȱwithȱtheȱpoisonousȱfemininityȱofȱpopularȱart:ȱMartinȱhasȱdrawnȱinȱhis
“customers”ȱwithȱoneȱword,ȱ“Reformation,”ȱbutȱheȱwillȱpoisonȱthemȱwithȱthe
“Hemmlock”ȱ heȱ hasȱ “mingled”ȱ withȱ it.50ȱ Greeneȱ andȱ Nasheȱ respondedȱ toȱ the
Harveys’ȱandȱSpenser’sȱattemptedȱreformationȱofȱpopularȱartȱwithȱtheȱpublishing
ofȱ Menaphonȱ inȱ whichȱ theyȱ affectȱ praiseȱ forȱ Gabrielȱ Harvey,ȱ Spenser,ȱ andȱ the
schoolmastersȱ butȱ overturnȱ theirȱ agenda,ȱ creatingȱ aȱ compellingȱ celebrationȱ of
feminineȱliberalityȱthatȱmocksȱtheȱsterilityȱinȱSpenser’sȱpastoralȱandȱcontinuesȱthe
HarveyȬNashȱquarrel.ȱTheirȱfundamentalȱbattleȱwasȱoverȱtheȱPuritans’ȱattemptȱto
exciseȱtheȱfeminineȱgrotesqueȱfromȱtheȱcarnivalesque.ȱ
Thisȱfeminineȱgrotesqueȱinȱpopularȱcultureȱcouldȱbeȱrepresentedȱbyȱtheȱmere
presenceȱofȱdisorderlyȱwriting,ȱcopiousness,ȱorȱbawdyȱsubjectȱmatterȱandȱjests,ȱor
evenȱ byȱ theȱ writer’sȱ socialȱ disobedience,ȱ butȱ itȱ alsoȱ hadȱ aȱ moreȱ concrete
representationȱinȱtheȱpopularȱpastoralȱcharacterȱofȱtheȱshepherdess,ȱknownȱasȱthe
47
JohnȱFoxeȱandȱJohnȱKing,ȱFoxe’sȱBookȱofȱMartyrs:ȱSelectȱNarratives.ȱOxfordȱWorld’sȱClassisȱ(Oxford:
OxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2009),154.ȱ
48
RichardȱHarvey,ȱPlainȱPercevalȱ(seeȱnoteȱ8),ȱ2:10.
49
RichardȱHarvey,ȱPlainȱPercevalȱ(seeȱnoteȱ8),ȱ2:13.ȱ
50
RichardȱHarvey,ȱPlainȱPercevalȱ(seeȱnoteȱ8),ȱ2:17.
770 KyleȱDiRoberto
QueenȱofȱMay,ȱorȱMarian.ȱSheȱwasȱassociatedȱwithȱprofaneȱacts,ȱlaughter,ȱand
socialȱ disorder.ȱ Thisȱ isȱ reflectedȱ inȱ aȱ Puritanȱ minister’sȱ complaintȱ (1597)ȱ ofȱ a
Whitsunȱale51ȱinȱwhichȱheȱassertsȱthatȱ
piping,ȱdancing,ȱandȱMaidȱMarianȱcomingȱintoȱtheȱchurchȱatȱtheȱtimeȱofȱprayerȱto
moveȱlaughterȱwithȱkissingȱinȱchurchȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱdeserve[s]ȱtoȱbeȱcalledȱprofane,ȱriotous,ȱand
disorderly.52ȱ
Thisȱpopularȱpastoralȱfigureȱofȱtheȱfeminineȱgrotesqueȱwasȱmoreȱthanȱjustȱaȱpart
ofȱ theȱ Carnival;ȱ itȱ hadȱ alsoȱ becomeȱ aȱ partȱ ofȱ popularȱ entertainment.ȱ Inȱ fact,
Chambersȱarguesȱthatȱtheȱpastourelleȱ“formsȱaȱlinkȱbetween”ȱtheȱcarnivalesque
MayȬgamesȱandȱ“folkȬsongȱandȱdrama”53;ȱheȱaddsȱthatȱinȱtheȱElizabethanȱperiod,
theȱfigureȱofȱMarianȱalsoȱrepresentedȱgenderȱinversionȱandȱcrossȱdressing,ȱwhich
bothȱinfuriatedȱtheȱPuritansȱandȱwasȱusedȱtoȱmockȱthem:
Byȱtheȱsixteenthȱcentury,ȱtheȱMayȬgameȱMarianȱdevelopedȱherȱownȱseparateȱpersona
asȱaȱfigureȱofȱsexualȱlicense,ȱfrequentlyȱpresentedȱasȱaȱconspicuouslyȱcrossedȬdressed
male,ȱasȱillustratedȱinȱanȱantiȬMarprelateȱplayȱofȱtheȱ1580sȱwhereȱMartinȱappearsȱon
stageȱasȱtheȱ“Maideȱmarian,”ȱpossiblyȱtoȱsatirizeȱpuritanȱoppositionȱtoȱboysȱplaying
femaleȱroles.54
Theȱpopularȱwriters’ȱandȱtheirȱPuritanȱadversaries’ȱrepresentationsȱofȱgenderȱand
itsȱ stabilityȱ areȱ theȱ arenaȱ inȱ whichȱ theyȱ battleȱ forȱ controlȱ overȱ theȱ rhetoricȱ of
popularȱculture.ȱTheȱpopularȱwritersȱattemptedȱtoȱpreserveȱandȱevenȱtoȱamplify
theȱgrotesqueȱinȱtheirȱcarnivalesque,ȱasȱitȱrepresentedȱartisticȱliberality,ȱtheirȱart
largelyȱbeingȱviewedȱasȱlibidinal.ȱRichardȱandȱGabrielȱHarvey,ȱonȱtheȱotherȱhand,
inȱtheirȱattackȱonȱGreeneȱandȱNasheȱassertȱtheirȱnotionȱofȱaȱmasculineȱpopular
identityȱbyȱdrawingȱaȱdistinctionȱbetweenȱtheirȱversionȱofȱtheȱcarnivalesqueȱand
51
AȱWhitsunȱaleȱwasȱaȱchurchȱfundraiserȱheldȱonȱWhitȱ(white)ȱSunday,ȱorȱtheȱseventhȱSundayȱafter
Easterȱ(Pentecost),ȱinȱwhichȱbeerȱwasȱsoldȱtoȱraiseȱmoneyȱforȱtheȱChurch.ȱAȱRobinȱHoodȱplayȱwas
usuallyȱperformed.ȱPlayersȱwereȱnotȱalwaysȱcontainedȱwithinȱtheȱplay,ȱasȱisȱevidencedȱbyȱthis
complaint,ȱbutȱbecameȱpartȱofȱtheȱgeneralȱfestivitiesȱandȱmustȱhaveȱevenȱenteredȱintoȱtheȱchurch
services,ȱatȱtimes.ȱ
52
FrançoisȱLaroqueȱandȱJaneȱLoyd.ȱShakespeare’sȱFestiveȱWorld:ȱElizabethanȱSeasonalȱEntertainmentȱand
theȱProfessionalȱStage.ȱEuropeanȱStudiesȱinȱEnglishȱLiterature.ȱPaperbackȱed.ȱ(1988;ȱCambridge:
CambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1993),ȱ139.ȱAsȱE.ȱK.ȱChambersȱnotes,ȱtheȱgamesȱthemselves—asȱwell
asȱMarian—representedȱanȱinversionȱofȱauthority:ȱ“theȱconventionalȱfreedomȱofȱwomenȱfrom
restraintȱ[occured]ȱinȱMay,ȱtheȱmonthȱofȱtheirȱancientȱsexȬfestivalȱandȱtheȱmonthȱinȱwhichȱthe
medievalȱwifeȬbeaterȱstillȱranȱnotableȱdangerȱofȱchevauschée.”ȱTheȱnameȱofȱtheȱMayȱQueenȱalso
reflectsȱ thisȱ carnivalesqueȱ insubordination:ȱ theȱ nameȱ Marian,ȱ Chambersȱ claims,ȱ isȱ “anȱ ironic
expressionȱofȱwiflyȱsubmission,ȱbelong[ing]ȱtoȱShroveȱTuesday.”ȱE.ȱK.ȱChambers,ȱTheȱMedieval
Stage,ȱ2ȱvols.ȱ(London:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1954),ȱ1:ȱ170.ȱ
53
Chambers,ȱTheȱMediaevalȱStageȱ(seeȱnoteȱ52),ȱ171.
54
StephenȱThomasȱKnight,ȱThomasȱH.ȱOhlgren,ȱRobinȱHoodȱandȱOtherȱOutlawȱTales.ȱMiddleȱEnglish
TextsȱSeries.ȱ2ndȱed.ȱ(1997;ȱKalamazoo,ȱMI:ȱMedievalȱInstituteȱPublications,ȱ2000),ȱ282.
theȱfeminineȱgrotesque.ȱTheirȱversion,ȱasȱmentionedȱearlier,ȱpromotedȱmasculinity
thatȱwasȱforceful,ȱchaste,ȱandȱsimpleminded.ȱItȱcombinedȱelementsȱinȱpopularȱart,
suchȱasȱtheȱvoiceȱofȱtheȱlowlyȱshepherd,ȱwithȱtheȱRamists’ȱantiȬCiceronianȱplain
styleȱ andȱ itsȱ bias:ȱ fearȱ ofȱ feminineȱ disorder.55ȱ Toȱ theȱ Harveys,ȱ Ramistȱ rhetoric
sharedȱwithȱtheȱcarnivalesqueȱaȱ“native”ȱrudimentaryȱuseȱofȱlanguageȱoverȱthe
excessivelyȱornate.ȱItȱwasȱliberating.ȱItȱoverthrewȱtheȱauthorityȱofȱAristotle,ȱ“the
princeȱofȱphilosophers,”ȱandȱtheȱolderȱorderȱofȱscholasticismȱ(antiȬCiceronians
wereȱ synonymousȱ withȱ antiȬAristolians,ȱ asȱ Ramusȱ attributedȱ Aristotleȱ with
teachingȱCiceroȱhisȱdeceptions).56ȱ
However,ȱ thisȱ isȱ whereȱ theȱ similaritiesȱ end.ȱ Ramistȱ rhetoricalȱ ideology,ȱ as
Greene’sȱandȱNashe’sȱwritingȱreveals,ȱwasȱnot,ȱdespiteȱitsȱpretentionsȱtoȱplainness
andȱhardȱworkȱ(orȱ“discipline”)ȱaȱlanguageȱofȱtheȱmasses;ȱitȱwasȱtheȱlanguageȱof
eliteȱschoolmastersȱandȱambitiousȱcourtiers,ȱandȱitȱwasȱfarȱfromȱrepresentingȱthe
freedomȱ ofȱ Carnival.57ȱ Thoughȱ itȱ wasȱ notȱ obviouslyȱ courtly,ȱ itȱ nevertheless
representedȱanȱaspectȱofȱtheȱPuritans’ȱreformationȱofȱmanners.58ȱItȱwasȱbasedȱon
aȱ desireȱ forȱ order,ȱ andȱ itȱ attemptedȱ toȱ replaceȱ theȱ devianceȱ ofȱ aȱ bodyȬbased
pleasureȱinȱtheȱartsȱwithȱtheȱvirtueȱofȱartȱasȱanȱintellectualȱexerciseȱorȱasȱaȱvehicle
forȱmoralȱinstruction.59ȱ
Theȱ proponentsȱ ofȱ Ramistȱ rhetoric,ȱ includingȱ theȱ Harveys,ȱ representedȱ the
visceralȱpowerȱinȱunrestrainedȱartisticȱlanguageȱasȱaȱdarkȱprimalȱ“motionȱinȱthe
soul,”ȱwhichȱtheyȱwantedȱtoȱreduceȱthroughȱaȱlogicalȱandȱorderedȱdisciplineȱtoȱa
mereȱsubduedȱ“ornamentation.”60ȱArtisticȱexpressionȱwithinȱtheȱmoreȱcivilized
confinesȱofȱreasonȱcouldȱbeȱusefulȱinȱcertainȱcircumstances.ȱUnderȱRamism,ȱfor
example,ȱpoetryȱcouldȱbeȱseenȱasȱbelongingȱ“lessȱtoȱrhetoricȱthanȱtoȱarithmetic”;
55
Asȱmentionedȱpreviously,ȱFraunce’sȱShepherdesȱLogikeȱemphasizesȱthisȱagenda.
56
SeeȱRamus,ȱBrutinaeȱQuaestionesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ13),ȱ40.
57
Indeed,ȱRamus’sȱattackȱonȱtheȱphilosophicȱtraditionsȱthatȱprecedeȱhim,ȱaccordingȱtoȱOng,ȱwas
enabledȱbyȱtheȱpowerfulȱallegiancesȱatȱcourtȱheȱhadȱmadeȱwhileȱanȱimpoverishedȱstudentȱatȱthe
ȱ
university.ȱOng,ȱRamusȱ(seeȱnoteȱ46),ȱ25.
58
Accordingȱ toȱ Abrahamȱ Fraunce’sȱ Shepherdesȱ Logike,ȱ aȱ manualȱ illustratingȱ Ramistȱ principles
throughȱ Spenser’sȱ Shepheardesȱ Calender,ȱ Ramistȱ wasȱ meantȱ toȱ “correctȱ thoseȱ whoȱ haveȱ .ȱ .ȱ .
pervertedȱgoodȱmannersȱ.ȱ.ȱ.”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ2),ȱ58.
59
DavidȱGraeberȱclaims,ȱwhenȱtalkingȱaboutȱNorbertȱEliasȱandȱPeterȱBurke,ȱthatȱEliasȱ“hasȱmade
aȱ famousȱ argumentȱ thatȱ theȱ sixteenthȱ centuryȱ markedȱ theȱ beginningȱ ofȱ aȱ broadȱ ‘advanceȱ of
thresholdsȱofȱshameȱandȱembarrassmentȱ‘throughoutȱWesternȱEurope,’ȱanȱincreasingȱtendency
toȱrepressȱopenȱdisplaysȱofȱorȱevenȱreferencesȱtoȱbodilyȱfunctionsȱinȱeverydayȱinteractions—a
processȱwhichȱcameȱtoȱaȱpeakȱaroundȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱnineteenthȱcentury.ȱBurkeȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱhasȱnotedȱthat
atȱ thisȱ sameȱ timeȱ Churchȱ authoritiesȱ throughoutȱ Europeȱ wereȱ alsoȱ engagedȱ inȱ aȱ muchȱ more
explicitȱcampaignȱtoȱ‘reformȱpopularȱculture’—thatȱis,ȱtoȱeradicateȱwhatȱtheyȱconsideredȱtoȱbe
immoralȱelementsȱinȱpublicȱlifeȱandȱritual.ȱEnglishȱPuritansȱofȱtheȱtimeȱspokeȱofȱbothȱasȱpartȱof
theȱsameȱ‘reformationȱofȱmanners.’”ȱDavidȱGraeber,ȱPossibilities:ȱEssaysȱonȱHierarchy,ȱRebellion,ȱand
Desireȱ(Oakland,ȱCA:ȱAKȱPress,ȱ2007),ȱ694.ȱ
60
Ong,ȱRamusȱ(seeȱnoteȱ46),ȱ272.
772 KyleȱDiRoberto
itȱwasȱusefulȱforȱteachingȱeloquence,ȱandȱitȱwasȱalsoȱusefulȱforȱbreakingȱdown
complexȱ ideasȱ intoȱ simpleȱ perceptsȱ forȱ “moralȱ teaching.”61ȱ Thisȱ isȱ obviousȱ in
Harvey’sȱandȱSpenser’sȱexperimentationȱwithȱmeterȱandȱinȱtheirȱmorallyȱedifying
writing.ȱTheȱmostȱpopularȱwriting,ȱtheȱhighlyȱpleasingȱandȱmorallyȱambiguous
popularȱ works,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ theȱ artistsȱ whoȱ createdȱ them,ȱ wereȱ increasingly
condemnedȱbyȱanȱeducatedȱPuritanȱelite.ȱ
TheȱfirstȱofȱtheȱPuritansȱtoȱattackȱtheȱpopularȱwritersȱpersonallyȱwasȱRichard
Harvey.ȱ Heȱ lambastedȱ Nasheȱ inȱ Theȱ Lambȱ ofȱ Godȱ (1590),ȱ asȱ Lornaȱ Hutsonȱ has
pointedȱout,ȱbecauseȱNasheȱ“hadȱtheȱtemerityȱtoȱpublishȱanȱunsolicitedȱreviewȱof
theȱcontemporaryȱstateȱofȱEnglishȱliterature.”62ȱAccordingȱtoȱHarvey,ȱNasheȱ“had
actedȱinȱcivilȱlearningȱasȱMartinȱdothȱinȱreligion.”63ȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱNasheȱhad
challengedȱtheȱhierarchyȱofȱlearningȱasȱMartinȱhadȱchallengedȱtheȱhierarchyȱofȱthe
church.ȱ Moreover,ȱ Gabrielȱ Harveyȱ disparagedȱ asȱ “womanish”ȱ whatȱ popular
writersȱbelievedȱwasȱtheȱessenceȱofȱart:ȱitsȱpurelyȱaestheticȱappeal,ȱimaginative
abundance,ȱandȱcreativeȱliberation.ȱTheȱtensionsȱsubtendingȱtheirȱoppositionȱwere
notȱonlyȱaȱproductȱofȱtheirȱideologicalȱbiasȱbutȱalsoȱaȱproductȱofȱtheȱchanging
worldȱofȱpopularȱart.ȱBeforeȱtheȱsixteenthȱcentury,ȱ“everyȱcraftsmanȱandȱpeasant
wasȱinvolvedȱinȱtheȱtransmissionȱofȱpopularȱculture,ȱandȱsoȱwereȱtheirȱmothers,
wivesȱ andȱ daughters”64;ȱ butȱ increasingly,ȱ becauseȱ ofȱ theȱ printingȱ pressȱ and
becauseȱofȱPuritanȱcritics,ȱtheȱrich,ȱpolyphonic,ȱandȱplayfulȱcommunalȱnatureȱof
theȱvoiceȱofȱtheȱpopulaceȱwasȱcondemned,ȱwhileȱtheȱ“plainȱspeech,”ȱtheȱsimple,
clearȱsincerityȱofȱaȱmonologicȱauthor,ȱwasȱpromoted.65ȱAnȱimportantȱrecordȱofȱthis
shiftȱisȱevidentȱinȱSpenser’sȱShepheardesȱCalenderȱ(1579).ȱ
Theȱ Puritanȱ philosophyȱ ofȱ Gabrielȱ Harveyȱ hadȱ aȱ profoundȱ influenceȱ onȱ his
friendȱ Spenser,ȱ asȱ theirȱ publishedȱ lettersȱ suggest.ȱ Inȱ theȱ Shepheardesȱ Calender,
Spenser,ȱaȱsupremelyȱmonologicȱandȱmoralȱauthor,ȱgoesȱsoȱfarȱasȱtoȱprovideȱan
interpreterȱofȱhisȱintentions.ȱAȱMr.ȱE.ȱK.ȱisȱ“madeȱprivyȱtoȱ[Spenser’s]ȱcounselȱand
secretȱmeaning”ȱinȱaȱglossaryȱthatȱfollowsȱeveryȱmonthȱ(theȱpoemȱisȱinȱtheȱform
61
Ong,ȱRamusȱ(seeȱnoteȱ46),ȱ218,ȱ285.
62
LornaȱHuston,ȱThomasȱNasheȱinȱContext.ȱOxfordȱEnglishȱMonographsȱ(OxfordȱandȱNewȱYork:
ClarendonȱPress;ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1989),ȱ201.
63
Richardȱ Harvey,ȱ “Theȱ Lambȱ ofȱ Godȱ (Epistle),ȱ Vol.ȱ 5ȱ inȱ Theȱ Worksȱ ofȱ Thomasȱ Nasheȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 9),
5:179–80.
64
Burke,ȱPopularȱCultureȱ(seeȱnoteȱ31),ȱ91.
65
AsȱMorrisȱCrollȱsuggests,ȱaȱ“newȱemphasisȱonȱtheȱinnerȱandȱindividualȱlifeȱofȱmen”ȱwasȱarising
inȱthisȱperiod,ȱ“aȱ‘heroic’ȱvirtueȱofȱselfȬdependence,”ȱespeciallyȱamongȱthoseȱwhoȱascribedȱtoȱthese
rhetoricalȱpracticesȱ(113).ȱMorrisȱWilliamȱCrollȱandȱJ.ȱMazȱPatrick,ȱ“Attic”ȱandȱBaroqueȱProseȱStyle:
theȱAntiȬCiceornianȱMovement.ȱEssaysȱbyȱMorrisȱW.ȱCroll,ȱedsȱJ.ȱMaȱPatrickȱandȱRobertȱOȱEvans,ȱwith
JohnȱWȱWallace.ȱ(Princeton:ȱPrincetonȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1969).ȱToȱPuritans,ȱthisȱwasȱassociated
withȱtheȱspiritualȱindependenceȱofȱtheȱindividualȱselfȱfromȱtheȱauthorityȱofȱtheȱchurch;ȱforȱthe
artist,ȱtheȱinsistenceȱonȱtheȱmoralityȱofȱaȱconsistentȱidentityȱinȱtheȱartsȱwasȱnothingȱlessȱthan
artisticȱimprisonment.ȱ
ofȱaȱcalendar).66ȱHeȱexplainsȱawayȱallegoricalȱambiguityȱandȱreducesȱtheȱpossibility
ofȱpolysemicȱmeaningȱinȱmetaphors;ȱforȱexample,ȱinȱtheȱallegoryȱaboutȱaȱkidȱand
aȱfox,ȱE.ȱK.ȱletsȱtheȱreaderȱknowȱthatȱ“byȱtheȱkidȱmayȱbeȱunderstoodȱtheȱsimple
sortȱofȱfaithfulȱandȱtrueȱChristians.”67ȱSimilarlyȱinȱtheȱconclusionȱofȱNovember,ȱhe
sumsȱupȱtheȱmoralȱinȱthatȱportionȱofȱtheȱpoemȱwithȱtheȱphraseȱ“Deathȱbitethȱnot.”68ȱ
TheȱHarveysȱandȱSpenserȱalsoȱtiedȱtheȱsincereȱtoȱtheȱlinguisticallyȱchaste,ȱwhere
chasteȱ meantȱ bothȱ subduedȱ ornamentationȱ andȱ chasteȱ sentiment.ȱ Spenserȱ is
minimalistȱinȱhisȱpraiseȱofȱRosalindȱandȱapologeticȱforȱanyȱseductiveȱexpressions,
forswearingȱ carnivalesqueȱ Maydayȱ festivals,ȱ lasciviousȱ music,ȱ lustȱ andȱ only
burstingȱforthȱinȱfloweryȱpassionateȱpraiseȱforȱhisȱQueen,ȱwhichȱtheȱlogicȱofȱthe
poemȱ justifies,ȱ asȱ itȱ occursȱ inȱ theȱ endȱ ofȱ theȱ monthȱ ofȱ April.69ȱ Rosilandȱ is
conspicuouslyȱmissingȱinȱtheȱpoem.ȱTheȱshepherds’ȱsongsȱareȱrepresentedȱasȱlewd
complaintsȱfromȱwaywardȱyouth,ȱwhichȱtheȱauthorȱchastises,ȱexceptȱwhenȱthe
songȱisȱtheȱauthor’s,ȱinȱwhichȱcase,ȱhisȱelegiacsȱareȱalreadyȱchaste.ȱTheȱentireȱpoem
isȱwrittenȱtoȱcorrectȱtheȱimproper,ȱor,ȱasȱColinȱclaimsȱinȱhisȱconclusion,ȱheȱwrites
toȱ“saveȱ[his]ȱsheepȱfromȱshame.”70ȱThereȱisȱnoȱsongȱofȱtheȱshepherdess,ȱasȱinȱthe
fifteenthȬcenturyȱballadȱ“RobeneȱandȱMakyne,”ȱwhereȱMakyneȱisȱgivenȱaȱvoice,
orȱasȱisȱinȱGreene’sȱMenaphonȱwhereinȱtheȱshepherdessȱandȱherȱloverȱnegotiate
romanticȱ relationships,ȱ andȱ inȱ whichȱ theȱ womanȱ isȱ shownȱ toȱ takeȱ partȱ inȱ the
pastoralȱconventionȱofȱdisplaysȱofȱwit.ȱ
Spenser’sȱpastoralȱisȱantiȬcarnivalesque.ȱThereȱareȱnoȱcomedicȱmoments,ȱthere
isȱnoȱeroticism,ȱnoȱunbridledȱjoyȱinȱsongȱorȱlove,ȱonlyȱaȱlamentingȱofȱmisguided
lust,ȱheavyȱsorrow,ȱrelinquishmentȱandȱrejectionȱofȱtheȱworldly.ȱCriticsȱwhoȱdoȱnot
seeȱtheȱpopularȱpastoralȱasȱassociatedȱwithȱtheȱcarnivalesqueȱmissȱaȱrichȱtradition
ofȱpopularȱpastoral.ȱFrancisȱWaldronȱbelievesȱthatȱBenȱJonsonȱwroteȱhisȱfinalȱplay
(whichȱwasȱneverȱfinished)ȱentitledȱTheȱSadȱShepherd:ȱAȱTaleȱofȱRobinȬHoodȱ(1637)
toȱresurrectȱthisȱlostȱtraditionȱinȱtheȱseventeenthȱcentury.ȱIndeed,ȱLaroqueȱclaims
itȱisȱ“aȱlateȱrejoinderȱtoȱSpenser,”ȱandȱitȱcontainsȱmanyȱofȱtheȱelementsȱcontained
66
EdmundȱSpenser,ȱTheȱShepheardesȱCalenderȱ&ȱOtherȱPoems.ȱed.ȱPhilipȱHendersonȱ(London:ȱAldine
Press,ȱ1932),ȱ7.
67
Spenser,ȱShepheardesȱCalenderȱ(seeȱnoteȱ66),ȱ49.
68
69
Spensers’ȱ relationshipȱ withȱ musicȱ isȱ asȱ vexedȱ asȱ hisȱ relationshipȱ withȱ love.ȱ E.ȱ K.ȱ claimsȱ that
SpenserȱinȱtheȱpersonaȱofȱPiersȱinȱtheȱOctoberȱeclogueȱwarnsȱagainstȱtheȱArcadianȱMelody,ȱin
muchȱtheȱsameȱwayȱLipsiusȱandȱRamusȱcautionȱtheȱreaderȱregardingȱCicero’sȱstyle.ȱE.ȱK.ȱrecounts
thatȱ“PlatoȱandȱAristotleȱforbidȱ[it]ȱfromȱchildrenȱandȱyouth.ȱForȱthatȱbeingȱaltogetherȱonȱtheȱfifth
andȱseventhȱtone,ȱitȱisȱofȱgreatȱforceȱtoȱmollifyȱandȱquenchȱtheȱkindlyȱcourage,ȱwhichȱusethȱto
burnȱinȱyoungȱbreasts.ȱSoȱthatȱitȱisȱnotȱincredibleȱwhichȱtheȱpoetȱ[Spenser]ȱhereȱsaith,ȱthatȱmusic
canȱbereaveȱtheȱsoulȱofȱsense.”ȱFurthermore,ȱsuggestingȱaȱpotentialȱforȱsinfulnessȱinȱmusicȱand
poetry,ȱheȱremindsȱtheȱreaderȱthatȱOrpheusȱrecoveredȱhisȱ“excellentȱskillȱinȱmusicȱandȱpoetry.ȱ.
.ȱfromȱhisȱwifeȱEurydiceȱinȱhell.”ȱSpenser,ȱShepheardesȱCalenderȱ(seeȱnoteȱ66),ȱ84.ȱ
70
Spenser,ȱShepheardesȱCalenderȱ(seeȱnoteȱ66),ȱ97.ȱ
774 KyleȱDiRoberto
inȱGreeneȱandȱNashe’sȱworks,ȱespeciallyȱtheȱcondemnatoryȱmockeryȱofȱPuritans.71
Jonsonȱhimselfȱclaimsȱtoȱwriteȱhisȱplayȱinȱorderȱtoȱconfuteȱ“theȱheresyȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱthat
mirthȱbyȱnoȱmeansȱfitsȱpastoral.”72ȱMoreover,ȱJonson’sȱplayȱreinstatesȱtheȱoutlaw
Robinȱ andȱ hisȱ pluckyȱ shepherdess,ȱ Marian,ȱ whoseȱ voiceȱ beginsȱ theȱ play.ȱ He
restoresȱ herȱ activeȱ femaleȱ agencyȱ toȱ theȱ genre.ȱ Sheȱ isȱ introducedȱ inȱ theȱ actȱ of
killingȱ aȱ deerȱ withȱ whichȱ toȱ feastȱ Robin’sȱ men,ȱ andȱ likeȱ theȱ shepherdessȱ and
knightȱofȱtheȱpastourelleȱsheȱisȱengagedȱinȱaȱverbalȱgameȱofȱseductionȱwithȱher
wouldȬbeȱseducer,ȱRobinȱHood.ȱ
Asȱinȱtheȱpastourelle,ȱsheȱisȱalsoȱcapableȱofȱwittilyȱrebuffingȱseductionȱifȱshe
pleases.ȱHereȱsheȱinitiatesȱtheȱbanter.ȱRunningȱtoȱRobinȱHood,ȱembracingȱand
kissingȱhim,ȱsheȱtalksȱaboutȱallȱthatȱhasȱaddedȱtoȱherȱpleasureȱthatȱday:ȱfinally
seeingȱhim,ȱtheȱhunt,ȱandȱherȱpleasingȱtheȱdogsȱbyȱgivingȱthemȱ“tongues,ȱears,ȱand
dowcets”ȱ(theȱsweetmeatsȱofȱtheȱdeer).ȱToȱwhichȱRobinȱprovokinglyȱasks,ȱ“what?
andȱtheȱinchȬpin?”ȱ(theȱinchȬpinȱbeingȱpartȱofȱtheȱsweetmeatsȱbutȱalsoȱevocative
ofȱtheȱpenis).73ȱSheȱmissesȱhisȱsuggestion,ȱjustȱreplying,ȱ“yes”ȱandȱsoȱheȱmakesȱit
moreȱexplicit,ȱusingȱherȱownȱsuggestionȱofȱpleasure.ȱHeȱasks,ȱ“yourȱsportsȱthan
pleasedȱyou?”ȱInȱresponseȱtoȱwhich,ȱnowȱgettingȱhisȱsuggestions,ȱsheȱlaughingly
callsȱhimȱaȱwanton.ȱHisȱreplyȱimpliesȱthatȱsheȱwasȱtheȱinitiatorȱandȱthatȱheȱgrew
toȱherȱembraces:ȱ
Iȱwantedȱtillȱyouȱcame,ȱbutȱnowȱthatȱIȱhaveȱyou,ȱ
I’llȱgrowȱtoȱyourȱembraces,ȱtillȱtwoȱsouls
Distilledȱintoȱkissesȱthroughȱourȱlips,
Doȱmakeȱoneȱspiritȱofȱlove.74ȱ
TheȱlovingȱequalityȱexpressedȱinȱtheȱexchangesȱbetweenȱRobinȱandȱMarianȱstands
inȱstarkȱcontrastȱtoȱSpenser’sȱportrayalȱofȱColin’sȱrelationshipȱwithȱRosalind,ȱand
whileȱanȱelegiacȱpassionȱisȱaȱconventionȱofȱtheȱpastoral,ȱvariousȱconventionsȱcan
beȱ usedȱ toȱ variousȱ political,ȱ artistic,ȱ andȱ ideologicalȱ ends.75ȱ Inȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ The
Shepheardesȱ Calenderȱ Spenserȱ isȱ usingȱ aȱ pastoralȱ conventionȱ toȱ overthrowȱ the
feminineȱgrotesqueȱsoȱasȱtoȱreformȱtheȱcarnivalesqueȱinȱpopularȱliterature.ȱ
GreeneȱandȱNasheȱrespondedȱ toȱtheseȱattemptsȱtoȱadaptȱandȱoverthrowȱthe
carnivalesqueȱinȱtheȱartsȱinȱaȱsimilarȱmannerȱtoȱJonsonȱinȱhisȱSadȱShepherd.ȱThey
mockedȱtheȱHarveys’ȱandȱSpenser’sȱattemptȱtoȱreformȱtheȱcarnivalesqueȱinȱartȱand
wroteȱtoȱliberateȱit.ȱTheirȱworksȱlampoonedȱmanyȱofȱtheȱHarveys’ȱnotionsȱabout
artȱandȱoverturnedȱtheȱengenderedȱdiscourseȱsometimesȱusedȱagainstȱpopular
71
Laroque,ȱShakespeare’sȱFestiveȱWorldȱ(seeȱnoteȱ52),ȱ115.
72
Jonson,ȱSadȱShepherdȱ(seeȱnoteȱ30),ȱ4.
73
74
Jonson,ȱSadȱShepherdȱ(seeȱnoteȱ30),ȱ21.ȱ
75
SeeȱWilliamȱEmpson,ȱSomeȱVersionsȱofȱtheȱPastoral:ȱAȱStudyȱofȱtheȱPastoralȱFormȱinȱLiterature.
(Norfolk:ȱNewȱDirections,ȱ1950).ȱ
writersȱ byȱ emasculatingȱ theȱ Harveysȱ andȱ (Robinȱ like)ȱ byȱ embracingȱ their
carnivalesqueȱdesignationȱofȱpopularȱwritersȱasȱ“womenȱonȱtop.”ȱ76
GreeneȱwritesȱMenaphonȱ(1589)ȱinȱorderȱtoȱrestoreȱtheȱfeminineȱgrotesqueȱtoȱthe
pastoral.ȱTheȱdelightfulnessȱofȱinordinateȱwomenȱandȱtheȱacceptanceȱofȱfemale
sexualityȱareȱmajorȱthemesȱinȱMenaphon.ȱThisȱfactȱtogetherȱwithȱNashe’sȱpraiseȱof
Harvey,ȱSpenser,ȱandȱtheȱschoolmasterȱinȱtheȱintroductionȱtoȱMenaphonȱprobably
infuriatedȱtheȱHarveysȱandȱinspiredȱtheȱretaliatoryȱLambȱofȱGodȱevenȱmoreȱthanȱdid
Nashe’sȱmereȱ“unsolicitedȱreview”ȱofȱliterature.77ȱMenaphonȱisȱGreene’sȱcarnivalȬ
esqueȱ inversionȱ ofȱ Spenser’sȱ chaste,ȱ silent,ȱ and,ȱ indeed,ȱ absentȱ female.ȱ In
Menaphon,ȱ Greeneȱ promotesȱ femaleȱ agency,ȱ especiallyȱ witȱ (associatedȱ with
feminineȱ disorderȱ byȱ Puritans),ȱ inȱ hisȱ loveȱ matches;ȱ inȱ fact,ȱ inordinateȱ female
sexualityȱfindsȱacceptanceȱinȱhisȱwork,ȱasȱtheȱhighbornȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱlowborn
shepherdesses’ȱchastityȱis,ȱunproblematically,ȱlessȱvirtuousȱthanȱcautious.ȱInȱfact,
chastityȱseemsȱaȱnecessaryȱconditionȱinȱaȱsexuallyȱtyrannicalȱmaleȱworld.ȱThough
doubtȱisȱcastȱoverȱtheȱsexualȱproprietyȱofȱtheȱheroine,ȱGreeneȱneverȱstrugglesȱto
resolveȱ it.ȱ Heȱ seemsȱ contentȱ toȱ leaveȱ theȱ issueȱ ambiguous.ȱ Theȱ shepherdess’s
formerȱloverȱsuggestsȱtheyȱhadȱsexȱoutsideȱofȱmarriage,ȱthoughȱweȱdoȱfindȱout
laterȱtheyȱwereȱprobablyȱmarriedȱatȱtheȱtime;ȱtheȱfactȱthatȱsheȱalmostȱhasȱsexȱwith
herȱfatherȱandȱisȱwillingȱtoȱpayȱMenaphonȱwithȱmarriageȱforȱhisȱhospitality,ȱafter
sheȱisȱfinishedȱmourning,ȱsuggestsȱchastityȱisȱnotȱatȱissueȱinȱthisȱhighlyȱsexualized
worldȱsoȱmuchȱasȱsurvival.ȱSheȱisȱredeemedȱasȱaȱcharacter,ȱasȱareȱallȱtheȱcharacters,
byȱwit.ȱ
Fromȱ oldȱ marriedȱ couplesȱ toȱ lowbrowȱ youngȱ shepherds,ȱ aȱ playfulȱ banter
betweenȱmenȱandȱwomenȱisȱtheȱproofȱofȱtheirȱunity.ȱPerhapsȱtheȱmostȱendearing
exampleȱofȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱwitȱtoȱGreene’sȱpastoralȱandȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱitȱin
endearingȱwomenȱtoȱtheirȱspousesȱ(andȱtoȱtheȱreader)ȱisȱfoundȱinȱaȱconversation
regardingȱaȱMarigoldȱthatȱtakesȱplaceȱbetweenȱAgenorȱandȱEriphela.ȱWhileȱsitting
inȱtheȱgarden,ȱAgenorȱsuggestsȱthereȱisȱaȱlessonȱtoȱbeȱlearnedȱinȱtheȱMarigold,ȱbut,
tongueȱinȱcheek,ȱheȱsaysȱthatȱwomenȱ(referringȱindirectlyȱtoȱhisȱownȱwife)ȱwould
probablyȱpreferȱnotȱtoȱhearȱit,ȱasȱitȱdealsȱwithȱtheȱ“Servileȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱduty”ȱofȱaȱdedicated
wife.ȱTheȱMarigold,ȱheȱexplains,ȱ“wakethȱandȱsleepth,ȱopenethȱandȱshuttethȱher
goldenȱ leaves,ȱ asȱ [theȱ Sun]ȱ risethȱ andȱ setteth,”ȱ suggestingȱ thatȱ aȱ wifeȱ should
likewiseȱbeȱsoȱattentive.ȱ
TheȱpluckyȱEriphelaȱresponds,ȱ“wereȱtheȱconditionȱofȱaȱwifeȱsoȱslavishȱasȱyour
similtudeȱwouldȱinferre,ȱIȱhadȱasȱleaveȱbeȱyourȱpageȱasȱyourȱspouse,ȱyourȱdogge
asȱyourȱdarling.”ȱSheȱclaimsȱsheȱwillȱhaveȱMarigoldsȱthrownȱoutȱofȱtheȱgardenȱso
thatȱtheyȱwillȱnotȱpoisonȱher.ȱAgenorȱteasinglyȱrepliesȱthatȱthereȱisȱnoȱneedȱforȱ“a
76
SeeȱNatalieȱDavis,ȱSocietyȱandȱCultureȱinȱEarlyȱModernȱFrance:ȱEightȱEssaysȱ(Stanford:ȱStanford
UniversityȱPress,ȱ1975),ȱespecially,ȱ124.ȱ
77
RichardȱHarvey,ȱLambȱofȱGodȱ(seeȱnoteȱ63).
776 KyleȱDiRoberto
thistleȱtoȱfearȱbeingȱstungȱofȱaȱnettle.”ȱAtȱwhichȱpoint,ȱsheȱmockinglyȱthreatens
himȱtoȱ“beware,ȱleastȱinȱwadingȱtooȱfarreȱinȱcomparisonsȱofȱthistlesȱandȱnettles,
youȱ exchangeȱ notȱ yourȱ roseȱ forȱ aȱ nettle.”78ȱ Theseȱ wittyȱ exchangesȱ thatȱ mask
camaraderieȱinȱhostilityȱsuggestȱaȱwarmȱequalityȱthatȱisȱtheȱabsoluteȱinverseȱof
Spenser’sȱicyȱloveȱcomplaintȱtoȱhisȱutterlyȱabsentȱshepherdess.ȱ
Likewise,ȱ inȱ counterȬdistinctionȱ toȱ Spenser’sȱ pastoralȱ characters’ȱ insistent
godliness,ȱchastity,ȱandȱrejectionȱofȱtheȱsensualȱevenȱinȱmusic,ȱGreeneȱwritesȱofȱa
heroineȱwhoȱlovesȱmusic,ȱofȱbaseȱandȱnobleȱshepherdsȱwhoȱsingȱbawdyȱsongs
(odesȱ toȱ women’sȱ breastsȱ andȱ genitalia),ȱ andȱ ofȱ oedipalȱ plotsȱ asȱ ifȱ theyȱ were
everydayȱmatters.ȱConfutingȱcriticsȱwhoȱargueȱthatȱGreeneȱisȱinȱfactȱaȱmoralist,ȱthe
shepherds’ȱsongsȱofȱMenaphonȱandȱMelicretusȱareȱbawdyȱandȱaffirmȱtheȱHarveys’
objectionsȱtoȱGreene’sȱwritingȱasȱsexual.ȱBothȱMenaphonȱandȱMelicretusȱtakeȱturns
inȱaȱshepherds’ȱsongȱcompetitionȱtoȱdescribeȱtheirȱlove.ȱTheyȱincludeȱtheȱusual
blazonsȱ ofȱ theirȱ lovers’ȱ whiteȱ skinȱ andȱ redȱ blushing,ȱ butȱ theyȱ becomeȱ quite
lasciviousȱ whenȱ theyȱ describeȱ herȱ breastsȱ andȱ vagina.ȱ Bothȱ containȱ imagesȱ of
suckingȱinȱtheirȱdescriptionsȱofȱherȱbreasts.ȱMenaphon’sȱeclogueȱclaims:
HerȱPapsȱareȱlikeȱfairȱapplesȱinȱtheirȱprime,
Asȱroundȱasȱorientȱpearls,ȱasȱsoftȱasȱdown,
.ȱ.ȱ.ȱfromȱtheirȱsweetsȱloveȱsuckedȱhisȱsummerȬtime.79
Melicertusȱrepliesȱtoȱthisȱimageȱinȱhisȱdescriptionȱofȱherȱbreastȱinȱtheȱfollowing
stanza:ȱ
OnceȱVenusȱdreamtȱuponȱtwoȱprettyȱthings,
HerȱthoughtsȱtheyȱwereȱaffectionsȱCheifestȱnests,
Sheȱsuckedȱandȱsigthedȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ
Andȱwhenȱsheȱwaked,ȱtheyȱwereȱmyȱmistressȱbreasts.80ȱ
Melicertus’sȱuseȱofȱtheȱtermȱ“sucked”ȱinȱ thisȱdescriptionȱofȱtheȱcreationȱofȱhis
lover’sȱbreastsȱbyȱVenusȱcouldȱbeȱreadȱmerelyȱasȱsuckingȱinȱbreath.ȱHowever,ȱthe
juxtapositionȱ ofȱ Melicertus’sȱ useȱ ofȱ thisȱ wordȱ inȱ aȱ poeticȱ competitionȱ with
Menaphon,ȱinȱwhichȱMenaphonȱusesȱ“sucked”ȱtoȱreferȱtoȱanȱeroticȱsuckingȱaction
(summerȬtimeȱsuckingȱhisȱsweetsȱfromȱherȱbreasts),ȱsuggestsȱthatȱsighingȱisȱmeant
toȱbeȱreadȱasȱmoaningȱratherȱthanȱbreathing.ȱThingsȱbecomeȱevenȱmoreȱobviously
eroticȱwhenȱtheȱshepherdsȱdescribeȱherȱgenitals.ȱMenaphonȱclaimsȱhisȱmistress’s
genitalsȱareȱincomparable,ȱ
78
RobertȱGreene,ȱ“Menaphon:ȱCamillasȱAlarumȱtoȱSlumberingȱEuphues,”ȱinȱhisȱMeloncholieȱCellȱat
Silexedra.ȱ1589.ȱTheȱLifeȱandȱCompleteȱWorksȱinȱProseȱandȱVerseȱofȱRobertȱGreene,ȱed.ȱAlexanderȱB.
Grosart.ȱ15ȱvols.ȱ(NewȱYork:ȱRussellȱ&ȱRussell,ȱ1964),ȱ6:95.
79
Greene,ȱMenaphonȱ(seeȱnoteȱ78),ȱ124.
80
ȱ Herȱmaidenȱmount,ȱtheȱdwellingȱhouseȱofȱpleasure,
notȱlike,ȱforȱwhyȱnoȱlike,ȱsurpassethsȱwonder,
O,ȱblestȱbeȱheȱmayȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ
searchȱforȱsecretsȱofȱthatȱtreasure.81
Melicertus’ȱreplyȱisȱdownȱrightȱpornographic,ȱevokingȱvividȱimagesȱofȱwingsȱas
veilingȱherȱ“bliss”ȱandȱdescribingȱtheȱliquidityȱofȱhisȱmistress’sȱgenitals:
OnceȱCupidȱsoughtȱaȱholdȱtoȱcouchȱhisȱkisses,
AndȱfoundȱtheȱbodyȱofȱmyȱbestȬbeloved
Whereinȱheȱclosedȱtheȱbeautyȱofȱhisȱblissesȱ.ȱ.ȱ.
TheȱGracesȱerst,ȱwhenȱAlcidianȱsprings
Wereȱwaxenȱdry,ȱperhapsȱdidȱfindȱherȱfountain
WithinȱtheȱvaleȱofȱblissȱwereȱCupid’sȱwings,
Doȱshieldȱtheȱnectarȱfleetingȱfromȱthatȱmountain.82ȱ
Greene’sȱshepherdsȱareȱtheȱcarnivalesqueȱinversionȱofȱSpenser’sȱpiousȱplowmen
andȱanȱinversionȱthatȱincorporatesȱtheȱhighlyȱvisualȱuseȱofȱmetaphorȱtoȱcreateȱthe
sexuallyȱpleasurableȱexperienceȱinȱliteratureȱthatȱwasȱsoȱfearedȱbyȱschoolmasters.
Moreover,ȱGreene’sȱhighlyȱvisualȱimageȱofȱfemaleȱgenitaliaȱinȱitsȱpleasantlyȱavian
descriptionȱasȱ“cupid’sȱwings”ȱstandsȱinȱdirectȱcontrastȱtoȱSpenser’sȱimagesȱof
femaleȱgenitaliaȱasȱaȱbird’sȱnest,ȱorȱratherȱhisȱnegativeȱandȱobliqueȱreferencesȱin
Theȱ Shepheardesȱ Calenderȱ (1579)ȱ toȱ whatȱ isȱ suggestiveȱ ofȱ femaleȱ genitalia.ȱ For
example,ȱColinȱfindsȱaȱfoul/fowlȱnestȱ(thoughȱheȱavoidsȱthisȱpunȱbyȱcallingȱthe
birdȱanȱowl)ȱwhenȱsearchingȱforȱloveȱinȱnature.ȱTheȱnestȱsuggestsȱaȱvagina.ȱHe
complainsȱ whenȱ heȱ wasȱ hopingȱ toȱ findȱ theȱ honeyȱ beeȱ “workingȱ herȱ formal
rooms,”ȱthatȱheȱinsteadȱfindsȱ“aȱgrislyȱtoadȬstoolȱgrownȱthereȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱandȱloathed
paddocksȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ whereȱ theȱ ghastlyȱ owlȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ herȱ grievousȱ innȱ dothȱ keep.”83ȱ This
descriptionȱofȱtheȱowl’sȱnestȱseemsȱtoȱreferȱtoȱtheȱvaginaȱinȱthatȱitȱisȱanȱ“inn,”
whoseȱroomsȱareȱ“worked.”ȱMoreover,ȱthoughȱitsȱdirectȱreferenceȱisȱobviously
elided,ȱbyȱusingȱsuchȱanxietyȬriddenȱandȱmorallyȱloadedȱadjectivesȱasȱ“ghastly,”
“grisly,”ȱandȱ“grievous,”ȱinȱhisȱdescription,ȱSpenserȱsuggestsȱtheȱnest’sȱassociation
withȱtheȱlustȱtheȱwholeȱpoemȱsetsȱoutȱtoȱrepudiate.ȱ
Likeȱ Spenser,ȱ Harveyȱ alsoȱ divorcedȱ theȱ comicȱ andȱ theȱ pleasurableȱ fromȱ the
carnivalesqueȱandȱattemptedȱtoȱreformȱpopularȱculture,ȱwhichȱheȱdepictedȱasȱa
formȱofȱfeminineȱdisorder.ȱInȱhisȱletters,ȱGabrielȱHarveyȱexpressesȱtoȱSpenserȱthis
wishȱtoȱreformȱandȱadaptȱpopularȱprintȱculture.ȱHeȱputsȱhisȱwishȱintoȱpractice
withȱtheȱpublicationȱofȱhisȱpamphletsȱtoȱNasheȱ(andȱperhaps,ȱasȱNasheȱaccuses
81
82
83
778 KyleȱDiRoberto
him,ȱpriorȱtoȱthisȱinȱhisȱanonymousȱpublishingȱofȱalmanacs).84ȱHarveyȱsuggests
thatȱaȱ“learned”ȱuniversityȱman,ȱsuchȱasȱhimself,ȱmightȱreformȱtheȱpublishingȱof
theȱunlearned:ȱ
Sendȱmeȱwithinȱaȱweekeȱorȱtwo,ȱsomeȱoddeȱfreshȱpaultingȱthreehalfepennieȱPamphlet
forȱnewes:ȱorȱsomeȱBalductumȱTragicallȱBalletȱinȱRyme,ȱandȱwithoutȱReason,ȱsetting
outȱtheȱrightȱmyserable,ȱandȱmostȱwofullȱestateȱofȱtheȱwiked,ȱandȱdamnableȱworlde
atȱtheseȱperillousȱdays,ȱafterȱtheȱdevisersȱbestȱmanner:ȱorȱwhatsoeverȱelseȱshallȱfirst
takeȱsomeȱofȱyourȱbraveȱLondonȱEldertonsȱinȱtheȱHead.ȱInȱearnest,ȱIȱcouldȱwisheȱsome
learned,ȱandȱwellȱadvisedȱUniversityȱman,ȱwouldeȱundertakeȱtheȱmatter,ȱandȱbestow
someȱpaynesȱinȱdeedeȱuponȱsoȱfamousȱandȱmateriallȱanȱargument.85ȱ
Inȱhighlightingȱtheȱmasculinityȱofȱhisȱimaginedȱcorrector,ȱcallingȱhimȱaȱuniversity
“man,”ȱandȱbyȱreferringȱtoȱpopularȱliteratureȱasȱ“material”ȱ(orȱ“matter”)ȱthatȱwith
toilȱ“painsȱindeed”ȱcouldȱbeȱdisciplinedȱintoȱsomethingȱworthwhile,ȱHarveyȱis
alludingȱtoȱaȱwellȬknownȱconceptionȱofȱundisciplinedȱlanguageȱasȱfemaleȱ“matter”
andȱ equatingȱ thatȱ femininityȱ withȱ popularȱ writers.ȱ Accordingȱ toȱ Parker,ȱ “the
imageȱofȱ‘matterȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱreadieȱtoȱbeȱframedȱofȱtheȱworkeman’ȱisȱrepeatedȱagainȱand
againȱinȱdescriptionsȱofȱproperȱdisposition”86;ȱmoreover,ȱthisȱ“properȱdisposition”
linkedȱbyȱHarveyȱwithȱtheȱ“universityȱman,”ȱshapesȱandȱbringsȱ
orderȱandȱruleȱtoȱaȱ‘matter’ȱwhichȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱcallsȱattentionȱtoȱaffinitiesȱbetweenȱthisȱlanguage
ofȱcontrolȱofȱmatterȱinȱdiscourseȱandȱtheȱreigningȱgynecologicalȱconceptionȱofȱtheȱmale
asȱ‘disposing’ȱtheȱfemaleȱinȱgeneration,ȱ‘wandering,’ȱuncontrollable,ȱandȱexcessive
materia.87ȱ
Harvey’sȱ praiseȱ ofȱ Eldertonȱ asȱ “brave”ȱ orȱ masculineȱ isȱ obviouslyȱ ironic.ȱ The
sentenceȱ whichȱ followsȱ hisȱ praiseȱ begins,ȱ “inȱ earnest,”ȱ suggestingȱ hisȱ shiftȱ in
sincerity.ȱInȱearnest,ȱheȱseesȱwritersȱfromȱtheȱuniversityȱasȱmen.ȱTheȱstoriesȱofȱthe
popularȱpressȱheȱassociatesȱwithȱaȱfemaleȱmatterȱthatȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱcorrected.ȱ
InȱhisȱlettersȱtoȱSpenser,ȱHarveyȱclearlyȱdisparagesȱpopularȱcultureȱandȱlinksȱit
withȱnonȬrational,ȱweakȬmindedȱwomen.ȱHisȱsentimentȱhereȱisȱalsoȱechoedȱinȱthe
oppositionȱheȱsetsȱupȱbetweenȱtheȱpopularȱandȱtheȱlearnedȱinȱhisȱearlierȱstatement.
84
Thereȱ isȱ actuallyȱ someȱ evidenceȱ inȱ Harvey’sȱ lettersȱ toȱ Spenserȱ thatȱ heȱ wasȱ anonymously
publishingȱworkȱthatȱtheȱuniversityȱmightȱfindȱobjectionable.ȱHeȱsays,ȱ“Ifȱperadventureȱitȱchance
toȱcumȱonceȱowteȱwhoeȱIȱamȱIȱamȱ(asȱIȱcanȱhardlyȱconceiveȱhoweȱitȱanȱnoweȱpossibelyȱbeȱwholye
keptȱin)ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱnowe,ȱgoodȱLorde,ȱhoweȱwillȱmyȱrightȱworshipfullȱandȱthrisevenerableȱmastersȱof
Cambridgeȱscorneȱatȱtheȱmatter.”ȱGabrielȱHarvey,ȱLettersȱtoȱandȱFromȱEdmundȱSpenserȱ(1579–1580)
inȱTheȱWorksȱofȱGabrielȱHarveyȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ114.
85
Harvey,ȱThreeȱProperȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ62.ȱ
86
87
Markȱ Breitenberg,ȱ Anxiousȱ Masculinitiesȱ inȱ Earlyȱ Modernȱ England.ȱ Cambridgeȱ Studiesȱ in
RenaissanceȱLiteratureȱandȱCultureȱ(CambridgeȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱCambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,
1996),ȱ86.ȱ
Heȱclaimsȱthatȱafterȱdinnerȱaȱcoupleȱofȱwomenȱinȱtheȱcompanyȱwithȱwhichȱhe
dinedȱaskedȱhimȱtoȱtryȱtheirȱ“witsȱaȱlittle,ȱandȱletȱthemȱheareȱaȱpeeceȱofȱourȱdeepe
UniversityȱCuning”ȱregardingȱtheȱcauseȱofȱearthquakes.ȱAfterȱhisȱlongȱscientific
explanation,ȱheȱreportsȱthatȱtheyȱexclaimed,ȱ
Hereȱisȱmuchȱadooe,ȱIȱtrowe,ȱandȱlittleȱhelpe.ȱButȱifȱpleasethȱMasterȱHȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱtoȱtellȱus
aȱtrimȱgoodlyȱTaleȱofȱRobinhood,ȱIȱknoweȱnotȱwhat.ȱOrȱSverȱifȱthisȱbeȱGospell,ȱIȱdowte,
Iȱ amȱ notȱ ofȱ goodȱ beleefe.ȱ Trustȱ meȱ truly,ȱ Syr,ȱ yourȱ Elogquenceȱ farreȱ passethȱ my
Intelligence.ȱ
Toȱwhichȱheȱresponded:
DidȱIȱnotȱtellȱyouȱaforehand,ȱquothȱI,ȱasȱmuch?ȱAndȱyetȱwouldȱyouȱneedesȱpresume
ofȱyourȱCapacitiesȱinȱsuchȱprofoundȱmysteriesȱofȱPhilosophie,ȱandȱPrivitesȱofȱNature,
asȱtheseȱbeȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱItȱisȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱenoughȱtoȱcasteȱyouȱbothȱintoȱaȱfitte,ȱorȱtwoȱofȱaȱdaungerous
shakingȱfeaver,ȱunlesseȱyouȱpresentlyȱseekeȱsomeȱremedieȱtoȱpreventȱit.88
Harveyȱsuggestsȱanȱoppositionȱbetweenȱtheȱpopularȱandȱtheȱlearnedȱdiscourses
and,ȱbyȱthisȱreportedȱconversation,ȱconstructsȱtheȱalternativeȱdiscourseȱofȱpopular
talesȱasȱaȱcomfortingȱremedyȱ(aȱtoothlessȱpleasure)ȱforȱtheȱdangerousȱshakingȱfever
thatȱtheȱhyperȱpotentȱ“deepeȱUniversityȱconing”ȱisȱcapableȱofȱprovokingȱinȱfrailer
mentalȱdispositions.ȱHisȱforaysȱintoȱtheȱcarnivalesqueȱinȱhisȱresponsesȱtoȱNashe
willȱrevealȱheȱisȱnotȱasȱunthreatenedȱbyȱtheȱpleasurableȱinȱpopularȱentertainment
asȱheȱhereȱsuggests.ȱ
LikeȱMartinȱMarprelate’sȱthreateningȱtheȱbishopsȱwithȱDameȱLawson,ȱHarvey
threatensȱ popularȱ writersȱ withȱ theȱ specterȱ ofȱ theȱ femaleȱ scoldȱ inȱ Pierces
Supererogation.ȱHisȱengenderingȱofȱlanguageȱmirrorsȱtheȱthreatȱthatȱheȱseesȱinȱthe
popularȱ artists’ȱ “womanish”ȱ writing,ȱ andȱ hisȱ strategyȱ inȱ underminingȱ their
scoldingȱrhetoricȱisȱnotȱonlyȱtoȱreflectȱandȱtherebyȱdeflectȱtheirȱassaultȱbutȱalsoȱto
emasculateȱ theirȱ feminineȱ empowermentȱ byȱ reformingȱ theȱ scold.ȱ Harvey
representsȱtheȱscoldȱinȱtheȱmostȱderogatoryȱformȱofȱfeminizedȱinsubordination,ȱthe
whore;ȱsimultaneously,ȱheȱfiguresȱaȱreformedȱversionȱofȱtheȱscold,ȱasȱaȱchasteȱand
uprightȱlady.ȱHisȱfemaleȱfigureȱofȱcarnivalȱseemsȱschizophrenicȱifȱtheȱlogicȱbehind
herȱdualȱdepictionȱisȱnotȱclearȱtoȱtheȱreader.ȱInȱfact,ȱmostȱcriticsȱhaveȱignoredȱthe
unreformedȱscoldȱinȱthisȱworkȱandȱdebatedȱtheȱsignificanceȱofȱHarvey’sȱupright
lady.ȱTheyȱmissȱtheȱfactȱthatȱtheȱscoldsȱinȱHarvey’sȱworkȱrepresentȱtheȱmodesȱof
writingȱthatȱHarveyȱsuggestsȱareȱavailableȱtoȱNashe;ȱheȱcanȱbeȱaȱreformedȱscold
orȱremainȱaȱharlot.ȱHarvey’sȱscold/whoreȱparodiesȱpopularȱwriters;ȱsheȱexposes
theȱ“harlotry”ȱinȱtheirȱ“unbridledȱstile,”ȱasȱHarveyȱtermsȱit.ȱ
Hisȱmockingȱexplanationȱofȱwhyȱheȱhasȱchosenȱtoȱadaptȱthisȱfeminineȱdiscourse
isȱthatȱheȱ“mustȱlearnȱtoȱimitateȱbyȱExample”;ȱthatȱis,ȱheȱwillȱtakeȱNashe’sȱexample
88
GabrielȱHarvey,ȱThreeȱLettersȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱ44,ȱ47.
780 KyleȱDiRoberto
ofȱimitationȱandȱuseȱhisȱstyleȱagainstȱhim.89ȱNasheȱoftenȱimitatedȱtheȱflatfooted
Harveyȱtoȱhilariousȱeffect,ȱbutȱwhatȱHarveyȱisȱsuggestingȱhereȱisȱaȱmirroringȱof
mirroring.ȱ Heȱ will,ȱ inȱ otherȱ words,ȱ attemptȱ toȱ mirrorȱ theȱ popularȱ authors’
mirroringȱ ofȱ theȱ Puritans’ȱ indictmentȱ ofȱ “womanish”ȱ writing.ȱ Hisȱ indictment
provokedȱ Nasheȱ andȱ othersȱ toȱ representȱ themselvesȱ deliberatelyȱ asȱ scolds,
prostitutes,ȱandȱoldwives.90ȱ
Theȱpopularȱwriters’ȱstrategyȱforȱliberatingȱtheirȱartisticȱexpressionȱfromȱPuritan
oppositionȱ isȱ similarȱ toȱ theȱ strategyȱ Luceȱ Irigarayȱ suggestsȱ womenȱ practiceȱ in
seekingȱliberationȱfromȱaȱdiscourseȱofȱoppressionȱconstructedȱuponȱ“masculine
logic.”ȱ Sheȱ suggestsȱ theyȱ “playȱ withȱ mimesis”ȱ andȱ thusȱ recoverȱ theirȱ placeȱ in
discourse,ȱwithoutȱallowingȱthemselvesȱtoȱbeȱsimplyȱreducedȱbyȱit.ȱ“Oneȱmust
assumeȱtheȱfeminineȱroleȱdeliberately,ȱwhichȱmeansȱalreadyȱtoȱconvertȱaȱformȱof
subordinationȱintoȱanȱaffirmation,ȱandȱthusȱtoȱbeginȱtoȱthwartȱit.”91ȱHavingȱbeen
reducedȱtoȱtheȱculturalȱpositionȱofȱtheȱfeminineȱbyȱaȱconstructedȱ“masculine”ȱlogic
ofȱtheȱHarveyȱbrothers,ȱearlyȱmodernȱpopularȱwritersȱdoȱnotȱallowȱthemselvesȱto
beȱsimplyȱreducedȱtoȱtheȱinsignificant.ȱInstead,ȱtheyȱassumeȱtheȱfeminineȱroleȱof
bodilyȱ disorderȱ voluntarily:ȱ Greeneȱ isȱ asȱ lasciviousȱ inȱ Menaphonȱ asȱ Nasheȱ is
uproariouslyȱ funnyȱ inȱ hisȱ disorderedȱ carnivalesqueȱ overturningȱ ofȱ Puritan
authorityȱinȱPierceȱandȱotherȱpamphlets.ȱAsȱIrigarayȱsuggests,ȱwomenȱdo,ȱthey
turnȱtheirȱsubordinationȱintoȱanȱaffirmation.ȱTheyȱareȱsoȱsuccessfulȱthatȱHarvey
triesȱtoȱreformȱthemȱbyȱaȱsimilarȱmimicry.ȱImitatingȱtheirȱfeminineȱwritingȱand
suggestingȱsimultaneously,ȱifȱratherȱlamely,ȱanȱalternativeȱfemaleȱpositionȱand,
hence,ȱartisticȱidentity,ȱHarveyȱtriesȱtoȱmakeȱvirtuousȱwomen/artistsȱoutȱofȱthem.ȱ
Firstȱ Harveyȱ revealsȱ justȱ whatȱ heȱ despisesȱ inȱ theȱ popularȱ artistsȱ andȱ their
“womanish”ȱwriting.ȱHeȱcallsȱNasheȱaȱ“gossip”ȱandȱassertsȱthatȱtheȱ“CuckingȬ
stoole”ȱisȱhisȱCopyhold.ȱCondemningȱNashe’sȱrhetoricalȱexcess,ȱHarveyȱremarks
thatȱhisȱadversaryȱcouldȱ“readeȱaȱRhetoric,ȱorȱLogiqueȱLectureȱtoȱHecubaȱinȱthe
Artȱofȱraving,ȱandȱinstructȱTisiphoneȱherselfeȱinȱherȱowneȱgnashingȱlanguage.”ȱHis
indictmentȱculminatesȱinȱtyingȱNashe’sȱexcessȱofȱlanguage,ȱhisȱ“Unbridadleȱstile,”
toȱtheȱunbridledȱsexualityȱofȱaȱwhore.ȱIndeed,ȱheȱrefersȱtoȱtheȱscoldȱNasheȱasȱa
“butterȱ whore.”ȱ Hisȱ “OvenȬMouth,”ȱ indicativeȱ ofȱ thatȱ otherȱ orifice,ȱ Harvey
rendersȱinsatiable,ȱableȱtoȱ“swa[p]ȬdowneȱaȱpoundeȱofȱButterȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱofȱaȱBreakefast.”92
89
90
AlthoughȱGreeneȱwasȱdeadȱbeforeȱtheȱpublicationsȱinȱwhichȱHarveyȱblatantlyȱreferredȱtoȱNashe
andȱGreene’sȱwritingȱasȱHarlotry,ȱPuritansȱhad,ȱbeforeȱthisȱtime,ȱdrawnȱ“anȱanalogyȱbetween
poetsȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ[and]ȱprostitutes”ȱinȱtheirȱattacksȱagainstȱpopularȱculture.ȱSeeȱIanȱFredrickȱMoulton,
BeforeȱPornography:ȱEroticȱWritingȱinȱEarlyȱModernȱEngland.ȱStudiesȱinȱtheȱHistoryȱofȱSexuality
(OxfordȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2000),ȱespeciallyȱ83.ȱ
91
LuceȱIrigaray,ȱTheȱSexȱWhichȱisȱNotȱOneȱ(Ithaca,ȱNY:ȱCornellȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1985),ȱ8.
92
Harvey,ȱPiercesȱSupererogationȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ2:231.ȱHarveyȱincludesȱallȱartistsȱassociatedȱwithȱNashe
inȱhisȱattackȱonȱNashe.ȱThoughȱthisȱisȱnotȱevidentȱinȱthisȱquote,ȱthereȱareȱmanyȱinstancesȱinȱwhich
Harveyȱfurtherȱclaimsȱthatȱitȱtakesȱaȱscoldȱtoȱcorrectȱaȱscoldȱandȱthatȱthereforeȱa
“Butterwhoreȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱlikeȱanȱarrantȱKnightȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱmightȱperadventureȱinȱsomeȱsortȱpay
[Nashe]ȱ homeȱ withȱ Schoolebutter.”ȱ Indeed,ȱ aȱ virtuousȱ scoldȱ (Harveyȱ inȱ a
carnivalesqueȱgenderȱinversionȱwithȱvirtueȱintact,ȱofȱcourse)ȱisȱcomingȱthroughȱhis
newȱpamphletȱentitledȱNashe’sȱS.ȱFame,ȱtoȱschoolȱhim:ȱ
S.ȱFameȱisȱdisposedȱtoȱmakeȱitȱHallyday.ȱSheȱhathȱalreadyȱputȬonȱherȱwispenȱgarland
overȱherȱpowtingȱCroscloth:ȱandȱbeholdȱwithȱwhatȱanȱImperialȱMaistieȱsheȱcommeth
ridingȱinȱtheȱduckingȬchariotȱofȱherȱTriumphe.93ȱ
Theȱscold/whoreȱandȱHarvey’sȱreformedȱscoldȱshareȱmanyȱcharacteristics.ȱThe
imageȱ ofȱ theȱ knight,ȱ theȱ equestrianȱ hero,ȱ forȱ example,ȱ Harveyȱ echoesȱ inȱ his
gentlewoman’sȱimminentȱscoldingȱpen,ȱ“AȱveryȱPegasusȱindeede,ȱ[that]ȱrunneth
likeȱwingedȱhorse,ȱgovernedȱwithȱtheȱhandȱofȱexquisiteȱskill.”94ȱHeȱengendersȱher
triumphantȱlambasting,ȱhoweverȱ(andȱalsoȱhis),ȱasȱmasculine.ȱHerȱscoldingȱisȱa
supererogation,ȱorȱmilitaryȱactionȱbeyondȱtheȱcallȱofȱduty:ȱ“Sheȱitȱis,”ȱheȱasserts,
“thatȱmustȱreturneȱtheȱmightyȱfamousȱworkeȱofȱSupererogationȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.”95ȱHarvey’s
anxietyȱwithȱassumingȱtheȱfeminineȱroleȱisȱsoȱprofoundȱheȱmustȱsimultaneously
undermineȱwhatȱheȱattemptsȱtoȱsetȱup.ȱ
TheȱmoralȱgenreȱofȱtheȱcorrectingȱmirrorȱjustifiesȱHarvey’sȱadaptionȱofȱNashe’s
styleȱinȱPiercesȱSupererogation.ȱMoreover,ȱhisȱcorrectionȱthroughȱimitationȱworks
notȱ justȱ toȱ showȱ Nasheȱ whatȱ aȱ monsterȱ heȱ is,ȱ byȱ reflectingȱ hisȱ styleȱ andȱ thus
correctingȱhim;ȱitȱalsoȱworksȱtoȱamendȱtheȱfigureȱofȱtheȱscold,ȱi.e.,ȱtoȱreformȱthe
carnivalesqueȱthroughȱreformingȱpopularȱwriters.ȱAsȱusual,ȱHarvey’sȱattackȱon
NasheȱisȱalsoȱanȱattackȱonȱGreeneȱandȱtheȱrestȱofȱtheȱ“gawdieȱwitts”ȱofȱEngland’s
“mostȬvillanousȱ Presse.”96ȱ Drawingȱ onȱ Nashe’sȱ notoriousȱ styleȱ ofȱ mixed
metaphors,ȱpunning,ȱandȱallegory,ȱHarveyȱusesȱaȱmixedȱmetaphorȱconsistingȱof
aȱurinal,ȱmirror,ȱandȱaȱscoldȱtoȱdiagnose,ȱreflect,ȱandȱreformȱNashe’sȱrhetoric.ȱHe
claimsȱthatȱinȱhisȱimminentȱworkȱS.ȱFame—theȱworkȱthatȱalsoȱcontainsȱtheȱthreat
ofȱtheȱvirtuousȱscold—HarveyȱwillȱdetermineȱandȱcureȱNashe’sȱmaladyȱ(i.e.,ȱhis
artistry).ȱHeȱclaimsȱthatȱhe
cannotȱwellȱcastȱhisȱwater,ȱwithoutȱanȱUrinallȱeitherȱold,ȱorȱnew:ȱbutȱanȱoldȱUrinval
willȱnotȱsoȱhandsomlyȱserveȱtheȱturne:ȱitȱwouldȱbeȱaȱnew,ȱasȱtheȱCapcaseȱofȱStraunge
Newes:ȱbutȱaȱpureȱmirrourȱofȱanȱimpureȱstale;ȱneitherȱgroseȱtheȱclearerȱtoȱrepresentȱa
itȱisȱandȱmanyȱotherȱinstancesȱinȱwhichȱtheirȱartisticȱexpressionsȱareȱalsoȱassociatedȱwithȱaȱlack
ofȱsexualȱrestraint.ȱSeeȱforȱexampleȱpageȱ91ȱinȱwhichȱHarveyȱrefersȱtoȱthemȱasȱ“inventoursȱof
newe,ȱorȱrviversȱofȱoldȱleacheries,”ȱandȱcallsȱthemȱaȱ“wholeȱbroodȱofȱvenereousȱLibertines.”ȱ
93
94
95
96
Harvey,ȱPierce’sȱSupererogationȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ2:218.
782 KyleȱDiRoberto
groseȱ substãce;ȱ norȱ green,ȱ theȱ livelyerȱ toȱ expresseȱ someȱ greeneȱ colours,ȱ &ȱ other
wantonȱaccidents;ȱnorȱanyȱwayȱaȱharlot,ȱtheȱtrulyerȱtoȱdiscooverȱtheȱstateȱofȱharlatrie.97ȱ
Theȱmetaphorȱcompletelyȱbreaksȱdownȱasȱitȱisȱbeingȱcreated.ȱHeȱgoesȱfromȱtalking
aboutȱurineȱtoȱtalkingȱaboutȱprostitutesȱandȱpopularȱwriters.ȱHisȱawkwardness
illustratesȱ hisȱ contemptȱ forȱ artisticȱ subtlety,ȱ livelyȱ writing,ȱ andȱ elaborately
figurativeȱ language;ȱ byȱ exposingȱ theȱ dualȱ meaningȱ ofȱ theȱ wordȱ staleȱ andȱ by
alludingȱtoȱRobertȱGreene,ȱlife,ȱandȱdiseaseȱinȱtheȱwordȱ“green,”ȱheȱundermines
theȱsignificanceȱofȱmetaphorȱtoȱmeaning.ȱHisȱcontrivancesȱandȱtopicalȱallusions,
ratherȱ thanȱ suggestingȱ theȱ complexȱ meaningȱ thatȱ metaphorȱ createsȱ between
seeminglyȱcontraryȱthings,ȱemphasizeȱtheȱbelaboringȱofȱunlikeȱtermsȱunnaturally
yokedȱtoȱoneȱanother.ȱReflectingȱNashe’sȱmaladyȱandȱHarvey’sȱjudgmentȱofȱthat
malady,ȱthisȱpassageȱhangsȱuponȱthreeȱwords,ȱ“gross,”ȱ“stale,”ȱandȱ“green”ȱin
manyȱ sensesȱ ofȱ theȱ words.ȱ Ifȱ Nashe’sȱ urineȱ isȱ literallyȱ thick,ȱ orȱ gross,ȱ itȱ is
suggestiveȱ ofȱ disease,ȱ theȱ diseaseȱ thatȱ inȱ factȱ Harveyȱ attributesȱ toȱ theȱ other
meaningȱofȱthick,ȱaȱmeaningȱfreightedȱwithȱmoralȱjudgment:ȱbloatedȱwithȱexcess.
Thisȱ excess,ȱ asȱ shownȱ byȱ Harvey’sȱ imitation,ȱ isȱ inȱ theȱ natureȱ ofȱ punsȱ and
metaphors.ȱLikeȱtheȱpunȱonȱstale,ȱmeaningȱbothȱcorruptingȱfemaleȱandȱurine,ȱpuns
andȱ metaphorsȱ revealȱ theȱ polysemyȱ ofȱ wordsȱ that,ȱ dependingȱ onȱ one’s
perspective,ȱclutterȱorȱenrichȱtheȱsemanticȱfieldȱofȱlanguage.98ȱForȱHarvey,ȱeven
moreȱthanȱcluttering,ȱmultiplicityȱpervertsȱmeaning,ȱtyingȱartȱtoȱtheȱunruly.ȱ
Thoughȱ heȱ isȱ obviouslyȱ teachingȱ throughȱ imitation,ȱ inȱ hisȱ anxietyȱ withȱ the
lawlessnessȱthatȱcomesȱwithȱimitatingȱNashe,ȱheȱclaimsȱtoȱbeȱteachingȱbyȱcontrast.
Heȱreflectsȱthroughȱaȱchasteȱwoman,ȱ“ȱaȱpureȱmirror,”ȱwhereȱwomanȱstandsȱfor
artist,ȱanȱ“impureȱstale.”ȱAsȱheȱclaimsȱearlyȱinȱSupererogation,ȱNashe’sȱlawlessness
inȱpracticingȱtheȱartsȱwouldȱdestroyȱtheȱauthorityȱofȱrhetoricians,ȱtheȱuniversities,
andȱproperȱartists,ȱandȱreplaceȱitȱwithȱtheȱcriminalityȱofȱprostitutionȱandȱdisease.
Harveyȱlaments,ȱ
GodnightȱpooreȱRhetoriqueȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱadieuȱgoodȱoldȱHumanity:ȱgentleȱArtesȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱsometime
floorishingȱUniversitiesȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱyourȱvassallesȱofȱduetyȱmustȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱbecomeȱtheȱslavesȱofȱthat
dominieringȱeloquence,ȱthatȱknowethȱnoȱArtȱbutȱtheȱcuttingȱArte;ȱnorȱacknowledges
noȱschoolȱbutȱtheȱCurtisanȱschoole.ȱTheȱrestȱisȱpureȱnaturalȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱwouldȱitȱwereȱnotȱan
infectiousȱbane,ȱorȱanȱincrochingȱpocke.99ȱ
97
Harvey,ȱPierce’sȱSupererogationȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ2:228.
98
SeeȱTheȱOxfordȱEnglishȱDictionary,ȱ2ndȱed.ȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱNov.ȱ6,ȱ2011).ȱhttp://www.oed.com;
hereafterȱOED.ȱAȱ“stale,”ȱinȱtheȱsenseȱofȱsnare,ȱorȱaȱfalseȱbirdȱthatȱluresȱotherȱbirdsȱinȱorderȱto
entrapȱthem,ȱwasȱoftenȱusedȱfigurativelyȱtoȱmeanȱaȱwoman,ȱandȱanȱimpureȱstaleȱinȱtheȱabove
quoteȱsuggestsȱasȱmuch.
99
Nashe’sȱstyleȱisȱcriminal,ȱaccordingȱtoȱtheȱaboveȱpassage.ȱItȱisȱinfectiousȱandȱbrings
“anȱ incroachingȱ pocke,”ȱ orȱ syphilis.ȱ Thisȱ isȱ furtherȱ developedȱ inȱ Harvey’s
diagnosesȱofȱNashe’sȱdiseasedȱstyle.ȱInȱdiscussingȱNashe’sȱurine,ȱheȱisȱalsoȱtaking
yetȱ anotherȱ stabȱ atȱ theȱ styleȱ ofȱ Greene,ȱ andȱ heȱ blamesȱ Greeneȱ forȱ Nashe’s
adaptationȱ ofȱ thisȱ “wanton”ȱ style.ȱ Heȱ setsȱ upȱ anȱ oppositionȱ throughoutȱ the
pamphletȱbetweenȱwritersȱlikeȱGreene,ȱ“mockersȱofȱtheȱsimpleȱworld,”ȱandȱthe
correct,ȱchasteȱstyle,ȱwhichȱisȱrepresentedȱasȱnotȱ“greene”ȱbutȱ“clear.”100ȱ“Simple,”
“plain,”ȱ“clear”:ȱallȱtheseȱtermsȱcontrastȱwithȱGreene’sȱandȱNashe’sȱabundantly
imaginativeȱandȱverboseȱ“green”ȱstyle–alludingȱtoȱtheȱfertileȱelementȱinȱnature.
Suchȱ aȱ styleȱ Harveyȱ interpretsȱ asȱ feminine.ȱ Heȱ refersȱ toȱ Nasheȱ andȱ Greeneȱ as
“motherȱ wits”ȱ andȱ complainsȱ ofȱ theirȱ “motherȬtongues.”101ȱ Theȱ masculineȱ by
contrastȱisȱassociatedȱwithȱrestraintȱandȱreason,ȱevenȱaȱlackȱofȱfertility.ȱ
Theȱ fertileȱ styleȱ ofȱ popularȱ writers,ȱ whenȱ linkedȱ toȱ theȱ feminineȱ asȱ itȱ isȱ in
Harvey’sȱ perspective,ȱ isȱ notȱ onlyȱ deceptiveȱ itȱ isȱ sinful;ȱ itsȱ excessȱ suggests
unbridledȱsexualityȱandȱinordinateȱappetite.ȱInȱ Harvey’sȱview,ȱartisticȱcivility,
ironically,ȱconsistsȱnotȱinȱartfulnessȱbutȱinȱdiscipline.ȱArtȱassociatedȱwithȱcorporeal
pleasureȱisȱsinfulȱandȱmustȱbeȱchastened.ȱHence,ȱHarvey’sȱchasteȱscold.ȱTheȱnew
chasteȱscold,ȱhowever,ȱhasȱproblems.ȱTheseȱareȱreflectedȱinȱtheȱinabilityȱofȱHarvey
toȱrepresentȱaȱchasteȱscold;ȱtheȱconstructionȱliesȱoutsideȱtheȱlogicȱofȱhisȱdiscourse.
Heȱclaimsȱofȱtheȱlady,ȱ
Everyȱ eyeȱ ofȱ capacityȱ willȱ seeȱ aȱ conspicuousȱ differenceȱ betweeneȱ her,ȱ andȱ other
mirrorsȱofȱEloquenceȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱitȱwillȱthenȱappeare,ȱasȱitȱwereȱinȱaȱcleereȱUrinal,ȱwhoseȱwitt
hathȱtheȱgreeneȬsickness.102ȱ
Hisȱ reformedȱ scoldȱ representsȱ allȱ theȱ artisticȱ qualitiesȱ heȱ promotes:ȱ control,
homosocialȱalliance,ȱandȱsimplicity,ȱyetȱsheȱremainsȱaȱ“urinal,”ȱassociatedȱwithȱthe
lowerȱbodilyȱstratum.ȱHarveyȱprovidesȱanȱexampleȱofȱherȱwork;ȱitȱcontainsȱjest
bookȱconceitsȱandȱisȱlessȱthanȱdecentȱbyȱHarvey’sȱstandards,ȱfullȱofȱ“bawdry,”
imagesȱ ofȱ flaccidȱ “meacocks”ȱ likeȱ “flaggingȱ flowre[s]ȱ inȱ theȱ rain,”ȱ andȱ pure
“Nasherie”ȱ thatȱ Harveyȱ cannotȱ helpȱ butȱ useȱ inȱ replyȱ toȱ Nashe’sȱ assaultȱ on
Harvey’sȱconstructionȱofȱmasculinity.103ȱ
Mostȱ scholarsȱ ignoreȱ theȱ dualityȱ andȱ contradictionȱ withȱ whichȱ Harvey
representsȱ theȱ scoldȱ inȱ thisȱ pamphlet.ȱ Theyȱ concentrateȱ onȱ hisȱ depictionȱ ofȱ a
virtuousȱlady,ȱandȱonȱHarvey’sȱhintingȱatȱtheȱpossibilityȱthatȱsheȱmightȱbeȱthe
CountessȱofȱPembroke,ȱratherȱthanȱonȱallȱtheȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱheȱalsoȱdisruptsȱthis
imageȱ withȱ theȱ specterȱ ofȱ theȱ carnivalesqueȱ “butterwhore”ȱ scoldȱ anxiously
100
101
102
Harvey,ȱPiercesȱSupererogationȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4),ȱ2:324.ȱ
103
784 KyleȱDiRoberto
weddedȱ toȱ theȱ activeȱ agencyȱ ofȱ theȱ gentlewoman.ȱ Herȱ wildlyȱ contradictory
elementsȱ ofȱ chaste,ȱ ladyȬlikeȱ behavior,ȱ masculineȱ aggression,ȱ andȱ sexualȱ and
linguisticȱ excessȱ belieȱ theȱ anxietyȱ withȱ whichȱ Harveyȱ approachedȱ this
carnivalesqueȱfigure.ȱHisȱattemptȱtoȱharnessȱherȱsexualityȱandȱtransgression,ȱand
thatȱofȱartisticȱexpression,ȱisȱobviousȱasȱisȱhisȱtellingȱfailureȱtoȱdoȱso.
Similarȱ toȱ Gabriel,ȱ Richardȱ Harveyȱ alsoȱ attemptedȱ toȱ engenderȱ anȱ idealized
plainȱspeechȱasȱmasculineȱandȱtoȱemasculateȱpopularȱwriters;ȱinȱtheȱprocessȱof
tryingȱtoȱharnessȱtheȱpowerȱofȱtheȱfemaleȱwit.ȱRichard’sȱPlainȱPercevalȱopensȱwith
anȱoldȱwives’ȱtaleȱbeginning,ȱwhichȱitȱalmostȱimmediatelyȱinterruptsȱwithȱaȱmore
authoritarianȱvoice.ȱ
GossipȱReasonȱtheȱchiefeȱactorȱinȱtheȱpageantȱofȱmyȱbrain,ȱbeganȱȱthisȱmotherly,ȱand
wellȱpowderedȱtale.ȱTheȱmedlingȱApe,ȱthatȱlikeȱaȱtallwoodȱcleaver,ȱassayingȱtoȱread
aȱtwopenyȱbilletȱinȱtwoȱpieces,ȱdidȱwedgeȱinȱhisȱpettitoesȱforȱaȱsaie:ȱandȱremainedȱforth
comingȱatȱtheȱdirectionȱofȱthose,ȱwhoseȱoccupationȱheȱencroachedȱuponȱuntilȱheȱwas
free.ȱShortȱthoughȱhisȱapprentiship,ȱdidȱheȱnotȱpayȱforȱhisȱlearning.104ȱ
Richard’sȱdescriptionȱofȱtheȱgossip’sȱstoryȱasȱaȱmotherly,ȱpowderedȱtaleȱsuggests
theȱsameȱbiasesȱfoundȱinȱGabriel’sȱrhetoricȱandȱindeedȱinȱtheȱgeneralȱlogicȱofȱthe
masculineȱdiscourseȱwithȱwhichȱtheȱHarveyȱbrothersȱhaveȱalignedȱthemselves.ȱThe
styleȱ ofȱ theȱ woman’sȱ taleȱ isȱ associatedȱ withȱ aȱ carnivalesqueȱ sexualȱ excess,
“powdered”ȱhavingȱaȱplethoraȱofȱmeaningsȱbutȱmostȱoftenȱsuggestingȱpickled,
ornamented,ȱandȱhavingȱbeenȱtreatedȱforȱvenerealȱdisease.105ȱPowderedȱtales,ȱin
theirȱornamentation,ȱareȱassociatedȱwithȱtheȱpopularȱwriters;ȱtherefore,ȱtheȱmoral
ofȱtheȱstory,ȱironically,ȱisȱasȱtrueȱforȱMartinȱasȱitȱisȱforȱtheȱHarveys.ȱRichardȱclaims,
inȱ theȱ aboveȱ passage,ȱ thatȱ Martinȱ “theȱ medlingȱ Apeȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ “assayingȱ toȱ readȱ a
twopennyȱbilletȱinȱtwoȱpieces,”ȱorȱtoȱreadȱaȱcarnivalesqueȱpamphletȱinȱaȱcontrary
veinȱ (i.e.,ȱ wrestingȱ theȱ carnivalesqueȱ styleȱ inȱ supportȱ ofȱ Puritanȱ causes,ȱ the
heretoforeȱenemyȱofȱpopularȱculture)ȱ“pays”ȱdeeplyȱforȱhisȱcunning.ȱInȱimitating
theȱ popularȱ writers,ȱ “whoseȱ occupationȱ heȱ encroachedȱ upon,”ȱ heȱ becomes
afflictedȱ withȱ theirȱ disease;ȱ inȱ otherȱ words,ȱ heȱ tellsȱ powderedȱ talesȱ andȱ even
assumesȱtheȱinordinateȱfemaleȱvoice.ȱ
RichardȱHarveyȱsuggests,ȱasȱaȱwarningȱtoȱothers,ȱthatȱheȱalmostȱsuccumbsȱtoȱthe
contaminatingȱ styleȱ ofȱ popularȱ culture.ȱ Uponȱ enteringȱ theȱ fray,ȱ heȱ beginsȱ by
tellingȱhisȱaudienceȱaȱ“poweder’d”ȱtale,ȱthroughȱGossipȱReason,ȱ“inȱtheȱpageant”
ofȱhisȱbrain.ȱInȱillustrationȱofȱtheȱreformationȱofȱpopularȱliterature,ȱhowever,ȱhe
recoversȱandȱisȱinterruptedȱbyȱtheȱsimpleȱmasculineȱplainȱstyle.ȱAsȱtheȱPuritans’
reconfiguringȱ ofȱ theȱ carnivalesqueȱ ensues,ȱ Gossipȱ Reason’sȱ powderedȱ taleȱ is
reformed.ȱThisȱ“chiefeȱactor”ȱinȱfemaleȱgarbȱisȱsubordinatedȱtoȱherȱLandlordȱand
104
RichardȱHarvey,ȱPlainȱPercevalȱ(seeȱnoteȱ8),ȱ5
105
SeeȱtheȱOEDȱ(lastȱaccessedȱJan.ȱ7,ȱ2012).
isȱtaughtȱtoȱ“giveȱeveryȱmanȱhisȱright.”ȱFollowingȱtheȱaboveȱquoteȱinȱwhichȱMartin
isȱwarnedȱbyȱtheȱgossip’sȱtale,ȱtheȱcharacterȱofȱtheȱlandlordȱbreaksȱinȱand,ȱthrough
theȱremainderȱofȱtheȱplowman’sȱtale,ȱcorrectsȱtheȱplowman:ȱ
TushȱPercevall,ȱhathȱnoȱfeliciteȱinȱtheseȱcaptiousȱintergatories.ȱAndȱthereforeȱgood
sweetȱTennentȱReason,ȱspeakeȱplainely,ȱandȱsayȱLandlordȱmineȱ(Giveȱeveryȱmanȱhis
right).ȱHeȱthatȱthrustsȱhisȱfingerȱbetweenȱtheȱbarkȱandȱtheȱtree,ȱisȱlikeȱtoȱbeȱpinched.
CounterfetȱMartinȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱencounterȱnotȱthemȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱtheyȱcarryȱfierȱinȱtheirȱharts,ȱandȱdeath
inȱtheirȱmouthsȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ106
Inȱthisȱpassage,ȱRichardȱHarveyȱreformsȱandȱreducesȱtheȱgossipȱbyȱhavingȱherȱfirst
submitȱ toȱ herȱ lord,ȱ andȱ thenȱ makingȱ herȱ speakȱ plainly.ȱ Sheȱ thenȱ warnsȱ the
imitatingȱMartinȱagainstȱtheȱwilesȱofȱtheȱpopularȱwritersȱinȱaȱlessȱobtuseȱstyleȱbut
withȱ theȱ sameȱ message.ȱ Ifȱ youȱ imitateȱ theȱ popularȱ writers’ȱ style,ȱ youȱ mayȱ be
infectedȱ withȱ theirȱ diseases.ȱ Similarȱ toȱ Puritanȱ descriptionsȱ ofȱ prostitutes,ȱ the
popularȱwritersȱareȱdepictedȱasȱcarryingȱfireȱinȱtheirȱhartsȱ(havingȱanȱinordinate
sexualȱappetite)ȱandȱspreadingȱtheirȱsexuallyȱtransmittedȱdiseasesȱthroughȱtheir
useȱofȱlanguageȱ(carryingȱdeathȱinȱtheirȱmouths).ȱ
Theȱpopularȱwritersȱdefendedȱtheirȱuseȱofȱartisticȱlanguageȱinȱaȱcarnivalesque
wayȱbyȱhystericalȱinversionsȱandȱcomedicȱparodies,ȱinȱwhichȱtheyȱsuggestedȱthe
Puritanȱsimplicityȱinȱtheȱarts,ȱwhichȱtheȱHarveysȱpromoted,ȱandȱwhichȱSpenser
practiced,ȱ toȱ beȱ theȱ productȱ ofȱ anȱ uncharitableȱ avariceȱ andȱ anȱ attempted
impositionȱofȱanȱantiȬcarnivalesque,ȱoverlyȱpiousȱschoolmasterȱtyrannyȱuponȱthe
arts.ȱForȱexample,ȱNashe’sȱPierceȱPennilessȱrevealsȱtheȱwayȱinȱwhichȱtheȱHarvey
brothersȱ wreckȱ theȱ carnivalesqueȱ inȱ hisȱ mockeryȱ ofȱ Gabriel’sȱ stereotypically
Puritanȱmoralȱoutrageȱandȱpietyȱasȱwellȱasȱhisȱpedantryȱinȱattemptingȱtoȱwedȱthe
rhetoricalȱtheoriesȱofȱaȱschoolmasterȱtoȱpopularȱculture:ȱ
Monsterous,ȱmonsterousȱandȱpalpable,ȱnotȱtoȱbeȱspokenȱofȱinȱChristianȱcongregations
thoughȱhastȱskumdȱoverȱtheȱschoolemen,ȱandȱofȱtheȱfrothȱofȱtheirȱfollyȱmadeȱaȱdishȱof
divinitieȱBrewesse,ȱwhichȱtheȱdogsȱwillȱnotȱeate.107
Then,ȱ inȱ aȱ typicalȱ parodyȱ and,ȱ simultaneouslyȱ anȱ inversion,ȱ heȱ posesȱ asȱ a
schoolmasterȱhimselfȱandȱgivesȱGabrielȱaȱrhetoricalȱspankingȱforȱhisȱmisuseȱof
language:
Thouȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱthatȱcameȱtoȱtheȱLogickeȱSchoolesȱwhenȱthouȱwertȱaȱfreshman,ȱandȱwritist
phrases;ȱoffȱwithȱthyȱgowneȱandȱuntrusse,ȱforȱIȱmeanȱtoȱlasheȱtheeȱmightly.108ȱ
106
RichardȱHarvey,ȱPlainȱPercevalȱ(seeȱnoteȱ8),ȱ5.
107
ThomasȱNashe,ȱPierceȱPennilesseȱHisȱSupplicationȱtoȱtheȱDevillȱ(1592)ȱinȱTheȱWorksȱofȱThomasȱNashe
(seeȱnoteȱ9),ȱ1:98.
108
Nashe,ȱPierceȱPennilesseȱ(seeȱnoteȱ107),ȱ198.
786 KyleȱDiRoberto
ThereȱareȱfewȱwritersȱwhoȱcouldȱmatchȱNashe’sȱorȱGreene’sȱplayfulȱvirtuosityȱand,
inȱfact,ȱtheȱmoreȱtheȱHarveyȱbrothersȱtriedȱtoȱengageȱinȱaȱbattleȱofȱwitsȱwithȱNashe
andȱGreeneȱtheȱmoreȱtheirȱsincerityȱseemedȱtoȱbegȱlampooning.ȱ
Inȱ Pierceȱ Penniless,ȱ Nasheȱ affirmsȱ theȱ associationȱ (createdȱ byȱ Puritans)ȱ of
prostitutesȱasȱtheȱenemiesȱofȱplowmen,ȱcompletelyȱinvertingȱtheirȱconstruction.ȱHe
attributesȱtoȱPuritansȱtheȱfeminineȱdeceptionȱwithȱwhichȱheȱhasȱbeenȱaccusedȱand
attributesȱtoȱhimselfȱtheȱviceȱcorrectingȱcharacteristicsȱofȱtheȱplowman.ȱInsteadȱof
copiousness,ȱheȱsuggests,ȱhypocrisyȱisȱtheȱsourceȱofȱPuritanȱfemininity.ȱHeȱcreates
aȱ mockȱ blazonȱ ofȱ theȱ proudȱ hypocriteȱ (rubyȱ cheeks,ȱ cherryȱ lips)ȱ inȱ whichȱ the
Puritanȱisȱsaidȱtoȱcoverȱhisȱ“uglieȱvisageȱofȱPrideȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱafterȱtheȱcolorȱofȱtheȱnewȱLord
Mayor’sȱposts”ȱandȱsoȱappearȱwhatȱheȱisȱnot.109ȱTheȱLordȱMayorȱwasȱtheȱmoral
authorityȱtoȱwhomȱpeopleȱinȱLondonȱreportedȱindecencies.ȱNasheȱclaimsȱthatȱthe
Puritans’ȱsinfulnessȱisȱpaintedȱoverȱwithȱtheȱcolorȱofȱmoralȱauthority.ȱSimilarly,ȱin
theȱfollowingȱlines,ȱNasheȱasserts,ȱ
Wiseȱ wasȱ thatȱ sinȱ washingȱ poetȱ thatȱ madeȱ theȱ Balletȱ ofȱ Blueȱ starchȱ andȱ poaking
stickes,ȱ forȱ indeedȱ theȱ lawneȱ ofȱ licentiousnesseȱ hathȱ consumedȱ allȱ theȱ wheatȱ of
hospitalities.ȱItȱisȱsaid,ȱLaurenceȱLucifer,ȱthatȱyouȱwentȱupȱandȱdownȱLondonȱcrying
.ȱ .ȱ .ȱ likeȱ aȱ lanterneȱ &ȱ candleȱ man.ȱ Iȱ mervaileȱ noȱ Laundresseȱ wouldȱ giveȱ youȱ the
washingȱ ofȱ yourȱ faceȱ forȱ yourȱ labour,ȱ forȱ Godȱ knowesȱ itȱ isȱ asȱ blackȱ asȱ theȱ black
prince.110
Utilizingȱ theȱ criticismȱ ofȱ predatoryȱ economicȱ practicesȱ andȱ religiousȱ abuse
employedȱinȱLangland’sȱPiersȱPlowmanȱwhereȱwheatȱcanȱbuyȱabsolution,ȱNashe
claimsȱtheȱhypocriticalȱPuritanȱwouldȱwhiteȬwashȱhisȱfaceȱwithȱstarchȱinȱorderȱto
coverȱhisȱhypocrisy,ȱbutȱallȱtheȱwheatȱhasȱbeenȱconsumedȱbyȱtheȱcovetousȱPuritan
courtier.111ȱ Asȱ Davidȱ Bakerȱ interpretsȱ thisȱ passageȱ inȱ Onȱ Demand,ȱ “theȱ wheat
whichȱ onceȱ wasȱ givenȱ awayȱ inȱ theȱ nameȱ ofȱ charityȱ isȱ nowȱ givenȱ overȱ toȱ the
makingȱ ofȱ starchȱ toȱ stiffenȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ ornateȱ ruffs.”112ȱ Theȱ ornateȱ ruffsȱ areȱ wornȱ by
Laurence’sȱcounterpart,ȱtheȱupstartȱcourtier.ȱAccordingȱtoȱbothȱNasheȱandȱGreene,
againȱinȱtheȱtopoiȱofȱLangland’sȱPiersȱPlowman,ȱtheȱPuritanȱupstartȱisȱresponsible
forȱoverturningȱtheȱfeudalȱsystemȱthroughȱaȱrejectionȱofȱcharityȱandȱthroughȱthe
introductionȱofȱaȱnewȱsystemȱbasedȱonȱcommerceȱandȱrackȬrenting.ȱ
109
110
111
AsȱJonesȱpointsȱoutȱinȱLangland’sȱPiersȱPlowman,ȱ“‘aȱconfessorȱcopedȱasȱaȱfrere’ȱ(B3.35/C3.38)
approachesȱ Medeȱ andȱ proclaimsȱ ‘Iȱ shalȱ assoileȱ þeeȱ myselfȱ forȱ aȱ seemȱ ofȱ whete’(B3.4/C3.42)
Absolutionȱisȱbeingȱsoldȱforȱmaterialȱgain,ȱtheȱprocessȱofȱconfessionȱwhichȱshouldȱdependȱon
genuineȱcontritionȱforȱoneȱsinsȱisȱbeingȱhijackedȱbyȱfinanicalȱselfȬinterestȱinȱtheȱformȱofȱ‘wheat.’”
Jones,ȱRadicalȱPastoralȱ(seeȱnoteȱ2),18.
112
DavidȱBaker,ȱOnȱDemand:ȱWritingȱforȱtheȱMarketȱinȱEarlyȱModernȱEnglandȱ(Stanford,ȱCA:ȱStanford
TheȱupstartȱinȱQuipȱclaimsȱhisȱcuriousȱandȱquaintȱapparelȱmotivatesȱ“merchants
toȱ seekȱ foreignȱ marts,ȱ toȱ ventureȱ theirȱ goodsȱ andȱ hazardȱ theirȱ lives.”113ȱ What
Nasheȱrefersȱtoȱasȱtheȱ“lawnȱofȱlicentiousness,”ȱinȱtheȱpreviousȱpassage,114ȱisȱalso
evocativeȱ ofȱ itsȱ opposite,ȱ theȱ privatizationȱ ofȱ theȱ landȱ andȱ theȱ uncharitable
barriers,ȱ orȱ enclosures,ȱ thatȱ Nasheȱ andȱ Greeneȱ attributeȱ toȱ middleȬclass
landownersȱwhoȱareȱdestroyingȱtheȱhospitalityȱofȱtheȱoldȱfeudalȱsystem.ȱThisȱis
whatȱ Greeneȱ claimsȱ inȱ Quip,ȱ whenȱ heȱ representsȱ theȱ “yeoman”ȱ asȱ hatingȱ the
upstartȱbecauseȱheȱhasȱ“persuadedȱsoȱmanyȱLandlords,ȱforȱtheȱmaintenanceȱof
[his]ȱbravery,ȱtoȱraiseȱtheȱrents.”115ȱGreene’sȱdedicationȱofȱQuipȱtoȱaȱ“supporterȱof
ancientȱhospitality”ȱbeliesȱthisȱsameȱsentimentȱasȱdoesȱhisȱclaimȱthatȱheȱwroteȱQuip
toȱ opposeȱ “upstartȱ gentleman”ȱ whoȱ “raisedȱ rents,ȱ rackedȱ theirȱ tenants,ȱ and
imposedȱ greatȱ fines”ȱ andȱ becauseȱ ofȱ whomȱ “hospitalityȱ wasȱ leftȱ off,
neighbourhoodȱwasȱexiled,ȱconscienceȱwasȱscoffedȱat,ȱandȱcharityȱlayȱfrozenȱinȱthe
street.”116ȱTheȱsparseȱstyleȱadvocatedȱbyȱRamistȱrhetoric,ȱevidentȱinȱtheȱwritingȱof
theȱHarveyȱbrothers,ȱNashe,ȱlikeȱGreene,ȱmocksȱasȱevidenceȱofȱtheirȱuncharitable
natures.ȱ Heȱ tellsȱ theȱ Harvey’sȱ friend,ȱ Richardȱ Litchfield,ȱ inȱ Haveȱ Withȱ Youȱ to
SaffronȬWaldon:ȱ
inȱtenderȱcharityȱandȱcomiserationȱofȱ[RichardȱHarvey’s]ȱestateȱ,ȱIȱaddȱtenȱpoundȱ&ȱa
purseȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱonȱthatȱconditionȱinȱtheirȱlastȱwillȱ&ȱtestamentȱtheyȱbequeathȱmeȱeighteene
wiseȱwordsȱinȱtheȱwayȱofȱanswereȱbetwixtȱthem.ȱIȱdareȱgiveȱmyȱwordȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱtheyȱwill
neverȱdoeȱit,ȱnoȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱtheirȱwholeȱstockȱofȱwit,ȱwhenȱitȱwasȱatȱbest,ȱbeingȱbutȱtenȱEnglish
Hexametersȱ andȱ aȱ Lenuoyȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ Wherefore,ȱ generousȱ Dickeȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ Iȱ utterlyȱ despairȱ of
them.117ȱ
Nashe’sȱ prefacingȱ andȱ closingȱ withȱ theȱ wordsȱ “charity,”ȱ “generosity,”ȱ and
“despair”ȱemphasizeȱnotȱonlyȱtheȱparsimonyȱinȱtheȱHarveyȱbrothers’ȱrhetorical
philosophyȱbutȱNashe’sȱjudgmentȱofȱitsȱeconomicȱunderpinnings.ȱ
EvenȱinȱJonson’sȱlateȱpastoralȱSadȱShepherd,ȱhisȱfinalȱassaultȱonȱPuritans,ȱRobin
complainsȱofȱtheȱlossȱofȱ“thoseȱcharitableȱtimes”ȱ“whenȱallȱdidȱeitherȱloveȱorȱwere
beloved.”118ȱTuckȱagreesȱthatȱ“theȱsowrerȱsortȱofȱshepherds”ȱ(whichȱtheȱeditor
glossesȱasȱPuritans),ȱwhoȱareȱfilledȱwithȱ“covetiseȱandȱRage”ȱareȱpoisoningȱthe
lambsȱandȱdiggingȱditchesȱsoȱthatȱcalvesȱdrownȱandȱheifersȱbreakȱtheirȱnecksȱjust
toȱ vexȱ theirȱ neighbors.ȱ Jonson’sȱ editorȱ mentionsȱ Jones’sȱ Adrastaȱ asȱ “another
113
RobertȱGreene,ȱAȱQuipȱforȱanȱUpstartȱCourtier:ȱorȱAȱQuaintȱDisputeȱBetweenȱVelvetȱBreechesȱandȱClothȬ
breechesȱ(1592)ȱinȱTheȱLifeȱandȱCompleteȱWorksȱ(seeȱnoteȱ78),ȱ11:230.
114
Theȱtermȱ“lawn”ȱinȱtheȱearlyȱmodernȱperiodȱreferedȱtoȱanȱopenȱgrassyȱfieldȱbetweenȱwoods.ȱSee
theȱOEDȱ(lastȱaccessedȱJan.ȱ7,ȱ2012).ȱ
115
Greene,ȱQuipȱ(seeȱnoteȱ113),ȱ11:210.
116
Greene,ȱQuipȱ(seeȱnoteȱ113),ȱ11:210.
117
Nashe,ȱHaveȱWithȱYouȱtoȱSaffronȱWaldonȱ(seeȱnoteȱ9),ȱ3:11.
118
788 KyleȱDiRoberto
instanceȱofȱpastoralȱsatireȱdirectedȱagainstȱPuritans.ȱAdrastaȱcomplainsȱaboutȱ“The
curiousȱprecisness,ȱ/ȱAndȱallȱpretendedȱgravity,ȱofȱthose,ȱ/ȱThatȱseekȱtoȱbanish
henceȱharmlessȱsportsȱ/ȱHaveȱthrustȱawayȱmuchȱancientȱhonesty.”119ȱIfȱNasheȱand
GreeneȱwereȱnotȱdrawingȱonȱanȱalreadyȱexistentȱantiȬPuritanȱdiscourse,ȱtheyȱwere
instrumentalȱinȱcreatingȱone.ȱ
ȱAsȱdiscussedȱearlier,ȱutilizingȱtheȱrhetoricȱofȱeconomicȱabuse,ȱtheȱHarveysȱhad
attemptedȱtoȱlinkȱartisticȱlanguageȱandȱpopularȱwritersȱwithȱtheȱworldlyȱgreedȱand
effeminateȱnatureȱofȱtheȱcourtier.ȱTheȱcourtierȱwasȱtraditionallyȱrepresentedȱas
defraudingȱandȱextortingȱtheȱplowman.ȱRichardȱwarns,ȱ“Iȱprayȱyouȱdefileȱnotȱmy
sheepsȱrussetȱcoateȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱthisȱhomeȱmadeȱBarley,ȱandȱmyȱplainȱspeechesȱmayȱhave
asȱ muchȱ woolȱ (Iȱ dareȱ notȱ sayȱ soȱ muchȱ wit)ȱ asȱ yourȱ doubleȱ pildȱ velvet.”120
Moreover,ȱtheȱHarveysȱincludeȱinȱtheirȱrepresentationȱofȱthemselvesȱasȱplowman
aȱnationalisticȱrhetoricȱevocativeȱofȱdomesticityȱandȱEngland’sȱoneȱmajorȱindustry:
wool.ȱTheyȱclaimȱtheirȱplainȱspeechȱhasȱmuchȱwoolȱandȱnotȱwitȱ(witȱtheyȱsuggest
byȱ thisȱ oppositionȱ isȱ foreign).ȱ Nasheȱ andȱ Greeneȱ completelyȱ invertȱ this
nationalistic,ȱeconomic,ȱandȱengenderedȱrhetoric.ȱInȱtheirȱworks,ȱtheȱPuritanȱis
representedȱ asȱ theȱ insatiableȱ upstartȱ courtier.ȱ Heȱ isȱ aȱ foreignerȱ inȱ Quip;ȱ in
Penniless,ȱheȱisȱanȱEnglishmanȱsoȱdisconnectedȱfromȱhisȱownȱnationȱthatȱheȱwould
notȱonlyȱdefraudȱandȱextortȱtheȱpoorȱandȱnobleȱalikeȱbutȱwouldȱalsoȱdefraudȱthem
ofȱtheirȱEnglishȱfestiveȱtraditionsȱandȱcustomsȱandȱattemptȱtoȱencloseȱpoetryȱand
theȱliteraryȱartsȱwithinȱtheȱparsimonyȱofȱtheirȱeconomicallyȱmotivatedȱaesthetics.ȱ
Inȱ Quip,ȱ Greeneȱ notȱ onlyȱ mocksȱ Puritans,ȱ andȱ especiallyȱ Gabrielȱ Harvey,ȱ as
upstartȱcourtiersȱbutȱheȱalsoȱlampoonsȱtheȱRamistȱphilosophyȱbehindȱtheȱbusiness
likeȱ outlookȱ ofȱ theȱ Puritanȱ poet.ȱ Inȱ Harvey’sȱ reformationȱ ofȱ poetry,ȱ hisȱ selfȬ
proclaimedȱ inventionȱ ofȱ Englishȱ Hexameter,ȱ Greeneȱ objectsȱ toȱ hisȱ arrogant
attemptsȱ toȱ encloseȱ theȱ richnessȱ ofȱ experienceȱ withinȱ theȱ boundariesȱ ofȱ his
mathematicalȱapproachȱtoȱlanguage.ȱGreeneȱclaims,ȱ
MethoughtȱIȱsawȱanȱuncouthȱheadlessȱthingȱcomeȱpacingȱdownȱtheȱhill,ȱsteppingȱso
proudlyȱwithȱaȱgeometricalȱgraceȱasȱifȱsomeȱartificialȱbraggartȱhadȱresolvedȱtoȱmeasure
theȱworldȱwithȱhisȱpaces;ȱIȱcouldȱnotȱdecryȱitȱaȱmanȱalthoughȱitȱhadȱmotionȱforȱit
wantedȱaȱbody,ȱyetȱseeingȱlegsȱandȱhose,ȱIȱsupposedȱitȱtoȱbeȱsomeȱmonsterȱnourished
upȱinȱthoseȱdeserts.121ȱ
Hisȱ mockeryȱ ofȱ Gabriel’sȱ poeticȱ personaȱ corroboratesȱ whatȱ Walterȱ Ongȱ has
argued:ȱunderȱRamism,ȱpoetryȱ“become[s]ȱappliquéȱworkȱofȱtheȱworstȱmechanical
sort,ȱfor,ȱasȱRamusȱoccasionallyȱhints,ȱtheȱrulesȱthatȱgovernȱitȱbelongȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱlessȱto
119
120
Harvey,ȱPlainȱPercevalȱ(seeȱnoteȱ8),ȱ12.
121
Greene,ȱQuipȱ(seeȱnoteȱ113),ȱ9.
rhetoricȱthanȱtoȱarithmetic.”122ȱHowever,ȱevenȱHarvey’sȱarithmeticȱisȱflawed.ȱThe
meterȱheȱhasȱpromoted,ȱhexameter,ȱisȱcompletelyȱatȱoddsȱwithȱtheȱnaturalȱrhythms
ofȱtheȱEnglishȱlanguageȱasȱNashe’sȱparodyȱofȱHarvey’sȱpoetryȱreveals.ȱItȱisȱ“allȱup
hillȱandȱdownȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱlikeȱaȱhorseȱplungingȱthroughȱtheȱmyreȱinȱtheȱdeepȱofȱwinter,
nowȱsoustȱupȱtoȱtheȱsaddle,ȱandȱstraightȱaloftȱonȱhisȱtiptoes.”123ȱ
Greeneȱalsoȱpointsȱtoȱaȱlackȱofȱdiscernmentȱand,ȱindeed,ȱaȱlackȱofȱmanlinessȱin
Harvey’sȱinabilityȱtoȱrecognizeȱhisȱincongruousȱ“motions.”ȱHeȱsuggestsȱHarvey’s
and,ȱinȱgeneral,ȱtheȱPuritans’ȱstereotypicalȱrepudiationȱofȱbodilyȱpleasureȱwhen,
uponȱseeingȱvelvetȱbreechesȱapproach,ȱheȱclaimsȱthatȱheȱcouldȱnotȱ“decryȱitȱaȱman
althoughȱ itȱ hadȱ motionȱ forȱ itȱ wantedȱ aȱ body.”ȱ Pleasingȱ rhythmsȱ normally
determineȱtheȱmusicȱofȱpoetry.ȱThisȱisȱaȱveryȱbasicȱbodilyȱresponseȱtoȱrhythm.
Understandingȱtheȱrhythmsȱthatȱwereȱpleasing,ȱinȱtheȱearlyȱmodernȱperiod,ȱwas
equatedȱwithȱaȱcertainȱmanliness,ȱhonorability,ȱandȱsense.ȱAsȱLorenzoȱtellsȱJessica
inȱ Merchantȱ ofȱ Venice,ȱ “Theȱ manȱ thatȱ hathȱ noȱ musicȱ inȱ himselfȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ /ȱ Isȱ fitȱ for
treasons,ȱstratagems,ȱandȱspoils;ȱ/ȱTheȱmotionsȱofȱhisȱspiritȱareȱdullȱasȱnight,ȱ/ȱLet
noȱsuchȱmanȱbeȱtrusted.”124ȱ
NasheȱsuggestsȱthatȱHarvey’sȱfailingsȱinȱartȱareȱaȱproductȱofȱhisȱlackȱofȱability
toȱ discernȱ theȱ pleasurable.ȱ Inȱ Pierceȱ Penniless,ȱ Nasheȱ createsȱ anȱ allegoryȱ about
Puritansȱ whoȱ attemptȱ toȱ convinceȱ theȱ massesȱ toȱ repudiateȱ theȱ pleasurable
experienceȱofȱart.ȱNashe’sȱallegoryȱdrawsȱuponȱtheȱ“Plutrachanȱimageȱofȱtheȱbee
suckingȱitsȱhoneyȱevenȱfromȱnoxiousȱherbs,”ȱanȱanalogyȱthat,ȱasȱChambersȱclaims,
hadȱ becomeȱ aȱ commonplaceȱ inȱ theȱ defenseȱ ofȱ theȱ artsȱ againstȱ Puritansȱ inȱ the
Elizabethanȱera.125ȱTheȱallegoryȱinvolvesȱtheȱhusbandman,ȱwhoȱlikeȱtheȱplowman
andȱtheȱyeoman,ȱisȱassociatedȱwithȱtheȱsoil,ȱwhichȱisȱsuggestiveȱofȱnativeȱwit.ȱThe
fox,ȱwhoȱ“canȱtellȱaȱfairȱtell,ȱandȱcoversȱallȱknaverieȱunderȱconscience,”ȱattempts
toȱconvinceȱ“theȱgoodȱhonestȱhusbandȱmanȱtoȱpause,ȱandȱmistrustȱtheirȱownȱwits.”
Heȱdoesȱthis,ȱaccordingȱtoȱNashe,ȱinȱorderȱtoȱ“purgeȱ[his]ȱpopularȱpatientsȱofȱthe
opinionȱ[that]ȱtheirȱoldȱtraditionsȱandȱcustums”ȱareȱanyȱgood.126ȱ
Heȱconvincesȱthemȱthatȱtheyȱareȱpoisonedȱbecauseȱtheȱsoilȱthatȱproducedȱthem
(England)ȱisȱpoisonousȱ(infectedȱwithȱfrogs)ȱ“whereasȱinȱotherȱcountries,ȱScotland,
Denmarkeȱandȱsomeȱpureȱpartsȱofȱtheȱ17thȱprovences”ȱthereȱareȱ“noȱcreaturesȱto
curropt”ȱtheȱgoodnessȱofȱtheȱsoyle.”127ȱInȱequatingȱtheȱbetterȱsoilȱwithȱPuritan
countries,ȱ Nashe’sȱ allegoryȱ suggestsȱ thatȱ aȱ treasonousȱ antiȬEnglishȱ sentiment
underpinsȱ theȱ Puritans’ȱ desireȱ toȱ reformȱ theȱ arts.ȱ Inȱ answerȱ toȱ theȱ Puritan
122
Ong,ȱRamusȱ(seeȱnoteȱ46),ȱ282.
123
Nashe,ȱHaveȱWithȱYouȱ(seeȱnoteȱ9),ȱ7.
124
WilliamȱShakespeare,ȱMerchantȱofȱVeniceȱ(1600)ȱTheȱRiversideȱShakespeare,ȱed.ȱG.ȱBlakemoreȱEvans
andȱJ.ȱJ.ȱM.ȱTobin.ȱ2ndȱed.ȱ(Boston:ȱHoughtonȱMifflinȱCompany,ȱ1997),ȱ5.1.91–96.ȱ
125
126
127
790 KyleȱDiRoberto
objectionȱ toȱ anȱ Italian,ȱ orȱ foreign,ȱ extravaganceȱ inȱ theȱ abundanceȱ ofȱ Nashe’s
language,ȱ Nasheȱ defendsȱ hisȱ rhetoricalȱ styleȱ asȱ proȬEnglish,ȱ thoughȱ not
nationalistic;ȱheȱwouldȱnotȱbeȱsoȱconfined:ȱ
Oldȱ Romanesȱ inȱ theȱ writingsȱ theyȱ published,ȱ thoughtȱ scornȱ notȱ toȱ useȱ anyȱ but
domesticalȱ examplesȱ ofȱ theirȱ ownȱ homȬbredȱ actors,ȱ scholersȱ andȱ championsȱ .ȱ .ȱ .
Coblers,ȱTinkers,ȱFencers,ȱnoneȱescaptȱthem,ȱbutȱtheyȱmingledȱallȱinȱoneȱGallimafrey
ofȱglory.ȱHereȱIȱhaveȱusedȱaȱlikeȱmethod,ȱnotȱofȱtyingȱmyȱselfeȱtoȱmineȱowneȱCountrie,
butȱbyȱinsistingȱinȱtheȱexperienceȱofȱourȱtime;ȱandȱifȱIȱeverȱwriteȱanyȱthingȱinȱLatineȱ(as
IȱhopeȱoneȱdayȱIȱshall),ȱnotȱaȱmanȱofȱanyȱdesertȱhereȱamongstȱus,ȱbutȱIȱwillȱhaveȱup.
Talrton,ȱNedȱAllen,ȱKnellȱBentlie,ȱshallȱbeȱmadeȱknownȱtoȱFrance,ȱItalie,ȱandȱSpain.128ȱ
Asȱ Nasheȱ claimsȱ inȱ theȱ aboveȱ quote,ȱ Pierceȱ Pennilessȱ isȱ indeedȱ aȱ glorious
“gallimafrey.”129ȱItȱminglesȱandȱembodiesȱtheȱessenceȱofȱtheȱcarnivalesqueȱinȱa
clowningȱ celebrationȱ ofȱ abundanceȱ andȱ disorderȱ thatȱ excludesȱ nothingȱ but
exclusion.ȱThereȱisȱperhapsȱnoȱvoiceȱunheardȱinȱtheȱparodiesȱthatȱmakeȱupȱPierce
Penniless.ȱEvenȱtheȱschoolmasterȱisȱincludedȱbyȱwayȱofȱparody.ȱNasheȱandȱGreene
shiftȱtheȱdefinitionȱofȱ“Pierce”ȱinȱtheirȱresponsesȱtoȱtheȱHarveys.ȱHeȱisȱnotȱplain
butȱpoor,ȱhavingȱbeenȱrobbedȱbyȱupstartsȱlikeȱtheȱHarveys.ȱTheȱHarveys’ȱattempt
toȱ imposeȱ anȱ orderedȱ simplicityȱ uponȱ thisȱ carnivalesqueȱ figureȱ isȱ yetȱ another
assault.ȱInȱhisȱassociationȱwithȱtheȱliberalityȱofȱartists,ȱtheȱdefendersȱofȱpopular
traditions,ȱ theȱ plowman,ȱ thoughȱ poor,ȱ remainsȱ aȱ figureȱ ofȱ abundanceȱ and
hospitality,ȱ inhabitingȱ theȱ fertileȱ worldȱ ofȱ writersȱ likeȱ Greeneȱ andȱ Nashe’s
imaginations.ȱInȱoppositionȱisȱtheȱstarkȱworldȱofȱtheȱcourtȱorȱcity,ȱtheȱplaceȱofȱthe
upstartȱPuritansȱandȱtheirȱrejectionȱofȱcharity.ȱNasheȱandȱGreeneȱsuggestȱthatȱthe
sterileȱrealmȱofȱanȱimaginationȱruledȱbyȱRamismȱwasȱnoȱplaceȱforȱaȱplowman.
InȱDisputation,ȱtheȱredeemingȱofȱpleasureȱandȱabundanceȱandȱtheȱrestorationȱof
aȱcarnivalesqueȱliberationȱthroughȱinsubordinationȱcontinuesȱthroughȱGreene’s
representationȱ ofȱ theȱ repentantȱ prostitute.ȱ Theȱ Disputationȱ isȱ Greene’sȱ urban
pastoral.ȱ Likeȱ allȱ ofȱ Greene’sȱ repentanceȱ andȱ conyȬcatchingȱ pamphlets,ȱ itȱ was
writtenȱinȱoppositionȱtoȱtheȱPuritans’ȱcarnivalesqueȱreformation.ȱInȱDisputation,
GreeneȱwritesȱtoȱoverturnȱPuritans’ȱattributingȱchastityȱtoȱhonesty,ȱpromulgating
provincialȱmorality,ȱandȱimposingȱsincerityȱinȱauthorialȱidentity,ȱbut,ȱprimarily,
toȱinvertȱSpenser’sȱpastoral.ȱ
PaulȱAlpersȱclaimsȱthatȱanȱimportantȱelementȱofȱpastoralȱliteratureȱliesȱinȱits
“creationȱofȱimaginativeȱspace,”ȱand,ȱasȱheȱfurtherȱnotes,ȱthisȱisȱaȱspaceȱwithin
whichȱrelationshipsȱareȱnegotiated.ȱCommentatorsȱonȱShakespeare’sȱAsȱYouȱLike
Itȱ(1598–1600),ȱasȱAlpersȱpointsȱout,ȱreferȱtoȱotherȱplaysȱinȱwhichȱ“aȱsojournȱinȱa
128
129
TheȱOEDȱgivesȱtheȱdefinitionȱofȱ“gallimaufry,”ȱinȱ1551,ȱasȱaȱdishȱmadeȱoutȱofȱhashingȱupȱoddsȱand
endsȱofȱfood;ȱaȱhodgeȬpodge,ȱaȱragȱout.ȱ
‘greenȱworld’ȱenablesȱaȱreturnȱtoȱcourt.”130ȱAsȱinȱAsȱYouȱLikeȱItȱgender,ȱfilial,ȱand
classȱrelationshipsȱareȱresolved.ȱIdentitiesȱareȱtestedȱthere,ȱandȱsomeȱharmonious
resolutionȱ isȱ usuallyȱ found:ȱ brothersȱ areȱ reconciledȱ andȱ loversȱ areȱ united.ȱ In
Spenser,ȱgenderȱrelationshipsȱbeginȱandȱendȱestranged,ȱandȱtheȱonlyȱevolutionȱin
Colin’sȱrelationshipȱwithȱRosilandȱisȱhisȱreportedȱdiscoveryȱofȱherȱbetrayal.ȱColin
himselfȱdoesȱnotȱemergeȱreconciledȱorȱmoreȱfullyȱrealized,ȱandȱevenȱnature,ȱinȱthis
pastoral,ȱisȱportrayedȱasȱaȱplaceȱofȱseductionȱandȱerror,ȱnotȱofȱgrowth.ȱ
Greene’sȱ Disputationȱ respondsȱ toȱ Theȱ Shepheardesȱ Calenderȱ byȱ invertingȱ its
scheme.ȱTheȱpastoralȱspace,ȱasȱTerryȱGiffordȱclaims,ȱisȱcreatedȱ“withȱanȱimplicit
orȱ explicitȱ contrastȱ toȱ theȱ urban”ȱ inȱ mind.131ȱ Thisȱ urbanȱ spaceȱ isȱ imaginedȱ as
havingȱbecomeȱtooȱcorruptȱorȱtooȱrestrictiveȱtoȱfindȱnewȱformsȱofȱcommunityȱor
understanding.ȱInȱDisputation,ȱGreeneȱreȬimaginesȱtheȱpastoralȱspaceȱinȱanȱurban
environment,ȱtheȱinverseȱofȱtheȱcountry,ȱcreatingȱoutȱofȱtheȱplaceȱofȱtheȱtavernȱa
siteȱ ofȱ refugeȱ andȱ genderȱ negotiation.ȱ Theȱ wittyȱ banterȱ betweenȱ Nanȱ and
Lawrence,ȱinȱwhichȱtheyȱinvertȱtheȱaspirationȱtoȱvirtueȱbyȱholdingȱaȱcompetition
overȱ whoȱ isȱ theȱ mostȱ detrimentalȱ toȱ theȱ commonwealthȱ (andȱ byȱ vigorously
attemptingȱtoȱattainȱthatȱtitle),ȱevokesȱtheȱcamaraderieȱofȱtheȱoldȱmarriedȱcouple
inȱ Menaphon.ȱ Whenȱ Lawrenceȱ attemptsȱ toȱ diminishȱ theȱ seriousnessȱ ofȱ Nan’s
criminalityȱbyȱclaiming,ȱafterȱsheȱhasȱtoldȱhimȱaboutȱoneȱofȱherȱtricks,ȱthatȱhe
thinksȱhisȱ“motherȱwiserȱthanȱallȱtheȱhonestȱwomenȱofȱtheȱparishȱbesides,”ȱNan
mockinglyȱ replies,ȱ “belikeȱ sheȱ wasȱ ofȱ ourȱ faculty,ȱ andȱ aȱ matronȱ ofȱ my
profession.”132ȱ
Greene’sȱurbanȱpastoralȱanticipatesȱtheȱmodernȱgenreȱinȱwhichȱtheȱcityȱactsȱas
aȱpastoralȱspaceȱ
whereȱ subjectivityȱ isȱ alwaysȱ inȱ playȱ andȱ henceȱ subjectȱ toȱ newlyȱ ambiguous
possibilitiesȱthatȱallowȱoneȱtoȱescapeȱfromȱdeleteriousȱproscriptionsȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱtheȱcityȱisȱ.ȱ.ȱ.
availableȱ forȱ thoseȱ whoȱ wantȱ toȱ changeȱ theirȱ roles,ȱ abandonȱ aȱ fixedȱ identity,ȱ or
otherwiseȱdisguiseȱthemselves.133ȱ
Greene’sȱcityȱisȱmoreȱaliveȱthanȱSpenser’sȱcountryside,ȱandȱtheȱreaderȱparticipates
inȱtheȱvivacityȱofȱitsȱcharacters.ȱInȱfact,ȱtheirȱvivacity,ȱinȱcontrastȱwithȱSpenser’s
sincereȱmonologicȱmorality,ȱconsistsȱinȱtheirȱheroicȱadaptabilityȱinȱroleȱplayingȱand
130
PaulȱAlpersȱisȱquotedȱinȱTimothyȱGray’sȱessay,ȱ“SemioticȱShepherds:ȱGaryȱSnyder,ȱFrankȱO’hara,
andȱtheȱEmbodimentȱofȱanȱUrbanȱPastoral,”ȱContemporaryȱLiteratureȱ39.4ȱ(1998):ȱ523–59;ȱhereȱ523
andȱinȱWhatȱisȱPastoral?ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ26),ȱ130.ȱ
131
TerryȱGifford,ȱPastoral:ȱTheȱNewȱCriticalȱIdiomȱ(LondonȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱRoutledge,ȱ1999),ȱ94.
132
RobertȱGreene,ȱAȱDisputationȱBetweeneȱaȱHeeȱConneyȬcatcher,ȱandȱaȱSheeȱConneyȬcatcher,ȱwhetherȱa
TheefeȱorȱaȱWhoore,ȱisȱMostȱHurtfullȱtoȱtheȱCommonȬWealthȱ1592ȱinȱTheȱLifeȱandȱCompleteȱWorksȱ(see
noteȱ78),ȱ10:11.
133
TimothyȱGray,ȱ“‘AȱWorldȱwithoutȱGravity’:ȱTheȱUrbanȱPastoralȱSpiritualityȱofȱJimȱCarrollȱand
KathleenȱNorris,”ȱTexasȱStudiesȱinȱLiteratureȱandȱLanguageȱ47.3ȱ(Fallȱ2005):ȱ213–52;ȱhere,ȱ225.
792 KyleȱDiRoberto
inȱ theȱ quickȱ improvisationȱ ofȱ wittyȱ comebacks;ȱ itȱ echoesȱ theȱ heroismȱ ofȱ the
shepherdessȱinȱMenaphon,ȱwhoȱsurvivesȱbyȱplayingȱtheȱroleȱofȱtheȱshepherdessȱand
whoȱescapesȱprecariousȱsituationsȱbyȱtheȱuseȱofȱherȱskillȱinȱlanguage.ȱMalleability
andȱ tenacity,ȱ notȱ sincerityȱ andȱ honesty,ȱ areȱ whatȱ isȱ praiseworthyȱ inȱ Greene’s
characters.ȱMalleability,ȱforȱexample,ȱisȱwhatȱallowsȱforȱtheȱseemingȱvillain,ȱthe
prostitute,ȱtoȱbecomeȱaȱRobinȱHoodȱfigure,ȱi.e.,ȱtheȱoutlawȱwhoȱbettersȱsocietyȱby
outwittingȱcriminalsȱ(oftenȱmasqueradingȱasȱofficials).ȱInȱoneȱofȱtheȱprostitute’s
merryȱtales,ȱaȱstrumpetȱandȱsomeȱconyȬcatchersȱtrickȱaȱbraggartȱconyȬcatcherȱout
ofȱhisȱstolenȱmoney.ȱ
Afterȱhavingȱcomeȱupȱwithȱvariousȱstrategies,ȱwhichȱheȱisȱtooȱcleverȱtoȱfallȱfor,
theyȱfinallyȱconceiveȱaȱhilariousȱschemeȱinȱwhichȱtheyȱplayȱvariousȱrolesȱ(sheriff,
bawd,ȱandȱvirtuousȱwife)andȱbyȱwhichȱtheyȱeventuallyȱgetȱtheȱmostȱnotoriously,
proudȱconyȬcatcherȱtoȱhideȱnakedȱinȱaȱclosetȱandȱgladlyȱgiveȱupȱhisȱmoneyȬfilled
clothes.ȱInȱfactȱGreeneȱhimselfȱseemsȱtoȱpopȱinȱandȱassumeȱtheȱPuritanȱdesignation
ofȱtheȱpopularȱwriterȱasȱwhoreȱandȱtheȱHarveys’ȱandȱSpenser’sȱdesignationȱof
themselvesȱasȱShepherdsȱ(onlyȱheȱconvertsȱthemȱtoȱaȱRobinȱHoodȱtypeȱshepherd,
theȱthiefȱLawrence).ȱAtȱtheȱbeginningȱofȱaȱDisputation,ȱNanȱtellsȱLawrenceȱtoȱ“put
upȱ[his]ȱpipesȱandȱchopȱlogicȱandȱgiveȱ[her]ȱleaveȱtoȱspeak.”134ȱMoreover,ȱGreene
challengesȱSpenser’sȱnotionsȱofȱvirtue,ȱespeciallyȱchastityȱandȱhonesty,ȱshowing
moreȱ loveȱ andȱ understandingȱ betweenȱ aȱ thiefȱ andȱ aȱ whoreȱ negotiatingȱ their
professionalȱrelationshipȱthanȱSpenserȱshowsȱbetweenȱHobinalȱandȱColinȱClout,
Spenser’sȱ“pædrastice”ȱmodelȱofȱidealȱmasculineȱfriendshipȱthatȱsupersedesȱhis
“gynerastics.”135ȱ
Finally,ȱ Greeneȱ mocksȱ theȱ Harveys’ȱ attemptȱ toȱ depictȱ theȱ popularȱ writerȱ as
prostituteȱandȱtheirȱmoralȱcertaintyȱregardingȱpuritanicalȱagendasȱbyȱwritingȱa
piousȱtaleȱofȱselfȬdeception.ȱInȱtheȱtaleȱofȱtheȱconversionȱofȱanȱEnglishȱcourtesan,
GreeneȱtellsȱhisȱownȱversionȱofȱtheȱstoryȱofȱSt.ȱThais.ȱInȱtheȱstoryȱofȱSt.ȱThais,ȱa
devoutȱoldȱmanȱofȱGodȱconvertsȱaȱrichȱandȱfamousȱcourtesan.ȱSheȱburnsȱallȱher
belongingsȱandȱspendsȱtheȱrestȱofȱherȱshortȱlifeȱinȱpenanceȱforȱherȱdisgracefulȱacts.
InȱGreene’sȱversion,ȱtheȱcourtesanȱtellsȱaȱstoryȱofȱaȱdevout,ȱattractiveȱyoungȱman,
whoȱconvincesȱherȱinȱaȱdarkȱroomȱthatȱherȱ“bewtifullȱfaire,ȱandȱwellȱformedȱ.ȱ.ȱ.
bodie”ȱhasȱbecomeȱ“theȱhabitationȱofȱtheȱdivel.”ȱRatherȱthanȱconvincingȱherȱto
giveȱupȱallȱpleasureȱandȱspendȱherȱlifeȱinȱrepentance,ȱheȱmerelyȱasksȱthatȱsheȱleave
theȱhouseȱinȱwhichȱsheȱisȱstaying,ȱ“ȱandȱ[he]ȱwillȱbecomeȱ[her]ȱfaithfulȱfriendȱinȱall
134
Greene,ȱDisputationȱ(seeȱnoteȱ131),ȱ6.ȱRamistsȱwereȱoftenȱmockedȱforȱtheirȱlogicȱchopping,ȱand
pipesȱareȱsymbolicȱofȱshepherds.
135
Spenser,ȱShepheardesȱCalenderȱ(seeȱnoteȱ66),ȱ16.ȱ“Andȱsoȱisȱpœderasticeȱmuchȱtoȱbeȱpreferredȱbefore
gynerastice,ȱthatȱis,ȱtheȱloveȱwhichȱenflamethȱmenȱwithȱlustȱtowardȱwomankind.”ȱ
honestie.”ȱAlthoughȱheȱpromisesȱtoȱ“useȱ[her]ȱasȱ[his]ȱownȱsister,”ȱheȱendsȱup
marryingȱher.136ȱAsȱVirginiaȱMacdonaldȱastutelyȱobserves,ȱ
despiteȱherȱreligiousȱfocusȱandȱherȱemphasisȱonȱGod’sȱhandȱinȱherȱchangeȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱherȱown
narrationȱimpliesȱthatȱherȱsexualȱattractionȱforȱtheȱman,ȱhisȱappealȱtoȱherȱvanity,ȱand
hisȱwishȱthatȱsheȱ‘wereȱasȱhonestȱ.ȱ.ȱasȱbewifull’,ȱpromptsȱherȱreformȱmoreȱthanȱdoes
anyȱtrueȱsenseȱofȱrepentance.137ȱ
Theȱcourtesanȱisȱobviouslyȱnotȱtheȱonlyȱpiousȱhypocriteȱinȱtheȱstory;ȱconvertȱand
converterȱalikeȱareȱselfȬdeceiving.ȱThroughȱthisȱallegoryȱofȱconversion,ȱGreene
suggestsȱ theȱ possibilityȱ thatȱ theȱ Harveys,ȱ hisȱ wouldȬbeȱ converters,ȱ mightȱ be
motivatedȱ byȱ suchȱ aȱ guiltyȱ pleasure.ȱ Focusingȱ onȱ theȱ Puritanȱ ratherȱ thanȱ the
prostitute’sȱhypocrisy,ȱGreene’sȱstoryȱsuggestsȱthatȱsometimesȱtheȱconverterȱis
reallyȱ moreȱ interestedȱ inȱ theȱ convertȱ thanȱ theȱ conversion.ȱ Inȱ theȱ pursuerȱ and
pursuedȱ themeȱ ofȱ shepherds,ȱ prostitutes,ȱ andȱ popularȱ writers,ȱ Greeneȱ makes
absolutelyȱclearȱjustȱwhoȱtheȱgrotesqueȱreallyȱis,ȱandȱheȱneverȱletsȱhisȱreaderȱforget
theȱubiquityȱofȱhypocrisy.ȱ ȱ
Bothȱ theȱ prostituteȱ andȱ theȱ pastoralȱ playȱ importantȱ rolesȱ inȱ theȱ battleȱ over
artisticȱexpressionȱbetweenȱtheȱHarveysȱandȱpopularȱwriters.ȱTheȱrhetoricȱofȱthe
ruralȱ andȱ theȱ riotous,ȱ embodiedȱ inȱ theȱ figureȱ ofȱ theȱ prostituteȱ andȱ the
plowman/shepherd,ȱ thoughȱ notȱ referringȱ toȱ anȱ actualȱ placeȱ orȱ realȱ people,
articulateȱoppositionalȱliteraryȱidentitiesȱthatȱbothȱsuggestȱtheȱliberalityȱimportant
toȱtheȱpopularȱwritersȱandȱunderwriteȱtheȱcondemnatoryȱcoercionȱthatȱenabledȱthe
Harveys’ȱ attemptedȱ reformationȱ ofȱ popularȱ art.ȱ Theȱ Puritansȱ configureȱ the
prostituteȱasȱtheȱultimateȱoutsider,ȱtheȱabjectȱfemale.ȱSheȱinhabitsȱtheȱopposite
ideologicalȱplaceȱofȱtheȱpastoralȱshepherd,ȱwhomȱtheyȱhaveȱreconceivedȱofȱasȱa
piousȱ plowman.ȱ Havingȱ constructedȱ theȱ pastoralȱ asȱ aȱ placeȱ ofȱ imagined
community,ȱ theȱ prostitute’sȱ disorderȱ establishes,ȱ throughȱ opposition,ȱ the
boundariesȱofȱtheirȱchasteȱpuritanicalȱsocialȱidentity,ȱwhileȱjustifyingȱtheirȱliterary
engagementȱwithȱpopularȱwriters.ȱInȱcontrast,ȱdrawingȱonȱtheȱfestiveȱtraditionȱthat
underwritesȱtheȱpastoralȱtradition,ȱ theȱgrotesqueȱabsenceȱofȱboundariesȱinȱthe
carnivalesque,ȱpopularȱwritersȱtearȱdownȱtheȱedificeȱofȱaȱreligiouslyȱchasteȱPuritan
identityȱbasedȱonȱaȱdeceptivelyȱchasteȱpastoral.ȱPopularȱwritersȱnotȱonlyȱredefine
theȱ pastoralȱ spaceȱ asȱ riotous,ȱ butȱ theyȱ alsoȱ exposeȱ theȱ Puritans’ȱ pretenseȱ to
reformationȱasȱanȱexcuseȱtoȱengageȱinȱtheȱcorporealȱpleasureȱofȱpopularȱdisorder.ȱ
Inȱ summary,ȱ theȱ tropeȱ ofȱ ruralȱ spaceȱ playedȱ anȱ importantȱ partȱ inȱ theȱ Harvey
NasheȱQuarrel.ȱItȱexpressedȱPuritanȱandȱpopularȱaestheticȱsensibilities,ȱwhichȱis
136
Greene,ȱDisputationȱ(seeȱnoteȱ131),ȱ79.
137
VirginiaȱMacdonald,ȱ“RobertȱGreene’sȱCourtesan:ȱAȱRenaissanceȱPerceptionȱofȱaȱMedievalȱTale,”
ZeitschriftȱfürȱAnglisticȱundȱAmerikanistikȱ32.3ȱ(1984):ȱ211–19;ȱhereȱ214.
794 KyleȱDiRoberto
especiallyȱevidentȱinȱtheirȱuseȱofȱ“PlainȱPierce.”ȱPuritansȱassociatedȱPierceȱwithȱan
aestheticallyȱpleasingȱplainȱdealing.ȱPopularȱartists,ȱonȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱassociated
plainȱdealingȱwithȱstupidityȱandȱPuritansȱwithȱtheȱsuppressionȱofȱcomplexȱartistic
expressionȱandȱtheȱimpositionȱofȱinaneȱsetsȱofȱartisticȱrules,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱnotoriously
misguidedȱEnglishȱhexameter.ȱPopularȱwritersȱshiftedȱtheȱdefinitionȱofȱȱPierceȱso
thatȱ heȱ wasȱ newlyȱ associatedȱ withȱ theȱ liberalityȱ ofȱ artistsȱ defendingȱ popular
traditions.ȱMoreover,ȱthroughȱtheȱtraditionȱofȱPierceȱPlowman,ȱtheyȱrevealedȱa
starkȱoppositionȱbetweenȱthisȱruralȱfigureȱofȱgenerousȱhospitalityȱandȱtheȱwide
spreadȱurbanȱacceptanceȱofȱusury,ȱtheȱrejectionȱofȱcharity,ȱandȱtheȱunnaturalȱdesire
forȱsocialȱadvancementȱwhichȱtheyȱsuggestedȱcharacterizedȱtheirȱ(hypocritically
pleasureȱ seeking)ȱ Puritanȱ adversaries,ȱ andȱ indeed,ȱ itȱ isȱ thisȱ sameȱ discourseȱ of
animosityȱ thatȱ willȱ contributeȱ toȱ theȱ antiȬPuritanismȱ ofȱ theȱ Jacobeanȱ and
Restorationȱcomedyȱofȱtheȱnextȱcentury.ȱȱȱȱȱȱ
Chapterȱ25ȱ
JessicaȱTvordi
(SouthernȱUtahȱUniversity,ȱCedarȱCity)
TheȱPoetȱinȱExile:ȱRobertȱHerrickȱandȱ
theȱ“loathedȱCountryȬlife”1
LondonȬbornȱ poetȱ Robertȱ Herrick,ȱ whoȱ servedȱ asȱ Vicarȱ ofȱ Deanȱ Priorȱ in
Devonshireȱ fromȱ 1629–1646,ȱ and,ȱ afterȱ theȱ Restoration,ȱ fromȱ 1660ȱ toȱ 1674,
frequentlyȱwritesȱaboutȱtheȱcountrysideȱinȱhisȱpoetryȱvolume,ȱHesperides,ȱorȱThe
Worksȱbothȱhumaneȱ&ȱdivineȱofȱRobertȱHerrick,ȱEsq.,ȱfirstȱpublishedȱinȱ1648.ȱManyȱof
hisȱpoemsȱportrayȱtheȱnaturalȱworld,ȱagrarianȱsociety,ȱandȱevenȱtheȱnonȬexistent
worldȱofȱtheȱFairiesȱinȱaȱcelebratoryȱmanner,ȱand,ȱtakenȱasȱaȱwhole,ȱsuggestȱthere
isȱmuchȱtoȱadmireȱinȱcountryȱlife.ȱHisȱremovalȱfromȱLondonȱtoȱtheȱruralȱspaceȱof
Devonshireȱnotȱonlyȱservedȱhisȱpoetics,ȱasȱheȱhimselfȱacknowledgesȱinȱhisȱpoems,
butȱalsoȱunderscoresȱhisȱrepresentationȱofȱhumanȱexistenceȱandȱtheȱnaturalȱworld,
andȱreinforcesȱhisȱownȱLondonȱexperienceȱofȱsocialȱcustomȱandȱreligiousȱritual.ȱ
Mostȱimportantly,ȱtheȱcountryȱprovidesȱHerrickȱwithȱanȱopportunityȱtoȱexplore
classicalȱmodesȱandȱthemes,ȱparticularlyȱconcerningȱtheȱrelativeȱsimplicityȱrural
spacesȱ embody,ȱ thusȱ enablingȱ theȱ contemplativeȱ manȱ toȱ examineȱ hisȱ humble
existenceȱ asȱ aȱ Christianȱ subject.ȱ However,ȱ whileȱ Herrickȱ isȱ capableȱ ofȱ writing
aboutȱtheȱcountryȱwithoutȱeitherȱvilifyingȱcountryȱpracticesȱorȱconstructingȱthe
speakerȱofȱtheȱpoemȱasȱaȱfrustratedȱprisonerȱofȱruralȱspace,ȱaȱsmallȱbutȱsignificant
numberȱofȱhisȱpoemsȱcanȱbeȱcategorizedȱasȱantiȬrural,ȱportrayingȱcountryȱlifeȱas
distasteful,ȱifȱnotȱdownrightȱabject.ȱInȱfact,ȱHerrickȱrefersȱtoȱtheȱcountryȱlifeȱas
“loathed”ȱonȱaȱleastȱfourȱoccasions,2ȱsuggestingȱthatȱtheȱcountryȱisȱtoȱbeȱreviled
1
RobertȱHerrick,ȱ“UponȱHimself,”ȱTheȱPoemsȱofȱRobertȱHerrick,ȱed.ȱL.ȱC.ȱMartinȱ(NewȱYorkȱand
London:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1965),ȱ171–72,ȱlineȱ1.ȱAllȱsubsequentȱcitationsȱfromȱHerrick’s
poemsȱareȱtakenȱfromȱthisȱeditionȱandȱareȱcitedȱparentheticallyȱwithinȱtheȱtext.
2
Theȱfourȱpoemsȱareȱ“DiscontentsȱinȱDevon,”ȱ“ToȱHisȱHouseholdȱGods,”ȱ“HisȱLachrymae:ȱorȱMirth
TurnedȱtoȱMourning,”ȱandȱ“UponȱHimself.”
796 JessicaȱTvordi
ratherȱ thanȱ celebrated.ȱ Inȱ aȱ collectionȱ ofȱ poetryȱ inȱ whichȱ heȱ embracesȱ many
theatricalȱ personasȱ whichȱ makeȱ itȱ difficultȱ forȱ theȱ readerȱ toȱ discernȱ hisȱ true
opinionsȱaboutȱaȱvarietyȱofȱsubjects,ȱtheseȱantiȬruralȱeffusionsȱare,ȱnonetheless,
strikingȱ inȱ theirȱ challengeȱ toȱ bothȱ theȱ pastoralȱ andȱ georgicȱ traditions,ȱ which,
whetherȱrepresentingȱtheȱcountryȱthroughȱtheȱlensȱofȱfantasyȱorȱreality,ȱareȱnearly
alwaysȱpositiveȱinȱtheirȱrenderings.ȱ
WhileȱatȱtimesȱHerrickȱembracesȱromanticizedȱnotionsȱofȱpastoralȱsimplicity
and,ȱatȱothers,ȱacknowledgesȱtheȱharshȱrealitiesȱofȱtheȱagrarianȱlife,ȱheȱreveals,
ultimately,ȱthatȱtheȱpoet’sȱplacementȱinȱtheȱcountryȱisȱproblematic:ȱtheȱruralȱretreat
doesȱnotȱalwaysȱresultȱinȱpoeticȱachievements,ȱmuchȱlessȱpersonalȱcontentment.
Herrick’sȱnegativeȱrepresentationsȱofȱtheȱcountry,ȱwhichȱheȱarticulatesȱinȱrelation
toȱhisȱownȱdiscontentednessȱinȱhisȱruralȱenvironment,ȱexistȱinȱstrikingȱcontrast
withȱtheȱcivilizedȱpleasuresȱofȱintellectualismȱandȱcreativityȱthatȱHerrickȱassociates
almostȱ exclusivelyȱ withȱ theȱ thrivingȱ literaryȱ worldȱ ofȱ London.ȱ Inȱ fact,ȱ several
poemsȱ inȱ whichȱ Herrickȱ examinesȱ hisȱ ruralȱ environment—inȱ particular,ȱ “His
Lachrymae:ȱorȱMirthȱTurnedȱtoȱMourning,”ȱ“UponȱHimself,”ȱandȱ“HisȱReturnȱto
London”—addressȱ theȱ lossȱ ofȱ poeticȱ communityȱ andȱ identityȱ throughȱ both
vilificationȱofȱtheȱcountryȱandȱidealizationȱofȱtheȱcity.ȱMoreȱspecifically,ȱHerrick
usesȱ hisȱ “banishment”ȱ fromȱ Londonȱ andȱ hisȱ “confinement”ȱ inȱ Devonshireȱ to
exploreȱtwoȱfacetsȱofȱtheȱpoet’sȱconcern:ȱfirst,ȱtheȱlossȱofȱskill,ȱfrequentlyȱassociated
withȱtheȱabsenceȱofȱhisȱMuse;ȱand,ȱsubsequently,ȱtheȱanxietyȱoverȱlostȱrecognition
andȱpatronageȱattendantȱuponȱhisȱpoeticȱfailings.ȱUltimately,ȱheȱrepresentsȱhis
experienceȱofȱcountryȱlifeȱasȱanȱunfortunateȱbutȱperhapsȱnecessaryȱexileȱsoȱheȱmay
“GrowȱupȱtoȱbeȱaȱRomanȱCitizen”ȱ(“UponȱHimself,”ȱ2)ȱwithȱhisȱtimeȱspentȱinȱthe
countryȱpreparingȱhimȱtoȱresumeȱhisȱrightfulȱplaceȱinȱLondonȱasȱaȱcitizenȬpoet.ȱ
1.ȱHerrickȱasȱPoetȱ
HerrickȱwasȱbornȱinȱLondonȱtoȱanȱundistinguishedȱfamilyȱinȱtrade,ȱand,ȱindeed,
seemedȱdestinedȱforȱaȱnonȬliteraryȱlife,ȱyetȱhisȱearliestȱwritingȱevidencesȱaȱcreative
andȱreceptiveȱmindȱfamiliarȱnotȱonlyȱwithȱtheȱclassicalȱtradition,ȱbutȱalsoȱwithȱthe
workȱofȱhisȱcontemporaries.3ȱBornȱinȱ1591ȱinȱGoldsmith’sȱRowȱinȱsouthȱCheapside,
3
Herrick’sȱbiographyȱhasȱbeenȱlargelyȱderivedȱfromȱtheȱinternalȱ“evidence”ȱfoundȱinȱhisȱpoems,
partlyȱbecauseȱtheȱknownȱfactsȱofȱhisȱlifeȱareȱlimitedȱtoȱaȱselectȱnumberȱofȱdocuments:ȱtheȱHerrick
FamilyȱPapers,ȱdocumentsȱfromȱtheȱLeicestershireȱRecordȱOffice,ȱentriesȱinȱtheȱActsȱofȱtheȱPrivy
Council,ȱandȱaȱsetȱofȱbeggingȱlettersȱHerrickȱwroteȱtoȱhisȱuncle,ȱSirȱWilliamȱHerrick,ȱwhileȱheȱwas
aȱ studentȱ atȱ Cambridge.ȱ Forȱ aȱ carefuleȱ assessmentȱ ofȱ theȱ evidence,ȱ seeȱ Tomȱ Cain,ȱ “Robert
Herrick’sȱ Life,”ȱ Theȱ Robertȱ Herrickȱ Projectȱ (Universityȱ ofȱ Newcastle,ȱ 2006;ȱ
[http://herrick.ncl.ac.uk/Biography%20of%20Robert%20Herrick%ȱ 20by%20Tom%20Cain.htm];
lastȱaccessedȱonȱDec.ȱ29.ȱ2011).
TheȱPoetȱinȱExile:ȱRobertȱHerrickȱ 797
Herrickȱ wasȱ nineteenȱ monthsȱ oldȱ whenȱ hisȱ father,ȱ aȱ successfulȱ jewelerȱ and
moneylender,ȱcommittedȱsuicide.4ȱHerrickȱandȱhisȱtwoȱelderȱbrothersȱremained
inȱ Londonȱ underȱ theȱ guardianshipȱ ofȱ theirȱ paternalȱ uncle,ȱ William,ȱ whileȱ his
mother,ȱJulian,ȱleftȱLondonȱ(withȱtwoȱyoungerȱchildren)ȱtoȱliveȱwithȱaȱsisterȱin
Hampton.ȱTheȱpoetȱmayȱhaveȱattendedȱWestminsterȱSchoolȱor,ȱmoreȱlikely,ȱThe
MerchantȱTaylor’sȱSchool,ȱwhereȱheȱwouldȱhaveȱreceivedȱtheȱstandardȱtrainingȱin
Latin,ȱsomeȱGreek,ȱandȱmathematics,ȱbutȱnoȱrecordsȱexistȱtoȱconfirmȱheȱattended
eitherȱinstitution.5ȱGivenȱthatȱatȱleastȱoneȱpoemȱdatedȱtoȱ1611–1612,ȱ“AȱCountry
Life:ȱToȱHisȱBrother,ȱMr.ȱTho.ȱHerrick,”ȱrevealsȱaȱfamiliarityȱwithȱclassicalȱworks
priorȱ toȱ hisȱ matriculationȱ atȱ Cambridge,ȱ Herrickȱ veryȱ likelyȱ receivedȱ some
schoolingȱpriorȱtoȱtheȱperiodȱinȱwhichȱheȱbeganȱtoȱlearnȱtheȱfamilyȱtrade.ȱTom
Cainȱnotesȱthisȱparticularȱpoemȱ“invokesȱaȱwideȱrangeȱofȱclassicalȱauthors,ȱand
imitatesȱJonson’sȱthenȬunpublishedȱ‘ToȱSirȱRobertȱWroth,’ȱsuggestingȱthatȱheȱknew
Jonsonȱbeforeȱhisȱpresumedȱcontactȱwithȱtheȱlatter’sȱcircleȱinȱtheȱmid–1620s.”6
Despiteȱhisȱcreativeȱtendencies,ȱHerrickȱwasȱapprenticedȱtoȱhisȱgoldsmithȱuncle
inȱ1607,ȱbutȱmanagedȱtoȱnegotiateȱaȱreleaseȱfromȱtheȱusualȱtenȬyearȱcontractȱin
1613ȱwhenȱheȱwasȱ21ȱtoȱenterȱSt.ȱJohn’sȱCollegeȱatȱCambridge,ȱwhereȱheȱremained
inȱresidenceȱthroughȱtheȱcompletionȱofȱhisȱM.A.ȱinȱ1620.ȱDuringȱthisȱperiodȱheȱhad
frequentȱ moneyȱ troubles,ȱ withȱ hisȱ uncleȱ notȱ onlyȱ inȱ chargeȱ ofȱ hisȱ modest
inheritance,ȱbutȱlikelyȱwithholdingȱaȱportionȱofȱhisȱnephew’sȱquarterlyȱincomeȱso
thatȱheȱcouldȱuseȱitȱforȱhisȱownȱinvestmentȱpurposes.7ȱAtȱCambridgeȱHerrickȱmet
twoȱfutureȱpatron,ȱSirȱClipsbyȱCrewȱandȱMildmayȱFane,ȱtheȱfutureȱsecondȱEarlȱof
Westmorelandȱ(forȱwhomȱheȱwroteȱ“TheȱHockȬCart;ȱor,ȱHarvestȱHome”),ȱandȱmay
wellȱhaveȱhadȱsomeȱcontactȱwithȱtheȱpoetȱGeorgeȱHerbert,ȱtheȱplaywrightȱJames
Shirley,ȱandȱtheȱfutureȱrebelȱandȱheadȱofȱtheȱInterregnumȱgovernment,ȱOliver
Cromwell.ȱWeȱknowȱlittleȱaboutȱHerrick’sȱpostȬgraduateȱyearsȱinȱLondon,ȱwhich
totalȱnearlyȱaȱdecade,ȱandȱduringȱwhichȱheȱappearsȱtoȱhaveȱmadeȱconnectionsȱwith
otherȱpoets,ȱincludingȱBenȱJonson.ȱ
AlthoughȱweȱhaveȱnoȱrecordȱofȱprofessionalȱactivityȱduringȱhisȱimmediateȱpostȬ
graduateȱperiod,ȱheȱmayȱhaveȱservedȱasȱaȱdomesticȱchaplainȱafterȱtakingȱorders
4
Herrickȱfellȱtoȱhisȱdeathȱfromȱtheȱsecondȱstoryȱofȱtheȱfamilyȱabode:ȱsuicideȱisȱassumedȱowingȱto
theȱfeeȱofȱ£222ȱpaidȱtoȱtheȱcrownȱbeforeȱhisȱestateȱcouldȱbeȱsettled.ȱSeeȱCain,ȱ“RobertȱHerrick’s
Life”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱpar.ȱ2–3.
5
Whileȱearlierȱeditors,ȱoftenȱworkingȱfromȱtheȱallegedlyȱbiographicalȱdetailsȱfoundȱinȱhisȱpoems,
assumedȱHerrickȱmustȱhaveȱattendedȱWestminster,ȱmoreȱrecentȱscholarsȱargueȱforȱMerchant
Taylors,ȱwhereȱhisȱcousins,ȱWilliam’sȱsons,ȱlikelyȱattended.ȱSeeȱCain,”ȱRobertȱHerrick’sȱLife”ȱ(see
noteȱ3),ȱpar.ȱ5.
6
SeeȱCain,ȱ“RobertȱHerrick’sȱLife”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱpara.ȱ4.
7
SeeȱCain,ȱȱ“RobertȱHerrick’sȱLife”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱpara.ȱ6.ȱCainȱnotesȱthatȱHerrickȱwasȱconsistently
outȱofȱfundsȱduringȱhisȱ collegeȱ years,ȱandȱthatȱwhenȱheȱleftȱCambridgeȱheȱowedȱtheȱcollege
stewardȱ£10ȱ(par.ȱ8).
798 JessicaȱTvordi
inȱ1623.ȱWeȱdoȱknowȱheȱwasȱassignedȱtoȱGeorgeȱVilliers,ȱDukeȱofȱBuckinghamȱas
chaplainȱforȱtheȱfailedȱexpeditionȱtoȱtheȱIsleȱofȱRhéȱ(nearȱLaȱRochelle)ȱinȱ1627,ȱand
heȱ mayȱ haveȱ continuedȱ toȱ serveȱ asȱ Buckingham’sȱ chaplainȱ untilȱ theȱ Duke’s
assassinationȱinȱ1628.ȱHerrickȱwasȱ“presented”ȱtoȱtheȱVicarageȱofȱDeanȱPriorȱin
1629,ȱ takingȱ upȱ residenceȱ inȱ theȱ followingȱ year,ȱ andȱ appearsȱ toȱ haveȱ served
contentedlyȱuntilȱtheȱonslaughtȱofȱtheȱCivilȱWarȱinȱtheȱearlyȱ1640s.ȱAsȱaȱroyalist,
heȱ wasȱ eventuallyȱ forcedȱ toȱ leaveȱ Devonshireȱ dueȱ toȱ theȱ proximityȱ of
parliamentaryȱforcesȱinȱ1647.ȱHerrickȱthenȱreturnedȱtoȱliveȱinȱLondonȱinȱpoverty,
duringȱwhichȱtimeȱheȱpublishedȱHesperides.ȱAfterȱtheȱsuccessionȱofȱCharlesȱIIȱin
1660,ȱheȱwasȱreinstatedȱatȱDeanȱPriorȱtoȱonceȱagainȱserveȱitsȱspiritualȱcommunity
untilȱhisȱdeathȱinȱ1674ȱatȱtheȱageȱofȱ83.
Hesperides,ȱpublishedȱinȱ1648ȱandȱcontainingȱoverȱ1400,ȱmostlyȱshort,ȱpoems,ȱis
organizedȱneitherȱbyȱcompositionȱdateȱnorȱbyȱsubject,ȱandȱitsȱpoemsȱcertainly
reflectȱ aȱ broadȱ rangeȱ ofȱ themes:ȱ thereȱ areȱ poemsȱ onȱ “Julia”ȱ (andȱ herȱ breasts,
clothes,ȱvoice,ȱetc.)ȱandȱotherȱyoungȱwomen;ȱpoemsȱwrittenȱtoȱnobleȱpersonages;
poemsȱonȱpoetryȱandȱtheȱplaywrightȱandȱpoetȱBenȱJonsonȱinȱparticular;ȱpoemsȱon
povertyȱandȱwealth;ȱpoemsȱonȱflowers,ȱrivers,ȱandȱfaeries;ȱpoemsȱaddressedȱto
familyȱmembers;ȱandȱpoemsȱonȱ“himself.”ȱAȱhandfulȱhaveȱbeenȱgivenȱextended
treatmentȱbyȱscholarsȱandȱusuallyȱ20ȱorȱsoȱareȱregularlyȱanthologized,ȱalthough
perhapsȱ lessȱ regularlyȱ taughtȱ inȱ Britishȱ Literatureȱ surveysȱ inȱ universities
throughoutȱtheȱwest.8ȱAmongȱthisȱsmallȱgroup,ȱonlyȱ“TheȱHockȬCart;ȱorȱHarvest
Home”ȱ focusȱ specificallyȱ onȱ ruralȱ activities,ȱ whileȱ others,ȱ suchȱ asȱ “Corinna’s
GoingȱaȱMaying,”ȱareȱnotȱboundȱpreciselyȱtoȱaȱruralȱlocale.ȱ
CriticalȱresponsesȱtoȱtheȱvolumeȱasȱaȱwholeȱhaveȱnotedȱHesperides’ȱgreatȱvariety
ofȱ subjectsȱ andȱ style,ȱ leadingȱ someȱ scholarsȱ toȱ dismissȱ itȱ asȱ anȱ unwieldyȱ and
ultimatelyȱincoherentȱwork.9ȱMoreȱrecently,ȱhowever,ȱreadersȱhaveȱdiscovered
orderȱwhereȱothersȱhaveȱseenȱonlyȱchaos.ȱAnnȱBaynesȱCoiro,ȱforȱinstance,ȱhas
reexaminedȱtheȱbookȱwithinȱtheȱtraditionȱofȱepigramȱwriting,ȱnotingȱthatȱmanyȱof
theȱinconsistencesȱnotedȱbyȱearlierȱgenerationsȱofȱcriticsȱareȱactuallyȱquiteȱcoherent
andȱproductive.ȱInȱparticular,ȱwhileȱsheȱnotesȱthatȱtheȱlyricȱandȱepigrammatic
modesȱrepresentedȱinȱtheȱvolumeȱmayȱatȱfirstȱseemȱatȱodds,ȱtheyȱactuallyȱworkȱto
createȱaȱsustainableȱtensionȱbetweenȱtheȱ“lyricsȱofȱroyalȱpraise”ȱandȱtheȱ“epigrams
8
TheȱNortonȱAnthologyȱofȱEnglishȱLiterature,ȱVolumeȱ1,ȱ8thȱed.ȱ(NewȱYork:ȱW.ȱW.ȱNorton,ȱ2006),ȱfor
example,ȱincludesȱ23ȱofȱHerrick’sȱpoemsȱ(includingȱtwoȱselectionsȱfromȱTheȱNobleȱNumbers),ȱwhile
TheȱLongmanȱAnthologyȱofȱBritishȱLiterature,ȱvol.ȱ1,ȱ3rdȱed.ȱ(NewȱYork:ȱLongman,ȱ2006),ȱreproduces
30.
9
Amongȱ theȱ earliestȱ criticsȱ reluctantȱ toȱ seeȱ anyȱ specificȱ designȱ inȱ Hesperidesȱ areȱ F.ȱ R.ȱ Leavis,
Reevaluation:ȱTraditionȱandȱDevelopmentȱinȱEnglishȱPoetryȱ(London:ȱChattoȱ&ȱWindus,ȱ1936),ȱ36–40;
andȱ T.ȱ S.ȱ Eliot,ȱ “Whatȱ isȱ Minorȱ Poetry?”ȱ Sewaneeȱ Reviewȱ 54.ȱ 1ȱ (1946):ȱ 1–18.ȱ Theȱ firstȱ criticȱ to
considerȱHesperidesȱasȱaȱcohesiveȱvolumeȱwasȱJohnȱL.ȱKimmeyȱinȱhisȱessayȱ“OrderȱandȱFormȱin
Herrick’sȱHesperides,”ȱJournalȱofȱEnglishȱandȱGermanȱPhilologyȱ70.2ȱ(1971):ȱ255–68.
ofȱStuartȱpolicy”ȱthat,ȱultimately,ȱcomplicatesȱourȱunderstandȱofȱHerrick’sȱoverall
designȱforȱhisȱwork.10
Whileȱ Herrickȱ didȱ produceȱ someȱ religiousȱ poetry,11ȱ hisȱ secularȱ offeringsȱ in
Hesperidesȱfarȱexceedȱtheȱspiritual,ȱwhichȱnumberȱatȱaȱpaltryȱ271.ȱInsteadȱofȱhoning
hisȱartȱwithinȱtheȱgenreȱofȱreligiousȱlyric,ȱrepresentedȱinȱprintȱbyȱthisȱtimeȱbyȱJohn
Donne’sȱPoemsȱ(1633),ȱGeorgeȱHerbert’sȱTheȱTempleȱ(1633),ȱandȱRichardȱCrashaw’s
StepsȱtoȱtheȱTempleȱ(1646),ȱHerrickȱmadeȱhisȱmarkȱasȱoneȱofȱaȱnumberȱofȱCavalier
poetsȱ whoȱ wereȱ especiallyȱ interestedȱ inȱ theȱ revivalȱ ofȱ classicalȱ learningȱ and
focusedȱprimarilyȱonȱsecularȱtopics.12ȱDespiteȱhisȱcallingȱasȱpoetȬpriest,ȱHerrick
claimsȱasȱhisȱpoeticȱfatherȱnotȱJohnȱDonne,ȱDeanȱofȱSt.ȱPaul’s,ȱorȱGeorgeȱHerbert,
whoȱservedȱinȱaȱruralȱparishȱinȱWiltshire,ȱbutȱratherȱBenȱJonson,ȱappointedȱPoet
LaureateȱbyȱKingȱJamesȱIȱinȱ1616.ȱWhileȱlessȱthanȱpopularȱasȱaȱdramatistȱwriting
forȱtheȱpublicȱstage,ȱJonsonȱenjoyedȱgreatȱsuccessȱasȱaȱwriterȱofȱcourtȱmasquesȱand
evenȱ greaterȱ honorȱ asȱ theȱ poetȱ whomȱ aȱ numberȱ ofȱ youngerȱ writers—Richard
Lovelace,ȱ Sirȱ Johnȱ Suckling,ȱ Thomasȱ Carew,ȱ andȱ Herrick—consideredȱ asȱ their
primaryȱ literaryȱ influence.ȱ Jonson,ȱ whomȱ Herrickȱ callsȱ “theȱ rareȱ ArchȬpoet”
(“UponȱM.ȱBen.ȱJonson.ȱEpig.”ȱ1),ȱgreatlyȱinfluencedȱHerrick’sȱstyle,ȱwithȱmany
ofȱtheȱyoungerȱwriter’sȱpoemsȱclearlyȱengagingȱwithȱtheȱthemesȱthatȱtheȱelderȱpoet
explored.ȱ13
AȱselfȬstyledȱmemberȱofȱtheȱ“TribeȱofȱBen,”ȱHerrickȱincludedȱseveralȱpoems
aboutȱJonsonȱinȱHesperides,ȱandȱinȱeachȱofȱtheseȱHerrickȱmakesȱclearȱtheȱinfluence
ofȱ Jonsonȱ onȱ hisȱ ownȱ writing.14ȱ Inȱ “Hisȱ Prayerȱ toȱ Benȱ Jonson,”ȱ forȱ example,
Herrickȱelevatesȱhimȱtoȱtheȱstatusȱofȱpaganȱdeityȱandȱpatronȱofȱpoets:ȱ“KnowȱI
haveȱpraidȱthee,ȱ/ȱForȱoldȱReligionsȱsakeȱ/ȱSaintȱBenȱtoȱaidȱme”ȱ(1–4).ȱWhileȱprayer
isȱinvolved,ȱtheseȱareȱnotȱtheȱorisonsȱofȱtheȱChurchȱofȱEngland,ȱbutȱratherȱofȱthe
oldȱreligion:ȱoneȱthatȱsportsȱaȱvastȱlistȱofȱsaintsȱorȱpossiblyȱpaganȱdeitiesȱtoȱwhich
JonsonȱisȱaddedȱasȱHerrick’sȱspecialȱobjectȱofȱdevotion.ȱThisȱprayerȱtoȱJonson,ȱthen,
10
SeeȱAnnȱBaynesȱCoiro,ȱRobertȱHerrick’sȱHesperidesȱandȱtheȱEpigramȱBookȱTraditionȱ(Baltimore,ȱMD:
JohnsȱHopkins,ȱ1998),ȱ8.
11
TheȱNobleȱNumbersȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1),ȱ271ȱmostlyȱshortȱpoemsȱonȱspiritualȱsubjects,ȱfollowsȱtheȱtwo
volumesȱofȱsecularȱpoemsȱinȱHesperides.
12
TheȱtermȱCavalierȱpoetȱrefersȱtoȱaȱgroupȱofȱseventeenthȬcenturyȱwritersȱwhoȱsupportedȱCharles
Iȱinȱtheȱroyalistȱcause,ȱandȱproducedȱlargelyȱsecularȱpoetry.ȱWhileȱtheȱmajorityȱwereȱcourtierȬ
soldiersȱwhoȱwereȱmoreȱintimatelyȱinvolvedȱinȱtheȱpoliticsȱofȱtheȱcourt,ȱHerrickȱwasȱaȱcommoner
withȱ noȱ directȱ connectionȱ toȱ theȱ politicalȱ worldȱ saveȱ hisȱ briefȱ connectionȱ withȱ theȱ Dukeȱ of
Buckingham.ȱForȱaȱcomprehensiveȱoverviewȱofȱtheȱCavelierȱpoets,ȱseeȱEssaysȱonȱJonsonȱandȱthe
SonsȱofȱBen,ȱed.ȱClaudeȱJ.ȱSummersȱ(Pittsburgh:ȱUniversityȱofȱPittsburgh,ȱ1982).
13
ForȱaȱmoreȱcomprehensiveȱdiscussionȱofȱJonson’sȱinfluenceȱonȱHerrick,ȱseeȱCoiro,ȱRobertȱHerrick’s
Hesperidesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ10),ȱespeciallyȱ104–09.
14
Theseȱpoemsȱincludeȱ“UponȱM.ȱBenȱJonson.ȱEpig,”ȱ“Another,”ȱ“HisȱPrayerȱtoȱBenȱJonson,”ȱ“An
OdeȱforȱHim,”ȱ“AȱBacchanalianȱHymn,”ȱandȱ“Another.”
800 JessicaȱTvordi
acknowledgesȱtheȱelderȱpoet’sȱownȱartȱwhile,ȱatȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱacknowledgingȱhis
functionȱasȱaȱpossibleȱsourceȱofȱHerrick’sȱinspiration.ȱHeȱpleads:
Makeȱtheȱwayȱsmoothȱforȱme,
WhenȱI,ȱthyȱHerrick,
Honoringȱthee,ȱonȱmyȱknee
OfferȱmyȱLyrick. (5–8)
JonsonȱservesȱnotȱonlyȱasȱtheȱsaintȱtoȱwhomȱHerrickȱwillȱprayȱforȱaidȱinȱhisȱpoetic
art,ȱbutȱalsoȱfunctionsȱasȱtheȱdeityȱonȱtheȱreceivingȱendȱofȱHerrick’sȱfinalȱoffering;
moreover,ȱ withȱ hisȱ promiseȱ inȱ theȱ concludingȱ stanzaȱ toȱ makeȱ Jonsonȱ aȱ “new
Altar”ȱ (12),ȱ Herrickȱ recastsȱ himselfȱ asȱ poetȬacolyteȱ veryȱ muchȱ outsideȱ ofȱ a
consciouslyȱChristianȱcontext.ȱ
TheȱmajorityȱofȱHerrick’sȱpoetryȱrejectsȱaȱspiritualȱpoetics,15ȱinsteadȱembracing
theȱ modelȱ offeredȱ byȱ Jonson,ȱ withȱ theȱ elderȱ poet’sȱ engagementȱ withȱ classical
authorsȱandȱmodesȱofȱwritingȱclearlyȱevidencedȱinȱHesperides.ȱLikeȱJonson,ȱHerrick
experimentedȱwithȱtheȱepigram,ȱaȱbriefȱandȱcleverȱformȱmasteredȱbyȱtheȱLatinȱpoet
Martial,ȱexploredȱtheȱRoman’sȱtreatmentȱofȱconviviality—withȱJonson’sȱ“Inviting
aȱ Friendȱ toȱ Supper”ȱ undoubtedlyȱ inspiringȱ Herrick’sȱ manyȱ musingsȱ onȱ that
subject—andȱproducedȱpatronageȱpoemsȱthatȱacknowledgeȱaristocraticȱauthority
throughȱaȱsurveyȱofȱtheȱpatron’sȱpower,ȱwealth,ȱandȱhospitality.ȱJonson’sȱmost
famousȱpoemȱinȱthisȱveinȱisȱ“ToȱPenshurst,”ȱaddressedȱtoȱtheȱEarlȱofȱLeicester,ȱSir
RobertȱSidney,ȱwhichȱcanȱbeȱmostȱaccuratelyȱcategorizedȱasȱaȱcountryȱhouseȱpoem
asȱitsȱsubjectȱisȱtheȱfamilyȱseat,ȱPenshurstȱPlace.ȱ“ToȱPenshurst”ȱbearsȱaȱrelationȱto
Herrick’sȱ poemȱ “Theȱ HockȬCart;ȱ orȱ Harvestȱ Home.ȱ Toȱ theȱ Rightȱ Honorable
Mildmay,ȱEarlȱofȱWestmoreland,”ȱwhichȱcelebratesȱtheȱbountyȱofȱtheȱaristocratic
landownerȱthroughȱtheȱhospitableȱcelebrationsȱprovidedȱforȱtheȱlaborersȱonȱthe
finalȱdayȱofȱtheȱharvest.
InȱemulatingȱJonson,ȱHerrickȱexploresȱclassicalȱformsȱandȱthemes,ȱmostlyȱfrom
Romanȱauthors,ȱfromȱtheȱconvivialȱmodesȱofȱCatullusȱandȱHoraceȱtoȱtheȱgeorgic
ofȱtheȱGreekȱpoetȱHesiodȱandȱVirgil.16ȱAspectsȱofȱtheȱgeorgicȱmostȱinterestingȱto
15
Forȱ discussionȱ ofȱ religiousȱ themesȱ inȱ hisȱ largelyȱ secularȱ volume,ȱ seeȱ Achsahȱ Guibbory’s
“Enlargingȱ theȱ limitsȱ ofȱ theȱ ‘Religiousȱ Lyric’:ȱ theȱ Caseȱ ofȱ Robertȱ Herrick’sȱ Hesperides”ȱ and
“Hesperides,ȱtheȱHebrewȱBible,ȱandȱHerrick’sȱChristianȱIdentity,”ȱLiteratureȱCriticismȱfromȱ1400ȱto
1800ȱ(Vol.ȱ145),ȱed.ȱThomasȱJ.ȱSchoenbergȱandȱLawrenceȱJ.ȱTrudeauȱ(FarmingtonȱHills,ȱMI:ȱGale,
2008),ȱ169–77ȱandȱ234–46.
16
AlastairȱFowlerȱnotesȱthatȱearlierȱseventeenthȱcenturyȱtreatmentsȱofȱcountryȱlifeȱwereȱperhaps
moreȱinfluencedȱbyȱHesiodȱthanȱtheyȱwereȱbyȱVirgil.ȱHesiod’sȱWorksȱandȱDaysȱwasȱfirstȱtranslated
intoȱEnglishȱbyȱGeorgeȱChapmenȱunderȱtheȱtitleȱGeorgicsȱinȱ1614,ȱwhileȱJohnȱDryden’sȱtranslation
ofȱVirgil’sȱGeorgicsȱdidȱnotȱappearȱuntilȱ1697.ȱWhileȱFowlerȱnotesȱthatȱbothȱHesiodȱandȱVirgil’s
treatmentsȱofȱthisȱgenreȱhaveȱmuchȱinȱcommon,ȱHesiodȱtendedȱtoȱfocusȱinȱgreaterȱdetailȱonȱthe
subjectsȱofȱ“hospitalityȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱandȱtheȱhappyȱlifeȱofȱretirement,”ȱthemesȱofȱparticularȱinterestȱto
Herrick.ȱSeeȱFowler,ȱ“GeorgicȱandȱPastoral:ȱLawsȱofȱGenreȱinȱtheȱSeventeenthȱCentury,”ȱCulture
Herrickȱareȱtheȱvalorizationȱofȱgoodȱhusbandryȱandȱthrift,ȱandȱtheseȱattributesȱfind
theirȱ placeȱ alongsideȱ theȱ ideaȱ ofȱ theȱ convivium,ȱ theȱ Romanȱ banquetȱ inȱ which
friendsȱgatheredȱtoȱenjoyȱgoodȱfood,ȱwine,ȱandȱpoetry.17ȱInȱ“AnȱOdeȱforȱHim,”
anotherȱ poemȱ forȱ Jonson,ȱ Herrickȱ acknowledgesȱ hisȱ investmentȱ inȱ theȱ ideaȱ of
secularȱconvivialityȱwithinȱaȱspecificallyȱpoeticȱcommunity.18ȱSpeakingȱdirectlyȱto
Jonson,ȱHerrickȱexhortsȱhimȱtoȱ
Sayȱhowȱorȱwhenȱ
Shallȱweȱthyȱguestsȱ
MeetȱatȱthoseȱLyrickȱFeasts,ȱ
MadeȱatȱtheȱSun,
TheȱDog,ȱtheȱtripleȱTunne?
Whereȱweȱsuchȱclustersȱhad,
Asȱmadeȱusȱnoblyȱwild,ȱnotȱmad;
Andȱyetȱeachȱverseȱofȱthine
OutȬdidȱtheȱmeate,ȱoutȬdidȱtheȱfrolickȱwine.ȱ (1–10)
Theseȱ“Lyrickȱfeasts,”ȱconvenedȱinȱLondonȱtaverns,ȱgiveȱtheȱimmediateȱsenseȱof
theȱconsumptionȱofȱpoetryȱalongsideȱfoodȱandȱdrink.ȱHerrick’sȱodeȱemphasizes
Jonson’sȱhospitalityȱasȱhostȱtoȱaȱscoreȱofȱguestsȱenjoyingȱoneȱofȱpresumablyȱmany
“clusters”ȱorȱgatheringsȱthatȱendȱinȱtheȱfamiliarȱactivityȱofȱtheȱpoeticȱreading—in
thisȱ particularȱ text,ȱ withȱ theȱ masterȱ providingȱ fitterȱ sustenanceȱ toȱ hisȱ guests
throughȱtheȱdisseminationȱofȱhisȱpoetryȱthanȱtheȱusualȱfareȱofȱ“meate”ȱandȱ“wine”
offeredȱbyȱtheȱtavernȱkeepers.
Inȱ “Anȱ Odeȱ forȱ Him”ȱ Herrickȱ alsoȱ introducesȱ theȱ ideaȱ ofȱ poeticȱ husbandry,
pickingȱupȱtheȱfamiliarȱthemesȱofȱtheȱgeorgicȱandȱitsȱpreoccupationȱwithȱgood
managementȱinȱanȱagrarianȱsetting.ȱAsȱAndrewȱMcRaeȱnotes,ȱHerrick’sȱlandscape
poetryȱ “offersȱ aȱ subduedȱ yetȱ sustainedȱ argumentȱ ofȱ ruralȱ laborȱ and
improvement,”19ȱ andȱ theseȱ themesȱ frequentlyȱ findȱ theirȱ wayȱ intoȱ poemsȱ not
specificallyȱ aboutȱ ruralȱ spaces.ȱ ȱ Inȱ theȱ secondȱ stanzaȱ ofȱ Herrick’sȱ addressȱ to
Jonson,ȱheȱbegsȱtheȱmoreȱaccomplishedȱpoetȱtoȱ“comeȱagenȱ/ȱOrȱsendȱtoȱusȱ/ȱThy
wit’sȱgreatȱoverȬplus”ȱ(12–14),ȱasȱifȱtheȱgatherers,ȱinȱtheȱgreatȱpoet’sȱabsence,ȱare
famishedȱforȱpoeticȱvictuals.ȱHere,ȱhowever,ȱtheȱhusbandryȱfocusesȱonȱart,ȱnot
andȱCultivationȱinȱEarlyȱModernȱEngland:ȱWritingȱandȱtheȱLand,ȱed.ȱMichaelȱLeslieȱandȱTimothy
Raylorȱ(NewȱYork:ȱSt.ȱMartin’sȱPress,ȱ1992),ȱ81–88;ȱ86.
17
Inȱadditionȱtoȱclassicalȱwriters,ȱHerrickȱmayȱalsoȱhaveȱdrawȱonȱDesideriusȱErasmus’sȱ“TheȱPoetic
Feast”ȱinȱColloquies,ȱwhichȱwasȱfirstȱprintedȱinȱ1518ȱ(TheȱColloquiesȱofȱErasmus,ȱtrans.ȱCraigȱR.
Thompsonȱ[Chicago:ȱUniversityȱofȱChicago,ȱ1965]).
18
Forȱaȱmoreȱextendedȱreadingȱofȱthisȱandȱotherȱpoemsȱtreatingȱtheȱsubjectȱofȱconviviality,ȱseeȱthe
essaysȱin’LordsȱofȱWineȱandȱOile’:ȱCommunityȱandȱConvivialityȱinȱtheȱPoetryȱofȱRobertȱHerrick,ȱed.ȱRuth
ConnollyȱandȱTomȱCainȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱLondon:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2011).
19
SeeȱAndrewȱMcRae,ȱ“LandscapeȱandȱPropertyȱinȱSeventeenthȬCenturyȱPoetry,”ȱSydneyȱStudies
inȱEnglishȱ20ȱ(1994–1995):ȱ36–62;ȱhereȱ56
802 JessicaȱTvordi
tillage,ȱwithȱHerrickȱexhortingȱJonsonȱtoȱ“teachȱusȱyetȱ/ȱWiselyȱtoȱhusbandȱit;ȱ/ȱLest
weȱthatȱTallentȱspend”ȱ(14–16),ȱsuggestingȱfearȱofȱpoeticȱgluttonyȱand,ȱthus,ȱthe
carelessȱspendingȱofȱone’sȱtalent.ȱ
Additionally,ȱ Jonson’sȱ witȱ isȱ describedȱ asȱ “preciousȱ stock”ȱ andȱ aȱ valuable
“store”ȱ(19)ȱthatȱtheȱworldȱisȱnotȱlikelyȱtoȱexperienceȱagain.ȱTheȱideaȱofȱJonson’s
witȱasȱaȱprizedȱreserve,ȱthen,ȱsuggestsȱtheȱfrugalityȱandȱgoodȱhusbandryȱthatȱhis
poeticȱfollowersȱmustȱpracticeȱinȱtheirȱownȱartȱifȱtheyȱareȱtoȱemulateȱhim,ȱand
Herrickȱisȱcarefulȱtoȱconveyȱinȱstanzaȱoneȱthatȱtheseȱgatheringsȱofȱfood,ȱpoetry,
andȱ drinkȱ areȱ notȱ aȱ riotȱ ofȱ gluttonousȱ banqueting,ȱ butȱ ratherȱ anȱ occasionȱ that
rendersȱhimselfȱandȱhisȱfellowȱpoetsȱ“noblyȱwild”ȱ(7).ȱWhileȱtheȱfirstȱstanzaȱrecalls
theseȱtreasuredȱgatherings,ȱtheȱsecondȱacknowledgesȱtheȱlossȱofȱbothȱtheȱpoetȱand
hisȱart.ȱTheȱLondonȱtavernȱisȱaȱspaceȱinȱwhichȱtheȱpoet,ȱsurroundedȱbyȱotherȱpoets,
canȱfeastȱonȱgreatȱartȱandȱperhapsȱbeȱinspiredȱhimself.ȱAlthoughȱthisȱparticular
poemȱonlyȱalludesȱtoȱLondonȱtavernsȱratherȱthanȱtheȱcityȱitself,ȱitȱbetraysȱaȱlonging
forȱanotherȱtimeȱandȱplaceȱthat,ȱforȱHerrick,ȱsimplyȱcannot,ȱatȱleastȱaccordingȱto
theȱbulkȱofȱhisȱruralȱpoems,ȱbeȱduplicatedȱinȱtheȱcountry.ȱ
2.ȱHerrickȱonȱtheȱCountryȱ
DespiteȱHerrick’sȱpreoccupationsȱwithȱthingsȱthatȱheȱsuggestsȱonlyȱtheȱcityȱcan
offer—conviviality,ȱwit,ȱandȱpoeticȱcommunity—inȱ“TheȱArgumentȱofȱHisȱBook,”
Herrickȱmakesȱclearȱthatȱheȱwillȱorientȱaȱgoodȱpartȱofȱhisȱcollectionȱtowardȱnature,
declaringȱheȱwillȱsingȱ“ofȱBrooks,ȱofȱBlossoms,ȱBirds,ȱandȱBowers”ȱ(1).ȱYetȱHerrick’s
discomfitureȱwithȱtheȱnaturalȱworldȱisȱimmediatelyȱbetrayedȱbyȱtheȱfactȱthatȱmany
poemsȱareȱhardlyȱaboutȱtheȱnaturalȱworldȱatȱall.ȱFlowers,ȱforȱexample,ȱfunctionȱas
stereotypicalȱsubstitutesȱforȱyoungȱwomenȱandȱreflectȱonȱtheȱactivitiesȱofȱhuman
society.ȱȱPredictably,ȱtheyȱevokeȱfemaleȱbeauty,ȱlurkingȱinȱmaidens’ȱcheeks,ȱand
theyȱareȱevocativeȱofȱfemaleȱchastity,ȱbothȱ ofȱtheȱquicklyȱ fadingȱtypeȱ(“Toȱthe
Virgin’sȱ toȱ Makeȱ Muchȱ ofȱ Time”ȱ andȱ “Theȱ Cruelȱ Maid”)ȱ andȱ theȱ threatened
variety,ȱsometimesȱevenȱdroopingȱlikeȱ“newlyȱravishedȱvirgins”ȱ(“TheȱSadnessȱof
ThingsȱforȱSappho’sȱSickness,”ȱ4).ȱMoreȱwhimsically,ȱflowersȱareȱalsoȱtheȱoffspring
ofȱloversȱwhoȱkiss,ȱdroppingȱtoȱtheȱgroundȱtoȱengenderȱnewȱvarietiesȱofȱflowers
(“Onȱ GillyȬFlowersȱ Begotten”).ȱ Birdsȱ fareȱ aboutȱ theȱ same,ȱ singingȱ “matins”
(“Corinna’sȱGoingȱaȱMaying”),ȱemulatingȱcoupledȱloversȱ(“ToȱhisȱValentineȱonȱSt.
Valentine’sȱ Day”),ȱ andȱ provingȱ fairȱ weatherȱ friendsȱ toȱ theȱ poetȱ whenȱ they
abandonȱhimȱinȱwinterȱ(“ToȱHisȱMaid,ȱPrew”).ȱ
Whileȱflowersȱandȱbirdsȱserveȱtoȱrenderȱmoreȱintelligibleȱandȱornamentȱhuman
behaviorȱ andȱ relations,ȱ otherȱ entitiesȱ ofȱ theȱ naturalȱ worldȱ provideȱ farȱ less
flatteringȱcomparisonȱbetweenȱhumanȱsocietyȱandȱnature.ȱHerrick’sȱdescriptions
ofȱriversȱanticipateȱtheȱmoreȱnaturalisticȱlandscapeȱpoetryȱthatȱwouldȱbeȱexplored
byȱAbrahamȱCowleyȱinȱtheȱlaterȱpartȱofȱtheȱseventeenthȱcentury20ȱand,ȱmuchȱlater,
byȱ theȱ Romanticȱ poets,ȱ yetȱ theyȱ provideȱ notȱ praiseȱ butȱ ratherȱ censure.ȱ For
example,ȱ theȱ river,ȱ forȱ Herrick,ȱ signalsȱ notȱ theȱ beautyȱ ofȱ natureȱ butȱ ratherȱ its
hostility.ȱInȱ“ToȱDeanȱBourn,ȱAȱRudeȱRiverȱinȱDevon,ȱByȱWhichȱHeȱSometime
Lived,”ȱnatureȱisȱdescribedȱonceȱagainȱinȱhumanȱterms,ȱwithȱtheȱlocalȱestuary’s
“wartyȱincivility”ȱ(2)ȱlikenedȱtoȱitsȱneighboringȱhumansȱwhoȱareȱ“currish;ȱchurlish
asȱtheȱseas;ȱ/ȱAndȱrudeȱ(almost)ȱasȱtheȱrudestȱsalvages”ȱ(11–12),ȱandȱwhomȱHerrick
seemsȱeagerȱtoȱturnȱhisȱbackȱon.ȱTheȱriver’sȱrudeness,ȱhowever,ȱisȱexceededȱbyȱthat
ofȱ mankind,ȱ butȱ noȱ lessȱ volatileȱ forȱ itsȱ inabilityȱ toȱ masterȱ itself.ȱ ȱ Inȱ hisȱ brutal
portraitȱ ofȱ theȱ river,ȱ Herrickȱ conveysȱ theȱ roughȱ humanityȱ ofȱ theȱ Devonshire
inhabitants,ȱwhoȱappearȱequallyȱunmanageableȱandȱuncivilized.ȱMoreover,ȱhe
positionsȱhimselfȱasȱanȱoutsider,ȱoneȱwhoseȱobservationsȱaboutȱtheȱunforgiving
harshnessȱofȱtheȱriverȱcomplimentsȱtheȱveryȱrudenessȱofȱtheȱpeopleȱheȱencounters.
Inȱhisȱequationȱofȱtheȱcrudeȱriverȱwithȱrudeȱpeople,ȱHerrickȱremindsȱusȱthatȱheȱis
entirelyȱoutȱofȱplace,ȱbothȱgeographicallyȱandȱsocially,ȱinȱtheȱworldȱheȱpresently
inhabits.
AlthoughȱmanyȱofȱHerrick’sȱencountersȱwithȱnatureȱareȱonlyȱseenȱthroughȱtheir
uncannyȱabilityȱtoȱmimicȱhumanȱcharacteristics,ȱheȱalsoȱexplored,ȱinȱgreaterȱdetail,
man’sȱ attemptȱ toȱ masterȱ theȱ landȱ itself.ȱ Whileȱ theȱ rageȱ forȱ pastoralȱ withȱ its
simplistic,ȱleisurelyȱrepresentationsȱofȱshepherdsȱhadȱlargelyȱfadedȱbyȱtheȱtime
Herrickȱbeganȱcomposingȱhisȱpoems,ȱtheȱgeorgicȱmode,ȱwhichȱconcernedȱitself
moreȱparticularlyȱwithȱtheȱactivitiesȱassociatedȱwithȱagriculture,ȱwasȱonȱtheȱrise.21
AlastairȱFowlerȱremindsȱusȱthatȱinȱtheȱsixteenthȱcenturyȱSirȱPhilipȱSidneyȱrejected
theȱGeorgicȱasȱaȱpoeticȱmodeȱpreciselyȱbecause,ȱbeingȱaboutȱrealȱlife,ȱitȱ“lacked
fictionality,”ȱandȱtheȱseventeenthȱcenturyȱmayȱwellȱhaveȱabandonedȱthisȱoldȱform
ofȱ theȱ pastoralȱ becauseȱ itȱ evidencedȱ tooȱ muchȱ fiction:ȱ “itȱ wasȱ regardedȱ asȱ an
allegoricalȱform,ȱhighȱmaskedȱasȱlow.’22ȱ
20
Cowleyȱ wasȱ especiallyȱ interestedȱ inȱ agriculturalȱ topics,ȱ evidencedȱ byȱ hisȱ proseȱ essay,ȱ “Of
Agriculture,”ȱhisȱpoemȱ“TheȱGarden,”ȱandȱhisȱtranslationsȱofȱVirgilȱandȱHorace.ȱMcRraeȱnotes
thatȱCowleyȱproposedȱanȱEnglishȱagriculturalȱcollegeȱmodeledȱonȱtheȱGeorgicsȱinȱ1561ȱandȱwas
electedȱtoȱtheȱ“GeorgicalȱCommittee”ȱofȱtheȱRoyalȱSocietyȱinȱ1664.ȱSeeȱMcRae,ȱ“Landscapeȱand
Property”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ14),ȱ61–62;ȱandȱDouglasȱChambers,ȱ“‘WildȱPastorallȱEncounter’:ȱJohnȱEvelyn,
Johnȱ Bealeȱ andȱ theȱ Renegotiationȱ ofȱ Pastoralȱ inȱ theȱ MidȬSeventeenthȱ Century,”ȱ Cultureȱ and
CultivationȱinȱEarlyȱModernȱEngland:ȱWritingȱandȱtheȱLand,ȱed.ȱMichaelȱLeslieȱandȱTimothyȱRaylor
(LeicesterȱandȱLondon:ȱLeicesterȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1992),ȱ173–94;ȱhereȱ184–85.
21
AnnabelȱPattersonȱhasȱnotedȱtheȱJacobeanȱtendencyȱtoȱanalyzeȱpoliticalȱconflictȱinȱrelationȱto
Virgil’sȱEcologues.ȱByȱtheȱ1630s,ȱhowever,ȱtheȱ“virgilianȱdidactic”ȱwasȱallȱbutȱsuppressedȱatȱthe
courtȱofȱCharlesȱI,ȱwhereȱtheȱpastoralȱfunctionedȱasȱaȱsuccessfulȱrepresentationalȱtoolȱonlyȱifȱit
quelledȱ debateȱ onȱ Stuartȱ politicalȱ policy.ȱ Seeȱ Patterson,ȱ Pastoralȱ andȱ Ideology:ȱ Virgilȱ toȱ Valéry
(LondonȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1983)ȱ140–48.ȱ
22
SeeȱFowler,ȱȱGeorgicȱandȱPastoralȱ(seeȱnoteȱ16),ȱ86–87.ȱ
804 JessicaȱTvordi
AsȱDouglasȱChambersȱpointsȱout,ȱtheȱCivilȱWarȱnotȱonlyȱvanquishedȱtheȱfading
pastoralȱandȱchivalricȱmythologiesȱperpetuatedȱatȱtheȱcourtȱofȱCharlesȱI,ȱbutȱalso
ledȱ toȱ theȱ destructionȱ ofȱ theȱ excessivelyȱ idealizedȱ landscape,ȱ insteadȱ inspiring
worksȱ likeȱ Johnȱ Evelyn’sȱ 1664ȱ Sylva,ȱ whichȱ createdȱ aȱ “newȱ mythȱ ofȱ patriotic
husbandryȱtoȱaȱcountryȱseekingȱtoȱhealȱtheȱwoundsȱofȱdivisions.”23ȱAsȱAnthony
Lowȱhasȱargued,ȱattitudesȱtowardȱtheȱGeorgicȱwereȱtoȱsomeȱextentȱinformedȱby
theȱ ideologicalȱ positionȱ ofȱ theȱ writer:ȱ “Byȱ andȱ largeȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ Cavalierȱ poetsȱ were
inclinedȱtoȱseeȱanythingȱgeorgicȱasȱincreasinglyȱugly,ȱbase,ȱandȱthreateningȱ to
whatȱtheyȱvaluedȱwhereasȱPuritanȱpoetsȱtreatedȱgeorgicȱasȱfruitful,ȱprogressive,
andȱbeneficialȱtoȱanȱemergingȱnation.”24ȱWhileȱaȱgreatȱdealȱofȱpastoralȱfictionality
existsȱinȱHerrick’sȱtreatmentȱofȱflowersȱandȱbirds,ȱthereȱisȱfarȱlessȱinȱhisȱactual
depictionsȱofȱmankindȱlivingȱinȱaȱcountryȱsetting,ȱwhereȱheȱpaysȱattentionȱtoȱthe
burdenȱofȱdailyȱlaborȱand,ȱmoreȱimportantly,ȱtheȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱlandowner
andȱtenant.ȱWhileȱLowȱpointsȱoutȱthatȱHerrick,ȱwhoȱhasȱaȱlittleȱofȱtheȱPuritan
aboutȱhim,ȱneverȱfullyȱembracesȱtheȱgeorgicȱasȱaȱpoliticalȱstatement,ȱheȱdoesȱoffer
itȱasȱaȱ“substituteȱforȱpastoral,”ȱwithȱtheȱpipeȬplayingȱshepherdȱsupplantedȱby
“theȱownerȱstroll[ing]ȱaboutȱandȱsupervis[ing]ȱhisȱworkers.”25
Herrick’sȱ workȱ fits,ȱ then,ȱ withȱ Raymondȱ William’sȱ notionȱ ofȱ theȱ counterȬ
pastoral,ȱwhichȱrejectsȱtheȱpastoralȱdefinitionȱofferedȱbyȱAlexanderȱPopeȱatȱthe
beginningȱofȱtheȱnextȱcentury—“exposingȱtheȱbestȱsideȱonlyȱofȱaȱshepherd’sȱlife,
andȱ inȱ concealingȱ itsȱ miseries”—and,ȱ instead,ȱ offersȱ aȱ moreȱ “prolongedȱ and
detailedȱdescriptionȱofȱtheȱfarmer’sȱyear;ȱofȱhisȱtools,ȱhisȱmethodsȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱhisȱlifetime
efforts.”26ȱHerrickȱisȱcertainlyȱatȱhisȱbestȱwhenȱheȱisȱcelebratingȱtheȱactualȱlifeȱofȱthe
countryside,ȱmostȱnotablyȱinȱ“TheȱHockȬCart;ȱorȱHarvestȱHomeȱ“ȱbutȱalsoȱinȱ“The
Countryȱ Life,ȱ Toȱ theȱ Honoredȱ M.ȱ End.ȱ Porter,”ȱ whereȱ ruralȱ existenceȱ hasȱ the
potentialȱtoȱbeȱbothȱbountifulȱandȱjoyous,ȱatȱleastȱforȱtheȱmanȱwhoȱmanagesȱto
masterȱhimself,ȱtheȱland,ȱorȱthoseȱwhoȱlaborȱonȱhisȱbehalf.ȱ
McRaeȱnotes,ȱparticularlyȱwithȱregardȱtoȱ“TheȱCountryȱLife,”ȱHerrick’sȱtendency
toȱvalidateȱrepresentationsȱthatȱ“underpinȱtheȱprofitsȱandȱpleasuresȱofȱtheȱlord’s
life,”27ȱwhich,ȱasȱWilliamsȱacknowledges,ȱleadsȱtoȱtheȱ“threatȱofȱlossȱandȱeviction”
forȱtheȱruralȱtenant.28ȱAsȱaȱRoyalist,ȱHerrickȱpredictablyȱupholdsȱtheȱaristocratic
23
SeeȱChambers,ȱ“‘WildȱPastorellȱEncounter’”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ20),ȱ175ȱandȱ183.
24
SeeȱAnthonyȱLow,ȱTheȱGeorgicȱRevolutionȱ(Princeton,ȱNJ:ȱPrincetonȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1985),ȱ263.
25
SeeȱLow,ȱTheȱGeorgicȱRevolutionȱ(seeȱnoteȱ24),ȱ272.
26
SeeȱRaymondȱWilliams,ȱTheȱCountryȱandȱtheȱCityȱ(NewȱYork:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1973),
17–19;ȱLeahȱMarcusȱalsoȱnotesȱHerrick’sȱtendencyȱtoȱrejectȱtheȱElizabethanȱpastoralȱtendencyȱto
ignoreȱ theȱ harshȱ realitiesȱ ofȱ physicalȱ labourȱ inȱ “Theȱ HockȬCart.”ȱ Seeȱ Marcus,ȱ “Politicsȱ and
Pastoral:ȱWritingȱtheȱCourtȱonȱtheȱCountryside,”ȱinȱCultureȱandȱPoliticsȱinȱEarlyȱStuartȱEngland,ȱed.
KevinȱSharpeȱandȱPeterȱLakeȱ(Stanford:ȱStanfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1993),ȱ139–59:ȱ155.
27
SeeȱMcRae,ȱ“LandscapeȱandȱProperty”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ14),ȱ59.
28
SeeȱWilliams,ȱTheȱCountryȱandȱtheȱCityȱ(seeȱnoteȱ26),17.
landowner’sȱ values,ȱ yetȱ atȱ theȱ sameȱ timeȱ hisȱ representationsȱ ofȱ countryȱ life
attempt,ȱinȱsomeȱways,ȱtoȱrepresentȱtheȱexperienceȱofȱcountryȱpeopleȱandȱtheir
conditionsȱofȱexistence,ȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱthreatsȱtoȱthatȱexistence,ȱinȱaȱmannerȱthat
invitesȱtheȱreader’sȱreflection.ȱ
“TheȱHockȬCart”ȱoffersȱaȱcelebrationȱofȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱHarvestȱseason,ȱwithȱthe
HockȬcartȱbeingȱtheȱfinalȱcartȱtoȱbringȱtheȱcropȱoutȱfromȱtheȱfields.29ȱTheȱpoem
focusesȱlargelyȱonȱtheȱcelebrationȱofȱthatȱevent,ȱtheȱgenerousȱbanquetȱofferedȱby
theȱlordȱtoȱhisȱworkers,ȱandȱtheȱtimeȱallottedȱthoseȱworkersȱforȱaȱwellȬdeserved
hiatusȱfromȱtheirȱtoils.ȱTheȱpoemȱexplicitlyȱacknowledgesȱthatȱtheȱlordsȱbenefit
fromȱtheȱdiligentȱlaborȱofȱtheȱworkers:ȱitȱcommences,ȱ“ComeȱSonsȱofȱSummer,ȱby
whoseȱtoile,ȱ/ȱWeȱareȱtheȱLordsȱofȱWineȱandȱOile”ȱ(1–2),ȱwithȱtheȱspeakerȱofȱthe
poemȱpositioningȱhimselfȱasȱoneȱofȱtheȱlordsȱwhoȱisȱwellȱsatisfiedȱtoȱseeȱtheȱwork
successfullyȱ completed.ȱ Althoughȱ theȱ banquetȱ providedȱ isȱ aȱ rewardȱ forȱ the
laborers,ȱtheȱHockȬcartȱitself,ȱtraditionallyȱdecoratedȱinȱaȱgayȱfashion,ȱisȱprepared
byȱ theȱ farmȱ handsȱ forȱ theȱ lord’sȱ entertainmentȱ (7–14).ȱ Theȱ poemȱ invitesȱ the
aristocraticȱlandownerȱtoȱsurveyȱbothȱhisȱpropertyȱandȱtheȱindividualsȱwhoȱlabor
uponȱit,ȱfromȱtheȱcartȱitselfȱtoȱ“theȱRoutȱ/ȱOfȱRurallȱYounglings”ȱwhoȱ“raiseȱthe
shout”ȱ(15–16)ȱofȱcelebrationȱthatȱtheirȱtoilȱisȱcomplete.ȱAfterȱprayersȱandȱsome
merriment,ȱtheȱaddressȱshiftȱtoȱtheȱ“braveȱboyes”ȱ(26),ȱdirectingȱthemȱtoȱgazeȱupon
theȱ fareȱ offeredȱ them:ȱ “Fatȱ Beefe”ȱ (29),ȱ “Mutton,ȱ Vealeȱ /ȱ Andȱ Bacon”ȱ (30–31),
complimentedȱbyȱ“Custard”ȱandȱ“Pie”ȱ(33),ȱand,ȱfinally,ȱ“smirkingȱWine”ȱ(36).
Theȱbountyȱplacedȱbeforeȱthem,ȱthen,ȱshouldȱreflectȱnotȱonlyȱtheȱjustȱrewardȱfor
theirȱdiligentȱlabors,ȱbutȱalsoȱtheȱhospitalityȱandȱgoodnessȱofȱtheȱlandownerȱin
offeringȱhisȱthanks.
Inȱtheȱend,ȱ“TheȱHockȬCart”ȱdrawsȱaȱsharpȱdistinctionȱbetweenȱtheȱtenantȱand
theȱaristocrat,ȱoneȱthat,ȱwhetherȱHerrickȱisȱcriticalȱofȱthisȱvastȱclassȱdifferenceȱor
not,ȱcertainlyȱfitsȱwithȱhisȱreputationȱasȱaȱRoyalistȱpoetȱwhoȱlargelyȱupheldȱthe
socialȱ orderȱ inȱ poemsȱ directlyȱ addressingȱ authoritativeȱ figures.ȱ Theseȱ hard
workingȱyoungȱmenȱareȱbeingȱgivenȱtheirȱdueȱrightsȱbyȱtheirȱgratefulȱlord,ȱbut
Herrick’sȱspeakerȱremindsȱthemȱthatȱthisȱdayȱofȱholidayȱwillȱbeȱshortȱlived:ȱ“And
knowȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱyeȱmustȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ/ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱallȱgoeȱbackȱuntoȱtheȱPloughȱ/ȱAndȱHarrow,ȱ(though
29
OfȱHerrick’sȱpoemsȱonȱruralȱactivitiesȱandȱdailyȱlife,ȱ“TheȱHockȬCart”ȱisȱtheȱoneȱthatȱhasȱreceived
theȱmost,ȱalthoughȱoftenȱbrief,ȱcriticalȱattention,ȱfromȱbothȱliteraryȱscholarsȱandȱhistorians.ȱSee
RichardȱE.ȱHughes,ȱ“Herrick’sȱ“HockȬCart”:ȱCompanionȱPieceȱtoȱCorinna’sȱGoingȱaȱMaying,”
CollegeȱEnglishȱ27.ȱ5ȱ(Feb.ȱ1966):ȱ;ȱWilliams,ȱTheȱCountryȱandȱtheȱCityȱ(seeȱnoteȱ26),33–34;ȱAlan
Fischler,ȱ“HerrickȱHolyȱHedonism,”ȱModernȱLanguageȱStudies,ȱ13.2ȱ(Springȱ1983):ȱ12–20;ȱAnthony
Low,ȱTheȱGeorgicȱRevolutionȱ(seeȱnoteȱ24),ȱ144–45ȱandȱ268–69;ȱCoiro,ȱRobertȱHerrick’sȱHesperidesȱ(see
noteȱ10),ȱ156–58,ȱ170;,ȱLow,ȱTheȱGeorgicȱRevolutionȱ(seeȱnoteȱ24),ȱ144–45;ȱJacquelineȱSimpson,ȱ“The
MawkinȱonȱHerrick’sȱHockȬCart,”ȱRuralȱHistoryȱ6ȱ(1995):ȱ1–9.ȱForȱaȱmoreȱgeneralȱdiscussionȱof
HarvestȬtimeȱrepresentations,ȱseeȱLianaȱVardi,ȱ“ImaginingȱtheȱHarvestȱinȱEarlyȱModernȱEurope,”
TheȱAmericanȱHistoricalȱReviewȱ101.5ȱ(Decemberȱ1996):ȱ1357–97.ȱ
806 JessicaȱTvordi
they’rȱhang’dȱupȱnow)”ȱ(47–50).ȱAlthoughȱtheȱseasonȱdrawsȱtoȱaȱclose,ȱtheȱworker
isȱcontractuallyȱboundȱtoȱserveȱhisȱlordȱinȱtheȱfollowingȱharvest:ȱ“And,ȱyouȱmust
knowȱyourȱLordsȱword’sȱtrue,ȱ/ȱFeedȱhimȱyeȱmust,ȱwhoseȱfoodȱfilsȱyou”ȱ(51–52).
Althoughȱthisȱrelationshipȱisȱreciprocal,ȱtheȱburdenȱfallsȱmoreȱonȱtheȱlaborer,ȱwho
isȱonlyȱaffordedȱoneȱsingleȱdayȱofȱcelebrationȱasȱrewardȱforȱhisȱlaborȱwithinȱthe
scopeȱofȱtheȱpoem.ȱJamesȱGranthamȱTurnerȱsuggestsȱthatȱ“Countryȱpeopleȱare
reducedȱtoȱaȱstateȱofȱnotȱevenȱknowingȱthatȱwhetherȱtheyȱareȱhappyȱorȱmiserable”
inȱthisȱpoemȱandȱtheirȱ“happinessȱisȱaȱpropertyȱofȱtheȱpoet.”30ȱYetȱinȱchoosingȱto
representȱtheȱlavishȱfeastȱofȱlaborersȱonlyȱtoȱremindȱthemȱtheirȱclaimȱtoȱenjoyȱsuch
aȱcelebrationȱdependsȱonȱtheirȱwillingnessȱtoȱbothȱserveȱandȱbeȱmastered,ȱHerrick
actuallyȱdrawsȱattentionȱtoȱtheȱpotentialȱforȱlackȱofȱtrueȱhospitalityȱandȱgenerosity
inȱtheȱlordȬtenantȱcontract.ȱUltimately,ȱtheȱlordȱdeterminesȱtheȱhappinessȱofȱhis
tenants,ȱasȱheȱhasȱtheȱpowerȱtoȱdisciplineȱorȱevictȱthoseȱwhoȱrefuseȱtoȱhonorȱthe
system.
Inȱotherȱpoemsȱthatȱrepresentȱruralȱlife,ȱHerrickȱconcernsȱhimselfȱnotȱwithȱthe
specificȱdetailsȱofȱdailyȱlifeȱforȱtheȱlaborer,ȱnorȱwithȱtheȱvastȱdifferencesȱbetween
thoseȱwhoȱworkȱtheȱlandȱandȱthoseȱwhoȱownȱtheȱland,ȱbutȱratherȱwithȱtheȱman
whoȱleavesȱtheȱcityȱandȱallȱitsȱcomplexitiesȱtoȱseekȱhisȱhappinessȱinȱtheȱcountry.
Hereȱtheȱindividualsȱinȱquestionȱareȱnotȱtheȱaristocraticȱlandownersȱwhoseȱpower
weȱmightȱassumeȱoneȱsuchȱasȱHerrickȱcouldȱenvy,ȱbutȱratherȱthoseȱwhoȱseekȱlife
inȱtheȱcountryȱasȱanȱalternativeȱtoȱtheȱstruggleȱagainstȱtheȱdailyȱchallengesȱofȱcity
life.ȱ“AȱCountryȱLife:ȱToȱHisȱBrother,ȱMr.ȱTho.ȱHerrick,”ȱisȱaddressedȱtoȱHerrick’s
eldestȱbrother,ȱalsoȱformerlyȱapprenticedȱtoȱhisȱgoldsmithȱuncle,ȱwhoȱleftȱLondon
aroundȱ1610ȱtoȱexperienceȱlifeȱasȱaȱgentlemanȱfarmer.ȱLikeȱanotherȱpoem,ȱ“His
ContentȱinȱtheȱCountry,”ȱtoȱwhichȱIȱwillȱreturnȱlater,ȱHerrick’sȱpoemȱofȱadviceȱfor
hisȱownȱbrotherȱmarksȱtheȱquietȱruralȱlifeȱasȱtheȱperfectȱopportunityȱtoȱabandon
one’sȱdesires,ȱhoweverȱslightȱtheyȱmayȱbe,ȱforȱmaterialȱwealthȱandȱworldlyȱfame
andȱ replaceȱ themȱ withȱ contentmentȱ inȱ plainȱ living.ȱ “Theȱ Countriesȱ sweet
simplicity”ȱ(4),ȱaccordingȱtoȱHerrick,ȱprovidesȱtheȱidealȱsettingȱ“ToȱteachȱManȱto
confineȱdesiresȱ/ȱAndȱknow,ȱthatȱRichesȱhaveȱtheirȱproperȱstintȱ/ȱInȱtheȱcontented
mind,ȱnotȱmint”ȱ(16–18).ȱ
Theȱcountryȱisȱaȱplaceȱinȱwhichȱmankind,ȱfreedȱfromȱtheȱburdensȱofȱcityȱlife,ȱcan
learnȱtoȱmasterȱpastȱdesiresȱandȱdevelopȱaȱphilosophyȱofȱcontentmentȱratherȱthan
want.ȱAsȱaȱrefugeȱfromȱtheȱtemptationsȱofȱcityȱlife,ȱtheȱcountryȱisȱanȱidealȱsetting
forȱthoseȱwhoȱwishȱtoȱgainȱtheȱselfȬknowledgeȱthatȱoftenȱeludesȱtheȱcityȱdweller
frequentlyȱboundȱtoȱtheȱdemandsȱofȱsociety:ȱ“toȱliveȱround,ȱandȱclose,ȱandȱwisely
trueȱ/ȱToȱthineȱownȱselfe;ȱandȱknowneȱtoȱfew”ȱ(135–36).ȱHerrickȱadvisesȱThomas,
further,ȱtoȱ“letȱthyȱRurallȱSanctuaryȱbeȱ/ȱEliziumȱtoȱtheyȱwifeȱandȱthee”ȱ(137–38).
30
SeeȱJamesȱGranthamȱTurner,ȱTheȱPoliticsȱofȱLandscape:ȱRuralȱSceneryȱandȱSocietyȱinȱEnglishȱVerse,
1630–60ȱ(Cambridge,ȱMA:ȱHarvardȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1979),ȱ180.
Forȱaȱmanȱattractedȱtoȱworldlyȱriches,ȱthen,ȱorȱeagerȱforȱfame,ȱtheȱcountryȱactsȱas
anȱ appropriateȱ corrective,ȱ whereȱ oneȱ canȱ knowȱ oneselfȱ andȱ “liveȱ blest”ȱ (141)
ratherȱthanȱliveȱcursedȱbyȱtheȱunattainableȱdesiresȱthatȱtheȱcityȱengenders.ȱ
Forȱtheȱmanȱofȱhumbleȱdesiresȱandȱunambitiousȱnature,ȱtheȱcountryȱprovidesȱthe
appropriateȱbackdropȱforȱtheȱsimpleȱpleasuresȱofȱlife,ȱparticularlyȱforȱthoseȱwho
understandȱthatȱtoȱ“liveȱblest”ȱisȱnotȱnecessarilyȱtoȱthriveȱeconomically.ȱInȱfact,ȱit
seemsȱtheȱperfectȱplaceȱtoȱfosterȱwhatȱbecomesȱtheȱsubjectȱofȱtheȱsecondȱbookȱof
Virgil’sȱGeorgics:ȱtheȱhappyȱman.ȱThoseȱ“happyȱtillersȱofȱtheȱsoil,”ȱhowever,ȱknow
notȱ“theirȱblessedness,”ȱnor,ȱperhaps,ȱtheirȱgoodȱfortuneȱinȱbeingȱfreeȱfromȱ“lofty
palaceȱportalȬproud.”31ȱTheȱStoicȱacceptanceȱthatȱHerrickȱteachesȱhisȱbrotherȱis
furtheredȱinȱ“Larr’sȱportionȱandȱtheȱPoet’sȱPart,”32ȱwhereȱHerrickȱacknowledges
thatȱhoweverȱlittleȱmanȱmayȱhave,ȱitȱisȱsufficientȱifȱitȱsustainsȱhimȱandȱallowsȱhim
toȱmakeȱanȱofferingȱofȱthanksȱtoȱhisȱGod:ȱ
AtȱmyȱhomelyȱCountryȬseat,
Iȱhaveȱthereȱaȱlittleȱwheat;
WhichȱIȱworkȱtoȱMeal,ȱandȱmakeȱ
TherewithallȱaȱHolyȬcake:
PartȱofȱwhichȱIȱgiveȱtoȱLarr (1–5)
Theȱ“Poet’sȱPart,”ȱatȱleastȱinȱtheȱcountry,ȱisȱtoȱproveȱforȱhisȱownȱneedsȱthroughȱhis
ownȱ householdȱ labor,ȱ displayingȱ theȱ goodȱ husbandryȱ (without,ȱ ofȱ course,ȱ the
actualȱfarmȱlaborȱassociatedȱwithȱtheȱharvestȱitself)ȱthatȱisȱtheȱfamiliarȱthemeȱofȱthe
georgic.ȱ Additionally,ȱ inȱ offeringȱ aȱ partȱ ofȱ hisȱ cakeȱ toȱ Lar,ȱ theȱ figurine
representativeȱofȱtheȱRomanȱhearthȱgod,ȱHerrickȱremindsȱtheȱreaderȱthatȱhowever
muchȱmanȱmayȱneedȱhisȱbread,ȱhisȱneedȱmustȱbeȱmeasuredȱagainstȱtheȱdeity’s
needȱforȱrecognitionȱbyȱtheȱhumanȱsupplicant.ȱTheȱcountryȱisȱtheȱidealȱlocaleȱfor
theȱhumbleȱcontemplative,ȱtheȱman,ȱlikeȱHerrick’sȱbrotherȱThomas,ȱforȱwhomȱthe
simpleȱ lifeȱ ultimatelyȱ outweighsȱ inȱ value,ȱ atȱ leastȱ inȱ theȱ Christianȱ view,ȱ the
worldlyȱ pleasuresȱ ofȱ theȱ city.ȱ Forȱ Herrick,ȱ however,ȱ thisȱ landȱ inȱ whichȱ such
personalȱ ambitionsȱ asȱ wealth,ȱ or,ȱ inȱ hisȱ case,ȱ fame,ȱ areȱ heldȱ inȱ checkȱ isȱ not
necessarilyȱtheȱidealȱsettingȱforȱcreativeȱproduction,ȱespeciallyȱgivenȱthatȱitȱisȱas
aȱpoetȱandȱnotȱasȱaȱmanȱofȱGodȱthatȱheȱmakesȱhisȱhumbleȱoffering.
31
SeeȱVirgil,ȱGeorgics,ȱProjectȱGutenburgȱ(Marchȱ10,ȱ2008ȱ[http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/232];
lastȱaccessedȱonȱDec.ȱ29,ȱ2011),ȱ101–02.
32
Lowȱ pointsȱ outȱ thatȱ theȱ georgicȱ isȱ anȱ effectiveȱ substituteȱ forȱ theȱ pastoralȱ inȱ thatȱ itȱ isȱ more
adaptableȱtoȱHerrick’sȱtreatmentȱofȱtheȱthemeȱofȱStoicȱretreat.ȱSeeȱLow,ȱTheȱGeorgicȱRevolutionȱ(see
noteȱ24),ȱ273.
808 JessicaȱTvordi
3.ȱHerrickȱasȱEquivocatorȱ
Althoughȱ Hesperidesȱ includesȱ aȱ relativelyȱ smallȱ numberȱ ofȱ poemsȱ expressing

disdainȱforȱcountryȱlife,ȱtheyȱprovideȱaȱsharpȱcontrastȱtoȱhisȱotherȱpoemsȱthat
eitherȱdetailȱ“country”ȱritualsȱorȱsuggestȱruralȱspaceȱisȱidealȱforȱthoseȱwhoȱare
thoughtfulȱ andȱ devout.ȱ Herrickȱ isȱ evenȱ willingȱ toȱ praiseȱ outrightȱ hisȱ own
experienceȱ inȱ theȱ country,ȱ althoughȱ heȱ doesȱ soȱ inȱ aȱ mannerȱ thatȱ somewhat
exaggeratesȱhisȱownȱmaterialȱreality.ȱInȱ“HisȱContentȱinȱtheȱCountry,”ȱforȱinstance,
heȱcommentsȱonȱtheȱrudenessȱofȱhisȱtableȱwithȱgreatȱgeniality:
Thoughȱne’rȱsoȱmeanȱtheȱViandsȱbe,
TheyȱwellȱcontentȱmyȱPrew33ȱandȱme.
OrȱPea,ȱorȱBean,ȱorȱWort,ȱorȱBeet,
WhatȬeverȱcomes,ȱcontentȱmakesȱsweetȱ (3–6)
Thisȱfareȱisȱfarȱhumblerȱthanȱthatȱsplendidȱtableȱofferedȱtheȱworkersȱinȱtheȱ“The
HockȬCart,”ȱyetȱitȱoffersȱdailyȱsustenanceȱtoȱtheȱmanȱofȱslenderȱmeansȱandȱfew
worldlyȱneeds.ȱLaterȱinȱtheȱpoem,ȱHerrick,ȱwithȱgreatȱpride,ȱnotesȱbothȱthatȱ“we
feedȱonȱnoȱmansȱscore”ȱ(14)ȱandȱ“pitieȱthose,ȱwhoseȱflanksȱgrowȱgreat,ȱ/ȱSwel’d
withȱtheȱLardȱofȱothersȱmeat”ȱ(15–16).ȱInȱassertingȱhisȱ(andȱPrew’s)ȱsuperiorityȱto
theȱlandownerȱwhoȱlivesȱoffȱofȱtheȱlaborȱofȱhisȱtenants,ȱHerrickȱseemsȱtoȱbeȱsiding
withȱtheȱworkersȱofȱ“TheȱHockȬCart,”ȱyet,ȱinȱdoingȱso,ȱheȱsomewhatȱmisrepresents
hisȱposition.ȱAfterȱall,ȱaȱvicarȱdependsȱuponȱtheȱchurchȱandȱitsȱparishionersȱforȱhis
sustenance,ȱ and,ȱ accordingȱ toȱ Cain,ȱ whileȱ theȱ livingȱ atȱ Deanȱ Priorȱ wasȱ byȱ no
stretchȱlucrative,ȱitȱwasȱrankedȱwithinȱtheȱtopȱ25%ȱofȱitsȱday.34ȱ
Inȱ contrastȱ toȱ theȱ povertyȱ heȱ experiencedȱ afterȱ leavingȱ Deanȱ Priorȱ inȱ 1647,
Herrickȱ seemsȱ toȱ enjoyȱ anȱ embarrassmentȱ ofȱ richesȱ duringȱ hisȱ ruralȱ sojourn.
Perhapsȱweȱcanȱforgiveȱthisȱoverstatementȱofȱhisȱfrugality,ȱhowever,ȱgivenȱthatȱit
isȱcontentednessȱwithȱwhatȱtheȱLordȱoffersȱthatȱHerrickȱsoȱseemsȱtoȱtreasure:ȱ“We
blesseȱourȱFortunes”ȱ(17),ȱheȱwrites,ȱandȱenjoyȱ“Peacefullȱslumbers”ȱ(12)ȱunknown
toȱtheirȱfellowȱmenȱandȱwomen.ȱJustȱasȱinȱhisȱpoemȱtoȱhisȱbrother,ȱThomas,ȱ“His
ContentȱinȱtheȱCountry”ȱisȱveryȱmuchȱaboutȱtheȱbusinessȱofȱliving,ȱbothȱwellȱand
withȱ materialȱ andȱ spiritualȱ satisfaction,ȱ regardlessȱ ofȱ one’sȱ economicȱ statusȱ or
geographicalȱlocation.
“HisȱContentȱinȱtheȱCountry”ȱoffersȱanȱinterestingȱcontrastȱtoȱtheȱbanquetingȱat
London’sȱtavernȱthatȱHerrickȱrecallsȱwithȱsuchȱpleasureȱinȱ“AnȱOdeȱtoȱHim,”ȱcasts
Herrick’sȱcontentednessȱwithȱlimitedȱhumanityȱsocietyȱasȱaȱlegitimateȱsubstitute
33
PrewȱisȱPrudenceȱBaldwin,ȱHerrick’sȱhouseholdȱservantȱatȱDeanȱPrior,ȱwhomȱheȱacknowledges
inȱ severalȱ poems,ȱ includingȱ “Toȱ Hisȱ Maid,ȱ Prew,”ȱ “Uponȱ Prew,ȱ Hisȱ Maid,ȱ andȱ “Uponȱ her
Sickness.”ȱ
34
SeeȱCain,ȱ“RobertȱHerrick’sȱLife”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱpara.ȱ15
forȱ pleasureȱ inȱ poeticȱ companionship.ȱ Inȱ “Hisȱ Contentȱ inȱ theȱ Country,”ȱ his
companionȱisȱhisȱmaid,ȱPrew,ȱwho,ȱwhetherȱsheȱdinesȱatȱtableȱwithȱhimȱorȱnot,
offersȱbothȱaȱmoreȱsingularȱandȱlessȱintellectualȱcompanionshipȱthanȱanȱallȬmale
groupȱofȱfellowȱpoets.35ȱThusȱ“HisȱContentȱinȱtheȱCountry”ȱinvitesȱscrutinyȱofȱthe
extentȱandȱnatureȱofȱHerrick’sȱinteractionsȱwithȱhisȱfellowȱmanȱandȱwoman.ȱ
Theȱextremeȱisolationȱheȱfeelsȱandȱblamesȱonȱhisȱruralȱexistence,ȱofȱcourse,ȱisȱalso
aȱruse,ȱasȱaȱcountryȱvicarȱisȱcontinuallyȱtakenȱupȱwithȱpastoralȱdutiesȱofȱallȱkinds,
fromȱvisitingȱparishionersȱtoȱpreachingȱsermons.ȱAndȱifȱtheȱtypicalȱchurchȬgoer
inȱhisȱparishȱisȱnotȱtheȱidealȱintellectualȱcompanionȱforȱtheȱpoet,ȱHerrickȱdidȱhave
otherȱ outletsȱ forȱ socialȱ andȱ intellectualȱ interactionȱ duringȱ hisȱ initialȱ serviceȱ in
Devon.ȱTheȱvicarageȱhousedȱnotȱonlyȱPrudenceȱBaldwin,ȱbutȱalsoȱhisȱsisterȬinȬlaw,
Elizabeth,ȱ widowȱ toȱ hisȱ youngerȱ brother,ȱ William,ȱ andȱ herȱ twoȱ children,ȱ and,
possibly,ȱhisȱcurate,ȱWilliamȱGreene.ȱSirȱEdwardsȱGiles,ȱtheȱpatronȱofȱtheȱlivingȱat
DeanȱPriorȱandȱaȱdistantȱrelationȱofȱHerrick’sȱthroughȱmarriage,ȱlivedȱnearbyȱat
Dean’sȱCourt,ȱandȱotherȱmembersȱofȱtheȱcommunity—includingȱaȱgroupȱofȱExeter
lawyers,ȱasȱwellȱasȱhisȱfriend,ȱJamesȱSmith,ȱrectorȱofȱKing’sȱNymptonȱinȱnorthern
Devonshire—wouldȱhaveȱprovidedȱcompanionshipȱofȱaȱlessȱdomesticȱandȱmore
intellectualȱvariety.36ȱTheȱlonelinessȱandȱisolationȱheȱrepresentsȱwithinȱhisȱpoetry,
then,ȱ isȱ inȱ starkȱ contrastȱ toȱ theȱ realityȱ ofȱ regularȱ interactionȱ withȱ family,ȱ coȬ
workers,ȱandȱfriends.ȱ
DespiteȱHerrick’sȱhumble,ȱalthoughȱexaggeratedȱsatisfactionȱwithȱtheȱcountry
inȱ“Larr’s,”ȱheȱisȱquiteȱcapableȱofȱturningȱhisȱhyperboleȱinȱtheȱoppositeȱdirection,
particularlyȱwhenȱarticulatingȱtheȱeffectsȱofȱtheȱcountryȱonȱaȱcityȬbornȱpoetȱwho
clearlyȱassociatesȱmuchȱthatȱisȱofȱsocialȱandȱpoeticȱvalueȱwithȱtheȱcity.ȱInȱfact,ȱhe
mayȱ beȱ farȱ moreȱ appealingȱ andȱ entertainingȱ withinȱ thisȱ comicȱ register.ȱ Asȱ he
writesȱinȱ“DiscontentsȱinȱDevon,”ȱ“MoreȱdiscontentsȱIȱneverȱhadȱ/ȱSinceȱIȱwas
born,ȱthanȱhere”ȱ(1–2),ȱfollowedȱbyȱtheȱevenȱmoreȱmournfulȱadmission,ȱ“Where
Iȱ haveȱ been,ȱ andȱ stillȱ amȱ sad,ȱ /ȱ inȱ thisȱ dullȱ DevonȬshire”ȱ (3–4).ȱ Theȱ ideaȱ of
associatingȱruralȱspaceȱwithȱ“discontents”ȱsuggestsȱbothȱhisȱfrustrationȱwithȱthe
countryȱandȱwithȱhimself,ȱbothȱinȱtheȱdullnessȱofȱhisȱlocationȱandȱtheȱpervasive
sadnessȱheȱcontinuesȱtoȱfeelȱduringȱhisȱresidenceȱthere.ȱMoreover,ȱhisȱclaimȱthat
heȱhadȱneverȱbeforeȱexperiencedȱsuchȱdissatisfactionȱisȱanȱunreasonablyȱstrong
censureȱofȱtheȱrural,ȱespeciallyȱgivenȱhisȱsomewhatȱtryingȱLondonȱchildhood.ȱ
Theȱ tragicȱ deathȱ ofȱ hisȱ father,ȱ separationȱ fromȱ hisȱ mother,ȱ andȱ challenging
boyhoodȱunderȱtheȱguardianshipȱofȱaȱstingyȱuncleȱrenderȱHerrick’sȱassertionȱthat
35
Forȱ moreȱ onȱ Herrick’sȱ treatmentȱ ofȱ Baldwin,ȱ seeȱ Rogerȱ B.ȱ Rollins,ȱ ȱ “Robertȱ Herrick’s
Housekeeper:ȱRepresentingȱOrdinaryȱWomenȱinȱRenaissanceȱPoetry,”ȱRepresentingȱWomenȱin
RenaissanceȱEngland,ȱed.ȱClaudeȱJ.ȱSummersȱandȱTedȬLarryȱPebworthȱ(Columbia,ȱMO:ȱUniversity
ofȱMissouriȱPress,ȱ1997)ȱ201–15.
36
SeeȱCain,ȱ“RobertȱHerrick’sȱLife”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱpara.ȱ14ȱandȱ18.
810 JessicaȱTvordi
hisȱlifeȱinȱtheȱcountryȱwasȱinferiorȱtoȱhisȱcityȱexperiencesȱanȱexaggerationȱborn
perhapsȱoutȱofȱsomeȱtruth,ȱbutȱlikelyȱmoreȱsoȱoutȱofȱpoeticȱlicense.
Justȱwhenȱweȱthinkȱ“DiscontentsȱinȱDevon”ȱprovidesȱaȱcoherentȱstatementȱon
countryȱlifeȱandȱtheȱfeelingsȱitȱproduced,ȱhowever,ȱHerrickȱbecomesȱequivocal,
statingȱaȱnearlyȱoppositeȱposition.ȱWhileȱtheȱfirstȱhalfȱofȱ“Discontents”ȱdisparages
theȱcountry,ȱtheȱsecondȱgrudginglyȱacknowledgesȱitsȱvirtues,ȱengaging,ȱofȱcourse,
withȱtheȱuniversityȱtraditionȱofȱdisputationȱinȱwhichȱtheȱundergraduateȱisȱdirected
toȱexploreȱwithȱequalȱweightȱbothȱsidesȱofȱtheȱargument.ȱDespiteȱtheȱmelancholy
noteȱestablishedȱinȱtheȱfirstȱfourȱlines,ȱHerrickȱoffersȱaȱbrightȱsideȱtoȱruralȱlife,
claimingȱtheȱcountryȱhasȱinȱfactȱplayedȱaȱpartȱinȱhisȱdevelopmentȱasȱaȱpoet:
YetȱjustlyȱtooȱIȱmustȱconfesse;
Iȱne’rȱinventedȱsuch
EnnobledȱnumbersȱforȱtheȱPresse,
ThenȱwhereȱIȱloath’dȱsoȱmuch (5–8)
Inȱ theȱ interestsȱ ofȱ justice,ȱ Herrickȱ notesȱ thatȱ theȱ countryȱ hasȱ providedȱ an
opportunityȱforȱindustriousȱpoeticȱlabor,ȱduringȱwhichȱtimeȱheȱhasȱindeedȱwritten
“suchȱ/ȱEnnobledȱnumbersȱforȱtheȱPresse.”ȱAlthoughȱweȱareȱunsureȱofȱtheȱquantity
ofȱlines,ȱtheyȱappearȱtoȱexceedȱinȱqualityȱthoseȱheȱproducedȱwhenȱheȱwasȱworking
atȱ hisȱ craftȱ asȱ aȱ residentȱ ofȱ London.ȱ Howeverȱ muchȱ Herrick’sȱ speakerȱ isȱ still
reluctantȱtoȱfullyȱembraceȱtheȱcountryȱasȱhisȱresidenceȱofȱchoice,ȱ“Discontentsȱin
Devon”ȱreveals,ȱasȱdoȱtheȱpoemsȱonȱtheȱpositiveȱattributesȱofȱcountryȱlife,ȱthat
poems,ȱlikeȱotherȱsustainingȱcrops,ȱcanȱindeedȱbeȱharvestedȱthere.ȱ
Aȱ poemȱ suchȱ atȱ “Discontentsȱ inȱ Devon”ȱ furtherȱ complicatesȱ bothȱ Herrick’s
positionȱandȱhisȱveracity.ȱHisȱreferenceȱtoȱ“Ennobledȱnumbers”ȱmayȱwellȱreferȱto
“HisȱNobleȱNumbers:ȱOr,ȱHisȱPiousȱPieces,”ȱwhichȱwereȱincludedȱinȱHesperides,
butȱtheyȱmayȱreferȱmoreȱbroadlyȱtoȱtheȱrefinementȱofȱhisȱartȱasȱaȱwholeȱduringȱhis
countryȱresidence.ȱDespiteȱthisȱpoeticȱclaim,ȱitȱisȱpossibleȱthatȱinȱDevonȱtheȱlines
Herrickȱwroteȱmayȱnotȱhaveȱbeenȱespeciallyȱ“ennobled,”ȱandȱthatȱtheyȱmayȱhave
beenȱrelativelyȱfewȱinȱnumberȱasȱwell.ȱJohnȱCreaserȱlistsȱonlyȱ30ȱpoems—andȱthe
Nobleȱ Numbersȱ areȱ notȱ amongȱ them—likelyȱ writtenȱ duringȱ theȱ periodȱ from
1630–1646,ȱwithȱnotȱaȱsingleȱpoemȱfrequentlyȱanthologizedȱinȱstudentȱeditions.37
Moreover,ȱCreaserȱsuggestsȱthatȱsomeȱofȱHerrick’sȱmostȱextentȱexaminationsȱof
countryȱlife,ȱsuchȱasȱ“AȱCountryȬLife”ȱandȱ“TheȱHockȬCart”ȱwereȱlikelyȱwritten
whileȱ Herrickȱ wasȱ stillȱ apprenticedȱ toȱ hisȱ uncleȱ inȱ Londonȱ orȱ perhaps,ȱ later,
37
Theȱonlyȱanthologizedȱpoemsȱwrittenȱbetweenȱ1630ȱandȱ1646,ȱaccordingȱtoȱCreaser’sȱdating,ȱare
“UponȱHisȱSpanielȱTracie,ȱ“DiscontentsȱinȱDevon,”ȱandȱUponȱScobble,”ȱwhichȱareȱincludedȱinȱthe
moreȱprogressiveȱLongmanȱanthologyȱbutȱnotȱinȱtheȱNorton.ȱSeeȱCreaser,ȱ“‘TimeȱtransȬshifting’:
Chronologyȱ andȱ theȱ Misshapingȱ ofȱ Herrick,”ȱ Englishȱ Literaryȱ Renaissanceȱ 39.ȱ 1ȱ (Winterȱ 2009):
163–96.
duringȱhisȱresidenceȱinȱCambridge.38ȱNorȱdoȱtheȱsubjectsȱorȱassociationsȱconnected
withȱtheseȱtwoȱpoemsȱaddressedȱtoȱhisȱelderȱbrotherȱandȱaȱpatronȱdependȱon
eitherȱanȱintimateȱknowledgeȱofȱcountryȱpracticesȱorȱaȱDevonshireȱacquaintance
withȱtheȱpoem’sȱdedicatees.ȱ“DiscontentsȱinȱDevon,”ȱthen,ȱeitherȱrepresentȱaȱtruth
inȱcontradictionȱtoȱHerrick’sȱotherȱunflatteringȱrepresentationsȱofȱhisȱownȱreality,
orȱ itsȱ veryȱ equivocationȱ suggestsȱ theȱ playfulnessȱ withȱ whichȱ Herrickȱ atȱ times
exploredȱtheȱconverseȱsideȱofȱhisȱpetȱsubjects.ȱ
AlthoughȱHerrick’sȱreferencesȱtoȱtheȱWestȱCountryȱsuggestȱaȱdefiniteȱ“loathing,”
theyȱprovideȱanȱopportunity,ȱsometimesȱdisingenuousȱandȱalwaysȱexaggerated,
toȱrevealȱoneȱofȱhisȱmostȱentertainingȱpoeticȱpersonas:ȱbanishedȱLondonerȱand
thwartedȱpoet.ȱJustȱasȱhisȱprolificȱmusingsȱonȱtheȱsubjectȱofȱyoungȱwomenȱdon’t
necessarilyȱmarkȱhimȱasȱaȱdebauchedȱclergyman,ȱsoȱtooȱshouldȱhisȱcommentsȱon
theȱruralȱasȱabjectȱbeȱseenȱasȱaȱcreative,ȱandȱfrequentlyȱamusing,ȱflexingȱofȱhis
poeticȱ muscles.ȱ F.ȱ R.ȱ Leavesȱ disparaginglyȱ referredȱ toȱ thisȱ playfulȱ qualityȱ as
“Herrick’sȱgame,”ȱalthoughȱCoiroȱmoreȱgenerouslyȱseesȱHesperidesȱasȱ“aȱcomplex
volumeȱofȱjokesȱandȱdreamsȱandȱminiatureȱsubversions.”39ȱAsȱaȱgameȱofȱcontinual
equivocation,ȱpoemsȱlikeȱ“DiscontentȱinȱDevon”ȱrevealȱhisȱdeftnessȱatȱplaying
bothȱsidesȱofȱtheȱargumentȱinȱaȱfashionȱthatȱseemsȱatȱtimesȱquiteȱsubversive:ȱinȱso
doing,ȱHerrickȱmakesȱrevelationsȱmoreȱaboutȱhisȱvaluesȱandȱdesiresȱasȱaȱpoetȱthan
heȱ doesȱ aboutȱ hisȱ actualȱ feelingsȱ towardȱ theȱ country.ȱ Givenȱ hisȱ difficultyȱ in
makingȱupȱhisȱmindȱaboutȱexactlyȱwhereȱheȱstandsȱonȱtheȱruralȱquestion,ȱinȱthe
endȱweȱshareȱinȱtheȱjoke.ȱ
Inȱmanyȱways,ȱthen,ȱHerrick’sȱloathingȱofȱtheȱcountryȱisȱhighlyȱrhetorical,ȱyetȱat
theȱ sameȱ time,ȱ hisȱ poeticȱ expressionsȱ ofȱ countryȱ loathingȱ areȱ nearlyȱ always
associatedȱwithȱwhatȱforȱHerrickȱisȱaȱseriousȱsubject:ȱhowȱhisȱruralȱenvironment
negativelyȱinfluencesȱhisȱworkȱasȱanȱartist.ȱDespiteȱtheȱrhetoricalȱflexibilityȱwith
whichȱHerrickȱapproachesȱsoȱmanyȱofȱhisȱpoeticȱthemes,ȱhisȱpoems—diverseȱand
contradictoryȱasȱtheyȱare—haveȱbeenȱsoȱoftenȱusedȱtoȱdefineȱhim,ȱwhetherȱtoȱfill
inȱtheȱscantyȱbiographicalȱdetailsȱofȱhisȱlifeȱorȱtoȱattemptȱtoȱpinpointȱhisȱpolitical
positionsȱ beyondȱ theȱ veryȱ broad,ȱ andȱ thusȱ notȱ alwaysȱ helpful,ȱ categoryȱ of
“Royalist.”ȱJohnȱCreaserȱcontendsȱwhileȱpresentingȱ“Hesperidesȱasȱaȱsubstantial
signȱofȱroyalistȱallegianceȱonȱpublicationȱinȱ1648,”ȱhasȱsomeȱmerit,ȱitȱ“isȱhardly
enoughȱtoȱestablishȱtheȱpoetȱasȱpoliticallyȱsophisticated.”40ȱSophisticatedȱorȱnot,
38
Creaserȱdatesȱ“AȱCountryȱLife”ȱ1611–1612ȱandȱ“TheȱHockȬCart”ȱ1628–1630.ȱȱAlthoughȱmany
scholarsȱacceptȱthatȱtheȱformerȱwasȱwrittenȱsometimeȱinȱtheȱ1610s,ȱJamesȱGranthamȱTurnerȱargues
forȱaȱdateȱasȱlateȱasȱ1647ȱforȱtheȱlater.ȱForȱCreaser’sȱjustificationȱforȱhisȱearlyȱdatingȱofȱ“TheȱHockȬ
Cart,”ȱseeȱ“TimeȱtransȬshifting”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ37),ȱ188.
39
SeeȱLeavis,ȱȱReevaluationȱ(seeȱnoteȱ9),ȱ40;ȱandȱCoiro,ȱRobertȱHerrick’sȱHesperidesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ10),ȱ6.ȱȱ
40
JohnȱCreaser,ȱ“HerrickȱatȱPlay,”ȱEssaysȱinȱCriticismȱ56.4ȱ(Octoberȱ2006):ȱ324–50;ȱhereȱ325.ȱInȱthis
particularȱessay,ȱCreaserȱalsoȱoffersȱaȱcriticalȱassessmentȱofȱrecentȱapproachesȱtoȱHerrick’sȱworks
(325–27).
812 JessicaȱTvordi
norȱ doȱ suchȱ readingsȱ convincinglyȱ paintȱ aȱ pictureȱ ofȱ Herrickȱ asȱ ideologically
motivedȱinȱhisȱwritings.ȱ
LikeȱCreaserȱIȱamȱmoreȱinterested,ȱultimately,ȱinȱexploringȱtheȱpleasuresȱofȱhis
text,ȱespeciallyȱtheȱteasingȱcontradictionsȱandȱtheȱplayfulȱdebatesȱthatȱbaffleȱthe
noviceȱ whileȱ delightingȱ theȱ moreȱ advancedȱ reader.ȱ Yetȱ despiteȱ thisȱ spirited
disputationȱwithȱtheȱpoeticȱself,ȱparticularlyȱonȱtheȱsubjectȱofȱtheȱcountry,ȱHerrick
ultimatelyȱ doesȱofferȱaȱmoreȱconsistentlyȱnegativeȱrepresentationȱofȱtheȱpoet’s
discontentednessȱwithȱhisȱruralȱabode.ȱAndȱwhileȱsuchȱstatementsȱfailȱtoȱrender
Herrickȱ anythingȱ otherȱ thanȱ aȱ sophisticatedȱ readerȱ ofȱ cultureȱ andȱ itsȱ classical
precedents,ȱitȱdoesȱhelpȱusȱbetterȱunderstandȱsomeȱculturalȱdivisions,ȱhowever
exaggerated,ȱ perceivedȱ withinȱ artisticȱ communitiesȱ regardingȱ theȱ tensions
betweenȱtheȱcountryȱandȱtheȱcity,ȱandȱtheȱusesȱtoȱwhichȱsuchȱdivisionsȱareȱput.
Moreover,ȱitȱisȱworthȱnotingȱthatȱinȱtheȱpoemsȱwhichȱturnȱawayȱfromȱtheȱcountry
withȱ anȱ eyeȱ directedȱ backwardsȱ towardȱ London,ȱ Herrickȱ almostȱ forgetsȱ the
preceptsȱofȱgoodȱcountryȱlivingȱandȱruralȱcontentednessȱthatȱpoemsȱsuchȱasȱ“A
CountryȱLife”ȱsoȱenthusiasticallyȱillustrate.
4.ȱRuralȱLoathingȱ
TheȱpoemsȱthatȱidentifyȱHerrick’sȱruralȱlocationȱasȱ“loathed,”ȱlikeȱ“Discontentsȱin
Devon,”ȱ areȱ neverȱ concernedȱ withȱ theȱ detailsȱ thatȱ evokeȱ countryȱ practicesȱ or
experiences:ȱinȱfact,ȱtheȱpoemsȱexpressingȱloathingȱareȱmoreȱfigurativeȱthanȱthe
moreȱpositiveȱrenderingsȱofȱcountryȱlife,ȱwhichȱareȱmoreȱconsistentlyȱdescriptive.
Instead,ȱwithȱtheȱstarkȱexceptionȱofȱtheȱsecondȱhalfȱofȱ“DiscontentsȱinȱDevon,”ȱthe
antiȬruralȱtextsȱfocusȱonȱHerrick’sȱalmostȱrelentlessȱinsistenceȱthatȱtheȱcountryside
inȱwhichȱheȱresidesȱhasȱlimitedȱhisȱpoeticȱachievement.ȱWhenȱHerrickȱisȱwriting
aboutȱ theȱ disadvantageȱ ofȱ beingȱ aȱ countryȱ dwellerȱ atȱ aȱ timeȱ whenȱ weȱ can
conceivablyȱestimateȱheȱwasȱactuallyȱinȱtheȱcountryȱ(or,ȱafterȱleavingȱDevonȱfor
London,ȱableȱtoȱreflectȱuponȱhisȱruralȱexperience),41ȱheȱnearlyȱalwaysȱdoesȱsoȱinȱa
mannerȱthatȱconnectsȱruralȱspaceȱwithȱtheȱdiminishmentȱ(howeverȱexaggerated)
ofȱhisȱownȱpoeticȱpower.ȱFurthermore,ȱinȱseveralȱpoemsȱthatȱcanȱbeȱreasonably
datedȱtoȱtheȱDeanȱPriorȱperiod,ȱHerrickȱembracesȱtheȱidealȱofȱtheȱcity—anȱideal,
inȱfact,ȱsoȱidyllicȱasȱtoȱalmostȱresembleȱtheȱoldȱpastoralȱlongingȱforȱtheȱunchanging
andȱuncomplicatedȱworldȱofȱanotherȱtimeȱandȱplace.ȱWhatȱLowȱcallsȱ“Virgil’s
georgicȱtheodicy,”ȱwhichȱassumesȱthatȱtheȱgeorgicȱreplacedȱtheȱ“primalȱGolden
41
JohnȱCreaserȱoffersȱtheseȱdatesȱforȱtheȱpoemsȱdiscussedȱinȱthisȱsection:ȱ“HisȱLachrhymae:ȱOrȱMirth
turnedȱtoȱMourning”ȱ(1630–1646),ȱ“ToȱSirȱClipsbyȱCrewe”ȱ(1630–1646)ȱandȱ“ToȱtheȱKing,ȱUpon
hisȱComingȱWithȱHisȱArmyȱintoȱtheȱWest”ȱ(1644),ȱ“UponȱHimself”(1630–1646)ȱandȱ“HisȱReturn
toȱLondon”ȱ(1646–1647).ȱSeeȱCreaser,ȱ“‘TimeȱTransȬShifting’”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ37),ȱ193–94.ȱ
ageȱ ofȱ pastoralȱ easeȱ andȱ abundance,”ȱ seemsȱ relevantȱ here,ȱ withȱ theȱ city
representingȱforȱHerrickȱaȱplaceȱinȱwhichȱtheȱGoldenȱageȱofȱ“easeȱandȱabundance”
isȱassociatedȱnotȱwithȱtheȱfertilityȱandȱindustryȱofȱtheȱcountry,ȱbutȱwithȱLondon’s
poeticȱcircles.42ȱInȱfact,ȱwhenȱconsideringȱtheȱdifferenceȱbetweenȱtheȱcountryȱand
theȱcity,ȱwhetherȱexplicitlyȱorȱimplicitly,ȱHerrickȱtendsȱtoȱsetȱupȱpointsȱofȱconflict
betweenȱtheȱcountryȱasȱbarrenȱandȱtheȱcityȱasȱfruitful.
SeveralȱpoemsȱinȱHesperidesȱassociateȱHerrick’sȱrepresentationȱofȱruralȱloathing
withȱhisȱownȱfailure,ȱhoweverȱhyperbolicallyȱconstructedȱitȱmayȱbe,ȱasȱaȱpoet.ȱIn
“Hisȱ Lachrhymae:ȱ Orȱ Mirthȱ turnedȱ toȱ Mourning,”ȱ theȱ speakerȱ contrastsȱ his
present,ȱdullȱpoeticsȱwithȱtheȱlivelyȱmetropolitanȱartȱheȱdisplayedȱinȱtimesȱpast:
ȱ
BeforeȱIȱwent
Toȱbanishment
IntoȱtheȱloathedȱWest
Iȱco’dȱrehearse
AȱLyrickȱverse,
Andȱspeakȱitȱwithȱtheȱbest (7–12)ȱ
Herrikȱperhapsȱassociatesȱhisȱabilityȱtoȱ“rehearse”ȱpoetry,ȱandȱtoȱ“speakȱitȱwithȱthe
best”ȱtoȱhisȱpostȬCambridgeȱyears,ȱwhereȱhisȱresidenceȱinȱLondonȱgaveȱhimȱaccess
toȱpoeticȱcircles—particularlyȱtheȱoneȱinȱwhichȱBenȱJonsonȱwasȱtheȱcenter—where
heȱcouldȱclearlyȱholdȱhisȱownȱamongȱotherȱwritersȱandȱenjoyedȱsomeȱdegreeȱof
success.ȱHavingȱcomeȱtoȱtheȱwest,ȱhowever,ȱHerrickȱnowȱmournsȱthatȱ“Theȱmirth,
thatȱwasȱ/ȱinȱme,ȱisȱdeadȱorȱceast”ȱ(5–6),ȱwithȱhisȱvoiceȱtransformedȱfromȱmusic
“Intoȱ theȱ noiseȱ /ȱ Ofȱ thoseȱ thatȱ sitȱ andȱ weep”ȱ (17–18).ȱ Asȱ withȱ “Discontentȱ in
Devon,”ȱtheȱpoetȱassociatesȱtheȱcountryȱwithȱsadnessȱorȱlackȱofȱmirth,ȱwithȱthe
laterȱdeemedȱcentralȱtoȱhisȱpoeticȱproductionȱandȱtheȱveryȱnatureȱofȱpoetryȱasȱhe
conceivesȱit.ȱMoreover,ȱtheȱideaȱofȱtheȱcountryȱasȱaȱpunitiveȱexile,ȱratherȱthanȱas
aȱ temporaryȱ retreatȱ (orȱ sourceȱ ofȱ inspiration)ȱ forȱ theȱ artistȱ orȱ theȱ sourceȱ ofȱ a
competentȱliving,ȱprovidesȱaȱsharpȱcomplaintȱthatȱtheȱpoetȱisȱnoȱlongerȱpartȱofȱa
artisticȱcommunityȱinȱwhichȱpoetsȱcanȱmatchȱwitsȱthroughȱtheȱtrialȱrunȱofȱtheir
verses.
NotȱonlyȱdoesȱHerrickȱrepresentȱhimselfȱasȱexiledȱfromȱaȱcommunityȱofȱwriters,
heȱ alsoȱ seesȱ thisȱ asȱ aȱ removalȱ fromȱ theȱ patronageȱ system:ȱ thoseȱ whoȱ have
supportedȱ andȱ praisedȱ himȱ forȱ hisȱ poeticȱ efforts.ȱ Inȱ aȱ poemȱ toȱ hisȱ former
Cambridgeȱ classmate,ȱ friend,ȱ andȱ patronȱ Sirȱ Clipsbyȱ Crewȱ (“Toȱ Sirȱ Clipsby
Crew”),ȱforȱexample,ȱheȱlaments,ȱ“Sinceȱtoȱth’ȱCountryȱfirstȱIȱcameȱ/ȱIȱhaveȱlostȱmy
formerȱflame”ȱ(1–2),ȱandȱ“IfȱIȱwriteȱaȱverseȱorȱtwoȱ/ȱ‘Tisȱwithȱveryȱmuchȱado”
(5–6).ȱ Althoughȱ heȱ goesȱ onȱ toȱ describeȱ himselfȱ “ofȱ Museȱ bereft”ȱ (9),ȱ Herrick
bemoansȱnotȱjustȱtheȱlackȱofȱinspirationȱorȱtalentȱthatȱtroublesȱhim,ȱbutȱthatȱthe
42
SeeȱLow,ȱTheȱGeorgicȱRevolutionȱ(seeȱnoteȱ24),ȱ11.
814 JessicaȱTvordi
effortȱrequiredȱforȱtheȱproductionȱofȱtheȱmostȱhumbleȱofȱverses,ȱespeciallyȱthose
inȱhonorȱofȱaȱlongȬtimeȱfriendȱandȱpatron,ȱhasȱrenderedȱhimȱunfitȱtoȱexpressȱhis
gratitudeȱinȱpoetry.ȱTheȱlossȱofȱpatronageȱseemsȱtoȱhaveȱbeenȱofȱgreatȱconcernȱto
Herrick.ȱCoiroȱreadsȱthisȱpoemȱspecificallyȱasȱevidenceȱthatȱHerrickȱlostȱCrewe’s
patronageȱafterȱheȱleftȱLondon,ȱandȱCainȱsuggestsȱthatȱtheȱcessationȱofȱsupport
wasȱactuallyȱtheȱresultȱofȱaȱquarrel.43ȱTheȱfinalȱlinesȱofȱtheȱpoemȱacknowledgeȱthat
“Iȱstillȱhaveȱmannersȱleft”ȱ(10)ȱtoȱthankȱthisȱreveredȱfriend,ȱbutȱthatȱtheȱpoetȱcan
nowȱonlyȱ“BeȱinȱProseȱaȱgratefullȱman”ȱ(14).ȱThatȱheȱcanȱnowȱonlyȱconveyȱhis
indebtednessȱinȱproseȱseemsȱtoȱbeȱproofȱthatȱhisȱMuseȱhasȱabandonedȱhim,ȱwith
theȱexchangeȱofȱtheȱmoreȱexaltedȱgenreȱofȱpoetryȱforȱtheȱcommon,ȱmeannessȱof
proseȱwritingȱrepresentingȱtheȱultimateȱartisticȱhumiliation.ȱTakenȱtogether,ȱboth
ofȱ theseȱ poemsȱ reflectȱ theȱ poet’sȱ greatestȱ fears:ȱ first,ȱ theȱ failureȱ toȱ produce
artistically,ȱand,ȱsecond,ȱtheȱinabilityȱtoȱexpressȱthroughȱpoetryȱtheȱgratitudeȱone
owesȱone’sȱpatron.
WhileȱtheseȱantiȬruralȱpoemsȱaddressȱspecificallyȱpoeticȱanxieties,ȱaȱlaterȱpoem
ofȱtheȱDeanȱPriorȱperiodȱconnectsȱresidenceȱinȱtheȱWestȱwithȱaȱmoreȱgeneralȱsense
ofȱ unproductivenessȱ andȱ barrenness,ȱ whichȱ Herrickȱ usesȱ toȱ accountȱ forȱ a
disappointingȱnationalȱevent:ȱCharlesȱI’sȱretreatȱintoȱtheȱWestȱCountryȱowingȱto
theȱmenaceȱofȱparliamentaryȱforces.ȱInȱ“ToȱtheȱKing,ȱUponȱhisȱComingȱWithȱHis
Armyȱ intoȱ theȱ West,”ȱ Herrickȱ cleverlyȱ transformsȱ aȱ politicalȱ necessityȱ intoȱ a
triumphȱforȱtheȱthwartedȱmonarch,ȱasȱhisȱretreatȱintoȱtheȱcountryȱbecomesȱboth
aȱboonȱforȱthatȱcommunityȱandȱaȱmeansȱofȱregeneratingȱruralȱspaceȱforȱtheȱpoet.
“Theȱ Droopingȱ West”ȱ (2)ȱ describedȱ asȱ havingȱ sufferedȱ “oneȱ longȬlamentedȬ
widowȬhood”ȱ(4),ȱisȱinvigoratedȱbyȱtheȱpresenceȱofȱtheȱmonarch,ȱwhoȱnowȱmakes
theȱcountryȱresembleȱ“aȱBrideȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱorȱaȱbedȱofȱflowers,ȱ/ȱNewlyȱrefresh’tȱbothȱbyȱthe
Sun,ȱandȱshowers”ȱ(5–6).ȱTheȱpoemȱfunctionsȱasȱaȱmeanȱofȱmonarchȬegoȱboosting,
asȱHerrickȱdeflectsȱmilitaryȱfailureȱbyȱemphasizingȱtheȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱtheȱking’s
presenceȱ willȱ ennobleȱ andȱ refineȱ theȱ barrenȱ west.ȱ Yet,ȱ atȱ theȱ sameȱ time,ȱ this
drooping,ȱimpotentȱcountryȬsideȱisȱclearlyȱaȱrepresentationȱthatȱjarsȱwithȱHerrick’s
otherȱtreatmentsȱofȱtheȱcountryȱasȱpreciselyȱtheȱopposite:ȱfecund,ȱbountiful,ȱand
joyous,ȱasȱevidencedȱinȱtheȱcountryȱpoemȱwrittenȱforȱtheȱEarlȱofȱWestmoreland.
Althoughȱtheȱcountry,ȱwhetherȱinȱtheȱabstractȱorȱinȱreality,ȱprovidedȱforȱHerrick
richȱmaterialȱforȱbothȱcomplimentȱandȱcomplaint,ȱhisȱeschewalȱofȱruralȱlifeȱserves
consistentlyȱtoȱprovideȱaȱcontrastȱtoȱtheȱintellectualȬpoliticalȱlifeȱheȱassociatesȱwith
London.ȱInȱ“UponȱHimself”ȱandȱ“HisȱReturnȱtoȱLondon,”ȱwhichȱCreaserȱdatesȱto
theȱDeanȱPriorȱperiodȱandȱshortlyȱafterȱ HerrickȱleftȱDevonshireȱrespectively,44
Herrickȱcelebratesȱnotȱonlyȱhisȱreturnȱtoȱhisȱbirthplace,ȱbutȱalsoȱcharacterizesȱhis
43
SeeȱCoiro,ȱRobertȱHerrick’sȱHesperidesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ9),143;ȱandȱCain,ȱ“RobertȱHerrick’sȱLife”ȱ(seeȱnote
3),ȱpara.ȱ26.
44
SeeȱCreaser,ȱ“‘TimeȱTransȬShifting’”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ37),ȱ193,ȱ196.
departureȱasȱaȱreleaseȱfromȱtheȱDevonȱdescribedȱearlierȱinȱsuchȱunflatteringȱterms.
Inȱ“UponȱHimself,”ȱHerrickȱwrites,ȱonceȱagain,ȱofȱtheȱ“loathedȱCountryȬlife”ȱ(1),
butȱheȱalsoȱexpressesȱaȱdesireȱtoȱrecoverȱtimeȱlostȱinȱtheȱcountryȱasȱheȱreclaimsȱhis
placeȱwithinȱaȱconvivialȱbrotherhoodȱofȱfellowȱwriters.ȱThus,ȱheȱrousesȱhimselfȱto
leaveȱthisȱloathedȱcountryȱlife,ȱandȱthen
GrowȱupȱtoȱbeȱaȱRomanȱCitizen.
ThoseȱmitesȱofȱTime,ȱwhichȱyetȱremainȱunspent,
WasteȱthouȱinȱthatȱmostȱCivillȱGovernment.
Getȱthereȱcomportment,ȱandȱtheȱglidingȱtongue
OfȱthoseȱmildȱMen,ȱthouȱartȱtoȱliveȱamong:
Then,ȱbeingȱseatedȱinȱthatȱsmootherȱSphere,
DecreeȱthyȱeverlastingȱTopickȱthere; (1–8)
Beingȱaȱ“Romanȱcitizen”ȱclearlyȱconnectsȱtoȱtheȱ“mostȱcivilȱgovernment”ȱpracticed
byȱ“theȱgildingȱtongue[s]ȱ/ȱOfȱthoseȱmildȱMen”:ȱtheȱLondonȱpoetsȱHerrickȱleft
behindȱinȱ1630,ȱwhomȱtheȱspeakerȱeagerlyȱanticipatesȱrejoining.ȱTheȱclosingȱlines
ofȱthisȱpoem—“AndȱtoȱtheȱFarmȬhouseȱnereȱreturnȱatȱall:ȱ/ȱThoughȱGrangesȱdoȱnot
loveȱthee,ȱCitiesȱshall”ȱ(9–10)—expressȱtheȱexplicitȱcomplaintȱheȱhasȱaboutȱcountry
lifeȱaddressedȱabove.ȱWhileȱtheȱinhabitantsȱofȱDevonȱrepresentȱanȱunappreciative
orȱinsufficientlyȱintellectualȱaudienceȱforȱhisȱpoetry,ȱtheȱ“smootherȱsphere”ȱofȱthe
cityȱwillȱwelcomeȱhimȱintoȱaȱpoeticȱcommunityȱthatȱwill,ȱfinally,ȱrecognizeȱhis
artisticȱworthȱandȱhelpȱhimȱtoȱrestoreȱhisȱsenseȱofȱhimselfȱasȱaȱpoet.
Whileȱ additionalȱ poemsȱ alsoȱ concernȱ themselvesȱ withȱ theȱ lossȱ ofȱ poetic
communityȱorȱaccessȱtoȱatȱleastȱappreciativeȱlistenersȱ(ifȱnotȱmonetaryȱpatronage),
theyȱalsoȱhighlightȱHerrick’sȱnostalgiaȱforȱhisȱbirthplace.ȱInȱanotherȱpieceȱonȱthe
subject,ȱ“HisȱReturnȱtoȱLondon,”ȱHerrickȱcomplainsȱofȱtheȱ“dullȱconfinesȱofȱthe
DroopingȱWest”ȱȱ(1)ȱandȱhopesȱtoȱsoonȱ“seeȱtheȱdayȱspringȱfromȱtheȱpregnant
East”ȱ (2),ȱ namingȱ London,ȱ whichȱ heȱ addressesȱ “Oȱ Fruitfulȱ Genius”ȱ (5),ȱ asȱ the
sourceȱ ofȱ artisticȱ production.ȱ Thisȱ apostropheȱ reflectsȱ notȱ onlyȱ Herrick’s
excitementȱ atȱ theȱ prospectȱ ofȱ returningȱ toȱ hisȱ birthplace—“Ravish’tȱ inȱ spiritȱ I
come,ȱnay,ȱmore,ȱIȱflieȱ/ȱToȱthee,ȱblesstȱplaceȱofȱmyȱNativitie!”ȱ(3–4)—butȱalso
acknowledgesȱthatȱLondonȱisȱtheȱmostȱfittingȱplaceȱforȱhisȱeventualȱburial:ȱ“Weak
Iȱamȱgrown,ȱandȱmustȱinȱshortȱtimeȱfall;ȱ/ȱGiveȱthouȱmyȱsacredȱRelicsȱBuriall”
(19–20).ȱThisȱrhapsodicȱpoemȱseemsȱtoȱreflectȱtheȱfervorȱofȱaȱbanishedȱyetȱconstant
loverȱ invitedȱ toȱ returnȱ toȱ theȱ bosomȱ ofȱ hisȱ patientlyȱ waitingȱ beloved.ȱ Herrick
specificallyȱcontrastsȱtheȱevilsȱofȱtheȱcountryȱ(orȱatȱleastȱtheȱnegativeȱfeelingsȱit
evokes)ȱwithȱtheȱsatisfactionȱofȱwhatȱLondonȱhasȱtoȱoffer.ȱSomeȱofȱtheȱimplied
comparisonsȱincludeȱLondonȱasȱ“hallowedȱground”ȱ(5),ȱimplyingȱDeanȱPriorȱis
unconsecrated,ȱasȱaȱcityȱofȱ“everlastingȱplenty”ȱ(8)ȱandȱthusȱandȱaȱtrueȱmarkerȱof
metropolitanȱvariety,ȱcontrastedȱwithȱtheȱbarrennessȱofȱtheȱWest,ȱandȱsporting
“Manners!ȱFram’dȱtoȱpleaseȱ/ȱAllȱNations,ȱCustoms,ȱKindreds,ȱLanguages!”ȱ(9–10),
highlightingȱtheȱhomogeneousȱlimitationsȱofȱDevonshire.
816 JessicaȱTvordi
“HisȱReturnȱtoȱLondon,”ȱlikeȱ“UponȱHimself,”ȱalsoȱconnectsȱLondonȱwithȱRome,
aȱplaceȱthatȱHerrickȱearlierȱassociatedȱwithȱtheȱ“gliding”ȱtonguesȱofȱpoets,ȱandȱa
cityȱ fromȱ whichȱ troublesomeȱ poetsȱ likeȱ Ovidȱ wereȱ exiled.45ȱ Inȱ soȱ particularly
evokingȱ Rome,ȱ Herrickȱ figuresȱ Devonshireȱ asȱ aȱ backwardȱ outpost,ȱ notȱ unlike
Ovid’sȱTomis,ȱwhichȱcannotȱpossiblyȱmeasureȱupȱtoȱtheȱglitteringȱimageȱofȱhis
ownȱbirthplace.ȱHere,ȱhowever,ȱtheȱconnectionȱbetweenȱLondonȱandȱhisȱabilityȱto
recoverȱhisȱpowersȱasȱaȱpoetȱisȱlessȱexplicitlyȱstated;ȱinstead,ȱtheȱspeakerȱposition
himselfȱasȱaȱpetitionerȱwhoȱasksȱleaveȱnotȱjustȱtoȱreturn,ȱbutȱtoȱbeȱreceivedȱbyȱhis
nativeȱcityȱwithȱenthusiasm.
IȱamȱaȱfreeȬbornȱRoman;ȱsufferȱthen,
ThatȱIȱamongstȱyouȱliveȱaȱCitizen.
Londonȱmyȱhomeȱis:ȱthoughȱbyȱhardȱfateȱsent
Intoȱaȱlongȱandȱirksomeȱbanishment;
Yetȱsinceȱcal’dȱback;ȱhenceforwardȱletȱmeȱbe,
Oȱnativeȱcountrey,ȱrepossestȱbyȱthee!
For,ȱratherȱthanȱI’lȱtoȱtheȱWestȱreturn,
I’lȱbegȱofȱtheeȱfirstȱtoȱhaveȱmineȱUrn (11–18)
Herrickȱfiguresȱhimselfȱasȱaȱbanishedȱcitizen,ȱeagerȱtoȱreturnȱtoȱhisȱnativeȱcountry,
andȱwilling,ȱquiteȱdramatically,ȱtoȱfaceȱdeathȱratherȱthanȱanyȱfutureȱbanishment.
Justȱasȱheȱwishedȱinȱ“ToȱtheȱKing”ȱtoȱseeȱtheȱWestȱembracedȱandȱimpregnatedȱby
theȱcivilizingȱpresenceȱofȱtheȱmonarch,ȱwhichȱheȱassociatesȱwithȱtheȱEast,ȱhereȱhe
reversesȱ thatȱ amorousȱ pattern,ȱ imploringȱ thatȱ Londonȱ reclaimȱ him,ȱ perhaps
throughȱsufferance,ȱasȱitsȱownȱbelovedȱpossession.ȱHisȱreferenceȱtoȱhisȱ“irksome
banishment,”ȱtheȱresultȱofȱ“hardȱfate”ȱowingȱtoȱsomeȱfabricatedȱtransgression,
dramatizesȱ bothȱ theȱ lossȱ andȱ theȱ potentialȱ gainȱ asȱ heȱ reentersȱ Londonȱ asȱ a
formerlyȱchastened,ȱbutȱnowȱnewlyȱreformedȱindividualȱwhoȱhasȱservedȱaȱkind
ofȱpenance.46
Herrick’sȱrepossessionȱbyȱLondonȱdemandsȱoneȱfinalȱobservationȱaboutȱpoetic
conviviality,ȱparticularlyȱasȱitȱrelatesȱtoȱclassȱdifferencesȱinȱearlyȱmodernȱEngland.
Whileȱ theȱ ruralȱ worldȱ ofȱ theȱ “Theȱ HockȬCart”ȱ drawsȱ attentionȱ toȱ (although
perhapsȱnotȱreinforcing)ȱsocialȱhierarchy,ȱtheȱcityȱtavernȱfilledȱwithȱpoetsȱdoesȱnot.
EvenȱthoughȱHerrick,ȱtheȱmanȱ(ofȱGod),ȱseemsȱcontentȱwithȱbeingȱaȱRoyalȱ(and
spiritual)ȱsubject,ȱHerrickȱtheȱpoetȱfiguresȱhimselfȱasȱaȱcitizen:ȱoneȱamongȱequals
45
Forȱadditionalȱreadingsȱofȱthisȱpoem,ȱseeȱalsoȱCoiro,ȱRobertȱHerrick’sȱHesperidesȱ(seeȱnoteȱ10),
207–08;ȱforȱaȱdiscussionȱofȱHerrick’sȱworkȱwithinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱtheȱexiledȱpoet,ȱseeȱSyritheȱPughe,
“OvidianȱExileȱinȱtheȱHesperides:ȱHerrick’sȱPoliticsȱofȱIntertextuality,”ȱReviewȱofȱEnglishȱStudiesȱ57
(Novemberȱ2006):ȱ733–65.
46
Forȱanȱalternativeȱreadingȱofȱthisȱpoem,ȱoneȱthatȱexploresȱtracesȱthatȱrenderȱtheȱpoet’sȱreturnȱto
Londonȱtragic,ȱseeȱClaudeȱJ.ȱSummers,ȱ“Herrick’sȱPoliticalȱCounterplots,”ȱSEL:ȱStudiesȱinȱEnglish
Literature,ȱ1500–1900ȱ25.1ȱ(Winterȱ1985):ȱ165–82;ȱhereȱ167–71.
inȱtheȱcity,ȱafterȱhavingȱbeenȱoneȱlongȱsetȱapartȱinȱtheȱinhospitableȱcountry.ȱRome
thenȱbecomesȱanȱidealȱbecauseȱevenȱthoughȱitsȱsocialȱworldȱpromotedȱaȱsharp
conceptualȱdistinctionȱbetweenȱplebianȱandȱpatrician,ȱbeingȱaȱpoet—whetherȱin
RomeȱorȱinȱLondon—offersȱaȱspecialȱkindȱofȱstatus:ȱoneȱfilledȱwithȱchallengesȱand,
potentially,ȱ dangers,ȱ suchȱ asȱ censureȱ orȱ evenȱ exile,ȱ butȱ alsoȱ oneȱ inȱ whichȱ the
goldsmith’sȱsonȱcanȱ(andȱdid)ȱriseȱtoȱtheȱoccasionȱofȱintellectualȱcommerceȱinȱthe
companyȱofȱfellowȱpoetsȱwho,ȱunlikeȱHerrick,ȱwereȱactuallyȱaȱbitȱhigherȱonȱthe
socialȱscale.ȱTheȱabilityȱtoȱ“rehearseȱlines”ȱwhileȱsharingȱinȱaȱcupȱofȱsackȱwith
otherȱcitizens—someȱnovices,ȱlikeȱheȱhimselfȱhadȱbeenȱinȱtheȱ1620s,ȱothers,ȱlike
Jonson,ȱfullyȱestablishedȱinȱtheirȱartȱandȱinvestedȱinȱtheȱpatronageȱsystem—hasȱa
kindȱofȱlevelingȱeffectȱforȱHerrick,ȱmakingȱhisȱstatusȱasȱhumbleȱvicarȱirrelevantȱto
hisȱcitizenshipȱinȱtheȱworldȱofȱletters.
HoweverȱmuchȱHerrickȱmightȱvilifyȱtheȱpoet’sȱplaceȱinȱtheȱcountry,ȱtheȱtermsȱon
whichȱheȱleftȱDevonshireȱandȱrepairedȱtoȱLondonȱcontainȱaȱtragicȱirony.ȱOnȱthe
oneȱhand,ȱHerrick’sȱinitialȱ“banishment”ȱfromȱLondonȱremovedȱhimȱfromȱthe
poeticȱ circlesȱ heȱ dependedȱ uponȱ forȱ inspirationȱ andȱ acknowledgment.ȱ Onȱ the
other,ȱthatȱappointment,ȱwhichȱwasȱinȱtheȱmonarch’sȱpowerȱtoȱbestow,ȱwasȱaȱmark
notȱonlyȱofȱfavorȱ(orȱpossiblyȱtheȱpowerȱofȱoneȱofȱHerrick’sȱpatrons),ȱbutȱalsoȱof
theȱprosperityȱandȱtheȱstabilityȱofȱtheȱking’sȱgovernment,ȱandȱprovidedȱHerrick
withȱfinancialȱstability.ȱAsȱaȱroyalist,ȱHerrick’sȱreturnȱtoȱLondonȱmustȱhaveȱbeen
bittersweetȱasȱitȱwasȱnecessitatedȱbyȱtheȱfallȱofȱCharlesȱI’sȱgovernment,ȱandȱwas
accompaniedȱbyȱpersonalȱimpoverishment.ȱ
Withȱ mostȱ ofȱ hisȱ oldȱ patronsȱ dead,ȱ exceptȱ Mildmayȱ Fane,ȱ Herrickȱ lived,
somehow,ȱuponȱcharity,ȱperhapsȱfromȱhisȱbrotherȱNicholas,ȱaȱLevantȱmerchant,
orȱotherȱrelatives.47ȱHerrick’sȱtemporaryȱreleaseȱfromȱcountryȱlife—notȱtoȱmention
theȱdutiesȱofȱtheȱvicarage—undoubtedlyȱgaveȱhimȱtheȱfreedomȱtoȱennobleȱfurther
theȱ“press”ȱwithȱaȱcollectionȱofȱhisȱownȱpoeticȱoutpourings.ȱBanishment,ȱitȱwould
seem,ȱallowedȱhimȱtoȱreflectȱonȱhisȱwaningȱart,ȱwhileȱhisȱreleaseȱenabledȱhimȱto
“reclaim”ȱhisȱMuse,ȱcollectȱhisȱwritings,ȱand,ȱinȱofferingȱthemȱtoȱtheȱreadersȱof
London,ȱtoȱ“haveȱmineȱUrn.”
Ofȱ courseȱ Herrickȱ wouldȱ eventuallyȱ returnȱ toȱ theȱ countryȱ toȱ liveȱ outȱ the
remainderȱ ofȱ hisȱ lifeȱ inȱ theȱ serviceȱ ofȱ theȱ sameȱ countryȱ vicarageȱ that,ȱ atȱ least
poetically,ȱwasȱtheȱsiteȱofȱsuchȱcontraryȱanalyticsȱandȱemotionsȱonȱaȱvarietyȱof
subjectsȱbeyondȱcountryȱliving.ȱUponȱhisȱreturnȱtoȱDevonshire,ȱhowever,ȱheȱwas
theȱpublishedȱauthorȱofȱaȱvolumeȱofȱpoems,ȱhadȱreconnectedȱwithȱoldȱLondon
associates,ȱand,ȱnearlyȱseventyȱyearsȱofȱage,ȱwasȱperhapsȱreadyȱtoȱresumeȱhisȱold
officeȱasȱvicarȱwithȱlessȱpoeticȱgrumblingsȱWhileȱreturningȱtoȱDevonshireȱlateȱin
47
SeeȱCain,ȱ“RobertȱHerrick’sȱLife”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱpara.ȱ25ȱandȱ26.
818 JessicaȱTvordi
life—especiallyȱafterȱaȱlongȱandȱeconomicallyȱunfruitfulȱsojournȱinȱLondon—may
haveȱtemperedȱhisȱviewsȱofȱtheȱcountryȱandȱwhatȱitȱhadȱtoȱoffer,ȱthereȱareȱonlyȱa
fewȱpoemsȱthatȱsurviveȱtheȱperiodȱafterȱwhichȱheȱleftȱLondonȱtoȱmakeȱDeanȱPrior
hisȱ finalȱ residence.48ȱ Whetherȱ heȱ revisedȱ hisȱ viewsȱ ofȱ countryȱ lifeȱ orȱ not,ȱ the
handfulȱofȱpostȬLondonȱpoemsȱdoȱnotȱtakeȱupȱtheȱcountryȱasȱthematicȱconcern,ȱso
Herrick’sȱviewsȱonȱtheȱcountryȱexistȱonlyȱinȱaȱdozenȱorȱsoȱpoemsȱthatȱrepresent
bothȱtheȱgoodȱandȱtheȱbad,ȱleavingȱreadersȱtoȱcontemplateȱwhichȱviewpointȱcarries
theȱgreatestȱrhetoricalȱpowerȱwithinȱtheȱnotoriouslyȱslipperyȱmediumȱofȱpoetry.
ThatȱHerrickȱcouldȱrespondȱtoȱruralȱspacesȱwithȱbothȱtheȱcontemplativeȱStoicism
inspiredȱbyȱclassicalȱwritersȱandȱwithȱtheȱdisappointmentȱofȱaȱmanȱenamoredȱwith
theȱartisticȱcirclesȱofȱLondonȱisȱevidenceȱofȱhisȱgreatȱflexibilityȱofȱmind,ȱintellectual
astuteness,ȱandȱoftenȱcleverȱhyperbole,ȱallȱofȱwhichȱareȱamongȱtheȱmanyȱreasons
weȱstillȱfindȱhisȱpoemsȱengaging,ȱthoughtful,ȱandȱhumorousȱinȱtheȱtwentyȬfirst
century.
48
SeeȱCain,ȱ“RobertȱHerrick’sȱLife”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ3),ȱpara.ȱ27.
Chapterȱ26
MarthaȱMoffittȱPeacock
(BrighamȱYoungȱUniversity,ȱProvo,ȱUtah)
WomenȱatȱtheȱHunt:ȱDevelopingȱaȱGenderedȱLogicȱof
RuralȱSpaceȱinȱtheȱNetherlandishȱVisualȱTradition
AroundȱmidȬseventeenthȱcenturyȱaȱnumberȱofȱsurprisinglyȱvigorousȱandȱviolent,
genderȬreversingȱpaintingsȱofȱwomenȱhuntingȱoccurȱinȱNetherlandishȱart.ȱThese
womenȱareȱdepictedȱridingȱenergeticallyȱthroughȱtheȱruralȱenvironmentȱtrapping
birdsȱandȱevenȱspearingȱlargeȱgame.ȱWhileȱdepictionsȱofȱwomenȱatȱtheȱhuntȱwere
notȱnewȱtoȱtheȱwesternȱartȱtradition—certainlyȱthereȱareȱnumerousȱmedievalȱand
Renaissanceȱ examplesȱ inȱ aȱ varietyȱ ofȱ artȱ mediaȱ fromȱ tapestriesȱ toȱ book
illuminationsȱtoȱprints—theseȱpredecessorsȱdoȱnotȱprepareȱusȱforȱtheȱamazing
AmazonianȱferocityȱofȱtheȱhuntressesȱfoundȱinȱpaintingsȱbyȱNetherlandishȱartists
likeȱ Philipsȱ Wouwermanȱ (1619–1668),ȱ Hendrickȱ Verschuringȱ (1627–1690),ȱ and
particularlyȱ Abrahamȱ Hondiusȱ (ca.ȱ 1631–1691).ȱ Whileȱ suchȱ aggressiveȱ female
actionȱisȱastonishing,ȱanȱevenȱmoreȱovertȱpresentationȱofȱwomenȱtransgressingȱthe
traditionalȱboundariesȱofȱtheirȱsexȱisȱtoȱbeȱfoundȱinȱpaintingsȱbyȱPieterȱvanȱLaer
(1599–ca.ȱ 1642),ȱ Johannesȱ Lingelbachȱ (1622–1674),ȱ Janȱ Mielȱ (1599–1663),ȱ and
Willemȱ Reuterȱ (ca.ȱ 1642–1681)ȱ whereȱ huntressesȱ sportȱ maleȱ trousersȱ inȱ a
surprisinglyȱmodernȱexampleȱofȱcrossȬdressing.ȱAnȱexaminationȱofȱtheȱchanging
genderedȱlogicȱofȱruralȱspaceȱasȱitȱrelatesȱtoȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱhuntingȱscenesȱis
enlighteningȱinȱregardsȱtoȱtheseȱimages.ȱ
MedievalȱandȱRenaissanceȱViewsȱofȱtheȱHuntȱandȱRuralȱSpace
“Manȱneedsȱtoȱhuntȱtoȱreleaseȱtheȱpressuresȱofȱbeingȱhuman,ȱtoȱappreciateȱthe
countryside,ȱtheȱseasons,ȱtoȱbeȱawareȱofȱtheȱbeautyȱandȱbrevityȱofȱlife,ȱandȱthe
inevitabilityȱandȱsadnessȱofȱdeath.ȱHeȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱbarbaricȱinȱorderȱtoȱbeȱcivilized,
820 MarthaȱMoffittȱPeacock
cruelȱtoȱbeȱcultured.”1ȱTheseȱareȱtheȱconclusionsȱreachedȱbyȱRichardȱAlmondȱin
hisȱexcellentȱsurveyȱofȱmedievalȱandȱRenaissanceȱvisualȱandȱtextualȱreferencesȱto
huntingȱ inȱ theȱ wildsȱ ofȱ nature.ȱ Indeed,ȱ huntingȱ wasȱ anȱ importantȱ aspectȱ of
medievalȱandȱRenaissanceȱculture,ȱasȱisȱwitnessedȱbyȱtheȱnumerousȱtextsȱwritten
byȱhuntersȱandȱcollectedȱbyȱtheȱaristocracy.ȱManyȱofȱtheȱearlyȱauthorsȱonȱhunting
wereȱ Frenchȱ andȱ theirȱ textsȱ setȱ theȱ standardȱ forȱ Europeanȱ huntingȱ manuals.
Amongȱtheseȱtexts,ȱGastonȱPhoebus’sȱbookȱwasȱoneȱofȱtheȱmostȱinfluential.2ȱEarly
inȱhisȱlifeȱGastonȱhadȱbeenȱaȱwarrior,ȱafterȱwhichȱheȱretiredȱtoȱhisȱestatesȱwhereȱhe
spentȱ hisȱ remainingȱ yearsȱ hunting.ȱ Inȱ hisȱ Livreȱ deȱ laȱ chasseȱ (Bookȱ ofȱ theȱ Hunt,
1387—1389),ȱ heȱ declaresȱ thatȱ theȱ threeȱ delightsȱ ofȱ hisȱ lifeȱ areȱ war,ȱ love,ȱ and
hunting.3ȱ Theȱ bookȱ isȱ dedicatedȱ toȱ Philipȱ theȱ Bold,ȱ Dukeȱ ofȱ Burgundy,ȱ and
containsȱaȱdetailedȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱnatureȱofȱallȱtypesȱofȱbeasts,ȱhowȱtoȱhunt
them,ȱ andȱ whatȱ weaponsȱ toȱ use.ȱ Someȱ copiesȱ ofȱ Gaston’sȱ textȱ areȱ lavishly
illustratedȱ withȱ imagesȱ ofȱ menȱ ofȱ theȱ rulingȱ classesȱ huntingȱ whileȱ menȱ ofȱ the
lowerȱclassesȱfacilitateȱtheȱchaseȱasȱinȱaȱsceneȱofȱaȱwolfȱhuntȱ(Fig.ȱ1).ȱHere,ȱtheȱtwo
noblesȱdynamicallyȱgallopȱthroughȱtheȱlandscapeȱinȱactiveȱpursuitȱofȱtheȱfleeing
wolf.ȱOneȱhasȱdrawnȱhisȱswordȱasȱheȱdescendsȱonȱhisȱpreyȱwhileȱhisȱservants
readyȱtheirȱspearsȱtoȱcompleteȱtheȱkill.ȱInȱtheȱillustrationȱofȱaȱboarȱhunt,ȱtheȱnobles
haveȱcaughtȱupȱwithȱtheirȱlargeȱkillȱasȱtheyȱplungeȱtheirȱswordsȱintoȱtheȱ stillȬ
chargingȱ beastȱ (Fig.ȱ 2).ȱ Moreȱ violenceȱ isȱ displayedȱ inȱ theȱ foregroundȱ where
diminutiveȱservantsȱcaptureȱandȱstabȱaȱsmallerȱboarȱwithȱaȱpike.4ȱ
Artȱofȱtheȱhuntȱwasȱcommissionedȱby,ȱandȱproducedȱfor,ȱroyalȱandȱaristocratic
men.ȱItȱreinforcedȱsocioȬeconomicȱstructuresȱofȱtheȱtimeȱbyȱdepictingȱtheȱbravery
andȱskillȱofȱtheȱelitistȱmanlyȱhuntersȱinȱcontrastȱtoȱtheȱhumbleȱactivitiesȱofȱthe
commoners.ȱRegardingȱtheseȱscenesȱofȱuntamedȱcombatȱinȱtheȱwildsȱofȱnature,
Almondȱ summarizesȱ thatȱ medievalȱ andȱ Renaissanceȱ menȱ wereȱ fascinatedȱ by
huntingȱandȱimagesȱofȱtheȱchase.ȱSuchȱimages,ȱheȱasserts,ȱrepresentedȱtheȱneeds
1
RichardȱAlmond,ȱMedievalȱHuntingȱ(Stroud:ȱSutton,ȱ2003),ȱ174.ȱOtherȱtextsȱonȱmedievalȱhunting
includeȱJohnȱG.ȱCummins,ȱTheȱHoundȱandȱtheȱHawk:ȱTheȱArtȱofȱMedievalȱHuntingȱ(NewȱYork:ȱSt.
Martin’sȱPress,ȱ1988);ȱLindaȱWoolley,ȱMedievalȱLifeȱandȱLeisureȱinȱtheȱDevonshireȱHuntingȱTapestries
(London:ȱVȱ&ȱA,ȱ2002);ȱEmmaȱGriffin,ȱBloodȱSport:ȱHuntingȱinȱBritainȱSinceȱ1066ȱ(NewȱHaven,ȱCT:
YaleȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2007);ȱChrisȱM.ȱWoolgar,ȱTheȱGreatȱHouseholdȱinȱLateȱMedievalȱEnglandȱ(New
Haven,ȱCT:ȱYaleȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1999);ȱRobinȱS.ȱOggins,ȱTheȱKingsȱandȱTheirȱHawks:ȱFalconryȱin
MedievalȱEnglandȱ(NewȱHaven:ȱYaleȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2004).
2
Seeȱ Jacquelineȱ Stuhmiller’sȱ contributionȱ toȱ thisȱ volume.ȱ Otherȱ medievalȱ huntingȱ textsȱ of
significanceȱincludeȱFrederickȱII,ȱDeȱArteȱVenandiȱcumȱAvibusȱ(1240s);ȱCharlesȱIXȱ(1550–1574),ȱLa
chasseȱroyale;ȱAlfonsoȱXIȱofȱCastile,ȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱmonteríaȱ(fourteenthȱcentury);ȱLesȱlivresȱduȱroiȱModus
etȱdeȱlaȱreineȱRatioȱ(1354–1376),ȱattributedȱtoȱHenriȱdeȱFerrières;ȱGaceȱdeȱlaȱBuigne,ȱLeȱRomanȱdes
Deduisȱ (beforeȱ 1377);ȱ Edward,ȱ Dukeȱ ofȱ York,ȱ Theȱ Masterȱ ofȱ Gameȱ withȱ translationsȱ fromȱ and
additionsȱtoȱLivreȱdeȱlaȱchasseȱ(1406–1413).
3
Paris,ȱBibliothequeȱNationale,ȱLivreȱdeȱlaȱchasse,ȱMSȱfr.ȱ616ȱ(noȱarticleȱinȱtheȱBNȱcatalogue).
4
SeeȱAlbrechtȱClassen’sȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱ(BookȱofȱHours).
WomenȱatȱtheȱHunt 821
ofȱ menȱ toȱ beȱ “atȱ oneȱ withȱ nature”ȱ andȱ toȱ delightȱ inȱ theȱ pleasure,ȱ ceremony,
excitement,ȱenergy,ȱandȱrigorȱofȱthisȱsport.5ȱ
Ifȱfreedomȱtoȱlooseȱone’sȱwildȱinstinctsȱinȱtheȱtamingȱofȱnature,ȱasȱwellȱasȱthe
abilityȱ toȱ displayȱ ostentatiouslyȱ one’sȱ socialȱ andȱ economicȱ statusȱ wereȱ the
meaningsȱbehindȱdepictionsȱofȱmenȱatȱtheȱhuntȱinȱruralȱspace,ȱwhatȱwasȱtheȱplace
ofȱ womenȱ inȱ relationȱ toȱ natureȱ andȱ theȱ hunt?ȱ Certainlyȱ womenȱ wereȱ not
representedȱengagingȱinȱtheȱviolence,ȱbattling,ȱandȱrigorȱofȱtheȱactiveȱhuntȱexcept
inȱrareȱinstancesȱduringȱtheseȱearlyȱeras.ȱAtȱtimesȱwomenȱwereȱrepresentedȱwith
birdsȱ ofȱ preyȱ orȱ trappingȱ smallȱ animals,ȱ butȱ evenȱ inȱ theseȱ instancesȱ theyȱ are
usuallyȱdepictedȱwithȱstatelyȱdecorumȱratherȱthanȱturbulentȱferocity.6ȱTypicalȱof
theȱgenteelȱbehaviorȱofȱhuntressesȱisȱaȱdepictionȱofȱDiana,ȱgoddessȱofȱtheȱhunt,ȱand
herȱmaidensȱfromȱaȱcopyȱofȱChristineȱdeȱPizan’sȱEpistleȱofȱOtheaȱofȱaboutȱ1450ȱ(Fig.
3).7ȱDiana’sȱhoundsȱstandȱcalmlyȱbesideȱher,ȱandȱsheȱcarriesȱnoȱweapons.ȱOnlyȱone
ofȱtheȱwomenȱcarriesȱaȱbow,ȱwhichȱsheȱaimsȱtowardȱtheȱfleeingȱstag.ȱNoneȱofȱthe
womenȱ displayȱ anȱ activeȱ andȱ eagerȱ participationȱ inȱ theȱ chase;ȱ instead,ȱ their
composedȱdemeanors,ȱgracefulȱpostures,ȱandȱfineȱdressȱareȱreminiscentȱofȱelegant
femalesȱ depictedȱ inȱ manyȱ contemporaryȱ courtlyȱ scenes.ȱ Theȱ fewȱ instancesȱ in
whichȱladiesȱareȱshownȱactuallyȱshootingȱorȱtrappingȱanimalsȱareȱconsideredȱby
someȱ toȱ beȱ eitherȱ satiricalȱ orȱ allegoricalȱ representationsȱ ofȱ theȱ “upsideȬdown
world”ȱwhereȱwomenȱareȱactingȱcontraryȱtoȱtheȱnatureȱofȱtheirȱgender.8ȱ
5
Almond,ȱHuntingȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1).ȱ
6
Almondȱdiscussesȱtheȱcuriousȱlackȱofȱanȱinterestȱinȱfemalesȱhuntingȱinȱeitherȱtextsȱorȱimagesȱfrom
theȱ medievalȱ andȱ Renaissanceȱ eras.ȱ Instead,ȱ heȱ statesȱ thatȱ womenȱ wereȱ conveyedȱ inȱ artȱ and
literatureȱinȱanȱidealizedȱfashionȱasȱaȱdecorativeȱandȱadmiringȱaudienceȱofȱtheȱhunt.ȱHeȱalsoȱstates
thatȱtheȱonlyȱcommonȱrepresentationȱofȱwomenȱatȱtheȱhuntȱwasȱinȱregardsȱtoȱfalconryȱinȱHunting,
143–66ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1).ȱInȱhisȱsurveyȱofȱmedievalȱhunting,ȱCumminsȱalsoȱconcludesȱthatȱitȱwasȱaȱrarity
forȱwomenȱtoȱbeȱinvolvedȱinȱanythingȱbutȱtheȱceremonyȱofȱtheȱhuntȱinȱHoundȱandȱtheȱHawkȱ8ȱ(see
noteȱ1).ȱ
7
Theȱ originalȱ textȱ wasȱ publishedȱ inȱ ca.ȱ 1400.ȱ Theȱ copyȱ isȱ locatedȱ inȱ Theȱ Hague,ȱ Koninklijke
Bibliotheek,ȱEpistleȱofȱOthea,ȱ74ȱGȱ27,ȱfol.ȱ59r.
8
VeronicaȱSekulesȱdiscussesȱimagesȱofȱhuntressesȱfromȱtheȱTaymouthȱHoursȱasȱsignificationsȱofȱthe
“worldȱturnedȱupsideȬdown”ȱtraditionȱinȱ“WomenȱandȱArtȱinȱEnglandȱinȱtheȱThirteenthȱand
FourteenthȱCenturies,”ȱAgeȱofȱChivalry:ȱArtȱinȱPlantagenetȱEngland,ȱ1200–1400,ȱed.ȱJonathanȱJames
GrahamȱAlexander,ȱandȱPaulȱBinskiȱ(London:ȱRoyalȱAcademyȱofȱArts:ȱPublishedȱinȱassociation
withȱWeidenfeldȱandȱNicolson,ȱ1987),ȱ41–48.ȱRichardȱAlmondȱelaboratesȱonȱhisȱdiscussionsȱof
womenȱhuntingȱinȱaȱlaterȱtext,ȱDaughtersȱofȱArtemis:ȱTheȱHuntressȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱRenaissance
(Woodbridge,ȱ Suffolk:ȱ D.ȱ S.ȱ Brewer,ȱ 2009).ȱ Heȱ arguesȱ thatȱ womenȱ certainlyȱ mustȱ haveȱ been
involvedȱinȱhuntingȱevenȱthoughȱtheȱevidenceȱisȱveryȱscant.ȱHeȱincludesȱinȱhisȱdiscussionȱof
literaryȱandȱvisualȱhuntingȱexamples,ȱhowever,ȱhawking,ȱferreting,ȱandȱtrapping,ȱnoneȱofȱwhich
involveȱtheȱveryȱrigorousȱhuntingȱsportȱofȱmen.ȱKatharinaȱFietzeȱalsoȱarguesȱforȱtheȱrealityȱof
womenȱhuntingȱduringȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱinȱImȱGefolgeȱDianas:ȱFrauenȱundȱhöfischeȱJagdȱimȱMittelalter
(1200–1500).ȱBeihefteȱzumȱArchivȱfürȱKulturgeschichte,ȱ99ȱ(Cologne,ȱWeimar,ȱandȱVienna:ȱBöhlau,
2005).ȱ Muchȱ ofȱ theȱ visualȱ evidenceȱ usedȱ byȱ theseȱ authorsȱ comesȱ fromȱ twoȱ uniqueȱ texts
consistentlyȱusedȱinȱdiscussionsȱofȱmedievalȱwomenȱhunting:ȱtheȱTaymouthȱHoursȱandȱtheȱQueen
Apartȱfromȱsuchȱmythologicalȱandȱallegoricalȱexceptions,ȱmostȱimagesȱlinking
women,ȱnature,ȱandȱtheȱhuntȱwereȱofȱaȱveryȱdifferentȱcharacter.ȱPrimarily,ȱwomen
wereȱ simplyȱ decorative,ȱ aristocraticȱ embellishmentȱ standingȱ onȱ theȱ sidelines
cheeringȱonȱtheȱsportȱofȱtheȱhuntersȱorȱamorouslyȱridingȱsidesaddleȱbehindȱtheir
heroicȱgentlemen,ȱasȱinȱtheȱhawkingȱcalendarȱminiatureȱofȱtheȱmonthȱofȱAugust
fromȱ theȱ Trèsȱ Richesȱ Heuresȱ ofȱ theȱ Ducȱ deȱ Berryȱ ofȱ aboutȱ 1415ȱ (Fig.ȱ 4).9ȱ The
elegantlyȬdressedȱandȱgracefullyȬposturedȱaristocraticȱridersȱinȱtheȱforegroundȱare
distinctlyȱ separatedȱ fromȱ theȱ boorishȱ peasantȱ workersȱ andȱ swimmersȱ inȱ the
background.ȱ Theȱ maleȱ courtiersȱ allȱ sportȱ falconsȱ onȱ theirȱ wrists—aȱ certain
indicationȱ ofȱ socialȱ status.ȱ Theȱ horsesȱ walkȱ atȱ aȱ calmȱ paceȱ appropriateȱ toȱ the
delicacyȱ ofȱ theȱ twoȱ gracefulȱ femaleȱ ridersȱ seatedȱ sidesaddleȱ behindȱ their
champions.ȱSimilarly,ȱaȱprintȱbyȱtheȱHousebookȱMasterȱofȱtheȱlateȱfifteenthȱcentury
showsȱyoungȱnoblesȱengagedȱinȱaȱstagȱhuntȱaccompaniedȱbyȱbeautifulȱwomen
(Fig.ȱ5).ȱTheȱfinelyȬdressedȱyoungȱwomenȱrideȱbehindȱtheȱspiritedȱhunters,ȱand
oneȱofȱtheȱfemalesȱclingsȱtoȱtheȱwaistȱofȱherȱcompanion.ȱ
Suchȱimagesȱbegȱtheȱquestion,ȱwhatȱareȱtheȱsignificationsȱofȱwomanȱandȱthe
huntȱthatȱforbadeȱherȱrepresentationȱasȱvigorousȱhuntressȱandȱinsteadȱencouraged
amorousȱassociationsȱinȱwhichȱsheȱisȱshownȱasȱtamedȱratherȱthanȱasȱaȱtamerȱof
nature?ȱItȱisȱusefulȱinȱsuchȱaȱdiscussionȱtoȱturnȱtoȱtheȱwritingsȱofȱphilosopherȬ
socialȱtheorist,ȱSimoneȱdeȱBeauvoir,ȱandȱherȱdiscussionsȱofȱageȬoldȱcorrelations
betweenȱ womanȱ andȱ natureȱ toȱ understandȱ someȱ ofȱ theseȱ implications.10ȱ She
discussesȱoverarchingȱideologiesȱthatȱlinkȱwomanȱmoreȱdirectlyȱtoȱnatureȱitself.
Theȱ femaleȱ body,ȱ sheȱ asserts,ȱ isȱ intimatelyȱ associatedȱ withȱ theȱ reproductive
process,ȱwhileȱmen,ȱlackingȱnaturalȱcreativeȱfunctions,ȱmustȱassertȱtheirȱcreativity
externallyȱandȱartificiallyȱthroughȱtheȱmediumȱofȱtechnology.ȱInȱsoȱdoing,ȱmen
createȱ relativelyȱ lasting,ȱ transcendentȱ objects,ȱ whileȱ theȱ womanȱ createsȱ only
perishables—humanȱbeings.ȱForȱdeȱBeauvoir,ȱthisȱexplainsȱwhyȱmaleȱactivities
involvingȱtheȱdestructionȱofȱlifeȱ(huntingȱandȱwarfare)ȱhaveȱmoreȱcharismaȱthan
theȱfemale’sȱabilityȱtoȱgiveȱbirth.ȱ
Yetȱitȱisȱnotȱtheȱkillingȱthatȱisȱtheȱrelevantȱandȱvaluedȱaspectȱofȱhuntingȱand
warfare,ȱratherȱitȱisȱtheȱtranscendentalȱ(orȱsocial,ȱcultural)ȱnatureȱofȱtheseȱactivities.
Sheȱreasons,ȱ“Forȱitȱisȱnotȱinȱgivingȱlifeȱbutȱinȱriskingȱlifeȱthatȱmanȱisȱraisedȱabove
Mary’sȱPsalter.ȱInȱaȱreviewȱofȱAlmond’ȱsȱmonograph,ȱDaughtersȱofȱArtemis,ȱRobinȱS.ȱOgginsȱargues
againstȱtheȱliteralnessȱofȱtheȱexceptionalȱillustrationsȱinȱtheseȱtwoȱmedievalȱtexts,ȱandȱsuggests
thatȱ theyȱ mightȱ beȱ satirical,ȱ asȱ Sekulesȱ argues,ȱ orȱ thatȱ theyȱ areȱ moreȱ likelyȱ allegorical
representationsȱofȱmenȱhuntingȱwomenȱorȱwomenȱhuntingȱmenȱinȱaȱloveȱhuntȱinȱTheȱMedieval
Review,ȱ10.06.40.
9
Chantilly,ȱMuséeȱdeȱCondé,ȱTrèsȱRichesȱHeures,ȱMSȱ65,ȱfol.ȱ8v.ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱthis
volumeȱbyȱAlbrechtȱClassenȱandȱLiaȱB.ȱRoss.
10
SimoneȱdeȱBeauvoir,ȱTheȱSecondȱSex,ȱtrans.ȱandȱed.ȱHowardȱM.ȱParshleyȱ(1949;ȱNewȱYork:ȱAlfred
A.ȱKnopf,ȱ1983).
theȱanimal;ȱthatȱisȱwhyȱsuperiorityȱhasȱbeenȱaccordedȱinȱhumanityȱnotȱtoȱtheȱsex
thatȱbringsȱforthȱbutȱtoȱthatȱwhichȱkills.”11ȱAnthropologistȱSherryȱOrtnerȱexpands
anȱanalysisȱofȱtheseȱassociationsȱinȱherȱessay,ȱ“IsȱFemaleȱtoȱMaleȱasȱNatureȱisȱto
Culture?”12ȱSheȱsuggestsȱthatȱmanȱasȱtamerȱofȱnatureȱrepresentsȱculture.ȱWomen,
inȱthisȱmodel,ȱareȱ notȱ onlyȱ relatedȱtoȱnatureȱviaȱtheirȱabilityȱ toȱgiveȱbirth,ȱbut
becauseȱtheyȱlactate,ȱtheyȱcontinueȱtoȱbeȱtheȱcaregiversȱandȱmoldersȱofȱchildren,
andȱthusȱtheyȱareȱconfinedȱtoȱdomesticȱroles.ȱThereforeȱitȱisȱmen’sȱrole,ȱorȱtheȱrole
ofȱculture,ȱtoȱcontrolȱandȱtoȱorganizeȱdisorderlyȱwomenȱandȱwildȱnature.
Itȱbecomesȱevidentȱthatȱsuchȱanthropologicalȱmodelsȱhaveȱrelevanceȱevenȱfor
medievalȱ andȱ Renaissanceȱ artȱ whenȱ viewingȱ worksȱ likeȱ theȱ sixteenthȬcentury
Netherlandishȱ tapestryȱ fragmentȱ entitledȱ Charitasȱ orȱ loveȱ (Fig.ȱ 6).ȱ Theȱ image
emphasizesȱtheȱfertilityȱandȱbountyȱofȱnatureȱviaȱtheȱabundantȱfruitsȱandȱflowers
inȱassociationȱwithȱtheȱfecundityȱofȱwomanȱwhoȱstandsȱinȱtheȱmidstȱofȱnature
surroundedȱbyȱherȱchildren.ȱMenȱareȱdepictedȱstrollingȱthroughȱnatureȱinȱtheȱside
imagesȱ andȱ tamingȱ natureȱ inȱ theȱ huntingȱ sceneȱ above.ȱ Thus,ȱ theȱ connections
betweenȱtheȱmaleȱpursuitȱofȱanimals,ȱasȱsignsȱofȱtheȱbountyȱofȱnature,ȱandȱthe
maleȱpursuitȱofȱwomen,ȱasȱsignsȱofȱloveȱandȱprocreation,ȱareȱmadeȱclear.ȱAndȱboth
womenȱandȱanimalsȱareȱtriumphedȱoverȱbyȱmanȱforȱhisȱbenefitȱandȱtheȱbenefitȱof
society.
ThroughoutȱtheȱmedievalȱandȱRenaissanceȱerasȱoneȱfindsȱaȱplethoraȱofȱhunting
imagesȱandȱtextsȱinȱwhichȱtheȱamorousȱstalkingȱofȱwomenȱisȱparamount.13ȱInȱthe
famousȱ Codexȱ Manesseȱ ofȱ aboutȱ 1300,ȱ aȱ beautifullyȱ andȱ lavishlyȱ illustrated
manuscriptȱcontainingȱtheȱlargestȱcollectionȱofȱMiddleȱHighȱGermanȱcourtlyȱlove
poetry,ȱaȱmanȱandȱwomanȱareȱdepictedȱinȱnature,ȱasȱrepresentedȱbyȱtheȱstylized
floralȱpatternȱ(Fig.ȱ7).14ȱTheȱyoungȱman’sȱfalconȱhasȱclearlyȱbeenȱtrainedȱandȱtamed
byȱhisȱmaster,ȱasȱisȱindicatedȱbyȱtheȱimageȱofȱtheȱbirdȱeatingȱtheȱlureȱusedȱtoȱbring
11
DeȱBeauvoir,ȱSecondȱSexȱ(seeȱnoteȱ10),ȱ64.
12
SherryȱB.ȱOrtner,ȱ“IsȱFemaleȱtoȱMaleȱasȱNatureȱIsȱtoȱCulture?”ȱFeministȱStudiesȱ1.2ȱ(1972):ȱ5–31.
13
Thereȱisȱextensiveȱliteratureȱdealingȱwithȱtheȱsymbolicȱconnectionsȱbetweenȱloveȱandȱhuntingȱin
medievalȱandȱRenaissanceȱtextsȱandȱart.ȱSee,ȱforȱexample:ȱCummins,ȱHoundȱandȱHawkȱȱ(seeȱnote
1),ȱ 70;ȱ Michaelȱ Camille,ȱ Theȱ Medievalȱ Artȱ ofȱ Loveȱ (London:ȱ Laurenceȱ King,ȱ 1998);ȱ Marcelle
Thiébaux,ȱTheȱStagȱofȱLove:ȱTheȱChaseȱinȱMedievalȱLiteratureȱ(Ithaca:ȱCornellȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1974);
Sekules,ȱ“WomenȱandȱArt”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ8),ȱ48–49;ȱAlmond,ȱHuntingȱ(seeȱnoteȱ1),ȱ37–38.
14
Heidelberg,ȱUniversityȱofȱHeidelbergȱLibrary,ȱManesseȱCodex,ȱMSȱ848,ȱfol.ȱ249v.ȱRudolfȱSillib,
FriedrichȱPanzer,ȱandȱArthurȱErichȱGeorgȱHoseloff,ȱDieȱManessischeȱLiederhandschrift:ȱFaksimilieȬ
Ausgabeȱ (Leipzig:ȱ InselȬVerlag,ȱ 1929);ȱ thisȱ manuscriptȱ isȱ nowȱ completelyȱ digitalized:
http://digi.ub.uniȬheidelberg.de/diglit/cpg848(lastȱaccessedȱonȱDec.ȱ14,ȱ2011).ȱForȱtheȱsignificance
ofȱtheȱfalconȱinȱcourtlyȱloveȱpoetry,ȱseeȱnowȱNicolaȱZotz,ȱ“AufȱdemȱWegȱzumȱQuodlibet:ȱDas
Falkenliedȱ desȱ ‘Königsteinerȱ Liederbuchs,’ȱ nebenȱ anderenȱ mittelalterlichenȱ Falkenliedern,”
“Ieglicherȱsangȱseinȱeigenȱticht”:ȱGermanistischeȱundȱmusikwissenschaftlicheȱBeiträgeȱzumȱdeutschenȱLied
imȱ Mittelalter,ȱ ed.ȱ Christophȱ Märzȱ (†),ȱ Lorenzȱ Welker,ȱ andȱ eadem.ȱ Elementaȱ Musicae,ȱ 4
(Wiesbaden:ȱReichertȱVerlag,ȱ2011),ȱ149–61.
itȱ backȱ afterȱ theȱ hunt.ȱ Moreover,ȱ theȱ leashȱ inȱ theȱ hunter’sȱ glovedȱ handȱ and
attachedȱtoȱtheȱbird’sȱlegsȱisȱaȱfurtherȱindicatorȱthatȱtheȱfalconȱisȱnowȱhisȱcaptive
servant.ȱTheȱfalconerȱhasȱalsoȱcapturedȱtheȱloveȱofȱtheȱyoungȱwomanȱoverȱwhose
lapȱheȱhasȱdrapedȱhimself.ȱLikeȱtheȱbird,ȱsheȱalsoȱsatisfiesȱtheȱdemandsȱofȱtheȱman
whoseȱsuggestiveȱpositionȱandȱamorousȱgazeȱovertlyȱindicateȱhisȱlustfulȱdesires.
Obviouslyȱ theȱ hunterȱ wasȱ aȱ signifierȱ ofȱ maleȱ powerȱ toȱ tameȱ bothȱ natureȱ and
womanȱforȱhisȱuse.ȱ
Overȱtheȱnextȱcenturies,ȱhuntingȱimageryȱfrequentlyȱtookȱonȱamorousȱallusions.
Particularlyȱ commonȱ areȱ imagesȱ ofȱ aȱ hunterȱ offeringȱ aȱ birdȱ toȱ hisȱ objectȱ of
affection,ȱasȱinȱaȱlateȱfifteenthȬcenturyȱmanuscriptȱpageȱfromȱtheȱBookȱofȱHoursȱof
EngelbertȱofȱNassauȱ(Fig.ȱ8).15ȱInȱtheȱpreviousȱillustrationsȱtheȱactualȱhuntȱhad
beenȱenacted.ȱFinally,ȱinȱthisȱsceneȱanȱeagerȱyoungȱmanȱkneelsȱwhileȱpresenting
aȱveryȱlargeȱfowlȱtoȱaȱstanding,ȱelegantlyȱdressedȱyoungȱwoman.ȱInȱaȱsouthern
Netherlandishȱtapestryȱofȱtheȱearlyȱsixteenthȱcentury,ȱanotherȱkneelingȱhunter
makesȱanȱofferingȱofȱaȱlargeȱheronȱtoȱaȱrichlyȱdressedȱwomanȱwhoȱsportsȱaȱfalcon
onȱherȱglovedȱhandȱ(Fig.ȱ9).ȱThus,ȱevenȱwhenȱtheȱwomanȱisȱinvolvedȱinȱtheȱhunt,
itȱisȱtheȱmaleȱloverȱwhoȱbringsȱinȱtheȱkill.ȱInȱNetherlandishȱandȱGermanicȱcultures
suchȱaȱgestureȱhadȱparticularlyȱeroticȱsignificanceȱasȱtheȱwordȱforȱbirdȱwasȱused
inȱverbȱformȱasȱaȱeuphemismȱforȱtheȱsexualȱact.16ȱOneȱisȱalsoȱremindedȱinȱthese
loveȬofferingȱ scenesȱ ofȱ Boccaccio’sȱ taleȱ ofȱ Federigoȱ degliȱ Alberighiȱ inȱ the
Decameronȱ(ca.ȱ1350–1353).ȱTheȱyoungȱmanȱinȱtheȱtaleȱisȱunsuccessfulȱinȱcourting
hisȱlove;ȱasȱaȱfinalȱeffort,ȱalmostȱtragically,ȱheȱoffersȱhisȱonlyȱpossession,ȱaȱfalcon,
forȱherȱtoȱeatȱwhenȱsheȱhappensȱtoȱvisitȱhimȱbecauseȱherȱson,ȱaboutȱtoȱdie,ȱwould
regainȱhisȱhealthȱonlyȱifȱheȱwereȱgrantedȱthatȱfalcon.ȱHappily,ȱthisȱenormousȱact
ofȱchivalry,ȱconsideringȱtheȱfalcon’sȱextraordinaryȱvalue,ȱcausesȱherȱtoȱreconsider,
andȱtheȱtwoȱareȱmarried.17ȱ
Anotherȱvisualȱreferenceȱtoȱhuntingȱwomenȱandȱanimalsȱisȱfoundȱinȱaȱsetȱof
Netherlandishȱtapestryȱfragmentsȱdepictingȱaȱunicornȱhuntȱofȱaboutȱ1500ȱ(Fig.ȱ10).
Accordingȱ toȱ theȱ bestiaries,ȱ theȱ unicornȱ wasȱ theȱ fiercestȱ andȱ wildestȱ ofȱ all
creatures.ȱLegendȱdictatedȱthatȱtheȱonlyȱwayȱtoȱcaptureȱthisȱbeastȱwasȱtoȱsetȱa
virginȱoutȱinȱtheȱwildsȱofȱnature.ȱTheȱunicorn,ȱsensingȱherȱpurity,ȱwouldȱcomeȱand
layȱitsȱheadȱinȱherȱlap,ȱandȱafterwardsȱtheȱhunterȱcouldȱcomeȱandȱcaptureȱhisȱprey.
Inȱthisȱsceneȱtheȱunicornȱhasȱalreadyȱbeenȱensnared,ȱasȱtheȱhoundsȱareȱnowȱtearing
15
Oxford,ȱBodleianȱLibrary,ȱHoursȱofȱEngelbertȱofȱNassau,ȱMSȱDouceȱ219–220,ȱfol.ȱ60.ȱMasterȱofȱMary
ofȱBurgundy;ȱseeȱJ.ȱJ.ȱG.ȱAlexander,ȱAȱBookȱofȱHoursȱforȱEngelbertȱofȱNassauȱtheȱBodleianȱLibrary,
Oxfordȱ(London,ȱPhaidon,ȱ1970).
16
Forȱ anȱ importantȱ discussionȱ ofȱ thisȱ sexualȱ metaphorȱ inȱ art,ȱ seeȱ Eddyȱ deȱ Jongh,ȱ “Eroticaȱ in
Vogelperspectief:ȱDeȱdubbelzinnigheidȱvanȱeenȱreeksȱ17deȱeeuwseȱGenrevoorstellingen,”ȱSimiolus
3.1ȱ(1968–1969):ȱ22–74.
17
Giovanniȱ Boccaccio,ȱ Theȱ Decameron,ȱ trans.ȱ Markȱ Musaȱ andȱ Peterȱ E.ȱ Bondanellaȱ (Newȱ York:
Norton,ȱ1983),ȱtaleȱ9ȱofȱdayȱ5.ȱIȱthankȱAlbrechtȱClassenȱforȱpointingȱoutȱthisȱimportantȱreference.
intoȱtheȱanimal’sȱflesh.ȱInȱtheȱbackground,ȱtheȱhunterȱemergesȱfromȱtheȱbushes
withȱhisȱweaponsȱandȱhornȱtoȱtakeȱhisȱprize.ȱItȱisȱobviousȱfromȱtheȱcoyȱbackward
lookȱofȱtheȱmaidenȱthatȱsheȱwillȱalsoȱsubmitȱtoȱtheȱsportȱofȱtheȱhunter.18ȱ
NumerousȱmedievalȱandȱRenaissanceȱimagesȱofȱgropingȱhuntersȱareȱfurther
indicatorsȱofȱcontemporaryȱlogicȱregardingȱman’sȱlustȱforȱtheȱhuntȱgivingȱriseȱto
hisȱlustȱforȱaȱwoman,ȱorȱforȱbeingȱaȱsubterfugeȱforȱhisȱrealȱamatoryȱgoal.ȱInȱaȱprint
byȱtheȱMasterȱE.ȱS.ȱfromȱaboutȱ1460,ȱtheȱhunterȱwithȱhisȱhawkȱaggressivelyȱmoves
inȱtoȱovertakeȱhisȱfemaleȱgameȱ(Fig.ȱ11).ȱHerȱfloralȱheaddressȱovertlyȱassociatesȱher
withȱtheȱnaturalȱsettingȱaroundȱher,ȱthusȱonceȱagainȱsignifyingȱtheȱactȱofȱman
triumphingȱoverȱnature.ȱ
Inȱ theȱ midȬsixteenthȬcenturyȱ huntingȱ tapestriesȱ ofȱ Emperorȱ Maximilianȱ I
(1459–1519)ȱthatȱwereȱcreatedȱinȱFlemishȱworkshops,ȱthereȱareȱseveralȱexamples
ofȱflirtingȱhuntersȱandȱtheirȱfemaleȱcaptives.ȱSpecifically,ȱtheȱMayȱtapestryȱdepicts
aȱruralȱsceneȱwithȱnumerousȱmenȱpursuingȱgameȱinȱtheȱbackgroundȱ(Fig.ȱ12).ȱIn
theȱ rightȱ foreground,ȱ thereȱ isȱ aȱ particularlyȱ explicitȱ exampleȱ ofȱ aȱ dismounted
hunterȱeagerlyȱabandoningȱtheȱchaseȱofȱanimalsȱforȱtheȱpleasurableȱpursuitȱofȱa
woman.
TheȱDevonshireȱtapestriesȱcraftedȱinȱtheȱNetherlandsȱduringȱtheȱyearsȱ1400ȱto
1450ȱconsistentlyȱreassertȱtheȱtraditionalȱgenderedȱlogicȱofȱtheȱhunt.ȱWhileȱmenȱare
displayedȱrigorouslyȱpursuing,ȱspearing,ȱandȱhaulingȱtheirȱpreyȱinȱtheȱstagȱand
bearȱhuntȱtapestries,ȱwomenȱstandȱandȱrideȱinȱdecorousȱandȱgracefulȱpostures
eschewingȱtheȱactualȱviolenceȱofȱtheȱsport.ȱInȱaȱdetailȱfromȱtheȱstagȱhunt,ȱitȱisȱclear
thatȱtheȱdelicateȱsensibilitiesȱofȱtheȱgrimacingȱandȱcringingȱwomanȱatȱtheȱleftȱare
notȱupȱtoȱtheȱmanlyȱtaskȱofȱslittingȱtheȱdeerȱthatȱsheȱobservesȱbeforeȱherȱ(Fig.ȱ13).
Notȱonlyȱdoȱtheȱmenȱeagerlyȱdigȱintoȱthisȱrigorousȱtask,ȱtheyȱalsoȱheartilyȱlaunch
intoȱtheȱavailableȱsexualȱsport,ȱasȱevidencedȱinȱtheȱfondlingȱhunterȱtoȱtheȱright.
Significantly,ȱ thisȱ energeticȱ displayȱ takesȱ placeȱ inȱ theȱ wildȱ ruralȱ environment,
whichȱprovidesȱanȱappropriateȱmetaphorȱforȱtheȱmen’sȱpassionateȱbehavior.ȱIn
nature,ȱmenȱareȱnotȱrestrictedȱbyȱtheȱsocialȱconstraintsȱofȱtheȱcourtȱorȱtheȱtown.
Unquestionably,ȱmedievalȱandȱRenaissanceȱdepictionsȱofȱtheȱhuntȱcontainedȱa
standardizedȱlogicȱofȱmaleȱandȱfemaleȱrolesȱinȱassociationȱwithȱnature.ȱWomen
andȱanimals,ȱasȱparallelȱaspectsȱofȱnatureȱthatȱneededȱconquering,ȱwereȱavailable
toȱtheȱpursuitȱandȱcarnalȱappetitesȱofȱintrepidȱmaleȱsportsmen.
18
AtȱtimesȱtheȱunicornȱcouldȱbeȱusedȱasȱaȱsymbolȱforȱChrist,ȱbutȱinȱthisȱratherȱseductiveȱimage,ȱthe
unicornȱcertainlyȱdoesȱnotȱseemȱtoȱcarryȱreligiousȱconnotations.ȱForȱaȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱerotic
connotationsȱ ofȱ theȱ unicorn,ȱ seeȱ Marthaȱ Moffittȱ Peacock,ȱ “Hieronymusȱ Bosch’sȱ Venetianȱ St.
Jerome,”ȱKonsthistoriskȱTidskriftȱ64.2ȱ(1995):ȱ71Ȭ85.
EarlyȱModernȱViewsȱofȱtheȱHuntȱandȱRuralȱSpace
Noneȱ ofȱ thisȱ typicalȱ huntingȱ imageryȱ ofȱ theȱ medievalȱ andȱ Renaissanceȱ eras
preparesȱ usȱ forȱ theȱ dramaticȱ changesȱ thatȱ occurȱ inȱ someȱ seventeenthȬcentury
Dutchȱ paintingsȱ ofȱ womenȱ atȱ theȱ hunt.ȱ Inȱ aȱ paintingȱ byȱ Philipsȱ Wouwerman
(1619–1668),ȱforȱexample,ȱaȱwomanȱwhoȱisȱnowȱsinglyȱmountedȱfillsȱtheȱcentral
andȱmostȱelevatedȱportionȱofȱtheȱpaintingȱ(Fig.ȱ14).ȱSheȱpreparesȱtoȱsoundȱthe
hunter’sȱ hornȱ asȱ theȱ houndsȱ eagerlyȱ awaitȱ herȱ signalȱ below.ȱ Inȱ theȱ right
foreground,ȱwomenȱexamineȱtheȱkillȱlaidȱoutȱonȱtheȱground.ȱAnotherȱWouwerman
paintingȱportraysȱanȱevenȱmoreȱ surprisinglyȱmodernȱviewȱofȱhuntresses,ȱwho
vigorouslyȱrideȱtheirȱfullȬgallopingȱmountsȱaloneȱ(Fig.ȱ15).ȱTheyȱactuallyȱwieldȱthe
snaresȱusedȱtoȱentrapȱtheȱfleeingȱanimals,ȱandȱtheyȱareȱsurroundedȱbyȱtheȱfrenzy
ofȱ theȱ dashingȱ hounds.ȱ Theyȱ areȱ fullȱ participantsȱ inȱ theȱ action,ȱ rigor,ȱ and
excitementȱofȱtheȱchaseȱinȱtheȱwildsȱofȱnature.
AbrahamȱHondiusȱparticularlyȱtookȱdelightȱinȱtheseȱvigorousȱviewsȱofȱwomen
atȱtheȱhunt.ȱInȱoneȱpainting,ȱtheȱwomanȱisȱclearlyȱequalȱtoȱtheȱmenȱinȱtermsȱofȱher
athleticȱ skillȱ inȱ ensnaringȱ theȱ birdsȱ andȱ gallopingȱ withȱ theȱ houndsȱ (Fig.ȱ 16).
Indeed,ȱitȱisȱherȱhuntingȱprowessȱthatȱtakesȱcenterȱstageȱinȱtheȱpainting.ȱEvenȱmore
surprisingȱareȱHondius’sȱimagesȱofȱhuntressesȱinȱpursuitȱofȱlargerȱgameȱlikeȱstags
andȱ boars.ȱ Inȱ oneȱ suchȱ scene,ȱ theȱ womanȱ evenȱ wieldsȱ aȱ manlyȱ spearȱ while
chargingȱsinglyȬmountedȱandȱwithȱfullȱforceȱ(Fig.ȱ17).ȱTheȱwoman’sȱathleticȱability
onceȱ againȱ becomesȱ theȱ centralȱ focus;ȱ sheȱ isȱ equalȱ toȱ herȱ maleȱ companionȱ in
braveryȱandȱskill.ȱHerȱfearlessnessȱisȱemphasizedȱbyȱtheȱdangerousȱboarȱthatȱshe
aggressivelyȱ attacks.ȱ Herȱ expressionȱ isȱ oneȱ ofȱ calmȱ andȱ victoriousȱ assurance,
knowingȱ thatȱ sheȱ willȱ triumphȱ overȱ herȱ wildȱ andȱ ferociousȱ prey.ȱ Inȱ another
Hondiusȱpainting,ȱtheȱhuntressȱandȱhunterȱpoiseȱtheirȱmenacingȱspearsȱinȱtandem
asȱcompleteȱequalsȱ(Fig.ȱ18).ȱNeitherȱofȱthemȱevidencesȱanyȱfearȱinȱtheirȱforceful
attackȱandȱtheyȱbothȱfiercelyȱdisplayȱtheirȱkeenȱsportingȱabilities.ȱ
Theȱ extremelyȱ elegantȱ dressȱ ofȱ theȱ womenȱ inȱ theseȱ scenesȱ isȱ aȱ continuing
referenceȱtoȱtheȱfactȱthatȱhuntingȱwasȱstillȱviewedȱasȱaȱsportȱforȱtheȱcourtȱandȱthe
aristocracyȱ duringȱ thisȱ period.ȱ Inȱ studyingȱ theȱ ceremonyȱ ofȱ theȱ huntȱ inȱ the
Baroqueȱ era,ȱ Timothyȱ Blanningȱ hasȱ concludedȱ thatȱ itȱ wasȱ anȱ eventȱ meantȱ to
displayȱtheȱpowerȱandȱtoȱemphasizeȱtheȱdominionȱofȱtheȱupperȱclasses.19ȱMartin
Knollȱhasȱexpandedȱthisȱthesisȱtoȱsuggestȱthatȱtheȱhuntȱwasȱalsoȱaȱdemonstration
ofȱdominatingȱtheȱphysicalȱspaceȱofȱtheȱhunt.ȱTherefore,ȱtheȱaristocracyȱwasȱable
toȱequateȱtheȱdomesticationȱorȱtamingȱofȱnatureȱwithȱgeneralȱclaimsȱtoȱauthority
overȱ others.20ȱ Evenȱ inȱ theȱ predominantlyȱ middleȬclassȱ cultureȱ ofȱ theȱ Dutch
19
Timothyȱ C.ȱ W.ȱ Blanning,ȱ Theȱ Cultureȱ ofȱ Powerȱ andȱ theȱ Powerȱ ofȱ Culture.ȱ Oldȱ Regimeȱ Europe
1660–1789ȱ(OxfordȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2002).
20
Martinȱ Knoll,ȱ “Huntingȱ inȱ theȱ Eighteenthȱ Century:ȱ Anȱ Environmentalȱ Historyȱ Perspective,”
Republic,ȱasȱScottȱA.ȱSullivanȱhasȱsuggested,ȱtheȱhuntingȱimageryȱofȱthisȱsociety
wasȱ stillȱ primarilyȱ associatedȱ withȱ theȱ courtȱ andȱ nobility.21ȱ Indeed,ȱ theȱ few
seventeenthȬcenturyȱDutchȱtextsȱonȱhuntingȱmakeȱitȱclearȱthatȱtheȱactivityȱwas
carefullyȱ restrictedȱ andȱ limitedȱ toȱ thisȱ socialȱ elite.22ȱ Theȱ middleȱ classesȱ could
attemptȱanȱelevationȱofȱtheirȱownȱstatus,ȱhowever,ȱbyȱassociatingȱthemselvesȱwith
theȱhunt,ȱasȱinȱRembrandt’sȱSelfȬPortraitȱwithȱaȱDeadȱBitternȱ(1639).ȱSullivanȱasserts
thatȱtheȱpopularityȱofȱfashionableȱDutchȱhuntingȱscenesȱbeginningȱmidȬcentury
suggestsȱaȱbroadȱbourgeoisȱmarketȱofȱindividualsȱwantingȱtoȱassociateȱthemselves
withȱ aȱ higherȱ stratumȱ ofȱ society.ȱ Iȱ wouldȱ suggest,ȱ moreȱ specifically,ȱ thatȱ the
insertionȱ ofȱ AmazonȬlikeȱ huntressesȱ intoȱ theseȱ scenesȱ wasȱ aȱ meansȱ byȱ which
womenȱ ofȱ theȱ middleȱ classesȱ couldȱ relateȱ toȱ theȱ aggressiveȱ femalesȱ asȱ a
significationȱofȱaȱnewȱtypeȱofȱfemaleȱpowerȱandȱauthority.ȱ
Hendrickȱ Verschuringȱ (1627–1690),ȱ anotherȱ midȬseventeenthȬcenturyȱ Dutch
artist,ȱdisplayedȱthisȱnewȱfemaleȱpowerȱwithinȱtheȱhuntingȱimageȱinȱmoreȱways
thanȱ one.ȱ Likeȱ Hondiusȱ andȱ others,ȱ heȱ depictedȱ fashionablyȬdressedȱ women
vigorouslyȱtakingȱpartȱinȱtheȱruralȱhuntingȱscene.ȱInȱoneȱsuchȱimage,ȱtheȱwoman
isȱagainȱcentrallyȱplacedȱridingȱthroughȱtheȱcountrysideȱamidstȱanȱactiveȱpartyȱof
huntersȱandȱhoundsȱ(Fig.ȱ19).ȱButȱperhapsȱevenȱmoreȱdaringȱisȱanotherȱpainting
byȱVerschuringȱofȱaȱhuntressȱrestingȱwithȱaȱhoundȱ(Fig.ȱ20).ȱHereȱoneȱwitnesses
aȱshockingȱsubversionȱofȱtraditionalȱgenderȱboundariesȱinȱtheȱwoman’sȱattire.ȱShe
hasȱ abandonedȱ theȱ impractical,ȱ decorative,ȱ andȱ feminineȱ dressesȱ ofȱ previous
huntressesȱandȱhasȱdonnedȱtheȱtrousersȱandȱbootsȱofȱherȱmaleȱcompanions.ȱThis,
moreȱ thanȱ anyȱ otherȱ signifierȱ inȱ theseȱ paintings,ȱ wouldȱ haveȱ indicatedȱ the
woman’sȱ usurpationȱ ofȱ traditionalȱ maleȱ privilegesȱ andȱ power.ȱ Asȱ willȱ be
discussed,ȱtrousersȱwereȱaȱstrictlyȱmaleȱformȱofȱattireȱandȱaȱwomanȱwearingȱthem
wasȱviewedȱasȱaȱsevereȱsocialȱtaboo.ȱItȱwasȱaȱclearȱindicationȱthatȱtheȱwomanȱhad
inappropriatelyȱviolatedȱtraditionalȱgenderȱboundaries.23
Inȱregardsȱtoȱthisȱnewȱimageȱofȱtheȱhuntressȱinȱtrousers,ȱitȱisȱsignificantȱtoȱnote
thatȱVerschuringȱspentȱseveralȱyearsȱworkingȱinȱItaly.ȱHeȱjoinedȱaȱgroupȱofȱother
HistoricalȱSocialȱResearchȱ29.3ȱ(2004):ȱ9–36.ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱcontributionsȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱMarilynȱL.ȱ
Sandidge,ȱAbigailȱP.ȱDowling,ȱandȱLiaȱB.ȱRoss.
21
Scottȱ A.ȱ Sullivan,ȱ “Rembrandt’sȱ SelfȬPortraitȱ withȱ aȱ Deadȱ Bittern,”ȱ Theȱ Artȱ Bulletinȱ 62.2ȱ (1980):
236–43.
22
PaullusȱG.ȱF.ȱP.ȱN.ȱMerula,ȱPlacatenȱendeȱordonnancienȱopȱ‘tstuckȱvandeȱWildernissenȱ(TheȱHague,
1605).ȱHetȱJachtsȬBedrijff,ȱfromȱtheȱMSȱofȱ1636ȱinȱtheȱKoninklijkeȱBibliotheek,ȱTheȱHague,ȱpublished
inȱNederlanscheȱJager,ȱ1898–1900,ȱnos.ȱ169–238.ȱ
23
LawsȱagainstȱcrossȬdressingȱareȱdiscussedȱinȱRudolfȱM.ȱDekkerȱandȱLotteȱC.ȱvanȱdeȱPol,ȱThe
Traditionȱofȱ FemaleȱTransvestismȱinȱEarlyȱModernȱEuropeȱ(Houndmills,ȱBasingstoke:ȱMacmillan,
1989).ȱ Forȱ medievalȱ conditions,ȱ seeȱ Valerieȱ R.ȱ Hotchkiss,ȱ Clothesȱ Makeȱ theȱ Man:ȱ Femaleȱ Cross
Dressingȱ inȱ Medievalȱ Europe.ȱ Garlandȱ Referenceȱ Libraryȱ ofȱ theȱ Humanities,ȱ 1991ȱ (Newȱ York:
Garland,ȱ1996).
NetherlandishȱpaintersȱinȱRomeȱknownȱasȱtheȱBamboccianti.24ȱTheȱartistsȱofȱthis
groupȱparticularlyȱusedȱtheȱwarmȱandȱexoticȱItalianȱlandscapeȱasȱtheȱsettingȱfor
contemporaryȱlowȬlifeȱfiguresȱinȱaȱcontinuationȱofȱtraditionalȱNetherlandishȱtopoi.
TheȱhuntingȱsceneȱwasȱoneȱofȱtheȱNetherlandishȱartisticȱtraditionsȱthatȱtheyȱnow
situatedȱ inȱ theseȱ arcadianȱ landscapes.ȱ Perhapsȱ itȱ seemedȱ appropriateȱ toȱ these
artistsȱthatȱtheȱfancifulȱnatureȱofȱaȱwomanȱinȱtrousersȱshouldȱbeȱsituatedȱinȱthis
fantasticalȱ setting.ȱ Indeed,ȱ severalȱ artistsȱ withinȱ thisȱ groupȱ paintedȱ imagesȱ of
huntressesȱinȱtrousers.ȱJohannesȱLingelbachȱ(1622–1674),ȱforȱexample,ȱwasȱanother
memberȱ ofȱ thisȱ groupȱ whoȱ depictedȱ womenȱ bothȱ atȱ theȱ huntȱ ridingȱ singly
mountedȱandȱsportingȱhawksȱorȱrestingȱfromȱtheȱhuntȱinȱmen’sȱtrousers.ȱPieter
vanȱLaerȱ(1599–ca.ȱ1642)ȱandȱWillemȱReuterȱ(ca.ȱ1642–1681),ȱotherȱNetherlandish
artistsȱworkingȱinȱRome,ȱalsoȱdepictedȱhuntressesȱinȱtrousers.ȱInȱoneȱofȱReuter’s
paintingsȱinȱtheȱCastelloȱSforzesco,ȱtheȱhuntȱhasȱalreadyȱtakenȱplaceȱinȱtheȱscene,
asȱisȱindicatedȱbyȱtheȱdeadȱgameȱsituatedȱnearȱtheȱhoundsȱatȱtheȱrightȱsideȱofȱthe
painting.ȱTheȱcentralȱfocusȱinȱtheȱpaintingȱisȱtheȱstandingȱhuntressȱinȱtrousers.ȱShe
isȱalsoȱtheȱmostȱemphasizedȱfigureȱinȱthatȱsheȱactivelyȱcommunicatesȱwithȱthe
townsfolk.
Theȱartistȱwhoȱseemsȱtoȱhaveȱmostȱoftenȱusedȱtheȱthemeȱofȱtheȱmanlyȱhuntress,
wasȱJanȱMielȱ(1599–1663).ȱThisȱartistȱfromȱtheȱSouthernȱNetherlandsȱalsoȱworked
inȱItalyȱwithȱtheȱBamboccianti.ȱHisȱratherȱuniqueȱportraitȱofȱtheȱprincessȱofȱSavoy,
HenrietteȱAdelaideȱ(1636–1676),ȱwithȱherȱhusband,ȱFerdinand,ȱElectorȱofȱBavaria
(1636–1679),ȱdisplaysȱtheȱcoupleȱatȱtheȱhunt.ȱHenrietteȱisȱshownȱsinglyȱmounted
atȱ aȱ fullȱ gallopȱ withȱ spearȱ inȱ handȱ similarȱ toȱ Hondius’sȱ huntingȱ scenes.ȱ The
houndsȱeagerlyȱprecedeȱtheȱcouple,ȱasȱservantsȱactivelyȱparticipateȱonȱfoot.ȱThe
princess’sȱ billowingȱ andȱ brightlyȱ litȱ costumeȱ andȱ herȱ gazeȱ towardȱ theȱ viewer
boldlyȱmarkȱherȱasȱtheȱdramaticȱcentralȱfocusȱofȱtheȱpainting.ȱ
Miel’sȱnumerousȱpaintingsȱofȱtrousersȬwearingȱhuntresses,ȱhowever,ȱareȱeven
moreȱrevolutionaryȱinȱtheirȱcrossingȱofȱgenderȱboundaries.ȱHeȱpaintedȱseveral
scenesȱofȱcrossȬdressedȱhuntressesȱrestingȱfromȱtheȱhunt.ȱTheseȱmanlyȱwomenȱare
almostȱalwaysȱtheȱfocalȱpointȱofȱtheȱpainting.ȱInȱoneȱsuchȱpainting,ȱtheȱdismounted
huntressȱ feedsȱ herȱ houndsȱ whileȱ takingȱ refreshmentȱ fromȱ aȱ servantȱ inȱ the
backgroundȱ (Fig.ȱ 21).ȱ Herȱ central,ȱ verticalȱ positionȱ andȱ highlightedȱ figure
emphasizeȱherȱmanlyȱsignificance,ȱandȱherȱstridingȱlegsȱclearlyȱdrawȱattentionȱto
theȱ factȱ thatȱ sheȱ isȱ wearingȱ trousers.ȱ Herȱ maleȱ companionsȱ areȱ greatlyȱ deȬ
emphasized:ȱoneȱisȱseatedȱinȱtheȱshadowȱonȱtheȱgroundȱwithȱtheȱanimals,ȱwhile
theȱ otherȱ isȱ situatedȱ inȱ theȱ backgroundȱ andȱ viewedȱ mostlyȱ fromȱ behind.
24
MarijkeȱdeȱKinkelderȱappearsȱtoȱhaveȱbeenȱtheȱfirstȱscholarȱtoȱnoteȱthisȱphenomenonȱofȱhuntresses
inȱtrousersȱinȱ“Vrouwenȱinȱmannenkleren:ȱverslagȱvanȱeenȱonderzoekȱnaarȱeenȱongebruikelijk
verschijnselȱinȱRomeȱinȱhetȱtweedeȱenȱderdeȱkwartȱvanȱdeȱzeventiendeȱeeuw,”ȱRKDȱBulletin,
specialȱissueȱ(2007):ȱ21–25.
Obviously,ȱtheȱgenderȬcrossingȱhuntressȱisȱtheȱprimaryȱsubjectȱofȱtheseȱunusual
paintings.
SuchȱaȱfocusȱisȱmadeȱplainlyȱevidentȱinȱanotherȱMielȱpaintingȱinȱwhichȱthereȱare
onlyȱ twoȱ figuresȱ depictedȱ (Fig.ȱ 22).ȱ Oneȱ isȱ aȱ centrallyȬplacedȱ andȱ highlighted
womanȱwhoȱstandsȱinȱaȱmanlyȱhandȬonȬhipȱposeȱwithȱherȱotherȱarmȱslungȱover
theȱneckȱofȱherȱhorse.ȱTheȱmasculinityȱofȱherȱcrossȬleggedȱposeȱexaggeratesȱthe
surprisingȱcrossȬdressingȱofȱthisȱhuntressȱinȱtrousersȱandȱboots.ȱSheȱstandsȱinȱa
dominantȱpositionȱoverȱherȱsubservientȱmaleȱcompanion,ȱwhoȱisȱeatingȱonȱthe
groundȱamidstȱtheȱhounds.ȱLikeȱtheȱvigorousȱsportswomenȱdepictedȱinȱHondius’s
paintings,ȱMiels’sȱwomenȱtransgressȱfemaleȱboundariesȱinȱaȱreversalȱofȱtraditional
genderedȱauthorityȱthatȱsuggestsȱaȱmarkedȱchangeȱinȱculturalȱattitudesȱregarding
women,ȱtheȱhunt,ȱandȱruralȱspace.
DefiningȱtheȱModernȱWoman
Surely,ȱtheȱpressingȱquestionsȱthatȱoccurȱuponȱviewingȱtheseȱseventeenthȬcentury
imagesȱofȱwomenȱatȱtheȱhuntȱare:ȱWhatȱsocioȬculturalȱchangesȱtookȱplaceȱduring
theseȱyearsȱthatȱallowedȱforȱsuchȱaȱredefiningȱofȱwomenȱinȱassociationȱwithȱthe
huntȱ andȱ theȱ ruralȱ environment?ȱ Whatȱ allowedȱ aȱ visionȱ ofȱ womanȱ asȱ manly
conquerorȱofȱnatureȱandȱcreatorȱofȱcultureȱratherȱthanȱasȱsubjectedȱsexualȱprey?
Anȱanalysisȱofȱchangingȱfemaleȱrolesȱduringȱtheseȱyearsȱisȱenlighteningȱinȱthis
regard.ȱToȱbeginȱwith,ȱaȱnumberȱofȱfamousȱwomenȱrulersȱandȱheroinesȱinȱthe
Netherlandsȱ influencedȱ theȱ culturalȱ imaginaryȱ towardȱ aȱ greaterȱ acceptanceȱ of
femaleȱpowerȱinȱtraditionallyȱmaleȱroles.ȱIndeed,ȱaȱnumberȱofȱrulersȱandȱregents
overȱ thisȱ area,ȱ beginningȱ inȱ theȱ fifteenthȱ centuryȱ andȱ continuingȱ onȱ intoȱ the
sixteenthȱ centuryȱ wereȱ female.ȱ Thisȱ traditionȱ ofȱ powerfulȱ andȱ manlyȱ females
becameȱbothȱmoreȱpronouncedȱandȱmoreȱcommonȱthroughȱtheȱlateȱsixteenthȱand
earlyȱseventeenthȱcenturiesȱduringȱtheȱyearsȱofȱtheȱDutchȱRevolt.
OneȱofȱtheȱearlierȱexamplesȱofȱaȱpowerfulȱfemaleȱrulerȱinȱtheȱNetherlandsȱwas
JacobaȱvanȱBeierenȱ(1401–1436),ȱlastȱcountessȱofȱHainaut,ȱHolland,ȱandȱZeeland.
Asȱ theȱ onlyȱ childȱ ofȱ Williamȱ II,ȱ Dukeȱ ofȱ Bavaria,ȱ andȱ Margaretȱ ofȱ Burgundy,
JacobaȱinheritedȱtheȱpositionȱofȱsovereignȱofȱHollandȱandȱHainautȱatȱherȱfather’s
deathȱinȱ1417.ȱTheȱlegendȱofȱthisȱfamousȱheroineȱwhoȱwasȱanȱexpertȱhuntressȱand
horsewomanȱwasȱkeptȱaliveȱthroughȱimagesȱandȱtextsȱintoȱmodernȱtimes.ȱMale
relativesȱ triedȱ toȱ overtakeȱ herȱ landsȱ throughoutȱ herȱ life,ȱ andȱ sheȱ attainedȱ the
reputationȱofȱaȱtenaciousȱandȱfierceȱmilitaryȱleaderȱasȱsheȱsuccessfullyȱstavedȱoff
herȱenemiesȱforȱaȱtime.ȱOneȱofȱtheȱmoreȱtellingȱepisodesȱregardingȱherȱcourageous
andȱmanlyȱcharacterȱwasȱherȱescapeȱfromȱGhentȱwhereȱPhilipȱtheȱGood,ȱDukeȱof
Burgundyȱwasȱplottingȱtoȱsendȱherȱawayȱtoȱaȱplaceȱofȱpermanentȱimprisonment.
Sheȱescapedȱbyȱdressingȱinȱmen’sȱclothing;ȱoutsideȱtheȱcityȱgatesȱsheȱmetȱtwoȱof
herȱknightsȱwhoȱhelpedȱherȱfleeȱonȱhorseback.ȱDespiteȱherȱrelentlessȱstruggle,ȱshe
wasȱgraduallyȱforcedȱtoȱyieldȱherȱlandsȱandȱtitlesȱtoȱtheȱDukeȱofȱBurgundy.25
Atȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱfifteenthȱcentury,ȱMargaretȱofȱYorkȱmarriedȱCharlesȱtheȱBold,
sonȱofȱPhilipȱtheȱGood,ȱandȱsheȱbecameȱaȱveryȱactiveȱparticipantȱinȱtheȱgoverning
ofȱ herȱ husband’sȱ territories.ȱ Whenȱ Charlesȱ diedȱ inȱ 1477,ȱ theȱ politicallyȱ astute
Margaretȱ workedȱ quicklyȱ toȱ secureȱ theȱ Burgundianȱ territoriesȱ forȱ herȱ stepȬ
daughterȱ Mary.ȱ Sheȱ helpedȱ toȱ arrangeȱ aȱ marriageȱ betweenȱ Maryȱ andȱ the
Archdukeȱ Maximilianȱ ofȱ Austria.ȱ Theȱ coupleȱ thenȱ coȬruledȱ theȱ Burgundian
territoriesȱuntilȱMary’sȱdeathȱinȱ1482.ȱMaryȱwasȱaȱgreatȱrider,ȱandȱsheȱdiedȱwhen
herȱhorseȱtrippedȱwhileȱsheȱwasȱhuntingȱwithȱherȱhusband.ȱSheȱwasȱpregnantȱwith
aȱthirdȱchildȱatȱtheȱtime.ȱTheȱguardianshipȱofȱtheȱtwoȱsurvivingȱchildren,ȱPhilip
andȱMargaret,ȱwasȱcontested,ȱbutȱeventuallyȱMargaretȱregainedȱcontrolȱoverȱher
stepȬgrandson,ȱ andȱ sheȱ setȱ upȱ courtȱ inȱ Mechelen,ȱ whichȱ becameȱ theȱ ducal
headquartersȱuntilȱPhilipȱcameȱofȱage.ȱEventually,ȱinȱ1493,ȱsheȱwouldȱalsoȱregain
guardianshipȱofȱherȱstepȬgranddaughter,ȱMargaretȱofȱAustria.ȱDuringȱthisȱperiod
MargaretȱofȱYorkȱactedȱasȱcloseȱconfidantȱandȱaideȱtoȱMaximilianȱinȱhisȱsuccessful
attemptsȱtoȱregainȱcontrolȱofȱtheȱrebelliousȱFlemishȱstates.ȱ
AlthoughȱPhilip,ȱknownȱasȱtheȱHandsome,ȱbecameȱsovereignȱofȱtheȱNetherlands
inȱ1494,ȱhisȱreignȱquicklyȱcameȱtoȱanȱendȱwithȱhisȱsuddenȱdeathȱinȱ1506.ȱTherefore,
Maximilianȱhadȱtoȱturnȱtoȱhisȱdaughter,ȱMargaretȱofȱAustria,ȱasȱaȱsubstituteȱruler
forȱtheȱBurgundianȱterritories.ȱInȱ1507ȱsheȱwasȱmadeȱgovernorȱofȱtheȱHabsburg
NetherlandsȱafterȱtwoȱratherȱshortȬlivedȱmarriages.ȱSheȱservedȱasȱintermediary
betweenȱtheȱimperialȱsubjectsȱofȱtheȱNetherlandsȱandȱtwoȱemperors—herȱfather
andȱherȱnephewȱCharlesȱV—forȱoverȱtwentyȱyears.ȱDuringȱherȱreignȱasȱregent,ȱshe
provedȱherselfȱtoȱbeȱoneȱofȱtheȱmostȱaccomplishedȱrulersȱofȱtheȱsixteenthȱcentury.
Theȱ roleȱ ofȱ regentȱ wasȱ aȱ powerfulȱ positionȱ inȱ theȱ Netherlands.ȱ Itȱ meantȱ that
Margaretȱhadȱtheȱauthorityȱtoȱnegotiateȱtreatiesȱandȱtradeȱrelations;ȱsheȱalsoȱhad
theȱfreedomȱtoȱactȱinȱinternationalȱaffairs.ȱThus,ȱMargaretȱsuccessfullyȱengineered
aȱvarietyȱofȱtreatiesȱandȱalliancesȱforȱtheȱpeaceȱandȱeconomicȱwellȬbeingȱofȱher
subjects.ȱOneȱcontemporaryȱstatedȱthatȱsheȱhadȱaȱman’sȱtalentȱforȱbusinessȱand
thatȱ sheȱ wasȱ evenȱ moreȱ capableȱ thanȱ mostȱ men.26ȱ Margaretȱ alsoȱ hadȱ the
guardianshipȱofȱherȱdeadȱbrother’sȱfourȱchildren.ȱWhenȱherȱnephewȱCharlesȱcame
ofȱageȱinȱ1515,ȱMargaret’sȱdetractorsȱpersuadedȱhimȱtoȱremoveȱherȱfromȱoffice,ȱbut
afterȱaȱshortȱtime,ȱheȱreinstatedȱherȱasȱregentȱinȱwhichȱpositionȱsheȱremainedȱuntil
herȱdeathȱinȱ1530.ȱOneȱofȱMargaret’sȱmostȱsignificantȱcontributionsȱduringȱher
25
ForȱaȱveryȱthoroughȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱlifeȱofȱJacobaȱvanȱBeieren,ȱseeȱAntheunȱJanse,ȱEenȱPionȱVoor
EenȱDame:ȱJacobaȱvanȱBeieren,ȱ1401–1436.ȱSleutelfigurenȬreeks,ȱ1ȱ(Amsterdam:ȱBalans,ȱ2009).ȱ
26
SharonȱLȱJansen,ȱTheȱMonstrousȱRegimentȱofȱWomen:ȱFemaleȱRulersȱinȱEarlyȱModernȱEuropeȱ(New
York:ȱ Palgraveȱ Macmillan,ȱ 2002),ȱ 90.ȱ Seeȱ alsoȱ Davidȱ Wallache,ȱ Strongȱ Women:ȱ Life,ȱ Text,ȱ and
Territoryȱ1347–1645ȱ(OxfordȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2011).
longȱreignȱwasȱherȱroleȱinȱnegotiatingȱtheȱLadies’ȱPeaceȱofȱ1529ȱbetweenȱCharles
andȱFrancisȱI.ȱThisȱimportantȱtreatyȱbroughtȱanȱendȱtoȱtheȱmanyȱyearsȱofȱstruggle
betweenȱFranceȱandȱtheȱempire.ȱMargaretȱwasȱalsoȱaȱgreatȱpatronessȱofȱtheȱarts
andȱwasȱherselfȱbothȱaȱmusicianȱandȱpoetess.27ȱ
AfterȱMargaret’sȱdeath,ȱCharlesȱappointedȱhisȱsister,ȱMaryȱofȱHungaryȱ(orȱMary
ofȱAustria),ȱasȱgovernorȱofȱtheȱNetherlands.ȱPreviously,ȱMaryȱhadȱshownȱherself
toȱbeȱanȱinfluentialȱandȱastuteȱsovereignȱinȱherȱmarriageȱtoȱtheȱweakȱking,ȱLouis
ofȱ Hungaryȱ andȱ Bohemia.ȱ Indeed,ȱ herȱ politicalȱ negotiationsȱ causedȱ one
contemporaryȱ toȱ write,ȱ “Ifȱ sheȱ couldȱ onlyȱ beȱ changedȱ intoȱ aȱ king,ȱ ourȱ affairs
wouldȱbeȱinȱbetterȱshape.”28ȱAfterȱtheȱdeathȱofȱherȱhusband,ȱandȱduringȱherȱreign
asȱ regent,ȱ Maryȱ negotiatedȱ herȱ wayȱ throughȱ aȱ numberȱ ofȱ difficultȱ situations
includingȱconstantȱdisputesȱbetweenȱCharlesȱandȱhisȱenemies.ȱLikeȱherȱaunt,ȱshe
wasȱanȱintelligentȱpolitician,ȱandȱsheȱwasȱevenȱmoreȱdeterminedȱinȱherȱopinions.
Inȱspiteȱofȱtheȱfactȱthatȱsheȱfoundȱrulingȱasȱaȱwomanȱdifficultȱandȱcomplained
whenȱCharlesȱoverruledȱherȱchoices,ȱsheȱdemonstratedȱgreatȱskillȱduringȱherȱreign
fromȱ 1531ȱ toȱ 1555.ȱ Sheȱ successfullyȱ suppressedȱ urbanȱ rebellionsȱ andȱ other
aggressionsȱ towardȱ theȱ Habsburgs.ȱ Maryȱ wasȱ alsoȱ aȱ patronȱ ofȱ musicȱ andȱ an
enthusiasticȱ collectorȱ ofȱ importantȱ Netherlandishȱ worksȱ ofȱ art.ȱ Andȱ likeȱ her
grandmother,ȱsheȱwasȱaȱgreatȱenthusiastȱofȱhunting.ȱOnlyȱafterȱseveralȱpleasȱtoȱher
brother,ȱdidȱCharlesȱVȱallowȱhisȱsisterȱtoȱretireȱfinallyȱfromȱtheȱregencyȱwhenȱhe
alsoȱretiredȱfromȱpower,ȱyetȱheȱcontinuedȱtoȱtryȱandȱpersuadeȱherȱtoȱresumeȱthe
officeȱuntilȱbothȱtheirȱdeathsȱinȱ1558.
PhilipȱIIȱbecameȱsovereignȱofȱtheȱNetherlandsȱafterȱtheȱretirementȱofȱhisȱfather
CharlesȱV,ȱandȱinȱ1559,ȱheȱappointedȱMargaretȱofȱParma,ȱCharles’sȱillegitimate
daughter,ȱ asȱ regent.ȱ Thereȱ wasȱ someȱ localȱ supportȱ forȱ Margaret,ȱ whoȱ was
consideredȱ aȱ Netherlandishȱ native,ȱ andȱ thusȱ sheȱ wasȱ ableȱ toȱ negotiateȱ more
effectivelyȱwithȱherȱsubjects.ȱLikeȱherȱfemaleȱpredecessors,ȱsheȱwasȱconsidered
manlyȱ byȱ herȱ contemporaries.ȱ Evenȱ herȱ appearanceȱ andȱ gaitȱ wereȱ considered
masculine.ȱHerȱregencyȱcoincidedȱwithȱsomeȱofȱtheȱmostȱdramaticȱpoliticalȱand
religiousȱstrifeȱofȱtheȱsixteenthȱcentury.ȱTheȱexpandingȱprosperityȱofȱtheȱmiddle
classȱandȱtheȱspreadȱofȱProtestantȱideasȱinȱcitiesȱlikeȱAntwerpȱwouldȱeventually
27
SignificantȱsourcesȱonȱtheȱlivesȱofȱsixteenthȬcenturyȱfemaleȱrulersȱofȱtheȱNetherlandsȱinclude:
Jansen,ȱMonstrousȱRegimentȱ(seeȱnoteȱ26);ȱHelmutȱGeorgȱKoenigsberger,ȱMonarchies,ȱStatesȱGenerals
andȱParliaments:ȱtheȱNetherlandsȱinȱtheȱFifteenthȱandȱSixteenthȱCenturiesȱ(Cambridge:ȱCambridge
Universityȱ Press,ȱ 2001);ȱ Monikaȱ Triest,ȱ Macht,ȱ Vrouwenȱ enȱ Politiek:ȱ 1477–1558:ȱ Mariaȱ van
Bourgondië,ȱMargaretaȱvanȱOostenrijk,ȱMariaȱvanȱHongarijeȱ(Leuven:ȱVanȱHalewyck,ȱ2000).ȱMary
composedȱoneȱremarkableȱpoemȱofȱlamentȱonȱtheȱdeathȱofȱherȱhusband,ȱtheȱKingȱofȱHungary,
LouisȱII.ȱSeeȱAlbrechtȱClassen,ȱ‘Meinȱseelȱfangȱanȱzuȱsingen’:ȱReligiöseȱFrauenliederȱder[sic:ȱdes]ȱ15.–16.
Jahrhunderts.ȱStudiesȱinȱSpirituality,ȱ6ȱ(Leuven,ȱParis,ȱandȱSterling,ȱVA:ȱPeeters,ȱ2002),ȱ270–72.
28
Jansen,ȱMonstrousȱRegimentȱ(seeȱnoteȱ26),ȱ98.
leadȱtoȱrebellionȱandȱriotsȱinȱ1566ȱagainstȱtheȱperceivedȱtyrannyȱofȱtheȱkingȱandȱthe
Catholicȱchurch.ȱ
MargaretȱwasȱtremendouslyȱsuccessfulȱinȱreestablishingȱbothȱroyalȱandȱCatholic
authority.ȱInȱspiteȱofȱherȱassurancesȱtoȱPhilipȱthatȱtheȱsituationȱinȱtheȱNetherlands
wasȱnowȱcalmȱandȱthatȱheȱshouldȱnotȱsendȱanȱarmy,ȱtheȱkingȱdidȱnotȱheedȱher
advice.ȱInȱconsequenceȱ ofȱ thisȱmilitaryȱimposition,ȱtheȱNetherlandersȱinitiated
anotherȱ revoltȱ thatȱ resultedȱ inȱ theȱ eventualȱ separationȱ andȱ liberationȱ ofȱ the
NorthernȱprovincesȱinȱtheȱformingȱofȱtheȱDutchȱRepublic.ȱAfterȱthisȱdisastrous
militaryȱcampaign,ȱMargaretȱwasȱreinstatedȱasȱgovernorȱinȱ1578ȱandȱsheȱremained
inȱtheȱofficeȱuntilȱherȱretirementȱinȱ1582.
Clearlyȱthisȱsuccessionȱofȱpowerfulȱfemaleȱrulers,ȱwhoȱhadȱusurpedȱtraditional
maleȱprivilegesȱandȱauthorityȱbyȱactingȱasȱmen,ȱsetȱtheȱstageȱforȱaȱsocietyȱthat
wouldȱbeȱmoreȱfamiliarȱwith,ȱandȱacceptingȱof,ȱsuchȱgenderȱtransgression.ȱThe
Netherlandsȱhadȱbeenȱruledȱbyȱfemalesȱthroughoutȱmostȱofȱtheȱsixteenthȱcentury!
Theseȱwomenȱrulersȱhadȱtakenȱonȱaȱnumberȱofȱmaleȱroles.ȱTheyȱhadȱbeenȱastute
politiciansȱ andȱ militaryȱ leaders.ȱ Theyȱ wereȱ creatorsȱ ofȱ cultureȱ viaȱ their
“matronage.”ȱAndȱfinally,ȱinȱveryȱspecificȱregardsȱtoȱthisȱessay,ȱtheyȱrodeȱhorses,
theyȱ hunted,ȱ andȱ theyȱ tookȱ onȱ theȱ appearanceȱ ofȱ men.ȱ Indeed,ȱ thisȱ powerful
femaleȱheritageȱsignificantlyȱinspiredȱaȱnewȱgenerationȱofȱpowerfulȱwomenȱasȱthe
NetherlandsȱstruckȱoutȱinȱrebellionȱagainstȱPhilipȱII.ȱPerhapsȱitȱisȱnotȱsurprising,
consideringȱtheȱgenderȱheritageȱofȱtheȱNetherlands,ȱthatȱaȱnumberȱofȱnational
heroinesȱemergedȱfromȱthisȱDutchȱrevoltȱforȱindependenceȱ(1568–1648).ȱTheȱmost
importantȱ ofȱ theseȱ womenȱ wasȱ Kenauȱ Simonsȱ Hasselaerȱ fromȱ Haarlem
(1526–1588).ȱForȱcenturies,ȱherȱheroicȱdeedsȱwereȱpatrioticallyȱcelebratedȱinȱword
andȱimage.ȱHerȱconstantlyȱexpandingȱlegendȱassignedȱherȱtheȱrankȱofȱcaptainȱas
sheȱledȱ300ȱwomenȱtoȱbattle.ȱ
Anotherȱfamousȱheroine,ȱTrijnȱvanȱLeemputsȱ(1530–1607),ȱwasȱfromȱtheȱcityȱof
Utrecht,ȱ andȱ purportedlyȱ sheȱ ledȱ theȱ womenȱ folkȱ inȱ anȱ armyȱ toȱ destroyȱ the
Spanishȱfortress.ȱTheseȱwomenȱandȱmanyȱothersȱwereȱeulogizedȱinȱvariousȱprints,
paintings,ȱpoems,ȱandȱhistoriesȱthroughoutȱtheȱearlyȱmodernȱera.ȱTheirȱbravery
wasȱconsideredȱasȱequalȱto,ȱorȱevenȱgreaterȱthan,ȱaȱman’s,ȱandȱtheyȱwereȱpictured
inȱviolentȱandȱaggressiveȱposesȱasȱtheyȱcourageouslyȱtriumphedȱoverȱtheȱenemy.
InȱanȱengravingȱattributedȱtoȱRomeynȱdeȱHoogheȱofȱ1688,ȱforȱexample,ȱKenau
activelyȱleadsȱtheȱchargeȱofȱaȱfemaleȱlegion.ȱTheȱwomenȱareȱarmedȱandȱwearing
militaryȱsashesȱlikeȱtheȱmenȱinȱtheȱbackgroundȱ(Fig.ȱ23).ȱInȱaȱmoreȱviolentȱimage
byȱRemigiusȱHogenbergȱ(ca.ȱ1536–ca.ȱ1588),ȱKenauȱbrandishesȱtheȱseveredȱhead
ofȱtheȱSpanishȱofficerȱDonȱRodrigoȱPerezȱ(Fig.ȱ24).ȱSheȱstandsȱinȱaȱmasculineȱpose
holdingȱaȱpikeȱthatȱwasȱtypicallyȱusedȱforȱdepictingȱheroesȱofȱtheȱera.ȱAsȱisȱclearly
representedȱinȱthisȱimage,ȱKenauȱwasȱassociatedȱwithȱancientȱheroinesȱofȱtheȱpast
likeȱJudithȱwhoȱbeheadedȱHolofernes.ȱMoreover,ȱtheȱseveralȱheroinesȱofȱtheȱrevolt
wereȱcalledȱAmazonsȱbyȱtheirȱcontemporaries.29ȱ
Inȱ directlyȱ linkingȱ theȱ manyȱ seventeenthȬcenturyȱ imagesȱ ofȱ theseȱ military
womenȱtoȱ theȱ huntressesȱdiscussedȱearlier,ȱitȱshouldȱbeȱunderstoodȱthatȱthere
existedȱpreviouslyȱaȱstrongȱtraditionalȱconnectionȱbetweenȱtheȱsoldierȱandȱthe
hunter.ȱInȱdiscussingȱPeterȱPaulȱRubens’sȱ(1577–1640)ȱpaintingsȱofȱlionȱandȱtiger
hunts,ȱSuzanneȱWalkerȱreferencesȱcontemporaryȱtextsȱthatȱadvocateȱtheȱhuntȱas
aȱ wayȱ ofȱ preparingȱ theȱ soldierȱ toȱ faceȱ theȱ violenceȱ andȱ terrorȱ ofȱ battle.ȱ She
suggestsȱthatȱtheȱcomposedȱdemeanorsȱofȱtheȱsoldierȬhuntersȱinȱtheseȱimagesȱof
frenziedȱactionȱconveyȱtheirȱsuccessȱinȱhavingȱtriumphedȱoverȱtheseȱemotions.30
Similarly,ȱtheȱaggressiveȱDutchȱheroinesȱandȱhuntressesȱofȱtheȱseventeenthȱcentury
areȱdepictedȱwithȱrestrainedȱemotionȱasȱtheyȱdisplayȱnoȱrevulsionȱorȱfearȱinȱthe
midstȱofȱsuchȱbloodshed.ȱInstead,ȱtheyȱbravelyȱandȱcalmlyȱtriumphȱoverȱtheirȱwild
andȱviolentȱprey
ItȱisȱimportantȱtoȱnoteȱthatȱtheȱDutchȱheroineȱtraditionȱcontinuedȱinȱactuality
throughoutȱtheȱseventeenthȱcentury,ȱasȱtheȱheroinesȱofȱtheȱrevoltȱinspiredȱfuture
generationsȱofȱwomenȱwhoȱalsoȱwantedȱtoȱtakeȱonȱtraditionalȱmaleȱsoldieringȱroles
toȱprotectȱtheȱFatherland.ȱTheseȱlaterȱheroines,ȱhowever,ȱtookȱthisȱdaringȱtoȱaȱnew
levelȱ byȱ actuallyȱ dressingȱ asȱ menȱ andȱ disguisingȱ themselvesȱ asȱ soldiers.ȱ Such
anecdotesȱrelateȱdirectlyȱtoȱtheȱresearchȱofȱRudolfȱDekkerȱandȱLotteȱvanȱdeȱPol.
TheirȱinvestigationsȱyieldedȱaȱsignificantȱnumberȱofȱcasesȱinȱwhichȱwomenȱcrossȬ
dressedȱ andȱ enlistedȱ asȱ sailorsȱ andȱ soldiersȱ duringȱ theȱ seventeenthȱ andȱ early
eighteenthȱcenturiesȱinȱtheȱNetherlands.ȱTheseȱnumerousȱinstancesȱthroughoutȱthe
earlyȱmodernȱeraȱofȱDutchȱwomenȱactuallyȱwearingȱmaleȱattireȱandȱengagingȱin
theȱviolenceȱofȱbattleȱmustȱhaveȱaffectedȱculturalȱopinionsȱregardingȱwomen’s
abilitiesȱtoȱdoȱbattleȱaggressivelyȱandȱviolentlyȱinȱaȱmanlyȱfashion.ȱIndeed,ȱthe
actionsȱofȱtheseȱwomenȱandȱtheȱresultingȱfameȱtheyȱaccruedȱinspiredȱaȱnumberȱof
publicȱdebatesȱregardingȱtheȱnatureȱofȱwomenȱandȱtheirȱroles.31
Furtherȱevidenceȱofȱtheȱpubliclyȱrecognizedȱferociousȱpowerȱofȱwomenȱinȱthis
societyȱisȱseenȱinȱanȱillustrationȱfromȱJ.ȱL.ȱGottfried’sȱHistorischeȱChronyck,ȱ1660,ȱin
whichȱtheȱwomenȱareȱshownȱasȱtheȱhuntersȱandȱsubjugatorsȱofȱmenȱ(Fig.ȱ25).ȱHere,
aggressiveȱfemaleȱactionȱisȱdepictedȱratherȱterrifyinglyȱinȱanȱillustrationȱofȱaȱDelft
29
Forȱ aȱ thoroughȱ discussionȱ ofȱ imagesȱ ofȱ heroinesȱ ofȱ theȱ Dutchȱ Revolt,ȱ see,ȱ Marthaȱ Moffitt
Peacock,ȱ“OutȱofȱtheȱKitchenȱandȱintoȱtheȱFire:ȱTheȱDutchȱHeroineȱTradition,”ȱWarȱandȱPeace:
Criticalȱ Issuesȱ inȱ Europeanȱ Societiesȱ andȱ Literatureȱ 800–1800,ȱ ed.ȱ Albrechtȱ Classenȱ andȱ Nadia
Margolis.ȱFundamentalsȱofȱMedievalȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱCulture,ȱ7ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱDe
Gruyter,ȱ2011),ȱ557–98.
30
SuzanneȱWalker,ȱ“ComposingȱtheȱPassionsȱinȱRubens’ȱHuntingȱScenes,”ȱNederlandsȱKunsthistorisch
Jaarboekȱ60ȱ(2010):ȱ109–23.
31
DekkerȱandȱvanȱdeȱPol,ȱFemaleȱTransvestismȱ(seeȱnoteȱ23);ȱPeacock,ȱ“OutȱofȱtheȱKitchenȱandȱinto
theȱFire“ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ29).ȱ
riot.ȱPowerfulȱandȱviolentȱwomenȱabound,ȱandȱhouseholdȱweaponsȱareȱmilitantly
wieldedȱagainstȱtheȱcivicȱofficialȱinȱtheȱforeground.ȱIndeed,ȱthisȱriotȱofȱ1616ȱwas
labeledȱ“theȱwomen’sȱrevoltȱofȱDelft.”ȱInterestingly,ȱRudolfȱDekkerȱhasȱuncovered
theȱexistenceȱofȱmanyȱfemaleȬledȱandȱinstigatedȱriotsȱinȱtheȱDutchȱRepublic.32
Maleȱanxietyȱregardingȱtheseȱveryȱpublicȱsubversionsȱofȱtraditionalȱmaleȱroles
andȱ hegemonyȱ canȱ beȱ witnessedȱ inȱ theȱ manyȱ satiricalȱ printsȱ ofȱ theȱ eraȱ where
womenȱusurpȱmaleȱprivilegeȱandȱauthority.33ȱInȱaȱlateȱsixteenthȬcenturyȱprintȱby
ClaesȱBraeuȱafterȱKarelȱvanȱMander,ȱtheȱ“battleȱforȱtheȱtrousers,”ȱorȱtheȱbattleȱfor
powerȱinȱmarriage,ȱbecomesȱaȱratherȱviolentȱstruggle,ȱasȱneitherȱtheȱhusbandȱnor
theȱwifeȱhasȱyetȱwonȱtheȱprizedȱtrousersȱ(Fig.ȱ26).ȱTheyȱhaveȱbothȱpulledȱupȱone
legȱ ofȱ theȱ trousersȱ andȱ areȱ inȱ theȱ processȱ ofȱ strugglingȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ completely
masterȱtheȱpants.ȱTheȱwifeȱgrabsȱtheȱhusband’sȱhair,ȱandȱheȱrespondsȱwithȱan
anguishedȱ expressionȱ ofȱ pain,ȱ asȱ heȱ attemptsȱ toȱ restrainȱ her.ȱ Asȱ previously
mentioned,ȱtheȱtrousersȱhadȱlongȱbeenȱconsideredȱaȱstrictlyȱmaleȱformȱofȱclothing
andȱ thusȱ becameȱ aȱ symbolȱ ofȱ menȱ generally,ȱ justȱ asȱ theȱ skirtȱ representedȱ the
female.ȱTheȱexpressionȱ“Deȱbroekȱaanhebben”ȱ[toȱhaveȱtheȱtrousersȱon]ȱorȱ“Deȱbroek
dragen”ȱ[toȱwearȱtheȱpants]ȱreferredȱtoȱaȱpersonȇsȱbeingȱmasterȱinȱtheȱhouse.34ȱA
womanȱwhoȱworeȱtrousersȱnotȱonlyȱsignaledȱthatȱsheȱhadȱtakenȱonȱmaleȱattributes,
butȱ alsoȱ thatȱ sheȱ hadȱ seizedȱ theȱ powersȱ andȱ privilegesȱ ofȱ herȱ husband.ȱ The
inscriptionȱbelowȱdescribesȱtheȱinevitabilityȱofȱfearedȱfemaleȱpower:
Esȱistȱgrosȱcreutzȱimȱhaus,
Allȱwolfartȱweichtȱauchȱdraus;
Wansȱweibȱdenȱmanȱansicht,
Ihrȱbeinȱinȱdieȱhosenȱsticht.
QuantȱIaȱfemmeȱaȱleȱBrayeȱchaussee
Laȱmaisonȱestȱentierementȱtroublee.
Tisȱgrootȱcruijsȱintȱhuis,
alȱwaerȱfroechdȱinȱdenȱhoocȱsneefft;
Daerȱtwijffȱvolȱgekijff
eenȱbeenȱdusȱinȱdieȱbroockȱhefft.
[Itȱisȱaȱgreatȱcrossȱinȱtheȱhouse,
Allȱprosperityȱalsoȱvanishesȱfromȱit,
32
RudolfȱM.ȱDekker,ȱ“WomenȱinȱRevolt:ȱPopularȱProtestȱandȱitsȱSocialȱBasisȱinȱHollandȱinȱthe
SeventeenthȱandȱEighteenthȱCenturies,”ȱTheoryȱandȱSocietyȱ16.3ȱ(Mayȱ1987):ȱ337–61.
33
ForȱaȱdiscussionȱofȱthisȱtraditionȱinȱNetherlandishȱart,ȱseeȱMarthaȱMoffittȱPeacock,ȱ“TheȱComedy
ofȱtheȱShrew:ȱTheorizingȱHumorȱinȱEarlyȱModernȱNetherlandishȱArt,”ȱLaughterȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges
andȱ Earlyȱ Modernȱ Times:ȱ Epistemologyȱ ofȱ aȱ Fundamentalȱ Humanȱ Behavior,ȱ itsȱ Meaning,ȱ and
Consequences,ȱ ed.ȱ Albrechtȱ Classen.ȱ Fundamentalsȱ ofȱ Medievalȱ andȱ Earlyȱ Modernȱ Culture,ȱ 5
(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱDeȱGruyter,ȱ2010),ȱ667–713.ȱ
34
Frederikȱ A.ȱ Stoett,ȱ Nederlandscheȱ spreekwoorden,ȱ spreekwijzen,ȱ uitdrukkingenȱ enȱ gezegden,ȱ vol.ȱ 1
(Zutphen:ȱW.ȱJ.ȱThieme,ȱ1923),ȱ140–41.
whenȱtheȱwifeȱchallengesȱtheȱhusband’sȱauthorityȱ
andȱputsȱherȱlegȱinȱtheȱpants.
Whenȱtheȱwifeȱwearsȱtheȱpants,ȱ
theȱhouseȱisȱentirelyȱdisturbed.
Itȱisȱaȱgreatȱcrossȱinȱtheȱhouse,ȱ
whereȱvirtueȱfallsȱinȱtheȱcorner;ȱ
thereȱtheȱwifeȱfullȱofȱarguing,ȱasȱshownȱabove,ȱ
hasȱaȱlegȱinȱtheȱpants.]
Inȱ aȱ lateȱ sixteenthȬcenturyȱ printȱ byȱ Bosscherȱ thereȱ areȱ severalȱ metaphorsȱ for
contumaciousȱandȱpowerfulȱfemalesȱ(Fig.ȱ27).ȱAtȱtheȱrightȱofȱtheȱprint,ȱaȱseated
womanȱforcesȱaȱkneelingȱmanȱtoȱdressȱherȱinȱhisȱtrousers.ȱInȱtheȱleftȱbackground
aȱmanȱisȱbeatenȱandȱforcedȱtoȱuseȱaȱfemaleȱtool,ȱtheȱwinder.ȱInȱtheȱleftȱforeground
aȱsubmissiveȱmanȱkneelsȱtoȱkissȱtheȱwoman’sȱthumb,ȱwhichȱwasȱalsoȱaȱsignȱof
maleȱsubservience.35ȱFlyingȱaboveȱthisȱtopsyȬturvyȱsceneȱisȱaȱbannerȱbearingȱthe
wordsȱ“D’overhant”ȱorȱ[theȱupperȱhand],ȱstressingȱthatȱitȱisȱnowȱtheȱwomenȱwho
haveȱtheȱpower.ȱTheȱotherȱinscriptionsȱgiveȱfurtherȱcommentaryȱonȱtheȱsubversive
powerȱofȱwomen:
Autȱamat,ȱautȱoditȱMulier,ȱnilȱtertium
habereȱDicitur:ȱinsanumȱniȱforetȱImperium.
Undeȱsuperbaȱsuumȱcogitȱsufflareȱmaritum:
Etȱbracata,ȱtenetȱbellicaȱsigna,ȱMANUM.
WaerȱdeȱVrouwȱd’overhandtȱheeft,ȱenȱdraechtȱdeȱbrouck
DaerȱistȱdatȱJanȱdeȱmanȱleeftȱnaerȱaduysȱvanȱdenȱdouck
Ouȱlaȱfemmeȱgouuerne,ȱportantȱlaȱbanniere
Etȱdesȱbrayesȱavecq:ȱleȱtoutȱyȱvaȱderriere.
[Aȱwomanȱeitherȱlovesȱorȱhates;ȱ
sheȱisȱsaidȱtoȱhaveȱnoȱthirdȱalternative,
Unlessȱitȱisȱaȱcrazedȱlustȱforȱdominationȱ
whichȱcausesȱherȱinȱherȱprideȱ
toȱforceȱherȱhusbandȱtoȱknuckleȱunder.
Whileȱshe,ȱwearingȱtheȱpants,ȱ
holdsȱupȱtheȱbattleȱstandard,ȱtheȱHAND.
Whereȱtheȱwomanȱhasȱtheȱupperȱhand,ȱ
andȱwearsȱtheȱtrousers,
ThereȱitȱisȱthatȱJanȱtheȱManȱlivesȱ
accordingȱtoȱtheȱdictatesȱofȱtheȱskirt.
Whereȱtheȱwomanȱgoverns,ȱcarryingȱtheȱbanner
Andȱtheȱtrousersȱtoo,ȱeveryoneȱfollowsȱbehind.]
35
WalterȱGibson,ȱ“SomeȱFlemishȱPopularȱPrintsȱfromȱHieronymusȱCockȱandȱHisȱContemporaries,”
ArtȱBulletinȱ60.4ȱ(Dec.ȱ1978):ȱ673–81.
Clearly,ȱtheȱincreasingȱpowerȱofȱwomenȱassertedȱbyȱbothȱfemaleȱrulersȱduringȱthe
sixteenthȱcenturyȱandȱbyȱheroinesȱofȱtheȱrevoltȱinȱtheȱsixteenthȱandȱseventeenth
centuriesȱcausedȱaȱperceptionȱbyȱsomeȱmalesȱthatȱthisȱdevelopmentȱwentȱagainst
theȱboundsȱofȱwhatȱnatureȱandȱGodȱhadȱintendedȱforȱtheȱfemaleȱsex.ȱInȱparticular,
theȱpowerfulȱimagesȱofȱtheȱmodernȱDutchȱheroineȱmustȱhaveȱcreatedȱanxietyȱin
manyȱmalesȱwhoȱsawȱtheseȱmanlyȱimagesȱasȱaȱthreatȱtoȱtraditionalȱ notionsȱof
naturalȱ genderȱ roles.ȱ Asȱ aȱ result,ȱ numerousȱ imagesȱ ridiculingȱ thisȱ societal
conditionȱappearedȱduringȱtheȱlateȱsixteenthȱandȱearlyȱseventeenthȱcenturies.ȱThe
subjectȱ ofȱ theȱ violent,ȱ aggressive,ȱ andȱ trouserȬusurpingȱ wifeȱ tookȱ onȱ several
humorousȱforms.ȱButȱwhileȱtheseȱimagesȱmayȱhaveȱbeen,ȱforȱmen,ȱanȱattemptȱto
relieve,ȱthroughȱcomedy,ȱtheirȱanxietyȱandȱtoȱactȱasȱaȱcurativeȱinȱaȱsocietyȱwhere
womenȱhadȱactuallyȱandȱsignificantlyȱcrossedȱgenderȱboundaries,ȱtheȱimagesȱmay
haveȱheldȱaȱveryȱdifferentȱmeaningȱforȱwomen.ȱAsȱIȱhaveȱarguedȱelsewhere,ȱthe
womanȱviewerȱlikelyȱtookȱdelightȱinȱtheȱfemaleȬpowerȬengenderingȱaspectsȱof
bothȱ glorifyingȱ heroineȱ imageryȱ andȱ scenesȱ ofȱ theȱ aggressiveȱ housewifeȱ who
seizesȱauthorityȱandȱtakesȱonȱmaleȱroles.36ȱSuchȱimagesȱwouldȱhaveȱencouraged
womenȱtoȱselfȬdefineȱandȱselfȬfashionȱinȱnewȱandȱcommandingȱways.ȱInȱthisȱlight,
imagesȱofȱtheȱmodernȱhuntressȱvigorouslyȱcontrollingȱherȱgallopingȱhorseȱwhile
expertlyȱwieldingȱherȱmasculineȱweaponryȱorȱwearingȱmaleȱapparelȱtakesȱonȱa
myriadȱofȱsignificantȱpowerȬenhancingȱassociationsȱforȱfemaleȱviewers.
TheȱNewȱGenderedȱLogicȱofȱRuralȱSpace
Hence,ȱweȱareȱnowȱableȱtoȱprovideȱanswersȱtoȱquestionsȱraisedȱbyȱtheȱdramatically
changedȱperceptionsȱofȱwomenȱatȱtheȱhunt,ȱnamely:ȱWhatȱsocioȬculturalȱchanges
tookȱ placeȱ duringȱ theseȱ yearsȱ thatȱ allowedȱ forȱ suchȱ aȱ redefiningȱ ofȱ womenȱ in
associationȱwithȱtheȱhuntȱandȱtheȱruralȱenvironment?ȱWhatȱallowedȱaȱvisionȱof
womanȱ asȱ manlyȱ conquerorȱ ofȱ natureȱ andȱ creatorȱ ofȱ cultureȱ ratherȱ thanȱ as
subjectedȱsexualȱprey?ȱTheȱthreateningȱweaponry,ȱtheȱaggressiveȱpostures,ȱthe
violentȱaction,ȱtheȱtriumphantȱpower,ȱtheȱequalityȱwithȱmen,ȱandȱevenȱtheȱcrossȬ
dressingȱ foundȱ inȱ seventeenthȬcenturyȱ Netherlandishȱ huntingȱ imagesȱ canȱ be
explainedȱbyȱactualȱchangesȱinȱculturalȱperceptionsȱofȱwomen’sȱabilities,ȱwomen’s
character,ȱandȱwomen’sȱroles.ȱForȱgenerations,ȱtheȱdefiningȱofȱwomen’sȱrolesȱhad
beenȱ constantlyȱ adjustedȱ viaȱ powerfulȱ femaleȱ rulersȱ andȱ heroinesȱ that
transgressedȱtheȱnormalȱboundariesȱofȱtheirȱsex.ȱTheseȱdisruptionsȱofȱtraditional
socioȬculturalȱsignifiersȱassignedȱtoȱNetherlandishȱwomenȱaȱmoreȱaggressiveȱand
manlyȱnature.
36
Peacock,ȱ“ComedyȱofȱtheȱShrew”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ33).
Thus,ȱweȱreturnȱtoȱourȱoriginalȱpurposeȱofȱdiscoveringȱtheȱgenderedȱlogicȱof
ruralȱspaceȱasȱitȱrelatesȱtoȱtheȱNetherlandishȱvisualȱtraditionȱofȱhuntingȱscenes.
Earlierȱ connotationsȱ ofȱ natureȱ asȱ anȱ arenaȱ forȱ unfetteredȱ andȱ wildȱ activity
continuedȱfromȱtheȱpastȱtoȱmodernȱseventeenthȬcenturyȱhuntingȱscenes.ȱNature
persistedȱasȱaȱspaceȱinȱwhichȱone’sȱfervorȱandȱenergyȱcouldȱbeȱgivenȱfreeȱreign,
loosedȱ fromȱ normalȱ societalȱ constraints.ȱ Theȱ associationsȱ ofȱ womenȱ withȱ this
space,ȱ however,ȱ didȱ changeȱ inȱ theȱ wakeȱ ofȱ theȱ Dutchȱ revolt.ȱ Asȱ women
increasinglyȱtookȱonȱaggressiveȱnonȬtraditionalȱfemaleȱrolesȱinȱsocietyȱgenerally,
theȱimagesȱofȱwomenȱhuntingȱalsoȱcontestedȱconventionalȱnorms.ȱ
Ruralȱspace,ȱthatȱalreadyȱpossessedȱimbeddedȱnotionsȱofȱsubvertingȱpropriety,
wasȱ nowȱ theȱ “natural”ȱ settingȱ forȱ imagesȱ ofȱ womenȱ transgressingȱ traditional
genderȱconstrictions.ȱTheȱfreedomȱofȱnatureȱcouldȱnowȱalsoȱcallȱtoȱtheȱaggressive
andȱ impassionedȱ natureȱ ofȱ women.ȱ Significantly,ȱ thisȱ redefiningȱ ofȱ women’s
characterȱ andȱ abilitiesȱ onlyȱ lastedȱ throughȱ theȱ century,ȱ asȱ eighteenthȬcentury
imagesȱofȱhuntressesȱreturnedȱtoȱaȱmoreȱelegant,ȱrefined,ȱandȱamorousȱnature.ȱIn
theȱfewȱinstancesȱwhereȱwomenȱareȱactuallyȱshownȱridingȱatȱtheȱhuntȱinȱtheseȱlater
images,ȱratherȱthanȱseductivelyȱentertainingȱhuntersȱatȱrest,ȱtheyȱareȱnoȱlonger
engagedȱinȱtheȱviolentȱstruggleȱwithȱbeastsȱandȱnature.ȱNevertheless,ȱforȱaȱbrief
historicalȱmomentȱduringȱtheȱseventeenthȱcentury,ȱtheȱmodernȱwomanȱhadȱbeen
ableȱtoȱcompeteȱwithȱherȱmaleȱcounterpartȱinȱtermsȱofȱbraveryȱandȱskillȱinȱtaming
theȱwildnessȱofȱnature.ȱDuringȱthisȱera,ȱtheȱseeminglyȱinnateȱcharacteristicsȱof
ruralȱspaceȱandȱtheȱhuntȱhadȱnotȱchangedȱessentiallyȱfromȱtheȱmedievalȱpast,ȱbut
attitudesȱ regardingȱ women’sȱ abilityȱ toȱ participateȱ inȱ theȱ freedomȱ andȱ energy
inspiredȱbyȱnatureȱandȱtheȱhuntȱhadȱbeenȱdramaticallyȱalteredȱduringȱtheȱfightȱfor
politicalȱindependenceȱandȱtheȱemergenceȱofȱtheȱnewlyȱliberatedȱwomanȱofȱthe
DutchȱRepublic.ȱ
Fig.ȱ1:ȱȱWolfȱHunt,ȱLivreȱdeȱlaȱchasse,ȱBibliothèqueȱnationaleȱdeȱFrance,ȱParis
Fig.ȱ2:ȱȱBoarȱHunt,ȱLivreȱdeȱlaȱchasse,ȱBibliothèqueȱnationaleȱdeȱFrance,ȱParis
Fig.ȱ3:ȱȱDianaȱatȱtheȱHunt,ȱChristineȱdeȱPizan’sȱEpistleȱofȱOthea,ȱKoninklijke
Bibliotheek,ȱTheȱHague
Fig.ȱ4:ȱȱLimbourgȱBrothers,ȱAugust,ȱTrèsȱRichesȱHeuresȱofȱtheȱDucȱdeȱBerry,
MuséeȱdeȱCondé,ȱChantilly
Fig.ȱ5:ȱȱHousebookȱMaster,ȱStagȱHunt,ȱ“MedievalȱHousebook,”ȱWaldburgȬWolfegg
Collection,ȱMunichȱȱ
Fig.ȱ6:ȱȱCharitas,ȱPrivateȱCollection
Fig.ȱ7:ȱȱPairȱofȱLovers,ȱManesseȱCodex,ȱUniversityȱofȱHeidelbergȱLibrary,
Heidelberg
Fig.ȱ8:ȱȱHunterȱPresentingȱaȱFowlȱtoȱaȱLady,ȱHoursȱofȱEngelbertȱofȱNassau,ȱBodleian
Library,ȱOxford
Fig.ȱ9:ȱȱHunterȱPresentingȱaȱFowlȱtoȱaȱLady,ȱMetropolitanȱMuseum,ȱNewȱYorkȱ
Fig.ȱ10:ȱȱUnicornȱHunt,ȱMetropolitanȱMuseum,ȱNewȱYork
Fig.ȱ11:ȱȱMasterȱE.S.,ȱPairȱofȱLovers,ȱVienna,ȱAlbertina
Fig.ȱ12:ȱȱBernardȱvanȱOrley,ȱMayȱ(detail),ȱTheȱHuntsȱofȱMaximilian,ȱ
TheȱLouvre,ȱParis
Fig.ȱ13:ȱȱStagȱHuntȱ(detail),ȱDevonshireȱHuntingȱTapestries,ȱ
VictoriaȱandȱAlbertȱMuseum,ȱLondon
Fig.ȱ14:ȱȱPhilipsȱWouwerman,ȱTheȱHuntȱ(detail),ȱResidenzgalerieȱSalzburg,
Salzburg
Fig.ȱ15:ȱȱPhilipsȱWouwerman,ȱHuntingȱtheȱStag,ȱHunterianȱMuseumȱandȱArt
Gallery,ȱUniversityȱofȱGlasgow,ȱGlasgow
Fig.ȱ16:ȱȱAbrahamȱHondius,ȱBirdȱHunt,ȱ1666,ȱPresentȱLocationȱUnknown
Fig.ȱ17:ȱȱAbrahamȱHondius,ȱTheȱHunt,ȱPresentȱLocationȱUnknown
Fig.ȱ18:ȱȱAbrahamȱHondius,ȱTheȱHunt,ȱPrivateȱCollection,ȱHamburg
Fig.ȱ19:ȱȱHendrickȱVerschuring,ȱAȱHuntingȱPartyȱinȱaȱDuneȱLandscape,ȱChristies
Fig.ȱ20:ȱȱHendrickȱVerschuring,ȱRestingȱfromȱtheȱHuntȱ(detail),ȱ
PrivateȱCollection,ȱGermany
ȱ ȱȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱUnknown
Fig. 21: Jan Miel, Resting from the Hunt, Present Location
Fig.ȱ22:ȱȱJanȱMiel,ȱRestingȱatȱtheȱHunt,ȱPresentȱLocationȱUnknown
Fig.ȱ23:ȱȱRomeynȱdeȱHooghe,ȱKenauȱSimonsȱHasselaer,ȱRijksprentenkabinet,
Rijksmuseum,ȱAmsterdam
Fig.ȱ24:ȱȱRemigiusȱHogenberg,ȱKenauȱSimonsȱHasselaer,ȱRijksprentenkabinet,
Fig.ȱ25:ȱȱJacobȱvanȱMeurs,ȱWomen’sȱRevoltȱinȱDelft,ȱ1616,ȱBelastingȱandȱDouane
Museum,ȱRotterdamȱ
Fig.ȱ26:ȱȱClaesȱBraeuȱafterȱKarelȱvanȱMander,ȱBattleȱforȱtheȱTrousers,
Rijksprentenkabinet,ȱRijksmuseum,ȱAmsterdam
Fig.ȱ27:ȱȱȱJoosȱdeȱBosscher,ȱTheȱUpperȱHand,ȱAtlasȱvanȱStolk,ȱRotterdam
Chapterȱ27
ThomasȱWillard
“TheȱfreeȱEnjoymentȱofȱtheȱEarth”:ȱ
GerrardȱWinstanleyȱonȱLandȱReform
SaintȱGeorge’sȱHill,ȱrisingȱaboutȱthirtyȬfiveȱmetersȱaboveȱtheȱroadȱfromȱWeybridge
toȱCobhamȱinȱtheȱcountyȱofȱSurrey,ȱbecameȱgroundȱzeroȱforȱaȱfinalȱbutȱfailedȱphase
ofȱtheȱEnglishȱRevolutionȱ(seeȱFig.ȱ1).ȱOnȱSunday,ȱAprilȱ4,ȱ1649,ȱaȱdozenȱmenȱand
womenȱwalkedȱnorthȱfromȱCobham,ȱcarryingȱseedsȱandȱfarmingȱtools.ȱWhenȱthey
reachedȱ theȱ hill,ȱ theyȱ clearedȱ aȱ patchȱ ofȱ landȱ andȱ plantedȱ peas,ȱ carrots,ȱ and
parsnips;ȱtheyȱlaterȱaddedȱ“corn,”ȱorȱgrain.ȱIfȱanyoneȱaskedȱtheȱselfȬstyledȱDiggers
whyȱtheyȱwereȱdiggingȱupȱtheȱland,ȱtheyȱwouldȱhaveȱgladlyȱexplainedȱtheirȱaction.
Theȱlandȱwasȱaȱheathȱorȱcommons,ȱandȱtheyȱrepresentedȱtheȱcommonȱpeople,ȱalso
knownȱasȱtheȱcommons.1ȱMoreoverȱitȱwasȱ regardedȱasȱcrownȬland,ȱwhereȱthe
King’sȱhuntingȱpartiesȱhadȱpriority.ȱHowever,ȱafterȱtheȱexecutionȱofȱKingȱCharles
Iȱnineȱweeksȱearlier,ȱonȱJanuaryȱ30,ȱEnglandȱceasedȱtoȱbeȱmonarchyȱandȱbecame
aȱ commonwealth.2ȱ Aȱ fewȱ weeksȱ later,ȱ onȱ Marchȱ 19,ȱ Parliamentȱ abolishedȱ the
Houseȱ ofȱ Lordsȱ asȱ beingȱ “uselessȱ andȱ dangerousȱ toȱ theȱ peopleȱ ofȱ England,”3
makingȱ theȱ Houseȱ ofȱ Commonsȱ theȱ soleȱ temporalȱ authorityȱ inȱ England.
Parliamentȱ hadȱ alsoȱ disestablishedȱ theȱ Churchȱ ofȱ England.ȱ Itȱ followedȱ on
linguistic,ȱpolitical,ȱandȱreligiousȱprinciplesȱ“ThatȱtheȱCommonȱpeopleȱoughtȱto
dig,ȱplow,ȱplantȱandȱdwellȱuponȱtheȱCommons”ȱ(seeȱFig.ȱ2).4
1
Seeȱ Theȱ Oxfordȱ Englishȱ Dictionary,ȱ 2ndȱ ed.,ȱ 20ȱ vols.ȱ (Oxford:ȱ Oxfordȱ Universityȱ Press,ȱ 1989),
“commons”ȱnoun1aȱandȱ3a;ȱhereafterȱOED.ȱ
2
SeeȱOED,ȱ“crownȬland,”ȱnounȱ1,ȱandȱ“commonwealth,”ȱnounȱ4a.
3
Seeȱhttp://www.constitution.org/eng/conpur089.htmȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱJulyȱ26,ȱ2011).
4
GerrardȱWinstanleyȱAȱLetterȱtoȱtheȱLordȱFairfax,ȱandȱHisȱCouncellȱofȱWarȱ(London:ȱGilesȱCalvert,
1649),ȱA1r.
866 ThomasȱWillard
Behindȱtheȱchoiceȱofȱlocaleȱwasȱaȱdefiniteȱsymbolism.ȱAlthoughȱtheȱDiggers,ȱas
radicalȱProtestants,ȱrefusedȱtoȱnameȱtheȱsaintsȱofȱtheȱoldȱchurchȱandȱsimplyȱspoke
ofȱGeorgeȱHill,ȱtheȱhillȱwasȱnamedȱafterȱtheȱpatronȱsaintȱofȱEngland.ȱSaintȱGeorge
wasȱsaidȱtoȱhaveȱfreedȱtheȱcountryȱfromȱtheȱtyrannyȱofȱaȱdragonȱor,ȱinȱtheȱYuletide
mummers’ȱplay,ȱfromȱtheȱtyrannyȱofȱaȱSaracen.5ȱNearȱtheȱhilltopȱwereȱtheȱremains
ofȱ anȱ ancientȱ fortress,ȱ whereȱ theȱ Diggers’ȱ ancestorsȱ mightȱ haveȱ resistedȱ the
invasionȱofȱNormanȱsoldiersȱnearlyȱsixȱhundredȱyearsȱearlier.ȱFromȱtheȱsummit
localsȱsaidȱtheyȱcouldȱseeȱSaintȱGeorge’sȱChapelȱonȱCastleȱHillȱinȱWindsor,ȱsome
twentyȱ milesȱ awayȱ overȱ modernȱ roads,ȱ andȱ esotericistsȱ whoȱ studyȱ leyȱ lines
maintainȱthatȱbothȱsitesȱareȱonȱtheȱSaintȱGeorge’sȱLine.6ȱMeanwhile,ȱtheȱchoiceȱof
dateȱcouldȱnotȱhaveȱbeenȱaccidental.ȱAprilȱ4ȱwasȱEasterȱSunday,ȱandȱtheȱDiggers
expectedȱtheirȱactionsȱwouldȱprepareȱforȱtheȱSecondȱComingȱofȱChrist,ȱwhoȱwould
slayȱtheȱgreatȱdragonȱofȱtheȱApocalypse7ȱandȱprepareȱforȱtheȱMillennium.ȱ
Theȱcropsȱplantedȱthatȱdayȱdidȱnotȱmature.ȱTheyȱwereȱdugȱupȱandȱtheȱDiggers’
makeshiftȱsettlementȱwasȱburnedȱbyȱruffiansȱtheȱlocalȱlandlordsȱhired.ȱEventually,
theȱDiggersȱwereȱevictedȱbyȱcourtȱaction.ȱThroughoutȱtheȱupheaval,ȱtheȱvoiceȱfor
theseȱ “trueȱ levellers”ȱ wasȱ thatȱ ofȱ aȱ passionateȱ Englishmanȱ namedȱ Gerrard
Winstanley.ȱWhatȱremainedȱforȱtheseȱ“FirstȱLosers”ȱofȱtheȱEnglishȱRevolutionȱwas
aboveȱallȱhisȱwritings.8ȱInȱthisȱessay,ȱIȱwillȱfirstȱreviewȱWinstanley’sȱreputation,
thenȱtheȱmainȱeventsȱofȱhisȱlife,ȱandȱfinallyȱtheȱwritingsȱthemselves.ȱInȱdoingȱso,
Iȱhopeȱtoȱshowȱtheȱcontinuityȱbetweenȱhisȱreligiousȱandȱpoliticalȱideas.
1.ȱWinstanley’sȱPosthumousȱReputation
Duringȱ theȱ lastȱ century,ȱ Winstanleyȱ hasȱ goneȱ fromȱ nearlyȱ totalȱ obscurityȱ to
somethingȱlikeȱcanonicalȱstatusȱinȱtheȱhistoryȱandȱliteratureȱofȱseventeenthȬcentury
England.ȱTheȱfirstȱsustainedȱstudyȱofȱhisȱworkȱappearedȱinȱ1906.9ȱPriorȱtoȱthis,
5
SeeȱJ.ȱStevensȬCox,ȱed.,ȱMummingȱandȱtheȱMummers’ȱPlayȱofȱSt.ȱGeorge:ȱTheȱVersionsȱIncludingȱthat
ofȱThomasȱHardy,ȱMonographsȱonȱtheȱLife,ȱTimes,ȱandȱWorksȱofȱThomasȱHardy,ȱ67ȱ(Guernsey:
ToucanȱPress,ȱ1970).
6
LondonȱPsychographicalȱAssociation,ȱ“TheȱGreatȱConjunction:ȱTheȱSymbolsȱofȱaȱCollege,ȱthe
DeathȱofȱaȱKingȱandȱtheȱMazeȱonȱaȱHill,”ȱScribendi.com,ȱhttp://www.scribd.com/doc/42371986/TheȬ
GreatȬConjunctionȬAȬreportȬbyȬtheȬArchaeogeodeticȬAssociationȬandȬtheȬLondonȬ
PsychogeographicalȬAssociationȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱAug.ȱ19,ȱ2011).ȱ
7
Revelationȱ12:ȱ9;ȱKingȱJamesȱVersion.ȱAllȱbiblicalȱreferencesȱareȱtoȱthisȱtranslation.
8
Onȱ theseȱ “Firstȱ Losers,”ȱ seeȱ Christopherȱ Hill,ȱ Theȱ Experienceȱ ofȱ Defeat:ȱ Miltonȱ andȱ Some
Contemporariesȱ(1984;ȱLondon:ȱPenguin,ȱ1985),ȱ29–50;ȱesp.ȱ37–42.ȱ
9
Henryȱ Lewisȱ Berens,ȱ Theȱ Diggerȱ Movementȱ inȱ theȱ Daysȱ ofȱ theȱ Commonwealth,ȱ asȱ Revealedȱ inȱ the
WritingsȱofȱGerrardȱWinstanley,ȱtheȱDigger,ȱMystic,ȱandȱRationalist,ȱCommunistȱandȱSocialȱReformer
(London:ȱSimkinȱMarshall,ȱ1906).ȱ
GerrardȱWinstanleyȱonȱLandȱReform 867
thereȱhadȱbeenȱonlyȱtheȱoccasionalȱpassingȱreference.10ȱAȱcenturyȱlater,ȱhisȱwriting
wouldȱbeȱexcerptedȱinȱtheȱvenerableȱNortonȱAnthologyȱofȱEnglishȱLiterature,11ȱand
hisȱ“completeȱworks”ȱwouldȱbeȱpublishedȱforȱtheȱfirstȱtimeȱinȱaȱheavilyȱannotated
editionȱpreparedȱbyȱaȱhistorianȱofȱEnglandȱandȱtwoȱMiltonists.12ȱ
Inȱ1906,ȱHenryȱLewisȱBerensȱregardedȱWinstanleyȱasȱaȱsourceȱforȱtheȱ“most
characteristicȱtenetsȱandȱdoctrines”ȱofȱtheȱearlyȱQuakersȱandȱforȱtheȱ“fundamental
principles”ȱsetȱforthȱbyȱtheȱAmericanȱpoliticianȱHenryȱGeorge,ȱwhoȱproposedȱa
singleȱtaxȱonȱland.13ȱȱHeȱpaintedȱaȱtwoȬsidedȱpictureȱofȱWinstanley.ȱOnȱtheȱone
sideȱwasȱtheȱ“mysticȱandȱrationalist,”ȱonȱtheȱotherȱtheȱ“communistȱandȱsocial
reformer.”ȱTheȱnextȱpictureȱwasȱmoreȱoneȬsided,ȱasȱitȱwasȱfirstȱwrittenȱforȱaȱmultiȬ
volumeȱhistoryȱofȱSocialism.ȱEduardȱBernsteinȱwas,ȱlikeȱKarlȱKautsky,ȱaȱconvinced
Marxist,ȱ andȱ heȱ approachedȱ Winstanleyȱ veryȱ muchȱ asȱ Friedrichȱ Engelsȱ had
approachedȱThomasȱMüntzer,ȱwhoȱledȱtheȱGermanȱpeasantsȱinȱrevoltȱmoreȱthan
aȱcenturyȱearlier.14ȱEngelsȱmaintainedȱthatȱtheȱpeasants’ȱwarȱinȱGermanyȱwasȱnot
aȱreligiousȱwarȱwithȱaȱsocialȱdimensionȱbut,ȱquiteȱtheȱopposite,ȱaȱclassȱwarȱwhose
issuesȱwereȱsetȱforthȱinȱreligiousȱlanguage:
.ȱ.ȱ.ȱinȱdenȱsogenanntenȱReligionskriegenȱdesȱsechzentenȱJahrhundertsȱhandelteȱesȱsich
vorȱ allemȱ umȱ sehrȱ positiveȱ materielleȱ Klasseninteressen,ȱ undȱ dieseȱ Kriegeȱ waren
Klassenkämpfe,ȱ ebensoȱ gutȱ wieȱ dieȱ späterenȱ innerenȱ Kollisionenȱ inȱ Englandȱ und
Frankreich.15ȱȱ
10
See,ȱe.g.,ȱSamuelȱRawsonȱGardiner,ȱHistoryȱofȱtheȱCommonwealthȱandȱProtectorate,ȱ1649–1656,ȱ4ȱvols.
(London:ȱLongmans,ȱ1903),ȱ1:ȱ42–44ȱandȱ2:ȱ78–79.
11
TheȱNortonȱAnthologyȱofȱEnglishȱLiterature,ȱ8thȱed.,ȱed.ȱStephenȱGreenblattȱetȱal.ȱ(NewȱYork:ȱNorton,
2006),ȱ1:ȱ1751–57.
12
Theȱ Completeȱ Worksȱ ofȱ Gerrardȱ Winstanley,ȱ ed.ȱ Thomasȱ N.ȱ Corns,ȱ Annȱ Hughes,ȱ andȱ David
Lowenstein,ȱ2ȱvols.ȱ(Oxford:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2010);ȱhereafterȱCWGW.ȱȱOnȱthisȱedition’s
significance,ȱseeȱtheȱreviewȱbyȱChristopherȱRowlandȱinȱJournalȱofȱTheologicalȱHistoryȱ61.2ȱ(Oct.
2010):ȱ848–51.ȱBecauseȱmostȱofȱWinstanley’sȱtextsȱareȱavailableȱinȱtheȱEarlyȱEnglishȱBooksȱOnline
database,ȱIȱciteȱtheȱpageȱnumbersȱ(orȱsignatures)ȱinȱtheȱoriginalȱprintingsȱasȱwellȱasȱinȱtheȱnew
standardȱedition.
13
Berens,ȱDiggerȱMovementȱ(seeȱnoteȱ9),ȱ45;ȱHenryȱGeorge,ȱProgressȱandȱPovertyȱ(1879;ȱNewȱYork:
Vanguard,ȱ1929).
14
Ed[uard]ȱ Bernstein,ȱ Sozialismusȱ undȱ Demokratieȱ inȱ derȱ großenȱ englischenȱ Revolution,ȱ 2ndȱ ed.,
InternationaleȱBibliothek,ȱ44ȱ(Stuttgart:ȱJ.ȱH.ȱW.ȱDietz,ȱ1908),ȱesp.ȱ155–76ȱ(“Dieȱkommunistische
UtopieȱdesȱGerrardȱWinstanley”).ȱBernsteinȱincludesȱaȱchapterȱonȱtheȱDiggersȱandȱearlierȱEnglish
Levellersȱ(102–31).ȱȱTheȱbookȱwasȱfirstȱpublishedȱasȱpartȱofȱaȱmultiȬvolumeȱhistoryȱofȱSocialism:
EduardȱBernsteinȱandȱKarlȱKautsky,ȱed.,ȱDieȱGeschichteȱdesȱSozialismusȱinȱEinzeldarstellung,ȱ3ȱvols.
(Stuttgart:ȱJ.ȱH.ȱW.ȱDietz,ȱ1895–1898);ȱvol.ȱ2ȱ(1895).ȱBernsteinȱandȱKautskyȱlaterȱbrokeȱwithȱeach
otherȱoverȱtheȱapplicationȱofȱMarxistȱdoctrineȱtoȱcontemporaryȱconditions,ȱandȱBernstein’sȱrevised
(durchgesehene)ȱeditionȱreflectsȱhisȱviewsȱasȱaȱ“revisionist”ȱMarxist.ȱForȱKautsky’sȱtakeȱonȱtheȱsame
period,ȱseeȱnoteȱ19.
15
FriedrichȱEngels,ȱDerȱStaatȱalsȱWirklichkeit,ȱPartȱ2:ȱDerȱdeutscheȱBauernkriegȱ(1850;ȱZürich:ȱPegasus,
1945),ȱ39.ȱ
868 ThomasȱWillard
[InȱtheȱsoȬcalledȱreligiousȱwarsȱofȱtheȱSixteenthȱCentury,ȱveryȱpositiveȱmaterialȱclassȬ
interestsȱwereȱatȱplay,ȱandȱthoseȱwarsȱwereȱclassȱwarsȱjustȱasȱwereȱtheȱlaterȱcollisions
inȱEnglandȱandȱFrance.16]
ForȱEngels,ȱMüntzerȱwasȱprimarilyȱaȱpoliticalȱfigure:
Münzerȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱtrennteȱsichȱjetztȱentschiedenȱvonȱderȱbügerlichenȱReformationȱundȱtrat
vonȱnunȱanȱzugleichȱdirectȱalsȱpolitischerȱAgitatorȱauf.
Seineȱ theologischȬphilosophischeȱ Doktrinȱ griffȱ alleȱ Hauptpunkteȱ nichtȱ nurȱ des
Katholizismus,ȱsondernȱdesȱChristentumsȱüberhauptȱan.ȱErȱlehrteȱunterȱchristlichen
FormenȱeinenȱPantheismus,ȱderȱmitȱderȱmodernenȱspekulativenȱAnschauungsweise
eineȱmerkwürdigeȱÄhnlichkeitȱhatȱundȱstellenweiseȱsogarȱanȱAtheismusȱanstreift.17
[Muenzerȱ .ȱ .ȱ .ȱ relinquishedȱ theȱ middleȬclassȱ reformation,ȱ andȱ atȱ theȱ sameȱ time
appearedȱasȱaȱdirectȱpoliticalȱagitator.
Hisȱ theologicȬphilosophicȱ doctrineȱ attackedȱ allȱ theȱ mainȱ pointsȱ notȱ onlyȱ of
Catholicismȱ butȱ ofȱ Christianityȱ asȱ such.ȱ Underȱ theȱ cloakȱ ofȱ Christianȱ forms,ȱ he
preachedȱ aȱ kindȱ ofȱ pantheism,ȱ whichȱ curiouslyȱ resemblesȱ theȱ modernȱ speculative
modeȱofȱcontemplation,ȱandȱatȱtimesȱevenȱtaughtȱopenȱatheism.18]
Theȱ statementȱ appliesȱ fairlyȱ wellȱ toȱ Müntzer,ȱ aȱ formerȱ Catholicȱ priestȱ and
Lutheranȱpastorȱwhoseȱhatredȱofȱclergyȱextendedȱtoȱnoblesȱandȱledȱtoȱaȱmessage
ofȱviolentȱrevolt.19ȱWinstanley,ȱbyȱcontrast,ȱremainedȱaȱpacifist.ȱHeȱdidȱnotȱurge
actionȱagainstȱlandowners,ȱsimplyȱjusticeȱforȱpeasants.ȱNevertheless,ȱtheȱtactic
takenȱwithȱMüntzerȱwasȱappliedȱtoȱWinstanleyȱinȱBernstein’sȱbookȱandȱinȱmany
ofȱthoseȱwhichȱfollowedȱitsȱeventualȱtranslation,ȱinȱ1930.20ȱForȱaȱwholeȱgeneration
ofȱhistorians,ȱwritingȱinȱtheȱ1930sȱandȱafter,ȱWinstanleyȱwasȱaȱBritishȱSocialist
avantȱ laȱlettre.21ȱTheȱfirstȱmodernȱeditionȱofȱhisȱworksȱomittedȱthoseȱwithȱlittle
“communist”ȱappeal.22ȱTheȱmostȱdistinguishedȱhistorian,ȱtheȱlateȱChristopherȱHill,
16
FriedrichȱEngels,ȱTheȱGermanȱRevolutions:ȱTheȱPeasantȱWarȱinȱGermanyȱandȱGermany:ȱRevolutionȱand
CounterȬRevolution,ȱtrans.ȱLeonardȱKriegerȱ(1850;ȱChicago:ȱUniversityȱofȱChicagoȱPress,ȱ1967),ȱ34.
17
Engels,ȱDerȱdeutscheȱBauernkriegȱ(seeȱnoteȱ15),ȱ55.
18
Engels,ȱTheȱPeasantȱWarȱinȱGermanyȱ(seeȱnoteȱ16),ȱ45–46.ȱ
19
SeeȱtheȱintroductoryȱmaterialȱinȱMichaelȱBaylor,ȱed.ȱandȱtrans.,ȱRevelationȱandȱRevolution:ȱBasic
WritingsȱofȱThomasȱMüntzerȱ(Cambridge:ȱCambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1991).ȱForȱaȱbetterȱanalogue
toȱtheȱDiggers,ȱseeȱtheȱtreatmentȱofȱtheȱGermanȱTaboritesȱinȱKarlȱKautsky,ȱȱCommunismȱinȱCentral
EuropeȱinȱtheȱTimeȱofȱtheȱReformation,ȱtrans.ȱJ.ȱL.ȱandȱE.ȱG.ȱMullikenȱ(London:ȱFisherȱUnwin,ȱ1897),
29–77;ȱ firstȱ publishedȱ inȱ 1895ȱ asȱ vol.ȱ 2ȱ inȱ Dieȱ Geschichteȱ desȱ Sozialismusȱ (seeȱ noteȱ 14),ȱ aȱ series
Kautskyȱ laterȱ continuedȱ asȱ Vorläuferȱ desȱ neuerenȱ Sozialismus.ȱ Forȱ aȱ discussionȱ ofȱ theȱ German
Peasants’ȱWarȱinȱ1525,ȱseeȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱScottȱL.ȱTaylor.
20
EduardȱBernstein,ȱCromwellȱandȱCommunism,ȱtrans.ȱH.ȱJ.ȱStenningȱ(London:ȱAllenȱ&ȱUnwin,ȱ1930);
firstȱpublishedȱasȱSozialismusȱundȱDemokratieȱinȱderȱgroßenȱenglischenȱRevolutionȱ(seeȱnoteȱ14).
21
See,ȱe.g.,ȱDavidȱW.ȱPetegorsky,ȱLeftȬWingȱDemocracyȱinȱtheȱEnglishȱCivilȱWar:ȱAȱStudyȱofȱtheȱSocial
PhilosophyȱofȱGerrardȱWinstanleyȱ(London:ȱVictorȱGollancz,ȱ1940).
22
TheȱWorksȱofȱGerrardȱWinstanley,ȱwithȱanȱAppendixȱofȱDocumentsȱRelatedȱtoȱtheȱDiggerȱMovement,ȱed.
GeorgeȱH.ȱSabineȱ(1941;ȱNewȱYork:ȱRussellȱ&ȱRussell,ȱ1965).
cameȱonlyȱlatterlyȱtoȱconcedeȱthatȱWinstanley’sȱChristianityȱwasȱimportantȱtoȱhis
wayȱofȱthinking.23ȱHillȱincludedȱnoȱreligiousȱtractsȱinȱhisȱeditionȱofȱWinstanley’s
writings,ȱthoughȱheȱofferedȱaȱfewȱpoemsȱfromȱthem.24ȱOnlyȱwhenȱhisȱtreatmentȱof
Winstanleyȱwasȱchallengedȱinȱaȱleadingȱjournalȱofȱchurchȱhistoryȱdidȱheȱtemporize
andȱ retrench.25ȱ Heȱ respondedȱ withȱ anȱ importantȱ monographȱ onȱ Winstanley’s
religiousȱviews,26ȱandȱtheȱissueȱwasȱsoonȱlaidȱtoȱrest.27ȱAlthoughȱHillȱpointedȱto
seriousȱmethodologicalȱflawsȱinȱtheȱaccusingȱarticle,ȱtheȱauthorsȱraisedȱaȱpowerful
caseȱforȱWinstanleyȱ“asȱheȱsaidȱheȱwas,”ȱthatȱis,ȱasȱaȱChristianȱvisionary.
Sinceȱthen,ȱaȱfewȱwritersȱhaveȱtriedȱtoȱbringȱtheȱreligiousȱandȱpoliticalȱwritings
togetherȱandȱtoȱseeȱaȱconnectionȱbetweenȱthem.28ȱFewerȱstillȱhaveȱconsideredȱthe
influenceȱ ofȱ radicalȱ ideasȱ fromȱ outsideȱ politicsȱ orȱ religionȱ suchȱ asȱ thoseȱ of
Paracelsusȱ andȱ theȱ alchemicalȱ philosophers.29ȱ Withȱ veryȱ fewȱ exceptions,30ȱ the
emphasisȱhasȱfallenȱonȱWinstanley’sȱpoliticalȱthought.ȱThereȱisȱgoodȱreasonȱfor
this:ȱtheȱreligiousȱideasȱareȱnotȱunusualȱforȱtheȱtimeȱandȱdoȱnotȱclaimȱtheȱsame
attentionȱasȱtheȱpoliticalȱones.ȱHowever,ȱtheyȱclearlyȱhaveȱaȱpartȱinȱtheȱformation
ofȱtheȱlaterȱpoliticalȱthought,ȱwhichȱculminatesȱinȱWinstanley’sȱutopianȱLawȱof
Freedomȱandȱitsȱmostȱmemorableȱstatement:ȱ“TrueȱCommonwealthsȱfreedomȱliesȱinȱthe
freeȱEnjoymentȱofȱtheȱEarth.”31
TheȱpublicationȱofȱaȱscholarlyȱeditionȱofȱWinstanley’sȱcompleteȱworksȱinȱ2010
hasȱplacedȱhisȱfiveȱreligiousȱtractsȱinȱoneȱvolumeȱ(threeȱofȱthemȱreprintedȱforȱthe
firstȱ timeȱ inȱ 350ȱ years)ȱ andȱ hisȱ thirteenȱ politicalȱ writingsȱ inȱ aȱ second,ȱ smaller
volume,ȱaccompaniedȱthereȱbyȱhisȱfiveȱextantȱlettersȱ.ȱTheȱeditors’ȱprefaceȱinvites
23
WinstanleyȱfiguresȱimportantlyȱinȱaȱbookȱwhichȱreclaimedȱvariousȱEnglishȱradicalsȱ fromȱthe
“lunaticȱfringe”ȱofȱhistory:ȱChristopherȱHill,ȱTheȱWorldȱTurnedȱUpsideȱDown:ȱRadicalȱIdeasȱinȱthe
EnglishȱRevolutionȱ(London:ȱTempleȱSmith,ȱ1972),ȱesp.ȱ13.ȱ
24
GerrardȱWinstanley,ȱTheȱLawȱofȱFreedomȱandȱOtherȱWritings,ȱed.ȱChristopherȱHillȱ(Harmondsworth,
England:ȱPenguin,ȱ1973),ȱ390–91.ȱHillȱdiscussesȱWinstanley’sȱreligionȱ asȱaȱsourceȱofȱ“myths”
resemblingȱthoseȱofȱaȱpoet;ȱseeȱ“Introduction,”ȱ54–57.ȱ
25
LotteȱMulligan,ȱJohnȱK.ȱGraham,ȱandȱJudithȱRichards,ȱ“Winstanley:ȱAȱCaseȱforȱtheȱManȱasȱHe
SaidȱHeȱWas,”ȱJournalȱofȱEcclesiasticalȱHistoryȱ38ȱ(1977):ȱ57–75.ȱ
26
ChristopherȱHill,ȱTheȱReligionȱofȱGerrardȱWinstanley,ȱPastȱ&ȱPresentȱSupplement,ȱ5ȱ(Oxford:ȱPast
andȱPresentȱSociety,ȱ1978).
27
Theȱ authorsȱ ofȱ theȱ earlierȱ articleȱ reviewedȱ Hill’sȱ monographȱ inȱ “Theȱ Religionȱ ofȱ Gerrard
Winstanley,”ȱPastȱ&ȱPresentȱ89ȱ(Nov.ȱ1980):ȱ145–46,ȱtoȱwhichȱHillȱwroteȱ“AȱRejoinder,”ȱPastȱ&
Presentȱ89ȱ(Nov.ȱ1980):ȱ147–51.ȱ
28
See,ȱe.g.,ȱT.ȱWilsonȱHayes,ȱWinstanleyȱtheȱDigger:ȱAȱLiteraryȱAnalysisȱofȱRadicalȱIdeasȱinȱtheȱEnglish
Revolutionȱ(Cambridge,ȱMA:ȱHarvardȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1979).ȱ
29
See,ȱ e.g.,ȱ Davidȱ W.ȱ Mulderȱ Theȱ Alchemyȱ ofȱ Revolution:ȱ Gerrardȱ Winstanley’sȱ Occultismȱ and
SeventeenthȬCenturyȱEnglishȱCommunismȱ(NewȱYork:ȱPeterȱLang,ȱ1990),ȱesp.ȱ52–53.
30
See,ȱe.g.ȱ,ȱOliverȱLutaud,ȱWinstanley:ȱSocialismeȱetȱChristianismeȱsousȱCromwell.ȱÉtudesȱAnglais,ȱ66
(Paris:ȱDidier,ȱ1976).
31
GerrardȱWinstanley,ȱTheȱLawȱofȱFreedomȱinȱaȱPlatform;ȱor,ȱTrueȱMagistracyȱRestoredȱ(London:ȱGiles
Calvert,ȱ1652),ȱ17;ȱCWGW,ȱ2:ȱ295.
870 ThomasȱWillard
aȱfreshȱassessmentȱofȱtheȱœuvreȱasȱaȱwhole.ȱTheyȱpointȱoutȱthatȱWinstanleyȱshares
manyȱ ofȱ theȱ religiousȱ heterodoxiesȱ foundȱ inȱ hisȱ contemporaryȱ Johnȱ Milton,
includingȱArianismȱandȱmortalism.ȱTheyȱalsoȱnoteȱthatȱhisȱreligiousȱthoughtȱwas
antiȬclericalȱ ratherȱ thanȱ antiȬChristian.ȱ (Thatȱ isȱ perhapsȱ theȱ chiefȱ pointȱ of
resemblanceȱwithȱMüntzer.)ȱTheyȱalsoȱseeȱsignsȱofȱAnabaptism,ȱantinominalism,
andȱuniversalism,ȱandȱtheyȱconclude:
Repelledȱbyȱtheȱpracticesȱandȱteachingsȱofȱaȱprofessionalȱministry,ȱWinstanleyȱwas
neverthelessȱdeeplyȱreligiousȱandȱsharedȱallȱtheseȱheterodoxȱbeliefs,ȱasȱwellȱasȱaȱstrong
beliefȱinȱcompleteȱlibertyȱofȱconscience.32
Inȱtheȱnextȱsection,ȱIȱwillȱshowȱhowȱheȱcameȱtoȱchampionȱthisȱlastȱfreedom,ȱwhich
theȱlearnedȱdivineȱJeremyȱTaylorȱcalledȱ“theȱlibertyȱofȱprophesying.”33
2.ȱWinstanley’sȱEarlyȱLifeȱ(1609–1649)
Bornȱ inȱ 1609,ȱ Winstanleyȱ wasȱ almostȱ fortyȱ whenȱ heȱ ledȱ theȱ Diggersȱ toȱ Saint
George’sȱ Hill.ȱ Tenȱ yearsȱ earlier,ȱ heȱ hadȱ beenȱ aȱ successfulȱ clothȱ merchantȱ in
London,ȱaȱfreemanȱofȱtheȱMerchantȱTaylors’ȱCompanyȱandȱȱtheȱownerȱofȱaȱshop
inȱtheȱparishȱofȱSaintȱOlaveȱJewry.34ȱHeȱmarriedȱandȱtookȱanȱapprentice.ȱHeȱjoined
theȱvestryȱofȱhisȱparishȱchurchȱandȱbecameȱinvolvedȱinȱpoliticalȱdiscussions.ȱAs
civilȱwarȱloomedȱinȱ1643,ȱandȱtheȱkingȱthreatenedȱtoȱsideȱwithȱIrishȱCatholics,ȱhe
votedȱtoȱsignȱtheȱSolemnȱLeagueȱandȱCovenantȱbetweenȱParliamentaryȱforcesȱand
ProtestantȱCovenantersȱinȱScotland.ȱHowever,ȱhisȱbusinessȱwasȱfailingȱamidstȱthe
uncertaintiesȱofȱtheȱage,ȱandȱbyȱtheȱtimeȱwarȱbrokeȱoutȱheȱwasȱbankrupt.ȱHounded
byȱcreditors,ȱheȱleftȱLondonȱinȱDecemberȱ1643.ȱHeȱmovedȱtoȱCobham,ȱinȱSurrey,
whereȱhisȱfatherȬinȬlaw,ȱaȱLondonȱbarberȬsurgeon,ȱheldȱpropertyȱasȱaȱyeomanȱor
tenantȱfarmer.ȱHereȱheȱmadeȱtheȱratherȱdramaticȱcareerȱchangeȱfromȱhaberdashery
toȱagriculture.ȱHeȱbecomeȱaȱgrazier,ȱwhoȱpasturedȱcattleȱandȱprovidedȱtheirȱwinter
feed.ȱHeȱalsoȱtradedȱinȱfoodstuffs.
Theȱcareerȱchangeȱseemedȱsensible,ȱforȱhisȱnewȱhomeȱinȱtheȱvillageȱofȱCobham
StreetȱwasȱlocatedȱonȱtheȱPortsmouthȱroad,ȱmidwayȱbetweenȱLondonȱandȱaȱlarge
portȱonȱtheȱEnglishȱChannel.ȱItȱwasȱknownȱasȱaȱmarketȱtown,ȱandȱheȱmightȱhave
prosperedȱifȱtheȱweatherȱhadȱcooperated.ȱAsȱitȱhappened,ȱthough,ȱtheȱ1640sȱhad
32
CWGW,ȱ1:ȱ50.ȱ
33
Jeremyȱ Taylor,ȱ ȱ ΌΉΓΏΓ·΍΅ȱ ΉΎΏΉΎΘ΍Ύ΋:ȱ Aȱ Discourrseȱ ofȱ theȱ Libertyȱ ofȱ Prophesying.ȱ Shewingȱ the
UnreasonablenesȱofȱprescribingȱtoȱotherȱmensȱFaith,ȱandȱtheȱinequityȱofȱpersecutingȱdifferingȱopinions
(London:ȱR.ȱRoyston,ȱ1647).
34
J.ȱ D.ȱ Davisȱ andȱ J.ȱ C.ȱ Alsop,ȱ “Gerrardȱ Winstanley,”ȱ Oxfordȱ Dictionaryȱ ofȱ Nationalȱ Biography
http://www.oxforddnb.comȱ (lastȱ accessedȱ onȱ Aug.ȱ 19,ȱ 2011).ȱ Unlessȱ otherwiseȱ indicated,
biographicalȱdetailsȱaboutȱWinstanleyȱcomeȱfromȱthisȱexcellentȱentry.
someȱ ofȱ theȱ worstȱ weatherȱ ofȱ theȱ century;ȱ theȱ summersȱ alternatedȱ between
droughtȱandȱflood,ȱwhileȱtheȱwintersȱwereȱharsh.ȱThereȱwereȱwidespreadȱcrop
failures,ȱand,ȱbyȱtheȱendȱofȱ1647,ȱWinstanleyȱwasȱforcedȱtoȱdeclareȱbankruptcyȱa
secondȱtime.ȱTheȱexperienceȱprecipitatedȱaȱprofoundȱdepression,ȱandȱforȱweeks
heȱsatȱalone,ȱreadingȱtheȱBibleȱandȱpraying.ȱAtȱsomeȱpointȱinȱtheȱearlyȱmonthsȱof
1648,ȱheȱexperiencedȱanȱ“overflowingȱAnointing”ȱbyȱtheȱspiritȱofȱGodȱorȱwhatȱhe
termedȱ theȱ “Spiritȱ ofȱ Righteousnesse.”ȱ Atȱ aȱ timeȱ whenȱ hisȱ heartȱ wasȱ fullȱ of
“deadnesseȱandȱuncomfortablenesse,”ȱheȱwrote:ȱ“Iȱhaveȱȱbeenȱfilledȱwithȱsuch
peace,ȱlight,ȱlife,ȱandȱfullnes,ȱthatȱifȱIȱhadȱtwoȱpairȱofȱhands,ȱIȱhadȱmatterȱenough
revealed,ȱtoȱhaveȱkeptȱthemȱwritingȱaȱlongȱtime.”35
ThoughȱlargelyȱselfȬtaught,ȱWinstanleyȱwroteȱwithȱremarkableȱfluencyȱbyȱany
standard.ȱHeȱpublishedȱfourȱvolumesȱofȱtheologyȱinȱ1648,ȱandȱheȱcompletedȱaȱfifth
volumeȱ inȱ theȱ firstȱ weeksȱ ofȱ 1649.ȱ Allȱ theȱ booksȱ wereȱ printedȱ forȱ theȱ London
stationerȱGilesȱCalvert,ȱwhoseȱbookshopȱ“atȱtheȱblackȱSpreadȬEagleȱatȱtheȱwestȱend
ofȱ[Saint]ȱPaulsȱ[Churchyard]”inȱLondonȱwasȱlaterȱdescribedȱasȱ“theȱforgeȱofȱthe
devilȱfromȱwhenceȱsoȱmanyȱblasphemous,ȱlyingȱscandalousȱpamphletsȱforȱmany
yearsȱpastȱhaveȱbeenȱspreadȱoverȱtheȱland.”36ȱCalvert’sȱpublicationsȱcoveredȱa
wideȱrangeȱofȱradicalȱthought,ȱfromȱtheologyȱ(JacobȱBöhme)ȱtoȱtheosophyȱ(the
Rosicrucianȱmanifestos)ȱandȱscienceȱ(SamuelȱHartlib).ȱHeȱaloneȱcouldȱhaveȱput
Winstanleyȱ inȱ touchȱ withȱ fellowȱ travelersȱ ofȱ variousȱ stripesȱ andȱ undoubtedly
helpedȱ toȱ putȱ hisȱ booksȱ inȱ theȱ handsȱ ofȱ sympatheticȱ readers.ȱ Winstanley
maintained,ȱhowever,ȱthatȱtheȱideasȱinȱtheȱDiggerȱpamphetsȱcameȱtoȱhimȱdirectly:
allȱthatȱIȱhaveȱwritȱconcerningȱtheȱmatterȱofȱDigging,ȱIȱneverȱreadȱitȱinȱanyȱbook,ȱnor
receivedȱitȱfromȱanyȱmouth;ȱthoughȱsinceȱtheȱlightȱwasȱgivenȱme,ȱIȱhaveȱmetȱwith
divers,ȱtoȱwhomȱtheȱsameȱlightȱofȱtruthȱisȱrevealed.37
TheȱvoiceȱthatȱspokeȱtoȱWinstanleyȱwasȱreassuring,ȱandȱtheȱfiveȱtheologicalȱtracts
offeredȱ reassuranceȱ toȱ otherȱ Christians,ȱ reassuranceȱ thatȱ thereȱ wasȱ aȱ purpose
behindȱ theȱ travailsȱ theyȱ facedȱ daily.ȱ Likeȱ Miltonȱ inȱ Paradiseȱ Lost,ȱ heȱ writesȱ to
“justifieȱtheȱwayesȱofȱGodȱtoȱmen.”38ȱHowever,ȱhisȱȱGodȱresemblesȱthatȱofȱthe
ancientȱGnosticsȱinȱoneȱrespectȱandȱanticipatesȱthatȱofȱtheȱDeistsȱinȱanother.ȱFor
him,ȱ theȱ trueȱ Godȱ couldȱ notȱ wantȱ hisȱ chiefȱ creationȱ toȱ sufferȱ theȱ repression
imposedȱinȱtheȱnameȱofȱreligion;ȱthatȱwouldȱbeȱtheȱworkȱofȱaȱfalseȱGod,ȱorȱantiȬ
Christ,ȱcreatedȱbyȱtheȱoppressors.ȱGodȱcreatedȱmanȱinȱhisȱimage,ȱandȱmanȱisȱa
35
GerrardȱWinstanley,ȱSeverallȱPiecesȱCollectedȱinȱOneȱVolumeȱ(London:ȱGilesȱCalvert,ȱ1650),ȱȱA2r–v;
CWGW,ȱ1:ȱ98.
36
Quotedȱ inȱ Hill,ȱ Theȱ Worldȱ Turnedȱ Upsideȱ Down,ȱ 301–02.ȱ Seeȱ Arielȱ Hessayon,ȱ “Gilesȱ Calvert,”
OxfordȱDictionaryȱofȱNationalȱBiographyȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱJulyȱ29,ȱ2011).ȱ
37
Winstanley,ȱSeveralȱPiecesȱCollected,ȱA3v–A4r;ȱCWGW,ȱ1:ȱ99.
38
ParadiseȱLost,ȱbookȱ1,ȱlineȱ25.
872 ThomasȱWillard
rationalȱanimal;ȱtherefore,ȱtheȱvoiceȱofȱGodȱmustȱbeȱtheȱvoiceȱofȱreasonȱitself,ȱand
indeedȱtheȱvoiceȱtellsȱhimȱtoȱcallȱitȱReason.ȱȱ
Ifȱweȱreadȱtheȱfiveȱtractsȱinȱtheȱorderȱofȱtheirȱarrangementȱinȱtheȱnewlyȱcollected
works,ȱwhichȱisȱmostȱlikelyȱthatȱofȱtheirȱcompositionȱandȱoriginalȱpublication,ȱwe
seeȱaȱclearȱprogressionȱinȱtheȱsocialȱaspectȱofȱWinstanley’sȱthought.ȱTheȱfirstȱtract
isȱaȱfairlyȱconventionalȱcommentaryȱonȱtheȱBookȱofȱRevelationȱItȱisȱsignificant
mainlyȱforȱitsȱinsistenceȱthatȱ“ChristȱhathȱbegunȱtoȱreignȱinȱhisȱSaints.”39ȱTheȱnext
isȱaȱdispensationalistȱtract,ȱidentifyingȱtheȱvariousȱdispensations,ȱorȱrevelations,
inȱtheȱhistoryȱofȱmankindȱandȱmovingȱfromȱinnocenceȱandȱconscienceȱinȱGenesis
toȱgraceȱandȱtheȱMillenniumȱinȱRevelation.ȱWinstanleyȱassertsȱthatȱwhatȱheȱwrites
“wasȱ givenȱ meȱ ofȱ myȱ Father”ȱ andȱ “isȱ notȱ aȱ spiritȱ ofȱ privateȱ fancie,ȱ butȱ itȱ is
agreeableȱtoȱtheȱWrittenȱword.”40ȱTheȱthirdȱtractȱassertsȱthatȱnoȱoneȱneedsȱspiritual
counselȱbeyondȱtheȱSpiritȱofȱGodȱtheȱFatherȱwhichȱdwellsȱinȱeveryone:
ifȱyouȱsubjectȱyourselfȱtoȱthisȱmightyȱgovernour,ȱtheȱspiritȱofȱrighteousnessȱwithin
yourȱselves,ȱheȱwillȱbringȱyouȱintoȱcommunityȱwithȱtheȱwholeȱGlobe,ȱsoȱthatȱinȱtime
youȱshallȱcomeȱtoȱknowȱasȱyouȱareȱknownȱ[1ȱCorinthiansȱ13:ȱ22],ȱandȱyouȱshallȱnot
needȱtoȱrunȱafterȱothersȱ,ȱtoȱlearnȱofȱthemȱwhatȱGodȱis,ȱforȱyouȱareȱaȱperfectȱcreation,
everyȱoneȱofȱhimself;ȱsoȱyouȱshallȱsee,ȱandȱfeelȱthatȱthisȱspiritȱisȱtheȱgreatȱgovernour
inȱyou,ȱinȱrighteousnesse;ȱandȱwhenȱyouȱknowȱtheȱtruth,ȱtheȱtruthȱshallȱmakeȱyouȱfree
fromȱtheȱbondageȱofȱtheȱcovetousȱ[Johnȱ8:ȱ22],ȱandȱproudȱflesh,ȱtheȱSerpentȱthatȱholds
youȱunderȱslaveryȱallȱyourȱlifeȱtime.41
Inȱtheȱpreface,ȱWinstanleyȱstatesȱthatȱheȱdoesȱnotȱintendȱtoȱteachȱothers,ȱonlyȱto
helpȱ themȱ findȱ theȱ innerȱ voiceȱ ofȱ God,ȱ whichȱ speaksȱ throughȱ hisȱ Spiritȱ (the
ParacleteȱofȱJohn’sȱlettersȱinȱtheȱNewȱTestament):
Iȱdoȱnotȱwriteȱtoȱteach,ȱIȱonlyȱdeclareȱwhatȱIȱknow,ȱyouȱmayȱteachȱme,ȱforȱyouȱhaveȱthe
fountaineȱofȱlifeȱinȱyouȱasȱwellȱasȱI,ȱandȱthereforeȱheȱisȱcalledȱtheȱLord,ȱbecauseȱhe
rulesȱnotȱinȱone,ȱbutȱinȱeveryoneȱthroughȱtheȱglobe,ȱandȱsoȱweȱbeingȱmany,ȱareȱknit
togetherȱintoȱoneȱbody,ȱ&ȱareȱtoȱbeȱmadeȱallȱofȱoneȱheart,ȱandȱoneȱminde,ȱbyȱthatȱone
spiritȱwhichȱenlightensȱeveryȱman.42ȱ
Withȱthisȱdivineȱguidance,ȱreadersȱwouldȱenterȱwhatȱWinstanleyȱcalledȱ“theȱSaints
Paradise.”ȱHeȱlaterȱremarked,ȱ“someȱhaveȱsaid,ȱIȱhadȱdoneȱwellȱifȱIȱhadȱleftȱoff
writingȱwhenȱIȱhadȱfinishedȱtheȱSaintsȱParadise.”43ȱTheseȱpeopleȱsawȱsignsȱofȱhis
39
GerrardȱWinstanley,ȱTheȱBreakingȱofȱtheȱDayȱofȱGodȱ(London:ȱGilesȱCalvert,ȱ1648),ȱA1r;ȱCWGW,ȱ1:
101.ȱTheȱreignȱofȱChristȱisȱpredictedȱinȱRevelationȱ19:15.
40
Ierrardȱ(sic)ȱWinstanley,ȱTheȱMysterieȱofȱGod,ȱConcerningȱtheȱwholeȱCreation,ȱMankinde.ȱToȱBeȱMade
knownȱtoȱeveryȱmanȱandȱwoman,ȱafterȱsevenȱDispensationsȱandȱSeasonsȱofȱTimeȱareȱpassedȱover.ȱPrinted
inȱtheȱYeere,ȱ1648ȱ(Noȱplace:ȱnoȱpublisher),ȱsignatureȱA2r,ȱA3v;ȱCWGW,ȱ1:ȱ255,ȱ257.
41
GerrardȱWinstanley,ȱTheȱSaintsȱParadiceȱ(London:ȱGilesȱCalvert,ȱ1648),ȱA4r;ȱCWGW,ȱ1:ȱ315.
42
Winstanley,ȱTheȱSaintsȱParadiceȱ(London:ȱGilesȱCalvert,ȱ1648),ȱA4r–v;ȱCWGW,ȱ1:ȱ316.ȱ
43
Winstanley,ȱSeverallȱPiecesȱCollected,ȱA3v;ȱCWGW,ȱ1:ȱ99.ȱ
laterȱDiggerȱconvictionsȱinȱtheȱlastȱtwoȱtheologicalȱtracts.ȱYetȱevenȱinȱtheȱthird
Winstanleyȱ “conflatesȱ allȱ secularȱ powerȱ intoȱ oneȱ oppressiveȱ formation”—a
conceptȱwhich,ȱasȱhisȱmostȱrecentȱeditorsȱnote,ȱ“becomesȱaȱmajorȱthemeȱinȱhisȱlater
writings.”44ȱ
Theȱfourthȱtheologicalȱpamphletȱbeginsȱwithȱanȱopenȱletterȱ“ToȱtheȱSchollarsȱof
OxfordȱandȱCambridge,ȱandȱtoȱallȱthatȱcallȱthemȬselvesȱMinistersȱofȱtheȱGospelȱinȱCity
andȱ Country.”ȱ Winstanleyȱ advisesȱ scholarsȱ notȱ toȱ claimȱ accessȱ toȱ “original
Scripture”ȱjustȱbecauseȱtheyȱcanȱreadȱHebrewȱandȱGreek.ȱAfterȱall,ȱchangesȱmay
haveȱcreptȱintoȱtheȱtextsȱandȱmayȱevenȱhaveȱbeenȱplacedȱthereȱdeliberately.ȱThe
textsȱhaveȱflowedȱthroughȱtheȱSpirit,ȱafterȱall,ȱandȱ“theȱSpiritȱisȱnotȱconfinedȱto
yourȱ Universities,ȱ butȱ itȱ spreadsȱ fromȱ Eastȱ toȱ West,ȱ andȱ enlightensȱ sonsȱ and
daughtersȱ inȱ allȱ parts.”45ȱ Theȱ wordȱ daughtersȱ isȱ significant.ȱ Oneȱ studentȱ of
“visionaryȱwomen”ȱinȱseventeenthȬcenturyȱEnglandȱhasȱnotedȱthatȱWinstanley
thinksȱwomenȱhaveȱeveryȱrightȱtoȱprophesyȱandȱpreach.46ȱThisȱfirstȱintroductory
noteȱisȱfollowedȱbyȱanȱaddressȱ“ToȱtheȱgentleȱReader,”ȱwhoȱisȱaskedȱtoȱconsider
theȱcaseȱofȱoneȱWilliamȱEverard,ȱaȱformerȱsoldierȱinȱtheȱParliamentaryȱarmyȱand
aȱfollowerȱofȱtheȱprophetȱJohnȱPordage.ȱEverardȱwasȱimprisonedȱonȱchargesȱof
blasphemyȱafterȱgivingȱaȱspeechȱinȱtheȱtownȱofȱKingston,ȱonlyȱaȱfewȱmilesȱfrom
Cobhamȱ onȱ theȱ roadȱ toȱ London.ȱ Winstanleyȱ wasȱ presentȱ onȱ theȱ occasionȱ and
similarlyȱ chargedȱ butȱ notȱ detained.ȱ Everardȱ laterȱ becameȱ anȱ associateȱ of
WinstanleyȱandȱaȱleaderȱofȱtheȱdiggingȱatȱSaintȱGeorge’sȱHill.47ȱHisȱnameȱappeared
firstȱonȱtheȱfirstȱDiggerȱtract,ȱandȱhistoriansȱonceȱregardedȱhimȱasȱtheȱtract’sȱmain
author.48ȱ
Theȱlastȱofȱtheȱtheologicalȱtracts,ȱTheȱNewȱLawȱofȱRighteousness,ȱhasȱtheȱsuggestive
subtitleȱ“Buddingȱforth,ȱinȱrestoringȱtheȱwholeȱCreationȱfromȱtheȱbondageȱofȱthe
44
CWGW,ȱ1:ȱ400–01,ȱnoteȱ366.
45
GerrardȱWinstanley,ȱTruthȱLiftingȱupȱitsȱHeadȱagainstȱScandalsȱ(London:ȱGilesȱCalvert,ȱ1649),ȱA3r;
CWGW,ȱ1:ȱ410.ȱ
46
PhyllisȱMack,ȱ“TheȱProphetȱandȱHerȱAudience:ȱGenderȱandȱKnowledgeȱinȱtheȱWorldȱTurned
Upsideȱ Down,”ȱ Revivingȱ theȱ Englishȱ Revolution:ȱ Reflectionsȱ andȱ Elaborationsȱ onȱ theȱ Workȱ of
ChristopherȱHill,ȱed.ȱGeofȱEleyȱandȱWilliamȱHuntȱ(London:ȱVerso,ȱ1988),ȱ139–52,ȱesp.ȱ146.ȱAlsoȱsee
Phyllisȱ Mack,ȱ Visionaryȱ Women:ȱ Ecstaticȱ Prophecyȱ inȱ SeventeenthȬCenturyȱ Englandȱ (Berkeley:
UniversityȱofȱCaliforniaȱPress,ȱ1992).ȱAndȱforȱWinstanley’sȱprotoȬfeministȱperspective,ȱseeȱCarolyn
Merchant,ȱTheȱDeathȱofȱNature:ȱWomen,ȱEcologyȱandȱtheȱScientificȱRevolutionȱ(NewȱYork:ȱHarperȱ&
Row,ȱ1983),ȱ123.
47
ArielȱHessayon,ȱ“Everard,ȱWilliam,”ȱOxfordȱDictionaryȱofȱNationalȱBiography,ȱonlineȱat:ȱ
http://www.oxforddnb.comȱȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱJulyȱ29,ȱ2011).ȱAlsoȱseeȱtheȱsameȱauthor’sȱentryȱon
“Pordage,ȱJohn,”ȱanȱassociateȱofȱEverardȱandȱaȱsourceȱofȱhisȱradicalȱreligiousȱideas.
48
GerrardȱWinstanley,ȱTheȱTrueȱLevellersȱStandardȱAdvancedȱ(London:ȱnoȱpublisher,ȱ1649).ȱȱCWGW
usesȱtheȱalternateȱtitleȱAȱDeclarationȱfromȱtheȱPoorȱoppressedȱPeopleȱofȱEnglandȱ(2:ȱ30).Theȱnamesȱof
sixteenȱmenȱappearedȱonȱtheȱtract,ȱwithȱWinstanley’sȱatȱtheȱ topȱ ofȱtheȱsecondȱcolumnȱinȱthe
originalȱedition.
874 ThomasȱWillard
curse,”ȱi.e.,ȱtheȱFallȱofȱMan.49ȱTheȱprefaceȱisȱdatedȱJanuaryȱ26,ȱ1649,ȱjustȱfourȱdays
beforeȱtheȱexecutionȱofȱKingȱCharlesȱI.ȱByȱthisȱpointȱWinstanleyȱhadȱworkedȱout
theȱtheologicalȱargumentsȱbehindȱtheȱDiggerȱtracts.ȱFollowingȱtheȱtypologyȱof
SaintȱPaul,ȱheȱregardedȱtheȱAdamȱofȱGenesisȱasȱtheȱ“figure”ȱ(Greekȱtypos)ȱofȱChrist
(Romansȱ 5:19).50ȱ Throughȱ hisȱ primalȱ sin,ȱ Adamȱ hadȱ condemnedȱ mankindȱ to
bondageȱandȱdeath,ȱfromȱwhichȱChristȱasȱtheȱsecondȱAdamȱwouldȱreleaseȱit:ȱ“For
asȱinȱAdamȱallȱdie,ȱevenȱsoȱinȱChristȱshallȱallȱbeȱmadeȱalive”ȱ(1ȱCorinthiansȱ15:ȱ22).
TheȱoldȱAdamȱlivedȱonȱinȱtheȱtyrantsȱofȱtheȱday,ȱbutȱwouldȱsoonȱbeȱreplaced.
Winstanleyȱwrote:
OȱthouȱproudȱselfishȱgoverningȱAdam,ȱinȱthisȱLandȱcalledȱEngland!ȱKnowȱthatȱtheȱcries
ofȱtheȱpoor,ȱwhomȱthouȱlaiethȱheavyȱoppressionsȱupon,ȱisȱheard.
ThisȱisȱunrighteousȱAdam,ȱthatȱdammedȱupȱtheȱwaterȱspringsȱofȱuniversallȱliberty,ȱand
broughtȱtheȱCreationȱunderȱtheȱcurseȱofȱbondage,ȱsorrowȱandȱtears:ȱButȱwhenȱtheȱearth
becomesȱaȱcommonȱtreasuryȱasȱitȱwasȱinȱtheȱbeginning,ȱandȱtheȱKingȱofȱRighteousness
comesȱtoȱruleȱinȱeveryȱonesȱheart,ȱthenȱheȱkilsȱtheȱfirstȱAdam;ȱforȱcovetousnesseȱthereby
isȱkilled.51
ȱ
HereȱandȱelsewhereȱWinstanleyȱplaysȱonȱtheȱwordsȱAdamȱandȱaȱ dam;ȱ heȱ even
hyphenatesȱtoȱnameȱasȱAȬdam.ȱTheȱfallȱofȱAdamȱrepresentsȱaȱdammingȱupȱofȱthe
passageȱ betweenȱ heavenȱ andȱ earth,ȱ andȱ Winstanleyȱ blamesȱ theȱ congestionȱ on
covetousness.ȱ Inȱ hisȱ analysis,ȱ mankindȱ willȱ returnȱ toȱ itsȱ firstȱ happyȱ condition
whenȱcovetousnessȱisȱdoneȱawayȱwith,ȱandȱprivateȱownershipȱwithȱit,ȱsoȱthatȱearth
isȱagainȱaȱ“commonȱtreasuryȱorȱcommonwealth.”ȱWinstanleyȱreversesȱtheȱdam
metaphorȱwhenȱheȱsays,ȱ“thisȱsecondȱAdamȱChrist,ȱtheȱrestorerȱstopsȱorȱdamesȱup
theȱrunningȱofȱthoseȱstinkingȱwatersȱofȱselfȬinterest,ȱandȱcausesȱtheȱwaterȱofȱlife
andȱlibertyȱtoȱrunȱplentifully.”52ȱȱ
AllȱmenȱandȱwomenȱinȱEngland,ȱareȱalȱchildrenȱofȱthisȱLand,ȱandȱtheȱearthȱisȱtheȱLords
[Psalmȱ22:ȱ1],ȱnotȱparticularȱmensȱthatȱclaimsȱaȱproperȱinterestȱinȱitȱaboveȱothers,ȱwhich
isȱtheȱdevilsȱpower.53
49
GerrardȱWinstanley,ȱTheȱNewȱLawȱofȱRighteousnessȱ(London:ȱGilesȱCalvert,ȱ1649),ȱA1r;ȱCWGW,ȱ1:
472.
50
OnȱWinstanley’sȱmythȱofȱtheȱfallȱandȱrebirthȱofȱAdam,ȱseeȱGeorgeȱM.ȱSchulman,ȱRadicalismȱand
Reverence:ȱTheȱPoliticalȱThoughtȱofȱGerrardȱWinstanleyȱ(Berkeley:ȱUniversityȱofȱCaliforniaȱPress,
1989),ȱ19–71.
51
GerrardȱWinstanley,ȱTheȱNewȱLawȱofȱRighteousnesseȱ(London:ȱGilesȱCalvert,ȱ1649),ȱ7;ȱCWGW,ȱ1:ȱ482.
Theȱtitleȱ“KingȱofȱRighteousness”ȱisȱtheȱtranslationȱofȱtheȱnameȱofȱMelchizedekȱgivenȱinȱHebrews
7:ȱ2.ȱWinstanleyȱwouldȱlaterȱassignȱtheȱtitleȱtoȱReason,ȱinȱTheȱTrueȱLevellersȱStandardȱAdvanced,ȱ4;
CWGW,ȱ2:ȱ7.
52
Winstanley,ȱNewȱLawȱofȱRighteousness,ȱ7;ȱCWGW,ȱ1:ȱ482.
53
Winstanley,ȱNewȱLawȱofȱRighteousness,ȱ55;ȱCWGW,ȱ1:ȱ518.ȱ
Theȱ majorȱ obstacleȱ toȱ thisȱ paradiseȱ onȱ earthȱ wasȱ theȱ “enclosure”:ȱ theȱ actȱ of
“convertingȱpiecesȱofȱcommonȱlandȱintoȱprivateȱproperty”ȱandȱ theȱspaceȱthus
enclosed.54
Forȱ asȱ theȱ inclosuresȱ areȱ calledȱ suchȱ aȱ mansȱ Land,ȱ andȱ suchȱ aȱ mansȱ Land;ȱ soȱ the
Commonsȱ andȱ Heath,ȱ areȱ calledȱ theȱ commonȬpeoples,ȱ andȱ letȱ theȱ worldȱ seeȱ who
laboursȱtheȱearthȱinȱrighteousnesse,ȱandȱthoseȱtoȱwhomȱtheȱLordȱgivesȱtheȱblessing,ȱlet
themȱbeȱtheȱpeopleȱthatȱshalȱinheritȱtheȱearthȱ[Matthewȱ5:ȱ5].55
Withȱtheȱwordȱenclosure,ȱWinstanleyȱidentifiedȱaȱlegalȱproblemȱthatȱoriginated
underȱtheȱfeudalȱsystemȱmoreȱthanȱfourȱcenturiesȱearlierȱandȱpersistedȱforȱanother
twoȱcenturies.56ȱTheȱproblemȱofȱaccessȱtoȱunusedȱland,ȱorȱcommons,ȱlayȱatȱthe
heartȱofȱhisȱpoliticalȱaction.ȱItȱledȱtoȱtheȱdiggingȱatȱSaintȱGeorge’sȱHill.
3.ȱTheȱLandȱQuestion
Theȱ lawsȱ governingȱ enclosuresȱ belongedȱ toȱ aȱ wholeȱ setȱ ofȱ feudalȱ lawsȱ that
WinstanleyȱtracedȱbackȱtoȱtheȱNormanȱConquestȱofȱ1066.ȱHeȱreferredȱtoȱtheseȱlaws
asȱ theȱ “Normanȱ yoke,ȱ andȱ Babylonishȱ power,”ȱ maintainedȱ byȱ descendantsȱ of
WilliamȱtheȱConquerorȱdownȱthroughȱCharlesȱI.57ȱOnlyȱwhenȱtheyȱwereȱputȱaside
couldȱtheȱpeopleȱenjoyȱtrueȱfreedom.ȱ
Theȱfeudalȱsystem,ȱtakenȱbroadlyȱtoȱincludeȱtheȱpeasantryȱasȱwellȱasȱlordsȱand
vassals,ȱwasȱbroughtȱtoȱEnglandȱwithȱtheȱNormans.ȱAsȱJacquesȱLeȱGoff,ȱamong
others,ȱhasȱpointedȱout,ȱfeudalismȱwasȱmostȱsevereȱwhereȱitȱcameȱlast,ȱinȱtheȱareas
controlledȱbyȱtheȱNormans—inȱNormandyȱitself,ȱinȱSicily,ȱandȱinȱEngland.58ȱAsȱthe
centuriesȱpassed,ȱandȱtheȱfeudalȱsystemȱturnedȱintoȱtheȱmonarchicalȱone,ȱpressures
increasedȱonȱlandlordsȱtoȱfundȱtheȱroyalȱarmyȱratherȱthanȱfightȱinȱitȱthemselves,
andȱthisȱatȱtheȱtimeȱwhenȱcitiesȱandȱtownsȱwereȱemergingȱasȱfinancialȱcentersȱin
theirȱownȱright,ȱlimitingȱtheȱfinancialȱpowerȱofȱtheȱaristocracy.ȱTheȱpressuresȱwere
borneȱmainlyȱbyȱthoseȱatȱtheȱbottomȱofȱtheȱsocialȱscale,ȱbyȱtheȱyeomenȱwhoȱfarmed
landȱownedȱbyȱtheȱlordsȱandȱbyȱtheȱdayȱlaborersȱwhomȱtheȱyeomenȱorȱtenant
farmersȱemployed.ȱ
54
OED,ȱ“enclosure”ȱnounȱ1aȱandȱ4a.
55
Winstanley,ȱNewȱLawȱofȱRighteousness,ȱ55;ȱCWGW,ȱ1:ȱ518.ȱ
56
Wikipedia,ȱ“InclosureȱActs”ȱhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inclosure_Actsȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱAug.
19.ȱ2011).ȱ
57
Winstanley,ȱTrueȱLevellersȱStandard,ȱ8;ȱCWGW,ȱ2:ȱ13.ȱSeeȱCWGW,ȱ1:ȱ143ȱnoteȱ153.
58
JacquesȱLeȱGoff,ȱMedievalȱCivilisation,ȱ400–1500,ȱtrans.ȱJuliaȱBarrowȱ(1964;ȱLondon:ȱFolioȱSociety,
2011).ȱ94–96,ȱ111.ȱLeȱGoffȱfollowsȱtheȱcomprehensiveȱmodelȱinȱMarcȱBloch,ȱFeudalȱSociety,ȱtrans.
L.ȱA.ȱManyon,ȱ2ȱvols.ȱ(1939;ȱChicago:ȱUniversityȱofȱChicagoȱPress,ȱ1961).ȱ
876 ThomasȱWillard
InȱEngland,ȱthereȱwasȱaȱgrowingȱdivideȱbetweenȱtheȱlandlordsȱandȱyeomen,ȱon
theȱoneȱhand,ȱandȱtheȱlandlessȱlaborers,ȱonȱtheȱother.ȱAnticipatingȱtheȱtrendsȱof
modernȱagribusiness,ȱmanyȱlandlordsȱsoughtȱeconomiesȱofȱscale;ȱsomeȱswitched
fromȱgrowingȱwheatȱtoȱraisingȱsheepȱorȱcattle;ȱveryȱoftenȱtheyȱenclosedȱlandsȱand
evictedȱ tenants.ȱ Meanwhile,ȱ theȱ peasantryȱ tookȱ increasinglyȱ toȱ squattingȱ on
unusedȱlands,ȱwhichȱbyȱsomeȱestimatesȱaccountedȱforȱasȱmuchȱasȱoneȬthirdȱof
England.ȱ Hillȱ hasȱ pointedȱ outȱ thatȱ thereȱ wereȱ peopleȱ whoȱ calledȱ themselves
DiggersȱandȱLevellersȱduringȱuprisingsȱinȱtheȱMidlandsȱatȱtheȱstartȱofȱtheȱcentury
asȱwellȱasȱpeasantsȱwhoȱprotestedȱtheȱenclosureȱofȱdrainedȱfensȱinȱEssexȱandȱof
royalȱforestsȱinȱtheȱnorthȱandȱwestȱofȱEngland.59ȱ
Inȱ Cobhamȱ theȱ tensionsȱ increasedȱ asȱ landlordsȱ andȱ yeomenȱ triedȱ toȱ reach
marketsȱinȱotherȱtowns.ȱInȱtheȱprocess,ȱtheyȱtriedȱtoȱencloseȱformerȱcommons,
whileȱ cottagersȱ andȱ commonersȱ soughtȱ toȱ extendȱ theirȱ historicȱ rights.ȱ Under
customaryȱlawsȱdatingȱbackȱtoȱNormanȱrule,ȱtheȱlandlordsȱhadȱtheȱupperȱhand,
forȱjurisdictionȱlayȱwithȱmanorialȱcourtsȱappointedȱbyȱtheȱlords.60ȱWinstanleyȱhad
experienceȱinȱtheȱmanorialȱcourtȱinȱCobhamȱwhen,ȱinȱtheȱwinterȱofȱ1646,ȱheȱwas
chargedȱandȱfinedȱforȱremovingȱpeatȱfromȱaȱcommons,ȱpresumablyȱtoȱheatȱhis
home.ȱSevenȱothersȱhadȱdugȱalongsideȱhimȱandȱfacedȱtheȱsameȱcharge,ȱincluding
twoȱwomen.ȱTheȱcourtȱrecordsȱleaveȱsomeȱdoubtȱaboutȱtheirȱmotives—whether
theyȱhadȱrequestedȱpermissionȱtoȱdig,ȱorȱthoughtȱtheyȱwouldȱbeȱexcusedȱbecause
fourȱ ofȱ theȱ menȱ servedȱ onȱ theȱ townȱ council,ȱ orȱ simplyȱ wishedȱ toȱ protestȱ the
injusticeȱ ofȱ beingȱ forcedȱ toȱ purchaseȱ aȱ commodityȱ thatȱ wasȱ freelyȱ available.
Winstanleyȱdoesȱnotȱmentionȱtheȱeventȱinȱhisȱpublishedȱwritings,ȱandȱweȱcannot
knowȱhowȱtheȱexperienceȱaffectedȱhim.
WhatȱweȱdoȱknowȱisȱthatȱtheȱvoiceȱofȱReasonȱcameȱtoȱhimȱwhileȱheȱwasȱinȱa
“trance.”ȱInȱtheȱfirstȱDiggerȱtractȱheȱwroteȱ(andȱtheȱwordsȱareȱunmistakablyȱhis
own):
thisȱworkȱtoȱmakeȱtheȱearthȱaȱCommonȱTreasuryȱwasȱshewedȱusȱbyȱVoiceȱinȱTrance
andȱoutȱofȱTrance,ȱwhichȱwordsȱwereȱthese:
Workȱtogether,ȱEatȱBreadȱtogether,ȱDeclareȱthisȱallȱabroad.
Whichȱ voiceȱ wasȱ heardȱ threeȱ times:ȱ Andȱ inȱ obedienceȱ toȱ theȱ Spiritȱ weȱ haveȱ
declaredȱ thisȱ byȱ wordȱ ofȱ mouth,ȱ asȱ occasionȱ wasȱ offered.ȱ Secondly,ȱ weȱ have
declaredȱitȱbyȱwriting,ȱwhichȱothersȱmayȱread.ȱThirdly,ȱweȱhaveȱnowȱbegunȱto
declareȱitȱbyȱactionȱinȱdiggingȱupȱtheȱcommonȱland,ȱ&ȱcastingȱinȱseed,ȱthatȱwe
mayȱeatȱourȱbreadȱtogetherȱinȱrighteousnesse.ȱAndȱeveryȱoneȱthatȱcomesȱtoȱwork,
59
Hill,ȱ“Introduction,”ȱ21ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ22).ȱOnȱtheȱroyalȱforestsȱseeȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱby
MarilynȱSandidge.ȱTheȱonlyȱsuchȱforestsȱinȱSurreyȱwereȱonȱtheȱborderȱofȱHampshireȱandȱwere
sufficientlyȱsmallȱthatȱEdwardȱIIIȱdisafforestedȱtheȱwholeȱcountyȱinȱ1329;ȱseeȱRaymondȱGrant,ȱThe
RoyalȱForestsȱofȱEnglandȱ(Stroud,ȱEngland:ȱAlanȱSutton,ȱ1991),ȱ156–66.
60
Onȱcustomaryȱlawsȱandȱtheȱmaronialȱcourts,ȱseeȱtheȱcontributionȱtoȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱScottȱL.ȱTaylor.ȱ
shallȱeatȱtheȱfruitȱofȱtheirȱownȱlabours,ȱoneȱhavingȱasȱmuchȱfreedomeȱinȱtheȱfruit
ofȱtheȱearth,ȱasȱanother.ȱAnotherȱVoiceȱthatȱwasȱheard,ȱwasȱthis,
IsraelȱshallȱneitherȱtakeȱHire,ȱnorȱgiveȱHire.
Andȱ ifȱ so,ȱ thenȱ certainlyȱ noneȱ shallȱ say,ȱ thisȱ isȱ myȱ Land,ȱ workȱ forȱ me,ȱ andȱ
I’leȱgiveȱyouȱwages.ȱForȱtheȱearthȱisȱtheȱLordsȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ61
Theȱwordȱtogetherȱisȱkey.ȱLikeȱtheȱearlyȱChristiansȱwhoȱ“wereȱtogether,ȱandȱhad
allȱthingsȱinȱcommon”ȱ(Actsȱ2:ȱ44),ȱtheȱDiggersȱfoundȱstrengthȱinȱtheirȱcommunal
orȱprotoȬcommunistȱlifestyle.ȱ
ThereȱisȱoneȱoutsideȱaccountȱofȱWinstanley’sȱargument,ȱpresentedȱbyȱaȱsecretary
toȱSirȱThomasȱFairfax,ȱLordȱGeneralȱofȱCromwell’sȱNewȱModelȱArmy.ȱAfterȱa
yeomanȱlandholderȱappealedȱtoȱParliamentȱaboutȱtheȱdiggingȱatȱSaintȱGeorge’s
Hill,ȱFairfaxȱsentȱaȱtroopȱofȱsoldiersȱtoȱinvestigateȱonȱAprilȱ19ȱandȱreceivedȱaȱvisit
fromȱWinstanleyȱandȱEverardȱtheȱnextȱday.ȱDeterminedȱtoȱseeȱforȱhimself,ȱFairfax
visitedȱtheȱDiggersȱinȱMay:
AsȱhisȱExcellencyȱtheȱLordȱGenerallȱcameȱfromȱGilfordȱtoȱLondonȱheȱwentȱtoȱviewȱthe
diggersȱatȱSt.ȱGeo:ȱHillȱinȱSurry,ȱwithȱhisȱofficersȱandȱattendants,ȱwhereȱtheyȱfound
aboutȱ12.ȱofȱthemȱhardȱatȱworkȱandȱamongstȱthemȱoneȱWistanleyȱ[sic]ȱwasȱtheȱchief
SpeakerȱtoȱwhomȱseveralȱQuestionsȱwereȱpropoundedȱbyȱtheȱOfficers,ȱandȱtheȱLord
Generallȱ madeȱ aȱ shortȱ speechȱ byȱ wayȱ ofȱ admonitionȱ toȱ them,ȱ andȱ thisȱ Wistanley
returnedȱsoberȱanswers,ȱthoughȱtheyȱgaveȱlittleȱsatisfactionȱ(ifȱatȱall)ȱinȱregardȱofȱthe
strangenesseȱofȱtheȱaction.ȱ
Discussionȱturnedȱtoȱtheȱexactȱstatusȱofȱtheȱland:
ItȱwasȱurgedȱthatȱCommonsȱwereȱasȱjustlyȱdueȱtoȱtheȱLordsȱasȱanyȱotherȱLands.ȱThey
answeredȱthatȱtheseȱwereȱCrownȱLands,ȱwhereȱtheyȱdiggedȱandȱthatȱtheȱKingȱthat
possesstȱthemȱbyȱtheȱNormanȱConquestȱbeingȱdead,ȱtheyȱwereȱreturnedȱagaineȱtoȱthe
CommonȱpeopleȱofȱEnglandȱwhoȱmightȱimproveȱthemȱifȱtheyȱwouldȱtakeȱtheȱpaines,
thatȱforȱthoseȱwhoȱwouldȱcomeȱdigȱwithȱthem,ȱtheyȱshouldȱhaveȱtheȱbenefitȱequalȱwith
them,ȱandȱeatȱofȱtheirȱbreadȱbutȱtheyȱwouldȱnotȱforceȱany,ȱapplyingȱitȱtoȱtheȱGolden
rule,ȱtoȱdoȱtoȱothersȱasȱweȱwouldȱbeȱdoneȱuntoȱ[Matthewȱ7:ȱ12];ȱsomeȱofficersȱwisht
theyȱhadȱnoȱfurtherȱplotȱinȱwhatȱtheyȱdid,ȱandȱthatȱnoȱmoreȱwasȱintendedȱthenȱwhat
theyȱdidȱpretend.62
61
Winstanley,ȱ Trueȱ Levellersȱ Standardȱ Advanced,ȱ 10;ȱ CWGW,ȱ 2:ȱ 14–15.ȱ Theȱ tranceȱ andȱ voiceȱ are
mentionedȱinȱWinstanley,ȱNewȱLawȱofȱRighteousness,ȱ48;ȱCWGW,ȱ1:513.ȱInȱtheȱKingȱJamesȱBible,ȱthe
wordȱhireȱisȱassociatedȱwithȱprostitution;ȱsee,ȱe.g.,ȱDeuteronomyȱ23:ȱ18,ȱEzekielȱ16:41,ȱandȱMicah
1:ȱ7.
62
TheȱSpeechesȱofȱtheȱLordȱGeneralȱFairfax,ȱAndȱtheȱOfficersȱofȱtheȱArmieȱtoȱTheȱDiggersȱatȱSt.ȱGeorgesȱHill
inȱSurrey,ȱandȱtheȱDiggersȱseverallȱAnswersȱandȱRepliesȱthereuntoȱ(London:ȱForȱR.W.,ȱ1640),ȱ40.ȱThe
LondonȱstationerȱGeorgeȱThomasonȱdatedȱhisȱcopyȱMayȱ31.ȱ
878 ThomasȱWillard
Theȱwordȱpretendȱisȱusedȱhereȱinȱtheȱnowȱobsoleteȱsenseȱofȱ“assert”ȱorȱ“declare.”63
Someȱofficers,ȱthen,ȱtookȱWinstanleyȱatȱhisȱword,ȱandȱindeedȱthereȱhadȱbeenȱaȱlong
traditionȱofȱlevellingȱsentimentȱinȱtheȱParliamentaryȱarmy.64ȱTheseȱsoldiersȱwanted
noȱpartȱinȱdismantlingȱtheȱcommunity,ȱshouldȱFairfaxȱorȱaȱlocalȱauthorityȱgiveȱthe
order.
Theȱreferenceȱtoȱ“CrownȱLands”ȱisȱsignificant.ȱItȱsuggestsȱthatȱtheȱhillȱwasȱpart
ofȱ aȱ royalȱ huntingȱ ground,ȱ orȱ “chase,”65ȱ andȱ mightȱ thereforeȱ beȱ lessȱ directly
controlledȱ byȱ theȱ gentryȱ thanȱ otherȱ commons—forȱ example,ȱ theȱ marshyȱ area
whereȱWinstanleyȱandȱothersȱhadȱgatheredȱpeat.ȱHeȱrealizedȱthen,ȱorȱsoonȱbecame
aware,ȱthatȱtheȱnewȱgovernmentȱofȱEnglandȱhadȱbegunȱtoȱconfiscateȱroyalȱforests
andȱ otherȱ landsȱ belongingȱ toȱ theȱ formerȱ kingȱ andȱ toȱ officialsȱ inȱ theȱ now
disestablishedȱChurchȱofȱEngland.ȱHeȱlearnedȱthatȱ someȱformerȱsoldiersȱwere
takingȱadvantageȱofȱtheȱopportunityȱtoȱbecomeȱlandholders,ȱandȱheȱappealedȱto
theirȱsenseȱofȱfairnessȱinȱanotherȱopenȱletter:
youȱwereȱVolunteersȱinȱtheȱWars,ȱandȱtheȱcommonȱpeopleȱhaveȱpaidȱyouȱforȱyour
painsȱsoȱlargely,ȱthatȱsomeȱofȱusȱhaveȱnotȱleftȱourȱselvesȱhardlyȱbreadȱtoȱeate;ȱand
thereforeȱifȱȱthereȱbeȱaȱspoilȱtoȱbeȱgatheredȱofȱcrownȱLands,ȱDeans,ȱBishopsȱForrests
Landsȱandȱcommons,ȱthatȱisȱtoȱcomeȱtoȱtheȱpoorȱcommonsȱfreely;ȱandȱyouȱoughtȱtoȱbe
contentȱwithȱyourȱwagesȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱȱandȱyouȱoughtȱnotȱtoȱgoȱbuyȱoneȱofȱanotherȱthatȱwhich
isȱcommonȱtoȱallȱtheȱNationȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱWeȱthatȱareȱtheȱpoorȱcommons,ȱthatȱpaidȱourȱMoney,
andȱgaveȱyouȱfreeȱQuarter,ȱhaveȱasȱmuchȱrightȱinȱthoseȱcrownȱLandsȱandȱLandsȱofȱthe
spoilȱasȱyouȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.66
HisȱpointȱinȱbothȱdocumentsȱwasȱthatȱlandȱisȱtheȱsourceȱofȱEngland’sȱwealth.ȱWhat
hadȱbeenȱseizedȱbyȱtheȱConquerorȱandȱgivenȱtoȱhisȱfavoritesȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱsoldȱoff;
itȱshouldȱbeȱreturnedȱtoȱtheȱpeople.
Unlikeȱ Fairfax,ȱ theȱ gentryȱ ofȱ Cobhamȱ andȱ Weybridgeȱ wereȱ mostlyȱ staunch
Royalists.ȱ(Theȱoneȱexception,ȱaȱSirȱFrancisȱDrakeȱofȱnoȱrelationȱtoȱtheȱfamous
explorer,ȱ wasȱ amongȱ thoseȱ whoȱ tookȱ theȱ Diggersȱ toȱ court.)ȱ ȱ Theyȱ lookedȱ to
Parliamentȱ andȱ itsȱ armyȱ toȱ restoreȱ order,ȱ butȱ Fairfaxȱ declinedȱ toȱ actȱ untilȱ the
matterȱwentȱthroughȱtheȱcourts.ȱIronically,ȱitȱwasȱWinstanleyȱwhoȱfirstȱtookȱthe
landlordsȱtoȱcourt,ȱprotestingȱthatȱtheyȱhadȱhiredȱruffiansȱtoȱdigȱupȱtheirȱcrops,ȱset
fireȱ toȱ theirȱ dwellings,ȱ andȱ beatȱ themȱ savagely.67ȱ Onlyȱ thenȱ didȱ theȱ plaintiffs
ThomasȱSuttonȱandȱSirȱAnthonyȱVincentȱbringȱlegalȱchargesȱofȱtrespass,ȱtheft,ȱand
63
OED,ȱ“pretend,”ȱverbȱ1b.
64
Hill,ȱTheȱExperienceȱofȱDefeat,ȱ17ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ8).
65
OED,ȱ“chase,”ȱnounȱ3.ȱ
66
GerrardȱWinstanley,ȱAȱNewȬYeersȱGiftȱSentȱtoȱtheȱParliamentȱandȱArmieȱ(London:ȱGilesȱCalvert,
1650),ȱ12–13;ȱCWGW,ȱ2:ȱ118.ȱ
67
See,ȱe.g.,ȱGerrardȱWinstanley,ȱAnȱAppealȱtoȱtheȱHouseȱofȱCommonsȱ(London:ȱGilesȱCalvert,ȱ1649),
A1r;ȱCWGW,ȱ2:ȱ65.
vagrancyȱ againstȱ theȱ Diggers;ȱ whileȱ theȱ localȱ parsonȱ Robertȱ Platt,ȱ himselfȱ a
landholderȱthroughȱmarriage,ȱaccusedȱthemȱofȱidlenessȱandȱatheism.ȱTheȱcourt
foundȱinȱfavorȱofȱtheȱplaintiffs,ȱandȱtheȱarmyȱwasȱsentȱinȱtoȱevictȱtheȱDiggersȱfrom
SaintȱGeorge’sȱHill.ȱOtherȱcourtȱcasesȱcontinuedȱforȱanotherȱtwoȱyearsȱinvolving
similarȱcommunitiesȱofȱDiggersȱonȱotherȱcommonȱareasȱinȱtheȱHundredȱofȱEmleyȬ
Bridge,ȱSurrey.ȱTheȱDiggersȱrepresentedȱthemselvesȱinȱcourt,ȱasȱWinstanleyȱnotes
inȱversesȱattachedȱtoȱoneȱtract:
Noȱmoney’sȱpaid,ȱnorȱneverȱshall,ȱtoȱaȱLawyerȱofȱhisȱman
Toȱpleadȱourȱcase,ȱforȱthereinȱwe’llȱdoȱtheȱbestȱweȱcan.68
TheyȱseemȱtoȱhaveȱregardedȱWinstanley’sȱtractsȱasȱsoȱmanyȱlegalȱbriefs.
ȱ InȱanȱopenȱletterȱtoȱFairfax,ȱdatedȱJuneȱ1ȱandȱhandȬdeliveredȱaȱfewȱdaysȱlater,
Winstanleyȱraisedȱquestionsȱaboutȱtheȱrightsȱofȱnobleȱfamiliesȱtoȱlandsȱgrantedȱto
themȱbyȱtheȱmonarchyȱ(seeȱFig.ȱ1).ȱHeȱasked:
WhetherȱLordsȱofȱMannoursȱhaveȱnotȱlostȱtheirȱRoyaltyȱtoȱtheȱcommonȱland,ȱsinceȱthe
commonȱPeopleȱofȱEngland,ȱasȱ wellȱasȱsomeȱofȱtheȱGentry,ȱhave,ȱconqueredȱKing
Charles,ȱandȱrecoveredȱthemselvesȱfromȱunderȱtheȱNormanȱConquest?69
UnlikeȱtheȱmoreȱradicalȱMüntzer,ȱheȱdidȱnotȱwantȱtoȱseizeȱgentry’sȱland,ȱevenȱtheir
recentȱenclosures.ȱHeȱsimplyȱwantedȱtoȱstopȱtheȱpracticeȱofȱtakingȱcommonȱland
awayȱfromȱtheȱcommonȱpeople.ȱ
Theȱ vagrancyȱ lawsȱ wereȱ especiallyȱ difficult;ȱ indeed,ȱ aȱ manȱ couldȱ becomeȱ a
vagrantȱbyȱdiggingȱonȱaȱcommonsȱratherȱthanȱdoingȱfarmȱlaborȱforȱwages,ȱand
couldȱbeȱcalledȱaȱvagabondȱifȱheȱsleptȱatȱSaintȱGeorge’sȱHillȱratherȱthanȱhisȱhouse
inȱtown.ȱWinstanleyȱremindedȱFairfaxȱthatȱtheȱDiggersȱsoughtȱpeace,ȱnotȱconflict,
andȱwantedȱonlyȱ“toȱimproveȱtheȱCommons.”70ȱHeȱlaterȱprotestedȱtheȱviolence
perpetratedȱ uponȱ themȱ atȱ Saintȱ George’sȱ Hillȱ andȱ hisȱ ownȱ arrestȱ there,ȱ “forȱ a
Trespass,ȱinȱDiggingȱuponȱtheȱCommonȱLand.”71ȱAsȱforȱpeace,ȱheȱtoldȱtheȱarmy,
thereȱwasȱnoȱbetterȱwayȱtoȱprotectȱitȱthanȱtoȱensureȱthatȱallȱpeopleȱhadȱfreeȱaccess
toȱtheȱrichesȱofȱtheȱearth:
ifȱeveryȱoneȱdidȱbutȱquietlyȱenjoyȱtheȱearthȱforȱfoodȱandȱraiment,ȱthereȱwouldȱbeȱno
wars,ȱprisons,ȱnorȱgallows,ȱandȱthisȱactionȱwhichȱmanȱcallsȱtheftȱwouldȱbeȱnoȱsin,ȱfor
universallȱloveȱneverȱmadeȱitȱaȱsin,ȱbutȱtheȱpowerȱofȱcovetousnessȱmadeȱthatȱaȱsin,ȱand
madeȱLawsȱtoȱpunishȱitȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.72
68
GerrardȱWinstanley,ȱAȱWatchȬWordȱtoȱtheȱCityȱofȱLondon,ȱandȱtheȱArmieȱ(1650?),ȱ16;ȱCWGWȱ2:ȱ99.
69
Winstanley,ȱȱLetterȱtoȱtheȱLordȱFairfax,ȱ7ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ4);ȱCWGW,ȱ2:ȱ49.ȱForȱinformationȱonȱtheȱplaintiffs
seeȱCWGW,ȱ2:ȱ451–55.
70
Winstanley,ȱLetterȱtoȱtheȱLordȱFairfax,ȱ1;ȱCWGW,ȱ2:ȱ44.
71
Gerrardȱ Winstanley,ȱ Anȱ Appealȱ toȱ theȱ Houseȱ ofȱ Commonsȱ (London:ȱ Gilesȱ Calvert,ȱ 1649),ȱ A1r;
CWGW,ȱ2:ȱ65.
72
Winstanley,ȱAȱNewȬYeersȱGiftȱ,ȱ30–31;ȱCWGW,ȱ2:ȱ134.
880 ThomasȱWillard
4.ȱTheȱReligiousȱQuestion
Hillȱ hasȱ suggestedȱ thatȱ Winstanley’sȱ “Voice”ȱ wasȱ aȱ seventeenthȬcentury

formulationȱforȱwhatȱweȱwouldȱcallȱ“aȱsuddenȱmentalȱclarification.”ȱHeȱaddsȱthat
Winstanley’sȱ“laterȱdismissalȱofȱaȱpersonalȱGod”ȱshowsȱthatȱheȱdidȱnotȱtrulyȱ“rely
onȱ theȱ promptingsȱ ofȱ anȱ innerȱ voice.”73ȱ Heȱ citesȱ inȱ evidenceȱ aȱ passageȱ on
“Divinity”ȱ fromȱ Winstanley’sȱ finalȱ publishedȱ tract,ȱ Theȱ Lawȱ ofȱ Freedomȱ inȱ a
Platform.74ȱHereȱWinstanleyȱdrawsȱhisȱusualȱdistinctionȱbetweenȱtheȱGodȱwhoȱis
quotedȱtoȱdefendȱoppressionsȱofȱallȱsortsȱandȱtheȱGodȱofȱprivateȱexperience.ȱHe
citesȱasȱsupportȱWinstanleyȱdisdainȱforȱtheȱchurches’ȱteachingsȱaboutȱ“aȱpersonal
God,ȱ personalȱ angels,ȱ andȱ aȱ localȱ placeȱ ofȱ glory.”75ȱ However,ȱ Winstanley
continues:
Forȱmyȱownȱpart,ȱmyȱspiritȱhathȱwadedȱdeepȱtoȱfindeȱtheȱbottomȱofȱthisȱdivining
spiritualȱDoctrine:ȱandȱtheȱmoreȱIȱsearched,ȱtheȱmoreȱIȱwasȱatȱaȱloss;ȱandȱIȱneverȱcame
toȱquietȱrest,ȱandȱtoȱknowȱGodȱinȱmyȱsprit,ȱtillȱIȱcameȱtoȱtheȱknowledgeȱofȱtheȱthings
inȱthisȱBook.76
ThatȱknowledgeȱisȱthatȱtheȱoppressiveȱGodȱofȱ“pieȱinȱtheȱskyȱbyȱandȱby”ȱandȱofȱthe
olderȱbrotherȱtryingȱtoȱtakeȱadvantageȱofȱtheȱyounger:
saithȱtheȱelderȱBrother,ȱyouȱmustȱnotȱtrustȱyourȱownȱReasonȱandȱUnderstanding,ȱbutȱyou
mustȱbeleeveȱwhatȱisȱwrittenȱandȱwhatȱisȱtoldȱyou;ȱandȱifȱyouȱwillȱnotȱbelieve,ȱyourȱDamnation
willȱbeȱtheȱgreater.
Iȱcannotȱbeleeve,ȱsaithȱtheȱyoungerȱBrother,ȱthatȱourȱrighteousȱCreatorȱshouldȱbeȱsoȱpartial
inȱhisȱDispensationsȱofȱtheȱEarth,ȱseeingȱourȱbodiesȱcannotȱliveȱuponȱtheȱEarthȱwithoutȱtheȱuse
ofȱtheȱEarth.77
TheȱpassageȱisȱantiȬclericalȱratherȱthanȱantiȬChristian.ȱItsȱpointȱinȱtheȱtractȱisȱto
showȱthatȱaȱtrueȱcommonwealthȱhasȱnoȱuseȱofȱaȱprofessionalȱclergy.
Winstanleyȱ neverthelessȱ seesȱ aȱ functionȱ forȱ “aȱ Commonwealthsȱ Ministry,”ȱ a
ministryȱofȱallȱwhoseȱpurposeȱisȱtoȱeducateȱpeopleȱaboutȱtheȱcommonwealth’s
lawsȱandȱitsȱplaceȱinȱprovidentialȱhistory.ȱAboveȱall,ȱministersȱmustȱspeakȱfrom
experienceȱratherȱthanȱ“imaginaryȱstudy.”ȱByȱdoingȱso,ȱtheyȱcanȱhelpȱpeopleȱ“To
attainȱtheȱtrueȱknowledgȱofȱGodȱ(whoȱisȱtheȱSpiritȱofȱtheȱwholeȱCreation)”:
AndȱifȱtheȱEarthȱwereȱsetȱfreeȱfromȱKinglyȱBondage,ȱsoȱthatȱeveryȱoneȱwereȱsureȱto
haveȱaȱfreeȱlivelyhood,ȱandȱifȱthisȱlibertyȱwereȱgranted,ȱthenȱmanyȱsecretsȱofȱGod,ȱand
73
Hill,ȱ“Introduction”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ22),ȱ24.
74
GerrardȱWinstanley,ȱTheȱLawȱofȱFreedomȱinȱaȱPlatformȱ(London:ȱGilesȱCalvert,ȱ1652),ȱ60–63;ȱCWGW,
2:ȱ344–48.
75
Winstanley,ȱLawȱofȱFreedom,ȱ61;ȱCWGW,ȱ2:ȱ345.
76
Winstanley,ȱLawȱofȱFreedom,ȱ61;ȱCWGW,ȱ2:ȱ346ȱ(myȱitalics).
77
Winstanley,ȱLawȱofȱFreedom,ȱ61;ȱCWGW,ȱ2:ȱ346–47.
hisȱWorksȱinȱNature,ȱwouldȱbeȱmadeȱpublike,ȱwhichȱmenȱnowȱadaysȱkeepȱsecretȱtoȱget
aȱlivingȱby;ȱsoȱthatȱthisȱKinglyȱBondageȱisȱtheȱcauseȱofȱtheȱspreadingȱignoranceȱinȱthe
Earth.ȱButȱwhenȱCommonwealthsȱFreedomȱisȱestablished,ȱandȱPharasaicalȱorȱKingly
Slaveryȱ castȱ out,ȱ thenȱ willȱ knowledgȱ coverȱ theȱ Earth,ȱ asȱ theȱ watersȱ coverȱ theȱ Seas
[Habbakkukȱ2:14],ȱandȱnotȱtillȱthen.
HeȱwhoȱisȱchosenȱMinisterȱthatȱyearȱtoȱreadȱshallȱnotȱbeȱtheȱonlyȱmanȱtoȱmakeȱSermons
orȱSpeeches:ȱbutȱeveryȱoneȱwhoȱhathȱanyȱexperience,ȱandȱisȱableȱtoȱspeakȱofȱanyȱArt
orȱLanguage,ȱorȱofȱtheȱNatureȱofȱtheȱHeavensȱabove,ȱorȱofȱtheȱEarthȱbelow,ȱshallȱhave
freeȱ libertyȱ toȱ speakȱ whenȱ theyȱ offerȱ themselves,ȱ andȱ inȱ aȱ civilȱ mannerȱ desireȱ an
audience,ȱandȱappointȱhisȱday.78ȱȱ
Respondingȱtoȱcritics,ȱHillȱlaterȱsuggestedȱthatȱWinstanleyȱwasȱaȱpantheistȱinȱhis
Diggerȱdays,ȱratherȱthanȱanȱatheist.ȱThisȱmakesȱsenseȱinsofarȱasȱheȱsoughtȱthe
Creatorȱinȱtheȱcreation,ȱasȱtheȱlastȱquotationȱmakesȱclear.ȱHowever,ȱpantheismȱwas
notȱinconsistentȱwithȱhisȱalreadyȱheterodoxȱChristianity.ȱIfȱbyȱaȱpersonalȱGodȱone
meansȱaȱCreatorȱwhoȱcaresȱaboutȱtheȱbeingsȱHeȱorȱSheȱhasȱcreated,ȱandȱwhose
numinosityȱcanȱbeȱdirectlyȱexperiencedȱinȱsomeȱway,ȱthenȱWinstanleyȱcannotȱbe
saidȱtoȱhaveȱlostȱhisȱfaith.ȱIfȱanything,ȱheȱlostȱinterestȱinȱtheȱdetailsȱ ofȱ biblical
interpretationȱasȱheȱthoughtȱmoreȱaboutȱsocialȱissuesȱfacingȱpeopleȱofȱhisȱday.ȱHill
suggestsȱrightlyȱthatȱWinstanley’sȱreligiousȱpamphletsȱmayȱhaveȱbeenȱinfluenced
byȱhisȱeconomicȱcircumstances.79ȱButȱbyȱtheȱsameȱtoken,ȱhisȱpoliticalȱpamphlets
mayȱbeȱsaidȱtoȱshowȱtheȱinfluenceȱofȱreligiousȱconvictions,ȱnotablyȱhisȱbeliefȱinȱa
reasonableȱandȱlovingȱGodȱwhoȱwantsȱpeopleȱtoȱbeȱfree.ȱ
DebateȱaboutȱtheȱrelativeȱroleȱofȱreligionȱinȱtheȱDiggerȱmovementȱhasȱcontinued
inȱtheȱpopularȱcultureȱwithȱtheȱ1976ȱfilmȱWinstanley.80ȱTheȱfilmȱwasȱbasedȱlargely
onȱaȱnovelȱbyȱDavidȱCaute,ȱwhoȱhadȱattendedȱlecturesȱbyȱHillȱinȱtheȱ1950s.ȱUnlike
Hill,ȱCauteȱconsideredȱreligionȱbasicȱtoȱWinstanley’sȱthoughtȱandȱworkedȱreligious
messagesȱofȱWinstanley’sȱintoȱtheȱdialogue.ȱForȱexample,ȱWinstanley’sȱfirstȱspeech
toȱhisȱfellowȱDiggers,ȱdeliveredȱasȱParliamentaryȱtroopsȱapproachȱSaintȱGeorge’s
Hill,ȱreads:
“HaveȱconfidenceȱinȱtheȱLord,ȱTomȱ[Haydon].ȱRememberȱChristȱisȱtheȱHeadȱLeveller
andȱworksȱthroughȱhisȱchosenȱservants.ȱTheȱfleshȱhasȱledȱmenȱtoȱimagineȱGodȱinȱsome
throneȱofȱgloryȱbeyondȱtheȱsky,ȱȱaȱbeliefȱwhichȱtheȱpriestsȱandȱparsonsȱlikeȱourȱworthy
Plattȱencourage,ȱdenyingȱthatȱGodȱwillȱinfuseȱHisȱspiritȱintoȱhumbleȱmen,ȱTom,ȱlike
youȱandȱI,ȱTom,ȱasȱformerlyȱheȱdidȱwithȱaȱfishermanȱandȱaȱtentȱmaker.ȱTheyȱclaimȱthat
onlyȱthoseȱwithȱhumanȱordinationȱmayȱteach,ȱbutȱEnglandȱisȱnowȱcastȱintoȱtheȱfireȱto
beȱpurgedȱofȱdrossȱandȱsetȱfree.”81
78
Winstanley,ȱLawȱofȱFreedom,ȱ57;ȱCWGW,ȱ2:ȱ341–342.
79
Hill,ȱ“Introduction”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ22),ȱ25;ȱalsoȱseeȱtheȱworkȱcitedȱinȱnoteȱ26
80
Winstanley,ȱdirectedȱbyȱKevinȱBrownlow;ȱperformancesȱbyȱMilesȱHalliwell,ȱJeromeȱWillis,ȱetȱal.,
BFIȱProductions,ȱ1976.
81
DavidȱCaute,ȱComradeȱJacobȱ(1961;ȱNewȱYork:ȱPantheon,ȱ1962),ȱ32.ȱAlsoȱseeȱRaimundȱSchäffner,
882 ThomasȱWillard
TheȱcoverȱblurbȱforȱtheȱAmericanȱeditionȱdescribedȱtheȱDiggersȱasȱ“aȱrebellious
groupȱofȱmysticsȱandȱBiblicalȱsocialistsȱledȱbyȱtheȱsaintlikeȱGerrardȱWinstanley.”
Nevertheless,ȱtheȱdirectorȱcutȱtheȱreligiousȱlanguageȱfromȱtheȱfilm,ȱandȱCaute,ȱin
protest,ȱwithdrewȱhisȱscreenwritingȱcredit.ȱSeveralȱdecadesȱlater,ȱheȱlamentedȱthe
loss:
Winstanleyȱ isȱ aȱ vividȱ commentaryȱ onȱ theȱ physicalȱ conditionȱ ofȱ 17thȱ centuryȱ rural
England,ȱbutȱitȱisȱreluctantȱtoȱpenetrateȱtheȱintenseȱreligiousȱmotivationsȱofȱtheȱtime.
WinstanleyȱbelievedȱthatȱtoȱknowȱtheȱsecretsȱofȱnatureȱisȱtoȱknowȱtheȱworksȱofȱGod
withinȱtheȱcreation.82ȱ
AnotherȱexplanationȱofȱWinstanley’sȱ“Voice”ȱandȱitsȱcommandingȱrhythmsȱwas
putȱ forthȱ byȱ hisȱ contemporaryȱ Henryȱ More,ȱ theȱ Cambridgeȱ Platonist.ȱ While
Winstanleyȱ wasȱ defendingȱ theȱ Diggersȱ inȱ courtȱ andȱ inȱ theȱ press,ȱ Moreȱ was
engagedȱinȱaȱknockȬdownȱpamphletȱdebateȱwithȱThomasȱVaughan,ȱaȱdiscipleȱof
Corneliusȱ Agrippa,ȱ editorȱ ofȱ theȱ Rosicrucianȱ manifestosȱ inȱ theirȱ English
translation,ȱandȱtwinȱbrotherȱofȱtheȱMetaphysicalȱpoetȱHenryȱVaughan.ȱLicking
hisȱwoundsȱafterȱtheȱsecondȱround,ȱMoreȱresolvedȱtoȱendȱtheȱdebateȱandȱdevoted
hisȱenergiesȱtoȱtheȱmatterȱofȱreligiousȱenthusiasm,ȱtheȱconditionȱofȱbeingȱpossessed
byȱaȱgodȱorȱenthusedȱ(Greekȱenȱtheos).83ȱHeȱcomposedȱaȱsystematicȱessayȱonȱ“The
Nature,ȱCauses,ȱKinds,ȱandȱCure,ȱofȱEnthusiasme”ȱandȱarrangedȱtoȱhaveȱitȱprinted
withȱreprintsȱofȱhisȱtractsȱonȱThomasȱVaughan,ȱtheȱobviousȱimplicationȱbeingȱthat
Vaughanȱsufferedȱfromȱreligiousȱmania.ȱHeȱhadȱalreadyȱmentionedȱmelancholy
andȱexcessiveȱspirits,ȱandȱtheȱrelativelyȱnewȱandȱnegativeȱwordȱenthusiasmȱfitȱthe
diagnosisȱnicely.ȱHeȱevenȱusedȱitȱtoȱexplainȱtheȱforcefulnessȱofȱaȱfanatic’sȱprose:
Forȱaȱmanȱilliterate,ȱasȱheȱwas,ȱbutȱofȱgoodȱparts,ȱbyȱconstantȱreadingȱofȱtheȱBibleȱwill
naturallyȱcontractȱaȱmoreȱwinningȱandȱcommandingȱRhetorickȱthenȱthoseȱthatȱare
learned,ȱtheȱintermixtureȱofȱtonguesȱandȱofȱartificialȱphrasesȱdebasingȱtheirȱstyle,ȱand
makingȱitȱsoundȱmoreȱafterȱtheȱmannerȱofȱmen,ȱthoughȱordinarilyȱthereȱmayȱbeȱmore
ofȱGodȱinȱitȱthenȱinȱthatȱofȱtheȱEnthusiast.84
Especiallyȱafterȱtheȱrestorationȱofȱtheȱmonarchyȱinȱ1660,ȱtheȱtermȱenthusiastȱbecame
aȱ convenientȱ labelȱ forȱ anyoneȱ whoȱ basedȱ hisȱ ferventȱ claimsȱ onȱ aȱ revelation
“TheȱReȬEmergenceȱofȱtheȱDiggers:ȱDavidȱCaute’sȱComradeȱJacob,”ȱLiteratureȱ&ȱHistoryȱ16.1ȱ(Spring
2007):ȱ1–25.
82
Davidȱ Caute,ȱ “Lookingȱ Backȱ inȱ Regretȱ atȱ Winstanley,”ȱ Theȱ Guardianȱ (Oct.ȱ 17,ȱ 2008)
http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2008/oct/17/davidȬcauteȬwinstanleyȬcomradeȬjacobȱ(lastȱaccessed
onȱAug.ȱ19,ȱ2011).ȱ
83
OED,ȱ“enthusiasm,”ȱnounȱ1.
84
PhilophilusȱPerriasiastesȱ[HenryȱMore],ȱEnthusiasmusȱTriumphatus,ȱor,ȱAȱDiscourseȱofȱTheȱNature,
Causes,ȱKinds,ȱandȱCure,ȱofȱEnthusiasmeȱ(Cambridge:ȱW.ȱMorden,ȱ1656),ȱ34.ȱSeeȱSusieȱI.ȱTucker,
Enthusiasm:ȱAȱStudyȱinȱSemanticȱChangeȱ(Cambridge:ȱCambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1972).
—whetherȱ theȱ claimsȱ concernedȱ scienceȱ orȱ philosophy,ȱ asȱ withȱ Vaughan,ȱ or
religionȱandȱpolitics,ȱasȱinȱWinstanley’sȱcase.ȱMore’sȱleadingȱexampleȱofȱreligious
enthusiasmȱwasȱDavidȱGeorge,ȱwhoȱfoundedȱtheȱFamilyȱofȱLove,ȱinȱDelft,ȱinȱ1556.
ButȱFamilistȱideasȱinfiltratedȱtheȱDiggerȱcommunity,ȱchieflyȱthroughȱEverard’s
connectionȱtoȱJohnȱPordage,ȱwhoȱespousedȱFamilistȱorȱAnabaptistȱideas.85
5.ȱTheȱPoliticalȱQuestionȱ(1649–1660)
Winstanley’sȱfinalȱpamphlet,ȱTheȱLawȱofȱFreedom,ȱwasȱ“HumblyȱpresentedȱtoȱOliver
Cromwel,ȱ Generalȱ ofȱ theȱ CommonȬwealthsȱ Armyȱ inȱ England,ȱ Scotland,ȱ and
Ireland.”ȱCromwellȱwasȱarguablyȱtheȱmostȱpowerfulȱmanȱinȱtheȱBritishȱIsles,ȱbut
ParliamentȱhadȱhimȱfightingȱwarsȱinȱScotlandȱandȱIrelandȱwhenȱthereȱwasȱwork
toȱ beȱ doneȱ atȱ home.ȱ Withȱ allȱ dueȱ respect,ȱ Winstanleyȱ toldȱ theȱ futureȱ Lord
Governorȱthatȱheȱhadȱaȱdecisionȱtoȱmake:
AndȱnowȱyouȱhaveȱtheȱPowerȱofȱtheȱLandȱinȱyourȱhand,ȱyouȱmustȱdoȱoneȱofȱtheseȱtwo
things:ȱFirst,ȱeitherȱsetȱtheȱLandȱfreeȱtoȱtheȱoppressedȱCommoners,ȱwhoȱassistedȱyou
andȱpaydȱtheȱArmyȱtheirȱwages;ȱandȱthenȱyouȱwillȱfulfilȱtheȱScripturesȱandȱyourȱown
Engagementsȱ[i.e.,ȱpromises],ȱandȱsoȱtakeȱpossessionȱofȱyourȱdeservedȱHonor.
Orȱsecondly,ȱyouȱmustȱonelyȱremoveȱtheȱ[Norman]ȱConquerorsȱPowerȱoutȱofȱtheȱKings
handȱintoȱotherȱmens,ȱmaintainingȱtheȱoldȱLawsȱstill:ȱAndȱthenȱyourȱWisdomȱand
Honorȱisȱblastedȱforȱeverȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱ.86
TheȱworkȱofȱrescuingȱEnglishmenȱfromȱ“KinglyȱBondage”ȱwasȱonlyȱhalfȱcomplete,
forȱtheȱoldȱbondsȱwereȱstillȱcontrolledȱbyȱtheȱlateȱmonarchy’sȱfavorites—byȱthe
noblesȱandȱlandedȱgentryȱand,ȱtoȱaȱlesserȱextent,ȱbyȱtheirȱappointeesȱinȱtheȱcourts
andȱchurches.ȱWinstanleyȱwasȱaȱpacifist,ȱopposedȱtoȱ“tumultȱandȱFighting,”ȱand
didȱ notȱ wantȱ toȱ seeȱ anythingȱ likeȱ laȱ Terreurȱ duringȱ theȱ Frenchȱ Revolution;
however,ȱheȱsawȱnoȱneedȱtoȱappeaseȱtheȱdefeatedȱroyalistsȱorȱtoȱgiveȱtheȱspoilsȱof
warȱ toȱ aȱ newȱ elite.ȱ Aȱ quatrainȱ onȱ theȱ titleȱ pageȱ putȱ theȱ challengeȱ toȱ England
herself:
InȱtheeȱohȱEngland,ȱisȱtheȱlawȱarisingȱupȱtoȱshine,
Ifȱthouȱreceiveȱandȱpractiseȱit,ȱtheȱcrownȱwillȱbeȱthine:
Ifȱthouȱrejectȱandȱstilȱremain,ȱaȱfrowardȱSonȱtoȱbe,
AnotherȱLandȱwillȱreceiveȱit,ȱandȱtakeȱtheȱcrownȱfromȱthee.87
LikeȱMiltonȱlaterȱinȱtheȱdecade,ȱWinstanleyȱfearedȱthatȱEnglandȱmightȱnotȱwant
theȱlibertyȱthatȱGodȱhadȱgivenȱitȱandȱmightȱchooseȱwhatȱMiltonȱcalledȱ“aȱcaptain
85
Seeȱnoteȱ47.ȱ
86
Winstanley,ȱLawȱofȱFreedom,ȱ4;ȱCWGW,ȱ2:ȱ279.
87
Winstanley,ȱLawȱofȱFreedom,ȱA1r;ȱCWGW,ȱ278.
884 ThomasȱWillard
backȱforȱEgypt.”88ȱBehindȱsuchȱstatementsȱwasȱaȱlongȱhistoryȱofȱ“successionist”
theology,ȱ inȱ whichȱ oneȱ peopleȱ wouldȱ succeedȱ anotherȱ inȱ God’sȱ favor.ȱ Justȱ as
ChristendomȱhadȱsucceededȱIsrael,ȱanotherȱcountryȱmightȱsucceedȱEngland.ȱSuch
logicȱliesȱbehindȱwhatȱisȱknownȱasȱAmericanȱexceptionalism:ȱtheȱbeliefȱthatȱGod
shedsȱaȱspecialȱgraceȱonȱtheȱUnitedȱStatesȱandȱtheȱconcomitantȱfearȱthatȱthisȱgrace
isȱthreatenedȱbyȱsomeȱhotȬbuttonȱissue.
OneȱmightȱargueȱthatȱWinstanleyȱwasȱright.ȱCromwellȱnotȱonlyȱlostȱhisȱsaintly
crown;ȱheȱlostȱhisȱhead.ȱAfterȱtheȱrestorationȱofȱtheȱmonarchy,ȱtwoȱyearsȱafterȱhis
deathȱinȱ1658,ȱhisȱbodyȱwasȱexhumedȱandȱbeheaded.ȱTheȱpoor,ȱwhoȱhadȱfought
forȱtheȱgoodȱoldȱcause,ȱhadȱlittleȱreasonȱtoȱresistȱtheȱreturnȱofȱtheȱking,ȱforȱthey
hadȱ seenȱ littleȱ orȱ noȱ benefitȱ fromȱ theȱ redistributionȱ ofȱ crownȱ lands.ȱ Under
Cromwell’sȱ leadership,ȱ theȱ governmentȱ hadȱ soldȱ manyȱ crownȱ landsȱ andȱ had
deforestedȱothersȱtoȱraiseȱmoney.ȱ
AfterȱbeingȱevictedȱfromȱtheȱlandȱatȱSaintȱGeorge’sȱHill,ȱWinstanleyȱpennedȱa
“watchȬword”ȱtoȱLondoners,ȱwarningȱthatȱtheȱCivilȱWarȱwasȱnotȱover:
WilliamȱtheȱConqueroursȱArmyȱbeginsȱtoȱgatherȱintoȱheadȱagaine,ȱandȱtheȱoldȱNorman
PrerogativeȱLawȱisȱtheȱplaceȱofȱtheirȱrendezvous:ȱforȱthoughȱtheirȱchiefȱCaptainȱCharles
beȱ gone,ȱ yetȱ hisȱ Colonells,ȱ whichȱ areȱ Lordsȱ ofȱ Mannours,ȱ hisȱ Councelloursȱ and
Divines,ȱwhichȱareȱourȱLawyersȱandȱPriests,ȱhisȱinferiorȱofficersȱandȱSouldiers,ȱwhich
areȱtheȱFreeholders,ȱandȱLandȬlords,ȱallȱwhichȱdidȱstealȱawayȱourȱLandȱfromȱusȱwhen
theyȱkilledȱandȱmurderedȱourȱFathersȱinȱthatȱNormanȱconquest:ȱAndȱtheȱBailliffesȱthat
areȱslavesȱtoȱtheirȱcovetousȱ lustsȱandȱallȱtheȱignorantȱbawlingȱwomenȱagainstȱour
diggingȱforȱfreedome,ȱareȱtheȱsnapsackȱboyesȱandȱtheȱammunitionȱslutsȱthatȱfollowȱthe
NormanȱCamp.89
Itȱ seemedȱ toȱ himȱ thatȱ theȱ “battellsȱ nowȱ areȱ allȱ spirituall”—whatȱ Blakeȱ called
“mentalȱfight.”90ȱItȱwasȱaȱwarȱagainstȱcovetousness,ȱaȱfightȱforȱpersonalȱfreedom
andȱopportunity.
88
JohnȱMilton,ȱTheȱReadieȱandȱEasieȱWayȱtoȱEstablishȱaȱFreeȱCommonwealth;ȱandȱtheȱexcellenceȱthereof
compar’dȱwithȱtheȱinconvenienciesȱandȱdangersȱofȱreadmittingȱKingshipȱinȱtheȱNation,ȱ2ndȱed.ȱ(London:
forȱtheȱauthor,ȱ1660),ȱ107;ȱechoingȱNumbersȱ14:ȱ4.ȱThisȱpassage,ȱwithȱmuchȱelse,ȱwasȱaddedȱtoȱthe
editionȱpublishedȱearlierȱinȱtheȱyear,ȱasȱitȱbecameȱincreasinglyȱapparentȱthatȱEnglandȱwasȱonȱthe
vergeȱofȱrestoringȱtheȱmonarchy.ȱForȱbroaderȱdiscussionsȱonȱpacificismȱinȱtheȱpremodernȱera,ȱsee
theȱcontributionsȱtoȱWarȱandȱPeace:ȱCriticalȱIssuesȱinȱEuropeanȱSocietiesȱandȱLiteratureȱ800–1800,ȱed.
AlbrechtȱClassenȱandȱNadiaȱMargolis.ȱFundamentalsȱofȱMedievalȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱCulture,ȱ8
(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱDeȱGruyter,ȱ2011).
89
Winstanley,ȱWatchȬWord,ȱ10;ȱCWGW,ȱ2:ȱ92–93.
90
Winstanley,ȱWatchȬWord,ȱ15;ȱȱCWGWȱ2:ȱ98.ȱSeeȱWilliamȱBlake,ȱ“Jerusalem,”ȱlineȱ13,ȱTheȱComplete
Writingsȱ ofȱ Williamȱ Blake,ȱ ed.ȱ Geoffreyȱ Keynesȱ (London,ȱ Newȱ York,ȱ andȱ Toronto:ȱ Oxford
UniversityȱPress,ȱ1966),ȱ481.ȱTheȱpoemȱhasȱbecomeȱanȱanthemȱforȱBritain’sȱworkingȱclass,ȱofȱwhich
Blakeȱwasȱaȱmember.ȱȱ
6.ȱWinstanley’sȱLaterȱLifeȱ(1649–1676)
TheȱdiggingȱatȱSaintȱGeorge’sȱHillȱwasȱmeantȱtoȱsendȱaȱmessage.ȱClearlyȱwritten
byȱWinstanley,ȱandȱbearingȱmanyȱfeaturesȱofȱhisȱearlierȱreligiousȱtracts,ȱitȱwas
“subscribed”ȱ toȱ byȱ thirteenȱ fellowȱ Diggersȱ andȱ representedȱ theȱ voicesȱ of
“thousandsȱmoreȱthatȱgiveȱconsent.”91ȱ(Whatȱvagabondȱorȱsquatterȱorȱdayȱlaborer
couldȱhaveȱobjectedȱtoȱtheȱmessage?)ȱȱItȱwasȱwritten,ȱfirstȱofȱall,ȱ“thatȱtheȱgreat
CouncellȱandȱArmyȱofȱtheȱLandȱmayȱtakeȱnoticeȱofȱit,ȱThatȱthereȱisȱnoȱintentȱof
tumultȱ orȱ Fighting,ȱ butȱ onlyȱ toȱ getȱ breadȱ toȱ eat,ȱ withȱ theȱ sweatȱ ofȱ ourȱ brows;
workingȱ togetherȱ inȱ righteousnesse,ȱ andȱ eatingȱ theȱ blessingsȱ ofȱ theȱ Earthȱ in
peace.”ȱItȱwasȱalsoȱdirectedȱtoȱpotentialȱdonors—“theȱgreatȱOnesȱofȱtheȱEarth,ȱthat
haveȱbeenȱbredȱtenderlyȱandȱcannotȱwork,”ȱinȱtheȱhopeȱthatȱtheyȱwouldȱmakeȱ“an
OfferingȱtoȱtheȱworkȱofȱRighteousnesse.”92ȱTheȱdiggingȱwasȱwhatȱearlyȱQuakers
calledȱaȱ“sign”:ȱitȱsupportedȱWinstanley’sȱmessageȱofȱlandȱreformȱwithȱaction.
Inȱaȱfascinatingȱessay,ȱtheȱliteraryȱhistorianȱHughȱOrmsbyȬLennonȱhasȱlikened
theȱDiggersȱtoȱtheȱcargoȱcultsȱofȱMelanesia,ȱwhoȱuseȱtheȱartefactsȱofȱadvanced
industrialȱ societyȱ asȱ magicalȱ objectsȱ inȱ theȱ hopeȱ ofȱ bringingȱ richesȱ upon
themselves.93ȱThoughȱtheȱDiggersȱusedȱspadesȱandȱhoesȱfromȱhomeȱratherȱthan
brokenȱ radiosȱ andȱ scrapȱ metalȱ retrievedȱ fromȱ beaches,ȱ theyȱ seemȱ toȱ have
anticipatedȱmoreȱthanȱtheȱproduceȱofȱaȱcommunityȱgarden.ȱSomethingȱelseȱwould
arise,ȱandȱinȱtheȱlanguageȱofȱtheȱdayȱitȱhadȱtoȱdoȱwithȱtheȱEasterȱmessage:
NowȱtheȱgreatȱCreator,ȱwhoȱisȱtheȱSpiritȱReason,ȱsufferedȱhimselfeȱthusȱtoȱbeȱrejected
andȱ troddenȱ underȱ footȱ byȱ theȱ covetousȱ proudȱ flesh,ȱ forȱ aȱ certaineȱ timeȱ limited;
therefore,ȱsaithȱhe,ȱTheȱSeedȱoutȱofȱwhomȱtheȱCreationȱdidȱproceed,ȱwhichȱisȱmyȱselfe,ȱshall
bruiseȱthisȱSerpentsȱheadȱ[Genesisȱ3:ȱ5],ȱandȱrestoreȱmyȱCreationȱagaineȱfromȱthisȱcurseȱand
bondage;ȱandȱwhenȱIȱtheȱKingȱofȱrighteousnesseȱreignsȱinȱeveryȱman,ȱIȱwillȱbeȱtheȱblessingȱof
theȱearth,ȱandȱtheȱjoyȱofȱallȱNations.94
Likeȱmanyȱofȱhisȱtime,ȱWinstanleyȱacceptedȱtheȱsenscitȱmundusȱtheme.ȱTheȱworld
wasȱgrowingȱoldȱor,ȱasȱheȱsaid,ȱ“runningȱupȱlikeȱparchmentȱinȱtheȱfire.”95ȱJustȱas
hisȱactionsȱinspiredȱlaterȱgroupsȱlikeȱtheȱSanȱFranciscoȱDiggersȱofȱtheȱlateȱ1960s,
withȱtheirȱ“freeȱstore,”ȱhisȱthoughtsȱwereȱechoedȱinȱtheȱmemorableȱwordsȱofȱSam
Cooke,ȱtheȱAmericanȱsoulȱsingerȱandȱcivilȬrightsȱadvocate,ȱ“It’sȱbeenȱaȱlongȱtime
coming,ȱbutȱIȱknowȱaȱchangeȱisȱgonnaȱcome.”
91
Winstanley,ȱTrueȱLevellersȱStandard,ȱA1r;ȱCWGW,ȱ2:ȱ1.ȱȱ
92
Winstanley,ȱTrueȱLevellersȱStandard,ȱ14;ȱCWGW,ȱ2:ȱ19.ȱ
93
Hughȱ OrmsbyȬLennon,ȱ “Fieldsȱ ofȱ Dreams:ȱ Diggers,ȱ Cargoȱ Cults,ȱ andȱ theȱ Urspracheȱ in
SeventeenthȬCenturyȱEngland,”ȱTheȱLanguageȱofȱAdamȱ/ȱDieȱSpracheȱAdams,ȱed.ȱAllisonȱP.ȱCoudert.
WolfenbüttelerȱForschungen,ȱ84ȱ(Wiesbaden:ȱHarrassowitz,ȱ1999),ȱ193–245.ȱȱ
94
95
886 ThomasȱWillard
Asȱusuallyȱhappens,ȱtheȱchangeȱwasȱincremental.ȱDuringȱtheȱnextȱdecade,ȱthe
ParliamentaryȱgovernmentȱunderȱCromwellȱclearedȱroyalȱlandsȱtoȱraiseȱrevenue
andȱsoldȱoffȱmanyȱofȱtheȱmostȱdesirableȱones.ȱByȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱcentury,ȱfarȱmore
landȱwasȱunderȱcultivationȱinȱEnglandȱthanȱhadȱbeenȱatȱtheȱbeginning,ȱandȱthe
countryȱwasȱonceȱmoreȱaȱnetȱexporterȱofȱgrainsȱandȱotherȱfoodstuffs.96ȱHowever,
moreȱcommonȱlandsȱwereȱenclosedȱthanȱeverȱbefore,ȱandȱtheȱpracticeȱcontinued
intoȱtheȱlateȱnineteenthȱcentury.ȱInȱaȱclassicȱstudyȱofȱEngland’sȱworkingȱclass,ȱthe
historianȱE.ȱP.ȱThompsonȱhasȱputȱtheȱmatterȱbluntly:
Enclosureȱ(whenȱallȱtheȱsophisticationsȱareȱallowedȱfor)ȱwasȱaȱplainȱenoughȱcaseȱof
classȱ robbery,ȱ playedȱ accordingȱ toȱ fairȱ rulesȱ ofȱ propertyȱ andȱ lawȱ laidȱ downȱ byȱ a
ParliamentȱofȱpropertyȬownersȱandȱlawyers.97
Someȱ historiansȱ haveȱ arguedȱ thatȱ theȱ enclosureȱ lawsȱ ofȱ theȱ eighteenthȱ and
nineteenthȱ centuriesȱ wereȱ partȱ ofȱ aȱ largeȬscaleȱ shiftȱ ofȱ theȱ Englishȱ population
duringȱtheȱIndustrialȱRevolutionȱandȱthatȱnewȱeconomiesȱofȱscaleȱhelpedȱmake
agricultureȱ moreȱ profitable.ȱ Thereȱ isȱ noȱ doubtȱ thatȱ someȱ smallȱ landholders
profitedȱalongȱwithȱtheȱwellȬconnectedȱlandlords.ȱButȱaȱstatisticalȱanalysisȱleaves
littleȱdoubtȱthatȱseasonalȱunemploymentȱincreasedȱamongȱfarmȱworkers,ȱmaleȱand
female,ȱwhileȱwagesȱwereȱdepressed.98ȱByȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱeighteenthȱcentury,ȱsome
threeȬquartersȱofȱruralȱlandȱwasȱfencedȱoff.ȱ99ȱInȱSurreyȱalone,ȱthirtyȱpercentȱofȱthe
landȱwasȱenclosedȱbyȱactȱofȱParliamentȱbetweenȱ1790ȱandȱ1869,ȱwithȱanȱaverage
ofȱtwoȱthousandȱacresȱperȱenclosure.100ȱSmallȱfarmersȱcouldȱnoȱlongerȱkeepȱcattle
whenȱ thereȱ wasȱ noȱ availableȱ pastureland.ȱ Foodȱ pricesȱ roseȱ asȱ largeȱ farms
specializedȱandȱfoodȱtravelledȱfartherȱtoȱreachȱtheȱretailȱmarket.ȱTheȱcostȱofȱhome
heatingȱalsoȱincreased,ȱasȱpeatȱandȱwoodȱceasedȱtoȱbeȱresourcesȱoneȱcouldȱgather
andȱbecameȱcommoditiesȱtoȱbeȱpurchasedȱatȱmarketȱvalue.ȱWhenȱoneȱaddsȱtoȱthe
risingȱcostsȱofȱfoodȱandȱfuelȱtheȱscarcityȱofȱland,ȱtheȱsteadyȱincreasesȱinȱrental
costs,ȱtheȱgrowingȱnumbersȱofȱhomelessȱpeopleȱandȱtheȱunemployed,ȱtheȱcrop
failuresȱcausedȱbyȱchangingȱclimacticȱconditions,ȱandȱtheȱreluctanceȱofȱselfȬmade
merchantsȱtoȱpayȱtaxesȱtoȱsupportȱtheȱmonarchy,ȱtoȱwhichȱtheyȱowedȱnoȱspecial
loyalty,ȱoneȱseesȱconditionsȱnotȱunlikeȱthoseȱtoday.ȱTheȱconditionsȱareȱnoȱlonger
96
Hill,ȱ“Introduction”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ22),ȱ21.ȱ
97
E.ȱP.ȱThompson,ȱTheȱMakingȱofȱtheȱEnglishȱWorkingȱClassȱ(1963;ȱNewȱYork:ȱRandom,ȱ1964),ȱ218.
98
K.ȱ D.ȱ M.ȱ Snell,ȱ Annalsȱ ofȱ theȱ Labouringȱ Poor:ȱ Socialȱ Changeȱ andȱ Agrarianȱ England,ȱ 1660–1900,
CambridgeȱStudiesȱonȱPopulation,ȱEconomyȱandȱSocietyȱinȱPastȱTime,ȱ2ȱ(Cambridge:ȱCambridge
UniversityȱPress,ȱ1985),ȱ138–227.
99
Grahamȱ Murdock,ȱ “Againstȱ Enclosure,”ȱ Britishȱ Culturalȱ Studies:ȱ Geography,ȱ Nationality,ȱ and
Identity,ȱed.ȱDavidȱMorleyȱandȱKevinȱRobinsȱ(Oxford:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2001),ȱ443–60,ȱesp.
443.
100
RogerȱJ.ȱP.ȱKain,ȱJohnȱChapman,ȱandȱRichardȱR.ȱOliver,ȱTheȱEnclosureȱMapsȱofȱEnglandȱandȱWales,
1595–1918ȱ(Cambridge:ȱCambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2004),ȱ122.
limitedȱtoȱBritain,ȱbutȱextendȱtoȱNorthȱAmerica.ȱWhereȱonceȱthereȱwasȱnoȱshortage
ofȱ“wasteȱland”ȱinȱtheȱNewȱWorld,ȱandȱwhereȱtheȱpoorestȱsettlerȱcouldȱexpect
“fortyȱacresȱandȱaȱmule,”ȱweȱnowȱseeȱforeclosuresȱonȱfamilyȱfarms,ȱmechanization
ofȱcorporateȱmegaȬfarms,ȱpollutionȱofȱtheȱenvironmentȱbyȱindustrialȱchemicals,
andȱgovernmentȱbyȱpeopleȱrepresentingȱtheȱwealthyȱfewȱratherȱthanȱtheȱhungry
masses.ȱ Enclosureȱ ofȱ publicȱ spacesȱ hasȱ extendedȱ toȱ theȱ virtualȱ spaceȱ of
information,ȱwithȱconsolidationȱinȱtheȱnewsȱmediaȱandȱcommunicationȱindustry.101
Asȱ forȱ Winstanley,ȱ recentȱ researchȱ hasȱ foundȱ thatȱ heȱ returnedȱ toȱ aȱ fairly
conventionalȱlifeȱafterȱheȱceasedȱwriting.ȱHeȱwasȱgivenȱuseȱofȱhisȱfatherȬinȬlaw’s
propertyȱinȱwhatȱisȱperhapsȱtheȱironicallyȬnamedȱmanorȱofȱHam,ȱinȱCobham,ȱand
becameȱ aȱ respectableȱ memberȱ ofȱ theȱ agriculturalȱ community.ȱ Heȱ rejoinedȱ the
establishedȱ church,ȱ servedȱ onȱ theȱ vestry,ȱ andȱ becameȱ churchwardenȱ andȱ an
overseerȱofȱtheȱparishȱpoor.ȱIfȱheȱwroteȱanyȱmoreȱthoughts,ȱheȱdidȱnotȱseekȱto
publishȱthem.ȱHisȱfaithfulȱpublisherȱlivedȱanotherȱdecadeȱafterȱTheȱLawȱofȱFreedom
appearedȱandȱcontinuedȱpublishingȱradicalȱtractsȱevenȱafterȱheȱhadȱbeenȱarrested
forȱsedition.102ȱUnlikeȱotherȱformerȱprophets,ȱheȱdidȱnotȱtryȱtoȱexplainȱtheȱfailure
ofȱ God’sȱ ruleȱ inȱ England.103ȱ Muchȱ lessȱ didȱ heȱ attempt,ȱ withȱ someȱ popular
astrologers,ȱtoȱpredictȱfutureȱgloryȱunderȱtheȱrestoredȱmonarchy,ȱorȱtoȱapologize
forȱhisȱyouthfulȱradicalism.104ȱAfterȱhisȱwifeȱdied,ȱheȱreturnedȱtheȱlandȱinȱCobham
toȱ hisȱ inȬlawsȱ andȱ establishedȱ residenceȱ inȱ London,ȱ whereȱ heȱ continuedȱ his
businessȱasȱaȱgrainȱmerchant.ȱHeȱmarriedȱaȱwealthyȱQuakerȱwoman,ȱwithȱwhom
heȱhadȱthreeȱchildren.ȱ(Noȱchildrenȱsurvivedȱfromȱhisȱfirstȱmarriage.)ȱHeȱdiedȱin
oldȱage,ȱinȱ1676,ȱandȱwasȱburiedȱinȱaȱQuakerȱchurchyard.ȱ
Forȱtheȱnextȱtwoȱcenturies,ȱSaintȱGeorge’sȱHillȱremainedȱpublicȱlandȱandȱtheȱsite
ofȱregularȱdisputes.ȱInȱtheȱVictorianȱEra,ȱitȱwasȱgivenȱtoȱtheȱnewlyȱcreatedȱEarlȱof
Ellesmere,ȱSirȱFrancisȱEdgerton,ȱwhoseȱfamilyȱlaterȱsoldȱnearlyȱaȱthousandȱacres
atȱ theȱ hilltopȱ toȱ theȱ builderȱ Walterȱ Georgeȱ Tarrant,ȱ inȱ 1911.105ȱ Theȱ first
developmentȱwasȱaȱprofessionallyȱdesignedȱgolfȱcourse.ȱThenȱcameȱtennisȱcourts
andȱhousesȱonȱmultiȬacreȱlots.ȱByȱtheȱlateȱtwentiethȱcentury,ȱSaintȱGeorge’sȱEstate
wasȱoneȱofȱtheȱmostȱdesirableȱaddressesȱinȱEngland,ȱtheȱchoiceȱofȱprofessional
athletes,ȱentrepreneurs,ȱandȱsuchȱcelebritiesȱasȱJohnȱLennon,ȱEltonȱJohn,ȱandȱKate
Winslett.ȱHousesȱonȱthisȱformerȱwasteȱlandȱorȱcommonsȱnowȱsellȱforȱanȱaverage
101
Murdock,ȱ“AgainstȱEnclosure”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ99),ȱ449–60.
102
Hessayon,ȱ“Calvert,ȱGiles”ȱ(seeȱnoteȱ36).
103
SeeȱHill,ȱTheȱExperienceȱofȱDefeatȱ(seeȱnoteȱ8),ȱ307–09.ȱ
104
Forȱanȱinterestingȱexampleȱofȱsuchȱapologies,ȱseeȱLeighȱT.ȱI.ȱPenman,ȱ“AȱSeventeenthȬCentury
ProphetȱConfrontsȱhisȱFailures:ȱPaulȱFelgenhauer’sȱSpeculumȱPoenitentiæ,ȱBußȬSpiegelȱ(1625),”ȱGutes
LebenȱundȱguterȱTodȱvonȱderȱFrühneuzeitȱbisȱzurȱGegenwart,ȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassen.ȱTheophrastusȬ
ParacelsusȬStudien,ȱ4ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱDeȱGruyter,ȱforthcoming).
105
RichardȱNorris,ȱTheȱLifeȱandȱWorksȱofȱWalterȱGeorgeȱTarrant,ȱMasterȱBuilder,ȱCreatorȱofȱSaintȱGeorge’s
HillȱEstate,ȱFounderȱofȱWentworthȱEstate,ȱLastȱLordȱHafodȱ(privatelyȱprinted,ȱ2008).ȱ
888 ThomasȱWillard
ofȱ £3ȱ million.106ȱ Nevertheless,ȱ theȱ hillȱ remainsȱ theȱ siteȱ ofȱ regularȱ protestsȱ by
advocatesȱforȱBritain’sȱpoorȱandȱhomeless,ȱwhoȱareȱwellȱawareȱofȱWinstanleyȱas
theirȱ spiritualȱ ancestor.ȱ Recentȱ squattersȱ didȱ notȱ evenȱ haveȱ toȱ erectȱ makeshift
dwellings;ȱtheyȱsettledȱinȱanȱabandonedȱmansion.107
106
Forȱfurtherȱinformation,ȱseeȱtheȱsurprisinglyȱgoodȱarticleȱonline:ȱWikipedia,ȱ“SaintȱGeorge’sȱHill,”
http://www.getsurrey.co.uk/news/s/2093841_squatters_make_st_georges_hill_their_homeȱ(last
accessedȱonȱAug.ȱ19,ȱ2011).ȱ
107
“Squattersȱ Makeȱ St.ȱ George’sȱ Hillȱ Theirȱ Home,”ȱ getSurrey,ȱ Juneȱ 3,ȱ 2011,
http://www.getsurrey.co.uk/news/s/2093841_squatters_make_st_georges_hill_their_homeȱ(last
accessedȱonȱAug.ȱ19,ȱ2011);ȱIanȱBone,ȱ“WinstanleyȱLives—SquattersȱBackȱatȱSt.ȱGeorgesȱ[sic]ȱHill.
http://ianbone.wordpress.com/2011/05/28/winstanleyȬlivesȬsquattersȬbackȬonȬstȬgeorgesȬhill/ȱ(last
accessedȱonȱAug.ȱ19,ȱ2011).ȱ
Fig.ȱ1.ȱTheȱCobhamȱareaȱ(EmleyȬBridgeȱHundred)ȱinȱtheȱearlyȱseventeenth
century.ȱFromȱaȱhandȬcoloredȱmapȱofȱSurreyȱinȱJohnȱSpeed,ȱTheatrumȱMagnum
ImperiumȱBritanniaeumȱ(Sudbury:ȱGeorgeȱHumble,ȱ1616).ȱPhotographedȱbyȱthe
authorȱfromȱtheȱfacsimileȱTheȱCountiesȱofȱBritain:ȱAȱTudorȱAtlasȱbyȱJohnȱSpeed,ȱed.
NigelȱNicholsonȱandȱAldasairȱHawkyardȱ(London:ȱBritishȱLibrary,ȱ1988);ȱ
colorȱremoved
890 ThomasȱWillard
Fig.ȱ2.ȱTitleȱpageȱofȱGerrardȱWinstanleyȱAȱLetterȱtoȱtheȱLordȱFairfax,ȱandȱHis
CouncellȱofȱWarȱ(London:ȱGilesȱCalvert,ȱ1649).ȱReproducedȱfromȱtheȱBritish
LibraryȱcopyȱasȱphotographedȱforȱtheȱEarlyȱEnglishȱBooksȱOnlineȱdatabase
ListȱofȱIllustrations
IllustrationsȱtoȱAlbrechtȱClassen’sȱIntroduction:
Fig.ȱ1:ȱ Stainedȱ glassȱ window,ȱ westȱ facade,ȱ Canterburyȱcathedral,ȱAdam

workingȱinȱtheȱfield,ȱca.ȱtwelfth/thirteenthȱcenturyȱ@ȱAlbrechtȱClassen
Fig.ȱ2:ȱ JohannȱTepl,ȱDerȱAckermannȱ(Heidelberg,ȱUniversitätsbibliothek,ȱCpg
76,ȱfol.ȱ7v)
Fig.ȱ3:ȱ Bruges:ȱaȱmanȱmilkingȱaȱcow,ȱaȱwomanȱcarryingȱaȱyokeȱforȱtwoȱmilk
buckets,ȱstoneȱplaque,ȱpublicȱdisplay,ȱca.ȱlateȱfifteenth/ȱearlyȱsixteenth
centuryȱ@ȱAlbrechtȱClassen
Fig.ȱ4:ȱ TowerȱofȱTo[u]r,ȱGlastonbury:ȱWomanȱmilkingȱaȱcow,ȱstoneȱplaque,
ca.ȱfifteenthȱcenturyȱ@AlbrechtȱClassen
Fig.ȱ5:ȱ Pieterȱ Brueghelȱ theȱ Elder,ȱ “Theȱ Harvesters,”ȱ1565ȱ(Metropolitan
MuseumȱofȱArts,ȱNewȱYork);ȱWikipediaȱCommons,ȱ
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pieter_Bruegel_the_ElderȬ_The_C
orn_Harvest_%28August%29.JPG
Fig.ȱ6 Simonȱ Bening,ȱ illustrationȱ forȱ theȱ Golfȱ Book,ȱ 1540,ȱ BritishȱLibrary,
Additionalȱ 24098;ȱ Barcelona:ȱ M.ȱ Moleiroȱ Editor,ȱ S.A.,ȱ 2004)
(reproducedȱatȱtheȱveryȱendȱofȱthisȱvolume)
IllustrationsȱtoȱJacquelineȱStuhmiller’sȱarticle:
Fig.ȱ1:ȱ BibliothèqueȱNationaleȱmanuscritȱfrançaisȱ619,ȱ109r:ȱHareȬhuntingȱat
aȱcrossroads
Fig.ȱ2:ȱ BibliothèqueȱNationaleȱmanuscritȱfrançaisȱ619,ȱ111r:ȱHareȬhuntingȱin
aȱvineyard
Fig.ȱ3: Bibliothèqueȱ Nationaleȱ manuscritȱ françaisȱ 619,ȱ 19v:ȱ Theȱmalicious
wolf
Fig.ȱ4.1: BibliothèqueȱNationaleȱmanuscritȱfrançaisȱ619,ȱ24r:ȱTwoȱmischievous
wildcats
Fig.ȱ4.2: BibliothèqueȱNationaleȱmanuscritȱfrançaisȱ619,ȱ90v:ȱTwoȱmischievous
wildcats
892 Illustrations
Fig.ȱ5:ȱ BibliothèqueȱNationaleȱmanuscritȱfrançaisȱ619,ȱ57r,ȱ62r,ȱ79r,ȱ82v:ȱFour
huntsȱaȱforce
Fig.ȱ6: BibliothèqueȱNationaleȱmanuscritȱfrançaisȱ619,ȱ1r:ȱGastonȱinȱMajesty
Sourceȱ ofȱ allȱ images:ȱ Françoisȱ Avril,ȱ Aleksandraȱ Sarrabezolles,ȱ andȱ JeanȬPaul
SaintȬAubin,LeȱlivreȱdeȱchasseȱdeȱGastonȱPhébusȱ(Paris:ȱBibliothèqueȱNationaleȱde
France/MontparnasseȱMultimedia,ȱ1999),ȱCDȬROM
IllustrationsȱtoȱNicolinoȱApplauso’sȱarticle:
Fig.ȱ1: Foolishnessȱ (Stultitia)ȱ (1303–1305).ȱ Giotto,ȱ theȱ ScrovegniȱChapel,

Paduaȱ(ca.ȱ1303Ȭ1305).ȱ(publicȱdomain:ȱ
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/GiottoȬ
_The_Seven_Vices_Ȭ_Foolishness.JPGȱ;ȱlastȱaccessedȱonȱNov.ȱ14,ȱ2011)
Fig.ȱ2: Theȱ Foolȱ (ca.ȱ 1460–1470)ȱ ViscontiȬSforzaȱ Tarotȱ (publicȱdomain:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/ViscontiȬfoo
l.jpg;ȱlastȱaccessedȱonȱNov.ȱ14,ȱ2011)
IllustrationsȱtoȱMarthaȱMoffittȱPeacock’sȱarticle:ȱ
Fig.ȱ1:ȱȱ WolfȱHunt,ȱLivreȱdeȱlaȱchasse,ȱBibliothèqueȱnationaleȱdeȱFrance,ȱParis
Fig.ȱ2:ȱȱ BoarȱHunt,ȱLivreȱdeȱlaȱchasse,ȱBibliothèqueȱnationaleȱdeȱFrance,ȱParis
Fig.ȱ3:ȱȱ DianaȱatȱtheȱHunt,ȱChristineȱdeȱPizan’sȱEpistleȱofȱOthea,ȱKoninklijke
Bibliotheek,ȱTheȱHague
Fig.ȱ4:ȱ LimbourgȱBrothers,ȱAugust,ȱTrèsȱRichesȱHeuresȱofȱtheȱDucȱdeȱBerry,
MuséeȱdeȱCondé,ȱChantilly
Fig.ȱ5:ȱ Housebookȱ Master,ȱ Stagȱ Hunt,ȱ “MedievalȱHousebook,”ȱWaldburgȬ
WolfeggȱCollection,ȱMunichȱȱ
Fig.ȱ6:ȱȱCharitas,ȱPrivateȱCollection
Fig.ȱ7:ȱȱ Pairȱ ofȱ Lovers,ȱ Manesseȱ Codex,ȱ UniversityȱofȱHeidelbergȱLibrary,
Heidelberg
Fig.ȱ8:ȱȱHunterȱPresentingȱaȱFowlȱtoȱaȱLady,ȱHoursȱofȱEngelbertȱofȱNassau,
BodleianȱLibrary,ȱOxford
Fig.ȱ9:ȱȱ Hunterȱ Presentingȱ aȱ Fowlȱ toȱ aȱ Lady,ȱMetropolitanȱMuseum,ȱNew
Yorkȱ
Fig.ȱ10:ȱȱ UnicornȱHunt,ȱMetropolitanȱMuseum,ȱNewȱYork
Fig.ȱ11:ȱ MasterȱE.S.,ȱPairȱofȱLovers,ȱVienna,ȱAlbertina
Fig.ȱ12:ȱ BernardȱvanȱOrley,ȱMayȱ(detail),ȱTheȱHuntsȱofȱMaximilian,ȱTheȱLouvre,
Paris
Illustrations 893
Fig.ȱ13: StagȱHuntȱ(detail),ȱDevonshireȱHuntingȱTapestries,ȱVictoriaȱandȱAlbert
Museum,ȱLondon
Fig.ȱ14:ȱ Philipsȱ Wouwerman,ȱ Theȱ Huntȱ (detail),ȱResidenzgalerieȱSalzburg,

Salzburg
Fig.ȱ15:ȱ PhilipsȱWouwerman,ȱHuntingȱtheȱStag,ȱHunterianȱMuseumȱandȱArt
Gallery,ȱUniversityȱofȱGlasgow,ȱGlasgow
Fig.ȱ16:ȱ AbrahamȱHondius,ȱBirdȱHunt,ȱ1666,ȱPresentȱLocationȱUnknown
Fig.ȱ17:ȱ AbrahamȱHondius,ȱTheȱHunt,ȱPresentȱLocationȱUnknown
Fig.ȱ18:ȱ AbrahamȱHondius,ȱTheȱHunt,ȱPrivateȱCollection,ȱHamburg
Fig.ȱ19:ȱ HendrickȱVerschuring,ȱAȱHuntingȱPartyȱinȱaȱDuneȱLandscape,ȱChristies
Fig.ȱ20:ȱ Hendrickȱ Verschuring,ȱ Restingȱ fromȱ theȱ Huntȱ(detail),ȱPrivate
Collection,ȱGermany
Fig.ȱ21:ȱ JanȱMiel,ȱRestingȱfromȱtheȱHunt,ȱPresentȱLocationȱUnknown
Fig.ȱ22:ȱ JanȱMiel,ȱRestingȱatȱtheȱHunt,ȱPresentȱLocationȱUnknown
Fig.ȱ23: Romeynȱ deȱ Hooghe,ȱ Kenauȱ Simonsȱ Hasselaer,ȱRijksprentenkabinet,
Fig.ȱ24: RemigiusȱHogenberg,ȱKenauȱSimonsȱHasselaer,ȱRijksprentenkabinet,
Fig.ȱ25: JacobȱvanȱMeurs,ȱWomen’sȱRevoltȱinȱDelft,ȱ1616,ȱBelastingȱandȱDouane
Museum,ȱRotterdamȱ
Fig.ȱ26: Claesȱ Braeuȱ afterȱ Karelȱ vanȱ Mander,ȱ Battleȱ forȱ theȱTrousers,
Rijksprentenkabinet,ȱRijksmuseum,ȱAmsterdam
Fig.ȱ27: JoosȱdeȱBosscher,ȱTheȱUpperȱHand,ȱAtlasȱvanȱStolk,ȱRotterdam
ȱ
IllustrationsȱtoȱBirgitȱWiedl’sȱarticle:
Fig.ȱ1:ȱ MainȱplacesȱofȱsmallȬtownȱandȱruralȱJewishȱsettlementȱinȱAustriaȱin
theȱ Middleȱ Agesȱ (smallerȱ dots,ȱ theȱ biggerȱ dotsȱ indicateȱ theȱ main
urbanȱcenters).
Fig.ȱ2: Twoȱ obligationsȱ ofȱ Arnoldȱ vonȱ Fritzelsdorfȱ andȱ Konradȱvon
KirchbergȱforȱtheȱJewȱHendleinȱofȱGmünd,ȱaroundȱ1326,ȱbothȱcutȱup
andȱ usedȱ asȱ sealȱ pouchesȱ (Zisterzienserstiftȱ Zwettl,ȱ Archivȱ und
Bibliothek)ȱ@ȱZisterzienserstiftȱZwettl,ȱAustria
IllustrationsȱtoȱThomasȱWillard’sȱarticle:
Fig.ȱ1: TheȱCobhamȱareaȱ(EmleyȬBridgeȱHundred)ȱinȱtheȱearlyȱseventeenth
century.ȱFromȱaȱhandȬcoloredȱmapȱofȱSurreyȱinȱJohnȱSpeed,ȱTheatrum
894 Illustrations
Magnumȱ Imperiumȱ Britanniaeumȱ (Sudbury:ȱ Georgeȱ Humble,ȱ 1616).

PhotographedȱbyȱtheȱauthorȱfromȱtheȱfacsimileȱTheȱCountiesȱofȱBritain:
Aȱ Tudorȱ Atlasȱ byȱ Johnȱ Speed,ȱ ed.ȱ Nigelȱ Nicholsonȱ andȱ Aldasair
Hawkyardȱ(London:ȱBritishȱLibrary,ȱ1988);ȱcolorȱremoved
Fig.ȱ2: TitleȱpageȱofȱGerrardȱWinstanleyȱAȱLetterȱtoȱtheȱLordȱFairfax,ȱandȱHis
CouncellȱofȱWarȱ(London:ȱGilesȱCalvert,ȱ1649).ȱReproducedȱfromȱthe
Britishȱ Libraryȱ copyȱ asȱ photographedȱ forȱ theȱ Earlyȱ Englishȱ Books
Onlineȱdatabase
Contributors
ROSAȱ ALVAREZȱ PEREZ,ȱ Assistantȱ professorȱ ofȱ Frenchȱ atȱ Southernȱ Utah
University.ȱSheȱhasȱpublishedȱtheȱfollowingȱentries,ȱ“TheȱBiblicalȱJudith”;ȱ“Jewish
Tradition,ȱ Genderȱ andȱ Women”;ȱ “Rabelais”;ȱ “Judaism”;ȱ “Jewishȱ Women’s
League”ȱ inȱ theȱ Encyclopediaȱ ofȱ Sexȱ andȱ Gender,ȱ editedȱ byȱ Fedwaȱ Maltiȱ Douglas
(2007).ȱSheȱalsoȱhasȱpublishedȱseveralȱarticlesȱonȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱexchangesȱbetween
Jewishȱ womanȱ andȱ Christianȱ societyȱ inȱ medievalȱ northernȱ Franceȱ (suchȱ asȱ in
Urbanȱ Space,ȱ ed.ȱ Albrechtȱ Classen,ȱ 2009).ȱ Sheȱ isȱ presentlyȱ workingȱ onȱ several
projects:ȱ aȱ bookȱ projectȱ thatȱ recoversȱ theȱ finalȱ yearsȱ ofȱ Jewishȱ women
moneylendersȱ inȱ Parisȱ beforeȱ theȱ finalȱ expulsionȱ ofȱ 1394;ȱ andȱ anȱ articleȱ that
examinesȱaȱpeculiarȱculturalȱeventȱinȱeighteenthȬcenturyȱLondon:ȱanȱorganized
boxingȱmatchȱbetweenȱaȱJewishȱandȱaȱChristianȱwomanȱ(basedȱonȱaȱnewspaper
clippingȱ ofȱ theȱ period).ȱ Inȱ parallel,ȱ sheȱ isȱ alsoȱ workingȱ onȱ aȱ translationȱ ofȱ Art
profaneȱetȱreligionȱpopulaireȱauȱmoyenȱâgeȱbyȱClaudeȱGaignebetȱandȱJ.ȱDominique
Lajoux.
NICOLINOȱ APPLAUSOȱ isȱ Visitingȱ Assistantȱ Professorȱ ofȱ Italianȱ Studiesȱ at

BucknellȱUniversity.ȱHeȱreceivedȱhisȱPh.D.ȱinȱRomanceȱLanguages,ȱwithȱaȱmajor
inȱItalianȱandȱminorȱinȱSpanish,ȱfromȱtheȱUniversityȱofȱOregonȱinȱ2010.ȱHisȱmain
researchȱ interestȱ isȱ thirteenthȬȱ andȱ fourteenthȬcenturyȱ Italianȱ literatureȱ with
emphasisȱonȱpoliticalȱinvectiveȱandȱcomicȱpoetryȱduringȱwartime.ȱHisȱresearch
exploresȱtheȱethicalȱweightȱofȱhumorȱinȱpoliticalȱinvectiveȱbyȱsuchȱpoetsȱasȱRustico
Filippi,ȱCeccoȱAngiolieri,ȱandȱDanteȱAlighieri.ȱHeȱisȱcurrentlyȱworkingȱonȱseveral
projects:ȱ aȱ bookȱ project,ȱ Cursesȱ andȱ Laughter:ȱ Dante’sȱ Comedyȱ andȱ theȱ Ethicsȱ of
PoliticalȱInvectiveȱinȱtheȱComicȱPoetryȱofȱHighȱandȱLateȱMedievalȱItaly,ȱwhichȱproposes
aȱnewȱapproachȱtoȱmedievalȱpoliticalȱinvectiveȱinȱItalyȱbyȱemphasizingȱitsȱethical
project,ȱ anȱ articleȱ onȱ “Theȱ Historicalȱ Ceccoȱ Angiolieriȱ underȱ theȱ Governoȱ dei
Nove,”ȱ andȱ hasȱ aȱ reviewȱ ofȱ Metamorphosingȱ Danteȱ forthcomingȱ inȱ theȱ journal
Italica.ȱHeȱwasȱawardedȱinȱ2009–2010ȱtheȱBeallȱGraduateȱDissertationȱScholarship,
andȱtheȱOregonȱHumanitiesȱCenterȱGraduateȱDissertationȱFellowship.ȱHeȱisȱthe
foundingȱeditorȱofȱGlobalȱTalkȱ(2005–2010),ȱtheȱfirstȱmultilingualȱpublicationȱatȱthe
UniversityȱofȱOregonȱandȱFloridaȱStateȱUniversity:
(babel.uoregon.edu/globaltalk).
896 Contributors
ANDREWȱBREEZEȱ(b.ȱ1954),ȱFSA,ȱFRHistS,ȱwasȱeducatedȱatȱSirȱRogerȱManwoodȇs
GrammarȱSchool,ȱSandwich,ȱandȱatȱtheȱUniversitiesȱofȱOxfordȱandȱCambridge.
Marriedȱwithȱsixȱchildren,ȱheȱhasȱtaughtȱsinceȱ1987ȱatȱtheȱUniversityȱofȱNavarre,
Pamplona,ȱSpain.ȱHeȱisȱtheȱauthorȱofȱthreeȱbooksȱonȱCelticȱstudiesȱ(MedievalȱWelsh
Literature,ȱ1997;ȱTheȱMaryȱofȱtheȱCelts,ȱ2008;ȱTheȱOriginsȱofȱtheȱFourȱBranchesȱofȱthe
Mabinogi,ȱ2009),ȱandȱcoȬauthorȱwithȱProfessorȱRichardȱCoatesȱofȱanother,ȱonȱBritish
placeȬnamesȱ(CelticȱVoices:ȱEnglishȱPlaces.ȱStudiesȱofȱtheȱCelticȱImpactȱonȱPlaceȬNames
inȱEngland,ȱ2000).ȱHeȱhasȱalsoȱpublishedȱoverȱfiveȱhundredȱreviewsȱandȱresearch
papers,ȱmainlyȱonȱearlyȱEnglishȱandȱCelticȱliteratureȱandȱphilology.
EVELINEȱ BRUGGERȱ isȱ aȱ researchȱ fellowȱ atȱ theȱ Instituteȱ ofȱ Jewishȱ Historyȱ in
Austriaȱ andȱ aȱ lecturerȱ atȱ theȱ Universityȱ ofȱ Salzburg.ȱ Sheȱ studiedȱ Historyȱ and
FrenchȱPhilologyȱatȱtheȱUniversityȱofȱVienna,ȱwhereȱsheȱreceivedȱtwoȱMaster’s
degreesȱandȱaȱPh.D.ȱHerȱmainȱfieldȱofȱresearchȱisȱtheȱhistoryȱofȱJewsȱinȱmedieval
Austria.ȱSheȱisȱtheȱauthorȱofȱAdelȱundȱJudenȱinȱNiederösterreich:ȱDieȱBeziehungen
niederösterreichischerȱAdelsfamilienȱzurȱjüdischenȱFührungsschichtȱvonȱdenȱAnfängenȱbis
zurȱPulkauerȱVerfolgungȱ1338ȱ(2004),ȱforȱwhichȱsheȱwasȱawardedȱtheȱAnerkennungsȬ
preisȱ desȱ Landesȱ Niederösterreichȱ fürȱ Wissenschaftȱ (Scienceȱ Awardȱ ofȱ theȱ Stateȱ of
LowerȱAustria).ȱSheȱcoȬauthoredȱaȱcomprehensiveȱhistoryȱofȱtheȱJewsȱinȱAustria
(GeschichteȱderȱJudenȱinȱÖsterreich,ȱ2006),ȱandȱhasȱpublishedȱaȱnumberȱofȱarticlesȱon
theȱsocioȬeconomicȱandȱlegalȱhistoryȱofȱJewsȱinȱmedievalȱAustria.ȱTogetherȱwith
BirgitȱWiedl,ȱsheȱconductsȱtheȱresearchȱprojectȱ“DocumentsȱonȱJewishȱHistoryȱin
MedievalȱAustria,”ȱfundedȱbyȱtheȱAustrianȱScienceȱFundȱ(FWF),ȱwhichȱaimsȱat
collectingȱcharters,ȱhistoriographic,ȱandȱliteraryȱdocumentsȱthatȱbearȱreferenceȱto
AustrianȱJews.ȱVolumesȱ1ȱandȱ2ȱofȱthisȱcollectionȱhaveȱalreadyȱbeenȱpublished
(EvelineȱBruggerȱandȱBirgitȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱzurȱGeschichteȱderȱJudenȱinȱÖsterreichȱim
Mittelalter.ȱ Volȱ 1:ȱ Vonȱ denȱ Anfängenȱ bisȱ 1338.ȱ Vol.ȱ 2:ȱ 1339–1365.ȱ 2005,ȱ 2010;
http://www.injoest.ac.at/projekte/laufend/mittelalterliche_judenurkunden/);
volumeȱ3ȱisȱcurrentlyȱinȱtheȱprocessȱofȱbeingȱcompleted.ȱ
CHRISTOPHERȱR.ȱCLASONȱisȱProfessorȱofȱGermanȱatȱOaklandȱUniversityȱin
Rochester,ȱMichigan.ȱTheȱfocusȱofȱhisȱresearchȱinȱMedievalȱStudiesȱhasȱbeenȱon
Gottfried’sȱTristanȱundȱIsoldeȱandȱWolfram’sȱParzival.ȱȱHeȱhasȱparticipatedȱinȱtwo
previousȱArizonaȱColloquia,ȱandȱheȱȱhasȱcontributedȱarticlesȱonȱtheȱlanguageȱof
power,ȱ andȱ onȱ eroticismȱ andȱ theȱ fulfillmentȱ ofȱ desireȱ inȱ Tristan.ȱ Heȱ hasȱ also
publishedȱarticlesȱonȱGottfriedȇsȱcontinuators,ȱonȱRomanticȱandȱmodernȱreception
ofȱmedievalȱepics,ȱandȱonȱbedsȱandȱmaterialȱcultureȱinȱGermanȱliteratureȱofȱthe
Middleȱ Ages.ȱ Heȱ isȱ aȱ pastȱ Presidentȱ ofȱ theȱ Internationalȱ Tristanȱ Societyȱ and
presentlyȱisȱservingȱasȱanȱAssistantȱEditorȱofȱGermanȱcontributionsȱtoȱtheȱjournal
Tristania.ȱClasonȱhasȱcontributedȱseveralȱarticlesȱtoȱtheȱHandbookȱofȱMedievalȱStudies
(ed.ȱ Albrechtȱ Classen).ȱ Hisȱ otherȱ researchȱ interestsȱ concentrateȱ onȱ German
Contributors 897
Romanticȱnarrative,ȱandȱheȱisȱcurrentlyȱengagedȱinȱaȱbookȱprojectȱonȱcomplexity
theoryȱandȱecocriticismȱinȱE.ȱT.ȱA.ȱHoffmann’sȱDieȱLebensȬAnsichtenȱdesȱKatersȱMurr
andȱ Dieȱ Elixiereȱ desȱ Teufels.ȱ Heȱ isȱ theȱ currentȱ Presidentȱ ofȱ theȱ International
ConferenceȱonȱRomanticism.ȱ
ALBRECHTȱCLASSENȱisȱUniversityȱDistinguishedȱProfessorȱofȱGermanȱStudies
atȱ Theȱ Universityȱ ofȱ Arizona.ȱ Heȱ hasȱ publishedȱ moreȱ thanȱ sixtyȱ books,ȱ most
recentlyȱTheȱMedievalȱChastityȱBelt:ȱAȱMythȬMakingȱProcessȱ(2007),ȱTheȱPowerȱofȱa
Woman’sȱ Voiceȱ (2007);ȱ theȱ Englishȱ translationȱ ofȱ theȱ poemsȱ byȱ Oswaldȱ von
Wolkensteinȱ (1376/77Ȭ1445)ȱ (2008);ȱ aȱ bookȱ onȱ SixteenthȬCenturyȱ Germanȱ Jest
Narrativesȱ (Deutscheȱ Schwankliteratur,ȱ 2009);ȱ Liedȱ undȱ Liederbuchȱ inȱ derȱ Frühen
Neuzeit,ȱtogetherȱwithȱLukasȱRichter,ȱ2009,ȱTiereȱalsȱFreundeȱimȱMittelalter,ȱtogether
withȱGabrielaȱKompatscherȱandȱPeterȱDinzelbacherȱ(2010),ȱandȱSexualȱViolenceȱand
RapeȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(2011).ȱAmongȱtheȱvolumesȱthatȱheȱhasȱeditedȱrecentlyȱare
Wordsȱ ofȱ Loveȱ andȱ Loveȱ ofȱ Wordsȱ inȱ theȱ Middleȱ Agesȱ andȱ theȱ Renaissanceȱ (2008),
SexualityȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱTimeȱ(2008),ȱUrbanȱSpaceȱinȱtheȱMiddle
Agesȱ andȱ Earlyȱ Modernȱ Timeȱ (2009),ȱ Friendshipȱ inȱ theȱ Middleȱ Agesȱ andȱ theȱ Early
Modernȱ Ageȱ (2010),ȱ andȱ Warȱ andȱ Piece:ȱ Criticalȱ Issuesȱ inȱ Europeanȱ Societiesȱ and
Literaturesȱ 800Ȭ1800ȱ (2011).ȱ Aȱ threeȬvolumeȱ Handbookȱ ofȱ Medievalȱ Studiesȱ (with
WalterȱdeȱGruyter)ȱappearedȱinȱ2010,ȱwhichȱreceivedȱtheȱ“OutstandingȱAcademic
Title”ȱawardȱfromȱChoiceȱinȱ2012.ȱCurrentlyȱheȱisȱpreparingȱaȱnewȱHandbookȱof
Medievalȱ Cultureȱ (alsoȱ withȱ Deȱ Gruyter).ȱ Inȱ 2008ȱ theȱ Universityȱ ofȱ Arizona
bestowedȱuponȱhimȱitsȱhighestȱawardȱforȱresearch,ȱtheȱ“Henryȱ&ȱPhyllisȱKoffler
Award.”ȱInȱ2004ȱtheȱGermanȱgovernmentȱawardedȱhimȱwithȱtheȱBundesverdienstȬ
kreuzȱamȱBandȱ(OrderȱofȱMerit),ȱitsȱhighestȱcivilianȱaward.ȱHeȱhasȱalsoȱreceived
numerousȱteachingȱandȱserviceȱawardsȱoverȱtheȱlastȱtwoȱdecades,ȱmostȱrecently
theȱ“FiveȱStarȱFacultyȱAward”ȱ(2009).ȱHeȱisȱservingȱasȱeditorȱofȱTristaniaȱ,ȱeditor
ofȱMediaevistik,ȱandȱeditorȱofȱHumanities.ȱForȱmanyȱyearsȱheȱhasȱbeenȱtheȱpresident
ofȱtheȱArizonaȱchapterȱofȱtheȱAmericanȱAssociationȱofȱTeachersȱofȱGerman,ȱand
recentlyȱheȱwasȱreelectedȱasȱViceȱPresident/Presidentȱelect/PastȱPresidentȱofȱthe
RockyȱMountainȱModernȱLanguageȱAssociation.ȱ
KYLEȱ DIROBERTOȱ recentlyȱ receivedȱ herȱ Ph.D.ȱ inȱ Englishȱ Literatureȱ atȱ the
UniversityȱofȱArizona.ȱHerȱdissertationȱisȱentitled,ȱ“GrotesqueȱTransformations
andȱ theȱ Discourseȱ ofȱ Conversionȱ inȱ Robertȱ Greene’sȱ Workȱ andȱ Shakespeare’s
Falstaff.”ȱHerȱresearchȱinterestsȱincludeȱPuritanism,ȱCarnival,ȱandȱtheȱinfluenceȱof
theaterȱ onȱ popularȱ printȱ cultureȱ inȱ sixteenthȬcenturyȱ England.ȱ Sheȱ hasȱ beenȱ a
guestȱlecturerȱatȱtheȱUniversityȱofȱArizonaȱonȱ“TheȱProblemsȱofȱAgencyȱinȱEarly
ModernȱReligiousȱDiscourseȱandȱSamsonȱAgnoistes”(2006).ȱSheȱwasȱtheȱwinnerȱof
theȱArizonaȱCenterȱforȱMedievalȱandȱRenaissanceȱStudiesȱOutstandingȱGraduate
StudentȱPaperȱAwardȱ(2009).ȱSheȱteachesȱShakespeareȱandȱliteraryȱanalysisȱatȱthe
898 Contributors
Universityȱ ofȱ Arizonaȱ South,ȱ andȱ sheȱ isȱ currentlyȱ workingȱ onȱ “Penitentsȱ and
Prostitutes:ȱ Criminalityȱ andȱ Conversionȱ inȱ Greenesȱ ConeyȬcatchingȱ andȱ AntiȬ
PuritanȱPamphlets.”
ABIGAILȱP.ȱDOWLINGȱisȱaȱPh.D.ȱcandidateȱatȱtheȱUniversityȱofȱCalifornia,ȱSanta
BarbaraȱinȱMedievalȱHistory.ȱSheȱisȱworkingȱonȱherȱdissertationȱentitledȱ“Land
andȱNaturalȱResourceȱManagementȱinȱNorthernȱFrance,ȱ1302–1329:ȱTheȱCounty
ofȱ Artoisȱ underȱ Countessȱ Mahaut,”ȱ whichȱ exploresȱ theȱ dynamicȱ relationship
betweenȱ environment,ȱ economy,ȱ andȱ materialȱ identityȱ formationȱ inȱ elite
landscapesȱinȱfourteenthȬcenturyȱFrance.ȱInȱadditionȱtoȱherȱdissertation,ȱsheȱhas
givenȱpresentationsȱonȱtheȱlibraryȱofȱMahautȱandȱtheȱ“cultureȱofȱmarvels”ȱinȱthe
ParkȱatȱHesdin,ȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱPark’sȱmultiȬpurposeȱfishponds.ȱSheȱisȱalsoȱworking
onȱaȱcorollaryȱcomparativeȱprojectȱthatȱconsidersȱviewsȱofȱnature,ȱleisure,ȱand
statusȱinȱlateȱantiqueȱRomanȱestatesȱandȱhighȱmedievalȱparks.
SARAHȱGORDONȱisȱAssociateȱProfessorȱofȱFrenchȱatȱUtahȱStateȱUniversity.ȱShe
isȱtheȱauthorȱofȱCulinaryȱComedyȱinȱMedievalȱFrenchȱLiteratureȱ(2006),ȱaȱstudyȱofȱfood
humorȱ asȱ literaryȱ parodyȱ andȱ socialȱ satireȱ acrossȱ Oldȱ Frenchȱ genres.ȱ Sheȱ has
publishedȱ severalȱjournalȱ articlesȱandȱbookȱchaptersȱonȱtopicsȱsuchȱasȱhumor,
food,ȱtheȱhousehold,ȱidentity,ȱsexuality,ȱandȱtheȱbodyȱinȱmedievalȱromanceȱand
fabliaux.ȱHerȱcurrentȱresearchȱfocusesȱonȱrepresentationsȱofȱdisability,ȱphysical
impairment,ȱmentalȱillness,ȱandȱnotionsȱofȱ“cure”ȱinȱOldȱFrenchȱliterature.ȱSheȱhas
beenȱgrantedȱfellowshipsȱfromȱtheȱNationalȱEndowmentȱforȱtheȱHumanities,ȱthe
Modernȱ Languageȱ Associationȱ ofȱ Americaȱ Bibliography,ȱ Mellon,ȱ andȱ The
HuntingtonȱLibrary.ȱSheȱearnedȱherȱPh.D.ȱatȱWashingtonȱUniversityȱinȱSt.ȱLouis
andȱherȱM.Phil.ȱatȱOxfordȱUniversity.
KATHRYNȱ JASPERȱ isȱ aȱ doctoralȱ candidateȱ atȱ theȱ Universityȱ ofȱ California,
Berkeleyȱ inȱ Historyȱ andȱ Medievalȱ Studies.ȱ Sheȱ previouslyȱ earnedȱ aȱ B.A.ȱ in
archaeologyȱandȱanȱM.A.ȱinȱhistoryȱfromȱtheȱUniversityȱofȱArizona.ȱȱHerȱresearch
interestsȱ gravitateȱ towardȱ economicȱ historyȱ inȱ theȱ centralȱ Middleȱ Agesȱ and
especiallyȱ systemsȱ ofȱ ruralȱ landȱ tenureȱ inȱ northernȱ Italy,ȱ andȱ networksȱ and
communicationsȱinȱtheȱMediterraneanȱbasin.ȱȱJasper’sȱbackgroundȱinȱarchaeology
affordsȱ herȱ aȱ uniqueȱ perspectiveȱ inȱ termsȱ ofȱ theoryȱ andȱ praxis,ȱ andȱ herȱ most
currentȱprojectȱincorporatesȱbothȱdocumentaryȱandȱphysicalȱevidence.ȱȱAtȱpresent
sheȱisȱinȱtheȱprocessȱofȱcompletingȱaȱdissertationȱbasedȱonȱthatȱresearchȱentitled
“MappingȱaȱMonasticȱNetwork:ȱPeterȱDamianȱandȱFonteȱAvellanaȱinȱtheȱEleventh
Century.”
JEANȱ E.ȱJOSTȱisȱProfessorȱofȱEnglishȱatȱBradleyȱUniversityȱwhereȱsheȱteaches
graduateȱandȱundergraduateȱcoursesȱonȱChaucer,ȱArthurianȱLiterature,ȱOldȱand
Contributors 899
MiddleȱEnglishȱsurveys,ȱMedievalȱDrama,ȱandȱMiddleȱEnglishȱromance.ȱSheȱhas
publishedȱTenȱMiddleȱEnglishȱArthurianȱRomances;ȱAȱReferenceȱGuideȱandȱeditedȱa
collectionȱ calledȱ Chaucer’sȱ Humor:ȱ Criticalȱ Essays.ȱ Currentlyȱ sheȱ isȱ editingȱ the
Southernȱ Recensionȱ ofȱ theȱ Prickeȱ ofȱ Conscience.ȱ Herȱ articlesȱ haveȱ considered
Chaucer’sȱPerformativeȱCriseyde,ȱmasculinitiesȱinȱtheȱFriar’sȱandȱSummoner’sȱTales,
variousȱ Middleȱ Englishȱ romancesȱ (Amisȱ andȱ Amiloun,ȱ Awntyrsȱ offȱ Arthurȱ atȱ the
TerneȱWathelyne,ȱTheȱTurkeȱandȱGowin,ȱTristanȱandȱIsolt),ȱtheȱpoeticsȱofȱsexualȱdesire
inȱtheȱMerchantsȱTale,ȱTheȱUnȬChaucerianȱTaleȱofȱBeryn,ȱandȱlatelyȱTheȱGawainȱPoet.
HerȱlastȱNEHȱonȱtheȱOldȱFrenchȱFabliauxȱhasȱprovidedȱaȱnewȱinterestȱwhichȱshe
isȱpursuing.ȱ
SHARONȱD.ȱKINGȱholdsȱaȱPh.D.ȱinȱComparativeȱLiteratureȱfromȱUCLAȱandȱisȱan
AssociateȱatȱtheȱUCLAȱCenterȱforȱMedievalȱandȱRenaissanceȱStudies.ȱPublications
includeȱtheȱscholarlyȱbookȱCityȱTragedyȱonȱtheȱRenaissanceȱStageȱinȱFrance,ȱSpain,ȱand
Englandȱ(Lewiston,ȱNY,ȱ2003);ȱanȱoriginalȱtranslationȱofȱJ.ȱPrevostsȱ1584ȱCleverȱand
PleasantȱInventions,ȱPartȱOne,ȱtheȱfirstȱbookȱonȱsleightȬofȬhandȱmagicȱinȱFrench
(1998);ȱ anȱ originalȱ translationȱ ofȱ theȱ medievalȱ farceȱ “Theȱ Fart,”ȱ publishedȱ by
BrepolsȱasȱpartȱofȱtheirȱASMARȱseriesȱ(Feb.,ȱ2011);ȱandȱaȱparodicȱfantasticalȱtale,
“FeastȱofȱtheȱLaughingȱCow,”ȱforȱBrideȱofȱtheȱGolem,ȱanȱanthologyȱofȱhumorous
Jewishȱhorrorȱ(forthcomingȱ2013).ȱSinceȱ1989ȱsheȱhasȱtranslatedȱandȱperformed
shortȱSpanishȱandȱFrenchȱcomediesȱofȱtheȱ15th,ȱ16th,ȱandȱ17thȱcenturiesȱwithȱher
troupeȱ “Lesȱ Enfansȱ sansȱ Abri.”ȱ Inȱ 2010ȱ sheȱ debutedȱ aȱ performanceȱ ofȱ her
translationȱofȱtheȱparodicȱsermonȱ“SaintȱHerring”ȱatȱtheȱmeetingȱofȱtheȱSociété
internationaleȱpourȱl’étudeȱdeȱthéâtreȱmediévalȱ(SITM)ȱinȱGießen,ȱGermany.ȱItȱwas
reprisedȱ atȱ theȱ 2011ȱ ACMRSȱ Conferenceȱ onȱ “Performanceȱ andȱ Theatricality”
(Tempe,ȱFeb.).
SHERRIȱ OLSONȱ isȱ anȱ Associateȱ Professorȱ ofȱ Historyȱ andȱ CoȬDirectorȱ ofȱ the
MedievalȱStudiesȱProgramȱatȱtheȱUniversityȱofȱConnecticut.ȱȱSheȱisȱtheȱauthorȱof
twoȱ books,ȱ bothȱ publishedȱ byȱ theȱ Pontificalȱ Instituteȱ ofȱ Mediaevalȱ Studies,
UniversityȱofȱToronto:ȱȱAȱChronicleȱofȱAllȱThatȱHappens:ȱVoicesȱfromȱtheȱVillageȱCourt
inȱMedievalȱEnglandȱ(1996)ȱandȱAȱMuteȱGospel:ȱȱTheȱPeopleȱandȱCultureȱofȱtheȱMedieval
EnglishȱCommonȱFieldsȱ(2009).ȱȱHerȱresearchȱfocusesȱonȱruralȱsociety,ȱinȱparticular
theȱcultureȱofȱselfȬgovernmentȱinȱtheȱmedievalȱvillage.ȱȱSheȱisȱcurrentlyȱworking
onȱ aȱ volumeȱ entitledȱ Dailyȱ Lifeȱ inȱ aȱ Medievalȱ Monasteryȱ forȱ theȱ ‘Dailyȱ Lifeȱ in
History’ȱseriesȱatȱABCȬCLIOȱ(formerlyȱGreenwoodȱPress).ȱȱHerȱnextȱbookȱproject
isȱ aȱ studyȱ inȱ monasticȱ estateȱ administrationȱ withȱ particularȱ emphasisȱ onȱ the
economic,ȱ socialȱ andȱ religiousȱ “interface”ȱ betweenȱ monasticȱ lordȱ andȱ peasant
tenant.
900 Contributors
MARTHAȱMOFFITTȱPEACOCKȱisȱProfessorȱofȱArtȱHistoryȱatȱBrighamȱYoung
University.ȱ Sheȱ receivedȱ herȱ Ph.D.ȱ fromȱ Theȱ Ohioȱ Stateȱ Universityȱ inȱ 1989,
specializingȱ inȱ theȱ historyȱ ofȱ seventeenthȬcenturyȱ Dutchȱ art.ȱ Herȱ researchȱ has
particularlyȱcenteredȱonȱtheȱrelationshipȱofȱartȱtoȱtheȱlivesȱofȱwomen—bothȱas
artistsȱandȱsubjectsȱinȱart—inȱtheȱDutchȱRepublic.ȱSheȱhasȱpublishedȱaȱnumberȱof
articlesȱandȱessaysȱinȱbothȱinternationalȱandȱnationalȱartȱhistoricalȱjournalsȱand
booksȱincluding:ȱ“DomesticityȱinȱtheȱPublicȱSphere,”ȱSaints,ȱSinners,ȱandȱSisters.
GenderȱandȱNorthernȱArtȱinȱMedievalȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱEurope,ȱed.ȱJaneȱCarrollȱand
Alisonȱ Stewart,ȱ 2003;ȱ “Hoorndragersȱ andȱ Hennetasters:ȱ Theȱ Oldȱ Impotent
CuckoldȱasȱOtherȱinȱNetherlandishȱArtȱandȱFarce,”ȱOldȱAgeȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱand
Renaissance,ȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassen,ȱ2007;ȱ“EarlyȱModernȱDutchȱWomenȱinȱtheȱCity,”
UrbanȱSpaceȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱEarlyȱModernȱAge,ȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassen,ȱ2009;
andȱ “Compatibleȱ Charactersȱ inȱ Contrastingȱ Cultures:ȱ Hieronymusȱ Boschȱ and
JacopoȱBellini,”ȱNord/SudȱII,ȱUniversityȱofȱPaduaȱ(ȱ2008).ȱCurrently,ȱsheȱisȱworking
onȱaȱbook,ȱHeroines,ȱHarpiesȱandȱHousewives:ȱWomenȱofȱConsequenceȱinȱtheȱDutch
GoldenȱAge.
DANIELȱ F.ȱ PIGGȱ isȱ aȱ Professorȱ ofȱ Englishȱ atȱ Theȱ Universityȱ ofȱ Tennesseeȱ at
MartinȱwhereȱheȱteachesȱChaucer,ȱmedievalȱBritishȱliterature,ȱandȱhistoryȱofȱthe
Englishȱlanguage.ȱHeȱhasȱpublishedȱwidelyȱinȱEnglishȱMedievalȱStudies,ȱranging
fromȱBeowulfȱtoȱMalory’sȱWorks.ȱHeȱhasȱpublishedȱarticlesȱdealingȱwithȱvarious
aspectsȱofȱmasculinityȱinȱhistoricalȱcontextsȱinȱChaucer’sȱCanterburyȱTalesȱandȱin
theȱ presentationȱ ofȱ Beowulfȱ inȱ variousȱ anthologiesȱ availableȱ toȱ highȱ school
students.ȱHisȱmostȱrecentȱpublicationsȱincludeȱanȱarticleȱdedicatedȱtoȱLangland’s
PiersȱPlowmanȱandȱOldȱAgeȱthatȱappearedȱinȱtheȱcollectionȱofȱessaysȱarisingȱfrom
theȱ 2006ȱ Internationalȱ Symposiumȱ onȱ theȱ Representationȱ ofȱ Oldȱ Agesȱ inȱ the
MiddleȱAgesȱandȱRenaissanceȱ(ed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassen,ȱ2007).ȱHeȱalsoȱpublishedȱan
essayȱonȱmercantileȱmasculinityȱrepresentedȱinȱChaucer’sȱCook’sȱTaleȱinȱaȱcollection
ofȱ essaysȱ arisingȱ fromȱ theȱ 2008ȱ Internationalȱ Symposiumȱ onȱ Urbanȱ Spaceȱ (ed.
AlbrechtȱClassen,ȱ2009);ȱthenȱonȱissuesȱofȱmasculinityȱandȱsexualȱperformanceȱof
SirȱGarethȱinȱMalory’sȱTaleȱofȱSirȱGarethȱforȱSexualityȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱEarly
Modernȱ Timesȱ (ed.ȱ Albrechtȱ Classen,ȱ 2008).ȱ Heȱ hasȱ contributedȱ articlesȱ toȱ the
HandbookȱofȱMedievalȱStudiesȱ(ed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassen)ȱonȱmasculinityȱstudiesȱand
socialȱconstructionism.ȱMoreover,ȱheȱisȱalsoȱworkingȱonȱaȱbookȱonȱtheȱcultural
poeticsȱ ofȱ Piersȱ Plowmanȱ andȱ onȱ articlesȱ onȱ Theȱ Dreamȱ ofȱ theȱ Roodȱ andȱ identity
formation.
LIAȱB.ȱROSSȱholdsȱaȱPh.D.ȱinȱEuropeanȱHistoryȱ(Medievalȱ&ȱEarlyȱModern)ȱfrom
theȱUniversityȱofȱNewȱMexicoȱwhereȱsheȱworksȱfullȬtimeȱasȱcomputerȱanalystȱand
partȬtimeȱ asȱ historyȱ instructor.ȱ Sheȱ specializesȱ inȱ culturalȱ studiesȱ ofȱ fifteenthȬ
centuryȱFrance,ȱBurgundy,ȱandȱEnglandȱandȱisȱanȱactiveȱmemberȱofȱtheȱCentre
Contributors 901
européenȱ d’étudesȱ bourguignonnes.ȱ Herȱ bookȱ Revisitingȱ Decadence:ȱ Aȱ Behavioral

Interpretationȱ ofȱ FifteenthȬCenturyȱ Historicalȱ Narrativeȱ wasȱ publishedȱ inȱ 2010ȱ by
CambridgeȱScholarsȱPublishing.ȱSheȱhasȱcontributedȱtoȱseveralȱvolumesȱinȱthe
seriesȱ“FundamentalsȱofȱMedievalȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱCulture,”ȱeditedȱbyȱAlbrecht
Classenȱ andȱ Marilynȱ Sandidge,ȱ mostȱ recentlyȱ toȱ theȱ volumeȱ onȱ Crimeȱ and
Punishmentȱ(forthcoming).
MARIAȱCECILIAȱRUIZȱteachesȱatȱUniversityȱofȱSanȱDiego.ȱȱSheȱhasȱpublishedȱa
bookȱonȱDonȱJuanȱManuel,ȱLiteraturaȱyȱpolítica:ȱelȱLibroȱdeȱlosȱestadosȱyȱelȱLibroȱdeȱlas
armasȱdeȱdonȱJuanȱManuelȱ(ScriptaȱHumanística,ȱ1990),ȱandȱanȱarticle,ȱ“Elȱhumorȱen
elȱLibroȱdelȱcaualleroȱetȱdelȱescudero,ȱelȱLibroȱdeȱlosȱestadosȱyȱelȱLibroȱenfenidoȱdeȱdon
JuanȱManuel”ȱ(Estudiosȱalfonsinosȱyȱotrosȱescritos:ȱenȱhomenajeȱaȱJohnȱEstenȱKellerȱyȱa
AnibalȱA.ȱBiglieri,ȱNationalȱEndowmentȱforȱtheȱHumanities,ȱ1991).ȱȱRecentȱpapers
givenȱonȱdonȱJuanȱManuelȱhaveȱbeen:ȱ“Nature,ȱManȱandȱMoralityȱinȱdonȱJuan
Manuel’sȱLibroȱdelȱcaualleroȱetȱdelȱescudero”ȱandȱ“ReligionȱinȱdonȱJuanȱManuel:ȱFaith
andȱAmbition.”ȱȱSheȱisȱcurrentlyȱworkingȱonȱknighthood,ȱreadershipȱandȱreligion
inȱdonȱJuanȱManuel.
MARILYNȱSANDIDGEȱisȱProfessorȱofȱEnglishȱatȱWestfieldȱStateȱUniversity,ȱwhere
sheȱalsoȱdirectsȱtheȱMAȱprogramȱinȱEnglish.ȱHerȱscholarshipȱincludesȱarticlesȱand
papersȱonȱmedievalȱandȱearlyȱmodernȱEnglishȱliteraryȱandȱculturalȱtopics.ȱSheȱcoȬ
editedȱFriendshipȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱEarlyȱModernȱAgeȱ(ȱ2011)ȱwithȱAlbrecht
ClassenȱandȱservesȱasȱcoȬeditorȱofȱtheȱseriesȱ“FundamentalsȱofȱMedievalȱandȱEarly
ModernȱCulture.”ȱSheȱteachesȱcoursesȱinȱearlyȱBritishȱliteratureȱandȱhistoryȱofȱthe
Englishȱlanguage.
PENNYȱSIMONSȱisȱaȱSeniorȱLecturerȱinȱFrenchȱatȱtheȱUniversityȱofȱSheffieldȱinȱthe
Unitedȱ Kingdom,ȱ whereȱ sheȱ teachesȱ theȱ historyȱ ofȱ theȱ Frenchȱ languageȱ and
medievalȱ Frenchȱ literature,ȱ withȱ particularȱ referenceȱ toȱ theȱ comicȱ genres,ȱ the
fabliauxȱandȱtheȱfarces.ȱSheȱobtainedȱherȱPhDȱfromȱSheffieldȱinȱ1991,ȱhavingȱdone
herȱfirstȱdegreeȱinȱModernȱ&ȱMedievalȱLanguagesȱatȱtheȱUniversityȱofȱCambridge.ȱ
HerȱresearchȱfocusesȱonȱFrenchȱromanceȱofȱtheȱlateȱtwelfthȱandȱearlyȱthirteenth
centuries,ȱspecializingȱinȱthoseȱworksȱwhichȱmayȱbeȱregardedȱasȱlesserȱknownȱor
lessȱwidelyȱstudied.ȱȱSheȱhasȱpublishedȱextensivelyȱonȱtheȱromanceȱPartonopeuȱde
Blois,ȱbothȱasȱaȱsingleȱauthorȱandȱinȱcollaborationȱwithȱProfȱPennyȱEley,ȱalsoȱofȱthe
UniversityȱofȱSheffield.ȱȱSheȱwasȱpartȱofȱtheȱcollaborativeȱteamȱwhichȱproduced
theȱonlineȱeditionȱofȱPartonopeuȱwhichȱpresentsȱallȱextantȱmanuscriptsȱofȱtheȱtext
inȱsearchableȱform.ȱȱSheȱhasȱalsoȱwrittenȱonȱJoufroiȱdeȱPoitiers,ȱRenautȱdeȱBeaujeu’s
BelȱInconnu,ȱasȱwellȱasȱonȱChrétienȱdeȱTroyes’ȱCligés,ȱand,ȱmoreȱrecently,ȱonȱAimon
deȱVarennes’ȱFlorimont.ȱȱSheȱisȱcurrentlyȱworkingȱonȱtwoȱprojectsȱexaminingȱtheȱ
902 Contributors
waysȱinȱwhichȱFlorimontȱisȱaȱrewritingȱofȱearlierȱnarrativeȱmodelsȱandȱthemes,ȱand
isȱnearingȱtheȱcompletionȱofȱaȱcriticalȱeditionȱandȱtranslationȱofȱJoufroiȱdeȱPoitiers.
JACQUELINEȱSTUHMILLERȱholdsȱaȱPh.ȱD.ȱandȱM.ȱA.ȱinȱEnglishȱLiteratureȱfrom
CornellȱUniversityȱ(Ithaca,ȱNY).ȱHerȱdissertation,ȱ“TheȱHuntȱinȱRomanceȱandȱthe
HuntȱasȱRomance”ȱ(2005)ȱexploresȱtheȱconnectionsȱbetweenȱhuntingȱmanualsȱand
chivalricȱromance.ȱȱHerȱcurrentȱresearchȱfocusesȱonȱtheȱculturalȱimplicationsȱof
hunting,ȱbothȱmedievalȱandȱmodern.ȱȱHerȱarticleȱtitledȱ“PoachingȱandȱCarnival”
isȱforthcomingȱinȱHumanityȱandȱtheȱNaturalȱWorld,ȱed.ȱDavidȱHawkesȱ(Turnhout:
Brepols).
SCOTTȱL.ȱTAYLOR,ȱPh.D.,ȱJ.D.,ȱisȱaȱretiredȱattorney,ȱcurrentlyȱteachingȱhistory
andȱ politicalȱ scienceȱ atȱ Pimaȱ Communityȱ College,ȱ Tucson,ȱ Arizona.ȱ ȱ Heȱ has
authoredȱaȱnumberȱofȱpapersȱandȱarticlesȱdealingȱwithȱaspectsȱofȱmedievalȱlaw,
includingȱ“LawyersȱonȱtheȱMargins:ȱGenderedȱImagesȱofȱtheȱLegalȱVocationȱin
MedievalȱFrance,”ȱ75thȱannualȱmeetingȱofȱtheȱMedievalȱAcademyȱofȱAmerica,
Austin,ȱTexas,ȱAprilȱ13Ȭ16,ȱ2000,ȱandȱ“Reason,ȱRhetoricȱandȱRedemption:ȱȱThe
teachingȱofȱlawȱandȱtheȱPlanctusȱMariaeȱinȱtheȱLateȱMiddleȱAges,”ȱ20thȱannual
MiddleȱAgesȱConference,ȱFordhamȱUniversity,ȱMarchȱ24–25,ȱ2000,ȱpublishedȱin
MedievalȱEducation,ȱed.ȱRonaldȱB.ȱBegleyȱandȱJosephȱW.ȱKoterski,ȱS.J.ȱȱFordham
SeriesȱinȱMedievalȱStudies,ȱ4ȱ(NewȱYork:ȱFordhamȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2005),ȱasȱwell
asȱhisȱdissertation,ȱ“MaryȱbetweenȱGodȱandȱtheȱDevil:ȱȱJurisprudence,ȱTheology
andȱSatireȱinȱBartoloȱofȱSassoferrato’sȱProcessusȱSathane”(UniversityȱofȱArizona,
2005).ȱȱHisȱreviewsȱhaveȱappearedȱinȱTheologicalȱStudies,ȱandȱheȱhasȱcontributedȱto
aȱnumberȱofȱotherȱWalterȱdeȱGruyterȱpublications,ȱincludingȱOldȱAgeȱinȱtheȱMiddle
Ages:ȱInterdisciplinaryȱApproachesȱtoȱaȱNeglectedȱTopic,ȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱ(2007),ȱseveral
entries,ȱincludingȱthoseȱonȱmedievalȱlawȱandȱpoliticalȱtheoryȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,
inȱtheȱHandbookȱofȱMedievalȱStudies,ȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassenȱ(2010),ȱandȱ“TheȱConquest
ofȱSodom:ȱȱSymbiosisȱofȱCalumnyȱandȱCanonȱinȱtheȱJusȱBelliȱfromȱIrelandȱtoȱthe
Indies,”ȱinȱWarȱandȱPeace:ȱNewȱPerspectivesȱinȱEuropeanȱHistoryȱandȱLiterature,ȱ700Ȭ
1800,ȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassenȱandȱNadiaȱMargolisȱ(2011).ȱ
JESSICAȱTVORDIȱisȱAssociateȱProfessorȱofȱEnglishȱatȱSouthernȱUtahȱUniversity,
whereȱsheȱteachesȱcoursesȱonȱShakespeare,ȱRenaissanceȱDrama,ȱandȱMilton,ȱand
servesȱasȱaȱguestȱlecturerȱforȱtheȱUtahȱShakespeareȱFestival’sȱCampȱShakespeare
program.ȱHerȱpublicationsȱincludeȱarticlesȱonȱShakespeareȱinȱMaidsȱandȱMistresses,
CousinsȱandȱQueens:ȱWomen’sȱAlliancesȱinȱEarlyȱModernȱEnglandȱ(OxfordȱUniversity
Press,ȱ1999)ȱandȱinȱTheȱJournalȱofȱtheȱWoodenȱOȱ(2008),ȱasȱwellȱasȱarticlesȱonȱThomas
Carew’sȱCoelumȱBritannicumȱ(Quidditasȱ2010)ȱand,ȱmoreȱrecently,ȱJohnȱMilton’s
Prolusionȱ6,ȱinȱLaughterȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱTimes,ȱed.ȱClassen,
2010).ȱSheȱisȱcurrentlyȱworkingȱonȱaȱbookȬlengthȱprojectȱthatȱexaminesȱhowȱpostȬ
Contributors 903
Reformationȱ anxietiesȱ aboutȱ institutionalȱ politics,ȱ civicȱ morality,ȱ andȱ national

boundariesȱinform,ȱandȱareȱinformedȱby,ȱearlyȱmodernȱdiscoursesȱonȱgenderȱand
sexualȱdeviance.ȱȱ
BIRGITȱWIEDLȱisȱaȱresearchȱfellowȱatȱtheȱInstituteȱofȱJewishȱHistoryȱinȱAustria,
St.ȱ Pölten,ȱ andȱ aȱ lecturerȱ atȱ theȱ Universityȱ ofȱ Salzburg.ȱ Sheȱ studiedȱ History,
GermanȱandȱRussianȱPhilologyȱatȱtheȱUniversityȱofȱSalzburgȱ(MasterȱandȱPhD),
andȱHistoryȱandȱArchivisticsȱatȱtheȱUniversityȱofȱViennaȱ(Master).ȱHerȱmainȱfield
ofȱresearchȱisȱtheȱhistoryȱofȱJewsȱinȱmedievalȱAustria,ȱurbanȱhistory,ȱandȱeconomic
history.ȱSheȱisȱtheȱauthorȱofȱAlltagȱundȱRecht.ȱAspekteȱderȱAlltagsȬȱundȱRechtsgeȬ
schichteȱ imȱ Handwerkȱ (2006),ȱ andȱ hasȱ publishedȱ aȱ numberȱ ofȱ articlesȱ onȱ the
economic,ȱurban,ȱandȱsocialȱhistoryȱofȱJewsȱinȱmedievalȱAustriaȱasȱwellȱasȱedited
anthologiesȱ onȱ thatȱ topic.ȱ Togetherȱ withȱ Evelineȱ Brugger,ȱ sheȱ conductsȱ the
researchȱprojectȱ“DocumentsȱonȱJewishȱHistoryȱinȱMedievalȱAustria,”ȱfundedȱby
theȱ Austrianȱ Scienceȱ Fundȱ (FWF),ȱ whichȱ aimsȱ atȱ collectingȱ charters,
historiographic,ȱ andȱ literaryȱ documentsȱ thatȱ bearȱ referenceȱ toȱ Austrianȱ Jews.
Volumesȱ1ȱandȱ2ȱofȱthisȱcollectionȱhaveȱalreadyȱbeenȱpublishedȱ(EvelineȱBrugger
andȱBirgitȱWiedl,ȱRegestenȱzurȱGeschichteȱderȱJudenȱinȱÖsterreichȱimȱMittelalter.ȱVol
1:ȱVonȱdenȱAnfängenȱbisȱ1338.ȱVol.ȱ2:ȱ1339–1365.ȱ2005,ȱ2010;ȱvolumeȱ3ȱisȱcurrently
beingȱcompleted.ȱOnlineȱ(forȱfreeȱdownload)ȱat:
http://www.injoest.ac.at/projekte/laufend/mittelalterliche_judenurkunden/).ȱ
THOMASȱWILLARDȱteachesȱEnglishȱliteratureȱatȱTheȱUniversityȱofȱArizona.ȱHe
hasȱeditedȱtheȱalchemicalȱwritingsȱofȱJeanȱd’Espagneȱ(2000).ȱHisȱoccasionalȱessays
onȱaspectsȱofȱRosicrucianismȱhaveȱappearedȱinȱPapersȱofȱtheȱBibliographicalȱSociety
ofȱ Americaȱ (1984),ȱ Theorienȱ vomȱ Ursprungȱ derȱ Spracheȱ (1989),ȱ Secretȱ Texts:ȱ The
LiteratureȱofȱSecretȱSocietiesȱ(1995),ȱandȱMysticalȱMetalȱofȱGold:ȱEssaysȱonȱAlchemyȱand
RenaissanceȱCultureȱ(2007).ȱHeȱhasȱalsoȱeditedȱaȱcollectionȱofȱwritingsȱbyȱandȱabout
Northropȱ Fryeȱ (1991),ȱ andȱ hasȱ publishedȱ moreȱ thanȱ aȱ dozenȱ essaysȱ onȱ Frye’s
criticism.ȱHeȱalsoȱpublishedȱanȱarticleȱonȱ“Andreae’sȱludibrium:ȱMenippeanȱSatire
inȱtheȱChymischeȱHochzeit,”ȱinȱLaughterȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱTimes,
ed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassenȱ(2010),ȱandȱonȱ“LivingȱtheȱLongȱLife:ȱPhysicalȱandȱSpiritual
Healthȱ inȱ Twoȱ Earlyȱ Paracelsianȱ Tracts,”ȱ inȱ Religionȱ undȱ Gesundheit:ȱ Der
heilkundlicheȱDiskursȱimȱ16.ȱJahrhundert,ȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassenȱ(2011).
ELIZABETHȱCHESNEYȱZEGURAȱisȱanȱAssociateȱProfessorȱofȱFrenchȱandȱItalian
atȱTheȱUniversityȱofȱArizona,ȱwhereȱsheȱteachesȱcoursesȱrangingȱfromȱFrenchȱand
ItalianȱRenaissanceȱliteratureȱtoȱExistentialismȱandȱtheȱAbsurd.ȱHerȱpublications
includeȱ Theȱ Countervoyageȱ ofȱ Rabelaisȱ andȱ Ariosto:ȱ Aȱ Comparativeȱ Readingȱ ofȱ Two
RenaissanceȱMockȱEpicsȱ(1982);ȱRabelaisȱRevisited,ȱwithȱMarcelȱTetelȱ(1993);ȱandȱThe
Rabelaisȱ Encyclopedia,ȱ ed.ȱ (2004).ȱ Sheȱ contributedȱ anȱ articleȱ onȱ Margueriteȱ de
904 Contributors
NavarreȱinȱDiscoursesȱonȱLove,ȱMarriage,ȱandȱTransgressionȱinȱMedievalȱandȱEarly
ModernȱLiteratureȱ(ed.ȱA.ȱClassen,ȱ2004)ȱandȱinȱLaughterȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱEarly
ModernȱTimesȱ(ed.ȱA.ȱClassen,ȱ2010).ȱFollowingȱthese,ȱsheȱisȱcurrentlyȱpreparingȱa
monographȱonȱgender,ȱclass,ȱandȱpoliticsȱinȱMarguerite’sȱHeptameron.
Index
AȱMidsummerȱNight’sȱDream 300 AliceȱofȱCoten 222

AbbéȱMajolusȱofȱCluny 28 Alps 16,ȱ28,ȱ40–41,ȱ44–45,ȱ92
Abraham 639,ȱ645–46, Alvarez,ȱGarcy 463
ȱ654,ȱ667–68 AmbraserȱLiederbuch 255,ȱ277
AbrechȱofȱFriesach 647,ȱ666 AndreasȱCapellanus 113,ȱ257,
AbulȬAbbas 145 ȱ263,ȱ610
AdamȱofȱCoten 222 Angiolieri,ȱCecco 164,ȱ618,ȱ633
Adelaide,ȱHenriette 828 AngloȬSaxonȱChronicle 392–93
AdenetȱleȱRoi 433,ȱ437,ȱ450 AnnoȱofȱCologne 28
AdenetȱleȱRoi 57,ȱ148–49 AnnunciationȱtoȱtheȱShepherds 568,
AdorationȱofȱtheȱMagi 568 ȱ570
Adrasta 787–88 AnonymusȱLeobiensis 657
Aergol 299 Antoninus 296,ȱ300
Aesop 171 Arberth 296Ȭ300,ȱ304,ȱ308,ȱ311
AfterȱtheȱFlood 570 AribertȱofȱMilan 28
AgnesȱdeȱBeaumeys 220–21 Ariosto,ȱLudovico 173,ȱ729Ȭȱ34,
Agrippa,ȱCornelius 882 ȱ736Ȭȱ41,ȱ743,ȱ746Ȭȱ54
AlȬBiruni 11 Aristotle 703
AlȬGafiqi 11 Aristotle 2,ȱ39
AlbericȱofȱTroisȬFontaines 102 Arlecchino 619
AlbertusȱMagnus 9,ȱ12 ArmeȱKonrad 699
AlbrechtȱV 669 ArnoldȱvonȱHarff 126
AlbrechtȱIII 648,ȱ654,ȱ667 AronȱBlümlein 674–75,ȱ679
AlbrechtȱII 641,ȱ644,ȱ659,ȱ669 Arquemination 716–17,ȱ727
Albrecht,ȱDuke 674,ȱ676,ȱ681 Arteȱvenandiȱcumȱavibus 457
AlbrechtȱV,ȱDuke 674 AsȱYouȱLikeȱIt 790–91
AlbrechtȱIII 167 AugustȱtheȱYounger 543
AlfonsoȱXȱofȱCastileȱandȱLeon 85 Augustine 40,ȱ43
AlfonsoȱdeȱlaȱCerda 498 AwntyrsȱoffȱArthureȱatȱtheȱTerneȱ
AlfonsoȱXȱtheȱWise 454 Wathelyne 161–62,
Alfonsoȱd’Este 740 589Ȭȱ91,ȱ601,ȱ605–06
AlfonsoȱIXȱofȱLeon 430 Ælfric 185
AlfonsoȱI 430
906 Index
bailliage/s 369Ȭ73,ȱ375–76, Bisclavret 147–48,ȱ408,ȱ413,

ȱ379,ȱ381,ȱ383,ȱ385,ȱ386–87 ȱ428,ȱ431
baiserȱhonteux 318Ȭ320,ȱ324,ȱ328 BlackȱBookȱofȱCarmarthen 301
Balde,ȱJakob 143 BlackȱDeath 217,ȱ219,ȱ353,ȱ355,ȱ365
Ball,ȱJohn 352 Blutstätten 657
Balle,ȱJohn 693 Boccaccio,ȱGiovanni 16,ȱ67,ȱ69,ȱ70,
BambergȱApocalypse 37 ȱ 101,ȱ111,ȱ114,ȱ133,ȱ264,ȱ272,ȱ279,
Bambi 584 ȱ 613,ȱ824
BarberȱofȱSeville 746 Bodel,ȱJean 290
Barnes 765 Böhme,ȱJacob 871
BartholomaeusȱAnglicus 13,ȱ39 BonzaȱSforza 542
BartholomewȱofȱSaintȱFucien 98 BookȱofȱHours 628
BartholomewȱtheȱEnglishman 12 BookȱofȱHoursȱofȱEngelbertȱof
Bartolomé,ȱMaestro 119 Nassau 824
Bauernkriegȱ(seeȱalsoȱ BookȱofȱHoursȱbyȱtheȱSpitzȱ
Peasants’ȱWar) 687, Masterȱ 30
ȱ688,ȱ697Ȭ701 BookȱofȱMartyrs 768,ȱ769
beastȱepic 282,ȱ284–85,ȱ289 Book/sȱofȱHours 47,ȱ72,ȱ84,ȱ120Ȭ22,
BeatrizȱofȱSwabia 457 ȱ125,ȱ130,ȱ155Ȭ59,ȱ161,ȱ170,ȱ174,ȱ
Beaumarchais 746 183–84,ȱ529Ȭ37,ȱ540,
BedfordȱHours 569–70, ȱ 542–43,ȱ548Ȭ59ȱ561,ȱ565,
ȱ573–74,ȱ584 569–70,ȱ573,ȱ575,ȱ578–85,ȱ628
BedfordȱMaster 569 Bosch,ȱHieronymus 159,ȱ544,
BenȱJonson 755,ȱ764,ȱ773 ȱ579–580,ȱ599
BenozzoȱGozzoli’s 554 Bosena 96,ȱ97
Beowulf 17Ȭ21,ȱ23,ȱ154,ȱ161 Bosscher 835,ȱ864
Bérengerȱauȱloncȱcul 313–14,ȱȱ316, Bote,ȱHermen 108
ȱ317,ȱ320Ȭ323, BoucicautȱMaster 535
ȱ 325,ȱ327Ȭ329 Bozen 1,ȱ3–4,ȱ85,ȱ95,ȱ96
BernardȱofȱHildesheim 28 Bracciolini,ȱPoggio 111,ȱ614
BernerȱLiederbuch 255,ȱ277,ȱ279 Braeu,ȱClaes 834,ȱ863
BernhardȱvonȱBreidenbach 126 Brendanȱ(seeȱTheȱVoyage)
Bernstein 867–68 Brouwer,ȱAdriaen 123
Bernstein,ȱEduard 867–68 Brueghel,ȱPieter,ȱtheȱElder 121,ȱ192
Berry 531,ȱ535–43,ȱ545,ȱ549, Brueghel,ȱPieter,ȱtheȱYounger 121,
ȱ551–52 ȱ123
Berteȱasȱgransȱpiés 433Ȭȱ36,ȱ443 Brunain 291
BertholdȱofȱMaidburg 643 BrutinaeȱQuaestiones 759,ȱ771
BertranȱdeȱBorn 255 Buchberg 643–44,ȱ667
BetȱDin 662 Cabala 466
BibleȱMoralisé 549 Cacciaguida 612
Index 907
Caerfyrddin 302 Chaucer,ȱGeoffrey 67,ȱ68,

Calvert,ȱGiles 865,ȱ869, ȱ111,ȱ324,ȱ574,ȱ603
ȱ871Ȭ74,ȱ878Ȭ80,ȱ891 ChrétienȱdeȱTroyes 50,ȱ317,ȱ407,
Calvino,ȱItalo 737,ȱ746 ȱ415,ȱ430,ȱ610,ȱ750
CantigasȱdeȱSantaȱMaria 85 ChristȱinȱPrayerȱonȱMountȱOlive
cantref 298,ȱ310,ȱ311 570
CapellaȱPalatina 84 ChristȱinȱGethsemane 569
Capitulareȱdeȱvillis 32Ȭ35,ȱ142 ChristianȱofȱDenmark 399
Carew,ȱThomas 799 ChristineȱdeȱPizan 252–53,ȱ821,ȱ840
Carlstadt 700 Chroniqueȱnormande 687–88
CarminaȱBurana 16,ȱ84 Chroniques 580–81,ȱ587
Carteret,ȱGeorge 402 Cicero 124
CasparȱofȱAltmannsdorf 648,ȱ654 circumambulation 215
Cassiodorus 354 Clanvowe,ȱT. 158
CastelloȱSforzesco 828 Clifford,ȱRosamund 394
CastleȱRunkelstein 1 Cligés 324
CatherineȱofȱCleves 565, ClipsbyȱCrew 797,ȱ813
ȱ570Ȭ72,ȱ587 Cloven,ȱViscount 737,ȱ746
Catullus 800 Cobham 865,ȱ870,ȱ873,ȱ876,
Caute,ȱDavid 881–82 ȱ878–87,ȱ890
Cautelleux,ȱBaratȱetȱleȱvillain 714 Cocke,ȱGeorge 404
CenneȱdellaȱChitarra 164 CodexȱManesse 85,ȱ823,ȱ844
Centȱnouvellesȱnouvelles 706,ȱ724 Colin,ȱfilsȱdeȱThévotȱleȱmaire 712
Centlivre 405 Colloquy 185
Chadgim 649,ȱ661 Colombe,ȱJean 566–67
chansonȱdeȱgeste 436,ȱ444 ColonelȱReames 404
ChansonȱdeȱRoland 17,ȱ18,ȱ22, Confessiones 40,ȱ43
ȱ446,ȱ450 Congreve 405
ChansonȱdeȱGuillaume 327 Congreve,ȱWilliam 172,ȱ405
chansonsȱdeȱgeste 316,ȱ320,ȱ325,ȱ327 Conquistadors 587
Charlemagne 22,ȱ32Ȭ35,ȱ85,ȱ103, Corpusȱjurisȱcivilis 698
ȱ 105–06,ȱ140,ȱ142,ȱ144–45, Coten 220Ȭ23
ȱ 148,ȱ433–44 Couldrette 160
CharlesȱtheȱBold 571 CouncilȱofȱRouen 355
CharlesȱI 401,ȱ799,ȱ803–04,ȱ814, CountȱofȱAlanson 513
ȱ817,ȱ865,ȱ874–75 Cranach,ȱLucas,ȱtheȱElder 86
CharlesȱII 390,ȱ401Ȭ03,ȱ798 Crashaw,ȱRichard 799
CharlesȱV 831 Creed,ȱJohn 403
CharlesȱIȱofȱSavoy 566 Cromwell,ȱOliver 797,ȱ868,
Chartier,ȱAlain 564 ȱ869,ȱ883–84,ȱ886
Chastellain,ȱGeorges 160,ȱ580–81 Crónicaȱabreviada 454–55,ȱ465
908 Index
Crónicaȱmanuelina 454 DonȱEnrique 460,ȱ492,ȱ496Ȭ499

CrónicasȱdeȱEspaña 455 DonȱManuel 459–60,ȱ477,
cuentos 67 ȱ 487–88,ȱ492–93,ȱ496–97,ȱ499
CulhwchȱandȱOlwen 301,ȱ307 DonȱRodrigoȱPerez 832
CurtiusȱRufus,ȱQuintus 116 Donne,ȱJohn 799
Cuspinian,ȱJohannes 86 DoomsdayȱBook 210,ȱ393,ȱ397
CynanȱGarwyn 299 DorotheaȱvonȱMontau 186
CyriacusȱJacobȱzumȱBock 79 Doucesson,ȱRichard 221
Dalimil 96 Dr.ȱFaustus 595
Damian,ȱPeter 127 DresdenȱPrayerȱBook 557,ȱ558
DanielȱvonȱdemȱBlühendenȱTal 162 Dryngallday,ȱRobert 222
DanteȱAlighieri 59,ȱ439,ȱ607, DuȱSegretainȱmoine 291
ȱ611Ȭ613 Duȱmeunierȱetȱlesȱdeuxȱclercs 291
DavidȱofȱHerzogenburg 678,ȱ681 Dublin 296–97,ȱ299,ȱ304Ȭ08,ȱ311
DavidȱTeniersȱtheȱYounger 123 Ducȱ(Dukeȱof)ȱdeȱBerry 566,ȱ568,
DavidȱofȱEggenburg 661,ȱ667 ȱ822,ȱ841
Deȱamore 257 DukeȱUlrich 699
Deȱhaereticoȱcomburendo 693 Duns,ȱJohnȱScotus 696
DeȱScientiaȱVenandiȱperȱAves 458 Durche,ȱRemon 495Ȭ97
Deȱlaȱdemoiselleȱquiȱn’otȱparlerȱde Dürer,ȱAlbrecht 86
fotre 291 Ecocriticism 529,ȱ534,ȱ557
Deȱpauperieȱsalvatoris 696 Edgerton,ȱFrancis 887
Decameron 264,ȱ272,ȱ279,ȱ695,ȱ824 EdithȱofȱCoten 222
Deists 871 EdwardȱI 303
Deposition 569 Efferl 682
DerȱarmeȱHeinrich 251,ȱ256, Efferlein 645,ȱ661
ȱ258,ȱ260,ȱ263,ȱ264 EikeȱvonȱRepgow 169,ȱ695
DesȱTeufelsȱNetz 81 Einhard 102
Deschamps,ȱEustache 711 ElȱPoemaȱdeȱMíoȱCid 18,ȱ23,ȱ35
Devotioȱmoderna 531 Eliezer 668
DietrichȱvonȱderȱGletze 139 ElisabethȱvonȱNassauȬ
Diggers 865Ȭ68,ȱ870, Saarbrücken 102–03
ȱ876Ȭ79,ȱ881–82,ȱ885 ElizabethȱI 399
DinisȱofȱPortugal 498 Ellington 210,ȱ219Ȭ21,ȱ223Ȭ25
DionisioȱdaȱBorgoȱSanȱSepolcro 40 Émile,ȱouȱDeȱl’éducation 113
Disȱistȱvonȱdemȱheslin 70,ȱ266,ȱ272 Engelmann,ȱNikolaus 12
Discoursȱsurȱl’origine 113 Engels,ȱFriedrich 90,ȱ179,ȱ867–68
Disney 562,ȱ568,ȱ584Ȭ86 Enrique 460,ȱ492,ȱ496Ȭ99
Disputation 763,ȱ790Ȭ93 EpistleȱofȱOthea 821,ȱ840
Diuȱborte 139 Equitan 394
DomȱJuan 744,ȱ746 ErasmusȱofȱRotterdam 759
Index 909
ErcoleȱI 747 Fo,ȱDario 164,ȱ607–08,

Erec 4,ȱ49–ȱ50,ȱ58 ȱ619–20,ȱ630Ȭ32
ErecȱetȱEnide 317,ȱ323 FolgoreȱdaȱSanȱGimigniano 618
ErikȱtheȱRed 30 FolleȱBobance 726–27
EstoriaȱdeȱEspaña 454–55 FoukeȱleȱFitzȱWaryn 396
Estula 291–92 FourȱBranchesȱofȱtheȱMabinogi 295,
Etherege,ȱGeorge 405 ȱ296
Evelyn,ȱJohn 804 FrancisȱI 398,ȱ831
Everard 873,ȱ877 Franck,ȱSebastian 700
Everard,ȱWilliam 873 FrederickȱIIȱvonȱHohenstaufen 115,
fabliau/x 67,ȱ135Ȭ38,ȱ140,ȱ148,ȱ170, 150,ȱ457,ȱ624,ȱ641
178,ȱ271–72,ȱ281Ȭ285,ȱ289Ȭ91, Frenclein 660
ȱ294,ȱ313Ȭ19,ȱ321Ȭ23,ȱ326, Freudlein 668
ȱ328,ȱ329–30,ȱ336,ȱ340,ȱ347, Frey,ȱPeter 277
ȱ 533,ȱ554–55,ȱ704 Friuli 216
fabliauxȱcittadini 290 Fuchs,ȱLeonhart 10
fabliauxȱcontadini 290 Gaetani,ȱVillano 616
Fabri,ȱFelix 126 Galfridus 221
Facezie 614 Gallego,ȱFerdando 119
Fairfax,ȱThomas 877 GardenȱofȱEarthlyȱDelights 579
Fame,ȱS. 781 GassenhawerlinȱundȱReutterȬ
Fane,ȱMildmay 797,ȱ817 liedlinȱ 277
Fantasia 584 GeertgenȱtotȱSintȱJans 554
FarceȱdeȱMestreȱTrubertȱetȱ Genesis 80,ȱ153,ȱ156,ȱ178,ȱ184
d’Antrongnart 711 GentileȱSermini 614
Farceȱdesȱfemmesȱquiȱvendentȱ GeoffreyȱofȱMonmouth 355
amourettes 717 GeorgeȱofȱWaldburg 700
farcesȱallegorisées 704 George,ȱDavid 883
fascetiae 67,ȱ111 Georgeȱleȱveau 715,ȱ716
Fasciculiȱzizaniorumȱmagistriȱ GeraldȱofȱWales 307
JohannisȱWyclif 694 Gesera 674,ȱ679,ȱ683
Fasciculusȱmorum 79,ȱ183 Giles,ȱEdwards 809
Ferdinand 828 GilesȱofȱRome 698
FernandoȱIV 460,ȱ483,ȱ494,ȱ498 Giotto 635
FernandoȱIII 459–60,ȱ488,ȱ492 Gnostics 871
Filippi,ȱRustico 618,ȱ633 Godescalcus 84
Fitzralph,ȱRichard 696 goðorð 5
FitzwilliamȱBookȱofȱHours 557,ȱ558 GolfȱBook 545Ȭ549
FloireȱetȱBlancheflor 272 Gomes,ȱRodrigo 499
FloriantȱetȱFlorete 408 Gomez,ȱFerrant 463
GonçaloȱRoyzȱdeȱYsla 496
910 Index
GottfriedȱofȱFranken 10,ȱ11 HarveyȱNasheȱQuarrel 755,ȱ793

GottfriedȱvonȱStraßburg 17,ȱ83, Harvey,ȱGabriel 175,ȱ755Ȭ57,
ȱ146,ȱ152 ȱ761,ȱ762,
Gottfried,ȱȱJ.ȱL. 833 ȱȱ 765,ȱ769–70,ȱ772,ȱ777Ȭ79,ȱ788
Gower,ȱJohn 74 Hasselaer,ȱKenauȱSimons 832,
GrandesȱHeuresȱdeȱRohan 74,ȱ535 ȱ860–61
Gratian 695 HastingsȱHours 557,ȱ558
Greene,ȱRobert 175,ȱ755,ȱ757,ȱ768, HaveȱwithȱYouȱtoȱSaffronȱ
ȱ776,ȱ782,ȱ787,ȱ791 Waldon 763,ȱ787
GrimaldescoȱofȱIesi 617 HavelokȱtheȱDane 395
Grimm,ȱBrothers 440 Hegel,ȱGeorgȱWilhelmȱFriedrich 7
Grimmer,ȱAbel 123 Hellequin 619
Grimmer,ȱJacob 123 Helmbrecht 255,ȱ274,ȱ278
Gringoire,ȱPierre 170,ȱ187,ȱ707 HendleinȱofȱGmünd 646,ȱ661,
Grote,ȱGert 531 ȱ666,ȱ674
Grundbücher 648,ȱ650,ȱ663 HendleinȱofȱStockstall 646
Guerin 313,ȱ319,ȱ322,ȱ328 HendrikȱIIȱofȱNassau 580
GuiȱofȱDampierre 436 HenryȱI 145,ȱ295,ȱ298
GuidoȱdeȱColumna 38 HenryȱII 394
Guigemar 427,ȱ428 HenryȱIII 145,ȱ392
GuillaumeȱdeȱMachaut 367 HenryȱVI 420
GuillaumeȱdeȱLorris 574 HenryȱVIII 397–98
GuillaumeȱdeȱPalerne 147, HenryȱIVȱPartȱOne 760
ȱ 407Ȭ10,ȱ412Ȭ14,ȱ416Ȭ18,ȱ423Ȭ30 Heptaméron 107,ȱ109Ȭ12
Guillermeȱquiȱmangeaȱlesȱfiguesȱdu Herbert,ȱGeorge 797,ȱ799
curé 709 HerradȱofȱHohenberg 12
Guittoneȱd’Arezzo 163,ȱ617,ȱ633 Herrick,ȱRobert 176,ȱ795–96,ȱ801
GuntherusȱLigurinus 16 HerschleinȱofȱHadersdorfȱamȱ
Gutmanin 645 Kamp 660
Gwyn,ȱNell 402 Hesdin 142–43,ȱ367Ȭ73,
Hadas 646,ȱ661 ȱ375Ȭ80,ȱ382Ȭ87
HansȱvonȱWestemach 685 Hesiod 729,ȱ753,ȱ800
Hansüß 650 HeskleinȱofȱRaabs 652,ȱ661,ȱ668
Hardy,ȱThomas 312 Hesperides 795,ȱ798Ȭ800,ȱ805,ȱ808,
Harlech 296,ȱ302Ȭ04,ȱ311 ȱ810–11,ȱ813–14,ȱ816
Hartlib,ȱSamuel 871 Hetschelȱ(Chaim)ȱofȱHerzogenȬ
HartmannȱvonȱAue 49,ȱ58,ȱ94,ȱ107, burgȱ 167,ȱȱ649,ȱ675,ȱ677
ȱ 154,ȱ173,ȱ251,ȱ256,ȱ258,ȱ260, Higden,ȱRanulf 355
ȱ263,ȱ273,ȱ278 HildegardȱofȱBingen 10
HarunȱalȬRashid 145 HirschȱofȱLengbach 650
Index 911
HistoriaȱAnglicana 693 Isak 643,ȱ646–47,ȱ660,ȱ663,

HistoriaȱBrittonum 298 ȱ665,ȱ667
HistorischeȱChronyck 833 IsidoreȱofȱSeville 11,ȱ354
HistoryȱofȱRome 41 IsraelȱIsserlein 674–75,ȱ678–79
HistoryȱofȱAlexanderȱtheȱGreat 116, IsraelȱofȱKrems 667,ȱ674,
ȱ117,ȱ119 ȱ675,ȱ678,ȱ679
Homer 29,ȱ750 IstoreȱetȱCroniquesȱdeȱ
Hondius,ȱAbraham 178,ȱ819, flandres 687
ȱ826,ȱ853Ȭ55 Istyr 682
HonorusȱAugustodunensis 12 iudexȱIudeorum 678
Hooper 765 JacobȱofȱHorn 647
Horace 800,ȱ803 JacobȱofȱWeitra 661
hortusȱconclusus 401,ȱ573,ȱ584 Jacob’sȱWell 74
HoursȱofȱtheȱVirgin 529,ȱ537, Jacquerie 533,ȱ687–88
ȱ550,ȱ551 JaimeȱII 498
HoursȱofȱCatherineȱofȱCleves JamesȱI 401
565,ȱ570Ȭ72 Janotȱdansȱleȱsac 710,ȱ713
HoursȱofȱMaryȱofȱBurgundy JeanȱofȱBerry 587
571Ȭ73 Jeanȱd’Arras. 160
HousebookȱMaster 822,ȱ842 JeanȱdeȱLaȱFontaine 171
HowardȱPsalter 30 JeanȱdesȱPreisȱditȱd’OutreȬ
HueȱdeȱRotelande 322 meuse 103
Hugh,ȱAbbot 223 JeanȱofȱBourbon 575
HugoȱvonȱTrimberg 79,ȱ254 JeanȬJacquesȱRousseau 113
HundredȱRolls 210,ȱ220–21,ȱ223 JehudaȱhaKohen 644
Husserl,ȱEdmund 7 Jehuda 644,ȱ653
HydeȱPark 397,ȱ405 Jeninotȱquiȱfitȱunȱroiȱdeȱsonȱchat
Hyppolitus 749 714
IbnȱAlȬBaytar 11 Jews 6,ȱ80,ȱ165Ȭ68,ȱ447,ȱ449
Iconology 401 Johannesȱvonȱ
IlȱNovellino 613 Marienwerder 186
Ilȱcavaliereȱinesistente 737 Johannesȱof/vonȱTepl 77,ȱ555
IldebrandinoȱdeiȱPannocchieschi John,ȱElton 887
616 JohnȱofȱLancaster 565,ȱ569,ȱ587
InfantȱDonȱManuel 459 Jonson,ȱBen 175,ȱ797Ȭ99,ȱ813
IohanȱRodriguesȱdeȱVillovos 491 Joseph 646,ȱ652,ȱ654,
IohanȱVelezȱdeȱVegara 491 ȱ660–61,ȱ663,ȱ668
IsaakȱbarȱMosche 641 JosephȱofȱFeldsberg 650,ȱ654
IsakȱofȱMautern 643 Judas’sȱKiss 570
IsakȱofȱRaabs 646
912 Index
JudenbuchȱderȱScheffstrasse 650, LazarusȱofȱEggenburg 646,ȱ654,

ȱ 660–61,ȱ663,ȱ669 ȱ667–68
Judendörfer 640 Leȱcuria 720,ȱ727
Judenmeister 648 Leȱchauldronnier,ȱleȱsavetier,ȱ
Judenrichter 662 etȱleȱtavernier 705
Kalman 667 LeȱConteȱduȱGraal 415–16
Kautsky,ȱKarl 867–68 LeȱFaulconnierȱdeȱville 725
Kempe,ȱMargery 130 Leȱfol,ȱleȱmari,ȱlaȱfemmeȱ
KingȱJohn 310,ȱ396 etȱleȱcuréȱ 714
KingȱPhilip 513 Leȱgrandȱvoyageȱetȱpèlerinageȱ
KingȱJamesȱI 799 deȱSainteȱCaquette 709
KingȱLear 734,ȱ736,ȱ738 LeȱGentilhommeȱetȱNaudet 724,
Kirchhof,ȱHansȱWilhelm 101, ȱ727
ȱ107,ȱ111 LeȱLivreȱdeȱlaȱchasse 382
KitabȱalȬYawarih 456 Leȱmarchandȱdeȱvolaille 705
KonradȱofȱKyburg 652 Leȱmarchantȱdeȱpommes 712
KonradȱofȱMegenberg 10,ȱ13 Leȱmeunierȱdeȱquiȱleȱdiableȱ
KonradȱofȱTulln 651 emporteȱl’ameȱenȱenfer 705
Kudrun 16 LeȱmeunierȱetȱleȱgentilȬ
Laȱfarceȱnouvelleȱdesȱesbahis 710 homme 705,
L’antechristȱetȱtroisȱfemmes 705 ȱ722,ȱ727
Laȱfemme,ȱleȱbadinȱetȱdeuxȱvoisins LeȱnouveauȱPathelin 712
717 LeȱNovelle 614
Laȱfemmeȱquiȱfutȱdérobéeȱàȱson Leȱpontȱauxȱânes 713
mariȱenȱsaȱhotte 706 Leȱpourpointȱrétréci 705
Laȱnourriceȱetȱlaȱchambrière 705 Leȱretrait 706
LaȱGageure 320–21,ȱ327 Leȱsavetier,ȱleȱsergentȱetȱ
Laȱvie[i]lleȱquiȱgraissa 292 laȱlaitièreȱ 713
Ladies’ȱPeace 831 LeȱtestamentȱdeȱPathelin 705
Landschaftsmalerei 121 Leȱvilainȱasnier 290
Langland,ȱWilliam 70,ȱ79, LeȱvilainȱetȱsonȱfilsȱJacob 710
140,ȱ351–53,ȱȱ355,ȱ358,ȱ360Ȭ66, Leȱvilainȱmire 290,ȱ293
ȱ 555,ȱ695,ȱ757,ȱ786 LeȱVilainȱquiȱconquistȱ
LapidationȱofȱSaintȱStephen 571 paradis 290
Latimer,ȱHugh 765 Leȱvilain,ȱsaȱfemmeȱetȱleȱcuré 706
LaurenceȱofȱBedford 219 LebȱofȱGars 641,
LawȱofȱFreedom 869, ȱ643Ȭ45,ȱ659,ȱ664,ȱ667–68
ȱ 880–81,ȱ883,ȱ887 Lebman 645,ȱ667
Lawrence,ȱD.ȱH. 95 Lefebvre,ȱHenri 14
Index 913
LegesȱaugustalesȱorȱConstitutionsȱ Libroȱdeȱlasȱanimaliasȱ
ofȱMelfi 624 queȱcazan 456
Lennon,ȱJohn 887 Libroȱdeȱlasȱarmas 452,ȱ467,
LeoȱX 145 ȱ497,ȱ503
LeopoldȱIII 167,ȱ667,ȱ679,ȱ681 Libroȱenfinido 453
LeopoldȱV 641 LibroȱdeȱMoamím 456
Lesȱchambrières 708 Libroȱdeȱlosȱestados 458,ȱ466,ȱ503
Lesȱdeuxȱgentilshommesȱetȱ LifeȱofȱDorotheaȱvonȱMontau 186
leȱmeunier 705,ȱ723 Limbourg,ȱPaul 568
Lesȱdeuxȱbourgeoisȱetȱ Limbourgȱbrothers 535,ȱ540,
unȱvilain 283, ȱ 544Ȭ46,ȱȱ549
ȱ292 Lingelbach,ȱJohannes 819,ȱ828
LesȱEnfansȱdeȱBorgneux 719 Lipsius 759,ȱ773
Lesȱfemmesȱquiȱfontȱaccroireȱ Litchfield,ȱRichard 787
àȱleursȱmarisȱ 705 Littleton,ȱThomas 702
Lesȱfemmesȱquiȱfontȱbasterȱ LivreȱdeȱlaȱPaix 252
leursȱmarisȱauxȱcorneilles 709 LivreȱduȱCœurȱd’amourȱépris 561,
Lesȱfemmesȱquiȱfontȱécurerȱ ȱ575
leursȱchaudrons 705 Livreȱdeȱchasse 505,ȱ514
Lesȱfemmesȱquiȱvendentȱ LivreȱdesȱQuatreȱDames 564
amourettes 705,ȱȱ727 Livreȱdeȱlaȱchasse 820,ȱ838,ȱ839
LesȱTragiques 735 LivreȱduȱCœurȱd’amourȱépris 159
Lesȱtroisȱamoureuxȱdeȱlaȱcroix 708 Livy 41
lèseȬmajesté 443 Llibreȱdeȱcetreria 456
Lesir 649 Llinon 304Ȭ07
Lessing,ȱGottholdȱEphraim 171 locusȱhorridus 735–36
LestoireȱdeȱMerlin 317,ȱ326 locusȱamoenus 7,ȱ29,ȱ36,ȱ37,
LeubmanȱofȱHerzogenburg 682 ȱ 52,ȱ103,ȱ149,ȱ155,ȱ230,ȱ246,
Leubmann 663 ȱ264,ȱ729,ȱ733,ȱ735–36,ȱ741,ȱ743
Levellers 867,ȱ873Ȭ77,ȱ885 locusȱterribilis 246
LiȱRoumansȱdeȱBerteȱausȱ Lollard 694
Gransȱpiés 58,ȱ148 Lombardȱplains 3
Libroȱdeȱlaȱcaza 451Ȭ65,ȱ467, López,ȱPeroȱdeȱAyala 456,ȱ496
ȱ478,ȱ485Ȭ87,ȱ489Ȭ91, Lorenzetti,ȱAmbrogio 85
ȱ494Ȭ96,ȱ498Ȭ500,ȱ502–03 LouisȱtheȱPious 33,ȱ105,ȱ106
Libroȱdelȱcaualleroȱetȱ LouisȱIX 437
delȱescuderoȱ 451,ȱ460, LourdaudȱetȱTardȱHabile 705
ȱ502–03 Lovelace,ȱRichard 799
LibroȱdeȱMontería 456 Lubin 655
Libroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱdeȱlasȱaves, 456 ElȱCondeȱLucanor 459,ȱ497
914 Index
LuttrellȱPsalter 23,ȱ555–56 MaryȱofȱHungary 831

Luttrell,ȱGeoffrey 23 MaryȱofȱBurgundy 542,ȱ550,
Lyly,ȱJohn 175,ȱ755,ȱ763 ȱ571Ȭ73,ȱ587,ȱ831
Mabinogiȱ(seeȱTheȱFourȱBranches) MasterȱE.ȱS. 825
MacaireȱouȱlaȱReineȱSebile 103 MasterȱofȱtheȱHarvardȱ
MacclesfieldȱPsalter 555Ȭ57 Hannibal 551
MactacioȱAbel 355 MatazoneȱdaȱCaliganos 163
Mahautȱd’Artois’s 142,ȱ367, MatazoneȱdaȱCaligano 163,
ȱ369–70,ȱ378,ȱ382,ȱ387 ȱ607–08,ȱ620
Mahuetȱbadin,ȱnatifȱdeȱBagnolet,ȱ MaximilianȱofȱAustria 830
quiȱvaȱàȱParisȱauȱmarché 718 MaximilianȱI 145,ȱ169,ȱ698,ȱ825
MaistreȱMiminȱétudiant 720 mæren 67,ȱ107,ȱ135,ȱ138,ȱ170,
maistrise 502,ȱ511,ȱ513,ȱ519 ȱ178,ȱ267,ȱ269,ȱ272
malice 508Ȭ11,ȱ513–14,ȱ516,ȱ517 MeetingȱofȱtheȱMagi 568
Manesseȱ(seeȱCodexȱManesse) MeirȱofȱRothenburg 668
manorialism 359 Melion 408,ȱ425,ȱ428,ȱ431
Manuel,ȱJuan 451Ȭ58,ȱ462, Melusine 160
ȱ463,ȱ466Ȭ73,ȱ476Ȭ83,ȱ485Ȭ89, Memling,ȱHans 599
ȱ492Ȭ499,ȱ503 Menaphon 763,ȱ769,ȱ773,ȱ775Ȭ77,
Map,ȱWalter 394 ȱ780,ȱ791–92
MargaretȱofȱBurgundy 829 Merchant’sȱTale 324
MargaretȱofȱAustria 830 MerchleinȱofȱTraiskirchen 661
MargaretȱofȱParma 831 merveilleux 412,ȱ426
MargaretȱofȱYork 572 mezzadria 624,ȱ633
MargueriteȱdeȱNavarre 107, MichaelȱKolb 663
ȱ109Ȭ112 Miel,ȱJan 178,ȱ819,ȱ828,ȱ858,ȱ859
MarieȱdeȱMedici 400 Milton,ȱJohn 866,ȱ870–71,ȱ883–84
MarieȱdeȱFrance 38,ȱ39,ȱ137, MinceȱdeȱQuaire 708
ȱ 146–47,ȱȱ171,ȱ394–95,ȱ408, Minnesänger 16
ȱ 413,ȱ417,ȱ427 mirabilia 31
Marlowe,Christopher 595 misericords 125
MarprelateȱAffair 758,ȱ761, MisteroȱBuffo 164,ȱ607–08,
ȱ762,ȱ764,ȱ765 ȱ631,ȱ632
Marprelatem,ȱMartin 763,ȱ765–66 Molière 744,ȱ746
MarriageȱofȱFigaro 746 Montanus,ȱMartin 101,ȱ111
MartinȱdeȱCambrai 705–06 Mordechai 647,ȱ652,ȱ667
Martines,ȱSancho 477,ȱ479 More,ȱHenry 882
MartyrdomȱofȱSaintȱErasmus 571 Mosche 641,ȱ644,ȱ647Ȭ49,ȱ653Ȭ55,
Marusch 652 ȱ663,ȱ667
Marx,ȱKarl 179 MoscheȱbarȱJakobȱMulin 653
Index 915
MoscheȱofȱPerchtoldsdorf 647Ȭ49, ParadiseȱLost 871

ȱ654,ȱ655,ȱ663 ParlementȱofȱFoules 574,ȱ575
MoscheȱofȱCilli 648 PartonopeusȱdeȱBlois 322,ȱ408–09,
MoscheȱbarȱGamliel 644 ȱ423Ȭ25,ȱ427Ȭ31
Moser,ȱLukas 86 pastourelle 48,ȱ64,ȱ96,ȱ132,ȱ139,
MuhamadȱibnȱHabdallahȱIbnȱ ȱ 265,ȱ267–68,ȱ274Ȭ76,
HumarȱalȬBayzar 456 ȱ 317–18,ȱ449,ȱ761,ȱ762,ȱ770,ȱ774
Müntzer,ȱThomas 867–68, Patinir,ȱJoachim 122
ȱ700,ȱ870,ȱ879 Patusch 648–49
MurȱyȱCastell 296,ȱ303,ȱ309Ȭ311 Pauli,ȱJohannes 111
Nachman 645 paysan 284,ȱ288,ȱ293
Nashe,ȱThomas 175,ȱ755,ȱ757, PeasantȱRevolt 352,ȱ362,ȱ686Ȭ88
ȱ758,ȱ772,ȱ785 Peasants’ȱWarȱ(seeȱalsoȱ
Nativitasȱrusticorum 608 Bauernkrieg) 90,ȱ91,ȱ169,ȱ170,
Neckam,ȱAlexander 12 ȱ174,ȱ276,ȱ688,
Neidhart 46,ȱ66,ȱ101,ȱ132 700,ȱ741
Nekelo 655 PèlerinageȱdeȱCharlemagne 140,
Nero 749 ȱ 325,ȱ327Ȭ29
Netter,ȱThomas 694 PelleȱMelle 401
Nibelungenlied 16,ȱ18,ȱ20Ȭ23, Peñafiel 466
ȱ63,ȱ137,ȱ153,ȱ162 PepinȱtheȱBrief 434–35,
nidereȱminne 266 ȱ437,ȱ442,ȱ449
Nietzsche,ȱFriedrich 7 Pepys,ȱSamuel 402–03
noblesseȱd’épée 743 Percy,ȱWharram 212
novelle 67,ȱ138,ȱ170 Pernetȱquiȱvaȱauȱvin 705
Novelliere 613 Pessach 667
NürnbergerȱMemorbuch 657 Petrarch 16,ȱ40Ȭ43,ȱ564
OrlandoȱFurioso 173,ȱ729Ȭ34, PetrusȱdeȱCrescentiis 10,ȱ11,ȱ87
ȱ737,ȱȱ738,ȱ740–41, Pfefferlein 661,ȱ668
ȱ743,ȱ748Ȭ50,ȱ752–54 Pfeiffer 700
OrlandoȱInnamorato 731 Phaeton 749,ȱ750
Ortelius,ȱAbraham 123 Phébusȱ(Phoebus),ȱGaston 115–16,
OswaldȱvonȱWolkenstein 1,ȱ44,ȱ45, ȱ 151,ȱ153,ȱ382Ȭ84,ȱ501,ȱ505,
ȱ 63,ȱ83,ȱ135,ȱ158,ȱ177,ȱ251, ȱ 508Ȭ22,ȱ528,ȱ820
ȱ274,ȱ276,ȱ278 PhilipȱtheȱBold 368,ȱ382,ȱ437,ȱ820
OtakarȱII 655 PhilipȱtheȱGood 160,ȱ580,ȱ829,ȱ830
Otto 641,ȱ659 PhilipȱofȱMacedon 41
Ovid 123,ȱ177,ȱ256,ȱ816 PhilipȱII 831,ȱ832
Paine,ȱThomas 389 PhilipȱIV 372
PapȱHatchet 763,ȱ767 PhilippeȱAuguste 407
916 Index
Physiologus 11 Rhys 310

PierceȱPenniless 75–58,ȱ763, Richard,ȱMeister 11
ȱ785–86,ȱ789–90 RichardȱofȱCoten 221
PiercesȱSupererogation 756Ȭ58, RichardȱI 391
ȱ762,ȱ779Ȭ83 Riemenschneider,ȱTilman 118
PieroȱCrescenzi 379,ȱ384 Riki 5
Piersȱ(the)ȱPlowman 351Ȭ58, Ripas,ȱCesare 401
ȱ360,ȱ365,ȱ555, RitmoȱLaurenziano 615
ȱ757,ȱ762,ȱ765,ȱ786 Ritter 7,ȱ21,ȱ27,ȱ45
Pilcok,ȱJoan 219 RobertȱManningȱofȱBrunne 355
Pilcok,ȱMargery 219 RobertȱII,ȱCountȱofȱArtois 142,ȱ367
Pix 405 RobinȱHood 756,ȱ761,ȱ763–64,
PlainȱPerceval 757,ȱ762,ȱ767, ȱ770,ȱ774,ȱ792
ȱ769,ȱ784–85,ȱ788 Robynes,ȱJohn 690
Platt,ȱRobert 879 Rocabertí,ȱViscount 456
PlinyȱtheȱElder 10 RohanȱMaster 535
TheȱPlowmanȱandȱDeath 555 romanȱd’antiquité 414
Ployart,ȱRaoullet 170,ȱ187,ȱ707,ȱ715 Romanȱd’Eneas 58
Plume 660,ȱ666 RomanȱdeȱRenart 136,ȱ281–82,
PopeȱLeo’sȱBible 37 ȱ284Ȭ87,ȱ289–91,ȱ293
Pordage,ȱJohn 873,ȱ883 RomanȱdeȱlaȱRose 574
Proverbesȱauȱvilain 322 Romanticism 2
PtolemyȱofȱLucca 698 RomeynȱdeȱHooghe 832,ȱ860
puella 265–66 Rosenplüt,ȱHans 136
QueenȱBlanchefleur 437 RoyȱXimenesȱdeȱMesco 463,ȱ464
QueenȱElisabeth 643 Rubens,ȱPeterȱPaul 833
QuipȱforȱanȱUpstartȱCourtier 757, RudolphȱIV 647–48,ȱ654,ȱ668
ȱ787 Ruiz,ȱJuan 62
QuoȱWarranto 220 RumelantȱvonȱSachsen 141,ȱ181,
Rachim 661 ȱ182
RaffelstettenerȱZollordnung 640 RuraliaȱCommoda 379,ȱ384
Ramism 767–68,ȱ771,ȱ788,ȱ790 Sacchetti,ȱFranco 613
Ratgeb,ȱJörg 87 Sacchetti,ȱGiannozzo 47
Reichskammergericht 698 Sachs,ȱHans 102,ȱ163,ȱ170
Reichston 240 Sachsenspiegel 99,ȱ169,
Rembrandt 827 ȱ695–96,ȱ698
RemèdeȱdeȱFortune 367 SadȱShepherd 764,ȱ773,
RenéȱofȱAnjou 159,ȱ561,ȱ575,ȱ587 ȱ774,ȱ787,ȱ788
Renner 254 SaintȱGeorge 866
Reuter,ȱWillem 819,ȱ828
Index 917
SaintȱGeorge’sȱHill 865,ȱȱ870, SieurȱdeȱlaȱSerre 400

ȱ873,ȱ875,ȱ877, SigmundȱvonȱLupfen 699
ȱ 879,ȱ881,ȱ884–85,ȱ887 SimonȱBening 546,ȱ549,ȱ558
SaintȱChristopherȱCarryingȱthe SirȱGawainȱandȱtheȱGreenȱ
InfantȱJesus 571 Knightȱ 50,ȱ59,ȱȱ61,
SaintȱJohnȱtheȱBaptist 571 ȱ150,ȱ153,ȱ160,ȱ162,ȱ178,ȱ359
SaintȱMichaelȱBattlingȱ SlomleinȱofȱZistersdorf 650,ȱ668
Demonsȱ 571,ȱ572 Smith,ȱJames 809
SanchoȱIV 488 Smith,ȱWalter 219,ȱ221
Sara 650,ȱ654,ȱ660 SnowȱWhite 584
Satiraȱdelȱvillano 607Ȭ09,ȱ615,ȱ620, SongȱofȱSongs 573
ȱ628,ȱ631–32,ȱ634 sottieȱmoralisée 726
Satires 88,ȱ174,ȱ743,ȱ748,ȱ752–53 sotties 704,ȱ706,ȱ726
Scheblein 649 SpatialȱTurn 14Ȭ16
Schedel,ȱHartmann 120 Speed,ȱJohn 600
Schlom 641,ȱ651,ȱ656 Spenser,ȱEdmund 175,ȱ755,
Schondoch 102,ȱ103 ȱ773,ȱ778
Schopenhauer,ȱArthur 561,ȱ562,ȱ580 Spierinc,ȱNicolas 550
Schwänke 67,ȱ107,ȱ164 SpitzȱMaster 539Ȭ41
Schwärzlein 652,ȱ667 St.ȱDenis 435
sciopodes 578 St.ȱFrancisȱofȱAssisi 534
SecondȱPartida 456,ȱ459 St.ȱJamesȱPark 390,ȱ397–98,
SelfȬPortraitȱwithȱaȱDeadȱ ȱ400Ȭ03,ȱ405–06
Bittern 827 St.ȱBenedict’sȱRules 128
selvaȱoscura 439 St.ȱPaul 730
Sercambi 613 StatueȱofȱLabourers 361
serranas 64,ȱ66 StepsȱtoȱtheȱTemple 799
SevenȱDeadlyȱSins 352,ȱ355 SternaȱofȱWolkersdorf 646
SforzaȱHours 542 Steuss,ȱDavid 167,ȱ666,
Shadwell 405 ȱ669,ȱ675,ȱ679–80
Shakespeare 172,ȱ757,ȱ760,ȱ765,ȱ789 StorieȱNerbonensi 102
Shannon 304Ȭ07 Styx 21
ShepheardesȱCalender 755–56, Suckling,ȱJohn 799
ȱ761,ȱ771Ȭ74,ȱ777,ȱ791–92 SulpiciusȱSeverus 354
Shirley,ȱJames 405,ȱ797 Supererogation 756Ȭ58,
Shrovetideȱplays 88,ȱ102,ȱ163,ȱ170 ȱ762,ȱ779Ȭ83
Sibethorpeȱ(seeȱalsoȱ Sutton,ȱThomas 878
Sybethorpe) 223 Sybethorpeȱ(seeȱSibethorpe) 220,
Sidney,ȱRobert 800 ȱ224
Sidney,ȱPhilip 803 Syboto 646–47
918 Index
Tacitus 65 Traitéȱplaisant.ȱ.ȱ.ȱdeȱFigue,ȱ
Talmud 466 NoèzȱetȱChastègne 710
Tarabin,ȱTarabas,ȱetȱTribouilleȱ Trecentonovelle 613
Mesnage 709 TrèsȱRichesȱHeures 566,ȱ822,ȱ841
Tarrant,ȱWalterȱGeorge 887 Trevisa,ȱJohn 13,ȱ14,ȱ39
Teifi,ȱRhuddlan 296,ȱ309Ȭ11 TristanȱdeȱNanteuil 408,ȱ416
Teka 641 Tristan 15,ȱ17,ȱ24,ȱ83,ȱ146,ȱ152,
TemptationȱofȱChrist 568 ȱ435,ȱ437,ȱ439,ȱ729,ȱ739
TheȱWayȱofȱtheȱWorld 172 TroisȱGalantsȱetȱPhlipot 716,ȱ727
TheȱNewȱLawȱofȱ TrojanȱWar 38
Righteousness 873–74 Trostl 682
TheȱFourȱBranchesȱofȱtheȱ troubadours 16
Mabinogi 137–38 Turnewathelane 590–91
TheȱVoyageȱofȱSaintȱ TwelveȱArticlesȱofȱ
Brendan 22,ȱ30,ȱ138 Memmingen 169
TheȱTemple 799 Twora 661
TheȱCountryȱWife 172 Tyndale 765
TheȱLambȱofȱGod 772 UlrichȱofȱWürttemberg 699
TheȱLawȱofȱFreedom 869, uomoȱnaturale 730
ȱ880,ȱ883,ȱ887 uomoȱuniversale 730,ȱ738
TheȱManȱofȱMode 405 Urraca 430
TheȱNobleȱArteȱofȱVenerieȱorȱ vanȱBeieren,ȱJacoba 829–30
Hunting 399 vanȱderȱBorcht,ȱPieter 123
TheȱSadȱShepherd 764,ȱ773 vanȱEyck,ȱJan 157,ȱ554
TheȱWayȱofȱtheȱWorld 405 vanȱLaer,ȱPieter 819,ȱ828
TheȱShepheardesȱCalender 755, vanȱLathem,ȱLiévin 550
ȱ761,ȱ772Ȭ74,ȱ777,ȱ791 vanȱLeemputs,ȱTrijn 832
TheatreȱofȱtheȱEmpireȱofȱGreat vanȱMander,ȱKarel 834,ȱ863
Britaineȱofȱ1612 600 vanȱOstade,ȱAdriaen 123
TheodoreȱofȱAntioch 458 VascoȱdaȱLucena 117
ThirtyȱYears’ȱWar 89,ȱ170 Vaughan,ȱHenry 882
ThomasȱAquinas 698 Vaughan,ȱThomas 882
ThomasȱCantimpratensis 12 VenusȬGärtlein 277
ThreeȱWittyȱandȱFamiliarȱ vergier 412–13,ȱ415,ȱ421,ȱ423,ȱ431
Letters 756 viciniȱiurati 218
ThüringȱvonȱRingoltingen 160 vilain/s 282Ȭ84,ȱ286,ȱ288Ȭ93
Tirel,ȱWalter 393 VilainȱdeȱBaileul 290–91
topsyȬturvy 315 Vilainȱauȱbuffet 291
Tötbriefe 677 village 209Ȭ25
TowerȱofȱBabel 570 Villiers,ȱGeorge 798
Index 919
Vincent,ȱAnthony 878 Winstanley,ȱGerrard 179,ȱ181

VincentȱofȱBeauvais 12 865Ȭ69,ȱ871Ȭ74,ȱ878Ȭ80,
Virgil 87,ȱ123,ȱ256,ȱ800,ȱ803,ȱ807 ȱ882,ȱ891
Visconti 624,ȱ633,ȱ635,ȱ637 Wittenwiler,ȱHeinrich 100,ȱ129,ȱ274
TheȱViscontiȱHours 552 Witz,ȱConrad 85
Visio 352,ȱ364 WolframȱvonȱEschenbach 51,ȱ53,
VisitationȱofȱSt.ȱElizabeth 568 ȱ55,ȱ56
Visitation 568,ȱ570 Wolsey,ȱCardinal 398
Vitalis,ȱOrderic 393 women 209Ȭ25
Voteporix 299 Wroth,ȱRobert 797
Voxȱclamantis 691–92 Wunderkammern 144
Vreudman 663 Wycherley,ȱWilliam 172,ȱ405
Walsingham,ȱThomas 693 Wyclif,ȱJohn 365,ȱ693–94,ȱ696,ȱ765
WalterȱleȱShepherde 222 XimenesȱdeȱLanchares,ȱ
WaltherȱvonȱderȱVogelweide Sanchoȱ 463–64
48,ȱ114,ȱ149,ȱ227,ȱ229Ȭ32, YczkaȱofȱZistersdorf 668
ȱ 236,ȱ240,ȱ242,ȱ244,ȱ246,ȱ247,ȱ251,ȱ YrimanȱofȱHerzogenburg 682
265–66,ȱ278,ȱ593 Yvain 50,ȱ154,ȱ173
WarȱofȱFerrara 740 Yzcka 652,ȱ661,ȱ668
WeicheȱStil 574 Zecherl 677,ȱ679
WeingartenȱTreaty 700 Zerkel 658
Weisthümer 695,ȱ698,ȱ701 zoos 144–45
WernherȱderȱGartenære 82,ȱ94,ȱ273
Westerburg 700
Weybridge 865,ȱ878
Whitland 310
Wickram,ȱJörg 111
Wienhausen 85
WildȱMan 578
WildȱWoman 578
WilhelmȱofȱHirnhofen 11
WilliamȱleȱFoulere 219Ȭ24
WilliamȱleȱHunte 221
WilliamȱofȱMalmesbury 393
WilliamȱofȱOckham 696
WilliamȱRufus 311
WilliamȱtheȱConqueror 145,
ȱ 390,ȱ392–94,ȱ396
WilliamȱII 393,ȱ829
Winslett,ȱKate 887
Simonȱ Bening,ȱ illustrationȱ forȱ theȱ Golfȱ Book,ȱ 1540,ȱ
BritishȱLibrary, Additionalȱ 24098

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Rural Space in the Middle Ages and Early Modern Age

The Spatial Turn in Premodern Studies

with the collaboration of

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek

” 2012 Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin/Boston

plantsȱ andȱ peoplesȱ throughoutȱ theȱ Europeanȱ empires,ȱ instigatingȱ wideȬspread

vermittelt,ȱ dieȱ umfassendeȱ Vitalitätȱ spürbar,ȱ dieȱ demȱ mittelalterlichen

ofȱreligiousȱallegory.ȱForȱthisȱreason,ȱhowever,ȱheȱisȱrequiredȱtoȱreflectȱ onȱ the

Subsequentlyȱ theȱ chroniclerȱ simplyȱ continuesȱ withȱ hisȱ genealogicalȱ overview,

farmers.”245ȱ However,ȱ thereȱ wasȱ alsoȱ aȱ strongȱ trendȱ towardȱ impoverishment

civilizationȱ towardȱ theȱ ruralȱ isolation.ȱ Nevertheless,ȱ theyȱ equallyȱ embraced

centuriesȱ poetsȱ throughoutȱ Europeȱ enjoyedȱ entertainingȱ theirȱ audiencesȱ with

Wikipedia,ȱ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiositiesȱ (lastȱ accessedȱ onȱ Dec.ȱ 12,ȱ 2011).ȱ The

asȱ aȱ possibility—theȱ onlyȱ noteworthyȱ exceptionȱ beingȱ theȱ Frenchȱ chantefable

behest.16ȱ Tournehemȱ includedȱ threeȱ majorȱ castledȱ landscapes:ȱ Tournehem,

Allȱ ofȱ theseȱ elements—wood,ȱ waters,ȱ andȱ land—highlightȱ Hesdin’sȱ strictly

[B]estiality,ȱ fallenness,ȱ errancy,ȱ perdition—theseȱ ȱ areȱ theȱ associationsȱ thatȱ accrued

Symbolizingȱ theȱ prosperityȱ andȱ beneficenceȱ ofȱ theȱ monarch,ȱ displaysȱ of

Byȱ composingȱhisȱLibroȱdeȱlaȱcazaȱ(ca.ȱ1325?)ȱJuanȱManuelȱgaveȱtestimonyȱ that

Cacciaguida.ȱ Whileȱ nostalgicallyȱ evokingȱ theȱ nobleȱ andȱ homogenousȱ Roman

Besidesȱ poetry,ȱ variousȱ novellasȱ offerȱ negativeȱ andȱ sardonicȱ depictionsȱ of

Guittone’sȱ powerfulȱ poemȱ employsȱ aȱ knownȱ satiricalȱ traditionȱ toȱ addressȱ a

Overall,ȱ theȱ “peasantȱ author”ȱ satireȱ seemsȱ wellȱ establishedȱ throughȱ a

economicȱ privilegesȱ andȱ aȱ quiteȱ wideȬrangingȱ protectionȱ thatȱ suggestȱ thatȱ he

however,ȱoftenȱhadȱtoȱcelebrateȱtheirȱfeastsȱinsideȱaȱhouseȱ thatȱ wasȱ otherwise

responsibleȱ husbandingȱ ofȱ naturalȱ resources—thatȱ drawsȱ ourȱ attentionȱ most

Althoughȱ Hesperidesȱ includesȱ aȱ relativelyȱ smallȱ numberȱ ofȱ poemsȱ expressing

Hillȱ hasȱ suggestedȱ thatȱ Winstanley’sȱ “Voice”ȱ wasȱ aȱ seventeenthȬcentury

Fig.ȱ1:ȱ Stainedȱ glassȱ window,ȱ westȱ facade,ȱ Canterburyȱcathedral,ȱAdam

Fig.ȱ1: Foolishnessȱ (Stultitia)ȱ (1303–1305).ȱ Giotto,ȱ theȱ ScrovegniȱChapel,

Fig.ȱ14:ȱ Philipsȱ Wouwerman,ȱ Theȱ Huntȱ (detail),ȱResidenzgalerieȱSalzburg,

Magnumȱ Imperiumȱ Britanniaeumȱ (Sudbury:ȱ Georgeȱ Humble,ȱ 1616).

NICOLINOȱ APPLAUSOȱ isȱ Visitingȱ Assistantȱ Professorȱ ofȱ Italianȱ Studiesȱ at

européenȱ d’étudesȱ bourguignonnes.ȱ Herȱ bookȱ Revisitingȱ Decadence:ȱ Aȱ Behavioral

Reformationȱ anxietiesȱ aboutȱ institutionalȱ politics,ȱ civicȱ morality,ȱ andȱ national

AȱMidsummerȱNight’sȱDream 300 AliceȱofȱCoten 222

bailliage/s 369Ȭ73,ȱ375–76, Bisclavret 147–48,ȱ408,ȱ413,

Caerfyrddin 302 Chaucer,ȱGeoffrey 67,ȱ68,

Crónicaȱmanuelina 454 DonȱEnrique 460,ȱ492,ȱ496Ȭ499

ErcoleȱI 747 Fo,ȱDario 164,ȱ607–08,

GottfriedȱofȱFranken 10,ȱ11 HarveyȱNasheȱQuarrel 755,ȱ793

HistoriaȱAnglicana 693 Isak 643,ȱ646–47,ȱ660,ȱ663,

JudenbuchȱderȱScheffstrasse 650, LazarusȱofȱEggenburg 646,ȱ654,

LuttrellȱPsalter 23,ȱ555–56 MaryȱofȱHungary 831

MoscheȱofȱPerchtoldsdorf 647Ȭ49, ParadiseȱLost 871

Physiologus 11 Rhys 310

SaintȱGeorge’sȱHill 865,ȱȱ870, SieurȱdeȱlaȱSerre 400

Vincent,ȱAnthony 878 Winstanley,ȱGerrard 179,ȱ181

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