ES240 Solid Mechanics Fall 2009

2. Plane Elasticity Problems

Main Reference: Theory of Elasticity, by S.P. Timoshenko and J.N. Goodier, McGraw-Hill,
New York. Chapters 2, 3, 4.

2.1 The plane-stress problem

A thin sheet of an isotropic material is subject to loads in the

plane of the sheet. The sheet lies in the (x, y) plane. Both top
and the bottom surfaces of the sheet are traction-free. The edge
of the sheet may have two kinds of the boundary conditions:
displacement prescribed, or traction prescribed. In the latter
case, we write

σ xx nx + τ xy n y = t x
τ xy nx + σ yy n y = t y

where tx and ty are components of the traction vector prescribed on the edge of the sheet, and nx
and ny are the components of the unit vector normal to the edge of the sheet. The above two
equations provide two conditions for the components of the stress tensor along the edge.

Semi-inverse method. We next go into the interior of the sheet. We already have obtained a full
set of governing equations for linear elasticity problems. No general approach exists to solve
these partial differential equations analytically, although numerical methods are readily available
to solve most elasticity problem. In this introductory course, in order to gain insight into solid
mechanics, we will make reasonable guesses of solutions, and see if they satisfy all the
governing equations. This trial-and-error approach has a name: it is called the semi-inverse
method.

It seems reasonable to guess that the stress field in the sheet only has nonzero components in its
plane: σ xx ,σ yy ,τ xy , and that the components out of plane vanish:

σ zz = τ xz = τ yz = 0 .

Furthermore, we guess that the in-plane stress components may vary with x and y, but are
independent of z. That is, the stress field in the sheet is described by three functions:

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σ xx (x, y ), σ yy (x, y ), τ xy (x, y ).

Will these guesses satisfy the governing equations of elasticity? Let us go through the equations
one by one.

1. Equilibrium equations. Using the guessed stress field, we reduce the three equilibrium
equations to two equations:

∂σ xx ∂τ xy ∂τ xy ∂σ yy
+ = 0, + =0.
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

These two equations by themselves are insufficient to determine the three functions.

2. Stress-strain relations. Given the guessed stress field, the 6 components of the strain field are

σ xx σ σ σ 2(1 + ν )
ε xx = − ν yy , ε yy = yy − ν xx , γ xy = τ xy
E E E E E

ν
ε zz = − (σ xx + σ yy ), γ xz = γ yz = 0 .
E

3. Strain-displacement relations. Recall the 6 strain-displacement relations:

∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
ε xx = , ε yy = , γ xy = +
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x

∂w ∂u ∂w ∂v ∂w
ε zz = , γ xz = + , γ yz = + .
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y

It seems reasonable to assume that the in-plane displacements u and v vary only with x and y, but
not with z. From these guesses, together with the conditions that γ xz = γ yz = 0 , we find that

∂w ∂w
= = 0.
∂x ∂y

Thus, w is independent of x and y, and can only be a function of z. If we insist that ε zz be

independent of z, and from ε zz = ∂w / ∂z , then ε zz must be a constant, ε zz = c , and w = cz + b .
( )
On the other hand, we also have ε zz = −ν σ xx + σ yy / E , which may not be a constant. This
inconsistency shows that our guesses are generally incorrect.

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Summary of equations of plane elasticity problems. Instead of abandoning these guesses, we

will just call our guesses the plane-stress approximation. If you neglect the inconsistency
between ε zz = c and ε zz = −ν (σ xx + σ yy )/ E , at least the following set of equations is self-
consistent:

∂σ xx ∂τ xy ∂τ xy ∂σ yy
+ = 0, + =0
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

σ xx σ σ σ 2 (1 + ν )
ε xx = − ν yy , ε yy = yy − ν xx , γ xy = τ xy
E E E E E

∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
ε xx = , ε yy = , γ xy = + .
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x

These are 8 equations for 8 functions. We will focus on these 8 equations.

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2.2 The plane-strain problem

Consider an infinitely long cylinder with axis in the z-direction

and a cross section in the (x, y ) plane. We assume that the
loading is invariant along the z-direction. Under these
conditions, the displacement field takes the form:

u ( x, y ) , v ( x, y ) , w = 0 .

From the strain-displacement relations, we find that only the

three in-plane strains are nonzero: ε xx ( x, y ) , ε yy ( x, y ) , γ xy ( x, y ) .
The three out-of-plane strains vanish: ε zz = γ xz = γ yz = 0 .

Because γ xz = γ yz = 0 , the stress-strain relations imply that τ xz = τ yz = 0 . From ε zz = 0 and

( )
ε zz = σ zz − νσ xx − νσ yy , we obtain further that

(
σ zz = ν σ xx + σ yy . )
Furthermore, we have

1− ν2 ⎛ ν ⎞
ε xx =
1
E
(
σ xx − νσ yy − νσ zz = )
E
⎜⎝ σ xx −
1−ν
σ yy ⎟ ,
⎠

1− ν2 ⎛ ν ⎞
ε yy =
1
E
(
σ yy − νσ xx − νσ zz = )
E
⎜⎝ σ yy −
1−ν
σ xx ⎟ ,
⎠

2 (1 + ν )
γ xy = τ xy .
E

These three stress-strain relations look similar to those under the plane-stress conditions,
provided we make the following substitutions:

E ν
E= , ν= .
1−ν 2
1−ν

The quantity E is called the plane strain modulus. Finally, we also have the equilibrium
equations:

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∂σ xx ∂τ xy ∂τ xy ∂σ yy
+ = 0, + =0.
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

2.3 Solution of plane problems and the Airy stress function

From the forgoing, it is clear that plane stress and plane strain problems are described by the
same equations, as long as one uses the appropriate elastic constants. This also means that the
solution technique for both types of problems is the same. We make use of the following
calculus theorem:
A theorem in calculus. If two functions f ( x, y ) and g ( x, y ) satisfy the following relationship

∂f ∂g
= ,
∂x ∂y

then, there exists a function A(x, y ), such that

∂A ∂A
f = , g= .
∂y ∂x

The Airy stress function. We now apply the above theorem to the equilibrium equations. From
the equation

∂σ xx ∂τ xy
+ =0,
∂x ∂y

we deduce that there exists a function A(x, y ), such that

∂A ∂A
σ xx = , τ xy = − .
∂y ∂x

From the equation

∂τ xy ∂σ yy
+ =0,
∂x ∂y

we further deduce that that there exists a function B(x, y ), such that

∂B ∂B
σ yy = , τ xy = − .
∂x ∂y

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Finally, from

∂A ∂B
= ,
∂x ∂y

we deduce that that there exists a function φ (x, y ) , such that

∂φ ∂φ
A= , B= .
∂y ∂x

The function φ (x, y ) is known as the Airy stress function. The three components of the stress
field can now be represented by the stress function:

∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ
σ xx = ;σ yy = ;σ xy = .
∂y 2 ∂x 2 ∂x∂y

Using the stress-strain relations, we can also express the three components of strain field in terms
of the Airy stress function:

1 ⎛ ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ ⎞ 1 ⎛ ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ ⎞ 2 (1 + ν ) ∂ 2φ
ε xx = ⎜ 2 − ν 2 ⎟ ε yy = ⎜ 2 − ν 2 ⎟
, , γ = − .
E ⎝ ∂y ∂x ⎠ E ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠ ∂x∂y
xy
E

Compatibility equation. Recall the strain-displacement relations.

∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
ε xx = , ε yy = , γ xy = + .
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x

We derived the compatibility equation by eliminating the two displacements in the three strain
displacement relations to obtain the compatibility equation

∂ 2ε xx ∂ ε yy ∂ γ xy
2 2

+ = .
∂y 2 ∂x 2 ∂x∂y

Biharmonic equation. Inserting the expressions of the strains in terms of φ (x, y ) into the
compatibility equation, we obtain that

∂ 4φ ∂ 4φ ∂ 4φ
+ 2 + =0.
∂x 4 ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂y 4

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This equations can also be written as

⎛ ∂2 ∂ 2 ⎞ ⎛ ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ ⎞
⎜⎝ ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ ∂x 2 + ∂y 2 ⎟⎠ = 0 .
+

Because of its obvious similarity to the harmonic equation, it is called the biharmonic equation.

Thus, a procedure to solve a plane stress problem is to solve for φ (x, y ) from the above PDE,
and then calculate stresses and strains. After the strains are obtained, the displacement field can
be obtained by integrating the strain-displacement relations.

Dependence on elastic constants. For a plane problem with traction-prescribed boundary

conditions, both the governing equation and the boundary conditions can be expressed in terms
of φ . All these equations are independent of the elastic constants of the material. Consequently,
the stress field in such a boundary value problem is independent of the elastic constants. Once
we go over specific examples, we will find that the above statement is only correct for boundary
value problems in simply connected regions. For multiply connected regions, the above
equations in terms of φ do not guarantee that the displacement field is continuous. When we
insist that displacement field be continuous, elastic constants may enter the stress field.

2.3.1 Solution of 2D problems in Cartesian coordinates: A half space subject to periodic

traction on the surface
An elastic material occupies a half space, x > 0 . On the surface of the material, x = 0 , the
traction vector is prescribed

σ xx (0, y,z) = σ 0 cos ky, τ xy (0, y,z) = 0, τ xz (0, y,z) = 0 .

Determine the stress field inside the material.

Solution: The material clearly deforms under the plane strain conditions. It is reasonable to guess
that the Airy stress function should take the form

φ ( x, y ) = f ( x ) cos ky .

The biharmonic equation then becomes

d4 f 2
2 d f
4
− 2 k 2
+ k4 f = 0 .
dx dx

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This is a homogenous ODE with constant coefficients. The solution must be of the form

f (x ) = eαx .

Insert this form into the ODE, and we obtain that

(α )
2
2
− k2 = 0.

The algebraic equation has double roots of α = −k , and double roots of α = + k . Consequently,
the general solution is of the form

f (x ) = Ae kx + Be − kx + Cxe kx + Dxe − kx ,

where A, B, C and D are constants of integration.

We expect that the stress field vanish as x → +∞ , so that the stress function should be of the
form

f (x ) = Be − kx + Dxe − kx .

We next determine the constants B and D by using the traction boundary conditions. The stress
fields are

∂ 2φ
σ xx =
∂y 2
( )
= − Be − kx + Dxe − kx k 2 cos ky

∂ 2φ ⎛ D ⎞
τ xy = − = ⎜ − Be − kx + e − kx − Dxe − kx ⎟k 2 sin ky
∂x∂y ⎝ k ⎠
∂φ ⎛
2
D ⎞
σ yy = 2 = ⎜ Be − kx − 2 e − kx + Dxe − kx ⎟k 2 cos ky
∂x ⎝ k ⎠

Recall the boundary conditions

σ xx (0, y ) = σ 0 cos ky, τ xy (0, y ) = 0 .

Consequently, we find that

B = −σ 0 / k 2 , D = −σ 0 / k .

The stress field inside the material is

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σ xx = σ 0 (1 + kx )e − kx cos ky
τ xy = −σ 0 kxe− kx sin ky
σ yy = σ 0 (1 − kx )e − kx cos ky

The stress field decays exponentially.

We have solved the problem where the traction on the boundary of a half space is given by a
simple cosine function. Through application of the superposition principle, which is valid for
linear elastic materials, it is now straightforward to extend this analysis to any periodic traction
distribution. Indeed, a periodic traction distribution can be written as a Fourier series each term
of which is of the form found in the previous problem.

Application: de Saint-Venant’s principle

When a load is applied in a small region, and the load has a vanishing resultant force and
resultant moment, then the stress field is localized. We used this principle in discussing the
laminate problem, where we have neglected the edge effects. While Saint-Venant’s principle
cannot be proved in such a loose form, the foregoing is a nice example of the principle: the
traction applied to the boundary is self-balancing and hence the stress field associated with the
tractions die out. If we had imposed an additional constant traction term, the stress field would
quickly decay to a constant stress.

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2.3.2 Solution of 2D problems in polar coordinates

1. Transformation of stress components due to change of coordinates. A material particle is

in a state of plane stress. If we represent the material particle by a square in the (x, y ) coordinate
system, the components of the stress state are σ xx ,σ yy ,τ xy . If we represent the same material
particle under the same state of stress by a square in the (r ,θ ) coordinate system, the
components of the stress state are σ rr ,σ θθ ,τ rθ . From the transformation rules, we know that the
two sets of the stress components are related as

σ xx + σ yy σ xx − σ yy
σ rr = + cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ
2 2
σ + σ yy σ xx − σ yy
σ θθ = xx − cos 2θ − τ xy sin 2θ
2 2
σ − σ yy
τ rθ = − xx sin 2θ + τ xy cos 2θ
2

2. Equations in polar coordinates. The Airy stress function is a function of the polar
coordinates, φ (r ,θ ). The stresses are expressed in terms of the Airy stress function:

∂ 2φ 1 ∂φ ∂ 2φ ∂ ⎛ ∂φ ⎞
σ rr = + , σ θθ = , τ rθ = − ⎜ ⎟
r ∂θ
2 2
r ∂r ∂r 2
∂r ⎝ r∂θ ⎠

The biharmonic equation is

⎛ ∂2 ∂ ∂ 2 ⎞⎛ ∂ 2φ ∂φ ∂ 2φ ⎞
⎜⎜ 2 + + 2 2 ⎟⎟⎜⎜ 2 + + 2 2 ⎟⎟ = 0 .
⎝ ∂r r∂r r ∂θ ⎠⎝ ∂r r∂r r ∂θ ⎠

The stress-strain relations in polar coordinates are similar to those in the rectangular coordinate
system:

σ rr σ σ σ 2(1 + ν )
ε rr = − ν θθ , ε θθ = θθ − ν rr , γ rθ = τ rθ
E E E E E

The strain-displacement relations are

∂ur u ∂u ∂u ∂u u
ε rr = , ε θθ = r + θ , γ rθ = r + θ − θ .
∂r r r∂θ r∂θ ∂r r

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3. A stress field symmetric about an axis. Let the Airy stress function be φ (r ). The biharmonic
equation becomes

⎛ d 2 1 d ⎞⎛ d 2φ 1 dφ ⎞
⎜⎜ 2 + ⎟⎜ + ⎟=0 .
⎝ dr r dr ⎟⎠⎜⎝ dr 2 r dr ⎟⎠

Each term in this equation has the same dimension in the independent variable r. Such an ODE is
known as an equi-dimensional equation. A solution to an equi-dimensional equation is of the
form

φ = rm .

Inserting into the biharmonic equation, we obtain that

m 2 (m − 2 ) .
2

The fourth order algebraic equation has a double root of 0 and a double root of 2. Consequently,
the general solution to the ODE is

φ (r ) = A log r + Br 2 log r + Cr 2 + D .

where A, B, C and D are constants of integration. The components of the stress field are

∂ 2φ 1 ∂φ A
σ rr = + = + B(1 + 2 log r )+ 2C ,
r ∂θ
2 2
r ∂r r 2

∂ 2φ A
σ θθ = 2 = − 2 + B(3 + 2 log r )+ 2C ,
∂r r

∂ ⎛ ∂φ ⎞
τ rθ = − ⎜ ⎟=0.
∂r ⎝ r∂θ ⎠

The stress field is linear in A, B and C.

The contributions due to A and C are familiar: they are the same as the cylindrical Lamé
problem. For example, for a hole of radius a in an infinite sheet subject to a remote biaxial stress
S, the stress field in the sheet is

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⎡ ⎛ a ⎞2 ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ a ⎞2 ⎤
σ rr = S ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥, σ θθ = S ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ .
⎣⎢ ⎝ r ⎠ ⎦⎥ ⎢⎣ ⎝ r ⎠ ⎦⎥

The stress concentration factor of this hole is 2. We may compare this problem with that of a
spherical cavity in an infinite elastic solid under remote tension:

⎡ ⎛ a ⎞3 ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎛ a ⎞3 ⎤
σ rr = S ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥, σ θθ = S ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ .
⎢⎣ ⎝ r ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 ⎝ r ⎠ ⎥⎦

A cut-and-weld operation. How about the contributions due to B? Let us study the stress field
(Timoshenko and Goodier, pp. 77-79)

σ rr = B(1 + 2 log r ), σ θθ = B(3 + 2 log r ), τ rθ = 0 .

The strain field is

1
ε rr = (σ rr − νσ θθ ) = B [(1 − 3ν )+ 2(1 − ν )log r ]
E E

1
ε θθ = (σ θθ − νσ rr ) = B [(3 − ν )+ 2(1 − ν )log r ]
E E

γ rθ = 0

To obtain the displacement field, recall the strain-displacement relations

∂ur u ∂u ∂u ∂u u
ε rr = , ε θθ = r + θ , γ rθ = r + θ − θ .
∂r r r∂θ r∂θ ∂r r

Integrating ε rr , we obtain that

B
ur = [2(1 − ν )r log r − (1 + ν )r ]+ f (θ ),
E

where f (θ ) is a function still undetermined. Integrating ε θθ , we obtain that

4 Brθ
uθ = − ∫ f (θ )dθ + g (r ) ,
E

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where g (r ) is another function still undetermined. Inserting the two displacements into the
expression

∂u r ∂uθ uθ
γ rθ = + − =0,
r∂θ ∂r r

and we obtain that

f ' (θ )+ ∫ f (θ )dθ = g (r )− rg ' (r ).

In the equation, the left side is a function of θ , and the right side is a function of r.
Consequently, the both sides must equal a constant independent of r and θ , namely,

f ' (θ )+ ∫ f (θ )dθ = G
g (r )− rg ' (r ) = G

Solving these equations, we obtain that

f (θ ) = H sin θ + K cos θ
g (r ) = Fr + G

Substituting back into the displacement field, we obtain that

B
ur = [2(1 − ν )r log r − (1 + ν )r ]+ H sin θ + K cos θ
E
.
4 Brθ
uθ = + Fr + H cos θ − K sin θ
E

Consequently, F represents a rigid-body rotation, and H and K represent a rigid-body translation.

Now we can give an interpretation of B. Imagine a ring, with a wedge of angle α cut off. The
ring with the missing wedge was then welded together. This operation requires that after a
rotation of a circle, the displacement is

uθ (2π ) − uθ (0) = αr

This condition gives

αE
B= .
8π

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This cut-and-weld operation clearly introduces a stress field in the ring. The stress field is
axisymmetric, as given above.

4. A circular hole in an infinite sheet under remote shear. Remote from the hole, the sheet is
in a state of pure shear:

τ xy = S , σ xx = σ yy = 0 .

The remote stresses in the polar coordinates are

σ rr = S sin 2θ , σ θθ = − S sin 2θ , τ rθ = S cos 2θ .

Recall that

∂ 2φ 1 ∂φ ∂ 2φ ∂ ⎛ ∂φ ⎞
σ rr = + , σ θθ = , τ rθ = − ⎜ ⎟.
r ∂θ
2 2
r ∂r ∂r 2
∂r ⎝ r∂θ ⎠

We guess that the stress function must be in the form

φ (r ,θ ) = f (r )sin 2θ .

The biharmonic equation becomes

⎛ d2 d 4 ⎞⎛ ∂ 2 f ∂f 4f ⎞
⎜⎜ 2 + − 2 ⎟⎟⎜⎜ 2 + − 2 ⎟⎟ = 0 .
⎝ dr rdr r ⎠⎝ ∂r r∂r r ⎠

A solution to this equi-dimensional ODE takes the form f (r ) = r m . Inserting this form into the
ODE, we obtain that

(( m − 2 ) 2
)( )
− 4 m2 − 4 = 0 .

The algebraic equation has four roots: 2, -2, 0, 4. Consequently, the stress function is

⎛ C ⎞
φ (r ,θ ) = ⎜ Ar 2 + Br 4 + 2 + D ⎟ sin 2θ .
⎝ r ⎠

The stress components inside the sheet are

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∂ 2φ 1 ∂φ ⎛ 6C 4 D ⎞
σ rr = 2 2 + = −⎜ 2 A + 4 + 2 ⎟ sin 2θ
r ∂θ r ∂r ⎝ r r ⎠

∂ 2φ ⎛ 6C ⎞
σ θθ = = ⎜ 2 A + 12 Br 2 + 4 ⎟ sin 2θ
∂r 2
⎝ r ⎠

∂ ⎛ ∂φ ⎞ ⎛ 6C 2 D ⎞
τ rθ = − ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ − 2 A − 6 Br + 4 + 2 ⎟ cos 2θ .
2

∂r ⎝ r∂θ ⎠ ⎝ r r ⎠

To determine the constants A, B, C, D, we invoke the boundary conditions:

1. Remote from the hole, namely, r → ∞ , σ rr = S sin 2θ , τ rθ = S cos 2θ , giving
A = − S / 2, B = 0 .
2. On the surface of the hole, namely, r = a, σ rr = 0, τ rθ = 0 , giving D = Sa 2 and
C = − Sa 4 / 2 .

The stress field inside the sheet is

⎡ ⎛a⎞
4
⎛a⎞ ⎤
2

σ rr = S ⎢1 + 3⎜ ⎟ − 4⎜ ⎟ ⎥ sin 2θ
⎢⎣ ⎝r⎠ ⎝ r ⎠ ⎥⎦

⎡ ⎛a⎞ ⎤
4

σ θθ = − S ⎢1 + 3⎜ ⎟ ⎥ sin 2θ
⎢⎣ ⎝ r ⎠ ⎥⎦

⎡ ⎛a⎞
4
⎛a⎞ ⎤
2

τ rθ = S ⎢1 − 3⎜ ⎟ + 2⎜ ⎟ ⎥ cos 2θ
⎣⎢ ⎝r⎠ ⎝ r ⎠ ⎦⎥

5. A hole in an infinite sheet subject to a remote uniaxial stress. Use this as an example to
illustrate linear superposition. A state of uniaxial stress is a linear superposition of a state of pure
shear and a state of biaxial tension. The latter is the Lame problem. When the sheet is subject to
remote tension of magnitude S, the stress field in the sheet is given by

⎡ ⎛ a ⎞2 ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ a ⎞2 ⎤
σ rr = S ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥, σ θθ = S ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ .
⎢⎣ ⎝ r ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎝ r ⎠ ⎥⎦

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Illustrate the superposition in figures. Show that under uniaxial tensile stress, the stress around
the hole has a concentration factor of 3. Under uniaxial compression, the material may split in
the loading direction.

6. A line force acting on the surface of a half space. A half space of an elastic material is
subject to a line force on its surface. Let P be the force per unit length. The half space lies in
x > 0 , and the force points in the direction of x. This problem has no length scale. Linearity and
dimensional considerations requires that the stress field take the form

P
σ ij (r , θ ) = g ij (θ ),
r

where g ij (θ ) are dimensionless functions of θ . We guess that the stress function takes the form

φ (r ) = rPf (θ ),

where f (θ ) is a dimensionless function of θ . (A homework problem will show that this guess
is not completely correct, but it suffices for the present problem.)

Inserting this form into the biharmonic equation, we obtain an ODE for f (θ ):

d2 f d4 f
f +2 + = 0.
dθ 2 dθ 4

The general solution is

φ (r , θ ) = rP(A sin θ + B cos θ + Cθ sin θ + Dθ cos θ ).

Observe that r sin θ = y and r cos θ = x do not contribute to any stress, so we drop these two
terms. By the symmetry of the problem, we look for stress field symmetric about θ = 0 , so that
we will drop the term θ cos θ . Consequently, the stress function takes the form

φ (r , θ ) = rPCθ sin θ .

We can calculate the components of the stress field:

2CP cos θ
σ rr = , σ θθ = τ rθ = 0 .
r

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This field satisfies the traction boundary conditions, σ θθ = τ rθ = 0 at θ = π /2 and θ = −π /2 . To

determine C, we require that the resultant force acting on a cylindrical surface of radius r balance
the line force P. On each element rdθ of the surface, the radial stress provides a vertical
component of force σ rr cos θrdθ . The force balance of the half cylinder requires that
π /2
P+ ∫σ
−π / 2
rr cos θrdθ = 0 .

Integrating, we obtain that C = −1 / π .

The stress components in the x-y coordinates are

2P 2P 2 2P
σ xx = − cos 4 θ , σ yy = − sin θ cos 2 θ , τ xy = − sin θ cos 3 θ
πx πx πx

The displacement field is

ur = −
2P
cos θ log r −
(1 − ν )P θ sin θ
πE πE
uθ = −
2νP
sin θ +
2P
sin θ log r −
(1 − ν )P θ cos θ − (1 − ν )P sin θ
πE πE πE πE

7. Separation of variable. One can obtain many solutions by using the procedure of separation
of variable, assuming that

φ (r, θ ) = R(r )Θ(θ ).

Formulas for stresses and displacements can be found on p. 205, Deformation of Elastic Solids,
by A.K. Mal and S.J. Singh.

A real-life example.

From: S. Ho, C. Hillman, F.F. Lange and Z. Suo, " Surface cracking in layers under biaxial,
residual compressive stress," J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 78, 2353-2359 (1995).

In previous treatment of laminates, we have ignored edge effect. However, we also know that
edges are often the site for failure to initiate. Here is a phenomenon discovered in the lab of Fred
Lange at UCSB. A thin layer of material 1 was sandwiched in two thick blocks of material 2.
Material 1 has a smaller coefficient of thermal expansion than material 2, so that, upon cooling,

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ES240 Solid Mechanics Fall 2009

material 1 develops a biaxial compression in the plane of the laminate. The two blocks are nearly
stress free. Of course, these statements are only valid at a distance larger than the thickness of the
thin layer. It was observed in experiment that the thin layer cracked, as shown in Fig. 1.

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ES240 Solid Mechanics Fall 2009

It is clear from Fig. 2 that a tensile stress σ yy can develop near the edge. We would like to know
its magnitude, and how fast it decays as we go into the layer.

We analyze this problem by a linier superposition shown in Fig. 3. Let σ M be the magnitude of
the biaxial stress in the thin layer far from the edge. In Problem A, we apply a compressive
traction of magnitude σ M on the edge of the thin layer, so that the stress field in thin layer in
Problem A is the uniform biaxial stress in the thin layer, with no other stress components. In
problem B, we remover thermal expansion misfit, but applied a tensile traction on the edge of the
thin layer. The original problem is the superposition of Problem A and Problem B. Thus, the
residual stress field σ yy in the original problem is the same as the stress σ yy in Problem B.

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ES240 Solid Mechanics Fall 2009

With reference to Fig. 4, let us calculate the stress distribution σ yy (x,0 ). Recall that when a half
space is subject to a line force P, the stress is given by

2P 2
σ yy = − sin θ cos 2 θ .
πx

We now consider a line-force acting at y = η . On an element of the edge, dη , the tensile

traction applied the line force P = −σ M dη . Summing up over all elements, we obtain the stress
field in the layer:
t/2
2σ M dη
σ yy (x,0 ) = ∫ sin 2 θ cos 2 θ .
−t / 2
πx

Note that η = x tan θ , and let tan β = t / 2 x . Consequently,

x
dη = dθ ,
cos 2 θ

and the integral becomes

β β
2σ M 2σ M 1 − cos 2θ
σ yy (x,0 ) = ∫ sin θdθ =
2
∫ dθ .
π −β
π −β
2

Integrating, we obtain that

2σ M ⎛ 1 ⎞
σ yy (x,0 ) = ⎜ β − sin 2 β ⎟ .
π ⎝ 2 ⎠

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ES240 Solid Mechanics Fall 2009

At the edge of the layer, x / t → 0 and β = π / 2 , so that σ yy (0,0 ) = σ M . Far from the edge,
t / x → 0,
3
σM ⎛ t ⎞
σ yy (x,0) → ⎜ ⎟ .
6π ⎝ x ⎠

Thus, this stress decays as x −3 .

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