Thermionic Energy Conversion

Introduction
Thermionic energy conversion (TEC) is the direct conversion of heat into
electricity by the mechanism of thermionic emission, the spontaneous
ejection of hot electrons from a surface.Thermionic energy conversion (TEC)
for direct conversion of heat to electrical energy occurs when electrons
thermally emit from a hot surface, traverse a gap, and are collected by
another surface. This process, starting with thermionic emission, produces a
current of electrons that can subsequently drive an electrical load to
produce work. Particularly well suited for high-temperature applications,
since it was first proposed by Schlichter (1915), thermionic emission has
been pursued as a power generation method for over a century
(Hatsopoulos and Gyftopoulos, 1973, 1979), yet has seldom been realized in
either space or terrestrial applications. However, recent advances in
material science and nanotechnology as well as our evolving understanding
of the underlying physical processes afford new opportunities to develop
practical thermionic convertors, reinvigorating the field.
Principle of Thermionic Converter

A thermionic generator (converter) converts heat

energy directly to electrical energy by utilizing
thermionic emission effect. All metals and some oxides
have free electrons which are released on heating. In a
thermionic converter, electrons act as the working fluid
in place of a vapour or gas. In this device electrons are
emitted from the surface of heated metal. The energy
required to extract an electron from the metal is known
as work function and expressed in electron volts (eV).
The work function depends upon the nature of metal
and its surface condition.

The principle of thermionic converters is illustrated in

Fig. In a thermionic converter two electrodes are placed
in a container containing an ionised gas or cesium
vapour to reduce the space charge. The cathode is
heated by concentrating the rays on it. On heating of
cathode the electrons are emitted from it and travel to
anode. The cathode and anode are connected externally
through the load circuit.
The electrons return back to cathode through the external circuit and the
current flows through the external circuit as shown in the figure. The heat
energy is converted directly into electrical energy through a process similar
to that in a steam plant where water is evaporated in a boiler and the steam
is condensed after doing the useful work in an engine.

With the discovery of materials that provide adequate electron emission

rates without getting melted, the performance of the system has been
largely improved. This device is being designed for space power applications
where high temperature operation is advantageous. Such converters or
generators are suitable for use with nuclear reactor or radioisotope heat
sources.

A thermionic generator is like a cyclic heat engine and its maximum

efficiency is limited by Carnot’s law. It is a low-voltage, high current device
where current densities of 20-50 A/cm2 have been achieved at voltage from
1 to 2 V. Thermal efficiencies of 10-20% have been realized. Higher values
are possible in future.
Thermionic generators can be used for large power generation. The fuel
elements of a nuclear reactor may be very suitable high temperature heat
source for thermionic generator. This can be surrounded by cooled anode
and the in between space can be filled with ionized cesium vapour.

The energy of high temperature gases can be partly converted into

electricity if the riser tubes of the boiler are provided with cathode and
anode of a thermionic generator with the interspace filled with ionized
cesium vapour.

In principle any heat source, fossil or nuclear fuel, a radioactive material or

solar energy can be used in a thermionic conveter.

Components of Thermionic Converter-

Figure

• Anode must be kept cool to avoid back emission of electrons

• Note Potential for Topping cycle

• If the gap contains only a vacuum it is called a vacuum diode, if it contains

a vapor, it is called a plasma diode.

MATERIALS

EMITTER MATERIALS : W, Re, Mo

COLLECTOR MATERIALS : Nb, Mo

INSULATOR MATERIALS : Nb CERMET

ELECTRODE ATMOSPHERE : CsAT 1 torr

SCHEMATIC OF THERMIONIC CONVERTER

Limitations of Thermionic Converter

Thermionic converter is a direct energy conversion device with no moving
parts. It is very robust, and does not require any supervision for operation.
It is very suitable for remote and space applications.

It suffers from the following limitations:

1. The operating temperature of cathode is very high, so costly materials
like tungsten, rhenium are required for cathode.

2. Special shields of ceramic are required for protection of cathode from

corrosive combustion gases.

3. The collector may also have to be made of molybdenum coated with

cesium.

4. Ionised cesium vapour has to be filled in the interspace to reduce the

space charge barrier to promote electron emission from the cathode.

Applications of Thermionic Converter:

1. Thermionic Converter in a Nuclear Reactor:

The fuel element containing the fissile material carries the cathode
surrounded by the anode. The interspace is filled with ionized cesium gas.
The anode is cooled by the coolant from outside. Some of the energy
released by nuclear fission is directly converted into electrical energy by
thermionic conversion. The remaining heat is used in conventional
bottoming steam plant. The overall efficiency of the plant, therefore,
increases.

2. Thermionic Converter in the Riser Tube of a Boiler:

The riser tubes of a boiler receive heat by radiation from combustion gases.
The riser tube is provided by a cathode and anode of a thermionic
converter. The interspace is filled with ionized cesium vapour. The use of the
hot combustion gases to produce extra power before the steam cycle
improves the overall plant efficiency.
3. MHD Thermionic-Steam Power Plant:

The waste heat from the MHD generator at about 1,900°C is used to heat
the cathode of thermionic converter. The heat from the anode is used in the
boiler of a steam power plant. The overall efficiency of the plant will,
therefore increase.
 THERMOELECTRIC ENERGY
CONVERSION
Introduction
Thermoelectric systems are solid-state heat devices that either convert heat
directly into electricity or transform electric power into thermal power for
heating or cooling. Such devices are based on thermoelectric effects
involving interactions between the flow of heat and electricity through solid
bodies. These phenomena, called Seebek effect and Peltier effect, can be
used to generate electric power and heating or cooling.
Principle of thermoelectric conversion
The Seebeck effect was first observed by the physician Thomas Johann
Seebeck, in 1821, when he was studying thermoelectric phenomenon. It
consists in the production of an electric power between two
semiconductors when submitted to a temperature difference.

Heat is pumped into one side of the couples and rejected from the opposite
side. An electrical current is produced, proportional to the temperature
gradient between the hot and cold sides. The temperature differential
across the converter produces direct current to a load producing a terminal
voltage and a terminal current. There is no intermediate energy conversion
process. For this reason, thermoelectric power generation is classified as
direct power conversion.

On the other hand, a thermoelectric cooling system is based on an effect

discovered by Jean Charles Peltier Athanasius in 1834. When an electric
current passes through a junction of two semiconductor materials with
different properties, the heat is dissipated and absorbed.

The electrodes I and II are bridged at hot junction and are connected to the
output terminals at the cold junction. The hot junction is kept at high
temperature by concentrating sun rays on it. The cold junction is kept cold
by water cooling. The electric current is set up due to difference in
temperatures of hot and cold junctions and completes its path through the
external load circuit.
Though it is based on direct conversion of heat into electric power but its
efficiency is quite low (1 to 3%). Like any heat engine its efficiency depends
upon the temperatures of the hot and cold junctions. A two stage device
with hot and cold junction temperatures of 1,500 K and 300 K has been
developed to give an overall efficiency of 13%. A lot of research is being
done to find new materials capable of working at high temperatures.
Special attention is being paid to semiconductor materials.
The voltage and electrical power output can be increased by increasing the
temperature difference between the hot and cold ends. In order to achieve
higher potential difference many generators have to be connected in
parallel. For increasing the useful power output, parallel and series
connections are used.

The net useful power output is given as:

Pout = I2R watts

Where I is the current flowing through the circuit in amperes and R is the
external load resistance connected across output terminals of the thermo-
electric generator in ohms.

The current in the circuit is given by:

I = αΔT /(Rin + R) amperes…

where α is Seebeck coefficient in V/k, ΔT is the temperature difference

between hot and cold junctions in degrees absolute, K and Rin is the
internal resistance of thermoelectric generator in ohms.

The magnitude of potential difference depends on the pair of conductor

materials and on the temperature difference of the junctions.

For a loop made of copper and constantan wire, the value of Seebeck
coefficient is 0.04 mV/k. For a temperature difference of 600 K between the
junctions, a voltage of 24 mV will be produced.

Material Used
Thermoelectric modules consists of an array of p-type and n-type
semiconductors elements that are heavily doped with electrical carriers.
The elements are arranged into an array that is electrically connected in
series but thermally connected in parallel. This array is then affixed to two
ceramic plates, one on each side of the elements, that is, one covers the hot
joins and the other covers the cold one.

The efficiency of thermoelectric generator depends upon suitable

properties of the elements. It was later in 1909 and 1911 that Altenkirch
showed that good thermoelectric materials should have large Seebeck
coefficients, high electrical conductivity and low thermal conductivity. A
high electrical conductivity is necessary to minimise Joule heating, whilst a
low thermal conductivity helps to retain heat at junctions and maintain a
large temperature gradients.

These three properties were later embodied in the so-called figure-of-merit,

Z. Since Z varies with temperature, a useful dimensionless figure-of-merits
can be defined as ZT. The thermal conductivity of thermoelectric materials
can be reduced by introducing suitable impurities.
Basic requirements of thermoelectric material are:-

1. The mobility of current carriers (electrons or holes) should be as high as

possible. The electrical conductivity can be raised by introducing suitable
impurities.

2. One element should be purely P-type and the other N- type. The
semiconductor material should have low ionization energy and narrow
forbidden band.

3. The thermo elements should have variable impurity content so that

electron concentration should depend upon the operating temperature.

4. The thermoelectric material should be corrosion resistant, should have

high mechanical strength and elasticity so that it does not crack due to
thermal stresses.

5. The bridge material should have high thermal and electrical

conductivities and stability against thermal stresses.

6. The use of variable properties of thermoelectric elements becomes very

significant when thermoelectric pile or cascaded operation is required. The
operating temperature may be different.

ADVANTAGES
Thermoelectric devices offer several advantages over other technologies:

Easy Maintenance- Work is done electrically and has no moving part so

they are virtually maintenance free.

Compact and Less Weight- The overall thermoelectric cooling system is

much smaller and lighter than comparable mechanical system.
 Environment Friendly- thermoelectric convertors produce nno
emissions and the absence of a working fluid avoids environmentally
dangerous leakages.

No noise- Noise reduction appears also to be an important feature. They

can be used in any orientation and zero gravity environments.

Increase of reliability -: the absence of moving components and solid

state construction results in high reliability

LIMITATIONS
Disadvantages of thermoelectric conversions include:-

Low energy conversion efficiency rate

Slow technology Progression

Limited Applications

Requires relatively constant heat source

Lack of customer/industry education about thermoelectric generators

APPLICATIONS

Applications for thermoelectric modules cover a wide spectrum of product

areas. These include equipment used by military, medical, industrial,
consumer, scientific/laboratory, and telecommunication´s organizations. It
includes a range from simple food and beverage coolers for an afternoon
picnic to extremely sophisticated temperature control systems in missiles
and space vehicles. Typical applications for thermoelectric modules include:
avionics, calorimeters, cold chambers, cold plates, compact heat
exchangers, constant temperature baths, dehumidifiers, dew point
hygrometers, electronics package cooling, environmental analyzers, heat
density measurement, immersion coolers, integrated circuit cooling,
infrared detectors,infrared seeking missiles, microprocessor cooling, power
generators, refrigerators and onboard refrigeration systems (aircraft,
automobile, boat, hotel, among others).

Some of the frequent applications are:-

1. Nuclear Reactor with Thermoelectric Fuel Elements:

A thermoelectric generator, as incorporated in the fuel elements of a
nuclear reactor. This will help in obtaining large outputs.

2. Combined Thermoelectric and Steam Power Plant:

Thermoelectric generator can be employed as topping plant to a steam
power plant. The overall efficiency of the combined plant will increase due
to higher source temperature.

3. Thermoelectric Waste Heat Stack:

The waste heat from gas turbines, diesel engines and stack gases can be
used to generate electricity by a thermoelectric generator. The metal stack
consists of a series of rings of two alternate metals connected at the inner
and outer annular edges alternately. These rings are thermally and
electrically insulated.
4. Decay Heat of Radioactive Isotopes:
The decay heat of radioisotopes has been used for the operation of small
(0.1 kW) thermoelectric generators. Based on heat of decay of Strontium
85, remote generators for signalling have been used.

5. Solar Energy:
A combination of thermoelectric generator and solar collector can be used
to generate electrical energy from solar energy.

Comparison of thermionic and

thermoelectric conversion

 Both thermionic and thermoelectric convertors employ the

electron gas working fluid.
 Thermionic convertor is based on the ballistic current flow which
is highly efficient, and its theoritical efficiency is close to Carnot
efficiency.
  Thermoelectric convertors however have less efficiency due to
diffusive current flow.
 Thermionic convertors usually requires high temperature source
of heat about 1500k to generate practically useful current.
 A thermoelectric covertors can produce electrical power from low
quality heat energy sources.

WIND ENERGY: WIND POWER AND ITS

SOURCES
Wind is a form of solar energy. Winds are caused by the uneven heating of
the atmosphere by the sun, the irregularities of the earth's surface, and
rotation of the earth. Wind flow patterns are modified by the earth's
terrain, bodies of water, and vegetative cover. This wind flow, or motion
energy, when "harvested" by modern wind turbines, can be used to
generate electricity.
Wind resources are calculated based on the average wind speed and the
distribution of wind speed values occurring within a particular area. Areas
are grouped into wind power classes that range from 1 to 7. A wind power
class of 3 or above (equivalent to a wind power density of 150–200 watts
per square metre, or a mean wind of 5.1–5.6 metres per second [11.4–12.5
miles per hour]) is suitable for utility-scale wind power generation, although
some suitable sites may also be found in areas of classes 1 and 2. In the
United States there are substantial wind resources in the Great Plains
region as well as in some offshore locations. As of 2018 the largest wind
farm in the world was the Jiuquan Wind Power Base, an array of more than
7,000 wind turbines in China’s Gansu province that produces more than
6,000 megawatts of power. One of the world’s largest offshore active wind
farms, the London Array, spans an area of 122 square km (about 47 square
miles) in the outer approaches of the Thames estuary and produces up to
630 megawatts of power. Hornsea One, which will come online in 2020 and
span an area of 407 square km (about 157 square miles) near England’s
Yorkshire coast, will be even larger, producing about 1,200 megawatts of
power. By comparison, a typical new coal-fired generating plant averages
about 550 megawatts.

By 2016 wind was contributing approximately 4 percent of the world’s total

electricity. Electricity generation by wind has been increasing dramatically
because of concerns over the cost of petroleum and the effects of fossil fuel
combustion on the climate and environment (see also global warming).
From 2007 to 2016, for example, total installed wind power capacity
quintupled from 95 gigawatts to 487 gigawatts worldwide. China and the
United States possessed the greatest amount of installed wind capacity in
2016 (with 168.7 gigawatts and 82.1 gigawatts, respectively), and that same
year Denmark generated the largest percentage of its electricity from wind
(nearly 38 percent). The wind power industry estimates that the world
could feasibly generate nearly 20 percent of its total electricity from wind
power by 2030. Various estimates put the cost of wind energy as low as 2–6
cents per kilowatt-hour, depending on the location. This is comparable to
the cost of coal, natural gas, and other forms of fossil energy, which ranges
between 5 and 17 cents per kilowatt-hour.

India targeted to achieve 60 GW of power from wind by 2022. India has the
4th largest installed capacity in wind power after China, U.S and Germany.
The total installed capacity of wind power in India as on March 2017 is
around 32 GW. A recent study by National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE)
has shown wind energy potential of 302 GW at 100 m hub-height in
India.The production of wind energy in India is highly available in the
following regions of India. Wind Energy has spread across the South, West
and North regions of India. The potential of wind energy is concentrated in
the states of – Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Telangana. Tamil Nadu has the
highest installed capacity in the country with around 7.5 GW and its state
regulations are very much favorable to wind power development.
Maharashtra has the 2nd highest installed capacity of about 5 GW followed
by Gujarat with 3rd highest installed capacity of around 4 GW in the
country.

Sources of wind:
The earth’s winds are caused by pressure differences across the earth’s
surface due to uneven heating
Local Winds: During the day the air over the land is heated more than the
air over the sea. Opposite during the night
Day pattern: Wind blows from sea to land
Night pattern: Wind blows from land to sea

Global Winds: Occur due to greater heating of the air near the equator than
the poles. Thus wind blows in the direction from the poles to the equator.
Large ocean and land masses also affect the wind pattern.
It is important to understand these wind patterns for the evaluation of
potential wind sites
Wind Turbines:
Wind turbines, like aircraft propeller blades, turn in the moving air and
power an electric generator that supplies an electric current. Simply stated,
a wind turbine is the opposite of a fan. Instead of using electricity to make
wind, like a fan, wind turbines use wind to make electricity. The wind turns
the blades, which spin a shaft, which connects to a generator and makes
electricity.

Wind Turbine Types

Modern wind turbines fall into two basic groups; the horizontal-axis variety,
like the traditional farm windmills used for pumping water, and the vertical-
axis design, like the eggbeater-style Darrieus model, named after its French
inventor. Most large modern wind turbines are horizontal-axis turbines.
Turbine Components
Horizontal turbine components include:
blade or rotor, which converts the energy in the wind to rotational shaft
energy;
a drive train, usually including a gearbox and a generator;
a tower that supports the rotor and drive train; and
other equipment, including controls, electrical cables, ground support
equipment, and interconnection equipment.

Turbine Configurations
Wind turbines are often grouped together into a single wind power plant,
also known as a wind farm, and generate bulk electrical power. Electricity
from these turbines is fed into a utility grid and distributed to customers,
just as with conventional power plants.

Wind Turbine Size and Power Ratings

Wind turbines are available in a variety of sizes, and therefore power
ratings. The largest machine has blades that span more than the length of a
football field, stands 20 building stories high, and produces enough
electricity to power 1,400 homes. A small home-sized wind machine has
rotors between 8 and 25 feet in diameter and stands upwards of 30 feet
and can supply the power needs of an all-electric home or small business.
Utility-scale turbines range in size from 50 to 750 kilowatts. Single small
turbines, below 50 kilowatts, are used for homes, telecommunications
dishes, or water pumping.

Cost analysis :
Installation cost: for onshore wind farms were as low as USD 1 300 to
USD 1 400/kW in China and Denmark, but typically ranged between USD 1
800/kW and USD 2 200/kW in most other major markets. Wind turbines
account for 64% to 84% of total installed costs onshore, with grid
connection costs, construction costs, and other costs making up the
balance. Offshore wind farms are more expensive and cost USD 4 000 to
USD 4 500/kW, with the wind turbines accounting for 44% to 50% of the
total cost

Operations and maintenance costs (O&M): can account for

between 11% and 30% of an onshore wind projects levelized cost of
electricity (LCOE). O&M costs for onshore wind farms in major wind
markets averages between USD 0.01/kWh and USD 0.025/kWh. The O&M
costs of offshore wind farms are higher due to the problems posed by the
offshore environment and can be between USD 0.027 and USD 0.048/kWh.

In the medium-to long-term: reductions in capital costs in the order

of 10% to 30% could be achievable from learning-by-doing, improvements
in the supply chain, increased manufacturing economies of scale,
competition and more investment in R&D.

Global potential for wind-generated

electricity
The potential of wind power as a global source of electricity is assessed by
using winds derived through assimilation of data from a variety of
meteorological sources. The analysis indicates that a network of land-based
2.5-megawatt (MW) turbines restricted to nonforested, ice-free, nonurban
areas operating at as little as 20% of their rated capacity could supply >40
times current worldwide consumption of electricity, >5 times total global
use of energy in all forms. Resources in the contiguous United States,
specifically in the central plain states, could accommodate as much as 16
times total current demand for electricity in the United States. Estimates
are given also for quantities of electricity that could be obtained by using a
network of 3.6-MW turbines deployed in ocean waters with depths
A few guidelines for selecting sites
Selecting an appropriate site is key to the success of any renewable-energy
project, financially and technically. This applies to every type of project,
from the smallest residential systems to the largest utility-scale projects. It
also applies to every renewable-energy technology, from wind to solar to
biomass, and others. Selecting the proper site and designing a turbine array
to fit it are vital to ensuring that wind farms perform as expected.

Site selection also plays a crucial role in the financial returns of the project,
ease of construction, ongoing operations and maintenance, and overall
safety. As you’d expect, an inappropriate site or ill-designed turbine array
jeopardizes the project.

The most important consideration when siting a project is whether or not the site is
physically appropriate for the technology.

Key things to be in mind while selecting a data:

1. High annual average wind speed:

2. Availability of anemometry data:
3. Availability of wind V(t) Curve at the proposed site:
4. Wind structure at the proposed site:
5. Altitude of the proposed site:
6. Terrain and its aerodynamic:
7. Local Ecology
8. Distance to road or railways:
9. Nearness of site to local centre/users:
10. Nature of ground:
11. Favourable land cost

Momentum Theory
Momentum theory models the propeller as a simple actuator
diskaccelerating the flow in the axial direction by somehow creating a
pressure jump in the propeller plane. The propeller is then seen as a
continuous circular disk with infinite blades and AE/A0 = 1. The model is too
crude to be of any value in propeller design, but allows some valuable
insight into the global mechanisms of a propeller. The momentum theory
regards inflow and outflow of the propeller plane as the flow through a
tube of varying cross-section, but always of circular shape. Only the
longitudinal velocity component is considered, i.e. the velocity is a scalar
quantity
The inflow to the propeller is given by ρ·uA·AA, where AA is the cross-
sectional area of the considered propeller plane. The propeller induces a
velocity jump to the outflow velocity uj and the cross-sectional area of the
‘flow tube’ is Aj. The thrust T is the change in the momentum:

Important parameters in aerodynamic rotor design

The momentum theory described in the previous section provides the basis
for the aerodynamic design of wind turbine rotors. As described earlier, the
main driver in the wind turbine design is to minimize the cost per energy.
This is done by obtaining the right ratio between manufacturing cost (e.g.
material cost and rental of workshop) and energy production. However,
irrespective of the constraints that are required to reduce the wind turbine
cost, it is important to maximize the power with respect to the constraints.
Therefore, the approach in this section is to make a design for maximum
energy production without any constraints.

INTENTION THAT ROTOR DESIGN

• To low wind velocity high power supply.
• Supply the high power to low hub height.
• Supply the high power in small rotor diameters.
• The power coefficients of the rotor increase.
• Optimal the tip speed ratio of the rotor produce.

Types of wind rotors

Starting from classical horizontal axis rotors (old windmills), a lot of types of
wind rotors were developed as time went on, some of them were excellent.
Indeed the first windmills developed in Mesopotamia were built with
vertical axis, mounting, radially, some vertical flags. After some centuries
and thanks to the deep experience gained, man optimized the rotor
reaching excellent results such as the Dutch and Greek windmills.
With horizontal axis
- With vertical axis
- Hybrid

SYSTEM WITH HORIZONTAL AXIS

In this case the axis is perpendicular to the wind direction and the blades
move to the direction of the air flux. The SAVONIUS rotor (from the name of
the Finlander J. Savonius who invented it in 1929) is the simplest type. It
can be built opposing two half cylinders hinged on the axis of the rotor
itself. In this type of rotor a system of orientation of the blades is not
necessary, however not all the surface is exposed to the wind. In fact, while
a blade collects the air flux and it is pushed, the other one turns to the
opposite side, reducing the performance.

The main characteristics of this wind rotor are the following ones:

• front area totally used

• high speed of rotation
• high coefficient of lif
• high power obtainable

SYSTEM WITH VERTICAL AXIS

In this case the axis is perpendicular to the wind direction and the blades
move to the direction of the air flux. The SAVONIUS rotor (from the name of
the Finlander J. Savonius who invented it in 1929) is the simplest type. It
can be built opposing two half cylinders hinged on the axis of the rotor
itself. In this type of rotor a system of orientation of the blades is not
necessary, however not all the surface is exposed to the wind. In fact, while
a blade collects the air flux and it is pushed, the other one turns to the
opposite side, reducing the performance.

The main characteristics of this wind rotor are the following ones:

• low speed of rotation

• high mechanical torque
• modest performance
HYBRID SYSTEMS
They are the youngest and they combine the advantageous characteristics
of both the systems with horizontal and vertical axis. In general they are
with vertical axis with propellers or blades derived from the previous ones.
Here are some examples: the Darrieous rotor, the Cycloturbine, the Ropatec
rotor, the rotor with delta flange (see the photo), ext.

The main characteristics of this wind rotor are the following ones:

• easiness of construction
• high speed of rotation
• no orientation system
• power coefficients close to the theoretical value

Advantages And Disadvantages of wind Energy

Advantages
The advantages of wind energy are more apparent than the disadvantages. The main
advantages include an unlimited, free, renewable resource (the wind itself), economic
value, maintenance cost, and placement of wind harvesting facilities. First and foremost,
wind is an unlimited, free, renewable resource. Wind is a natural occurrence and
harvesting the kinetic energy of wind doesn't affect currents or wind cycles in any way.
Next, harvesting wind power is a clean, non-polluting way to generate electricity. Unlike
other types of power plants, it emits no air pollutants or greenhouse gases. The wind
turbines harmlessly generate electricity from wind passing by. Wind energy is far more
ecofriendly than the burning of fossil fuels for electricity. Currently, the United States,
along with other countries, remains dependent on fossil fuels imported from unstable and
unreliable nations. [1] Strains on supply (of fossil fuels) are likely to increase the prices
of fossil fuel resources and leave the US economy exposed to international market
volatility. Wind power has the ability to free the US from the figurative economic
bondage of fossil fuels. Once turbines and energy centers have been installed, the cost of
maintaining turbines and generating wind power is next to nothing. Another advantage of
wind power is the ability to place turbines wherever necessary. After performing research
and finding areas that have adequate wind, experts may place the turbines in desired
areas. These areas are usually unpopulated (offshore wind turbines, for example). [1] In
fact, offshore winds tend to blow harder and more uniformly than on land, providing the
potential for increased electricity generation and smoother, steadier operation than land-
based wind power systems. Fig. 1 shows offshore wind turbines harvesting energy.

Disadvantages
The two major disadvantages of wind power include initial cost and technology
immaturity. Firstly, constructing turbines and wind facilities is extremely expensive. The
second disadvantage is technology immaturity. [1] High cost of energy can, in part, be
addressed directly with technology innovations that increase reliability and energy output
and lower system capital expenses. Offshore wind energy produces more energy than
onshore wind energy, but costs much more to establish. The primary costs of wind
turbines include construction and maintenance. [1] New technology is needed to lower
costs, increase reliability and energy production, solve regional deployment issues,
expand the resource area, develop infrastructure and manufacturing facilities, and
mitigate known environmental impacts. Therefore, one may argue that implementation of
wind energy must be delayed until technological advancements are made. Other
disadvantages include:

Aesthetic impact: Many people are concerned with the visual effects that wind turbines
have on the beautiful scenery of nature. They believe that giant wind turbines distract
viewers from the beautiful surroundings. Fig. 2 shows just how big wind turbines can be.

Wildlife: Wind turbines may be dangerous to flying animals. Many birds and bats have
been killed by flying into the rotors. Experts are now conducting research to learn more
about the effects that wind turbines have on marine habitats.
Remoteness of location: Although this may be an advantage (placing wind turbines in
desolate areas, far away from people), it may also be a disadvantage. The cost of travel
and maintenance on the turbines increases and is time consuming. Offshore wind turbines
require boats and can be dangerous to manage.

Noise: Some wind turbines tend to generate a lot of noise which can be unpleasant

Safety at Sea: In the darkness/at night it may be difficult for incoming boats to see wind
turbines thus leading to collisions.
Limitations of wind turbine
The limitation of wind power is that no electricity is produced when the wind is not
blowing. Thus, it cannot be used as a dependable source of base load power. Utilities and
merchant generators will not invest huge sums of money into a technology that does not
work when the wind is not blowing. Americans want the lights on when they flip the
switch, no questions asked. Wind power will probably increase its market share when we
develop a 'smart grid' that can handle multiple distributed generation input sources of
electrical power.
Wind Turbines Killing Migrating Birds
It has been estimated that about 45,000 birds (golden eagles, kestrels and red-tailed
hawks) have been killed over the past twenty years by the whirling blades of wind
turbines. The rows of spinning blades at Altamont Pass, east of San Francisco, turn wind
into electricity, but they are killing many predatory birds whose annual migration route
includes the pass. Past attempts to reduce bird kills have included painting the tips of
turbine blades to try to make them more visible to birds and installing screens around
generators. These measures have failed to substantially lower the number of bird deaths.

Bat kills are the latest big problem for wind farmers. Researcher's estimate that 1,500 to
4,000 bats were killed at the Mountaineer Wind Energy Center in Western Maryland in
2004. This is raising concerns about an expansion of wind turbine use at Backbon
Mountain in Maryland, where Clipper Wind power, Inc.of California is planning to build
a project 20 miles away from the Mountaineer site.
Solutions of limitations:
We should build wind turbines where there is too much of wind like near sea so there will
be 24 hours electricity and the problem of electricity will be solved and there are less
birds near sea so the problem of killing birds will also be solved.