GRADE 9 BIOLOGY NOTES.

Unit 2
Biological Method of Study or Method Used to Solve the Problem of Malaria

Observation

Most of the biological investigations start with an observation. After selecting, specific biological
problem, observations are made to collect relevant information. For example; take the case of Malaria.
Malaria is the greatest killer disease of man for centuries. Malaria was one among many other diseases
for which a cure was needed. In 1878, A French physician, Laveran, studied the blood sample of Malaria
patient under microscope and observed tiny creatures in it. These creatures were later called
Plasmodium.

Hypothesis

To solve a scientific problem, one or more possible propositions are made on the basis of the
observations. Such a proposition is called a Hypothesis. The hypothesis is tested by scientific method.

Merits

A good hypothesis has the following merits:

1. It is close to the observed fact.

2. One or more deductions can be made from this.

3. These deductions should be confirmed doing experiments.

4. Results whether positive or negative should be reproducible. To know the cause of malaria, following
hypothesis was made:

Plasmodium is the cause of Malaria.”

Note: One or more than one possible deductions can be made from the hypothesis.

Deduction

The logical conclusion drawn from a hypothesis is called deduction. Testing one deduction and finding it
correct does not necessarily mean the hypothesis is correct and scientific problem is solved. Actually, if
more deductions are found to be correct; the hypothesis will be close to solution of the problem.

Experiments

Following groups are designed to perform experiments:

Experimental Group

It is the group of those people who are affected in some way and we do not know the real cause e.g. a
group of malarial patients.

Control Group

It is the group of unaffected people e.g. persons group of healthy persons. By keeping both of these
groups under similar conditions, the difference between them is determined. To know the real cause of
malaria, the experts examined the blood of about 100 malarial patients (experimental group). On the
other hand, the experts examined the blood of about 100 healthy persons (control group).

Results

During the experiments mentioned above; the plasmodium was found in blood of most of malarial
patients. The plasmodim was absent in the blood of healthy persons. These results verified the
deductions and thus the hypothesis i.e. the plasmodium is the cause of Malaria, was proved to a
considerable extent.

Theory

If hypothesis is proved to be correct from repeated experiments and uniform results, then this
hypothesis becomes a theory.

Scientific Principle

When a theory is again and again proved to be correct, then it is called a scientific principle. >>
Question: What is the biological Method of Study?

Different stages of biological method are:

1- Observation:

After determination of any problem observations are made to collect information.

Malaria was a dreadful disease in past. Many peoples die with this. There was no treatment of malaria.
Scientist made following observations in this regard:

i) Malaria and marshy places were some how associated.

ii) Quinine from cinchona bark was an effective remedy for malaria.

iii) Malarial patients always have parasite in their blood.

iv) Drinking marshy water did not cause malaria.

Observations of A.F.A King:

A.F.A King made his observations in 1883. His observations were:

i) People who slept outdoors in open spaces suffered more from malaria than those who slept
indoors.

ii) People who slept under mosquito nets did not suffer from malaria.

iii) Person who slept near smoky fire also did not suffer form malaria.

2- Hypothesis:

Some propositions are made in the light of observations which is called hypothesis. The characteristics
of a good hypothesis are:

i) It is close to observed facts.

ii) The deductions can be drawn from it.

iii) The deductions could be tested experimentally.

iv) Results should be produced. Either positive or negative.

Regarding malaria the hypothesis made was:

“Plasmodium is the cause of malaria”

3- Deduction:

Logical conclusion drawn from hypothesis are called deductions.

Regarding malaria deduction was made:

“If plasmodium is the cause of malaria, then all person ill with malaria should have plasmodium in their
blood.”

4- Experiments:

Experiments are designed to test the deduction.

Regarding malaria scientists examined the blood of 100 healthy persons and 100 affected person.

Experiment of Ronald Ross:

Ronald Ross performed experiments in 1880.

i) He observed that plasmodium was growing and multiplying in the stomach of

female Anopheles mosquito.

ii) Malaria was the disease which has no treatment in those days therefore he selected sparrows
for experiment.

iii) He allowed some mosquitoes to bite a malarial sparrow.

iv) Then he allowed those mosquitoes to bite a healthy sparrow.

v) The healthy sparrow also suffered from malaria.

vi) In this way he proves that plasmodium is the real cause of malaria and they are transmitted by
mosquitoes.

5- Results:

Most the malarial patients had plasmodium in their blood. This experiment verified the above deduction
for malaria.

6- Theory:

When a hypothesis has been proved by consistent results it becomes a theory.

7- Scientific Principal:

When a theory can explain many natural phenomena and consistently supported by experiments, and
also universally accepted by scientists it becomes a scientific principal.
>> Question: Which form of hypothesis is called a theory?

When a hypothesis has been proved by consistent results of many experiments it becomes a theory.

>> Question: What are control experiments?

The experiments or groups, in whichThe experiments or groups, in which all the factors affecting an
experiment except the one being tested are duplicated, are called control experiments or control
groups.

>> Question: What does malaria means and from where it is derived?

Malaria was derived from two Latin words:

i) Mala means bad.

ii) Aria means air.

So, the meaning of malaria becomes bad air.

CHAPTER – 3 “Classification of Living Organisms”

Classification

The arrangement of organisms into groups and subgroups on the basis of similar characters is called
classification.

Basis of Classification
The classification of organisms is based on such features or characters, which are similar in one kind of
organisms and different in different kind of organisms. These characters may be about internal
morphology, (anatomy), external morphology, physiology, cell structure, especially the number of
chromosomes and chemical composition (especially of proteins) and embryology of the organisms.
These characters help in study of intra specific (within the same species) and intra specific (between
different) species differences.

The presence of similar characters in different organisms indicates their common ancestory. This
similarity because of common ancestral origin is called Homology e.g. arm of a monkey, flipper of a
whale and wing of a bat show homology. They are dissimilar apparently but their internal structure
(arrangement of bones and muscles) is same. These organs are called homologous organs. Due to this
homology, we can, say that monkey, whale and bad had common ancestors and are placed in same
large group “vertebrate”. This homology is proved to be very helpful in classification.

Aims/Objectives of Classification

These are given below:

1. To determine similarities and differences between different organisms.

2. To arrange organisms on the basis of similarities and differences.

3. To identify the organisms on the basis of their structure and other prominent characters and study
them systematically and logically.

4. To find out inter-relationships of organisms.

First of all, Aristotle classified the organisms on the basis of their resemblances. After this, Theophrastus
classified the plants. Then, after a long time, Carolous Linnaeus (1707-1778), suggested a new system of
classification. In this way, he started modem taxonomy.

Units of Classification

The basic unit of classification is specie (Plural specie). A species is a group of organisms that can breed
with one another in nature and produce fertile offspring. All members of a species have same number of
chromosomes and also have many other features in common. All the mustard plants belong to one
species. All the human beings belong to another species. The members of one species differ from
members of other species and do not breed naturally with each other. Such different species, which are
closely related, they are grouped in large group called genus (plural; genera) e.g. Brassica is a genus. It
includes several species like mustard, cabbage and turnip. Similarly, Felis is a genus. It includes several
species like lion, tiger and cat. Similarly, many closely related genera are placed in a bigger group called
Family, families are grouped into an order, orders are grouped into a class and classes are grouped into
a phylum (plural, phyla) or division (plural; division) in case of plants. The phyla or divisions are grouped
into kingdom. All these units are divided into subunits e.g. sub genus, sub phylum and sub kingdom etc.
The smallest the group or unit, the organisms
Biological Classification of Mustard Plant

Common Name —————– Mustard

Phylum or Division ———- Anthophyta

Class ———————– Dictyledonae

Order ———————– Capparales

Family ———————- Brassicaceae

Genus ———————– Brassica

Species ——————— Brassica Campestris

Classification of Human Beings

Common Name —————- Human

Kingdom ——————– Animalia

Phylum ——————— Chordata

Class ———————- Mammalia

Order ———————- Primates

Family ——————— Hominidae

Genus ———————- Homo

Species ——————– Homo sapiens

Scientific Name ———— Homo sapiens

Kingdoms of Organisms

The classification is not static, nor has only one system of classification been followed rather it is
dynamic. Whenever any new knowledge is available about organisms, it is used in classification.
Therefore, many systems of classification have been used. Living organisms are classified into two to five
kingdoms.

Two Kingdom Systems

All organisms were classified into two kingdoms before present time.

1. Plant Kingdom (Plantae) – It includes all the small and large plants.

2. Animal Kingdom (Animals) – It includes all the animals.

Important Characters of Plants and Animals

Presence of cell wall and ability to prepare their own food were considered the most important
characters of plants.

Lack of cell wall and inability to prepare food and characteristic mode of nutrition and especially the
ability to locomote were considered the most important characters of animals.

Plant kingdom and animal kingdom were divided into large groups.

Binomial Nomenclature

The method of giving scientific names to organisms is called nomenclature. Same animal or same plants
may be known by different names. It must have one scientific name so that there may be no confusion.
To give such names to living organisms, the method was formulated by carolous Linnaeous (1753). This
method is called Binomial Nomenclature. Because tis system is simple and comprehensive, so it is
accepted and used in whole world.

Rules of Binomial Nomenclature

1. According to this method, every species of living organisms is given a Latinized scientific name
consisting of two parts.

2. The first part is the name of genus and is called generic name. It starts with a capital letter.

3. The second part is the name of species and is called specific name. It starts with a small letter.

4. Both parts of scientific name of a species are either underlined separately or italicized.

The scientific name of mustard plant is Brassica campestris. The scientific name of rose plant is Rose
indica. Similarly the scientific name of frog is Rana tigrina and that of human is Homo sapiens.

Significance of Binomial Nomenclature

Before establishment of binomial nomenclature, the names of organisms consisted of many words.
These words were based on the characters of these plants or animals. In different countries, even in
different parts of same country; local names were used for plants and animals. The same organism may
be given different names e.g. turnip, shaljam, gongloo, thipar, and gogroon are all names of same plant.
In England, there are at least fifty names for pansy. Similarly a single common name may be used for
different kind of organisms e.g. the word “raspberry” is used for about 100 kinds of plants. This
confusion can be avoided by giving each organism a scientific name according to binomial nomenclature
proposed by Carolous Linnaeus in 1753. It is adopted by all taxonomists.

UNIT 4 Cells and tissues

Electron Microscope
Electron Microscope

This is the most advanced form of microscope. Its resolving power is 250 times or more that of a
compound microscope. In this microscope, a beam of electrons under high voltage is passed through the
object and its image is reflected on to a screen through an electro magnetic lens to make a photograph.

(Diagram)

With the help of microscope, any object an be magnified up to 250,000 its original size.

Comparison of Light Microscope and Electron Microscope

Light Microscope

The radiation source is light so it is called light microscope.

Wavelength of light is 400 – 700 nm.

Maximum resolution is 200 nm.

Maximum useful magnification is X 1500 with eye.

Lenses are used.

Electron Microscope

The radiation source is beam of electrons, so it is called Electron Microscope.

Wavelength of beam of electrons is 0.005 nm.

Maximum resolution is 0.5 nm.

Maximum useful magnification is X. 250,000 on screen as image or photograph.

Electromagnets are used.

Question: How was the cell discovered (Discover of Cell)? Write down the Cell Theory?

• In 1665 an English Scientist Robert Hook first studied thin slices of cork and leaves under
microscope. He found small boxes like chambers. He called them cells.

• In early 19th Century compound microscope was invented. Then Robert Brown discovered
nucleus in the cell. Then it was also known that cells have complicated structures.

• In 1838 Mathias Schleiden (a German botanist) said that all plants were made up of cells. Then
in 1839 Theodre Schwann said that all animals are also composed of cells.
• In 1840 J.Purkinji used the term protoplasm for the materials found in the cell.

Cell Theory: -

On invention of electron microscope cell was studies in more detail. The followings are the postulates of
cell theory presented by Schleiden and Schwann: -

i) All animals and plants are made up of cells and cell products. These animals and plants may be
unicellular or multicellular.

ii) Cells are structural and functional unit of living organisms.

iii) New cells are formed by pre-existing cells by cell division.

Question: Write a detailed note on cell wall?

Location: -

It is outer most boundary of plant cell. It is absent in animals cell.

Thickness: -

It may be thick as outer wall of trachieds or as parenchyma tissues.

Tissues: -

i) Parenchyma tissues are composed to thin wall and its function is

storage.

ii) Cotenchyma tissues are slightly thick and their function is conduction.

iii) Sclerenchyma tissues are thick wall and their function is protection. Composition: -

Its composition is different in different plants. Majority composed of cellulose (dead cells). In fungi it is
composed of chitin.

Types of cell wall: -

i) Primary cell wall is a thin wall which form first whorl.

ii) Secondary cell wall is formed by deposition of many primary cell walls. It is thick.

Functions of cell wall: -

i) It provides protection to the cell.

ii) It gives shape to the cell.

iii) It provides support to the cell.

iv) It provides rigidity to the cell.

Nature of cell wall: -

Cell wall is permeable in nature because it allows all the materials to pass through.

Question: Write a detailed note on cell membrane?

Location: -

It is outer most in animal’s cell while in plant cell it is present inside the cell wall. Thickness: -

It is few micron meter thick.

Composition: -

Basically is composed of lipids and proteins. It consists of two layers if lipids in which protein molecule
are completely embedded.

Function: -

i) All the transportation of cell is done by cell membrane.

ii) It provides the shape to the animal cell.

iii) It provides support to animal cell.

Q: Write a detailed note on nucleus?

Location: -

In animals cell it is present in center of the cell. In plants it is present at side due to presence of large
vacuole.

Structure: -

i) A nuclear membrane is present outside of the nucleus. It give the

shape and support to nucleus.

ii) Nuclear pores are used for transportation of materials from cytoplasm to nucleus.

iii) Nucleoplasm is a jelly like substance which contain chromosomes, nucleolus etc.
Function: -

i) It controls all the activities of the cell.

ii) It plays important role in cell division or cell reproduction.

Question: Write a note on chromosomes?

Shape: -

Chromosomes are thread like structures.

Centromere: -

It is present in the center of chromosomes. Chromotids: -

They are two in numbers and attached on centromere. Number of chromosomes: -

Chromosomes are constant in any organisms and never change through out the life cycle. In human they
are 46, in onion they are 16, in radish they are 18 etc.

Composition: -

They are composed of protein and DNA. Presence of DNA shows that they are

living.

Question: Write a detailed note on Cytoplasm?

Location: -

It is jelly like substance and It is jelly like substance and present between nucleus and cell membrane.
Composition: -

It is composed of two major components: -

i) Organic substances like carbohydrates, fats and proteins etc.

ii) Inorganic substances like water and salts. Function: -

i) It provide site for all the biochemical reactions occurring in the cell.

ii) It provides all necessary chemicals which are required for all the reactions.
Question: Write a note on mitochondria?

Location: -

They are located in cytoplasm. Shape: -

They are round or oval in shape.

Number: -

The number of mitochondria depends upon the function of organisms.

Structure: -

i) Outer membrane of mitochondria is smooth.

ii) Inner membrane is greatly folded in the mitochondrial materials.

iii) They are small rounded particles called cristae Function: -

They are called power house of the cell. They contain respiratory enzymes which oxides the food and
release energy. This energy is used to perform different activities of life.

Question: Write a note on Golgi bodies or Golgi complex?

Location: -

It is located inside the cytoplasm and scattered in all directions of the cell.

Structure: -

Golgi complex is present in the form of smooth membrane which is called

sisternae. These sacs are attached to each other.

Function: - They involve in cell secretions.

Question: Write a detailed note on Endoplasmic Reticulum?

Location: -

They are present between cell membrane and nucleus. Shape: -

They are tube like structures

Types: -

They are of two types: -

i) smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: -

They do not have ribosomes. They do not involve in protein synthesis.

ii) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: -

They have ribosomes. They involve in protein synthesis.

Function: -

i) They help in transport of materials.

ii) They help in protein synthesis.

iii) They help in formation of lipids.

Question: Write a detailed note on Ribosomes?

Location: -

They are present in cytoplasm on rough endoplasmic reticulum. Shape: -

They are present in the form of granules.

Structure: -

They are non-membranous occur freely on rough endoplasmic reticulum.

Function: -

They are involved in protein synthesis.

Question: Write a detailed note Plastids or Chloroplasts?

Location: -

It is present in leaves, petals, fruits and roots etc.

Colour: -

The colour of plastids may vary e.g. Green (chlorophyll), red, blue, yellow, purple and white etc.
Structure: -

It is in the form of semi-fluid matrix called stroma. It is composed of protein and other chemicals. It is in
the form of stack membranous system in which each membrane is called geranium. Granum is a place
where photosynthesis takes place so it play vital role in plant cell.

Types of Plastids: -

Plastids are of three types

i) Chloroplast

ii) Chromoplast

iii) Leucoplast

Question: Write a detailed note on Centriole?

Location: -

It is present near nucleus in the form of pairs. They are absent in higher plants.

Structure: -

They are present in the form of triplicate micro tubules. Function: -

i) They help in formation of spindles and play important role in cell division.

ii) They help in formation of cilia and flagella.

Question: Write a detailed note on vacuole?

Location: -

In plant cell a big vacuole is present in the center of the cell. And in animal cell many small vacuoles are
present in cytoplasm.

Shape: -

Plant vacuole is in the shape of large structure while animal vacuoles are oval in shape.

Function: -

i) Main function of vacuole is excretion of waste materials from cell.

ii) In lower organisms food vacuole serves the process of digestion.

Question: Define Cell cycle?

All the changes during the formation of daughter cells from a parent cell are called cell cycle

Organelles in Cytoplasm
Mitochondria

They re oval or rod like in shape. Their membrane is doubled. Outer membrane is smooth while inner
membrane has enfolding in the mitochondrial matrix. These enfolding are called cristae. The cristae bear
small rounded bodies which are called particles.

There are about one million elementary particles in one mitochondrian. They are involved in oxidative
phosphorylation. They also have many respiratory enzymes.

Number of Mitochondria

Their number is different in different cells of different animals. In more active cells, their number is
more than 1000 e.g. liver cell.s The cells of ear lobes have a few number of mitochondria.

Function

Mitochondria re very important organelles of Eukaryotic cell.s Many oxidation-reduction reaction occur
in the mitochondria. As a result energy is produced. This energy is used by cell in various functions. This
the reason that mitochondria are also called “Power house of cell”.

Golgi Bodies

They were discovered by Camillo Golgi. They consist of set of smooth, flattened sacs which are called
cristernae. The cristemae are stacked over each other. Golgi bodies are in the form of network in some
cells or meshwork or filamentous in other cells.

Function

Golgi bodies store the secretions, convert them into finished products and pack them at their margins
into small rounded sacs called Golgi vesicles, which transport secretions outside the cell.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

It is a network of tubules and cristemae extending throughout the cytoplasm from nuclear membrane to
cell membrane.

Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum

Following are the two types of Endoplasmic Reticulum:

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

It is also called non-granular endoplasmic reticulum because ribosomes are not attached on it.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

It is also called granular endoplasmic reticulum because ribosomes are attached on it.

Functions

1. Smooth endoplasmic Reticulum plays a role in synthesis of lipids.

2. Rough endoplasmic reticulum plays an important role in synthesis of proteins. It also transports
materials from one part of cell to other.

3. Endoplasmic reticulum provides support to the cell.

Ribosomes

These are tiny granular structures. These re not bounded by any membrane. These are formed in the
nucleolus nd re freely dispersed in cytoplasm or attached with endoplasmic reticulum.

Functions

Ribosome is involved in protein synthesis. It is the only organelle which is also found in Prokaryotic cell.

Plastids

These are pigment containing organelles. These are found in plant cells. Many plastids have one or more
than one pigments.

Types of Plastids

Plastids are of three types which are as follows:

Chloroplasts

These are mot important plastids. These re green in colour and found in green parts of plant. These
contain chlorophyll which helps in photosynthesis. The study of ultra structure reveals that it is bounded
by a double membrane.

Inside the chloroplast there is present a semifluid matrix called called stroma, which is made up of
proteins and other chemicals. The inner membrane forms stacked membrane system which becomes
suspended in the stroma. Each membrane stack is called granum (plural grana. The membranes of grana
are the sites where photosynthesis occurs in the presence of sun light.

Functions
In chloroplasts, photosynthesis takes place and food is prepared for plant.

Chromoplasts

These are second type of plastids. These are of various colours other than green. In plants, colours other
than green are due to chromoplasts. These are present in the petals of the flowers and in the ripened
fruit.

Functions

These help the plants in pollination. These impart various colours to petals and fruits.

Leucoplasts

These are third type of plastids. These are colourless plastids. These are triangular tubular or of any
other shape. These are found in food storage prts of the plant especially the roots and tubers.

Centriole

In animal cells, two centrioles are present near the nucleus. There are hollow and cylindrical. Each
centriole consists of nine triplets of microtubules.

Function

Centrioles help in spindle formation during division of animal cell. Spindle is composed of protein fibers
which help the chromosomes to move. Centrioles are absent in cells of higher plants. In some cells,
centrioles help in the formation of flagella or cillia.

Vacuole

It is a fluid filled small sac which is bounded by a single membrane. In animal cells, these are
comparatively smaller in size but many in number while in plant cells; there is a large central vacuole
which is filled with water and salts.

Functions

In small organisms, extra water and wastes are excreted through contractile vacuoles, while food is
digested in food vacuole. Increase in size of vacuole results in an increase in size of cell.

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1. Cell Wall

2. Cell Membrane

3. Nucleus
4. Cytoplasm

1. Cell Wall

It is the outer most boundary of plant cells. It is rigid and non-living. It is chemically composed of
Cellulose. The cell wall of fungi is made up of Chitin. The walls of some cells are thick and walls of some
cells are thin. For example, in plants, xylem vessel elements and tracheids (which transport water and
minerals) have thick walls whereas as parenchyma cells (which store water and food) have thin walls.
The primary layer of cell wall is known as primary walls which are further strengthened by an additional
layer called secondary wall especially in xylem vessels. Secondary wall is thicker than the primary wall.
Electron microscope studies reveal that cellulose fibers in primary and secondary walls have a criss cross
arrangement.

Functions

Cell wall provides a definite shape, rigidity, protection and support to plant cell.

2. Cell Membrane

It is a thin membrane which is also called Plasma membrane. It is present in cells of all plants and
animals. It is outer most boundary of animal cell while in plant cells; it is present inner to cell wall. Both
nucleus and cytoplasm are surrounded by cell membrane. According to fluid mosaic model, cell
membrane is composed of two layers of lipids in which protein molecules are partially or completely
embedded.

Functions

Cell membrane is selectively permeable membrane. It means that it allows some things to pass through
easily while some not. Thus, it controls the movement of material inside or outside the cell.

3. Nucleus

It is most important and distinct part of the cell. It is present in center of the animal cell while in plant
cell it is pushed on one side due to large central vacuole. It is also surrounded by a membrane which is
called membrane. Under microscope, it to be doubled and nuclear electron appears porous.

1. The number of chromosomes is fixed for each species. This number is called diploid number (2n). E.g
human’s cell has 46 chromosomes, cell of Radish has 18 chromosomes, and cell of union has 16
chromosomes.

2. Chromosomes are composed of protein and DNA.

3. In the nucleolus (plural, Nucleoli) ribosomal RNA is formed which helps in the formation of ribosome.

4. Cytoplasm
It is viscous opaque substance. It is present between nuclear membrane and cell membrane. In a living
cell, many types of organelle of different sizes and shapes are found. It contains many insoluble granules
of storage substances. There are also present organic compounds like carbohydrates, proteins, lipids
(fats), enzymes and inorganic compounds like water and salts.

Functions

Cytoplasm provides chemicals, site and environment for different biochemical reactions.

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Difference between Prokaryotic Cell and Eukaryotic Cell

Prokaryotic Cell

• The organisms made of prokaryotic cells are called prokaryotes e.g. bacteria and cyanobacteria.

• These cells lack a membrane bound nucleus. The hereditary material (DNA) is found in cytoplasm.

• These cells lack membrane boundorganelles.

• Ribosomes are of small size in and freely scattered cytoplasm.

• Cellulose is absent in cell wall, rather it is made up of peptido-glycan or murein.

• These cells are simple and of smaller size (average diameter 0.5 – 10 nm)

Eukaryotic Cell

• The organisms mae of Eukaryotic cells are called Eukaryotes, e.g. animals, plants fungi and protists.

• These cells have a membrane bound nucleus; and hereditary material is found inside the nucleus.

• These cells have membrane bound organelles.

• Ribosomes are of large size and are present in endoplasmic reticulum free in cytoplasm.

• Cellulose is present in cell wall of plant cells. The cell wall of most of fungi is composed of chitin.

• These cells are complex and of larger size (Average diameter 10-100nm

The Discovery of Cell and Cell Theory

Discovery of Cell

In 1665, an English biologist Robert Hooke invented first compound microscope and observed the
sections of corks and leaves under this microscope. He noticed in them small box like chambers of same
size which he called “cells”. After this, biologists observed different organisms under the microscope.
They found that structure of cells was complex.

Cell Theory

In 19th century, the compound microscope was highly advanced and biologists observed things just a
micrometer apart. After this, a series of discoveries started, which provided basic information for cell
theory.

1. In 1831 – 33, Robert Brown discovered nucleus in cells of plants.

2. In 1838, a German botanist Mathias Scheiden observed that all plants were made up of cells.

3. In 1839, Theoclor Schwann obsrved that the bodies of of animals were made up of cells which were
similar to plant cells.

4. Thus, Schleiden and Schwann formulated the “Cell Theory”. According to this, all organisms are made
up of cells.

5. In 1840, J. Purkinji gave the name “Protoplasm” to the things found inside the cells. At that time, cell
was considered as a bag of thick dense substance containing a nucleus.

Later on, resolving power and quality of microscopes were highly improved. Section cutting of tissues
and cells and their staining became easier and better. It revealed that cell was not a simple mass of
granular substance; instead it contained many sub cellular bodies called “Organelles”. Each organelle
has a definite job in the cell.

6. Human is made up of about 60 trillion cells. From Amoeba and unicellular algae to whales and tallest
red wood trees, all’ are made up of similar basic units called cell.s All animals and plants are thus made
up of cells and cell products.

Salient Features of Cell Theory

1. All animals and plants are made up of cells and cell products. Among these some organisms are
unicellular and some are multicellular.

2. Cell is structural and functional unit of living organisms.

3. New cells come from the divisions of pre-existing cell.

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Tissues

Tissues
A group of cells which perform same function is known as tissue. The tissues are divided into different
types on the basis of their form an The tissues are divided into different types on the basis of their form
and structure or function.

Plant Tissues

Following are the types of tissues in plants:

1. Simple Tissues

2. Compound Tissues

1. Simple Tissues

Simple tissues consists of only one type of cells. In plants, they are of following types:

i. Meristematic or embryonic tissues

ii. Permanent Tissues

i. Meristematic Tissues

1. Cells of this tissue have ability to divide.

2. Cytoplasm is dense nd nucleus is big in these cells.

3. Vacuoles are smaller if present other wise absent.

4. All cells are identical.

5. There are no intercellular spaces.

6. Their walls are thin and nucleus is present in centre of cell.

7. These tissues found on apex of root or shoot are called apical meristems. The cells of these tissues
divide; and redivide to add primary tissue for elongation of setm or root.

This type of growth is called primary growth.

8. Meristematic cells are also found on the lateral sides of roots and stems as lateral(cambium) or
intercalary meristem, and these add, secondary tissues. In this way, thickness of stem or root is
increased. This type of growth is called secondary growth.

ii. Permanent Tissues

The cells of this tissue lack the ability to divide and they originate from meristems. These are given
below:

a. Epidermal Tissues
b. Ground Tissues

(a) Epidermal Tissues

1. They are found as the outermost covering of leaf, stem or root.

2. There are non intercellular spaces.

3. Cells are rectangular in shape.

4. In the epidermal tissues of stem and leaves, there are small openings called stomata for gaseous
exchange.

(b) Ground Tissues

1. Most of the portion of body of herbaceous plants consists of ground tissues i.e. parenchyma.

2. They are thin walled.

3. Cells are large in size.

4. Cells sometimes may develop the ability to divide.

5. Their main functions are to prepare and store food and water.

Supporting or Mechanical Tissues

These provide strength flexibility to the plant. They are of following two types:

a. Collenchyma Tissues

b. Sclerenchyma Tissues

(a) Collenchyma Tissues

1. These consist of living cells.

2. Their walls are not uniformly thickened.

3. Usually walls are thickened at angles.

4. These are more flexible or elastic than sclerenchyma.

5. These tissues are found in stem, in midrib of leaves and in cortex of petiole.

(b) Sclerenchyma Tissues

1. These consist of dead cells.

2. Their walls are highly thickened due to deposition of lignin.

3. Lignin provides hardness and strength to the cell.

4. These cells are without protoplasm.

5. Sclerenchyma cells are of two types,

• Stone cells having uniformly thick cell walls; found in testa of seeds.

• Fibrous cells which are elongated cells found in xylem and phloem for strength and transport of water

2. Compound Tissues

These are the tissues which consists of two or more than two types of cells. But all cells perform a
common function.

These Tissues are of following types:

Xylem Tissue

1. This vascular tissue transports water in the plants and provides strength to the plant.

2. In this tissue, there are present xylem parenchyma and two types of thick walled dead cells.

Long cells which are called vessel elements or cells. They are joined together to form long pipe-lines.
These transport water from roots to leaves.

Spindle shaped cells, which are called tracheicts. These provide strength to root and shoot etc.

3. Xylem conducts water in one direction that is from roots towards the stem and leaves.

Phloem Tissues

1. This vascular tissue transports food in the plants.

2. It helps in two directional conduction of food material i.e. from leaves to roots and vice-versa.

3. This tissue mostly consists of living cells. There are three types of cells

(a) Phloem Parenchyma

(b) Sieve Tube Cells

(c) Companion Cells

(a) Phloem Parenchymal structure or function.

These cells store surplus water and food. They can start to divide when needed.

(b) Sieve Tube Cells

Their end walls have small pores called sieve plates. These cells join to form long pipelines, which are
called sieve tubes. There is no nucleus in these cells. Their main function is to transport food.

(c) Companion Cells

In some plants, each sieve tube cell is accompanied by a companion cell. The companion cell has a
nucleus. The corn cell controls the movement of food through sieve tubes.

Animal Tissues

Following are four types of tissues that are found in animals:

1. Epithelial Tissues

2. Connective Tissues

3. Muscle Tissues

4. Nerve Tissues

1. Epithelial Tissues

1. these are found as outer most layers of an organ or as lining of body invaginations.

2. Their cells are long and flat.

3. These may form one or more layers of epithelial tissues of skin which is called squamous epithelial
cells.

4. Squamous Epithelium provides protection to skin.

5. Some cells are cubical in shape and known as cuboidal epithelial cells.

6. Cuboidal epithelial cells from the lining of glandular ducts and help in the production of cell
secretions.

7. Some cells are small and elongated which are found at certain places in the inner lining of different
organs and secret juice. These are called columnar epithelial cells e.g. cells of gastric glands in stomach
which secrete the gastric juice.

8. Some columnar cells have cilia at their free surface. These are called ciliated columnar epithelial cells
e.g. cells present in trachea. Due to movement of these cilia, mucous and other materials are expelled.

2. Connective Tissues

1. This tissue is made up of semi fluid matrix.

2. These matrixes contain a variety of cells and fibers.

3. These tissues provide support to different body parts and bind them together. These also protect the
organs from germs and help in the production of blood cells.

4. These are of two types:

Soft connective tissues e.g. fatty tissues and tendons.

Hard connective tissues e.g. cartilage and bone.

5. Blood is also a special connective tissue with cells suspended in the fluid medium. It transports
materials in the body.

2. Muscular Tissues

1. This tissue is made up of special contractile cells or fibers.

2. The cells are elongated and are called muscle fibers.

3. These cells have the ability to contract and relax which results in movements of body and the organs.

4. Following are the three types of muscles in our body.

Skeletal Muscles

These are attached to cartilage and bones. These seem to be striped fibers under the microscope.
Therefore these are striped or striated muscles. Their movements are under our control so these are
voluntary muscles e.g. muscles of arm and legs which move these parts.

Smooth Muscles

These are found around hollow organs such as blood vessels, gut. These produce slow, sustained
contractions but do not fatigue. These re composed of spindle shaped unstriated muscles. These are
involuntary and are under the control of the autonomic nervous system.

Cardiac Muscles

These are found in the heart. These are composed of branched fibers and are capable of sustained
contraction but do not not fatigue. These are also involuntary in action.

4. Nervous Tissues

1. These are composed of nerve cells which are called neurons.

2. Each neuron consists of a cell body, axon and dendrites.

3. These productive nerve impulse to conduct messages.

4. By this tissue, different body parts have coordination with each other.
5. This tissue also forms brain and spinal cord.

Diffusion
Diffusion:

The movement of molecules or ions from higher concentration to lower concentration is known as
diffusion. Water, CO2, O2 and some other simple molecules diffuse across the cell membrane. Diffusion
is slow process, yet it is enough to meet the needs of plants.

Examples of diffusion:

i) Take a crystal of KMnO4 and drop it in bowl of water. Initially, colour will remain at its initial
area. After some time its molecules diffuses in whole water.

ii) When we open a perfume bottle in a corner of room, its fragrance is strongest in particular area,
and then it spread in the room by diffusion.

Efficiency of diffusion depends upon following factors:

i) distance

ii) greater concentration gradient difference. Temperature and Pressure also affect the rate of
diffusion.

Diffusion of gases is more than liquids and solids.

Diffusion that takes place with the help of carrier proteins is called facilitated diffusion. It is also without
the expenditure of energy. Diffusion plays an important role in transportation of materials.

Active Transport:

Sometimes movement of molecules takes place against the concentration, i.e. from lower concentration
to higher concentration. This type of movement needs expenditure of energy. This is called active
transport.
Osmosis:

A membrane which allows some substances to pass through it but prevent other is called selectively
permeable membrane or differentially permeable membrane

The movement of water molecules from higher concentration to lower concentration through
selectively permeable membrane is called osmosis.

Turgor:

• When plant cell is in water then water tends to move into the cell and enters into the vacuole. It
exerts pressure on the walls of vacuole and pushes cell content against the wall. This pressure is called
turgor.

• The cell wall prevents the surplus water into the cell with opposing force. In this state cell is
called turgid.

• When whole cells are turgid, plants becomes rigid, stiff and upright. In this state cell is called
flaccid.

• Flaccid results in the limping of leaves and drooping of stem of plants called

wilting.

Importance of Turgor is:

i) It maintains the shape of soft tissues

ii) It helps in movement of certain plant parts. For example opening and closing of stomata.

iii) It helps in opening of flowers.

iv) Turgor causes the cell walls to expand and the cells to enlarge in size.

v) It helps to keep the leaves and stems of young plants upright.

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Viruses

1. Virus is a Latin word which means “Poison”. Viruses are so small that they can only be seen with
electron microscope.

2. Viruses have charcteristics of both living and non-living things.

3. Structurally they are not like, cell and are only made up of proteins and nucleic acids.

4. When they enter the body of any living organisms, they reproduce there like living organism.

5. They look like non-living crystals when they are out of the body of a living organism.

6. That is why they are placed between living and non-living things.

7. All viruses are parasites and cause different diseases in their hosts.

8. Viruses were discovered by Iwanowsky in 1892 from infected tobacco leaves. In 1935 W.M. Stanley
isolated viruses in crystalline form from infected leaves of tobacco and observed them under electron
microscope.

Size of Virus

Viruses are of different sizes. Their size varies from 0.01um to 0.03um(um is micrometer = 1/10,00,000
meter)

Shape of Virus

Viruses are of different shapes some are rounded, few are rod shaped, few polyhedral while some
viruses look like tadpoles.

Structure of Virus

Viruses have same biochemical nature. In spite of their different shapes, they are made up of only two
parts, an outer “coat”, and an inner “core”. The core is made up of DNA or RNA (never both) and the
coat is made of protein. The outer protein coat determines the shape of viruses. e.g. in bacteriophage
(virus that lives in bacteria) protein coat consists of two parts, head and tail. DNA is present in the head
region but the tail has only protein. Most of the animal viruses contain DNA whereas plant viruses have
RNA core bacteriophage is also called phage virus.

Viral Diseases in Plants

Ring spot in different plants, yellow in sugar beet and mosaic disease in tobacco, potato, tomato, bean
and cabbage are the various diseases of plants, caused by viruses.
Viral Diseases in Animals

Mouth and foot disease in cattle and cowpox in horses, buffalo and cows are caused by viruses.

Viral Diseases in Humans

In human beings, viruses produce common cold, influenza, small pox, yellow fever, polio, infectious
hepatitis, cancer and AIDS.

Ways of Viral Transmission

1. Through droplets produced during coughing and sneezing.

2. Through contact.

3. By air, contaminated water and food.

4. Through insects.

5. By reuse of already used syringes.

6. By un-sterilized surgery equipments

Difference between Prokaryotic Cell and Eukaryotic Cell

Difference between Prokaryotic Cell and Eukaryotic Cell

Prokaryotic Cell

• The organisms made of prokaryotic cells are called prokaryotes e.g. bacteria and cyanobacteria.

• These cells lack a membrane bound nucleus. The hereditary material (DNA) is found in cytoplasm.

• These cells lack membrane bound organelles.

• Ribosomes are of small size in and freely scattered cytoplasm.

• Cellulose is absent in cell wall, rather it is made up of peptido-glycan or murein.

• These cells are simple and of smaller size (average diameter 0.5 – 10 nm)

Eukaryotic Cell

• The organisms mae of Eukaryotic cells are called Eukaryotes, e.g. animals, plants fungi and protists.

• These cells have a membrane bound nucleus; and hereditary material is found inside the nucleus.

• These cells have membrane bound organelles.

• Ribosomes are of large size and are present in endoplasmic reticulum free in cytoplasm.
• Cellulose is present in cell wall of plant cells. The cell wall of most of fungi is composed of chitin.

• These cells are complex and of larger size (Average diameter 10-100nm)

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UNIT 8 Food and digestion

Question: What do you mean by nutrition? Write the names of them?

The process by which organism obtains food and energy is called nutrition. And the substances needed
by organism to obtain energy are called nutrients. They are: -

i) Carbohydrates

ii) Protein

iii) Fats, Oil

iv) Vitamins

v) Minerals

vi) Water.

Question: What is the function of food?

All organism need food for energy. Food fulfills the needs of organisms in following ways:

i) Food provides substances, which are necessary for growth.

ii) Food produces energy.

iii) Food provides some substances, which are necessary in, synthesize our enzymes.

iv) Food provides some substances, which are necessary to repair the damaged tissues.

v) Food helps to complete all basic process including reproduction

Question: Write a note on components of human food?

The components of human food are: -

i) Carbohydrates

ii) Proteins
iii) Lipids

iv) Vitamins

v) Mineral Salts

vi) Water

Role of Water

Water

Water makes approximately 70% of the body tissues. It is an essential component of the protoplasm.
One can live without food for more than a week but a person can die within two to three days due to
lack of water.

Importance of Water

1. It plays an important role in digestion.

2. It helps in transport of digested food and other materials in dissolved form.

3. All the chemical reactions inside the cell take place in the presence of water.

4. It helps in excretion of urine, removal of faeces.

5. Enzymes become more active in solution form.

6. It keeps the blood thin and so that it can be easily circulated.

7. Water regulates the body temperature.

8. Its deficiency in tbe body causes dehydration, which can prove fatal.

9. Plants cannot photosynthesize without water.

10. The people living in hot and dry places need more water. By breathing, sweating and urination about
2-3 liters of water is lost per day.

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Digestion of Food

First of all food comes in the oral cavity where the teeth crush and break the food and convert it into
small particles. The tongue rolls the morsel of food and pushes it under teeth again and again so that the
food is evenly divided into fine particles and the saliva secreted from the salivary glands gets mixed with
the food. The. The saliva lubricates the food and makes the particles adhere to one another, forming a
ball of food called bolus. Now the chemical digestion of food begins. Saliva contains an enzyme to digest
starch in the food. The combined action of teeth, tongue and saliva pushes the bolus through the throat
into the oesophagus, and then it reaches the stomach.

Definition of Digestion

Digestion is the process in which the insoluble and non-diffusible components of food are broken down
and by the action of enzymes are converted into soluble and diffusible substance to be absorbed into
the blood stream.

Types of Digestion

1. Mechanical digestion

2. Chemical Digestion

1. Mechanical Digestion

In mechanical digestion, the food consisting of large sized particle is broken into fine pieces by cutting,
grinding, chewing and churning up, so that enzymes can act upon it efficiently and effectively.
Mechanical digestion of food takes place in the mouth and stomach.

2. Chemical Digestion

In chemical digestion, the digestive enzymes mix with the food and act upon it to break it down further
into simple and diffusible chemical forms. The enzymes act on carbohydrates, proteins and fats
separately. Chemical digestion takes place in all the major parts of the digestive system. The digestive
glands such as liver and pancreas also play very important role in this digestion.

Digestive System

All living things require food to live and carry on their life functions. Animals are unable to synthesize
their food.

Digestion is the process in which the non-diffusible molecules of food are changed to diffusible ones by
the action of enzymes. All the organs which take part in this process make a system which is called the
digestive system.

Human Digestive System

The process of digestion takes place in the alimentary canal. It starts from the mouth and ends at the
anus. The tube assumes different shapes according to their role in the process of digestion. It consists of
the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. Besides these organs liver and
pancreas, also play important roles in digestion.

Peristalsis
The muscles of alimentary canal produce rhythmic waves of contraction which is called peristalsis. Due
to this process, food is carried through various parts of the alimentary canal.

Ingestion

The food of animals and human is in the solid form and may be bulky. Taking in of the food in the oral
cavity and swallowing is called ingestion.

Digestion of Food in the Mouth

During mastication, the food is mixed thorougly with the saliva while the food is in the oral cavity (buccal
cavity). The saliva is secreted by three pairs of salivary glands located in the buccal cavity. The saliva is
continuously secreted by the salivary glands in response to the presence of food in the buccal cavity.

Saliva is alkaline and contains an enzyme ptyalin. This enzyme converts starch into sugar (maltose). The
morsel of food after being chewed and thoroughly mixed with the saliva is called a bolus. It is rolled
down by the swallowing action into the oesophagus which conveys it to the stomach by the wave of
peristalsis. The end of stomach lined with oesophagus is called cardiac end.

Digestion of Food in the Stomach

Stomach is a thick sac like structure, in which food is stored for some time. Its wall is strong and
muscular. Its inner surface has numerous glands called gastric glands. These glands secrete a juice called
gastric juice. Human stomach secretes about one to two liters of this juice daily; Gastric juice contains
Hydrochloric acid and two enzymes, renin and pepsin. Hydrochlroic acid changes the medium of food to
acidic. This medium kills the bacteria that may be found in the food. the pepsin acts on proteins and
breaks them down into peptones. Renin helps to curdle milk in infants. There is no chemical action on
carbohydrates and fats present in food. the regular movements of the stomach churn up the food. the
food is changed into a thick fluid called chyme. When digestion in the stomach is complete, the distal
end of the stomach called the pyloric end relaxes, and allows a small amount of chyme to pass into the
first part of the small intestine. Food stays in stomach for about 2-3 or 3-4 hours.

Digestion of Food in the Small Intestine

Food from stomach enters the duodenum which is the first part of the small intestine. An alkaline
pancreatic juice from the pancreas and bile juice from the liver and poured into the duodenum by a
common duct. Both the juices contain bicarbonates which neutralize the acidic chyme and make. It
rather alkaline besides these juices other intestinal juices from the walls of the small intestine are also
poured. These entire juices act on food and help in digestion of food.

Liver

It is largest gland, in the body. Its colour is reddish brown. It lies just below the diaphragm on the right
side of the body under the ribs. It has five lobes, three on the right side and two on the left. The cells of
the liver secrete a greenish yellow alkaline fluid which is called the bile juice. It contains bile salts and
bile pigments which give greenish yellow colour to the juice. Bile contains no digestive enzymes, but it
does contain bile salts which break down the large molecules of fats to small fat droplets. This process is
called emulsification. This process helps in the digestion of fats. Bile juice also contains bile pigments
that are by products of red blood cells, these pigments are eliminated from the body along with the
faeces, and the colour of faeces is due to these pigments. Besides this, bile juice also kill the germs in the
food.

Functions of Liver

1. Liver stores glycogen and regulates the level of glucose in the blood.

2. It breaks down excess amino acids. this process is called deamination.

3. It is involved in detoxification.

4. It produces and secretes bile juice which is stored in the gall bladder.

5. It metabolizes carbohydrates, fats, proteins and other compounds.

6. As a result of chemical changes a lot of heat is produced, therefore liver helps to keep the body warm.

7. It makes fibrinogen and other blood proteins.

8. It decomposes the damaged red blood cells.

Pancreas

It is a leaf like organ. It lies below the stomach and between the two arms of duodenum. The pancreas
produces a juice which is called the pancreatic juice. This juice flows down the pancreatic duct into the
duodenum. It contains three enzymes.

1. Pancreatic amylase which acts on undigested starches of the food and converts them into maltose.

2. Enzyme trypsin which breaks down proteins into peptides.

3. Lipase which splits fats into fatty acids and glycerol.

If any of the constituents of food still remain undigested, enzymes secreted by the glands in the small
intestine act upon them and complete the digestion by converting peptides to amino acids, maltose and
other sugars to glucose and fats to fatty acids and glycerol.

The enzymes secreted by the intestinal walls are amino-peptidases and disaccharidase,(which form
glucose from maltose, lactose and sucrose). In this way food is completely digested at intestine.
Question: What do you mean by digestion. What are its types?

The Process by which insoluble and non-diffusible components of food are broken down and converted
into soluble and diffusible components by the action of enzymes. It has two types: -
Mechanical digestion: -

In this process food is broken down by cutting, grinding, chewing and churning up so that enzymes can
act on it.

Chemical digestion: -

In this process digestive enzymes mix with food and act on it to breakdown the food into simpler,
soluble and diffusible components.

Question: Write a note on enzymes and its characteristics?

Enzymes are chemical components and protein in nature. They are made by living cells. They are not
consumed in reaction but they act as catalyst. They only speed up the chemical reaction.

Types of Enzymes: -

i) Some enzymes work within the cell and are called inter cellular enzymes.

ii) Some enzymes work within as well as out of the cell and are called extra cellular enzymes.

Characteristics: -

i) All enzymes are protein in nature.

ii) They can by destroyed by heating.

iii) They act best in narrow temperature range.

iv) The act best in narrow range of acidity and alkalinity.

v) A particular enzyme forms the same end product.

Question: What do you mean by ingestion?

Ingestion means taking in food in the oral cavity.

Question: Describe the process of digestion in mouth?

i) Food is mixed with saliva while it is in buccal cavity.

ii) Saliva is secreted by three pairs of glands located in buccal cavity.

iii) Saliva is alkaline. It contains an enzyme ptyalin, which convert starchy food into sugar.

iv) The food when chewed and mixed with saliva is called bolus.

v) This bolus then pushed to stomach through oesophagus

Question: Describe the role of stomach in digestion of food?

i) Stomach is thick muscular organ.

ii) Its inner surface has gastric glands which secret a juice called gastric juice.

iii) Human stomach secret about 1-2 liter juice daily.

iv) Gastric juice has HCl and two enzymes rennin and pepsin.

v) HCl kill the bacteria present in food.

vi) Pepsin acts on protein and break down them into peptones.

vii) Renin helps to curdle milk in infants.

viii) Regular movement of stomach churn up the food with gastric juice and changed it into thick
liquid called chyme.

ix) Then this chyme is pushed to small intestine.

Enzymes UNIT 6
>>Question: Define metabolism and its types?

The sum of all chemical reactions taking place in an organism is called metabolism. There are two types
of metabolism.

Catabolism: -

Metabolism in which complex organic molecules are broken down into simpler compounds is called
catabolism.

Anabolism: -

Metabolism in which complex organic molecules are synthesized from simpler compounds is called
anabolism.

Definition of Enzymes

Enzymes are chemical compounds. They are protein in nature. They are formed in living cells. They are
not consumed in a reaction but act as a catalyst as they only speed up the chemical reactions.

Types of Enzymes
There are two types of enzymes:

1. Intracellular Enzymes

2. Extracellular Enzymes

1. Intracellular Enzymes

They work within a cell, in which they are produced.

2. Extracellular Enzymes

Some enzymes are secreted out of the cells where they work. They are called extracellular enzyme.
Bacteria and fungi secrete such extra cellular enzymes into the medium in which they are growing. The
higher organisms secrete extracellular enzymes into the lumen of alimentary canal to act on the food.

The enzymes acting on the starch are known as Amylases; those acting on proteins are known as
Proteinases, while those acting on fats are known as Lipases.

Characteristics of Enzymes

The characteristics of enzymes are as follows:

1. All enzymes are protein in nature; they can be destroyed by heating.

2. They act best within a narrow, temperature range.

3. They work efficiently in narrow range of acidity or alkalinity.

4. A particular enzyme forms the same end-product, because it acts on a particular/specific substrate.

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UNIT 7
Light and Dark Reactions

Light Reactions

When light falls on the leaves, it is absorbed by chlorophyll. The solar energy is used to split water into
oxygen and hydrogen and this is called photolysis (photo means light and lysis means to break). The
oxygen is released into the atmosphere as by-product of photosynthesis. As this process takes place only
in the presence of light, it is called light reaction.
During light reaction, two compounds are formed when the solar energy is converted into chemical
energy these are:

1. NADPH (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate)

2. ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

NADP, already exists in the cells of the leaf. The hydrogen released on the splitting of water molecule is
accepted by this compound and it is reduced to NADPH.

ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate) is already present in the cell; it combines with the phosphate group using
light energy to form a compound called ATP.

These compounds are energy rich compounds which are needed for the dark reactions of the process.
Light reaction is called high dependent reaction.

(Diagram)

Dark Reactions

Using the energy of ATP and the NADPH, water combines with carbon dioxide to form carbohydrate.
Thus the solar energy is now converted into chemical energy to form glucose. Other organic compounds
are also synthesized from this glucose.

This stage is completed in a series of chemical reactions with the help of enzymes. Neither light energy
nor chlorophyll is needed for dark reactions. Therefore dark reaction is also called light independent
reaction.

Various steps of the dark reactions were studied by a scientist called Melvin Calvin so the dark reaction
is also called the Calvin’s Cycle.

Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is a Latin word derived from two words photo (light) synthesis (building up). In this
process, green plants manufacture carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water. The energy needed
for this process is obtained from sunlight, which is absorbed by chlorophyll and oxygen is produced as
by-product. Leaves are the major sites of photosynthesis in most plants but all green parts of a plant
including green stems; un-ripened fruit can carry out photosynthesis. Temperature also plays a very
important role in photosynthesis. Temperature affects the rate of photosynthesis. This process occurs
during day time only.

Conditions and Factors Necessary for Photosynthesis

Water
Plants need water for many functions of life. Water enters the root hair from the soil. It passes through
various cells and reaches the xylem of the root. From here it moves to the stem and then the veins of
the leaves. Finally, it reaches the mesophyll cells in the leaves. It provides hydrogen for the synthesis of
glucose and helps in opening and closing of stomata. If leaves get less water, less stomata open, this
reduces the rate of photosynthesis. Opening of more stomata provide more carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis.

Carbon Dioxide

This is an important factor which affects photosynthesis. The amount of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere is about 0.03% and does not vary much. Its amount differs from place to place which may
affect the rate of photosynthesis. e.g. the concentration of carbon dioxide close to the ground in a dense
forest is higher than in an open field. Although carbon dioxide is needed in very little amount by the
plants, yet photosynthesis cannot take place without it. It diffuses from the air into the intercellular
spaces through stomata and enters the chloroplasts in the mesophyll cells. Carbon dioxide provides
carbon to build up glucose molecule. If the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases to 1%
rate of photosynthesis also increases, and it starts decreasing if concentration of carbon dioxide is
decreased. If the concentration of carbon dioxide decreases below 0.03% the rate of photosynthesis also
declines.

Chlorophyll

It is the green substance. It is found in special organelles called chloroplasts, which are found in the
green leaves and herbaceous stems. In leaves, it is present in the mesophyll cells. Chlorophyll changes
light energy into chemical energy and makes food in plants. Plants lacking chlorophyll cannot carry out
photosynthesis occurs only in those parts where chlorophyll is present.

Sunlight

Light is very important for the process of photosynthesis. Without light the photosynthesis cannot take
place. It provides energy needed for the synthesis of glucose molecule. Light intensity varies from day to
day and from place to place. Plants photosynthesize faster on a bright sunny day than on a cloudy day.
While light consists of seven colours. The blue and red are best for photosynthesis.

Question: Define Respiration? Also describe its significance?

The organism requires energy to perform their activities. This energy is obtained by metabolizing the
food that they eat. This process is called respiration.

Significance: -

The energy is utilized during life activities. No organism can perform these activities without energy.
Hence if there is no respiration there will be no energy and no life. Therefore for survival and to perform
these activities respiration if very necessary.
Question: What is ATP? Write its uses?

ATP means Adenosine tri-phosphate. Its uses are as under: -

i) It is used in synthesis of various compounds like carbohydrates, fats and proteins etc.

ii) It is used in carrying out any physical work like muscle contraction. Question: What are the
different methods of respiration in the organism? There are two types of methods of respiration: -

Anaerobic respiration: -

Some organisms oxidize their food without using any molecular oxygen. This is known as anaerobic
respiration. In this process less energy is produced. It is also called fermentation.

Aerobic respiration: -

In higher organisms energy is produced using molecular oxygen. This is known as aerobic respiration. In
this method large quantity of energy is produced.

Question: Write a note on aerobic respiration?

In higher organisms energy is produced using molecular oxygen. This is known as aerobic respiration. In
this method large quantity of energy is produced.

There are two stages of aerobic respiration: -

External Respiration: -

In this stage organism take the air (oxygen) into their bodies. And this oxygen reaches to all cells of the
body.

Internal Respiration: -

In this stage oxidation of glucose, amino acids and fatty acids occurs. This respiration is also known as
cellular respiration. It occurs within the cell.

Question: Write a note on ATP?

ATP is abbreviation of adenosine tri-phosphate.

Composition: -

It is made up of three-phosphate group. Adenosine is formed of nitrogenous base (adenine) and sugar
(ribose). In ATP three-phosphate group are attached in series.

Importance:
The bond between phosphate groups contain a large large amount of chemical energy. When these
bonds are broken down a large amount of energy is released which is used in different activities of
organism.

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Unit 5 Cell cycle

Meiosis

Meiosis

It is that type of cell division in which cytoplasm and nucleus divides twice and as a result of this, four
daughter cells are formed and chromosome number is reduced to half. It means that one diploid (2n)
parent cell divides to form four haploid (n) daughter cells.

Meiosis consists of two sub divisions:

1. Meiosis I

2. Meiosis II

1. Meiosis I

It has following stages:

Prophase I

1. It is lengthy than prophase of mitosis. It is very important phase. It is divided into five stages during
which there is continuous condensation of chromosomes.

2. The important process of this phase is synapsis in which homologous chromosomes pair with each
other length wise.

3. Each pair consists of four chromatids or two chromosomes.

4. After synapsis, the process of crossing over takes place. In this, homologous chromosomes exchange
their chromatids parts at certain places.

5. At end of this phase, nuclear membrane breaks up. Nucleolus disappears and chromosomes scatter
over the spindle.

6. Like mitosis, mitotic apparatus is also formed here.

Metaphase I

1. The chromosomes arrange on scatter of the spindle.

2. Here, homologous bivalents arrange at equatorial plate of spindle.

3. Only one spindle fiber is attached to each chromosome.

Anaphase I

1. Homologous pairs of chromosomes are separated.

2. Spindle fibers contract.

3. Chromosomes begin to move towards the opposite poles.

4. This phase is different from metaphase of mitosis because half the number of chromosomes moves
towards each pole and each chromosome still has two chromatids.

Telephase I

1. Half the number of chromosomes reach at opposite poles.

2. Chromosomes again increase their length.

3. Nucleolus reappears. Nuclear membrane is reformed and in this way two daughter nuclei are formed.

4. Now cytoplasm divides and two daughter cells are formed. Each cell is haploid (n).

2. Meiosis II

It is similar to mitosis. The haploid cells formed in meiosis I pass through phases of meiosis II and
ultimately four haploid (n) daughter cells are formed. These cells afterwards change into spores (in
plants or gametes (animals)

Significance of Meiosis

1. Meiosis takes place only in germ mother cells which form gametes or spores.

2. It maintains the chromosome number of a species constant generation after generation.

3. If gametes had the same number of chromosomes as in somatic cells, the number of chromosomes
would have doubled after each generation in a species.

4. The number of chromosomes is constant for each species. During meiosis; gametes (both and) formed
are haploid.

5. Gametes unite to form a diploid zygote.

6. During meiosis, pairing of chromosomes takes place which is called synapsis.

7. Exchange of genetic material occurs during meiosis. In this way variations are produced which are raw
material for evolution

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Mitosis

Mitosis

It is that cell division in which the number of chromosomes in both daughter nuclei remains same as in
parent nucleus. A) Karyokinesis (Division of Nucleus)

B) Cytokinesis (Division of Cytoplasm)

A) Karyokinesis: -

It is the division of nucleus and has followings phases: -

Events of Mitosis

Mitosis has the following phases:

1. Prophase

2. Metaphase

3. Anaphase

4. Telephase

5. Cytokinesis

Prophase

1. In this phase, coiling of chromosomes starts and their length decreases but diameter increases. It
means that chromosomes become shorter and thicker, this process is called condensation.

2. Microtubules arrange to form a structure called spindle.

3. In animal cell, there are also present centrioles on both poles of spindle. From each centriole, small
microtubules or fiber arise forming a star shaped aster.
4. Spindle fibers, centrioles and aster collectively form mitotic apparatus. In plants, this apparatus is
made up of only spindle fibers as asters are absent in these cells.

5. Nuclear membrane is broken down. Nucleolus disappears and chromosomes scatter over the spindle
fiber.

6. Each chromosome consists of two similar threads like structure called chromatids, these chromatids
are united to each other by means of centromere.

Metaphase

1. The chromosomes arrange themselves on equator of the spindle to form an equatorial plate. In this
condition, chromosomes become more visible.

2. The chromosomes are attached at their centromere to one spindle fiber from each pole.

Anaphase

1. First of all spindle fibers shrink and become short.

2. The centromere of each chromosome then divides and the two chromatids of each chromosome start
separating. At this stage these are not called chromatids because these are no in united condition these
are called chromosomes.

3. These chromosomes start moving slowly towards the opposite poles. In this way, one set of
chromosomes moves towrds one pole while other towards the other pole.

Telophase

1. The chromosomes reach their poles.

2. The chromosomes uncoil and become less visible.

3. Nuclear membrane reforms and nucleolus appears too. Therefore two nuclei are formed. Each
daughter nucleus has the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell.

Cytokinesis

The division of cytoplasm is called cytokinesis. It begins at the last stages of nuclear division. In plant cell,
cytoplasm divides by formation of cell plate which is also called phragmoplast. It gradually extends
outward and finally two daughter cells are separated.

In animals, cytoplasm divides by furrowing. During this, there occurs inward pinching of cell membrane
resulting into two daughter cells. In mitosis, two daughter cells are formed from one parent cell which
are identical to their parent cell.

Significance of Mitosis
1. Mitosis occurs in all types of somatic cells.

2. Daughter cells formed as a result of mitosis have same number of chromosomes as that of parent cell.
In this way, all cells of body of an organism have same number of chromosomes.

3. Zygote divides by mitosis to form embryo and after hatching or birth, mitosis continues up to maturity
of an individual.

4. Mitosis also results in growth and repairing of damaged or worn out tissues.

5. Healing of wounds is also due to mitosis

UNIT 9 Circulatory system

>>Question: What is importance of transport system?

i) Transport system brings the transporting material close to tissues so that diffusion can occur

ii) It maintains a link between all cells.

iii) It transports materials to the places where they are to be used.

iv) It helps to remove wastes from cell.

v) It transports surplus substances.

>>Question: How transport of water and salts takes place in plants?

Plants have two types of vascular tissues called xylem and phloem. Xylem transport water and minerals
from roots to leaves. Most the gymnosperms lack these vessels and they have tracheids. Each tracheid is
an elongated, dead cell with lignified walls, and intact end walls.

Water travels upward through two paths: -

i) Along the cell wall.

ii) Through the cells.

Uptake of water and minerals by Root:

• First of all root hairs absorbs water and minerals from soil.

• Water from soil, move towards root through osmosis.

• The entry of water into the root hairs dilutes its sap.

• Now sap of root hair is more than next cell. So water from hairs move into the root cells.

• The water from the epidermal cells then passes into the xylem vessel and ascends up the stem.

• This upward movement of water and salts is called ascent of sap.

>>Question: Define and explain the transpiration, its factors and importance?

• The loss of water in the form of vapour from aerial parts of the plants, especially through
stomata is called transpiration.

• Potometer is used to measure the rate of transpiration.

• The difference of osmotic pressure is present between lower and upper parts of a plant. This
difference produces a pull or tension, which pull the water form high pressure to lower pressure. This
pull or suction force is produced in xylem tissue and is called transpiration pull.

• Due to transpiration pull of water molecules, water moves up in xylem as an unbroken channel
called transpiration stream.

Factors affecting the transpiration:

Temperature: -

i) High temperature increases the rate of transpiration.

ii) Low temperature decreases the rate of transpiration.

Humidity: -

i) In dry conditions or low humidity the rate of transpiration increases.

ii) In wet conditions or high humidity the rate of transpiration decreases.

Light: -
i) In day time, in presence of light stomata remains open. They cause increase in rate of
transpiration.

ii) In night time, in darkness stomata remain closed. They cause decrease in rate of transpiration.

Atmospheric Pressure: -

i) Low atmospheric pressure increases the rate of transpiration.

ii) High atmospheric pressure decreases the rate of transpiration.

:Importance of transpiration:

• Transpiration is very important in the plant life as it provides the forces to pull the sap up in the
xylem vessels form root to the leaves.

• Transpiration also keeps the cell surface moist to facilitate the exchange of gases in dissolved
state.

• Tiny openings present on the lower side of leaves are called stomata. Each stoma

is surrounded by sausage shaped cells called guard cells.

i) Stomata remain open when guard cells are turgid.

ii) Stomata remain close when the guard cells loose their turgidity.

>>Question: Define the circulatory system of animals. What are its main types?

It is system by which materials are transported within the body in a fluid which circulates in the body. In
many vertebrates this fluid is called hemolymph, while in all vertebrates and in some higher
invertebrates this fluid is called blood. There are two types of circulatory system: -

Open Circulatory System: -

• In this type blood is pumped through heart in open spaces called sinuses.

• The blood is in direct contact with tissues and after exchange of materials it returns back to
heart.

Closed Circulatory System: -

• In this type muscular heart is present with its incoming (veins) and out going (arteries) vessels.
The blood remains confined to the blood vessels during circulation.
• It is elaborated, complicated and efficient system.

>>Question: Explain the Human circulatory system with diagrams.

Human circulatory system consists of following components:

i) Heart

ii) Blood Vessels (Arteries, Veins and Capillaries)

iii) Blood

1- Heart:-

Structure of Heart: -

i) Human heart is muscular contractile organ.

ii) Human heart is located in between the two lungs, beneath the chest bone.

iii) Heart is protected by ribs.

iv) Moreover heart is enclosed in tough, fibrous and extensible membrane called

pericardium. Its functions are as under:

a. It acts as shock absorber.

b. It protects the heart from friction.

c. It prevents the over flow of blood.

d. It keeps the heart moist.

v) Heart muscles are called cardiac muscles.

vi) Heart consists of four chambers.

a. Two upper atria (Single Atrium).

b. Two lower ventricles.

Function of Heart: -
i) Atria are thin walled independent chambers. They receive blood.

ii) Right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from all parts of the body and left atrium receives
oxygenated blood from lungs.

iii) Ventricles are thick walled chambers. They pump blood.

iv) Right ventricle pump deoxygenated blood to lungs and left ventricle pump blood to all parts of
body through aorta.

v) Valves are present between atria and ventricles which prevents

the

backward flow of blood.

vi) The right atrio-ventricular valve consists of three tissues and called tricuspid valve.

vii) The left atrio-ventricular valve consists of two tissues and called bicuspid valve.

viii) The alternating contraction and relaxation of the heart chambers is called the

cardiac cycle.

ix) The period of ventricular contraction is called systole and their relaxation is called diastole.

Pulmonary circulation: -

In this process right atrium receives deoxygenated blood form all parts of body and send it right
ventricle. Right ventricle sends this blood to lungs. This circulation is called pulmonary circulation.

Systemic circulation: -

In this process left ventricle receives oxygenated blood from lungs and send it to left atrium which sends
this blood to all parts of the body. This circulation is called systemic circulation.

*** Read detail of systemic circulation from book

The oxygenated blood is supplied to heart itself through a pair of coronary arteries. They arise from
aorta.

2- Blood Vessels: -
Blood vessels consists of Arteries, Capillaries and Veins.

Arteries:

i) The vessels that carry blood from heart to all parts of the body are called arteries.

ii) They are made up of three layers.

a. Innermost layer is called endothelium.

b. Middle layer is made up of smooth muscles and elastic tissues.

c. Outer layer is made up of collagen fibers and other supporting tissues.

iii) Because of elastic walls, the arteries stretched when blood enters and then recoil slowly. It is
called pulse.

iii) They withstand the high blood pressure and maintain the flow of blood.

Capillaries: -

i) Arteries on reaching to different body parts divides into very small vessels called capillaries.

ii) They are very thin walled. They consist of single celled layer.

iii) They are so narrow that only one RBC can move in line.

iv) Gases, hormones, and other wastes are exchanged by simple diffusion.

v) They join to form veins.

Veins: -

i) The vessels that bring blood from all parts of body to heart carrying blood back to the heart
from all parts of body are called veins.

ii) They are less elastic.

iii) Valves are p present in veins which prevent the backflow of blood.

3- Blood:

Higher multicellular organisms have a reddish fluid for transport of materials through circulatory system
called blood. In a healthy person blood is approximately 8% of body weight. A normal adult has 6-7 liters
of blood.

Functions of blood:

i) It helps to transport materials in all the body.

ii) It transports oxygen from lungs to all body cells.

iii) It bring back CO2 from all body cells to lungs.

iv) It brings all wastes from body to kidney for their removal.

v) Blood carries hormones from glands to all body parts.

vi) Beside transport blood also has protective function e.g. blood clotting and phagocytosis of
germs.

Composition of blood:

Blood is composed of: -

Plasma: -

Plasma is complex fluid. It is 55% of whole blood. It consists of water, soluble proteins, glucose, amino
acids, lipids and enzymes etc.

Blood Cells: -

Blood cells are of three types

i) Erythrocytes (Red blood corpuscles)

ii) Leucocytes (White blood corpuscles)

iii) Thrombocytes (Platelets)

Properties of Erythrocytes or RBC:

i) There are 5 million RBC in 1mm3

ii) They are produced in long bones, ribs and sternum.

iii) In mature mammals RBC loose their nucleus.

iv) They are biconcave and disc shaped.

v) They carry oxygen and other material. They also bring CO2 from all parts of the body back to
lungs.

vi) They live for 90-120 days. Properties of Leucocytes or WBC:

i) There are 5000-7000 WBC in 1mm3.

ii) They are produced in bone marrow, thymus gland and lymph nodes.

iii) They have nucleus.

iv) They are irregular in shape and colourless. They are of several types.

i) They defend the body by destroying bacteria and producing antibodies.

ii) They live for 6-7 days. Properties of Thrombocytes or Platelets:

i) There are 15,00,000 to 35,00,000 Platelets in 1cm3.

ii) In mammals they are not complete but in other vertebrates they are

complete cell.

iii) They have not nucleus.

i) They help to clot blood at the wounds and stop bleeding. Blood pressure:

• It is pressure per unit area exerted by blood.

• It is measured by a device called sphygmomanometer which has a column of mercury.

• It is measured from the artery of upper arm.

• The measurement of blood pressure indicate systolic and diastolic blood pressure.

• A normal systolic blood pressure should be 120mm of Hg and diastolic

blood pressure should be 80mm of Hg.

• Period of ventricular contraction is called systole and their relaxation is called diastole.

>>Question: What is tissue fluid? Describe its formation and significance?

When the capillaries reach closest to tissues of body, some fluid oozes out called

tissue fluid.

Formation: -

The fluid escapes from the gaps present in the walls of capillaries. These gaps are

not so large to allow the escape of RBC. Significance: -

i) Tissue fluid is medium through which exchange of materials occurs between cells and blood.

ii) Tissue fluid maintains a constant environment around the cells of body.

>>Question: Write a detailed note o lymphatic system?

Some colour-less liquid from tissue fluid enters the lymphatic vessels called lymph. The excess tissue
fluid is returned to blood through lymph capillaries. Lymph capillaries have valves which prevents the
back flow of lymph into the blood.

Functions: -

i) Lymphatic system serves as accessory drainage system of the body.

ii) It removes the excess fluid and dissolved substances that leak from blood capillaries.

iii) This system transport fats from intestine to blood stream.

iv) It also helps to defend the body against bacteria and viruses.

>>Question: Write a detailed note on heart attack?

Heart Attack is caused due to narrowing and thickening of arteries due to deposition of cholesterol,
fibrin and cellular debris.

Causes: -

i) Heart needs continuous energy and continuous supply of blood to work. If heart did not receive
required energy and blood the cardiac muscles die and person leads to heart attack.

ii) High level of cholesterol in blood can cause heart attack.

iii) Increased smoking and sedentary life style can cause heart attack.

iv) The blood clot in arteries can also cause heart attack.

Treatment: -

i) If sufficient supply of blood to heart is increased then it can recover the damage of heart tissues.

ii) Angina is a mild type of heart attack. In this disease person feels pain in

chest and left arm and shoulder.

iii) Heart attack can be avoided by doing exercise daily and with proper
dieting.

>>Question: Write a detailed note on Blood Transfusion?

i) Koral Landsteiner, a well known immunologist and pathologist started the method of blood
transfusion.

ii) He came to know why this process is successful or not.

iii) He found that in some RBC clumped together and in some

they are not.

iv) This provided an insight in the determination of blood groups.

v) Now a days blood transfusion is common medical practice.

>>Question: Write a note on blood group?

i) Although blood of all look alike but it is different chemically.

ii) This difference is present due to different substances present in Erythrocytes (RBC). These
chemical substances are called antigens.

iii) On the basis of antigens and antibodies human blood can be classified into A, B, AB, and O blood
groups. This is knows as ABO system of blood groups.

iv) Antigens are of two types A and B.

v) Persons with blood group O are called universal donors . They do not have any antigens A or B
so they can donate their blood to a person with any type of blood group.

vi) Persons with blood group AB are called universal recipient. They can receive each type of blood
because they can receive each type of blood.

vii) Blood groups can also be further divided into (+ve) or (–ev) groups on the basis of Rh System. Rh
System also affects on donors or recipient.

>>Question: Write a note on haemophilia?

i) It is also called King’s disease.

ii) It is genetic or hereditary disease.

iii) In this disease blood do not clot after wounds or blood flow.

iv) In this case it is difficult to stop flow of blood which may cause death.

>>Question: Write a note on Anaemia?

i) This is disease and can be defined as the deficiency of red blood cells

in the body.

ii) Its symptoms are yellowing of palate, weakness, dizziness, appearance of dark circles around the
eyes, thinning of blood, loss of appetite etc.

iii) It is caused due to deficiency of iron in blood which stops the production of RBC.

iv) It is also caused due to deficiency of some important nutrients like

Vitamin B12 and folic acid.

>>Question: How active transport is different from Diffusion?

In active transport movement of substances and materials take place against the concentration gradient
i.e. from lower to higher concentration. While in Diffusion molecules move from higher to lower
concentration.

>>Question: What is the difference between Plasma and Serum?

Plasma minus fibrinogen (blood clotting protein) is called serum.

>>Question: The people living in hilly area have more erythrocytes than the other people. Why?

In high altitude the oxygen is less than plains. So in order to meet out the oxygen requirements of the
body the number of erythrocytes becomes high.

>>Question: Why it is necessary to give the same group of blood to a patient if required?
Because if the antigens will not match of both the bloods, it will cause serious problem to the patient
and could even lead to death. Patient’s body will only accept the blood with same antigen as present in
his blood.

>>Question: Why the left ventricle has the strongest wall in human heart?

Left ventricle contracts more forcefully than the right one, as it has to push the blood to all around the
body, while right one has to push to blood just to lungs

Short questions answers

Question: What is Fluid Mosaic Model?

According to the this model the cell membrane consists of lilpid bilayer in which most protein molecules
float about while some stay embedded in the membrane.

Question: What is chemical composition of Chromosomes?

They are composed of DNA and Protein.

Question: What is selectively permeable membrane?

A membrane which controls the movement of materials passing through it is called a selectively
permeable membrane. It allows some but not all substances to pass through it.

Question: What is meant by Darwin’s, theory of Common Descent?

According to Darwin’s Theory of Common Descent, the organisms having common ancestory in the near
pass would resemble one another very closely, while those having more distant common ancestory
would show more differences. Question: what is the basic unit of classification?

The basic unit of classification is species.

Question: Define species?

A species can be diefined as a group of organisms that can breed wit one another in nature and produce
fertile offspring.

Question: What is each rank of classification called?

Each rank of classification is called a taxon (plural = taxa). Question: write down the taxa of classification
in sequence? Species > genus > family > order > class > phylum > kingdom.

Question: to which genus cat, lion and tiger belong?

All the above animals belong to genus Felis.

>>Question: In which kingdom bacteria and cyanobacteria are placed? Why?

Bacteria and cyanobacteria are prokaryotes and so are placed in kingdom Monera.

>>Question: What is meant by nucleoid?

A single large circular DNA molecule is present in the center of bacterial cell, surrounded by a clear zone
of cytoplasm. It is called an nucleoid

Question: What do you mean by autotrophes and heterotrophs?

i) Organism which can prepare their own food are called autotrophes e.g. plants.

ii) Organisms which cannot prepare their own food are called heterotrophs

e.g. animals and man.