Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Basic Principles of Flight PDF
Basic Principles of Flight PDF
By
SRINATH R
ASST. PROFESSOR
SIGNIFICANCE OF SPEED OF SOUND
Speed of sound
• The speed of sound in air depends only on the temperature of the air.
• As the air temperature in the atmosphere falls with height, the speed of sound
is reduced with height.
• The exact relationship between the speed of sound and temperature being
given by:
Speed of sound, a = { EMBED Equation.3 } m/s
= { EMBED Equation.3 } knots
where T is the absolute temperature of the atmosphere in K.
TYPICAL FIGURES FOR THE STANDARD
ATMOSPHERE ARE:
Mach number
The Mach Number (M) refers to the speed at which an aircraft is traveling in relation to the
speed of sound.
Thus a Mach Number of 0.5 means that the aircraft is traveling at half the speed of sound.
Both the speed of the aircraft and the speed of sound are true speeds.
Realms of Flight
The aerodynamic characteristics with which we must contend as we study the theory of
flight can be divided into three basic realms, or regimes, all based on Mach numbers.
If the airflow is subsonic, these pressure waves can all move away- ahead of the
wing, but when the critical Mach Number is reached and the speed becomes
sonic speed at some point on the wing, pressure waves move forward only as
far as this point and then “pick-up” to form a Shock Wave.
If the speed is increased further the shock wave starts to move towards the
trailing edge as the supersonic area above the wing grows larger. Another shock
wave will form below the wing and will also move towards the trailing edge.
BERNOULLI'S THEOREM
• Daniel Bernoulli, an eighteenth-century Swiss scientist, discovered that as
the velocity of a fluid increases, its pressure decreases.
• How and why does this work, and what does it have to do with aircraft in
flight?
• Bernoulli's principle can be seen most easily through the use of a venturi
tube
• The venturi will be discussed again in the unit on propulsion systems, since a
venturi is an extremely important part of a carburetor.
• A venturi tube is simply a tube which is narrower in the middle than it is at
the ends. When the fluid passing through the tube reaches the narrow part, it
speeds up. According to Bernoulli's principle, it then should exert less
pressure.
APPLICATION
• Bernoulli's principle states that within a steady airflow of constant energy,
when the air flows through a region of lower pressure it speeds up and vice
versa.
• Thus, there is a direct mathematical relationship between the pressure and the
speed, so if one knows the speed at all points within the airflow one can
calculate the pressure, and vice versa.
• For any airfoil generating lift, there must be a pressure imbalance, i.e. lower
average air pressure on the top than on the bottom.
• Bernoulli's principle states that this pressure difference must be
accompanied by a speed difference
• The streamlines divide the flow around the airfoil into stream tubes as
depicted by the spaces between the streamlines.
• By definition, fluid never crosses a streamline in a steady flow.
• Assuming that the air is incompressible, the rate of volume flow (e.g. liters
or gallons per minute) must be constant within each stream tube since matter
is not created or destroyed.
• If a stream tube becomes narrower, the flow speed must increase in the
narrower region to maintain the constant flow rate. This is an application of
the principle of conservation of mass
STREAM LINES
PRESSURE FORCE
• Pressure is the normal force per unit area exerted by the air on itself and on
surfaces that it touches.
• The lift force is transmitted through the pressure, which acts perpendicular
to the surface of the airfoil.
• The air maintains physical contact at all points.
• Thus, the net force manifests itself as pressure differences
• The direction of the net force implies that the average pressure on the upper
surface of the airfoil is lower than the average pressure on the underside.
• These pressure differences arise in conjunction with the curved air flow.
• Whenever a fluid follows a curved path, there is a pressure gradient
perpendicular to the flow direction with higher pressure on the outside of the
curve and lower pressure on the inside
AIRFOIL
The lift force depends on the shape of the airfoil, especially the amount of camber
curvature such that the upper surface is more convex than the lower surface,
Increasing the camber generally increases lift.
Cambered airfoils will generate lift at zero angle of attack.
When the chord line is horizontal, the trailing edge has a downward direction and
since the air follows the trailing edge it is deflected downward.
When a cambered airfoil is upside down, the angle of attack can be adjusted so that
the lift force is upwards.
This explains how a plane can fly upside down.
The wings of birds and most subsonic aircraft have spans much larger than their
chords.
Most of the discussion in this article concentrates on two-dimensional airfoil flow.
However, the flow around a three-dimensional wing involves significant additional
issues, and these are discussed below under Lift of three dimensional wings.
For a wing of low aspect ratio, such as a delta wing two-dimensional airfoil flow is
not relevant, and three-dimensional flow effects dominate.
AIRFOIL AND LIFT
• The airfoil shape and angle of attack work together so that the airfoil exerts a downward force on
the air as it flows past.
• According to Newton's third law, the air must then exert an equal and opposite (upward) force on
the airfoil, which is the lift.
• The force is exerted by the air as a pressure difference on the airfoil's surfaces
• Pressure in a fluid is always positive in an absolute sense, so that pressure must always be
thought of as pushing, and never as pulling.
• The pressure thus pushes inward on the airfoil everywhere on both the upper and lower
surfaces.
• The flowing air reacts to the presence of the wing by reducing the pressure on the wing's upper
surface and increasing the pressure on the lower surface.
• The pressure on the lower surface pushes up harder than the reduced pressure on the upper
surface pushes down, and the net result is upward lift. [54]
• The pressure difference that exerts lift acts directly on the airfoil surfaces.
AIRCRAFT FORCES AND LIFT
Aircraft are kept in the air by the forward thrust of the wings or aerofoils,
through the air.
The thrust driving the wing forward is provided by an external source, in this case
by propellers or jet engines.
The result of the movement of the wing through stationary air is a lift force
perpendicular to the motion of the wing, which is greater than the downwards
gravitational force on the wing and so keeps the aircraft airborne.
The lift is accompanied by drag which represents the air resistance against the
wing as it forces its way through the air.
The drag is dependent on the effective area of the wing facing directly into the
airflow as well as the shape of the aerofoil.
The magnitudes of the lift and drag are dependent on the angle of attack between
the direction of the motion of the wing through the air and the chord line of the
wing.
LIFT AND DRAG OVER AIRFOIL
ANGLE OF ATTACK
For an aircraft wing, it is the angle between the direction of motion of the
wing and the chord line of the wing.
At very low angles of attack, the airflow over the aerofoil is essentially
smooth and laminar with perhaps a small amount of turbulence occuring at
the trailing edge of the aerofoil.
The point at which laminar flow ceases and turbulence begins is known as
the separation point.
Increasing the angle of attack increases the area of the aerofoil facing
directly into the wind.
CONTD..
This increases the lift but it also moves the separation point of laminar flow
of the air above the aerofoil part way up towards the leading edge and the
result of the increased turbulent flow above the aerofoil is an increase in the
drag.
Maximum lift typically occurs when the angle of attack is around 15 degrees
but this could be higher for specially designed aerofoils.
Above 15 degrees, the separation point moves right up to the leading edge of
the aerofoil and laminar flow above the aerofoil is destroyed.
The increased turbulence causes the rapid deterioration of the lift force while
at the same time it dramatically increases the drag, resulting in a stall.
PICTORIAL VIEW
LIFT AND DRAG CURVE
AERODYNAMIC DRAG COMPONENTS