1.

SPONATANEOUS SYMMETRY BREAKING

There is a way to generate mass of the particle by spontaneous breaking of symmetry. Consider the
Lagrangian

Where

Consider the case Here the Lagrangian is invariant under reflection symmetry. (when is replaced
by - ).

Then the potential will be like

It describes the scalar field with mass

For case b)

Unlike in case a, in case b, the potential has two minima. These minima satisfy the equation
Therefore two minima are at with . Perturbative expansions should evolve
around the classical minima. So

where represents the quantum fluctuations about the minimum.

Then the Lagrangian becomes

This gives

The higher order terms in represents the interaction of field with itself. Here the
reflection symmetry is broken by choosing as the local minima.

1.1 SPONTANEOUS BREAKING OF GLOBAL GAUGE SYMMETRY

This approach is for generating mass for global gauge bosons. Consider the complex scalar
field
described by the Lagrangian

This Lagrangian possess U(1) global gauge symmetry.(Lagrangian is invariant under )

Consider the case and .By substituting the complex scalar field the
Lagrangian can be rewritten as

Using the conditions of minima a circle of minima of the potential V( ) in the plane of
radius v can be found out.

with
 Doing the perturbative expansions around classical minima, =v and =0. Expanding the
Lagrangian about the minima by substituting

Then,
The third term of the Lagrangian has the form of the mass term for field. Thus the
mass is . .
The first term of the Lagrangian represents the kinetic energy for the field. But there is
no mass term for field. So the theory also contains a massless scalar which is known as
Goldstone boson. The above used Lagrangian is an example of Goldstone theorem which
states that massless scalar occur whenever continuous symmetry of a physical system is
spontaneously broken.

1.2 THE HIGGS MECHANISM

The final step is to discuss the spontaneous breaking of local gauge symmetry. Here the
spontaneous breaking of U(1) gauge symmetry is discussed.
The U(1) local gauge transformation is given as
For making Lagrangian invariant, has to be replaced by and the gauge field
transforms like
And
Thus the gauge invariant Lagrangian is
For this is QED Lagrangian for charged scalar particle of mass .In order to generate
masses by spontaneous symmetry breaking take . Repeating the familiar procedure of
perturbation around the minima, the Lagrangian becomes

From the above Lagrangian, it is obtained that

Here is the massless Goldstone boson, is the massive scalar, is the massive
vector. Presence of the term makes the Lagrangian variant under U(1) gauge
transformation. To eliminate this problem

to lowest order in
Substituting different set real values

Then the obtained Lagrangian is

The Goldstone boson does not appear in the above theory. This Lagrangian only describes just two
massive particles, one vector gauge boson and a massive scalar h(x), which is known as Higgs
particle. The unwanted Goldstone boson is eliminated by this way which is called as Higgs
mechanism.

1.3 SPONTANEOUS BREAKING OF A LOCAL GAUGE SU(2) SYMMETRY

Consider the Lagrangian

Where is the SU(2) doublet of the

complex scalar fields.

The Lagrangian is invariant under global SU(2) phase transformation.

To achieve this locally ( is a function of x) is replaced by .

Three gauge fields are there with a=1, 2, 3 . Under the infinitesimal transformation

and the three gauge fields transform like

The gauge invariant Lagrangian is then

and

with .

For and the potential V( ) has the minimum for finite values of at

To expand (x) about a particular minimum, choosing

This is equivalent to spontaneous breaking of the SU(2) symmetry.

Then

Expanding about a particular vaccum,

Out of our scalar fields only one remains Higgs field, .Parameterizing the fluctuations from the
vaccum in terms of four real fields and h using the form

To verify this is perfectly general, examining small perturbations

It can be seen that four fields are indeed independent and fully parameterize the derivations from
the vaccum .

To determine the masses generated for the gauge bosons , it is sufficient to substitute into
the Lagrangian.

Here

where has been used as the shorthand of . Comparing this with typical mass term of
boson and find . That is the Lagrangian describes three massive gauge fields and
one massive scalar h .
 2. TWO HIGGS DOUBLET MODEL
The ‘Two Higgs Doublet Model’ is an extension to the Standard Model. In Standard Model, there is
only Higgs doublet. 2HDM is one of the natural choices for beyond Standard Model models
containing two Higgs Doublets instead of just one. There are also models with more than two Higgs
doublets, example three Higgs doublets etc.

The addition of the second Higgs doublet leads to a richer phenomenology as there are five physical
scalar states, the CP even neutral Higgs bosons H and h(where H is heavier than h by convention),
the CP odd pseudo scalar A and two charged Higgs scalars, H+ and H- .

The mass of the Higgs boson in the standard model depends on the scalar self-coupling, , ,which is a
free parameter. However bounds on the masses can be obtained by requiring that a) remain
perturbative up to a large scale, and b) vaccum of the Standard Model remain perturbative up to the
large scale. The first condition gives an upper bound to Higgs mass, 180 GeV and second condition
gives lowerbound 130 GeV. These two conditions constrain the mass of Higgs boson between 130
GeV and 180 GeV.

The renormalization group equation for the scalar self-coupling is of the form
where gY is the top quark Yukawa coupling. For vaccum stability should be positive.
becomes negative leads to vaccum instability.

2HDM includes two complex scalar doublets

There are eight real fields, three of them represent and Z bosons. Five other Higgs scalar will
remain, two charged and three neutral.

The potential danger with the additional Higgs doublet is the possibility of Flavor Changing Neutral
Currents (FCNC). The FCNC is highly suppressed compared to charged currents, so it would be
desirable to suppress them in these models. If all the quarks of same quantum numbers couples to
the same scalar multiplet FCNC will be absent. So there will be a discrete symmetry if quarks of same
charge couple to one doublet.

The most general potential correspond to the discrete symmetry is

The vaccum expectation values of and are given by

With
The masses of physical scalars are given by

- (1)

- (2)

- (3)

- (4)

Where and

Since all the mass squared will be positive, using that idea constraints can be derived. Solving
equation (1)

a)

From equation (2)

b)

Using equation (3)

c)
d)

Solving equation (4)

>

+ > (( - - )^2 + ( )^2)^(1/2)

Expanding this

These are the constraints to obtain vaccum stability.

Integrating renormalization equation gives the six dimensional parameter space. Choosing the six
parameters to be four physical scalars, and . For the region in parameter space to be
acceptable all the constraints mentioned above should be satisfied in the region. Since is
unmeasurable most of the times five dimensional parameter space is commonly used. With the help
of plots the range within which masses of the scalar particles vary can be found out.
 2.1 THE SCALAR POTENTIAL AND LOCAL MINIMA
With the two Higgs scalar doublets and the most general scalar potential is

Here h.c denotes harmonic conjugate. Out of this ten coefficients six of them are real and four are
complex. So in total there are fourteen real parameters. Due to the unitary basis transformation,
,where U is the SU(2) matrix, three unphysical degrees of freedom can be
removed and other three degrees of freedom can also be removed by additional symmetries(Z 2
symmetry, U(1) etc.).Finally there are eight degrees of freedom. After spontaneous symmetry
breaking three of them will become Goldstone bosons and remaining five become massive scalar.

Using

Rewriting the above given potential

where q1 and q2 are real and z is complex.

To find minima of the potential

and * =0

Then

- *+ z+ z+ * *+ * *=0

These are the four equations to find minima of potential. These equations can be written in a matrix
form
where

Based on the values of q1, q2 and z, there can be five types of minima. They are

a) Type A minima : , , ,

b) Type B minima : q1 = 0, q2 > 0 ,z=0

c) Type C minima : q1>0, q2 =0 ,z=0
d) Type D minima : q1>0 ,q2 >0 ,q1q2 =
e) Type E minima : q1=0, q2 =0 ,q1q2 =0

The potential value at type A minima is

Type B and type C minima can be computed by setting q1=0 or q2=0 and minimizing the potential
with respect to q1 or q2.

Type B: q1=0, q2 = , z=0

Type C: q2=0, q1 = , z=0

The potential values at these minima are given by

Type E is the simplest case in which all fields and potential are zero.

For type D minima, since q1q2 = , is proportional to .

If is proportional to ,

=k

q1q2 =

= k^2 ( )^2

=( )( )*

=k* ( )(( )* *)

=k^2 ( )^2
Since absolute value of z is fixed by q1q2 ,the potential can be treated as a function of q1 , q2 and
.

z=|z|

V = -( + * )+ +

+ * (z*)^2 + z* + * z*

Substituting in the above equation

|z|= ( )^(1/2)

Then

V= -( ( )^(1/2) + *( )^(1/2) z* ) +

+ + + ( )^( ½) + ( )^(1/2) + * e^(-2i )

+ *( )^(1/2) e^(-i ) + * * e^(-i ) ( )^(1/2)

= -( )^(1/2) ( e^(i ) + ( e^(i ) )*) +

+ +( /2) ( e^(2i ) +( e^(2i ) )*) + ( )^(1/2) ( e^(i ) +( e^(i ))* )

+ ( )^(1/2) ( e^(i ) +( ^(i ) )*)

V= -( )^(1/2) ( 2 )+ + +

+2 ( )^(1/2) + 2 ( )^(1/2)

Now using the conditions of minimum ,

=0 = - ( / )^(1/2) + + + + +3( )^(1/2)

+ ( )^(3/2) 1/( )^(1/2)

This gives

- + +( + + ) +3 ( )^(1/2) + ( / )^(1/2) =0

Here

( / ) =
 1+ = 1+ = sec^( )

( + )/ = 1/ cos^2( ) + =q

= q cos^2( )

Then = q cos^2( ) tan^2( )

= q sin^2( )

=0 = - tan( ) + q cos^2( )+( + + )q sin^2( ) + 3 q sin( )cos( )

+ q tan( )sin^2( )

= tan( )+q [ cos^2( ) + ( + + ) sin^2( ) +3 sin( ) cos( )

+ tan( ) sin^2( ) ]

Similarly

= 1/ tan( ) -q[ sin^2( ) + ( + + ) cos^2( ) + 1/ tan( ) cos^2( )

+3 cos( ) sin( ) ]

= q[ cos( ) sin( ) + cos^2( ) + sin^2( ) ]

The above calculation is basis independent. However, to represent it in a more conventional way ,
choose an appropriate basis so that

Here tan( ) =

and relate value of q at the minimum to the vaccum expectation value

 2.1.1 GLOBAL MINIMUM
Atmost two physically inequivalant local minimum can coexist in the potential. So out of five minima
mentioned above, maximum three minima are physically possible and others will be local maxima or
saddle points. Out of two minima either both should be CP conserving or CP violating. In order to
find global minima second order derivative of the potential should also be considered. Second order
derivative of the potential should be negative for global minima.

Let P be the location of one of the minima and be the potential at P . Then should be less
than or equal to zero. If is greater than zero ,P can’t be global minimum , because the potential
value is larger than type E minimum.
 CONCLUSION
Two Higgs Doublet Model is a simple extension to the Standard Model .The addition of the
second Higgs Doublet leads to five physical scalar state, the CP even neutral Higgs bosons h
and H, the CP odd pseudoscalar A and two charged Higgs bosons H+ and H- . Using the Two
Higgs scalar potential the constraints on coupling constants for the vaccum stability is found
out. There are five types of local minima are possible for Two Higgs scalar potential. Out of
five at most two can coexist. Global minima of scalar potential can be found out by using
second derivative of potential.
 REFERENCES
 QUARKS AND LEPTONS : An Introductory Course in Modern Particle Physics by
Francis Halzen and Alan D. Martin
 Tree-level vaccum stability of two-Higgs-Doublet models and new constraints on the
scalar potential by Xun-Jie Xu , .
 Vaccum Stability Bounds in the Two-Higgs Doublet Model by Shuquan Nie and Marc
Sher, Nuclear and Particle Theory Group, Physics Department , College of William
and Mary , Williamsburg ,USA .