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Vertical AMS variation within basalt flow profiles from the Xitle volcano
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DOI: 10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2016.01.003

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 Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 311 (2016) 9–28

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jvolgeores

Vertical AMS variation within basalt flow profiles from the Xitle volcano
(Mexico) as indicator of heterogeneous strain in lava flows
C.I. Caballero-Miranda a,⁎, L.M. Alva-Valdivia a, J.A. González-Rangel a, A. Gogitchaishvili b,
J. Urrutia-Fucugauchi a, A. Kontny c
a
Laboratorio de Paleomagnetismo, Instituto Geofísica, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, 04510 México, D. F., Mexico
b
Laboratorio Interinstitucional de Magnetismo Natural, Instituto Geofísica, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Morelia, Sede Michoacán, Mexico
c
Institute of Applied Geosciences, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Adenauerring 20a, D-76131 Karlsruhe, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The within-flow vertical variation of anisotropy of the magnetic susceptibility (AMS) of three basaltic flow pro-
Received 10 September 2015 files from the Xitle volcano were investigated in relation to the lava flow-induced shear strain. Rock magnetic
Accepted 5 January 2016 properties and opaque microscopy studies have shown that the magnetic mineralogy is dominated by Ti-poor
Available online 15 January 2016
magnetite with subtle vertical variations in grain size distribution: PSD grains dominate in a thin bottommost
zone, and from base to top from PSD-MD to PSD-SD grains are found. The vertical variation of AMS principal di-
Keywords:
Anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS)
rection patterns permitted identification of two to three main lava zones, some subdivided into subzones. The
Heterogeneous strain models lower zone is very similar in all profiles with the magnetic foliation dipping toward the flow source, whereas
AMS lava flow zones the upper zone has magnetic foliation dipping toward the flow direction or alternates between dipping against
Magnetic fabric and toward the flow direction. The K1 (maximum AMS axis) directions tend to be mostly parallel to the flow di-
Xitle lava flows rection in both zones. The middle zone shows AMS axes diverging among profiles. We present heterogeneous
Trans-Mexican volcanic belt strain ellipse distribution models for different flow velocities assuming similar viscosity to explain the AMS direc-
tions and related parameters of each zone. Irregular vertical foliations and transverse to flow lineation of a few
samples at the bottommost and topmost part of profiles suggest SD inverse fabric, levels of intense friction, or
degassing effects in AMS orientations.
© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction relationships between the magnetic fabric determined from AMS

Since Graham (1954) proposed that magnetic anisotropy can be
used to characterize petrofabrics, many studies have investigated the
anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS) for rocks in a wide range
of geological and geophysical applications in order to assess their
primary or secondary origin (e.g., MacDonald and Ellwood, 1987;
Rochette et al., 1992; Tarling and Hrouda, 1993; Kodama, 1995;
Martín-Hernández et al., 2004). Magnetic fabric studies of volcanic
rocks have been used to investigate flow direction and induced flow
strain from the magnetic anisotropy relating AMS directions with flow
and stress directions and magnitude of AMS parameters with strain in-
tensity (e.g., Ort et al., 2015). Studies of basaltic (e.g., Kolofíková, 1976;
Ellwood, 1978; Cañón-Tapia and Walker, 1998; Henry et al., 2003;
Cañón-Tapia, 2004; Bascou et al., 2005; Boiron et al., 2013) and pyro-
clastic flows (e.g., Ellwood, 1982; Incoronato et al., 1983; Wolff et al.,
1989; MacDonald and Palmer, 1990; Palmer et al., 1996; Cagnoli and
Tarling, 1997; Le Pennec et al., 1998; Alva-Valdivia et al., 2005;
Caballero-Miranda et al., 2009; Gountié Dedzo et al., 2011) show clear
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: cecilia@geofisica.unam.mx (C.I. Caballero-Miranda).
measurements and the flow direction and/or other geological features
(e.g., flow structures, type of facies, tectonic tilting, position in the flow
unit) even if each kind of rock corresponds to a different kind of flow
dynamics.
Such relationships are mainly found between the dip of the magnet-
ic foliation plane and the plunge of magnetic lineation relative to the
flow plane and flow direction. The magnetic foliation and lineation
may be graphically analyzed in stereographic projections where low-
angle imbricate patterns in relation to the flow plane (nearly the
paleo-horizontal or paleoslope plane) are frequently observed:
minimum K3 axes (magnetic foliation plane poles) show near vertical
positions and maximum K1 axes near horizontal positions (parallel, or-
thogonal, in favor or against flow direction). Sometimes when the mag-
netic foliation plane is not well defined, some odd relationships have
been reported, such as the distribution of K3 (and intermediate K2)
axes along nearly vertical planes. This arrangement has been rarely re-
ported in basaltic lava flows, and when it has, it has been attributed to
diverse factors: to inverse fabric because of the magnetic mineralogy
(e.g., Cañón-Tapia et al., 1995), or related to a steep paleoslope (e.g.,
Herrero-Bervera et al., 2002). In other types of flows, such as gravity-
driven mass-flows, this pattern has been related to the flow dynamics

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2016.01.003
0377-0273/© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
10 C.I. Caballero-Miranda et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 311 (2016) 9–28
such as a traction fabric of a turbidite (Ellwood, 1980), or a rebounding
pyroclastic turbulent flow (Caballero-Miranda et al., 2009). In all cases,
the vertical plane of the described pattern appears to record the flow
direction.
The relationship between the AMS fabric elements and the lava flow
plane and flow direction may be attributed to the flow dynamics (e.g.,
shear stress, flow viscosity, cooling rate) and/or to magnetic mineralogy
(e.g., grain size, composition, oxidation degree). Both of these variables
may change not only in different parts of the same flow but also along a
single vertical flow profile.
Holocene–Pleistocene lava flows preserve indicators of flow direction,
emplacement mechanism, and flow structure (Walker, 1991; Hon et al.,
1994; Peterson et al., 1994), useful for determining the relationships be-
tween these and the magnetic fabric (Bascou et al., 2005). Lava flows
show strong viscosity variations within a flow profile that cause complex
emplacement scenarios and multiple rheological layering, instead of rela-
tively homogeneous flow emplacement modes (Loock et al., 2008 and ref-
erences therein). Observations of the diverse elements of magnetic fabric
along vertical profiles of Holocene–Pliocene, or occasionally some older
lava flows, are ideal to evaluate the relationships between magnetic fab-
rics and flow mechanisms (Cañón-Tapia et al., 1995, 1996, 1997; Bascou
et al., 2005; Loock et al., 2008; Audunsson et al., 1992), since they preserve
almost intact evidence of both.
The purpose of this work is to study in detail vertical variations of the
AMS elements along three vertical lava flow profiles from the Xitle volca-
no, in central Mexico (1600 years old); each profile is located at a slightly
different facies position. We focus first on the AMS direction variation and
complement our analysis with their corresponding AMS parameter varia-
tion. We use not only the principal component statistic but also a point
density distribution (e.g., Cañón-Tapia, 2004, Caballero-Miranda et al.,
2009) in order to identify slightly different statistical populations. Our
purpose is to characterize the similarities and differences of AMS changes
along these three profiles to test if magnetic fabrics can be related to flow
dynamics, particularly relative to vertical changes in flow velocity and rel-
ative differences of maximum flow velocity between profiles. Our goal is
to provide some insights on how apparently irregular AMS axis orienta-
tions can be interpreted in young lava flows.
2. The Xitle volcano: Geologic background and previous studies
The Xitle1 volcano is one of the youngest in the monogenetic
Chichinautzin volcanic field (Martin del Pozzo, 1982), which belongs
to the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (TMVB; see inner box in Fig. 1).
Xitle is a 150-m-high cinder cone located at the southwestern part of
the Basin of Mexico, Mexico City. The Xitle cinder cone has characteristic
steep slopes. Its activity started with a tephra emission followed by for-
mation of a smaller parasitic lava cone, the Xicontle, to the west of Xitle
and then by a series of several lava flows which spread downslope over
an area of 70.2 km2, mostly to the northeastern part of Xitle (Fig. 1). The
Xitle lava flows have a particular archeological interest since they have
covered the early human settlement of Cuicuilco.
Earlier published 14C dating from sites with well controlled stratigra-
phy indicate ages around 2000 yr. BP for the volcanic eruption (White
et al., 1990; Ortega et al., 1993; Cordova et al., 1994; Urrutia-Fucugauchi
and Martin del Pozzo, 1993, Urrutia-Fucugauchi, 1996; Delgado et al.,
1998), but more recent works indicate ages around 1670 ± 35
(Gonzalez et al., 2000; Siebe, 2000).
Seven basaltic units from 2 to 40 m thick, each one corresponding to
a different batch of magma, have been recognized and mapped accord-
ing to their morphology, petrography, and chemical analyses (units I to
VII from oldest to youngest, Fig. 1; Delgado et al., 1998). The two more
widespread and thick lava members are the Ciudad Universitaria
batch (BCU), labeled as unit V (25 m average thickness with a maximum
1
From nahuatl language, means navel.
of 40 m), and the Pedregal de San Angel batch (BPSA), unit VI (10 m av-
erage thickness). Unit V is considered the paroxysmal phase of the Xitle
eruption (because it has the maximum lava volume) and the one with
the lowest viscosity, since it has the greatest maximum extent, at
around 12.5 km from the vent (Delgado et al., 1998). Unit V and VI con-
sist of several minor lava flows with individual thicknesses from 0.2 to
15 m.
Lava flows are calc-alkaline olivine basalt with outcrop surfaces
dominated by ropey pahoehoe structures, and internal complex lava
tube structures that extend for more than 13 km (Espinasa, 1992;
Martin del Pozzo et al., 1997). Lava rises, pressure ridges, tumuli, and
hornitos are frequently identified in several sites, mainly around
Cuicuilco pyramids for the case of unit V, and for the case of unit VI
these features are present around the CU profile.
Previous magnetic fabric studies on the Xitle lavas have been carried
out on five irregularly sampled profiles, all probably from the same indi-
vidual topmost flow unit of the BPSA member and others apparently in
the topmost flow unit from the BCU member (Cañón-Tapia et al., 1995).
Another magnetic fabric study is reported from the BCU member,
supporting the validity of the results derived from an extensive study
aimed at evaluating the reliability of the paleomagnetic record of the
flows (Urrutia-Fucugauchi, 1996).
All the previous magnetic fabric studies report the K1 (maximum)
AMS axes parallel to the flow direction and in most cases plunging
upflow (Alva-Valdivia, 2005). Those fabrics are observed most frequent-
ly in the lower part of flow profiles (Cañón-Tapia et al., 1995). Cañón-
Tapia et al. (1995) showed clear vertical variation of the magnetic fabric
directions and AMS parameters (anisotropy degree), and related the
AMS ellipsoid to the internal deformation of the lava flow, and the an-
isotropy degree to the lava viscosity.
The sampling objective of this study was to obtain characteristic
AMS and related magnetic mineralogy data on single lava flows. We
focus on fresh and complete (not eroded) lava flows without outcrop
evidence of alteration; flows from similar facies, composition, and vis-
cosity. Units V and VI were chosen for sampling because of their wide-
spread occurrence (from aerial photographs), which suggests the
lowest viscosity at the emplacement time (Delgado et al., 1998). Distal
facies were preferred in an attempt to minimize slope effects in AMS.
RM and PC profiles are 9 km and CU is 10 km away from the Xitle
cone, CU is just at the border front of the flow; hence, all profiles are dis-
tal facies. Tumuli, hornitos, spatter cones, and other structures suggest-
ing disturbing flows were avoided along the chosen profiles. CU and RM
profiles were selected because both belong to the topmost individual
flow of unit VI, showing apparent lateral continuity. The PC profile
was taken from an individual flow of unit V that does not naturally out-
crop on the surface but is in the central part of a series of at least ten in-
dividual flows exposed inside a former quarry with a well preserved
internal structure and clear lower and upper flow boundaries.
Samples from profiles CU, RM, and others from nearby outcrops
from the BPSA member were also collected for paleointensity surveys
(Morales-Contreras, 1995; Gonzalez et al., 1997, Böhnel et al., 1997);
the samples studied by Morales et al. (2006) are the same used from
the PC profile of this study. A comprehensive paleomagnetic study
(paleointensity, magnetic fabric, and rock magnetism) was also con-
ducted for the PC profile using a series of 10 individual lava flows that
outcrop in that place (Alva-Valdivia, 2005).
3. Sampling description and local flow features
Flows were sampled with a gasoline portable drill using a mobile
scaffold or staircase in order to reach the different flow levels. Cores
were obtained from different levels at close intervals from 10 to 20 cm
and oriented with a magnetic and solar compass whenever possible.
We obtained one to three specimens from each core. Table 1 summa-
rizes sampling features (99 cores, 153 specimens were studied).
 C.I. Caballero-Miranda et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 311 (2016) 9–28 11

Fig. 1. Xitle flows (after Delgado et al., 1998) and profile sites. Profiles are on the outcropping flows mapped as unit VI (RM and CU profiles) and V (PC profile). General flow directions were
obtained from aerial photographs. Inner box shows location of the Chichinautzin VF (Volcanic Field), where the Xitle volcano belongs, in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (TMVB).

Two main zones are clearly visible within the three flows: (1) A
lower compact part practically without vesicles, which includes (a) a
narrow basal subzone with tiny vesicles, not always present, and
(b) an upper subzone with very scarce to scarce vesicles. (2) An upper
part with characteristic abundant vesicles of several sizes usually hori-
zontally elongated. These parts are graphically represented in vertical
flow profiles in Fig. 2 (photographs with inserted cartoons). Flow profile
features are detailed but schematically described in Table 2, including
vesicle size description, distribution, and corresponding aspect ratios
of a limited amount of vesicles; general vesicle distribution agrees
with the model of Sahagian (1985).
4. Methods
AMS from all CU and RM samples were measured with a Molspin–
Minisep anisotropy system and later the CU and half of the RM samples
were also measured with a Kappabridge KLY2; PC samples were all
measured with the KLY2. All data were processed using Anisoft software
to create the AMS data files. Means of AMS principal directions of ellip-
soids were obtained using Jelínek statistics (Jelínek, 1978), referred as
K1 for maximum, K2 for medium, and K3 for minimum directions.
Mean susceptibility is indicated by Km, anisotropy degree parameter
by Pj, and ellipsoid shape by T (Jelínek, 1981). A Gaussian counting
point density distribution statistic (K = 1; Robin and Jowett, 1986)
was also calculated using SpheriStat software to check the agreement
between the means of the principal directions and the maximum distri-
bution areas. We performed a detailed comparison between AMS re-
sults from the Minisep and KLY2 instruments using a selection of
exactly the same samples from the CU and RM profiles. Since the com-
parison resulted in similar and consistent results, we employed the
whole collection of data obtained from all samples of these profiles
(Figs. 1-3 and Table 1 in Supplementary Information).
Thermomagnetic curves of samples from the CU and RM profiles
were obtained from measurements at ambient conditions using a
laboratory-built horizontal balance (between room temperature and
700 °C) at the Geomagnetic Laboratory (University of Liverpool). The
low-temperature dependence of low field magnetic susceptibility of
both profiles was determined between liquid nitrogen and room
temperatures (77–290 K), using a Bartington AC bridge with a water-
cooled sensor. PC thermomagnetic curves were obtained from measure-
ments at ambient conditions of crushed samples (~ 100 mg), using a
Highmoore Susceptibility Bridge equipped with a furnace. Experiments
were completed between room temperature and 650 °C and were heat-
ed and cooled at a rate of 20 °C/min (Alva-Valdivia, 2005).

Table 1
Flow profile thickness and sampling features. Number of specimens measured with each instrument at each flow. Shaded cells correspond to measurements mainly employed in this
study.

Profile Thickness (cm) Core number Sampling interval Specimens per core (average) Instrument used
[specimens] (average, cm)
Minisep KLY2

CU 659 39 17.5 (1) 42 specimens 36 specimens (base to top)

[42] (base to top)
RM 495 38 6.3 (2) 75 specimens 38 specimens (base to 0.6 height)
[75] (base to top)
PC 480 22 13 (1.5) — 36 specimens
[36] (base to top)
 12
C.I. Caballero-Miranda et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 311 (2016) 9–28
Fig. 2. Photograph and schematic structure of PC, RM, and CU flow profiles with a general ore microscopy summary. Vertical scale indicated is in centimeters (right) and in normalized height (left). Relative vesicle density and shape (ellipses) are
schematically represented; further details of vesicle size distribution and aspect ratios are in Table 2. Blue arrows along PC and RM profiles indicate the positions of samples of Figs. 4 and 5, respectively; stars are positions of samples of Fig. 3.
 C.I. Caballero-Miranda et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 311 (2016) 9–28 13

Flow profiles description: facies, stratigraphical relationships, profile subdivisions delineated by their main structure and their thickness, details about vesicle size and aspect ratio distribution, further details in Fig. 2. (Number of measurements for
Hysteresis parameters of small core-chips from all profiles were

Lower zone rich in small v = 1.6

Upper zone of scarce and lower
measured using a Princeton Instrument MicroMag employing maxi-

zone of rich small v = nearly

Upper zone of scarce v = 2.2

mum applied fields of 1–1.5 T.

Upper v = nearly 1–2.2

(Aspect ratio average) 5. Magnetic mineralogy
Vesicles (v) form

Middle v = 7.4

Middle v = 6.2

Middle v = 2.4
Average = 6.3

Average = 2.2
Small v = 5.1

Small v = 4.8

Average = 7
Big v = 10.8

Small v = 2
5.1. Ore microscopy
Big v = 6.1

1–2.5
Reflected light microscopy on polished sections from the three pro-
files was performed using the oxidation and texture classification

The upper half with scarce small v increasing density upward. The
30 cm (0.06), rich in tiny nearly round v and some basal large pipe
lowest 25–50 cm (0.04–0.08), rich in small nearly round v and
The upper half with scarce small v increasing density upward.

Abundant v increasing density upward. Mostly small (0.5–3) and

scheme suggested by Haggerty (1976) and Buddington and Lindsley

irregular tunnels, apparently produced by v interconnection.

distributed randomly along vertical. The v are elongated and

planes The v are elongated and aligned along preferable planes.

The upper third with scarce small v increasing density upward.
medium (5–18) sizes but also an important proportion of big v
The lower half practically w/out v. A thin red basal horizon:
Abundant v increasing density upward. More small (0.5–4)

The lower 2/3 practically w/out v. A thin basal horizon: lowest

Abundant v increasing density upward. Mostly small (1–4)

and medium (6–10) sizes and a couple of very big as small
(24–75). Big v sizes are randomly distributed along preferable
(1964), respectively. Oxidation classifications C1–C7 were applied for

lower half practically w/out v. Not enrichment of v at the base

titanomagnetite (Ti-Mag) and R1–R7 for titanohematite (Ti-Hem)
and medium (6–17) sizes than big (20–40). Size of v

v with its upper part slightly stretched in favor of flow.

(the prefix C for primary cubic phases and R for primary rombohedral
phases; 1–7 correspond to increasing oxidation states).
Typical characteristics of all profiles are titanomagnetite (Ti-Mag)
and large quantities of primary ilmenite (Ilm) with different tex-
tures, grain sizes, and oxidation states depending on their position
in the flow; outstanding along the central part of flows are large
Vesicle (v) distribution and size

aligned along preferable planes.

Ilm crystals (often N 100 μm) in comparison with Ti-Mag. Detailed

(maximum diameter in cm)

scattered basal large pipe v.

study of the RM profile indicates that the main oxide mineral is Ti-
Mag intergrown with Ilm; both display columnar shapes and skeletal
borders without any particular orientation; they are observed along
the borders of ferromagnesian anhedral crystals (pyroxene and
olivine). In minor proportion, there are also anhedral, subhedral,
and euhedral Ti-Mag crystals with Ilm lamellas, homogeneously
disseminated in the rock. A general summarized description of all
profiles follows (Fig. 2):
(normalized)

[272] (0.55)
[247] (0.37)

[412] (0.63)

[223] (0.45)

[150] (0.31)

[330] (0.69)
Thickness

5.1.1. Lowermost part 0–0.1 nh—normalized height (Fig. 3a–b)

[cm]

In this thin zone, there are small euhedral or subhedral Ti-Mag with
Ilm, 1–5 μm in size, showing either as disseminated or skeletal grain tex-
Upper Vesicular
Upper Vesicular

Upper Vesicular

tures. The inferred oxidation state in skeletal Ti-Mag is C2, whereas it is

Lower Compact

Lower Compact

Lower Compact
Main structure

C3 for subhedral grains and R1 for Ilm.

Profile part

5.1.2. Principal-central part 0.1–0.9 nh

In this main part, there are larger euhedral to subhedral Ti-Mag with
Ilm intergrowths showing light gray-brown color, trellis and sandwich
Upper part is slightly
covered by grass and
scarce vegetation and
Erosion surface with

10–30-cm-thick soil

textures that sometimes are fractured or brecciated. Ti-Mag crystals

individual flows.
Erosion surface
ropey structure.

vary from 1 to 40 μm in size with prevailing sizes around 25 μm; in the

thorn pioneer

Ropey to slab

A series of 4
vegetation.

most inner parts of the flow where all the grains are coarser, Ilm crystal
structures.

sizes are as large as 150 μm. The deuteric oxidation state here typically
Locally
Above

baked

varies between C3–C5 and R2–R5. Exsolution features are commonly ob-
served in the Ti-Mag, effectively sub-dividing the grains into smaller,
A baked flow and below it a series of 4
Laterally a lower flow unit with baked

magnetite-rich regions. Some crystals of the titanohematite (Ti-Hem)

Fine sediment layer with a few big

Soil or altered ash tuff with baked

series are as large as 80 μm and have inferred oxidations states of

subrounded clasts up to 15 cm in
diameter and ceramic fragments.

R2–R3.
Stratigraphical relationships

5.1.3. Uppermost part 0.9–1 nh

more individual flows

This thinner part is characterized by small euhedral Ti-Mag with Ilm

(sizes 1–5 μm) showing skeletal textures and oxidation states of C2–C3
and R1 for the Ti-Mag and Ti-Hem, respectively.
features.

Fig. 3 shows a detail of the RM profile based on samples taken from

features
Below

different positions above the base (nh): 0.06, 0.16, 0.28, 0.38, 0.43, 0.46,
0.54, 0.6, and 0.65. All samples show Ti-Mag partly or completely
aspect ratio average at each flow is ~50).

Intermediate and in internal

Distal in frontal lobe border.

altered to Ti-Hem (Fig. 3a–g), suggesting different alteration degrees.

profile there are tumuli and
Laterally and closely to the

Distal, but still in internal

thinning laterally closely

Ilmenite is homogeneously distributed in the Ti-Mag and has a trellis

individual flow sampled
part of flow lobe, but

shape texture; it has formed due to high-temperature oxidation from

earliest homogeneous Ti-Mag (Fig. 3b-f). Ti-Hem fills thin fractures
part of flow lobe

(15 μm thick) in the Ti-Mag and sometimes is altered to botryoidal

goethite (Fig. 3e). Titanomaghemite (Ti-Mgh) is rare in our samples
hornitos.

and occurs in very thin concave-shaped fractures in the Ti-Mag

Profile Facies

(Fig. 3c and 3h). Ilm generally is altered to rutile in granular shape

and fine grain size (b 10 μm).
Table 2

A systematic gradation was observed in the size and shape of crystals

RM
CU

PC

throughout the flow: (1) At the bottommost sample 0.06 and the
14 C.I. Caballero-Miranda et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 311 (2016) 9–28

Fig. 3. Opaque mineral photo-micrographs of representative samples from the RM profile. Sample numbers are their distance (nh) above the base (pointed as stars in Fig. 2). Images were
taken with a reflected light polarized microscope: a) Ti-Mag columnar intergrowth with very small Ilm homogeneously distributed without apparent orientation (some show skeletal
borders). Toward the center are anhedral crystals of Ti-Mag. b) Ti-Mag columnar crystal forming siebe texture with Ilm. Ti-Mag is cut by a fracture partly occupied by Ti-Hem. c) Ti-
Mag columnar crystal forming graphic texture with ilmenite. Ti-Mgh replaces the Ti-Mag through curved fractures. d) Columnar crystals of Ti-Mag with skeletal borders of Ti-Mag and
associated Ilm. These columns are larger than the other studied samples; some columns show veins of Ti-Hem. e) Fraction of an octahedral crystal pseudomorph of Ti-Hem, produced
by the Ti-Mag alteration, it partly contains Ilm relicts forming trellis texture with Ti-Hem. Goethite (Gth) is filling a thick fracture in the Ti-Hem pseudomorph, forming a botryoidal
texture vein. f) Ti-Mag columnar crystal showing skeletal borders replacing by Ti-Hem, some Ilm relicts are in siebe shape. g) Columnar Ti-Mag crystals partly altered to Ti-Hem and
intergrowth with Ilm, at the center is a Ti-Mag anhedral crystal. h) Ti-Mag euhedral crystal showing skeletal borders and some curved fractures were it is partly replaced by Ti-Mgh.

topmost samples 0.6 and 0.67, Ti-Mag crystals are anhedral to subhedral
and on average ~ 40 μm in size; (2) within the central part of the flow
(0.28–0.43 samples), in general the width and length size of crystals in-
creases up to 50 μm and 110 μm, respectively (Fig. 3a–h). The similarity
between both parts of a faster cooling rate is obvious from these
observations.
5.2. Rock magnetism
Magnetization, temperature-dependent magnetic susceptibility, and
hysteresis parameters (saturation magnetization, Ms; saturation rema-
nence, Mrs; coercive force, Hc; and coercivity of remanence, Hcr) were
measured from samples along the profiles. Results of the rock magnetic
 C.I. Caballero-Miranda et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 311 (2016) 9–28 15

properties were previously reported in Böhnel et al. (1997) for the CU

profile and some results from the PC profile are partly described in
Alva-Valdivia (2005) and Morales et al. (2006). A summary of results
from all profiles including those from previous and present studies (all
from RM and some of PC profiles) follows.

5.2.1. Thermomagnetic curves

K-T curves from CU indicate Curie temperatures around 575–580 °C
particularly at the flow base with slight inflections at around 200 °C
(Böhnel et al., 1997). PC results from selected samples representing all
zones (Fig. 4) indicate the presence of Ti-poor Ti-Mag at the lower
flow part (PC-62 and 67) and only one magnetic phase in all samples;
the Curie point is 580 °C. PC-62, 67, and 77 do not show perfect revers-
ibility probably due to the presence of some titanomaghemite, observed
in thin section. This Ti-Mgh might have transformed into magnetite
during experimental heating.
Low-temperature susceptibility curves from the RM profile (lower
and upper flow levels; Fig. 5) present two main features: a susceptibility
peak close to −150 °C and a rapid susceptibility increase at low temper-
Fig. 5. Representative low-temperature vs. susceptibility (K) curves, normalized with
atures; the same two features are also seen in the CU samples. The peak
respect to the value after warming to 5 °C. Position of samples is indicated in Fig. 2.
is an expression of the isotropic point of multidomain (MD) magnetite
(Dunlop and Özdemir, 1997) and is mostly observed in samples from
the lowermost part of the flow (0–0.1 nh) and from the upper part of viscous lava flow, is characterized by samples that vary strongly in
the flow (around 0.8–1 nh), but this magnetic behavior is not observed their Mrs/Hc ratio. Different symbols for samples from lower, central,
close to the lower flow margin, where it might indicate the conversion and upper flow zones in Fig. 6 clearly show that specimens from the
of Ti-Mag to Ti-Mgh. The increase in magnetic susceptibility at low tem- lower part of the flow tend to be nearer to the MD region and samples
peratures indicates a Fe3+-bearing ilmenite phase with a TC at about from the upper flow zone are nearer to the SD region. We observe two
−180 °C (Engelmann et al., 2010). Ilmenite was observed microscopi- exceptions of this pattern in the flow from CU; these exceptions corre-
cally in thin sections (see Fig. 3). A Curie temperature of a Ti-bearing he- spond to samples at the basal flow margin that are in the SD or near
matite phase has not been identified up to 650 °C. This behavior is the SD grain size region.
observed across the central parts of the flow and is most pronounced The within-flow variation of a selection of the measured magnetic
between 0.2 and 0.5 nh above flow-base where the ratio χ77K/χ278K oc- parameters within the RM profile is presented in Fig. 7. The trends in
casionally exceeds 3 (0.02–0.04 nh in the RM profile). Hcr/Hc, Mrs/Ms, and natural remanence (NRM) intensity in the upper-
most part of the flow, around 0.85–1 nh (the uppermost 60–70 cm
5.2.2. Hysteresis properties from RM), suggest a shift to SD-like grains and therefore to smaller
Ratios of hysteresis parameters (Fig. 6) suggest that almost all sam- grain sizes. Further down, between 0.05 and 0.15 nh above the flow
ples from the CU profile and most from the RM profile fall in the pseudo- base (10–70 cm), low Mrs/Ms and Hc values suggest a zone of coarse
single domain (PSD) grain size region (Day et al., 1977). This observa- magnetic grains. NRM is variable between 0.6 and 0.8 nh (300–
tion may indicate a mixture of MD and a significant amount of SD grains 400 cm) above the flow base. This interval is within the upper zone of
(Dunlop, 2002). The PC profile, which corresponds with the least the RM flow and we suggest that this may be due to small oxidation

Fig. 4. Susceptibility versus temperature curves. Position of samples above bottom is below samples name (nh = normalized height) and marked in Fig. 2.
16 C.I. Caballero-Miranda et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 311 (2016) 9–28
Fig. 6. Day plot (Day et al., 1977) shows the relationship between the hysteresis parameters of PC, RM, and CU profiles. As described in legend, larger dark circles are specimens from the
lower flow zones and smaller circles from the upper zones; open-light shadow circles are specimens from the middle zones (zones are defined in Figs. 9 and 10).
changes or to the amount of magnetic minerals. The within-flow varia-
tions of magnetic parameters of the CU and PC profiles are similar.
6. AMS results
The AMS principal axes for each site and their means are plotted on
stereographic projections (Fig. 8). Point density distribution curves con-
tours (Gaussian counting) of the principal axes are also displayed. AMS
results are in Table 3: maximum (K1) and minimum (K3) means of sus-
ceptibility directions; the minimum and maximum apical axes of their
corresponding 95% confidence ellipses (CE-95%); and the AMS parame-
ters Km, Pj, and T.
6.1. Clustering
Samples from the PC and RM profiles show a better clustering of di-
rectional data than the CU profile. In Fig. 8, the results from the PC and
RM profiles are represented each by only one diagram of all AMS prin-
cipal axes, whereas CU is represented by two diagrams in order to
more clearly show the more scattered K1 and K2 axes distribution. The
better clustering in PC and RM compared to CU is also evident from
the min and max CE values (Table 3).
6.2. Magnetic foliation and lineation
In each of the three profiles AMS ellipsoids are mainly oblate (T N 0,
Table 3); K1 and K2 axes define a sub-horizontal magnetic foliation plane
that dips toward the SW, the direction of the flow source. In the PC and
RM profiles, the mean magnetic lineation (K1 mean) is parallel to the
general flow direction, the K1 mean points upward to the flow direction
(Fig. 8a, b). In the PC profile, the lineation is better defined (smallest CE-
95% of K1) than in the RM and the ellipsoids are more oblate (Table 3). In
the CU profile (top of lava flow, unit VI) the K1 mean is neither parallel
nor perpendicular to the general flow direction; it has the worst defined
lineation and the least oblate ellipsoids (Table 3).
6.3. Point density analysis
In all profiles, the K3 directions show two maximum peak areas, the
K3 means are between them (Fig. 8), suggesting two different statistical
populations. Vertical K3 direction distribution along profiles revealed
that each statistical population corresponds to a different vertical posi-
tion within the profile. The same is also observed with the K1 directions,
particularly in the PC and RM profiles.
6.4. Vertical AMS directional variation analysis
The vertical variation in direction of K1 and K3 within each profile is
shown in Fig. 9. These graphs show different flow levels (zones) each
distinguished by a particular AMS pattern. In the PC profile, only a
lower and an upper flow level are identified, whereas in the RM and
CU profiles, a central part is also recognized.
The lower zone has a normalized thickness of 0.43 in PC, 0.33 in RM,
and 0.30 in CU profiles. The AMS directions of this zone, in each profile,
show a very similar pattern, and the best clustering (CE-95% values in
Table 3). Both the well-defined magnetic lineation and the magnetic fo-
liation plunge and dip toward the SW. The magnetic lineation is parallel
to the flow direction observed from aerial photographs and shown in
Fig. 1. The low imbrication angle of the magnetic foliation (means
from 5° to 23°) points to the NE, in the same direction as the flow
 C.I. Caballero-Miranda et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 311 (2016) 9–28
Fig. 7. Intra-flow variation of magnetic parameters for profile RM. (a) natural remanence, NRM; (b) Curie temperature, Tc; (c) saturation magnetization, Ms; (d) ratio of saturation
remanence to saturation magnetization, Mrs/Ms; and (e) ratio of coercivity of remanence to coercive force, Hcr/Hc.
direction. We describe this relationship as “positive” imbrication
(lower equatorial diagrams of Fig. 9). Particularities of the lower
zone are as follows: In the RM and CU profiles, this lower flow level
has the particularity that some lowermost AMS ellipsoids (1–3 spec-
imens) show irregular orientation (e.g., K1 directions perpendicular
to flow and/or K 2 directions switching position with K3 direction;
Fig. 9b); these AMS ellipsoids correspond to a thin basal horizon
with vesicular structure.
The upper zone of the PC and RM profiles, from 0.43 nh to the top, and
from 0.55 nh to the top, respectively, show a very similar AMS pattern:
their AMS ellipsoids plunge toward the NE; the K1 axes and mean mag-
netic lineation are parallel to the flow direction. The low imbrication
angle of magnetic foliation points to the SW in an opposite way to the
flow direction and as observed in the lower flow level (Fig. 9a, b). Sim-
ilar patterns have been noticed in other flows (e.g., Bascou et al., 2005).
Because the imbrication angle is in the opposite direction than the flow
direction, this pattern is referred as “opposed” imbrication (Cañón-
Tapia et al., 1997). In contrast, the upper zone of the CU profile shows
an AMS pattern consisting of a mixture of “positive” and “opposed” im-
brications (toward and against flow source). Frequently, the K1 direc-
tions show very high inclinations (40°–50°). Additionally, the upper
zone in the CU profile has the worst clustering of all profiles (Fig. 9c).
The central zone is only distinguished in the RM and CU profiles, it
range from 0.3 to 0.55 nh and from 0.33 to 0.62 nh, respectively, and it
is quite different in each profile. In the RM profile, the AMS of the central
zone is similar to the one in the upper zone, both characterized by “op-
posed” imbrication, but the central zone is less clustered, and with a pair
of specimens around 0.35 nh with positive imbrication (Fig. 9b). In the
CU profile, the central zone can be subdivided in two parts since their
clustering shows slightly different directions in each part (Fig. 9c);
17
both central zones are similar and show a completely different AMS pat-
tern not observed in other profiles: the K1 axes are perpendicular in re-
lation to the flow direction; the K2–K3 axes show a girdle distribution
that defines high dipping planes (nearly vertical in Middle-1 CU zone
and dipping 40° toward SE in Middle-2 CU; Fig. 9c). Unique particulari-
ties observed in the central zone include thin levels at the base of the
central zone of the RM profile zones that are distinguished with AMS el-
lipsoids that show irregular orientations like those described also at the
base of the lowermost part of this site (empty symbols in Fig. 9b). Sim-
ilar irregularities are also observed at the topmost thin section of the
upper zone (filled crosses and stars in Fig. 9b). These particular AMS el-
lipsoid arrangements define a vertical foliation and a transverse (in re-
lation to flow) lineation.
6.5. Vertical AMS parameters variation analysis
Variation of the Km, Pj, and T parameters along each vertical flow
profile are shown in Fig. 10 and Table 3. Fig. 10 show the relationship
between parameter variation and the vertical zones identified by
means of directional AMS variations.
6.5.1. Km parameter
The PC profile has the highest average values of the volumetric mean
susceptibility; Km (around 6.6 × 10−3 SI units); the RM and CU profiles
show lower average values, which are more similar between them
(around 3.1 and 3.7 × 10−6 SI units, respectively). Higher PC Km values
are consistent with the fact that PC belongs to the unit V, which is con-
sidered having the lowest viscosity (Delgado et al., 1998) and hence a
higher emplacement temperature, this might favor the formation of a
higher amount of Ti-Mag crystals. Alternatively, the lower Km values
18 C.I. Caballero-Miranda et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 311 (2016) 9–28

Fig. 8. AMS principal axes distribution within the (a) PC, (b) RM, and (c) CU profiles: K1 (squares and crosses), K2 (triangles), and K3 (circles and stars), with their corresponding means and
95% confidence ellipses (Table 3). Different sizes and shapes of symbols are according with vertical position of samples as described in the legend; nh = normalized height. Contour curves
are point density distribution of AMS axes (Gaussian counting); notice the two maximum peaks for the K3 axes population in all sites. Arrows indicate local flow direction inferred. Dotted
perpendicular lines are vertical planes of symmetry of AMS principal directions.

in RM and CU may be due to a higher chilling velocity, which might 70% of the flow thickness, Fig. 2) and the position of the CU at the frontal
favor the formation of more volcanic glass and then less Ti-Mag crystals. lobe border seem to us to be in agreement with a higher chilling flow
The thick width of vesicle distribution observed in RM (the upper 55– velocity in both cases.

Table 3
AMS results from the 3 profiles: K1 and K3 principal directions, parameters and inferred flow direction. First row from each profile shows all specimens sampled; the shaded row describes
only specimens from the lower flow zone. Means are calculated using Jélinek statistics (K1 = maximum, K3 = minimum principal directions). CE 95% = angles (minimum and maximum)
of the 95% confidence ellipses for each direction. Km, mean susceptibility (in 10−6 SI units); Pj, anisotropy degree; and T, ellipsoid shape (T N 0 oblate, T b 0 prolate). The “prolate %” column
describes the percentage of specimens with prolate AMS ellipsoid shape (T b 0). Local flow directions inferred as described in the text.

Site n K1 CE K3 CE Km Pj T Prolate % Local flow

direction inferred
Dec Inc Min Max Dec Inc Min Max
(°) (°) (°) (°) (°) (°) (°) (°)

CU 42 172 20 33 62 13 68 31 39 3765 1.025 0.333 15% 38

CU 13 202 5 14 40 2 85 14 21 3289 1.029 0.579 0% 21
lower layer
RM 75 225 4 19 47 111 80 20 27 3136 1.044 0.329 12% 62
RM 34 252 20 8 30 88 69 7 18 3008 1.053 0.347 4% 72
lower layer
PC 36 237 12 21 27 37 77 20 27 6590 1.032 0.475 6% 54
PC 21 241 23 13 25 51 67 12 19 6494 1.037 0.581 0% 56
lower layer
 C.I. Caballero-Miranda et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 311 (2016) 9–28 19

The larger within-profile variations of Km are also within the PC pro-
file (Fig. 10a), a right concave-shaped curve of these values is observed
along the flow profile. The higher values are at (a) the bottom portion of
the flow: 0–0.2 nh, and (b) the upper portion (the vesicular part of the
flow): 0.7–1 nh. The lower values are at the central part along the sec-
tion from 0.2 to 0.5 nh of the flow. Similar, but less distinct, concave
curves are observed in the RM and CU profiles. Within the RM profile,
some high Km values are also observed at the base of the central flow
level, showing for the specimens with these values irregular AMS
orientations.
6.5.2. Pj parameter
Along the three profiles, higher anisotropy degrees (Pj values) are
within the lower zone, and the lowest values are at the upper zone,
where the AMS directions show the lowest clustering (Fig. 10 and
Table 3; focus on the lowest maximum CE-95% values and higher Pj
values of the shaded rows). The RM profile has the highest Pj values,
and the CU profile shows the lowest Pj values; the latter has the weakest
clustering of AMS directions (Table 3). We note that in these flows there
seems to be a general relationship between well-clustering AMS direc-
tions and higher Pj values.
6.5.3. T parameter
The average values of the shape parameter (T) at each profile, rang-
ing from 0.329 to 0.475 (Table 3), indicate the dominance of oblate
shapes (T N 0 oblate, T b 0 prolate) with small fractions of prolate
shape specimens (up to 6% in PC, 12% in RM, and 15% in CU). Fig. 10
shows that the highest positive T values (oblate shape) are within the
lower lava zones of all profiles. This zone also has the lowest fraction
of specimens with prolate AMS ellipsoids, and the strongest clustering
of AMS directions. In the PC and CU profiles, we observe no prolate
shapes within lower zones, and within the RM profile, the prolate
shapes are restricted to a thin subzone near the bottom (Fig. 10b),
where AMS ellipsoids show lineation or vertical foliation perpendicular
to flow. The PC profile has higher positive T values and the few prolate
to nearly neutral shape specimens are only within the uppermost part
of the flow (Fig. 10a).
The CU profile has the highest proportion of specimens with prolate
shape of all three studied profiles studied, including some prolate to

Fig. 9. Vertical flow declination and inclination variation of K1 (squares) and K3 (circles) within (a) PC, (b) RM, and (c) CU sites. Vertical scale is normalized, vertical axes are centered at
corresponding K1 and K3 mean values; a general vertical structure description is along with K1 inclination graph. Legend indicates size of symbols decreasing with height; alternate symbols
(e.g. crosses and stars) are ellipsoids with irregular orientations. Horizontal dotted lines mark boundaries between identified zones, different size and shadow of symbols are according
with these zones. Each zone is complemented with respective stereodiagrams, with corresponding means, confidence ellipses, vertical planes of symmetry (dotted lines), and flow
inference direction (arrow). Notice the AMS “positive imbrication” in all lower zones, “opposed imbrication” in PC and RM upper zones and transverse oblique imbrication
arrangement in CU middle zones (see text for relative explanation).
20 C.I. Caballero-Miranda et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 311 (2016) 9–28
Fig. 9 (continued).
nearly neutral shapes; these specimens are concentrated within the
central part of the flow (Middle 1 and Middle 2 zones in Fig 10c)
where Pj values are the lowest, although some come also from thin sub-
zones from the lowermost and topmost parts of the flow. All these zones
and subzones also have some specimens with transverse lineation (in
relation to flow) or even sub-vertical foliation or lineation. The highest
proportion of prolate to nearly neutral shape within the RM profile
also occurs within the central flow zone. We conclude that there is a
general relationship between (a) oblate shape specimens with the
lower flow layers and higher Pj values; (b) prolate and near-neutral
shape specimens with lower Pj values in the middle flow layers; (c)
and prolate and near-neutral shapes in thin lowermost and uppermost
layers; and (d) prolate and near-neutral shape specimens and trans-
verse to flow ellipsoid orientations.
7. Heterogeneous deformation modeling and possible effects in AMS
In order to qualitatively understand the relations between AMS el-
lipsoid imbrication and flow-induced shear strain, we have elaborated
some sketches based on heterogeneous deformation on a net of minor
squares obtained from a “toy” program used in structural geology lec-
tures (CizHet program by Tolson, 2009), with which it is possible to
model flow velocity changes. Sketches are in Figs. 11 and 12 (where
the z axis is the vertical and the x axis represents the flow direction.);
they correspond to initial state of no deformation (Fig. 11a) and first
stages of flow. In the initial state the square net shows perfect circles in-
side it, which would correspond hypothetically to an isotropic fabric. In
the deformed states of the square net, circle shapes change but areas are
preserved; and all circles inside squares of same row (and presumably
AMS ellipsoids at same lava flow level) show homogenous deformation.
If the deformation on the square were only due to the weight of lava
flow (vertical shortening due to pure shear) the square net would be
similar to Fig. 11f or g.
7.1. Flow-induced shear strain in models and vertical flow velocity
variation
The pairs of half arrows in Figs. 11 and 12 indicate the sense of flow-
induced shear strain for hypothetical states. In these figures, it can be
seen that the vertical position of maximum flow velocity (Vmax) con-
trols the sense of flow-induced shear strain and hence the symmetry
of AMS, ellipsoid orientations, and related parameters. The Vmax verti-
cal position should in turn be related with the flow viscosity and the dif-
ference between bottom velocity (Vb) and top velocity (Vt). The Main
different cases of Vt vs. Vb relations are Vt N N Vb (Fig. 11b and c),
Vt = Vb (Figs. 11d and e), and Vt ≥ Vb (Fig. 12), each occurring in differ-
ent scenarios. Different vertical rate of flow velocity change may also
occur (Figs. 11d and e, 12a–c).
If the Vmax were located at the top of a flow, as it may be the case for
a Newtonian fluid, or in the very moment when lava starts to flow, de-
formation on the square net unit would be similar to the sketch of Fig.
11b. If the weight of the flow is considered, some vertical shortening
would be additionally applied and the deformation would be similar
to the sketch of Fig. 11c. In contrast, a viscous fluid such as a lava flow
 C.I. Caballero-Miranda et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 311 (2016) 9–28
Fig. 9 (continued).
would have the Vmax in a middle part of the flow, as has been described
within dykes (Callot and Guichet, 2003), then the induced shear strain
would have different sense below rather than above (Fig. 12d). Similar
as in a dyke, there is a different sense of shear stress along both parts
of the central flow axis (Callot and Guichet, 2003). If there were addi-
tionally some shortening due to the lava flow weight, ellipses of the
square net would be slightly flattened (Fig. 11e). These sketches graph-
ically show how shortening strain becomes almost negligible, whereas
shear strain increases when flow velocity increases (as stated by
Merle, 1998). The decrease of imbrication angle of the AMS ellipsoids
due to shortening, if there is any, is more evident around the Vmax
plane at the middle flow position (compare long axes of ellipses in Fig.
11e vs. 11d).
These qualitative sketches may then help to explain, from a graphi-
cal perspective, not only the variability of AMS imbrication along verti-
cal lava flow profiles (Cañón-Tapia et al., 1996, 1997; Merle, 1998;
Bascou et al., 2005) or within dykes (Callot and Guichet, 2003;
Eriksson et al., 2011), but also the variability of other AMS features.
7.2. Models explaining vertical AMS variations and other profile features
related
The AMS patterns of the lower AMS zone in our profiles display pos-
itive imbrication, suggesting that the Vmax of the flow that induced
shear strain was above it. This zone fits with the lower part of profiles
with a compact structure lacking of vesicles. AMS ellipsoids from this
21
zone are more elongated than in any other part of the flow: Pj values
are mostly above the general average and T values are positive and
above the average. The thickness of this zone is different in each profile;
its height may be tentatively considered as the height of the Vmax plane
of the flow. Considering inferred position of the Vmax of flow, and the Pj
values (higher at RM, lower at PC, and lowest at CU), some simple dia-
grams were elaborated (Fig. 12) as an attempt to explain these features.
Since flow velocity controls the sense and intensity of shear stress and
induced strain, then the relative differences in ellipsoid eccentricity
should correspond to the flow velocity's vertical distribution.
Models represent the final state of a progressive deformation in a re-
gime of constant flow, and although they do not consider other vari-
ables, such as those that affect mainly the upper part of flows; they
may explain the main differences in imbrication and elongation of the
AMS within the lower and middle zones. The other variables not consid-
ered that may give overimposed effects in AMS patterns represented by
these models are the rheological interactions between solidified crust
and fluid lava, and the possible flow sheeting due to drastic changes in
viscosity derived from differences in cooling rate.
In order to elaborate any inference about flow from models, we have
to consider that new or continuous lava batch emissions may increase
or maintain flow velocity longer; that more fluid lava (lower viscosity)
should favor higher flow velocity, and possible higher positions of
Vmax in the flow; and that lava cooling results in a decrease of velocity,
possibly lowering the position of Vmax in the flow and rheological ef-
fects due to viscosity changes derived from cooling.
22 C.I. Caballero-Miranda et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 311 (2016) 9–28

8. Discussion
8.1. Magnetic mineralogy
Although magnetic properties and ore microscopy observations sug-
gest that the main AMS carrier is Ti-poor magnetite within all the three
profiles, meaningful grain size differences are also observed: a tendency
for a higher proportion of large grain sizes (PSD-MD) along the lower-
central flow zones and smaller grain sizes (PSD-SD) along the upper
flow zones (Fig. 6). Grain size also significantly decreases toward the
lowermost flow margin. Ilmenite grains show similar size-increase to-
ward the flow center, where large grains are conspicuous; this may con-
tribute to the paramagnetic signal in magnetic experiments (hysteresis
curves). Additionally, mostly higher oxidation is present within the
upper flow zones.
The coarser grain size distribution along the lower flow zone might
be consistent with an inflated lava flow mechanism indicating that in
this part the lava remained liquid and warmer for a longer time than
in the upper part where it cooled relatively quickly. The longer cooling
time and related slower cooling rate permitted the growing of crystals
while in the upper part the faster cooling is in agreement with smaller
grains. The small grains (SD or near SD) observed in the lowermost
lava flow may be explained by the chilling effect of the lava when it
flows over cooler paleo-landscape surfaces. The smaller oxidation states
of the Fe\\Ti oxides suggested for the upper part of the flow, at least in
the RM profile, are probably associated with higher cooling rates and
subaerial exposure, which may agree with the greater thickness of the
upper vesicular structure in the RM profile in comparison with the CU
and PC profiles. In contrast, the higher oxidation states of the Fe\\Ti ox-
ides, observed at the top most part of the PC profile, are probably related
with the thinnest thickness of the upper vesicular structure (Fig. 2). The
grain size distribution along each profile roughly correlates with the
AMS pattern distribution observed. Both, oxidation degree and grain
size, are suggested to be a result of lava flow dynamics.

Fig. 10. Vertical flow variation of Km (in 10−6 SI units), Pj and T parameters within (a) PC, (b) RM, and (c) CU sites with general structure description. Vertical scale is normalized;vertical
axes (vertical dotted line at T graph) are located at corresponding average values. Horizontal dotted lines mark boundaries between identified zones, different sizes and shadow of symbols
are according with these zones; alternate symbols (e.g. crosses) are the same as Fig. 9. Average parameter at each zone is annotated. Notice how parameters change according with zones.
 C.I. Caballero-Miranda et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 311 (2016) 9–28
Fig. 10 (continued).
8.2. Flow dynamics
The vertical within-flow variation of the AMS directions marks flow
zones related to the flow-induced shear strain of lavas independently
whether strain is carried on minerals from the silicate framework (e.g.,
plagioclase) controlling the crystallization of titanomagnetite (Bascou
et al., 2005) or effects directly the magnetic mineral fraction (Cañón-
Tapia and Coe, 2002). In this section, we discuss the observed vertical
AMS variations and suggested models in relation to the flow dynamics
under consideration of the magnetic mineralogy and indicators of the
volcanic flow structures as far as available. The elaborated models,
which best explain the observed AMS variations (Fig. 12), show a
lower positive and an upper opposed imbrication separated by an inter-
mediate zone of lowest degrees of anisotropy. The upper boundary of
the lower zone showing positive imbrication is considered as the posi-
tion of the Vmax of the flow. The vertical distribution of strain ellipses
shows the higher Pj values within the lower zones of the three basaltic
flow profiles.
23
The RM model suggests the highest flow velocity (highest Pj values
in lower zone and higher induced shear strain), compared to the PC
and CU profiles if the viscosity for all flows is assumed to be similar
(Fig. 12). Because the RM profile has the thinnest lower zone (0.3 nh)
the Vmax plane is at the lowest position. The large thickness of the vesic-
ular structure suggests an intense dissipation process, which is in agree-
ment with high oxidation states of Fe\\Ti oxides. We suggest that these
features besides the highest Pj values observed in the lower zone of the
RM profile are consistent with a more intense and continuous lava-in-
flated process. Additionally, the upper vesicular zone thickness of the
RM profile agrees with the normalized thickness (0.4–0.6) proposed
by Cashman and Kauahikaua (1997) as indicative of flow inflation.
Within the CU (0.34 nh) and the PC (0.43 nh) profiles, the top of the
lower zone (Vmax plane), is at a higher position. A thicker lower zone is
consistent with a slower cooling rate, high oxidation states at the top-
most of the profile, and a relatively higher temperature required for a
higher Ti-Mag fraction, as can be inferred from the highest susceptibility
values observed in the PC profile (Fig. 10). A higher Ti-Mag fraction in
24 C.I. Caballero-Miranda et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 311 (2016) 9–28
Fig. 10 (continued).
the PC profile is also in agreement with the relatively lower viscosity
proposed for the lava flow unit V by Delgado et al. (1998), since lower
viscosity lavas usually have compositions with higher Fe content. Lava
with a lower viscosity may induce less strain and lower Pj values may
result as it is observed in the PC profile in comparison with the RM pro-
file. We suggest that these features are consistent with a less intense
and shorter lava-inflated process.
Within the upper zones of all three flows opposed imbrication in re-
lation to the flows occur, although the K1 and K3 axes are better defined
in the PC and RM profiles (Fig. 9a and b, Table 3) suggesting similar flow
conditions for both. The upper zone within the CU profile shows both
positive (7/16 specimens) and opposed (8/16) imbrication in an imper-
fect mixed alternation without any vertical position preference (see ver-
tical K1 variation in Fig. 9c). Two possibilities can explain this magnetic
fabric orientation. (a) Low flow velocities produce lower shear strain in-
tensities (Fig. 12c), which may decrease the accuracy in AMS measure-
ments. (b) Lava flow with higher resistance to flow due to the formation
of a solid or semisolid phase in this zone may favor inner rotations of
parts of flow in semisolid phase. Since the CU profile is very near to
the distal flow boundary, a lower velocity and a partial semisolid flow
are both plausible.
Irregular imbrication within middle zones of the RM and CU profiles
(Fig. 11d and e) occurs around the Vmax and the line (sheet in 3D) of no
shear strain (Merle, 1998). It agrees with the lowest elongation of ellip-
ses and corresponds to the lower anisotropy degrees and frequently
changes in AMS shapes observed. These conditions might additionally
favor a lower accuracy in AMS measurements. Middle zone height is re-
lated to the Vmax plane but its thickness may be related to the rate of
change of the flow velocity above and below the Vmax along the profile
(Fig. 12a, b, and c). For example, the lack of a middle zone in PC might be
explained with sudden changes in flow velocity above and below the
Vmax position. The decreasing-up values of Pj within the upper AMS
zone of the PC profile (Fig. 10a) may be explained by a sudden decreas-
ing rate of flow velocity (Fig. 12a). The proposed model attempts to con-
sider all of these variations (Fig. 12a). Within the RM and CU profiles,
the middle AMS zones may be explained by less sudden changes in
 C.I. Caballero-Miranda et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 311 (2016) 9–28 25

Fig. 11. Models of strain ellipses, presumably AMS ellipsoids projections along z–x and z–y planes (z is vertical, x is flow direction) during a flow-induced shear strain. (a) Starting point of
no flow and no deformation time = 0. In diagrams (b) to (e), maximum flow velocity (Vmax) is dotted red arrow, pairs of half arrows indicate sense of induced shear strain and bottom
velocity (Vb) is =0. (b) Is when flow starts, time = 1. (d) Is when a crust has formed and top flow velocity (Vt) is =0; Vmax is around the half of the flow moving column, reversing the
sense of shear; time = 2. In (c) and (e), an unspecific amount of pure shear has been added for times 1 and 2 which could correspond to flow weight, flattening ellipsoids and producing
horizontal maximum axes along sections are around line of maximum flow velocity. Diagrams (f) and (g) show AMS ellipsoids projected in an orthogonal to flow vertical plane with some
vertical shortening (see text for more explanation). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

the decreasing flow velocity next to the Vmax position and then a The thickest middle zone is within the CU profile where it is
thicker sheet of no induced shear strain to minimum induced shear subdivided in two subzones (Figs. 9c and 10c), both with perpendicular
strain evolve (Fig. 12b and c). to flow lineation and not well-defined magnetic foliation, features not
26 C.I. Caballero-Miranda et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 311 (2016) 9–28

Fig. 12. Models showing vertical flow velocity variation, along flow profiles and AMS ellipsoids imbrication and elongation distribution along a z–x plane (a–c) and a z–y plane (d); Vmax is
a dotted arrow and half arrows represent induced shear strain. (a) A model with a near half vertical position of Vmax, decreasing velocity along a narrow vertical transect (near concave
shape of velocity curve); possible the case of PC profile. (b) A model with a lower position of Vmax, a higher relative velocity which produces more elongate AMS ellipsoids in the lower
flow zone and decreasing velocity along a wider vertical section (convex shape of velocity curve); possible the case of RM profile. (c) A model with position of Vmax similar to (b) but a
relative lower velocity producing less elongated AMS ellipsoids in the lower flow zone, decreasing velocity along an even wider vertical section; possibly the case of CU profile. (d) A model
on a perpendicular to flow plane showing effects of shortening and of a slight spreading flow movement induced by an irregular paleoslope dipping perpendicular to the main flow
direction; both effects produce plunging on axes along middle zone section and imbrication angle toward the spreading direction. Models generated with CizHet program for
heterogeneous deformation (Tolson, 2009).

observed in the other profiles. We speculate that the transverse to flow
lineation of ellipsoids may correspond to a component of the spreading
direction induced by irregularities of the paleoslope in a low velocity
(Fig. 12d).
At some specific levels within the CU and RM profiles in the low-
ermost and topmost part of them (crosses and stars in Fig. 9b and c),
zones where chilling processes may influence the AMS and size of
magnetic minerals, there are vertical and perpendicular to flow indi-
vidual foliations. Those orientations may be attributed to inverse
fabrics due to SD. Since SD was not always documented, we propose
two alternative explanations. (a) Dragging flow mechanism because
of a higher friction along the thin basal subzone (see less oblate or
even prolate AMS shapes, crosses in Fig. 10b and c). (b) Degassing
and elutriation process, similarly as Gountié Dedzo et al. (2011)
have suggested for vertical AMS fabrics observed in ignimbrites;
the clear basal vesicular structure horizon that includes small pipes
observed in the RM and CU profiles and not in the PC (Fig. 2) may
favor this possibility.
8.3. Flow directions
General flow direction of the lava flow units from the Xitle volcano
can be seen in the aerial photographs represented in Fig. 1 (Delgado
et al., 1998). Flow directions inferred from our AMS study within each
profile agree well with the observed general flow.
Flow direction can be inferred from the AMS ellipsoid imbrication
angles relative to the flow plane. The simplest way to define the imbri-
cation angle from a collection of AMS directions is to find the best plane
of symmetry of the axes distribution perpendicular to the flow plane
(Henry, 1980; Henry et al., 2003; Alva-Valdivia et al., 2005). In the
AMS diagrams of the present study, the flow plane is the equatorial
plane (horizontal plane). Hence the planes of symmetry are vertical.
The best plane may include the K3 mean azimuth (pole of magnetic fo-
liation), the K1 mean azimuth, or both. The more clustered the AMS di-
rections are, the easier it is to define these planes, whereas the more
scattered the AMS directions are, the more difficult it is to define
them. A scattered AMS distribution may be attributed to a less efficient
flow-induced shear strain process (e.g., lower flow velocity, higher vis-
cosity, lower lava temperature, higher chilling rates, and/or paleoslope
conditions).
The dominant AMS imbrication angle obtained from all profiles
points toward the NE and ranges from 7° to 21° (considering both K1
and K3 means). Azimuths from local flow inferences are 38°, 62°, and
54° for the CU, RM, and PC profiles, respectively (Table 3, Fig. 9). This
agrees with the general flow direction of distal facies of BCU and BPSA
observed in aerial photographs (Fig. 1). This dominant imbrication
agrees well with the “positive” imbrication of the lower AMS zone. Not-
withstanding positive imbrication is dominant, within the middle-
upper part of profiles, imbrication is mostly opposed (Figs. 9 and 10)
as reported in other AMS studies on lava flows (Cañón-Tapia et al.,
1996, 1997; Bascou et al., 2005).
Within the CU profile, the possible inferred component of spreading
direction suggested from the AMS ellipsoid orientations in the middle
zone, would correspond to the best vertical plane of symmetry: be-
tween S21W and S67W (data taken from corresponding equatorial dia-
grams on Fig. 9c), whereas the general flow direction in this unique case
would correspond to the other vertical plane of symmetry and would be
toward N21W and N67W.
 C.I. Caballero-Miranda et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 311 (2016) 9–28
9. Conclusions
The within-flow vertical variation of AMS for three basaltic flow pro-
files from the Xitle volcano were investigated and discussed in relation
to heterogeneous deformation due to the lava flow-induced shear
strain. A lower positive and an upper opposed imbrication zone separat-
ed by an intermediate zone of lowest degrees of anisotropy were dis-
criminated. Opposed imbrication has been reported in numerous
works (e.g., Loock et al., 2008) and the zonation of both imbrications
has been noticed in earlier works where individual flows have been
clearly distinguished (e.g., Cañón-Tapia et al., 1995, Walker et al.,
1999, Cañón-Tapia et al., 1996, Cañón-Tapia, 2004).
We present strain ellipse distribution models for different flow ve-
locities assuming similar viscosity, which represent good approxima-
tions for the observed AMS fabrics within the basaltic flows. Proposed
models explain that the vertical variation rate of flow velocity and the
location of Vmax are the main factors that control the formation of the
identified AMS zones, since they control induced shear strain sense
and intensity. Models indicate that the lower AMS zone corresponds
to the zone below the plane of maximum flow velocity (Vmax), the
upper zone to the region above it, and the middle zone to the region
around the Vmax plane. Identification of the AMS flow zones may be
useful to assess the vertical location of the maximum flow velocity.
We inferred that the higher Vmax corresponds to the PC and RM pro-
files, that the higher vertical variation rate of flow velocity is within
the PC profile, that the lowest Vmax is within the CU profile where the
vertical variation rate of flow velocity is also the lowest.
The lower AMS zone is the most conspicuous and shows the most
common features in all places. It shows positive imbrication, better-
clustered AMS directions, and higher anisotropy degree values along
each profile. This is the most reliable zone for inferring flow directions.
It may be broadly recognized because it fits almost perfectly with the
compact structure zone of flows where almost no vesicles were formed.
Our observations suggest that the relative thickness of this zone is
thicker in flows documented as less viscous (PC profile; Fig. 9a).
The middle and upper zones show more variation in AMS directions
and parameters in all profiles and between them. The most scattered
AMS directions and lowest anisotropy degrees are observed within
the middle zone. This zone is the least reliable for inferring main flow di-
rection. It corresponds to the compact structure that includes some
scattered vesicles and to the zone of nearly none shear strain. When
this zone is thinner, or absent, as documented in this work, it is consis-
tent with a more fluid lava flow such as observed in the PC profile, with
a higher absolute maximum velocity and apparently a higher vertical
decreasing velocity rate (from Vmax). The latter condition is consistent
with a very narrow zone of minimum strain (Fig. 12a); this relationship
would explain the absence of the middle AMS zone in the PC profile. Fol-
lowing this idea, a wider middle AMS zone agrees with a wider zone of
minimum induced strain. In our models, a wider middle zone is associ-
ated to lower rate of change of flow velocity (Fig. 12c), and that seems to
occur in the CU profile, which is located at the border of the flow lobe
where flow velocity should decrease at the time of emplacement.
The upper zone records mainly opposed imbrication; the AMS direc-
tions are better clustered compared with the middle zone. It may show
not only opposed but also positive imbrication; these may be due to
flow velocity fluctuations partly perturbed by formation of a semisolid
phase and formation of solidified crust, all of which may alter induced
shear strain sense or intensity. This zone may be useful for inferring
flow direction if considering the opposed imbrication. It may be unam-
biguously identified in the field because it includes most of the vesicle-
structure in the upper part of the flows and exhibits the highest density
content of vesicles with the highest aspect ratios. However, their bound-
aries do not exactly fit with the thickness of the vesicular structure of
the flow.
Identification of AMS zones in a sequence of lava flows is a useful
tool to identify single flows, particularly useful when studying older
27
and partially eroded lava flows and inferring more reliable flow direc-
tions. Our study has shown that the lava zone recognition is important
for elucidating flow dynamics and flow sources and can be helpful for
selecting the part of the flow most advantageous for performing other
experimental paleomagnetic surveys such as paleointensity studies.
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at http://dx.
doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2016.01.003.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by DGAPA-UNAM grant PAPIIT-IN107114.
We thank Gustavo Tolson for letting us use his “toy” CizHet program for
heterogeneous deformation, v.1.0 created for his structural geology lec-
tures since 2009, the program is available at his web page (http://www.
geologia.unam.mx/igl/index.php/tolson-g) or can be requested to the
corresponding author e-mail (cecilia@geofisica.unam.mx). Thanks to
M. Espinosa and V. H. Macías for measurements of magnetic properties
and to M. L. Rivas-Sanchez for the microscopy observations. We ac-
knowledge the useful comments of E. Herrero-Bervera and of the two
reviewers (B. Henry and anonymous). LA thanks DGAPA-UNAM grant
for his sabbatical stay in 2014 at KIT Germany.
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