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CHAPTER 1: THEORY
FUNCTIONALISM

The human body analogy: every institute in a society such as religion, family, education, the
media is analyzed in terms of the relationship it has with the other institutes and the
contribution it makes for the upkeep of the whole system as well.

Just like a human body, social workings are maintained by careful coordination among these
institutes.

Functional Prerequisites: Basic needs of society

Two approaches of identifying them

1. Analyzing societies to discover what factors they have in common such as socialization
of children. These factors are important for the survival of society.
2. Analyzing those factors that would lead to the human society becoming extinct if they
are present, such as an endless conflict which could lead to breakdown of law and order, death
of members or complete indifference of members.

Criticism:
- Needs are assumed by functionalists rather than identified in the real world.
- Societies don’t die. They change.

Ideology of Functionalism:
- Institutes perform social functions- if they are not present, society won’t survive. For
example, Religion is responsible for social solidarity whereas Economy plays a role in
food, shelter and resources. Education performs the function of secondary socialization.
- Harmony and stability is emphasized.

Emile Durkheim
Being a structuralist, Durkheim argued for the influence of society as a whole on
individual members.
‘Social facts’ exist and these regulate, inform and model our behavior.
Society exists over and above the individuals.

Discovering social facts:

1. The cause of a social fact should be found among social facts preceding it. It might be
a chain reaction.
2. It is also related to analyzing its function in society. Social Facts will continue to exist,
if they perform a useful function in society.

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An example of this could be the religion of Islam which started 1400 years ago, but what
are the reasons for its continuing existence?

Organic Solidarity: Based on interdependence that arises from specialization of work

(advanced division of labour). Found in complex industrial societies such as the USA

Mechanical Solidarity: People feel connected through similar work, education, religious
training and lifestyle. It usually operates in traditional or small-scale societies such as the
interior of Sindh and Punjab in Pakistan

Social order and human nature:

-The most important ‘functional prerequisite’ according to Durkheim is social order.
-Conception of human nature.
Are humans self-interested or inherently good? Discussion.
A homo duplex state of human nature; one is inherently self-interested and the other
Is cooperative and considerate. Durkheim says that humans will have to focus on the second
aspect of cooperation if they are to survive as a society.

Collective conscience = a consensus generated by members of society regarding their

common beliefs, sentiments, values and roles in a society.

Collective conscience  must be emphasized on each and every member, according to

Durkheim.

To manage conflict.

How?

Durkheim said these should be done.

1. Teaching of moral values through education.
2. Fairness and equality in society.
3. Existence of professional associations; lawyers, teachers, traders etc.

This is how conflict can be reduced.

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Talcott Parsons:
Social life is characterized by ‘mutual advantage’ and ‘cooperation’ rather than hostility.

In contrast to:

Hobbes:
16TH century political philosopher known for his “Social Contract Theory”, in which he asserts
that the greatly discussed fear of ‘war of all against all’ is due to the primary driving motive of
passion  this implies that humans are self-interested.
However, passions are restricted by the instrument of self-preservation; we realize that we
need to cooperate with each other to survive.

On the other hand, Durkheim argues that humans are inherently good as well. We are homo-
duplex beings; one part is self-interested, the other is moral.
Hobbes talks about the adverse aspects of human nature; says humans cooperate only
because of the fear of what will happen if they don’t.

ParsonsAgrees with Durkheim that there is a moral side to human nature. Society will only
flourish when there is an agreement on its moral fabric.

Parsons’ example of the ‘business contract’.

NOT ONLY SELF-INTEREST

BUT
Laborer entering
into a contract An agreement on moral values will inform
with employer the business contract as well.

Value Consensus:
General agreement on the basic norms and values which bind us as a society.

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Concept box 1.1

General guidelines of behaviour

Values Roles Formed

from norms

expectation of behaviour
according
infusion of to your position.
common values

Social Equilibrium
- Institutionalization of values. Social institutions are performing their function
adequately.
- Behaviour is structured accordingly.

Maintenance of Social Equilibrium

1. Socialization of new members of society according to this equilibrium
2. Social control (handled by law, police, armed forces)
If social equilibrium disappears, a system of anarchy will be introduced. This will be when there
is no political authority present.

4 Functional Prerequisites (Parsons)

1. Adaptation: Related to the economic realm. Social systems must have some degree of
control over their environment. Food / shelter
2. Goal attainment: Related to the political realm. Overarching goals that a society sets
for itself. Government is responsible for goal attainment and the resources needed for
that.
3. Integration: Law is the realm. Legal norms and rules are needed to avoid conflict.
4. Pattern maintenance: Maintenance of values which have been institutionalized i.e.
maintenance of the social equilibrium

Social Change:
Society always changes, due to the existence of “Moving Equilibrium”. Change in any one of
the FP will trigger responses in all the others. Economic recession, for example, leads to a
change in all FPs.

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Social Evolution:
Simple to complex societies. Economic change provides the initial stimulus but it is the realm
of values which is far more important in this evolutionary process.

Parsons says remaining on pattern variables A, a society would not progress. Industrial
societies have adopted pattern variables B.

Pattern Variables A (simple societies) Pattern Variables B (complex societies)

Ascription: Status is ascribed at birth. It Achievement: Status is achieved on the basis
cannot be changed, e.g. Hindu caste system. of merit and hard work
Diffuseness: People enter into social Specificity: People enter into relationships to
relationships to satisfy a range of needs. satisfy specific needs.
Father is responsible for education of
children as well as employing them in the
family farm.
Particularism: Individuals are loyal to Universalism: Individuals have universal
families, neighborhoods, villages. principles.
Affectivity: immediate satisfaction of wants.
Effective neutrality: People save up for the
future and invest resources later.
Collective orientation: People put the Self-orientation: People are individualistic
interests of the whole group before theirs. here.

Social Differentiation:
Every institute specializes in its respective function. For e.g. family in socialization, economy
in satisfying needs and wants, religion in integration.
Thus, integration of all these specialized institutes becomes problematic. This is due to the
process of social differentiation. So. Functional Prerequisite Pattern Maintenance becomes
important to have all the institutes integrated into one whole.

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1. Merton: The Problem of Functional Unity:

Functionalists state that all parts of a society work together for the maintenance and
integration of society as a whole. Merton disagreed.
Merton said that ‘functional unity’ is highly doubtful in complex societies.
He gives an example of a society with a variety of faiths. Religion will divide rather than
unite. Look at increased violence for Muslims in India, Myanmar.
‘Functional Unity’ is a matter of degree. Its extent must be investigated.
- Societies have become complex and differentiated
- Religious pluralism (multiple religions in society) is a divisive force
- It is not necessary that all parts of the social system will be contributing to its
maintenance.

2. Problem of Universal Functionalism:

Not every part of the social system performs a positive function.
Functions, dysfunctions, non-functions exist.
Dysfunction: Institutes contribute in a negative way.
Poverty is limiting the poor from attaining good jobs, an affluent lifestyle.
But for the elite, it’s a function.
Because who will work as a janitor?

3. Problem of Indispensability:
No institute is indispensable (irreplaceable).
They can be replaced. Family, social stratification can be replaced by another institute
Religion can be replaced by communism. It was done in the former Soviet Russia.
Democracy can be replaced by dictatorship. It has been done so many times in
Pakistani history

Functionalism- General Criticisms:

1. Teleology:
Functionalists confuse effects and show them to be causes.
Davis and Moore talk about social stratification (social inequality) as being responsible for
various problems in society. However, social inequality is itself caused by government
policy, education system and racial discrimination.
Inequality is an effect rather than a cause here. Try to discover its causes rather than
arguing for its indispensability.
2. Assessing effects of institute:
- It is important to assess the net impact an institute has on society.
Net Impact:
Who will assess dysfunctions, de-merits, negative aspects?
Why can’t we measure the positive effects of an institute like an organism? Because
societies keep changing. They don’t die.
Very impractical to apply the human analogy to societies because in the human body,
we are aware of the positive contribution of organs.

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3. Value Consensus:
Has been heavily criticized.
a) It is taken for granted to exist rather than empirically shown to be.
b) Society may be existing precisely because such a consensus is absent. For example if
the poor want the same benefits, they might resist the social order.
c) Consensus is not a necessary and sufficient condition for social order. Other factors
must contribute to the order and maintenance of society.

4. Determinism
Is human behavior completely determined by the social system?

People are seen as creations of the system by functionalists.
However, humans might be involved in constructing their own social reality.

5. Coercion and conflict in society

- Coercion and conflict is there.

- No space for conflictive picture of society in functionalist analysis.
- Some elitist groups might be generating consensus in the first place.
- Conflict is the main source of instability and disorder in every society, according to
Lockwood, which functionalists ignore.

DESPITE the criticisms, functionalism is a very important perspective. Durkheim’s work and
many of his basic assumptions still inform sociological research and theorization.

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Marxism
- Humans are producers and products of society.
Economic, religious, social aspects are interlinked.

Economic sphere is the basic foundation of society.

History is a process of dialectical materialism: a tension between two incompatible forces

which move history forward.

Conflict between means and relations of production

Conflict between human consciousness and objective reality.

Means of production are the factors of production for e.g. land, labour, and capital
Relations of production are the relationships that arise due to the ownership of means of
production by some.

Conflict comes onto the stage of human evolution, after the creation of private property and
the state. A tiny minority now gains at the expense of the vast majority.
Other social institutions might also be supporting these new arrangements.

For instance, religion might be talking about private property and not about the rights of the
labourer.
- In medieval times, the popes/bishops were powerful in the economic sphere as well as
the religious sphere.
Today, political leaders convert their economic resources into political power.

Alienation of labour
1. People need to see themselves in the objects they produce. If they are unable to do so
and assign an independent existence to these, they will be alienated from their own
creations and in turn, be ruled by them.
Rather than visualizing them as our own creations, we tend to assign these an
independent existence.
Humanity must abolish alienation in the economic infrastructure, says Marx.

Products today are commodified:

- for sale according to the market forces of demand/supply
- humans have become alienated from their own products
- however, productive labour is the most important and primary human activity

Alienation and Capitalism

- Demand for profit determines wages, work hours, production techniques etc.
- Workers see their work as a means to an end (wages) rather than valuing it as an end
in itself.
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Workers are affected by the demand for necessities of life.

Labourers become alienated from themselves and their products, after engaging in capitalist
labour.

Marx argues that Capitalist society is a product of human societies. It does not have an
independent existence of its own.
Who owns the final products then? Capitalists, driven by the profit motive, own the product.
Production is determined by forces of demand & supply in capitalist society.

Marxist conception of Communism:

It was the creation of the state which led to the initiation of private property in human
societies for example, it was when the British came to the subcontinent and introduced
property laws. In Europe it happened in the Industrial Age. This led to a minority elite
controlling the production as well as the means of production.

Therefore, Marx argues for the following:

- Abolish the structure of private property.
- Let everything be communally owned.
- Every labourer should get according to his NEED AND WORK.
- In this communist utopia, each act of industrial production will take place
communally and its produce will also be communally owned.

Industrial goods are owned as well as controlled by the workers.

Class:
Classes have antagonisms and continue a never-ending conflict among themselves: the elite
class versus the working class.
One class gains at the expense of the other. Capitalism, in Marxist terms, is essentially about
the struggle between these two classes.

Concept box 1.3

Two Class Model

Ownership of the means of production determines one’s power in the relations of

production

Bourgeoisie and Proletariat

Conflict
Bourgeoisie: Ruling class
Proletariat: Workers

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Class and Consciousness:

Bourgeoisie don’t realize that what they are doing is wrong.
Class conflict stems from false class consciousness. The elements of the bourgeoisie think that
they are contributing to the maintenance of society by being in all out support for the status-
quo.
On the other hand, the proletariat see the maintenance of this status-quo as the natural order
of society.

- The dominance of the bourgeoisie also pervades the super structure of society. Their
ideology is the dominant element in laws, religious edicts and political legislation.

However, the process of dialectical change will not allow this false consciousness to
continue indefinitely in the material world.

Concept 1.4
The veil of False Class The proletariat will
Consciousness became a ‘class for
Is lifted itself’ rather than being
a ‘class in itself’

Think of Faiz Ahmed Faiz’s ‘Hum dekhen gay’

A ‘Class in Itself’: Members of society who share the same objective relation to the means of
production.
A ‘Class for Itself’: When members are fully conscious of the true nature of their situation.
They are aware of ‘reality’:
- Become aware of their own exploitation at the hands of capitalists, the proletariat will
challenge the status-quo.

Social Transitions:
From Feudalism to Capitalism
- In this transition, everyone was earlier driven by the profit motive. Colonies were made
which had valuable resources such as gold and spices. Ships were dispatched to get
spices from the subcontinent
- Bourgeoisie (the new merchant class) became a class for itself, displacing the feudal
lords.
- The relations of production were displaced by the new ones, since the relationship of
the feudal-tenant could not survive the change in means of production from land to
industry.
Capitalist owners Wage workers
- The superstructure gradually came under the influence of bourgeoisie dominance.

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Capitalism to Communism
- Why is capitalism faulty? According to Marx, there are inherent contradictions within
the capitalist system. It leads to a concentration of wealth in the hands of a few,
leading to poverty of the masses.
- At the moment, the proletariat does not possess the power to change the means of
production, as the bourgeoisie did so at the onset of the industrial revolution.
However, it’s due to the contradiction within capitalism itself that will lead to its death.
CONCEPT BOX

Contradictions of capitalism

 Accumulation of wealth in fewer hands

 People are laid off, wages decrease, mergers and acquisitions
reduce employment
 Products remain unsold; ultimately market crashes
 Seen in 1929 (WW2), the Occupy movement, 2008 recession.
 A time will come when private property will be abolished due to
the dictatorship of the proletariat. Bourgeoisie will be overthrown
by the proletariat in this proletariat revolution.

Critique:

1. History has failed to corroborate Marx’s views on social change. Class conflict has
become less intensive and through the agencies of state and bureaucracy, it has
become institutionalized.
Also, there is a new middle class which is increasingly influential in modern times
because it comprises of professionals and managers. There are no more 2 classes in
society.
2. Communism itself has not been the answer (think USSR, China in 1970’s and earlier
European communist states). Significant amount of inequity existed in these regimes,
in addition to state oppression.
3. Economic factors are not the sole determining factors of social change and social
organization.
Aspects of the superstructure are very important too.
Example:
Max Weber’s theory of the Protestant reformation of 14th-15thcenturies where a
change in religious beliefs triggered a social change (overall).
Prophet Muhammad (Peace be Upon Him) - before a change in the economic base,
there came a change in the religious organization of Arab society; moral values were
transformed by Islam first.
4. Marx is also seen as a crude positivist, highlighting cause-and-effect relationships in
society. Society is seen as an over-arching influence on human beings, leaving little
space for individual interpretation and consciousness.

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5. He does not foresee the emergence of the welfare state which neutralized many
problems that the proletariat faced in the early 19th century.
6. He leaves out elements of ethnicity, gender, race and religion in his analysis of
dialectical materialism focusing only on the two-class model.
Conflict exists in other aspects of society as well.

A Defense of Marx

1. Defenders of Marx would argue that Marx is not presenting a one-sided view of reality
in which the economic base is the most important aspect of society. Rather, he focuses
on aspects of the super-structure, too, in his analysis.
2. Dialectical materialism might not be unidirectional. It has many dimensions, say
supporters of Marx.
Engels  Economic base is very important but it is not the sole determinant of
historical progress.
3. John Cassidy (Marx is back!)
 Marx correctly identified the coming of globalization – opening up of Hardees in
North Nazimabad! – Capitalists constantly exploring new markets.
 Work force especially in the third-world countries faces consistent problems.
Accumulation of wealth in fewer hands as more and more power in the hands of a
few multi-national companies.

READ UP ON WALLERSTEIN’S WORLD SYSTEMS THEORY.

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Neo-Marxism
 Inspired by Marx but gives a distinctive outlook of society.

Antonio Gramsci:
 Ownership of the means of production is not a sufficient condition for the ruling class
to hold onto power indefinitely.
 The ruling class needs to make periodic concessions to the other classes because other
classes are aware of being exploited to some extent.
 The Culture of society is very significant (The media, religion, family etc). It is also a
battle ground for conflict.
 ‘Divisions within classes’ along ethnic and gender lines are very important too. There
are groups within the proletariat and the bourgeoisie.

Critique on Neo-Marxism:

1. Neo-Marxists do not give an alternative to Marxian conception of society. [They will

criticize Marx but not provide an alternative solution].
2. They are unable to identify when cultural factors precede economic ones and vice
versa. [When are cultural factors important and when are economic factors
important?)

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Conflict Theory
- The main parameter of conflict theory is division on the basis of ethnicity and gender
not just social class. Parties could also be formed on the basis of other factors apart
from class. Conflict can arise from ethnic, gender, cultural or religious differences.
- Society is quite complex in reality. One cannot neatly just divide it into the capitalists
and labourers. According to Ian Craib, “Society is a confused battleground.”
- Groups in society are not solely concerned with economic power. They might strive for
other goods which are clearly distinguished from economic goals e.g. religious, cultural
domination.

Dahrendorf:
- Most of the countries in Western Europe and especially the USA and UK have become
post-capitalist societies. Thus, Marx’s analysis of the process of industrialization in the
early 18th and 19th centuries is not applicable to these post-capitalist societies.
- A middle class has emerged. White collar professionals have emerged; teachers,
nurses, doctors.
- The polarization that Marx anticipated between capitalists and labourers has relatively
become weaker with the passage of time.
The proletariat cannot rise up because the powerful middle class supports the
capitalists.
- The managerial class has become very important. Although it does not own means of
production, it still exercises major control over important decisions.

Authority:
Authority is the power which is legitimized and is based on one’s role in an organization.
Conflict in post-capitalist societies arises from the different spheres of authority in every
organization.

Authority and quasi-groups:

- Difference of interests between dominant and subordinate groups.

- In every institution, there are dominant and subordinate groups. Dominant group
members want to go with the existing order of things, while the subordinate class
wants to change these. Also, a group or an individual with authority in one institution
might be powerless in others. For example, a manager can be dominant in a factory but
a subject in a religious group.

Critique:
1. Can Dahrendorf’s approach really explain conflict? He does not exactly point out when
the subject groups will go with the authority of dominant groups or when will they
challenge it.

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2. Marxist Westergaard believes that the UK is still divided between two classes. Thus,
inequality in society has gradually worsened with the passage of time. There is no
emerging middle class as such.
3. Dahrendorf’s approach is ‘macroscopic’ and fails to incorporate individual
interpretation of changes in society.
4. It produces a very dazed picture of society. There are too many conflicts, with many
dominant and subject groups.

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Weberianism:

Max Weber:
A structuralist who studies individual behaviour
1. Although he incorporates society into his framework, he does not give an independent
existence to it.
Rather, individuals are the ones who are doing social actions in a society.
2. Science should concern itself with the interpretive element as well as the cause-effect
relationship.

Social Action:
- An action carried out by an individual to which he attaches meaning.
Implies that social action takes into account reaction of other individuals. Also implies
that it is not accidental or random.
Concept Box 1.6
How does one understand Social Action?

1. Observational understanding  happens due to direct observation of the

phenomena. For example: Sir Taimur becoming angry in the class.
2. Explanatory understanding  you try to find out the meanings of it. You imagine
yourself in the actor’s shoes. For example, we imagine ourselves in Sir’s shoes and
see he’s angry because the kids are absent.
3. Causal explanations  understanding the context of a social action
Example = Sir Taimur is angry because he wants all the socio kids to secure good
grades.

Example by Weber
1. Capitalism comes into existence after Ascetic Protestant beliefs came to the surface.
2. There must be some aspects of Ascetic Protestantism which led to the emergence of
capitalism for e.g. its focus on hard work, honesty, business entrepreneurship.
3. The societal context:
(i) People focused on the material world now.
(ii) Emergence of trade colonies.

Exam practice:
1. Functionalism comprehensively explains all aspects of social order in modern industrial
societies.
Introduction:
Thesis

Body

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Anti-Thesis

Conclusion
Thesis: Functionalism covers all aspects of social order in modern industrial societies
Durkheim, Parsons, Merton.

Anti-Thesis: Marx, Feminists, Engels. Social order is an illusion.

Criticisms of both perspectives

Conclusion: Never become too forceful or too sure of your thesis. Otherwise, you will be
perceived as a biased academic.
Safe approach: just summarize your thesis.

Essay Response: Parts of a Question

Terms and their meanings
Assess: Examine the strengths and weaknesses of an argument. When assessing a
sociological approach, the majority of the marks are for criticisms rather than for
description and illustration.
Explain: Identify the reasons for something. Illustrate by citing (using) relevant sociological
examples.
3. The Break-up of Marks:
Paper 1 = 25% of final grade
Paper 2 = 25% of final grade
Paper 3 = 50% of final grade
4. Three things to be concerned about in the answer.
(i) Knowledge-textbook, notes-40% and 30%
(ii) Application-examples from society. News articles ideal-30%.
(iii) Criticisms/evaluation-textbook, notes-30% and 40%

Outlines for your answer

‘Marxism is still relevant in modern sociological inquiry.’ Assess this claim.
Outline:
Thesis = He is still relevant
Use the subject matter of Marxist thought
Analyze means/relations of production
Analyze the capitalist epoch
Economic base/super structure
The two class model
Example: Recession in 2008 (Wall Street protests)
Current EU crisis
The pathetic working conditions for labourers in the third world
Criticisms of Marx
Anti-Thesis: Functionalist Durkheim, Parsons

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Feminist
Ann Oakley
Cheshire
Criticisms of Functionalists/ Feminists
Conclusion: Summary of arguments.

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Weber-Social Action and Bureaucracy:

Modern societies in Weber’s work are based on rationalization. Traditional and emotional
causes for actions are becoming less common.
E.g. prophetic societies, Mughal society in India, Medieval times---emotional attachment to
kings, ties of devotion and loyalty.

Bureaucracy: “Hierarchy of full-time paid employees who are involved in a chain of

command”. E.g. a cricket team, army, the school. An institution that closely monitors and
directs human behavior.
In modern societies, there is much need to manage, control, and coordinate the efforts of
members of society especially in large-scale tasks.

Types of Actions:
1. Emotional Action: From an individual’s emotional state, example expression of
happiness at a birthday party.
2. Traditional Action: Based on customs and shared values, e.g. having Sawiyan before
Eid Prayer. Speaking in a low tone in the presence of elders.
3. Rational Action: Clear understanding of the action’s purpose. The actor knows the goal
of his action. E.g. the city administration’s action to construct a fly-over.
Rational action has pervaded all spheres of human life in modern times. From classical
music to administration of a city’s civic life, it is the dominant mode of action. This is
referred to as rationalization of society in Weber’s work.

Legitimacy
Voluntary submission to higher authority. Power, when it has a legitimate clothing, is
referred to as authority for e.g. we are under the authority of the state.

Concept Box 1.7

Social Action Based on
1. Traditional Action Traditional customs
2. Emotional Action Emotional attachment
3. Rational Actions On the process of
rationalization, individuals
have a clear
understanding of the
goals of actions.
Resultant authority
Traditional authority
(Muftis, kings, tribal leaders)
(Prophets,
Charismatic leaders like
Bhutto)
Rational-legal authority
(police, laws)

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Charismatic Authority:
1. Fluid organizational structure
2. Emphasis on the personality of the charismatic leader  Jesus’ disciples were
impacted by his personality
3. No fixed hierarchy
4. No rules for formation of leader and followers
5. No economic base, followers rely on plunder or charity
6. After the death of the founding leader, the authority might become routinized

Traditional Authority
1. Household which includes parents, relatives, servants
2. Vassals such as landlords, who swear loyalty to kings
3 Of little importance in contemporary societies but exists in Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, UAE

Rational-Legal Authority
 Modern societies are moving towards a bureaucratic organization of social life.

The ideal bureaucracy

1. Official Duties are there. Complex tasks are broken down into simpler ones. Each
official specializes in a particular task.
2. A principle of hierarchy is at work; a chain of command exists where lower officials are
responsible for their actions to the higher-ups.
3. Abstract rules define authority of different officials. Obedience to these rules
originates from their perceived correctness  strict discipline in observance of rules.
4. Officials are formal and impersonal. Sentiments cannot come in the workplace.
Business of the organization does not incorporate personal whims and emotions.
5. Officials are appointed only on the basis of technical knowledge and expertise.
6. Private and official spheres are distinguished. Officials cannot use their positions for
personal gains or advantages. Promotions are seniority or expertise-based.

The Technical Superiority of Bureaucracy:

- Bureaucracies are technically superior over charismatic and traditional organizational
structures
- Although some form of bureaucracies have been existing in the past, it is in modern
industrial societies that they fully come to the surface.
- This technical superiority is based on specialist skills of employees.
- As a result, technical tasks are performed efficiently, with lower costs and less friction
between officials.

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Bureaucracy and Freedom:

-ve Aspects of bureaucracy
 Human freedom is limited since people are restricted to strict controls.
 Spontaneity, creativeness and innovation is hampered as a result.
 There are ‘Specialist Officials without Spirit’ (No intrinsic satisfaction)
 Bureaucrats have become preoccupied with rules and regulations. In time, they have
become immensely dependent on these rules for their security.
 It is here that rationalization becomes irrational for Weber. It is ultimately aimless,
since it tends to destroy the traditional values that give meaning and purpose to life.
 2 dangers of bureaucracies in future?
1. Bureaucrats will not be able to handle situations of crisis. They are trained to
follow orders, not to take initiatives.
2. He was fearful of the marriage of bureaucratic interests to capitalistic interests.
Thus, interest groups will be created as a result.

Solutions
 Introduce strong principles of representative democracy.
 Make bureaucrats accountable to politicians, who are chosen representatives of the
people.

Critique on Weberianism:
1. There is methodological individualism; Weber thinks actions can be explained through
isolated individuals interacting with each other, a position which is criticized by
structuralists.
2. His point of view of humans acting on the basis of their motives cannot be
incorporated in his analysis of the bureaucracy as an institution inhibiting human
freedom.
3. Stewart Clegg says that organizations have become much more flexible, less
hierarchal. Organizations governed by rigid rules are not the sole form of
organizations in modern industrial societies
4. Democratic control of organizations can weaken the ‘iron-cage’ bureaucracy of Weber.
People can challenge bureaucracies in the modern world, control them democratically
and only let them achieve those goals which people agree to. (Ray and Reed).

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Ritzer-McDonaldization of society:
+ Reflects on how modern institutions have become rigid bureaucracies in the modern world.
These are based on a rational calculus, and strive for profits.
+ Companies are driven by profits.
Ritzer says the model of bureaucracy is more impersonal today, even inhumane in some cases.

Principles of McDonalds:
1. Efficiency: Efficiency is sought today. Optimum way of doing things. Moscow eye
surgery example, MCQs in Educational institutes. McDonalds has become a substitute
for quality of food. Food is prepared without utensils, less time for consumption, drive
through is also there, serve yourself.
2. Calculability: ‘count everything’ in numbers. Amount of cars you have, weight of the
burgers, number of course evaluations and publications in academies.
3. Predictability: similarities exist. The restaurant chain shares the same ambiance inside
the restaurant throughout the world logos, burger quantities, and burger boxes.
Same style of interior, scripted interaction between customer and waiters, strict dress
code for all, patterns of behaviour Hamburger University.
4. Control: Predictability is only possible if there are stringent forms of control present.
Customers are controlled too, such as uncomfortable chairs in eateries. Workers are
controlled by technology e.g. (Motion Sensor) – Switching off flow of drinks and apt
behavior norms.

The ‘Irrationality’ of Rationality:

1. Since everything is an illusion, efficiency, calculability etc are not perfect in actuality.
2. For the customers, things are expensive. (Compare a zinger at home to zinger at KFC).
3. For lower grade workers, work is routinized and monotonous which makes it boring.

 ‘Pseudo-events’ – events that are staged but present an image of being an actual
reality.
 Media – press releases – all things are staged.
Health: Physical health (Cholesterol, Fat): the health of the ecosystem is low.
Dehumanization: you become an automaton.
 Interactions are routinized, minimal

Criticism
1. Ritzer’s definition is quite wide – which makes him incorporate several analysis into the
concept of McDonaldization.
2. Post-Fordism advocates – Institutions are less bureaucratic; less need for standardized
products.

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Symbolic Interactionism:
Exploring Social Action in terms of the meanings individuals give to them

Mead:
1. Human thoughts, actions and experiences are social.
How do we interact?
2. Humans depend upon symbols in their interactions with each other. Symbols are
largely contained in language.
3. Language is nothing but a collection of symbols.

 Categorization is very important in language, since it also impacts the reactions expected
of particular objects.
Meanings of symbols are dependent upon the way humans perceive them. Necessary for
human survival since humans are not genetically programmed to react to events.

Role Taking: Shared meanings are necessary in order for interaction to proceed. Role-taking
is important. We tend to put ourselves in others’ shoes and base our actions on this
empathy.

Meaning of Symbols
Social life can only proceed if meanings of symbols are largely shared by members of society.
Through role-taking, individuals develop a concept of the “SELF”.
SELF

I Me
Denotes Denotes your specific views
holistic or of yourself based on different
comprehensive concept of yourself roles
E.g. do you see yourself as
a good friend/parent?

 Essential for becoming a human being.

 Crucial in forming thoughts and actions.
The concept of self is learned during childhood
 Play Stage: – Self starts developing here. We tend to empathize with different role
models. Children take up the roles of others while playing “teacher-student” or
“Doctor-patient”.
 Game Stage: - See ourselves in relation to others. Expresses a specific view of yourself,
based on different roles.

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Roles
Mead’s model of variety of human actions:
Humans still have a considerable choice as to how they behave
1. Cultural demands are not specific.
2. Individuals have a huge amount of choice to pursue particular roles.
3. Some roles are built on diversity.
4. Sub-cultures are there, society is not a monolith. It is up to us which subcultures to join.
5. At times, it may become difficult for us to frame our actions in accordance with our
roles.
 We are not only shaping social environment but also being shaped by it.

Herbert Blumer:
 Student of Mead and had a better understanding of symbolic interactionism.

The basic premises of Blumer’s model:

1. Human beings act on the basis of meanings that they give to particular objects and
events. Biological and societal determinism is rejected.
2. Meanings originate from interaction itself rather than being external to it. It is
particular interactions and objects and events that influence our society.
3. These meanings are derived from interpretive mechanisms during interaction.
These interactions keep on happening and meanings keeps on evolving.
Rather than remaining fixed (capitalist, labourers, religion etc.)

Blumer: (Social Action – Social Systems)

Actions are gradually routinized. However, such routinization only involves general guidelines
of behaviour. Much room for maneuver, negotiations, evolving actions.

Criticism on the interactionist perspective:

1. Does interaction happen in a vacuum?
Where is the social context?
(Example: Why are they discussing Sociology)
We just know by their interaction that they are doing so. Not why?
2. Do not explain the origin of norms which tend to reinforce our behaviour time and
again. Why are these norms regenerated? Interactionists fail to explain that.
3. Where do meanings come from? Do we all share the same meanings? They don’t tell us
that.
- Because they don’t give importance to the structure of society.
Examples: Why are blacks considered to be deviant by police?
Why must we throw garbage in dustbins? Why can’t we use it for another purpose?

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Phenomenology
1. Moving a step beyond the interactionists, denies outright the existence of a society.
2. They focus on the working of the human mind and how people classify things.
3. Humans bracket common sense beliefs. Thus, phenomenologists study the
distinguishing features which influence this classification.
Humans tend to derive understanding through their five senses. The classification of
phenomena is a product of the human mind. Thus, it can’t be objective.
 The classification of phenomena was a product of the human mind (Meaning of
black – product of human mind). Refer to Malcolm X-issue with the meaning of
black
 Humans bracket common sense beliefs:
Thus, phenomenologists study the distinguishing features which influence
classification.
 What influences classification? Why are there mammals and non-mammals? We
should focus on the distinguishing features between the two.
 Classifications are a product of the human mind and subjective.

Schutz:
Typifications: concepts which signify classes of things from human experiences.
These shared typifications will give rise to commonsensical knowledge, which is shared by
people.
 Commonsensical knowledge is constantly modified during interactions. It is not fixed.
 This commonsensical knowledge is very subjective and consequently, human notions
of social order are just an illusion. There is no social order as such, people give the
society an orderly appearance.

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Ethnomethodology:

 A study of the methods used by humans to give meaning to the world around them.
Ethnomethodologists also believe that social order is a myth. It is based upon our
perceptions.
This perception allows the social world to be made knowable as well as reasonable.
* Hyperstar example:
* Homicide, premeditated homicide
* Many times our perceptions can be wrong, as they are based on subjective
notions.

Garfinkel:
Documentary Method:
 Selecting certain aspects of any event or object and use it as being indicative of an
underlying pattern. Particular instance of a pattern and the pattern itself are used to
determine each other. This is called reflexivity.

- All Swans are white. So the next Swan will be white.

This is reflexive because it’s based on assumptions.

Reflexivity in suicide situations

e.g. Death of Mr. Watson was a suicide because a suicide note was discovered. But this
commonsensical knowledge applied to Sherlock’s case was faulty because his suicide
note had been written by him under force.

Indexicality –A concept which refers to the fact that the meaning of an action depends on the
social situation in which it occurs.

Counselling Experiment example:

 Students made sense of the answers that didn’t make any sense per se. They perceived
there to be an order when as such, there was no order.
 Since the first answer was reasonable, it was assumed that all other answers were
reasonable.
 Sense of any idea or activity is derived from its context.
 It was a psychiatry department and it was supposed to be a counseling session. That is
why the students indexed it to be so.
Two problems: 1. Reflexivity  Reflexive reason 2. Indexicality

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Ethnomethodology and mainstream society:

Conventional sociology assumes that the social world has an objective reality, which is
rejected by Garfinkel. Humans produce their own social world rather than being shaped by
it.

CRITIQUE
1. Do members lack any ideas or motives of their own? What was the motivation of the
students in Garfinkel’s experiment?
2. No consideration of power and its influences on human behaviour. Members construct
social reality in a context of power play.
3. If members do not recognize the existence of events or objects, are they not impacted
by it?
4. Carried to its extreme, the ethno view point implies that nothing is ever knowable. If
everything is reflexive and indexed, then where is knowledge?

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Anthony Giddens: Theory of structuration

 Neither structure, nor social actions can exist independently. Giddens has tried to
unite macro and micro theories, like Weber.
 Social actions create, reproduce and structure allows the possibility of social action in
the first place.

Rules:
Procedures that individuals follows in social life. E.g. paying the shopkeeper, otherwise it’s
considered theft.

Two aspects of structure; Rules & Resources

Resources:
Allocative resources: Raw materials, land and machinery etc.
Authoritative resources: non-material resources they originate when someone
dominates others. For example in a family, parents dominate children and control
them socially, economically.

Social Systems:
1. A system of social relationships that exist over a particular time and space  they keep
on changing. E.g. Talpur Sindh, Mughal India
2. Human actions are hugely influenced by the social structure (think routine activities
you perform).
They are also using resources that the social structure provides.
-Agents don’t have to behave as others do. If objectives are not achieved, actions may
change.
Agency and Reproduction
1. Giddens notes that human agents are constantly intervening in the world by their actions, and
in doing so, they’ve the capacity to transform it.
2. Agents know how to go about their everyday lives and accomplish objectives. This is because
agents are drawing upon their knowledge of the rules of the society, which exist in the society’s
structure.
3. Humans have a basic desire for some level of predictability in social life. They trust that the
natural and social worlds are as they “appear to be”.

Criticism
1. Archer says Giddens has made the two approaches very tight. Can free will and limits
on human action be reconciled together? Probably, structured features of society
cannot be changed at will especially in a fast framework of time.
2. Criticism by Marx – material resources will also impact our lives even if we do not use
them. Flood destroying crops e.g. water logging, salinity.
3. Which of these factors comes into play first: social structure or human agency?

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Modernity, Postmodernity and Postmodernism

Modernity
- Belief that a comprehensive theory of society can be found.
- Belief in objective truth (that can be tested and verified)
Marx, Durkheim, Weber, Ritzer, Giddens
- Believe in progressive advance and triumph of rationality. Reason will supersede
religion, myth, tradition.
- Originates from the enlightenment movement.

Post Modernism
- Denies the possibility of an overarching framework to explain society.
- Denies the possibility of any objective truth.
- There are no avenues for perfectibility of human condition, people are pessimistic
about the future and the triumph of rationality.
- Enlightenment project has been abandoned.
- Truth cannot be found in metanarratives, scientific research analysis.

Creation of knowledge-Lyotard
Language game: People use language to condition society around them and their
behavior. {How language can be manipulated?}

Three types of language games:

Traditional- Narrative: Telling of stories, myths by an authoritative figure. Found in simple
societies.
Modern-Detonative language: The only thing that matters is whether what one is telling is the
truth or not. Does not matter who’s telling it.
Postmodern-Technical Language: Based on the usefulness of language.

- Can Science really be separated from social life?

- In the end, even science depends on metanarratives.

- Even science and its research are based upon the goals of few.
- There is no objective reality, where goals are subjective.
- Subjective interpretations.
- Nothing can be taken as “certain” in science.
- Science is not value-free.

- No one has the monopoly over truth in the postmodern world.

- Everything is judged according to the use it has for people.
- The search for truth is abandoned.
- Detonative language games are replaced by technical games.
- Control over knowledge is a major source of power in post-modern society.

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Why is USA threatened by China now?

- In terms of knowledge, Intellectual Property rights.
Lyotard – A Critique
1. Makes sweeping generalizations about the direction of human development; making
moral judgements on many matters.
2. The evidence that he uses to support his claims is sparse.
3. His concept of language games does not incorporate his inclination for diversity in
human action.
4. Eagleton remarks that Lyotard’s advocacy of technical games only strengthens
capitalism.

Baudrillard and Simulations

Buying and selling images with little relation to material objects.
Simulacrum: Something that is non-existent, nor ever was. E.g.: Disneyland, Los Angeles
Science and technology destroying the originality of many social aspects. If one is unable to
capture social reality, then how can one change it?

Critique:
- Denying the possibility of an objective reality of society is very dangerous. Then,
possibly, every interpretation of society becomes equally valid and desirable. Joker in
Batman; anarchy, total chaos is as good as total harmony. All accounts of the world are
not equally good and political debates are necessary, according to David Harvey.
- Audience is aware that some figment of reality is presented by the media, contrary to
the expectations of postmodernists.
- Yes, media does favour certain view points and this does influence audiences. But, the
audience questions that and distinguishes between reality and TV stories.
- Reality of a society can exist and the one provided by media should be assessed.
- Practical problems deserve our attention too, rather than abstract discussions of
language itself.

GIDDENS AND HIS VIEWS ON MODERNITY

1) Time-space distanciation: now there is a standardized system of recording time which has
made transportation and coordination possible among people.
2) Disembedding mechanism: How relations are lifted out from the local context. It allows
people to relate to and interact with others who do not live in the local area.
1. Symbolic tokens: money which facilitates the exchange of goods and services.
2. Expert systems: people can now do a lot of tasks without knowing their technical
details
3. Trust changing: people trust the expert systems.

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Institutions of Modernity - Giddens

1. Capitalism: by its very nature, it is very unsettling. There is competition for scarce
resources. Production for profit motive. Thus, modernity is unsettling.
2. Industrialism: Mainstay of economy, machinery.
3. Surveillance of the population: Being monitored directly or indirectly.
4. Military Power: nuclear weapons, biological weapons, advanced modes of war.

Apart from these, modernity is a lived experience.

Rejects Weber and Marx’s view of modernity.
Modernity is similar to a “juggernaut”---we can collectively control it but it can get out of
control as well.
Weber said that modernity was experienced in a bureaucratic organization where people had
little freedom. However, Giddens says rather than organizations moving towards rigidity, they
are more autonomous and flexible today.
Marx said that modernity was a monster. With the exploitation of the masses by the capitalist
bourgeoisie.
Giddens does not view modernity in a negative light.
4 Risks
1. Growth of totalitarian power stems from excessive surveillance.
2. Collapse of the economy, stems from capitalism’s unpredictability.
Plus finite nature of resources.
3. Nuclear War Military power and budgets.
4. Environmental Hazards e.g. global warming, nuclear accidents at Chernobyl.

Intervention must be there in order to steer the juggernaut of modernity.

Effects can be unpredictable; however it can be dangerous if the juggernaut is left free.

A Shift from modernity to Postmodernity:

1. Capitalism  Post-scarcity system.
Markets would survive; however, there will be ample goods produced for everyone.
Even the richer countries will share their resources with the poor ones.
People become tired of development and its many negative aspects.
2. Surveillance  Multi-layered democratic participation.
People will become influential in media, organizations, outlets, government schools.
3. Military Power  Demilitarization
People will get rid of standing armies, stock of weapons. They will realize it will be
beneficial for all if we do not go to war. Border disputes will disappear.
4. Technology will become humanized.
People will realize that cloning and transplantation can lead to exploitation. Limits will
be placed on the use of technology.

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Criticism
1. Idealistic image. Kasperson says that Giddens underestimates the influences of class
over our lives. For example, rich doctors will have more choices in their lives than a
single mom.
2. Also, not everybody lives life in the same way. People’s experiences are different and
actions are differently structured. Modernity will be a different experience for
different people. Because their day-to-day lives are different  A life of a lawyer,
shopkeeper, bank manager.
3. Giddens rejects concepts such as culture which influence our reactions to modernity.

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Socialization

Internalizing the norms and values of society.

Functionalists see socialization as a positive process through which an individual becomes a

competent and conforming member of the society.

According to Functionalists:
- Value consensus is created through socialization for maintenance of order.
- Makes the behavior of humans predictable.
- Families are the primary agencies of socialization. Teach particularistic values and have
ascribed status.
- Children are socialized by identifying with rules.
Education is the secondary agency of socialization  Teaches universalistic values and leads
to achieved status-Parsons

Criticism
1. Do not highlight conflict at all in socialization, according to Gouldner. Children do not
accept everything that they are being taught by parents and teachers.
2. Children will not exclusively identify with adults in the formation of their personality.
3. Over socialized view of man, according to Dennis Wrong. Functionalists emphasize
socialization to an extreme extent so that little space is left for human agency.

Marxist Concept of Socialization

- Ideological conditioning both at schools and in families- Cooper.
- Children are not allowed to develop on their own. Taboos exist for them.
- Hidden curriculum in the school, rules and regulations of parents at home. These
hamper the development of the child.
- Family lays down behavior patterns. Children follow them because they have
submitted themselves to those in positions of authority.
- This will happen later in life as well, when they accept the authoritative capitalist
system.
- In school, under the control of teachers and especially through the working of the
hidden curriculum and organizational principles followed in school, children find
happiness in external rewards only.

Critique
- Again, Marxists too exaggerate the success of socialization.
- Children might challenge the authority of parents and school.

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Neo-Marxist Conception of Socialization

Paul Willis’ study of the lads:
Lads challenged the school’s culture by forming a youth subculture.
Although they resisted the school and authority of teachers, they were still socialized
according to the demands of the capitalist system.
Gramsci’s views on dual consciousness: people are indoctrinated through state institutions.
However, their day-to-day experiences shape their identity as well. They are able to see
through the capitalist exploitation.

Critique:
1. Class remains important in neo-Marxist analysis of socialization. However, there are
other sources of inequality as well such as gender, race and ethnicity. Postmodernist
and feminists take them to account for ignoring these.

Symbolic interactionists- Socialization:

Biological maturation necessary for socialization. Definite interaction between biology

and socialization. There is considerable plasticity in our outlook depending upon the
society we belong to.

3 Ingredients of Socialization
What we develop through socialization-Handel
i. Empathy: putting oneself in the shoes of others.
ii. Communicating effectively: acquisition of language, vocabulary, grammar.
iii. A sense of the self: children must be able to distinguish themselves from others the
looking-glass self. Realizing that others are impacted by one’s actions.
Play and game stages are very important for socialization (Mead).

Socialization agents and Peer Groups

- Children are not empty vessels to be filled as Marx or functionalists would have liked
us to believe.

Socialization agents;
Parents  teachers
- They are made accountable for their actions towards children.
- They do have considerable choice in how to socialize children.

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Peer groups:
- Children themselves, here the peer group acts as the reference group. (A group whose
opinion is important to the child and with which the child compares him or herself).

How peer groups socialize:

1. Youthful interactions are developed (making their own rules)
2. Immediate gratification (satisfaction of wants and desires).
3. It may directly contradict with adult socialization agents  friends teach different
things.

Conflict:
Handel’s perspective on socialization is unique because it allows for the possibility of conflict
between agents and children and amongst agents themselves.

Critique:
1. Views are not backed up by empirical research; it just provides a general outline.
2. It does not adequately explain the role of social institutions in the process of
socialization e.g. impact of the family, religion, education system.

Feminist Perspective on Socialization

Ann Oakley:
- Distinct gender roles for men and women, which are derived from culture rather than
biology.
- Parents manipulate the self-image of children and orient the boys and girls towards
different activities. They give them different toys (dolls for girls and Lego blocks for
boys). They also make them do different activities according to gender e.g. the boy will
help the father in plumbing while the girl offers help in dishwashing.
- In schools, too, this segregation continues to happen. Many activities reinforce the
differences between boys and girls and the patriarchal nature of society. Reading
schemes play a role in this too, according to Lobban and Best. Different gender biases
are enforced by the reading schemes; e.g. the princess is always in a need of being saved
by the prince.
- Even media enforces gender differences. Creates stereotypical images for boys and
girls.

Evaluation:
1. Socialization might not involve patriarchal domination of men over women only.
Children might grow up with an egalitarian view of both the genders in some
families.
Audience sometimes rejects the stereo typical images of males and females on T.V.
Children won’t necessary follow parents.

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Gender socialization is a complex phenomenon. There are sometimes many

contradictions and conflicts at play.

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1ST CASE STUDY

BARRIE THORNE
(HOW GENDER ROLES ARE DEVELOPED IN SCHOOLS)
1. Children aged between 5 – 11
2. Two schools

ANALYSIS:
- Gender socialization is a complex process.
- There is not a single set of roles that boys and girls learn.
- Socialization is an active and fluid process which does not solely depend upon one’s
culture (great variation in male and female behavior).
- Teachers sometimes reinforced gender differences; separated sex groups according
to boys and girls. (Contest between boys and girls during lunch time, different lines).
- Boys had most of the ground for themselves. Girls were given small spaces.

REASONS FOR SEGRATION OF SEXES

1. Segregation is more pronounced in schools rather than neighbourhoods. There is less
likelihood of teasing here.
2. Public choosing has gender as one criterion for e.g. in football, boys will choose boys
to be a part of their team.
3. When adults were not there, there was more segregation  Adults usually intervened
to allow the possibility of mixed sex games.
4. BORDER work was there; girls and boys had neatly drawn borders to divide themselves
in the playground. Invasion of one gender group into another one also occurred.

EVALUATION
Seen as a sophisticated theory of socialization. Though, even she admits that her study
moves beyond socialization in certain cases.

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