BAUTISTA, Ghislaine Faye M.

2ASN2 November 04, 2019

ASN3133- Asian Civilization Dr. Arlen Ancheta

Breaking the Dichotomy: The Bugis Tribe and its Centuries-old Nonbinary
Traditions
Introduction
Several weeks ago, a certain religious personality during the hearing of the
proposed Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and Expression (SOGIE) bill in the
Philippines stated that homosexuality is an imported Western concept in the country
(Vergara, 2019). The statement was used to justify the non-passage of the said bill that
will penalize bigotry or discrimination against the members of the lesbian, gay, bisexual,
transgender, queer and questioning (LGBTQ+) community, because apparently it will
compromise Filipino values and culture. The notion that homosexuality or being nonbinary
is an imported Western concept is common not just in the Philippines, but to the whole
Southeast Asia in general. This is primarily because almost all countries have been
colonized by Europeans, with the exception of Thailand (Melwani, 2018). It is true that the
pioneers of the advancement of rights of the LGBTQ+ community in the contemporary
times are Westerns, however, it does not necessarily entail that the concept of being
nonbinary is exclusively to the west and is adopted by Asians.
In fact, Asian communities have had a distinct nonbinary culture like the pre-
colonial Philippines’ babaylan or catalonan who were shamans specialized in
communicating, appeasing and harnessing the spirits of the dead and nature, and were
comprised of women and effeminate men (United Nations Development Programme-
United States Agency for International Development, 2014). Moreover, debatably the
most distinguished group and the epitome of non-binarism in Asia is the Bugis tribe of
Indonesia. The Bugis tribe is one largest ethnic group in Indonesia, and it is principally
known to recognize five genders. Thus, this research will primarily focus on the Bugis
tribe’s acknowledged five genders—their social and spiritual roles, their lifestyle and
behavior, and the state of their progress in a predominantly Islamic Indonesian state.
The 21st century is a vulnerable generation primarily because the holistic
development of nations sometimes mean the omission of history and bodies of knowledge
to support the interest of the few. Therefore, this research is significant to correct the
misconception that non-binarism is a western concept through an in-depth discussion of
the Bugis tribe in Indonesia. It will also serve as a basis to hopefully further the
advancement of the rights of the LGBTQ+ community in Southeast Asia because
historically homophobia and transphobia are alien biases, and most Southeast Asian
communities embraced non-binarism before the rampant colonization (Melwani, 2018).
This study will surely contribute to the body of knowledge in the academe especially in
the field of Gender Studies because this paper contains narratives on the Bugis tribe and
its five genders. Overall, the researcher chose this topic because she hopes that this
research will not just correct a misconception, but rectify a general circumstance that
happens to the members of the LGBTQ+ community.
Discussion
Gender binarism has always been a pervasive Western thought. It loosely means
the dichotomy of gender according to the person’s biological sex, and it was particularly
amplified in Asia when the colonizers have imposed this thought unto the local
communities (Davies, 2007). However, there is a tribe in Indonesia that seems to be
unaffected by this imposition because it maintained its precolonial or indigenous tradition
of having normalized five genders in the status quo despite the prevalent colonization that
happened, and nationwide conversion to Islam starting in the 17th century.
The Bugis tribe is one of the most dominant ethnic groups along with the Makassar
tribe in South Sulawesi or Celebes, Indonesia (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2015). The said
tribe migrated from South China to Sulawesi around 2500 B.C.E (Keats & Pasveer, 2004).
Their primary language is Basa Ugi or Bugis, and they are known for being great farmers,
and maritime workers (Mills, 1975; Kumar & Tiwary, 2009). The Bugis tribe is the epitome
of the integration of Islamic beliefs and indigenous culture. This is principally because
majority of the tribe practices Islam, however, they are particularly distinct for their five
accepted genders. The Basa Ugi language has words to encapsulate the idea of these
genders namely oroane, makkunrai, calalai’, calabai’, and bissu (Graham, 2006).
Oroane is akin to cisgender men, and makkunrai is comparable to cisgender
women. These people’s gender is parallel to the biological sex that were assigned to them
at birth, and their gender expression and identity chiefly fit the universal standard of the
male and female sexuality (Graham, 2006). Their social roles embrace the universal
standards too— an oroane is expected to engage in masculine works that are strenuous
like farming and fishing. Meanwhile, a makkunrai is expected to give birth, to do typical
womanly chores and to manage the household (Graham, 2002). These people do not
usually have distinct characteristics that makes them different from other cisgenders
around the world. However, these people are expected to honor spiritual traditions
through doing their assigned social roles.
In the contemporary time, transgenders have been ubiquitous all over the world,
and this is mostly because society has been tolerant about it. But, the Bugis tribe is not
just tolerant about the concept of transgenders, but very accepting because it is a
noteworthy part of their culture.
Calalai’ etymologically means ‘false men.’ It is a transgendering woman or a
person who is biologically female, but has a masculine gender identity and expression.
These people usually tie their hair, wear men’s clothing, and fashion their sarong the way
how a man would traditionally wear it. They also express themselves in ways that are
commonly frowned upon when done by a cisgender woman e.g. smoking, and walking
alone at night. A calalai’ usually choose to take the roles and functions that are expected
to be done by a cisgender man. They take masculine jobs e.g. being a blacksmith.
Another remarkable phenomenon that is embraced by the Bugis tradition is the fact that
a calalai’ is not compelled to bear children despite the person’s capability. Moreover, a
calalai’ can live with a wife, and their adopted child/children without social disapproval,
discrimination or persecution. (Graham, 2002; Graham-Davies, 2007). Overall, it should
be noted that calalai’ are not trying to be a man per se, their chief aim is to express their
masculine femininity because that is in congruence to what they truthfully feel within
themselves.
Meanwhile, calabai’ etymologically means ‘false woman’. These people are
transgendering men, or they are biologically male, but expresses and identifies
themselves in a feminine manner. These calabai’s really embody the ideal physical
femininity because most alter or recreate their bodies through surgery, wear tight-fitting
clothing, usually have long hair, and are very soft-spoken. Just like their contemporary
counterparts worldwide which generally aim to be considered a woman, these calabai’s
also desire to become a woman, however, they are not regarded as women by the society
despite taking feminine roles (Graham, 2004).
Calabai’ have created a role for themselves in the society, and these roles are
frequently tasks that a makkunrai would not typically do like being a hairdresser, a make-
up artist, and wedding planners or indo’boting (Graham 2002). These people are also
very prominent in the entertainment sector where they are expected to perform in spiritual
or non-spiritual festivals. Moreover, Calabai’ can become a partner or a wife to a man
through an unofficial marriage ceremony called kawin de bawah tangan or marriage
below the hand (Graham, 2004). Calabai’s usually engage in a heteronormative
relationship where they assume the role of the woman and become the manager of the
household, while their husbands provide for them financially. Just like the calalai’, the
calabai’ can also adopt a child or children with their respective partners, usually coming
from their family members, and raise them as their own (Graham, 2004). However, a
calabai’-man relationship does not really last for a long time, this is primarily because of
unsuitability, and the societal pressure that men should have legitimate children. Once
their relationship is over, the calabai’ usually invest their time to find a fitting wife for their
past partner, and sometimes financially contribute to their marriage (Graham, 2004).
Despite the fact that these Bugis transgenders are highly accepted and not
discriminated or persecuted, there is still a cultural driving force which somehow deters
the optimum acceptance both in theory and in application in the said society. The said
force is siri’ which loosely translates to shame or honor, depending on the context.
Graham (2004) stated that women must still follow the ideal notions of femininity to avoid
causing their family siri’, and men must embody masculinity to preserve their family’s siri’.
These things can be translated through a woman marrying a suitably ranked man, or a
man avenging attacks on his family’s honor. This is an interesting paradox in the Bugis
society because despite the transgenders being widely embraced in their tribe, they still
have cultural norms and injunctions that they have to uphold for their families’ dignity and
holistic betterment.
 Lastly, and debatably the most widely documented gender of the Bugis society is
the bissu. A bissu is a hermaphroditic person that simultaneously embodies the
archetypes of femininity and masculinity (Rahad, 2017). These people usually wear
conservative clothes, and elaborate headpieces that are often religiously symbolic
(Rahad, 2017). The Bugis society believes that a bissu is spiritually premeditated,
meaning these people are usually given by the gods or allegedly products of divine
conception (Graham, 2004).
Moreover, just like the Philippines’ forgotten babaylan or catalonan, bissus are
highly valuable to the spirituality of the Bugis tribe because they are the chief spiritual
advisor or shamans. They are sought to better people’s health, to make travelers in their
journeys safe, to pray for a woman’s fertility, to perform circumcisions, and to bless any
significant event that may happen in the community e.g. construction of a building, and
harvest. In addition, they also conduct ceremonies in installing a new Rajah, they perform
the rites during funerals, and they are tasked to perform rituals to prevent natural disasters
(Graham, 2002). The bissus are always sought and are extremely vital in wedding
ceremonies because they are the embodiment of the ideals of both womanhood and
manhood, and have a connection to the spiritual world that blesses the matrimony
(Graham, 2004). They are also the prevailing conveyors of information, thus, they are
bound to live an ascetic life to preserve and further the knowledge that centuries of bissu
traditions held (Umar, 2016).
The bissus greatly contribute to the illustrious Bugis history because they served
as counselors to pre-Islamic kings, and were seen as nobilities. However, their status
depreciated in the contemporary times; in the past, the people who can only avail their
services are people of high standing or the elites, but due to Islamic proliferation in
Indonesia, even people who are not necessarily elites can get their services (Graham,
2004). It is known that Indonesia is a hotpot of culture, religions and traditions, however,
it should be noted that Indonesia is also the country with the highest population of Muslim
in the world (World Atlas, 2019). Due to its Islamization, indigenous people that contradict
the Islamic tradition are often persecuted and marginalized, and a good example of this
is the Bissu.
When Islamic fundamentalists went to South Sulawesi during the period of
independent Indonesia, these people observed that the Bugis tribe has a multi-gender
system. This elicited extreme dislike to the indigenous people specifically the bissu, and
they were indicted with practicing mysirik or the worship of gods beside Allah (Rahad,
2017). In the mid-20th century, Kahar Muzakar of Darul Islam led Operasi Toba, or a purge
that forced the bissus to hide in caves to preserve their lives. Moreover, during the said
purge, bissus were violently compelled to shave their heads for them to act more manly,
otherwise, they will be tortured and decapitated (Graham, 2004). Despite the series of
unfortunate events that happened, it is auspicious that Indonesia does not generally adopt
the Muslim or Sharia law, thus, there is still a separation of Church and State. In the early
2000s, there have been political determinations e.g. promoting local customs and
traditions, which compel the integration of Islam to indigenous beliefs. The authorities
proliferated the thinking that Allah is the one true God, and before Islam came to the
country, He was just called different names (Graham, 2004). This notion legitimizes the
early beliefs and religions which led to lesser indigenous persecution. This determination
is primarily why the calalai’ and calabai’ are not criminalized, and why bissus are not
totally eradicated, and still have a fundamental role in the society. The bissus adopted the
Muslim beliefs, modified their rituals to recognize the power of Allah, and made their
indigenous gods subservient to Allah. This is why some Muslims still seek a bissu’s
blessings when they are going on a pilgrimage to Mecca or Medina (Graham, 2004).
Conclusion
The Bugis tribe must be applauded for being firm in advocating their ancient culture
and traditions despite strong external influences e.g. Islam, through effective integration.
It may be a moral dilemma for some to choose between following your original, and early
traditions and be left persecuted, or to integrate the influential belief system and still
flourish—the Bugis tribe, specifically the bissus, chose the latter for survival.
Overall, the study of the LGBTQ+ community has been thoroughly Western-
centric—when a curious individual searches for the said community’s history, most likely
the things that would appear would be contemporary movements in the United States,
and Europe, without regard to non-binarism in ancient civilizations like China or Southeast
Asia. Thus, the researcher believes that the reason why the Bugis tribe and its five
genders became a peripheral and forgotten history primarily rests on the fact that there
has been pervasive movements to forward the rights of the members of the LGBTQ+
community. It is somehow a paradox because there are never-ending news updates
regarding the LGBTQ+ community, but these news heavily focus on the West, and
historically vital, and thriving indigenous representation of the said community becomes
unnoticed. It should be reiterated that these types of movements should strive to be
inclusive and must be for, not against, the holistic betterment and recognition of tribes
and communities that fall under it. The Bugis tribe and its five genders is a quintessential
facet for the LGBTQ+ community in general because it is the epitome that different
cultures and traditions can still be integrated to a much bigger and influential belief e.g.
Islam, without it resulting to bloodshed. It should be noted that ancient communities are
just as important as the Westerners in forwarding the LGBTQ+ community’s right in ways
that they can, and these efforts must not be overlooked.
In a global sense, it is still beyond the researcher’s cognitive capacity why people
have to persecute others just because they have different beliefs, perceptions, and
behaviors. Why must they put themselves on a pedestal, and just trample everyone who
is not them? It is because of their blunder which resulted to the deep inculcation of gender-
degrading beliefs in our culture and society, and made totally ratifying the current global
structure almost close to impossible. It is kind of ironic that an ancient, sometimes
stereotyped as primeval or backward society, like the Bugis tribe knows much more about
acceptance and morality than the rest of the world. The whole world must learn from this
community because they do not impose unto one another their varying perceptions. The
Bugis tribe’s five genders is the embodiment that a harmonious society can still be
achieved despite inherent differences in sexual orientation, gender identity and
expression.
Appendices
Appendix A

Site Map

Map 1. Map of South Sulawesi, the home of one of the biggest ethnic groups in
Indonesia called the Bugis tribe.
Appendix B

Photo 1. A row of Calabai attending a Bugis wedding as indo’boting or wedding

mothers.

Photo 2. Bissu in their spiritual clothing.

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