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fo r h o m e a n d m a rket
FAO Diversification booklet 11
Diversification booklet number 11
G r o w i n g v e g e t a b les
f o r h o m e a n d m a r ket
© FAO 2009
Table of contents
Preface v
Acknowledgements vii
Vegetable production 19
Environmental factors 19
Soils 20
Irrigation 21
Propagation 23
Plant spacing 26
Mixed cropping 26
Plant nutrition 26
Pest and disease control 27
Greenhouses 28
Peri-urban and urban agriculture 35
Easy to grow vegetables: onions, shallots, potatoes, sweet potato 36
Initiatives to increase vegetable production 41
Support services and an enabling environment 41
The importance of post-harvest operations 45
Harvesting 45
Handling 47
Sorting 47
Packaging 48
Storage 49
Processing 51
Hygiene, sanitation and safety 54
Transport 55
Marketing 55
Marketing activities 58
Profits for improved livelihoods 70
Speciality vegetables 73
Tomatoes 73
Asparagus 75
Greenhouse vegetables 75
Table of contents
Preface
v
each booklet identifies additional sources of information, technical support and
website addresses.
A CD has been prepared with a full series of FAO Diversification booklets
and relevant FAO technical guides, together with complementary guides
on market research, financing, business planning, etc. Copies of the CD are
available on request from FAO. FAO Diversification booklets can also be
downloaded from the FAO Internet site.
If you find this booklet of value, we would like to hear from you. Tell
your colleagues and friends about it. FAO would welcome suggestions about
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better services to you.
vi
Acknowledgements
vii
Contribution of vegetable production
to sustainable livelihoods
1
FIGURE 1 Plant parts as vegetables
INFLORESCENCE
BROCCOLI
STEM
ASPARAGUS
PETIOLE
CELERY
BRUSSELS SPROUTS AXILLARY BUD
SWOLLEN HYPOCOTYL
PEPPER AND TAP ROOT LEAF BASE
STEM TUBER
TAPROOT SWEETPOTATO
CARROT
POTATO
Source: FAO. 2001. Principles and practices of small and medium scale fruit juice processing,
by R. P. Bates et al, Agricultural Services Bulletin No. 146, Rome. (Adaptation by Fabio Ricci.)
2
Purpose of the booklet advantages and an effective means
The examination of the basic to enable people with disabilities
principles of vegetable production to make a contribution and be part
and marketing for smallholders of the development process. By
and how this can contribute to highlighting the most important
sustainable and improved livelihoods basic and easy to grow vegetable
is the purpose of this booklet. Basic production systems, potatoes, onions
vegetables that are easy to grow can and shallots, but also more advanced
contribute significantly to livelihood speciality production systems, such
diversification and sustainability. as greenhouse tomatoes and lettuce,
This can in turn affect smallholder and field asparagus, it is hoped that
3
Vegetables for health Although they are consumed
Vegetables play a major role (along because they are tasty, healthy
with fruit) in supplying the essential and supply both proteins and
minerals, vitamins and fibre, carbohydrates, vegetables are most
which are not present in significant important as a source of nutraceuticals
quantities in staple starchy foods. (vitamins and minerals) and as
Vegetables are usually consumed as protective nutrients for human health.
a side dish with starchy staple food For example, tomato fruits contain
to add flavour to a meal. lycopene (a valuable anti-cancer and
Vegetable cultivation was introduced by marginal farmers on their garden lands as an inter-
crop in the 1960s. In the initial years, ponds and wells were used for irrigation, employing
primitive methods. These farmers obtained plentiful surpluses in the initial years and gradually
vegetable cultivation began to spread into paddy-fields.
Different systems of vegetable cultivation emerged, they included: 1 the owner himself
cultivated vegetables in wetlands; 2 the entire wetland getting leased out to tenants and
marginal farmers where they cultivated vegetables; 3 owner-cum-tenant cultivation. In this
case, small and marginal farmers cultivated vegetables on their own lands and on leased-in
lands. Marginal farmers and landless agricultural labourers were able to generate reasonable
profit margins from vegetable and banana cultivation. A large number of them were able
to buy small areas of paddy-fields for vegetable cultivation: they stopped rice cultivation
altogether and cultivated vegetables throughout the year.
Following the examples of marginal and small vegetable cultivators, medium sized
landowners also took to vegetable cultivation as they found that vegetable cultivation was
profitable. This is a specific example of larger cultivators adopting the farm practices of small
and marginal cultivators.
With the spread of vegetable cultivation merchants from various markets started coming to
production centres on all days ridding the cultivators of the burden of carrying their produce
to market centres. In certain areas though, farmers hired motor vehicles to carry vegetables
to market centres.
Source: John, K. K. 2004. Crop rotation in Kerala, a case study of the Kaduthuruthy block, Kerala
Research Programme on Local Level Development, Centre for Development Studies,
Prasanth Nagar, Ulloor.
4
anti-cardiovascular chemical), carrots rewards will be enhanced.
contain carotene (precursor of the When promoting vegetable
essential vitamin A), and many fresh production, emphasis should be put
vegetables contain vitamin C. on the potential to provide good
nutritious food for the family, while
Vegetables at the household at the same time developing the
level concept of marketing surplus produce
Vegetables are an important source for cash.
of food for the household. Although
the actual quantity of carbohydrates, Gender-focused initiatives
protein and fats may be limited in some In many developing countries,
5
FIGURE 3 Students at school also learn about vegetable production, Peru
(Photo: © FAO/18908/G. Bizzarri)
6
Growing vegetables for home and market
FIGURE 4 A roof vegetable garden in Senegal; harvesting aubergines
(Photo: © FAO/22109/J. Koelen)
7
urban population is a component
of FAO’s interdisciplinary and
multidisciplinary programme on
‘Food for the Cities’.
Horticulture within and around
the cities is already a preferred
activity for many unskilled migrants.
Individual households garden on
small plots, roadsides, terraces and
patios, to feed their family and also
to sell produce.
City farmers have developed small
and medium sized market gardens
specializing in the production of
vegetables for sale in city markets.
This activity is becoming more
popular, especially as it provides
FIGURE 5 Urban agriculture in the
employment and income for women historic centre of Sana’a, Yemen
and young farmers. (Photo: © FAO/20861/R. Messori)
8
BOX 1 Developing and connecting markets for poor farmers
Interventions at policy level in helping farmers to connect to markets are prescribed as:
A stable policy environment
To facilitate private marketing operations. A price stabilization scheme with transparent rules of
intervention is preferable to ad hoc intervention, but policy-makers should recognize that even
occasional intervention can dampen the incentives for private storage and transportation services.
Building Roads
One of the largest marketing costs farmers face is the cost of transporting goods. Building roads
and improving the surface of existing roads reduces both the time and cost of getting produce to
market.
Contract farming
Contract farming can be defined as agricultural production carried out according to a prior
agreement under which the farmer commits to producing a given product in a given manner,
and the buyer commits to purchasing it. Often the buyer provides the farmer with technical
assistance, seed, fertilizer, and other inputs on credit, while offering a guaranteed price for the
output. Proponents of contract farming argue that it links small-scale farmers to lucrative markets
and reduces the constraints they face in diversifying into high-value commodities and connecting
to markets. Contract farming is not appropriate for all commodities, but it can be useful in making
the production of high-value commodities for a quality sensitive market viable for small-scale
farmers.
Source : Minot, N. & Hill, R. 2007. Developing and connecting markets for poor farmers, 2020
focus brief on the world’s hungry people, IFPRI, Washington D.C.
9
In all cases, it is important will be knowledgeable of the local
that smallholders are well aware community’s tastes and preferences.
of opportunities that are real and In fact at this level the marketed
feasible, before they start their produce may simply be the surplus of
vegetable production. All consumers family requirements, and therefore a
buy to obtain satisfaction, this means ‘bonus’.
that vegetables need to be of good As production becomes more
quality, be uniform, be of an expected commercialized, the skills required
colour, ripe and have a good aroma. and levels of investment increase.
Buying may vary according to age, However, although the potential
gender, cultural, ethnical and religious rewards are greater, in terms of higher
aspects of the final consumer and yields and better quality, the level of
these all have to be considered, when risk is increased. Post-harvest and
thinking about what to produce. A marketing methods become relevant
method of finding out what various aspects for smallholders, since
markets want and what consumers markets may have a considerable
want is marketing research. distance from the place of production,
for example large urban areas. This
Financial rewards means that smallholders need to
The rewards that may accrue from become familiar with post-harvest
successful commercial vegetable and marketing skills.
production and marketing depend Producing a crop for an overseas
on the skills of the farmer, and the export market has the potential
particular market(s) being targeted. for excellent rewards, but if the
In near subsistence production, the market disappears it is possible
level of skills is unlikely to be high, for the produce to have minimal
the productivity low, and the ability value domestically. For example,
of the consumer to pay a high price asparagus has little value in many
will be low. The chief advantage domestic markets, but can provide
will be that the produce can be sold excellent returns if exported, as the
locally, with minimal packaging and case of Peruvian producers amply
transport costs and the smallholder demonstrates.
10
Opportunities and challenges
11
CASE STUDY 2 Increased production and marketing
of vegetables in the state of Kerala, India
The Kerala Horticulture Development Programme (KHDP) was a scheme started in 1994 for
promoting vegetable and fruit cultivation with the financial assistance of the European Union (EU).
Its support was available in three areas: production, credit and marketing. To encourage and boost
vegetable production, it imparted technical and managerial assistance to farmers and provided
high yielding seeds. The KHDP made arrangements with commercial banks to provide financial
assistance to vegetable growers.
The KHDP also assisted farmers in opening marketing centres near their farms. It operated markets
at 98 centres in seven districts. These market centres were set up with the financial support of KHDP
with a view to empowering farmers by providing them direct market access, eliminating middlemen.
The EU’s assistance for the programme ended in 2001. The KHDP was replaced by the Vegetable
and Fruits Promotion Council Kerala (VFPCK) with its head quarters at Kakkanad, Kochi. Now the
VFPCK is engaged in planning and implementing schemes for developing infrastructure facilities,
including cold storage.
Source: John,K.K.2004. Crop rotation in Kerala, a case study of the Kaduthuruthy block, Kerala
Research Programme on Local Level Development, Centre for Development Studies, Prasanth
Nagar, Ulloor.
income, which will improve their earning income, especially for those
livelihoods. All in all production typically excluded from economic
and marketing of vegetables creates activities, such as women and other
opportunities for increasing rural and disadvantaged people, and provides
urban employment, the possibility of quality and varied food for the poor.
Since the beginning of economic transformation from a centralized economy to a market economy,
vegetable production has increased rapidly in the Hanoi district. In 1991 the vegetable area was
5 100 hectares and in 2002 it reached 8 000 hectares. However, because many smallholders lacked
knowledge on production technology and because they were attracted to short term benefits, many
smallholders overused chemicals to increase crop yields. This resulted in many consumers being
poisoned and in time spurred the first experiments to be held on safe vegetables production in
1989. In 1995 a trial protocol for safe vegetables was established and in 1996 a safe vegetable
programme was implemented. This has offered a more sustainable opportunity for smallholders
and the area used for safe vegetable production has gradually increased; in 2000 it accounted for
4.5 percent of the total area used for vegetables grown in the Hanoi district.
Source: Dinh Hung, N. et al. 2004. Environmental requirements, market access/entry and export
competitiveness for horticultural products from Viet Nam.
12
Growing vegetables for home and market
FIGURE 6 Training on growing vegetables, Senegal
(Photo: © FAO/22110/J. Koelen)
13
Marketing research simple investigation establishing
The key to producing any crop, at which crops are popular in the
any level of commercialization, is market is fundamental, and also what
to be market driven. Investments of returns can be expected and what
resources for commercial production are the production costs. This type
should only be made when there is an of marketing research is commonly
assured market for the produce. referred to as rapid market appraisal
Mastering vegetable production and more information on this can be
is a fundamental requirement, but found in the selected further readings
it is also important to be able to of this booklet.
master marketing. To be able to do If the objective is to produce a
this requires marketing research. In crop to market in a town market
learning about vegetable production, or large urban centre, for example
smallholders need to investigate such supplying large wholesalers or
aspects as what time of the year to retailers, such as supermarket
plant, what water requirements are chains, a very extensive marketing
needed, what fertilizer to use and in research process will be required.
what quantities, etc. In very much This will involve higher costs and
the same way, marketing research time, for it may involve investigating
requires farmers to investigate what such aspects as: different prices of
consumers want, where they are, vegetables in various wholesale
what price they are willing to pay, the or retail outlets, what quantities
price of produce, how to transport can be sold at each outlet, quality
produce to market and what transport requirements of wholesalers and
facilities are available, etc. Marketing supermarkets, minimum residual
research helps the smallholder learn levels of pesticides allowed, transport
about all those activities that are costs, etc. Normally this is far
required to market their produce. beyond the reach of smallholders in
Marketing research will sensibly terms of costs and time, and benefits
reduce the risk of making and taking can be accrued when smallholders
the wrong production and marketing associate into marketing groups.
decisions. In general, associations will allow
The type of marketing research for sharing of knowledge about
to be undertaken will clearly depend existing marketing conditions, and
on commercial objectives. For the sharing of resources and relative
example, if the objective is simply costs that can be incurred in carrying
to supply a local market, then a out such marketing research.
14
Typical market research questions
Where can I sell vegetables?
15
Test planting of market-oriented the produce by, for example, letting
vegetables others like friends and neighbours,
Test planting of vegetables destined taste and get their opinion about
to market is a good method of the vegetable and if they like the
reducing risks for production and vegetable and if they would be
marketing. Smallholders can use prepared to buy it.
small parcels of land, such as home If farmers are knowledgeable
gardens or communal village land about market prices, they can
to grow vegetables that marketing calculate the potential of production
research has indicated as having by deducting their costs of
a profit potential. Planting a small production and marketing and then
parcel of land will give smallholders choose which vegetables seem to
an opportunity to become be the most profitable. This can
knowledgeable of the production typically be done by using a simple
techniques, if the crop is new to them, gross margin analysis. Advisors
and enables them to estimate such need to train and promote such
aspects as how much they can grow practices among smallholders
on their land, other inputs that maybe and smallholders’ association.
required, costs involved, quality of Appropriate management methods
produce, possible quantities per area are required for planning a vegetable
planted, etc. It will also give the enterprise and a ‘learning by doing’
farmer an opportunity to taste what approach is recommended. Training
has been produced and test market in farm management is a prerequisite
16
Growing vegetables for home and market
FIGURE 7 Test planting in Mauritania
(Photo: © FAO/11667/J. Van Acker)
17
Vegetable production
19
FIGURE 8 Vegetables grown in a greenhouse in Syria
(Photo: © FAO/12431/F. Botts)
20
the moisture holding ability. Clay be required by some specialized
soils (fine particles) have excellent plant groups, but are considered as
moisture holding characteristics, non-essential for most plants.
but very poor aeration. The physical
characteristics of sandy loams, loams Irrigation
and clay loams depend primarily on
the relative mix of clay and sand Soil water relationships
particles. Most vegetable plants comprise
Soils derived from organic matter 90 percent water content and some
(such as peat) tend to have excellent such as lettuce have as much as 95
aeration and moisture retention percent. However it is not the water
21
for the crop will depend on the soil is an important production tool.
type and the effective rooting depth Even though some crops are
of the crop. Deep rooting crops are able to ‘withstand’ drought (e.g.
able to tap a larger volume of soil for sweet potato, sorghum), they will
water than shallow rooting crops. not produce heavy crops if they
There is a maximum amount experience moisture stress.
of water that the soil can hold, and It is frequently considered that
this is called ‘field capacity’. As because rain falls as droplets that this
the soil dries so the water available is the preferred system of irrigation.
to the crop is reduced until, at the Nothing is further from the truth.
‘permanent wilting point’ (although
there is still water in the soil), it is Furrow irrigation
no longer available for plant roots to Furrow irrigation involves letting
absorb. The difference between field water, distributed by gravity, run
capacity and wilting point is known down furrows that have been made
as the ‘available soil moisture’, and between the crop grown on raised
varies with soil type. beds. It is the most common system
For reliable crop yields, irrigation worldwide. This method does not
22
provide for a very efficient way of capacity’. Alternatively, applying too
watering, unless land is accurately much water to certain parts of the
contoured and there is a consistent field is a waste of water and can also
soil type. cause leaching (draining) of valuable
soil nutrients. Overhead sprinkler
Drip irrigation systems also wet the foliage and this
Drip irrigation is potentially the most can stimulate disease problems.
valuable of the current water delivery
systems. It requires very low water Low cost systems
pressure (so it is possible to use small There are a number of low cost
pumps), and can be laid on the soil systems which eliminate the need
23
mother plant, and this is important seed is sown depends on the size of
when a farmer wishes to propagate the seed, and should be deep enough
a plant with specific yield or quality to have sufficient moisture available
characteristics. It is commonly used for germination, and yet be close
for potatoes, sweet potatoes, etc., enough to the surface of the soil for
where it is desirable to retain all the easy emergence of the seedling, and
genetic characteristic of the variety. also the availability of air.
Propagation by seed can in certain
circumstances result in a considerable Saving seed
variation in genetic characteristics, It is possible to keep seed from many
but has the advantage of providing (but not all) vegetable crops by
a reasonably cheap source of allowing the plants to grow beyond
propagation. the normal harvest time, but this is
a process fraught with risk. Seed
Seeds production is a very specialized
A seed is best described as a process, and although keeping the
living plant in a state of suspended seed from some crops, such as peas,
animation. As such it requires being beans or lettuce, is possible, it is
stored in specified conditions. The still a difficult job. One of the main
ideal storage conditions for most factors that uphold seed quality
vegetable seeds are low temperature and thus seed viability for the next
(0-5°C). The scope is to slow down production season is when the seed
the metabolic activities and therefore is actually harvested. Seed needs to
the deterioration of the seed. be harvested when they are ‘ripe’.
Different types of vegetable seed Further low moisture content is yet
have different storage properties. another key element in the upkeep
Some vegetable seeds have a long of seed viability. Importantly seed
storage life, while others have a short drying has to be done carefully so as
storage life. Once seed has been to avert damaging the seed embryo.
harvested it deteriorates, and all that Pests and diseases need moisture to
good storage does is to delay this grow and develop, hence the drier
inevitable deterioration. the seed the better it is protected
The conditions required for against such problems. Drying also
germination are primarily a causes the seed ‘life cycle’ to slow
satisfactory temperature (this will down, thus aging of seed occurs less
depend on the species), moisture and rapidly and the germination capacity
good aeration. The depth at which is better maintained.
24
Seeds do breathe, they require by using fungicides, insecticides and
oxygen and produce water vapour, fumigants.
and hence this needs to be considered Storage of seeds needs to be done
in storage. Seeds in storage have in a dry and cool location that is clean
determined factors which need to and is protected from possible insect
be considered: type of seed cultivar; and rodent attacks. Storage can also
temperature; humidity; and length occur by using airtight methods.
of storage period. Depending on In the case of some varieties (such
seed variety and species, with regard as varietal tomato seeds) a complex
to temperature and humidity, the breeding process has been used
tolerance range for the two factors to develop extremely productive
25
Plant spacing will cause the quality and quantity
In efficient vegetable production of production to gradually fall until
appropriate plant spacing is required. it reaches uneconomic levels. This
Plant spacing involves two distinct is caused by a rapid increase in soil
factors, namely: organisms, pests and diseases, which
use the particular vegetable for food
• plant arrangement: the spatial or as a favourable host; perennial
distribution of the plants (essentially weeds are also likely to become a
distance between the rows); serious problem. Further the soil
• plant density: the number of becomes exhausted as some of the
plants/m2 . minerals are used by the vegetable for
food, thus continuous planting of the
In practice, density is much more same type of vegetable on the same
important than plant arrangement. As piece of land will reduce nutrients
plant density increases, the yield per in the soil and lead eventually to
plant falls caused by the competition deficiencies.
for light, moisture and nutrients. Rotation, not growing the same
When the plant is a single product crop continually on the same site,
(e.g. onions, carrots), changing the is one way of reducing soil nutrient,
plant density also changes the size of pest and disease problems. Further
the individual product. At low plant individual crops need different
densities, for example, individual cultivation practices, for example,
carrots and onions are large, while some need surface hoeing, others
at high plant densities the individual earthing up, still others mouldering.
carrot or onion becomes much
smaller. Hence, adjusting the plant
density provides farmers with the Plant nutrition
opportunity to modify the size of Nutrients can be supplied either
their onions or carrots, for example, as well-rotted organic material or
from large to small, and thereby to as inorganic fertilizer. Well-rotted
maximise the yields of a specific size organic material, such as animal
grade. manure, usually contains all the
required nutrients for plant growth in
Mixed cropping a relatively balanced form.
The same vegetables being grown In contrast, inorganic fertilizer
continuously on the same piece of usually contains only specific
land for extended periods of time elements, such as nitrogen,
26
phosphorous, or potassium. In order to grow the same crop on the same
to provide the crop with a balanced site year after year. In fact it is highly
supply of nutrients it is necessary to desirable not to grow crops of the
have a suitable mixture of fertilizer. same family on the same site more
The actual quantity of fertilizer frequently than one year in three.
will depend on the nutrient status Crop rotation reduces the risk of the
of the soil and the specific nutrient build up of soil borne pathogens.
requirements of the crop. Another Good examples of this would be the
factor to consider is acidity (pH) or control of club root in cabbages, or
alkalinity of the soil: it normally falls the control of nematodes in carrots.
between 5.8 and 6.8. The pH plays A second factor is to use only
27
conservation of natural enemies, for least possible hazards to the
example lady beetles and lacewings , environment and people, and by
further the use of such plants as sage, the most economical means. IPM
deters the cabbage moth and carrot is a series of pest management
fly. Biological control methods, even evaluation, decisions and controls.
though heavily knowledge based IPM is a four step approach: its
on specific local environmental first sets action thresholds i.e. a
conditions and labour intensive, do point at which pest populations or
provide sound economic returns; environmental conditions suggest
estimates of the cost-benefit ratio that pest control action needs to be
have been in the range of 1:11 i.e. for taken. This is typically set against
every US$1 invested in biological the economic thereat to vegetables
control, it brings benefits for US$11. by pests. Next pest monitoring and
Pesticides are the most common identification occurs, so as to avert
means currently used to control pests using the wrong pesticide. Prevention
and diseases in vegetables crops. methods are implemented, for
Their use poses several challenges, in example crop rotation, selecting
terms of safe storage of the pesticide, pest-resistant varieties, etc. Only
safe application of the pesticide by once the preventative methods are
the labourer, appropriate frequency not effective does IPM enter its final
of application for optimum benefit, phase in control of pests, for example
and critically the necessity to ensure the use of highly targeted chemicals.
that the chemical residue at harvest IPM though does have a higher
is well below the critical level. premium on training and knowledge
There is also the danger of resistance development that may not always be
development to the pesticide by the accessible to smallholders.
target pathogen.
In recent years the development Greenhouses
of Integrated Pest Management Crops have always been protected,
(IPM) systems has reduced the need in some manner or other, against
for regular pesticide application. adverse climatic conditions. Various
IPM uses common-sense practices types of walls have been constructed,
and comprehensive information as well as the use of shrubs and trees,
on the life-cycles of pests and their to ‘break’ winds so as to protect
interaction with the environment. top soil. Other methods have been
Such knowledge is used to manage used, such as collection foliage, and
possible pest damage considering covering soil to protect against heavy
28
BOX 2 Integrated Pest Management (IPM) training
Vegetables attract high applications of pesticides, and farmers use many acutely toxic insecticides
to control pests on these crops. The demand is high for vegetables in expanding cities in
developing countries, and farmers in peri-urban areas, and rural areas with good access to cities,
are in a position to find a growing market for their produce. Poor storage facilities will often mean
that farmers are forced to sell at peak times when prices are low. Farmers rarely have access
to training in pesticide use, and have only limited or no access to advice on the complicated
management of pesticides.
FAO is concerned about high levels of poor quality and adulterated pesticides on sale in developing
countries. Surveys repeatedly show that without training, farmers are unable to make good crop
decisions: recognition of pests and their predators is generally low, leading to decisions to spray
to kill any insect; knowledge of product selection, application rates and timing is poor; different
Season-long field level training in IPM can help farmers to become better decision-makers, and to
greatly reduce pesticide use while reducing risks to their own health and environment, producing
safer products for consumers, maintaining yields, and increasing incomes.
Source: Dinham, B.2003. Growing vegetables in developing countries for local urban populations
and export markets: problems confronting small-scale producers, Society of Chemical Industry.
rains, while glass has been used in an and Tedlar. Each film type has its
attempt to control temperature. But advantages and disadvantages. The
the use of synthetic film has created advantages of PE, for example, is
a major change, over the past three that it can be produced in all kinds
decades for protected cultivation. of widths and thicknesses, is cheap,
Small-scale farmers can protect their but has a limited durability over
cultivations with plastic film that time. Further PE heat retention is
is fairly cheap, depending on type, limited, while EVA is much better
is easy to use and manipulate and and PVC is exceptionally good. A
is easy to transport and distribute, new development of film, Astrolux,
hence is accessible to many. has cooling proprieties without
Film that is most commonly used the need of energy supply; it can
for groundcover and greenhouses keep temperatures down by 6 to
is Polythene (PE). Other plastic 7 °C to those of external ambient
films are Polychoride (PVC), temperatures; the film though is
Ethyleenvinylacetate (EVA), Polyester expensive.
29
Importantly before any initiative greenhouse and the economic
is taken for protected cultivation, feasibility of such temperature
greenhouse, determined factors need control methods.
to be considered in the project. These
will have to consider the climate, Sunshine. Vegetable growth also
the influence of the climate on the depends on the exposure to light;
particular vegetable intended to be therefore duration of sunlight is
grown and, of course, marketing important. Vegetables react to
opportunities for vegetables amounts of sunlight and hence,
cultivated in such a manner. In day length must be known over the
specific such factors to consider are: season or year. The total amount
of light determines the quality, the
Rainfall. Rainfall varies from year to growth rate and level of yield. The
year and season to season. The main amount of sunlight that penetrates
concern is the dry and wet periods. the greenhouse is dependent on
Greenhouse construction decisions the construction orientation of the
need to take into consideration in the greenhouse. Importantly in projected
project area rainfall and particularly greenhouse construction decisions
its extremes. what needs to be considered is the
locality exposure to light, the duration
Temperatures. Vegetables each have of exposure to light and methods
their own particular temperature of how light can be excluded, for
range in which they will grow in and example, using black film.
provide a good yield. For example,
tomatoes have a temperature range Air humidity. The humidity of air and
of 18 to 23 °C, lettuce 10 to 18 °C, its variation can cause problems to
sweet pepper 18 to 23 °C, cucumber the growth and health of vegetables.
and egg plant 22 to 26 °C, honey High air humidity can cause fungal
melon 13 to 18 °C and cabbage growth and water evaporation. On
15 to 23 °C. Some vegetables the other hand, low air humidity can
can withstand deviation from cause the plant respiration rate to
such temperature ranges, but not increase. Importantly in greenhouse
excessively. Importantly greenhouse construction decisions and projects,
construction decisions have to air humidity in the locality must be
consider temperature in the locality, known and the methods of how this
its variations and possible methods can be controlled in the greenhouse
of temperature control within the ascertained.
30
Wind. The direction and speed of the Topography. Topography of
wind are also important factors to the locality for the greenhouse
consider. Greenhouse construction construction is important. In general
decisions need to consider in the greenhouses need to be built on
locality, wind direction and speed, horizontal terrain, this to allow for
so as to avert the greenhouse film irrigation and drainage purposes.
being damaged, as well as that of the
greenhouse structure. Accessibility to the protected
cultivation area. Greenhouse
Evaporation. Solar heat creates cultivation requires daily control,
evaporation and evaporation rates thus it needs to have a good location
31
quality and higher yields and earn Greenhouse types
extra income that will also cover the Depending on the factors mentioned
extra costs involved in greenhouse previously, the intended vegetable
cultivation of vegetables. cultivation and cost estimations,
greenhouse construction can vary
Association. Smallholders on their from very simple structures, to highly
own may not have the financial complex constructions. Vegetables
resources required to invest in such gardens and small-scale farming
projects. This is also true for the vegetable operations will require
simplest of greenhouse projects. simple greenhouse constructions,
Promoting associations between for example using such materials as
smallholders is advisable. It enables bamboo for framework structures
the spreading of financial and and film covering.
production risks and can be a starting
point for future more complex Close to soil. The simplest and
greenhouse constructions and cheapest form of a ‘greenhouse’ is
projects. a film placed on the ground with
Walk-in tunnels
high sized plants
Low tunnels
low sized plants
100-180 cm
60-100 cm
30-60 cm
Source: CTA. 2004. Protected cultivation, by E. van Heurn & K.van der Post, Agrodok 23, CTA,
Wageningen. (Adaptation by Fabio Ricci.)
32
sides weighted down. This type of excessive damage. Less vulnerable
greenhouse can also be ‘constructed’ structures can be made using steel
by using foliage, which makes such hoops and more fortified film and
a ‘construction’ even cheaper. This anchoring methods. This type of
type of greenhouse is used to cover greenhouse offers simple ventilation
seedbed; this will create slightly methods and the use of cheap film
higher temperatures, moisture will can mean that film will have to be
be retained and this will improve replaced every production season.
germination and growth of the young In many tropical high rainfall
vegetable. areas, the main value of a greenhouse
is as a rain cover, but this poses
33
vegetable requirements and the methods need to be used, for example
greenhouse type of construction. in walk in greenhouses, shoes, clothes
Further it also has to be remembered and hands need to be clean, so as to
that plant transpiration has an effect avert the propagation of diseases
on the internal greenhouse climate. and fungi. Tools and materials used
Simple methods of climate control for production and harvesting must
are such aspects as water sprinkling also be clean. Measures for keeping
on greenhouse roofs for cooling, use out insects and rodents have also
of dark colour film to protect against to be considered. For example,
solar radiation, film ventilation can simple netting in front of walk in
be carried out simply by lifting the greenhouse’s entrance averts aphids
side film on the greenhouse and and flies entering.
allowing for air passage. More
advanced methods are using power Irrigation
supply electric fans with wet pads for Greenhouse vegetables are secluded
cooling. and hence need a method of watering
In internal greenhouse climate that is appropriate. Importantly water
regulation the most important factors supply, its quality, the quantities
are temperature and air humidity and required for the particular vegetable
not exposing vegetables to sudden and its distribution in the greenhouse
and extreme temperature variations. needs to be planned. Importantly,
With the potentially high capital cost watering patterns have to match the
of environmental control, decisions needs of the vegetable in a protected
have to be made regarding the level environment.
of control required for any specific
locality, compared with the local Production management
economic situation and the crop Training is required for teaching
market value. smallholders how to grow vegetables
in greenhouses, even if smallholders
Pest and disease control have experience with growing field
Chemical agents can be used for the vegetables. Vegetable selection for
control of pests and diseases inside production, plus climatic conditions,
a greenhouse, but because of the will determine the type of greenhouse
secluded nature of the greenhouse, to be used. For example, lettuce can
biological methods of control are be grown in ground cover and in
a lot easier and cheaper to use. low tunnel greenhouses, cucumbers,
Importantly common-sense hygiene eggplants and tomatoes can be grown
34
in walk in greenhouses. Greenhouses vegetable production costs have to
also permit the introduction of new be considered, but what has to be
crops into local markets, where added is the increased inputs , film,
previously there was no supply. But wooden hoops, etc. and the increased
it is advisable that smallholders have labour requirements not only to build
formal training in new vegetable the greenhouse, but especially in
production, before any such initiative production management.
should take place. Further with investments in
If a greenhouse project is to protected cultivation systems, the
be feasible, vegetables deriving resulting improvements in production
from such special cultivation need need to be such that the increase in
35
agro-chemicals and doubtful quality produce such vegetables, improved
of irrigation water lead to public production methods.
health problems. Consequently,
urban and peri-urban horticulture is Onions
considered as a high-risk activity, Onions are one of the oldest
unless guidance, planning and an vegetables in continuous cultivation
enabling environment are fostered dating back to at least 4 000 BC.
at policy-level. It is essential and There are no known wild ancestors,
urgent that adequate steps be taken but the origin of onion is believed to
to safe guard urban and peri-urban be Afghanistan and the surrounding
horticulture, and to ensure its region. Onions are among the most
orderly and safe development for widely adapted vegetable crops.
the benefit of the population and the Onions are an important vegetable in
environment. tropical countries.
Onions are important for their
Easy to grow vegetables: onions, nutritional value, as they provide
shallots, potatoes, sweet potato water, minerals, ascorbic acid and
Some vegetables are easy to grow and other components that are good for
can be a good starting point for more the human diet. Onions traditionally
commercially-oriented smallholder have been believed to have anti-
vegetable production or for those inflammatory and anti-cancer
who are new to vegetable production. properties. In traditional medicine
Onions, shallots, potatoes and sweet onions are claimed to be effective to
potatoes have a good trade potential cure the common cold, heart diseases
and are not particularly complex in and diabetes, among others. In the
their production requirements. human diet onions offer a range of
Any project that envisages uses: they can be consumed fresh
commercial vegetable production and uncooked or they can be cooked,
requires production training, thus they can be processed and pickled
it is recommended that training be and typically onions are used along
carried out and the Farmer Field side many other vegetables, meat and
School (FFS) method promoted fish.
(See section on supporting services). Onions have a good trade potential,
This will not only teach those that they can be stored for up to 200 days
have no experience in growing such in the right conditions, if cured and
vegetables, but can also provide packed properly, the bulbs can be
smallholders who already do transported for considerable distances
36
without deteriorating and they are types of shallots. The shallot is
known, accepted, and preferred thought to have originated in Asia
by consumers. Consumer choice before heading to the Mediterranean.
is usually based on certain onion Shallots produce a bulb shape
varieties that are preferred for certain and colour that vary according to
dishes, for example white onion in country of origin, for example in Asia
salads, red onions in stews and the shallots are small, round and with a
onions ‘pungency’. Onions are easy reddish colour; one variety grows in
to produce, require few inputs and the wild in Central and Southwest
labour is mostly used at planting and Asia. Shallot production areas are
harvesting stages of the production found in China, Indonesia, Thailand
37
chosen for production need to be accompany many dishes and can be
based on marketing opportunities. easily processed. Potato production
Shallots tend to be grown in is easy and can be grown from true
the tropics at low altitude. While seed or from tubers (vegetative
shallots can be grown from seed, propagation). There are advantages
they are more usually grown from and disadvantages of both those
mature bulbs, which develop a methods. The production of potatoes
number of new bulbs after planting. from true seed has been developed at
Optimal results in shallot cultivation the International Potato Centre (CIP),
depend on variety and on the hours in Peru, and CIP has shown that it is
of daylight. For example, there are possible to produce over 20 tonnes of
tropical strains that are happy with a tubers per hectare from a few hundred
short span of daylight. grams of true seed. It certainly has a
major advantage in production from
Potatoes tubers in relation to the transport of
Potatoes are one of the world’s most planting material, and freedom from
important vegetable crops. The systemic diseases. On the other hand
first cultivar, seems to have been the seed is very small and requires
planted 8 000 years ago near Lake good agronomic skills to produce
Titicaca, on the Peruvian/Bolivian seedlings.
border. Potatoes are cultivated on an However, production from tubers
estimated 195 000 sq km (or 75 000 is a much more robust crop
square miles) and annual production establishment method, but has three
is around 315 million tonnes. Potatoes potential down sides: about two and
(Solanum tuberosum) originate a half tonnes of tubers are required
from the Andean region of South to plant one hectare of land. The
America and have diffused to nearly major labour requirements in potato
all corners of the world. A potato, of production are required at planting
medium size, contains about half the and at harvesting.
daily adult requirement of vitamin C, Potatoes are frequently called the
is very low in fat, and when boiled, Irish potato, to differentiate from
it has more protein than maize, and the sweet potato. Irish potatoes are
nearly twice the calcium. commonly grown in the tropics at
Potatoes have a high trade an altitude in excess of 1000 m in
potential; it is one of the top four crops order to obtain reasonable yields.
in the world, are integrated in many This is because most cultivars, even
traditional diets across the globe, can if adapted to high temperatures, do
38
not form tubers very readily at high potato can also be eaten, unlike the
temperatures. The downside of this vines of the Irish potato, which are
is that rainfall tends to increase with poisonous.
altitude and this results in problems The major advantage that sweet
from diseases, particularly late potato has over the Irish potato is that
blight. it is easily propagated from cuttings.
Potatoes chosen for production Another advantage of sweet potato
need to be based on marketing over Irish potato is that the harvest
opportunities. date is not critical because the plant
just keeps on growing. The major
Sweet potato difference between sweet potato
39
Initiatives to increase
vegetable production
41
Role of the advisor ascertain what vegetables
Promoting and advising on vegetable have market value, what new
production as a way for smallholders vegetables might be introduced
to improve their livelihoods is the and what profitability they may
fundamental role of the advisor, along have.
with providing regular training in • Input supply for specified
vegetable production and marketing. vegetable production: via survey
In specific the advisor needs to: ascertain the number of input
dealers, their prices and location.
• Understand the vegetable What type of inputs can be found,
industry and how it functions in what quantities and how often
in the country and particular they can be supplied, delivery
geographical area of interest: terms, etc.
carrying out research at country • Financing production and
level and in the local area looking marketing of vegetables:
at such issues as vegetable determining the extent of
production processes, statistics, available agricultural credit, how
major vegetable businesses, farmers can finance the needed
the geographic distribution of inputs for vegetable production
vegetable production, price trends, and marketing.
sales volumes, sales methods and • Production advice on vegetables
when sales occur. that are particular to a specific
• Ascertain and advise on area and possibly new vegetables
opportunities and challenges that can be introduced into the
in the vegetable industry in the area; advice on traditional crop
short and long term: carrying production methods, improved
out marketing research and technical production methods, the
finding out opportunities in fit between traditional and new
the market, demand trends for technical productions methods,
various vegetables, production the various production cycles,
and marketing costs, storage and pest, diseases, etc. Encouraging
processing facilities available, the creation of vegetable gardens,
also the risks that may be present, FFSs, Test Planting Plots (TPPs)
such as imported vegetables. at local community level.
• Potential of vegetable varieties • Post-harvest advice on
that are market-led: in unison vegetables: methods to prevent
with research institutions, post-harvest losses in terms of
42
quality and quantity, simple post- • Promote smallholder
harvest methods and improved associations for production
post-harvest methods, the costing and/or marketing: advice on
of such operations, available the formation of associations
facilities existing for storage for production, transporting,
and processing operations. selling, processing; pooling of
Encouraging training in post- raw materials, production and
harvest methods and capabilities marketing capabilities. The
development. advantages and disadvantages
• Marketing vegetables: marketing of association, managing
methods and skills, for example associations, etc.
43
Food safety regulations The implementation of such a strategy
As a result of the high value of requires knowing, understanding,
vegetables and the intensive nature of planning, measuring, monitoring, and
the industry, vegetable farmers tend to record-keeping at each step of the
use large quantities of both fertilizer production process.
and pesticides. Product appearance is The four pillars of GAP are:
critical because consumers ‘buy with
their eyes’, and this has resulted in 1 Food safety: high quality and safe
a culture of excessive pesticide use food.
in order to ensure a visually perfect 2 Environment: sustainable
product. Thus pesticide residue levels production systems.
have become a major factor in the 3 Society: worker health and safety.
food safety component of Good 4 Economic: the need to be
Agricultural Practices (GAP). GAP profitable.
are a collection of principles to apply
for on-farm production and post-
production processes, resulting in Worker safety regulations
safe and healthy food and non-food A key factor in relation to the use of
agricultural products, while taking hazardous substances (pesticides)
into account economic, social and is to ensure a high level of worker
environmental sustainability. GAP safety. This involves:
may be applied to a wide range of
farming systems and at different • storing hazardous substances
scales. They are applied through securely (locked building), so that
sustainable agricultural methods, only approved users have access,
such as IPM, integrated ferltilizer and that there is a minimal risk of
management (IFM) and conservation the substances being inadvertently
agriculture (CA). released into the environment
GAP provide an opportunity to following severe weather (e.g.
assess and decide on which farming flooding) or man made disasters;
practices to follow at each step in • applying pesticides in an approved
the production process. For each manner using the appropriate
agricultural production system, they protective clothing; and
aim at allowing a comprehensive • harvesting the crop after the
management strategy, providing withholding period is exceeded,
for the capability for tactical to ensure that any residues are
adjustments in response to changes. well below the mandated levels.
44
The importance of post-harvest The reduction of vegetables
operations losses during post-harvest and
Qualitative and quantitative losses marketing increases the availability
occur in vegetables from harvesting of food, contributes to smallholders’
to consumption, but qualitative loss is incomes, develops rural and remote
far more difficult to asses. Qualitative areas, decreases the need for
losses are edibility, nutritional expansion in production area, and
quality, caloric quality and consumer conserves natural resources. Training
acceptability. These all put serious and promotion of appropriate post-
constraints on the marketability of harvest skills is a necessity for
vegetables and intended increases commercial vegetable production.
45
so that they can be easily worked on
throughout the cultivation stage and
during harvesting time. For example,
harvesting tomatoes for marketing in
the fresh form is a labour intensive
matter and can require during one
season, according to variety and land
planted, from 4 to 15 harvests.
Vegetables are harvested over a
wide range of ‘maturities’, typically
depending upon the part of the plant
used as food and depending on their
final destination, i.e. marketing
requirements. Vegetables begin to
deteriorate immediately after they are FIGURE 14 Stallholder selling potatoes
harvested. The rate of deterioration is and fresh onion in Baku, Azerbaijan
(Photo: © FAO/22690/J. Spaull)
dependant on the type of vegetables,
46
caused by compression and abrasion. Sorting
In onions, for example, abrasions on Grading and standardization consists
onion bulbs result in the loss of the of arranging vegetables into a number
protective scales. of uniform categories according to
physical and quality characteristics
Handling of economic importance. The process
Good handling practices are required involves three stages: identification,
to keep and uphold vegetable quality. classification and separation.
Handling of vegetables starts on the Grading and standardization have
plant and ends with final sale to advantages:
the consumer. In packing crops for
FIGURE 15 Inappropriate handling of carrots (washing in dirty water) can cause increased
post-harvest losses and health hazards to consumers
(Photo: © FAO/16874/G. Bizzarri)
47
• Different vegetable qualities can Packaging
be sold to different customers, Packaging provides a convenient
for example customers who way for handling, transporting
may need or want higher quality and storing, and it protects from
tomatoes will be able to identify pathogens, natural predators, loss
them and buy them. of moisture, high temperatures,
• Setting standards will create crushing, deformation and bruising.
customer and farmer confidence. Packaging also has an aesthetic
For example, rural merchants, function.
wholesalers and retailers will buy A wide range of materials can be
from trusted farmers without the used for packaging. These can vary
need for in-depth inspection and from simple large green leaves, to
possible disputes. clay pots, to plastic reusable crates.
Each type of packaging will have
Typically grades and standards for its advantages and disadvantages.
vegetables refer to such aspects The ability to reuse packaging
as, colour, size, shape, variety, material in a domestic (local
appearance, firmness, and weight. market) environment is important.
Plastic containers, which can be
48
washed clean between uses, have cultivation methods, harvesting,
considerable merit, albeit at a cost. handling and packing methods. In
Non-returnable packaging made storage, crops are susceptible to
from local plant materials may be a ‘attacks’ by birds, insects, rodents,
low cost alternative. For packaging fungi, yeasts, bacteria, domestic
which is used only once (for export, animals and humans. The produce
for example) it is important to utilise and its biological activity, when
materials which can be disposed of moisture is present, can also cause
easily in an environmentally friendly loss. The stored products, as well
manner. as the organisms attacking stored
products are biologically active:
49
used up and carbon dioxide, water
and heat are produced. The rate of
respiration, and thus the amount of
carbon dioxide, water and heat that
are produced is strongly dependent
on the temperature and the moisture
content of the product. The rate of
respiration is reduced approximately
by one half for each 10° C reduction
in temperature. Each crop has its
own specific storage requirements
and one system is unlikely to fit all
crops.
Storage operations for vegetables
will depend on their characteristics,
when they will be marketed and final
FIGURE 18 Storage crib for potatoes use. For many vegetables destined for
in Peru the fresh market, only a few days of
(Photo: © FAO/17455/A. Odoul)
storage are possible; this is common
50
for such vegetables as table tomatoes potatoes that have a long storage
and lettuce. Other vegetables can potential in the tropics and can be
be stored for longer, such as sweet stored by clamp, pit and hut storage
potatoes and onions, provided that methods. Further cassava storage can
they are stored in an appropriate be done, by leaving in the field, or
manner. Many vegetables that cannot with clamps and huts, yam can also be
be stored in their original harvest left in the field or in a ventilated hut.
form are often processed, so that their Before any crops can be put into
storage durability can be extended storage, they have to be treated in
over time. For example, tomatoes some way or another. In some cases,
can be processed into tomato puree, simply drying, in other cases curing
51
commodity level to a product level • What will the processing
and allowing for less dependence operation cost?
on a few crops for marketing; a • How can it be financed?
greater product portfolio, value
added produce and the possibility of Processing has a series of
obtaining higher returns. advantages:
Before considering vegetable • It enables consumption in the off
processing it is important to assess season.
such issues as: • Improves farm household
nutritional needs.
• What market demand is there for • Can improve storage capacities
processed products? for some vegetables.
• What does the market demand in • Enables longer storage periods,
terms of price and quantities? than fresh vegetables.
• When are the vegetables available • Enables for easier storage;
for processing? bottles, jars, etc. can be stored
• What quality are the vegetables? more conveniently then fresh
• What quantities of vegetables are vegetables.
available for processing? • Reduces post-harvest losses.
• What tools and machines are • Improves marketing by making
available and required for vegetables more convenient to
processing? use for buyers.
• What is the price of the machines • It can provide for labelling
and the tools? which will enhance marketing
• What maintenance is required for appearance to consumers.
the machines? • It can provide new tastes for
• What spare parts are required? consumers.
• What other raw materials, such as • It allows for income
salt, clean water, etc. are needed diversification for the farmer.
for the processing operation?
• What is the optimal processing Processing has a series of
capacity? disadvantages also:
• What hygine measures need to be
observed? • Competition from larger-scale
• What skills are needed for the commercial processors that can
processing operation? sell processed vegetables at
• Can training be found if required? lower prices than small-scale
52
processors. the sharing of processing costs,
• Cost of setting up processing more quantities of produce being
facilities can be high. processed, hence increasing the
• Costs of actual processing in throughput of the operation, enabling
terms of labour, time, machines more quantities to be packed and
etc. can be considerable for a stored and possibly enabling a
seasonal operation. better bargaining position with
• Energy and water sources rural merchants, wholesalers and
required for processing maybe retailers.
scarce and expensive. A common processing enterprise
will require good cooperation among
Small-scale food processing activities represent a potential source of livelihood for the poorest
people in sub-Saharan Africa. Food processing may increase the value of crops to poor farmers
and thus yield higher returns, expand marketing opportunities, improve shelf-life and furthermore
overcome seasonal and perishability constraints. Adoption of improved and validated processing
technologies, good standards of quality and hygiene may assist small-scale vegetable producers
overcome some of the problems experienced in the fresh produce market such as lack of market
information and market integration, reliance on spot markets, transport constraints and wastage.
By processing some or the entire vegetable crop, producers have an alternative or additional
means of marketing their produce. This is important given that post-harvest losses of vegetable
crops range from 30 to 40 percent, and as a result limit smallholder access to higher value markets
in urban areas. Even in circumstances where small-scale producers can access such markets,
returns on unprocessed products are typically low. Small-scale agroprocessing activities may
also contribute to socio-economic development through improved incomes, employment, food
availability, nutrition, social and cultural well-being.
However, research has shown that a number of factors may constrain the ability of small-scale
enterprises to effectively manufacture and market processed food products. On a macro level,
many policies implemented by governments have served to hinder the development of small-scale
industries. At the firm level, limited access to credit, lack of appropriate technologies, a lack of
technological capability, the unreliable supply of raw materials, a lack of management know-how
and poor quality control amongst other things have served to constrain the development of small-
scale industries. These problems apply in many developing countries.
Source: Mhazo, N et al. 2003. Constraints in small-scale production and marketing of processed
food products in Zimbabwe: the case of fruit and vegetables, Food Africa.
53
No. 4, ‘High hopes for post-harvest’, and in some cases a serious threat to
and for larger-scale processing human health. A number of factors
enterprises in FAO Diversification threaten fresh vegetables, such as
booklet No. 5, ‘Processed foods for naturally occurring toxicants, such
improved livelihoods.’ as glycoalkaloids in potatoes; natural
contaminants, such as fungal and
Hygiene , sanitation and safety bacterial toxins and heavy metals,
Consumers will reject foreign like mercury and lead; environmental
materials on vegetables, such as pollutants; pesticide residues, etc.
dirt, animal faeces, insects, human Of primary concern are those that
hair and other debris. Further the threaten human health, such as
presence of pathogens on vegetables viruses, like hepatitis A, and bacteria
of both human and non-human origin like salmonella and parasites. Fungi
can constitute illness in consumption do not usually constitute a problem
FECES
SEWAGE INSECTS
HUMANS
WATER
SOIL
PLANTS
SILAGE
MEAT,
ANIMALS MILK, EGGS
Source: FAO. 2004. Manual for the preparation and sale of fruits and vegetables, by A.F. López
Camelo, FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin, No.151, Rome. (Adapted by Fabio Ricci.)
54
as often they are detected before In some instances transport costs
they become mycotoxins. can be one of the highest costs in
There are many ways vegetables marketing. Very frequently costs
can become contaminated at all levels may reach 50 to 60 percent of total
of the production to consumption marketing costs, hence transport
chain. Prevention requires following has to be carefully planned and
GAP and Good Hygiene Practices managed.
(GHP); this includes undertaking What is also required is an
certain sanitary treatments and adequate transport infrastructure that
keeping produce under conditions is functional and maintained, so that
(mainly temperature) which do not transport vehicles have the potential
55
out marketing operations on their made, marketing involves a series of
own or in association with other interconnected operations including:
farmers. But whatever choice is marketing research, choosing
The main kinds of vegetables popularly transported in Nigeria included tomatoes, pepper, onion and
okra. There were no clearly defined routes for any particular produce, apart from the common pattern of
transport from north to south and market forces dictated the handlers’ choice of market. On average the
produce normally spent four to five days in transit. There were two main modes of transport available:
rail and the road system; however transporters used the road system for their regular and long distance
haulage. Major vehicles used for transport were Mercedes, 911 lorry, canter, fuel tanker, pick –up van,
buses and articulated trucks.
None of the transporters owned the vehicles and they were usually rented at the market where the
fresh vegetables were purchased. It was the desire of most of the transporters to use the 911 lorry. This
was because of its capacity and its superior ventilation.
The 911 lorry and other articulated trucks could carry between 250 to 300 baskets or jute bags load
of fresh produce (about 7 500 and 9 000 kg). The major problem normally encountered was the non-
availability of the vehicle when most needed. In order not to loose their produce, transporters resolved
to use any kind of available vehicle, even passenger bus.
The containers (baskets) for transport were usually arranged in five to six layers inside the vehicle with
planks (wood) in between these layers. In other words, direct stacking of the baskets was not possible.
Some transporters used leaves to separate the layers, which normally did not prevent compression
of the produce from the weight (load) of those on top. This practice was thus one of the sources of
mechanical damage to the produce. In the case of produce packed in jute bags, for example, onions,
the bags were usually stacked on each other inside the vehicles. One problem observed was the
restriction of ventilation, which usually resulted in produce rot, caused by the high level of physiological
activities of the produce.
In an assessment carried out at the Ipata market in Ilorin, an average of 5 kg of fresh tomato fruits
out of the 36 kg basket load were damaged. In other words, in consignments of 7 500 kg (lorry load),
an average of 1 041.67 kg or 13.89 percent of the fresh tomato fruits were bad. The damage mainly
consisted of bruised, rotten, compressed and water soaked fruits. In terms of money, for an average
price of Nigerian Naira 200.00 per kilogramme, the losses caused by this damage were about Nigerian
Naira 20 000.00 per lorry load.
Though there were several packaging containers used for packing fresh produce for long distance
transport, it was observed that baskets, jute bags/sacks were the most common transport containers
used. The baskets woven from palm were used for transporting tomatoes for long distances, while in
some cases they were used to package and transport okra for short distances. Onions and peppers
were usually transported using the jute sacks or bags woven from polypropylene. The baskets were
categorized according to their sizes, which also served as a pricing unit in the marketing of the produce.
The handlers, 58 percent, believed that the baskets were not effective, while 42 percent believed
otherwise. All in all none of the handlers or transporters used plastic containers as packaging container,
being more expensive and not readily available, even though there were and are plenty of plastic
packaging producers in the country. Handlers did express their desire that baskets could be replaced,
if the alternative would be affordable, however, in the case of the jute bags, 75 percent of the handlers
agreed that the bags should not be replaced, while 25 percent preferred replacement.
Virtually all the handlers and transporters interviewed accepted that they did suffer losses in the
process, caused mainly by heat, vibrations and impact, but the losses were not usually quantified
because they still disposed of the damaged produce at a lower price.
Source: Ida, P. A. et al. 2007. Friuts and vegetables handling and transportation in Nigeria, Department
Agricultural Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State, Nigeria.
56
the vegetable product to plant, carefully planned and managed: it is
planning and managing production, important that marketing conforms
harvesting, handling, sorting, to local marketing practices.
packaging, storing, transporting, Marketing systems are fairly well
processing, produce quality and adapted to prevailing production
safety, financing, associating with and consumption patterns. Typically
other farmers for production and marketing structures are composed
marketing, deciding how to sell, of many organizations and people,
where to sell, displaying produce, are labour intensive and transfer
when to sell , costing, pricing, record frequently small quantities of
keeping and ultimately building produce. This is so because
57
CASE STUDY 6 Constraints on vegetable marketing in Kenya
Vegetable production in the Kakamega district is small scale, is heavily dependent on rain and thus
leads to low and seasonal production. Vegetable production in the district is mostly undertaken
during the short rains when the main staple food crop (maize) has been harvested. Although
the Ministry of Agriculture has over the years promoted smallholder irrigation in the country,
vegetable farmers in Kakamega are yet to adopt this technology. This has kept farm productivity
low, thereby leading to a limited commercialization of farming activities in the district.
About half of the vegetables produced by farmers in Kakamega are consumed at home. The
remaining half are sold either at the farm-gate to the middlemen or in the local markets. High
marketing costs such as transport, cess payments and other local authority charges, cause
the majority (50 percent) of the farmers to sell their vegetables to middlemen at the farm gate.
This subjects the farmers to price manipulation and exploitation, especially considering that not
many of the farmers belong to membership associations. Farmers also suffer from a cost price
squeeze, a situation characterized by increasing input costs and declining producer prices.
The vegetable produce from Kakamega that is sold in Nairobi is transported using public means
of transport, mainly upcountry passenger buses. The products reach Nairobi as early as 4
am in the morning. In most of the Nairobi markets, the vegetables are bought by brokers and
wholesalers. Most of them operate from dawn to about noon, after which the main market closes,
but a few traders continue selling their vegetables outside the main market. Retailing is not
allowed inside the main market area. Retailers and brokers play an essential role in determining
the prices of vegetables.
Source: Omiti, J. M. et al. 2004. Policy constraints in vegetable marketing in Kenya, Institute of
Policy Analysis and Research (IPAR).
58
the likeliness of where and too who higher prices. Managing cultivation
the vegetables will be sold are all in an appropriate manner will
important decisions that smallholders enable the vegetable to be of good
need to take. Support services that quality. Here also, support services
can help farmers in such decisions are necessary and training in farm
are important. planning advisable.
Months
Crop
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Tomatoes
Melons
Cabbages
Onions
Carrots
Chilli
Leaf vegetables
Potatoes
Source: FAO. 2005. Horticultural marketing, by G. Dixie, FAO Marketing Extension Guides
No.5, Rome.
59
to processing businesses that are Packaging
close to the farm, may need to be Packaging must not only provide
harvested when they are fully red and for protection of vegetables during
ripe. Careful harvesting operations transport, storage and handling.
are also important in keeping the Packaging materials to be used and
quality of the vegetable. Promotion how to pack vegetables need to
and training in good harvest practices, be promoted and training needs to
based on marketing requirements is be carried out. Packaging can also
essential. have an aesthetic appeal to buyers.
For example, on bottles of tomato
Handling puree, labels can be applied. These
All handling operations, from labels will not only tell the buyer
cultivation to final sale of the what the produce is, when it was
vegetable, need to be carried out with made and possibly by when it should
the objective of keeping vegetable be consumed, but importantly who
quality, safety and market value. produced it: a name can be developed
Training in appropriate handling to put on the label (brand name) and
practices for vegetables needs this can be appealing to consumers.
to be promoted and carried out.
Importantly good handling practices Storing
need to be promoted on farm, but also Depending on the nature of the
importantly all along the value chain vegetable, storage can be for a very
and to the various organizations that short period, a few days, to several
are part of it. months. If it has been processed in
some manner, clearly storing will
Sorting enable marketing over a longer period
Sorting vegetables into different of time. Usually putting fresh produce
sizes, shapes, colours etc., helps into storage is to enable marketing
marketing; it creates uniformity, flexibility, for example buyers are
different vegetable qualities can not immediately available. Highly
be sold to different markets, and perishable crops and perishable crops
setting standards can build trust in general need fast marketing and
with customers and avert disputes. storage can reduce quality and shelf-
Common standards and grades need life. Other less perishable crops can
to be developed and promoted among be stored, enabling selling in the off
smallholders, taking account of buyer season for higher prices. Training
requirements. and promoting good storage methods
60
Growing vegetables for home and market
FIGURE 23 Unhygienic conditions: tomatoes placed on the ground for selling, Bolivia
(Photo: © FAO/GWEIS/M. Zappacosta)
61
ascertain opportunities and threats, for fundamental aspects for commercial
such an operation and work alongside vegetable production.
smallholders and / or entrepreneurs
who intend to start a processing Associating for production and
enterprise. marketing
In many countries farmers have
Produce quality and safety found that they can increase their
Vegetables can become contaminated income and efficiency by joining
in many ways during marketing, for with other farmers. When vegetable
example exposure to heat, damage production expands beyond the
caused by rough handling and subsistence level, many smallholders
unhygienic conditions at point of sale. benefit from forming organizations
This can lead to loss in quality, safety to assist in obtaining their inputs
and marketable value. At all levels and marketing their produce. Such
of the vegetable supply chain, ‘from smallholder associations may be a
seed to table’, preventative measures fairly informal arrangement whereby
are required to uphold vegetable members gain economic benefits
quality and safety for consumption. through buying inputs, organizing
Promotion and training in GAP and transport, negotiating collectively
GHP need to be implemented, not and sharing marketing information.
only at farm level, but all along the As the focus of production
value chain. becomes more market-oriented,
the organization may become more
Financing formal, such as a legally registered
Marketing, just as production, needs producers’ association or cooperative.
to be financed. One of the critical The advantages of increased scale of
aspects of marketing is that it enables activities for organized smallholders
money inflows into the farm from are:
the selling of vegetables, while
production alone, creates only money • economies of scale, both in
outflows from the farm. Marketing production, marketing and in the
does have its costs, but is primarily buying of inputs;
responsible for bringing money into • pulling together of local resources
the farm. and skills;
Creating an enabling environment • members acquire new skills
for credit facilities and encouraging both in production and marketing
and promoting savings groups are all activities;
62
• opportunities are made more real association are not too high and
for training, such as organizing that the association is created to
FFSs; fulfil specific goals. For example, an
• improved bargaining power, association can be formed to carry
• increased capacity to out credit, transporting and selling
take advantage of market activities. Vitally the association
opportunities; should not have too many functions.
• more quantities of vegetables to Providing training on group
sell; formation and promoting association
• lowering transaction costs; among smallholders is yet another
• lower costs in transport, important step in vegetable
63
FIGURE 24 Marketing channels for vegetables, South Africa
Farmers
Packhouses Processor
Wholesale
Export Wholesalers markets Wholesalers
Consumers
Produce reaches the market through every mode of transport, via head loads, bicycles, pedal
and auto rickshaws, light commercial vehicles and tractor trolley. The produce reaches the
market almost fully covered with plant leaves, this undertaken by farmers for convenience
in transport. Farmers unknowingly fulfil a major and very important task safeguarding
consumer’s health from contaminated air pollution by leaving the leaves on the cauliflower.
The farmers sell directly to consumers or sell to retailers and vendors.
Retailers give a simple value addition by removing the leaves and sprinkling water on the
heads of the cauliflower. But retial sales occur mainly in the afternoon, until early evening,
when air pollution, caused by city traffic, is at its highest. An important player in the retail
vegetable trade is Mother Dairy, a cooperative body which purchases directly from the
producers and sells directly to consumers though various retail outlets. Its covered retail
outlets protect produce from exposure to weather, air pollution and sunlight.
Source: Bhupal, D. S. et al. 2003. Marketing of vegetables in Delhi: a case study of price spread in
the marketing of cauliflower.
64
commercialization (see the selected
further reading section of this
booklet for information about market
infrastructure).
Where to sell
Smallholders have to decide where
to sell produce. Choice of where to
sell must be based around marketing
information and marketing costs.
Creating an enabling environment
In those countries where the farm structure and the marketing system remain fragmented
and cooperatives and farmer groupings are largely underdeveloped (as is the case in most
developing countries), wholesale markets are still needed to provide farmers with effective
and profitable marketing outlets for their produce. In addition to facilitating farmers’ access
to the marketing system, wholesale markets, if adequately located, sized and managed, are
basic instruments for promoting competition and improving public health and food quality
control. This thereby lowers and stabilizes consumer prices and reduces post-harvest losses
as well as urban congestion and pollution. The high rates of urban growth in African and
Asian developing countries, will continue and create a need for both expanded and new
wholesale markets, especially in the rapidly expanding ‘secondary’ cities in many countries.
Source: Seidler, E. 2001. Wholesale market development – FAO’s experience, Paper prepared for the
22nd Congress of the World Union of Wholesale Markets, Durban, South Africa, September 2001.
65
FIGURE 26 A farmer street hawking his vegetables by motorcycle stops to make a sale
(Photo: © FAO/22265/A. Proto)
Displaying produce
Whenever vegetables are in view of
buyers, they need to be presented in
an appropriate manner, for example a
good display of fresh table tomatoes
in a local village market where the
farmer has a stall, can help in selling
them. Vegetables have to be in reach
of consumers, who may like to see
them, feel their firmness with their
hands, scent their aroma and possibly
even taste the vegetables. In many
markets, vegetables are displayed in
the most varied and creative ways; for
FIGURE 27 A shopper choosing among
vegetables on offer in the produce section of
example, in some markets, tomatoes
one of the large supermarket chains found in are placed to form a pyramid shape.
most major cities and towns in Thailand Promoting good display is important
(Photo: © FAO/24493/D. White) in the vegetable trade.
66
Growing vegetables for home and market
FIGURE 28 An example of a simple but effective display
(Photo: © FAO/22692/J. Spaull)
67
When to sell fertilizer, etc.;
When to sell implies two important • capital costs; equipment, farm
factors for a farmer. The first factor tools, buckets, depreciation, etc.;
is that of earning the most money • fertilizers, fungicides and
from choosing the right time to sell, pesticides: nitrogen, phosphorus,
usually when prices are higher. The potassium, etc.;
second factor is that of reducing risk; • land: renting land, etc.;
fresh perishable vegetable prices • water: irrigation, etc.;
usually follow a regular pattern and • unexpected costs: more
the nature of the produce and their applications of insecticide caused
non-storable factors do not allow for by a high level of infestation.
much autonomous decisions in terms
of selling time , unless the produce is Marketing costs are typically:
less perishable by nature, like sweet
potatoes for example, and /or have • labour: for harvesting, handling,
been processed. washing etc.;
Normally individual smallholders • processing: equipment etc.;
have little bargaining power and less • packaging: wooden crates, sacks,
marketing information available then bottles etc.;
smallholder associations. Promoting • storage: storage shed, renting
association of smallholders for storage space etc.;
increased bargaining power is one • family consumption: the quantity
of the many aspects that encourage of vegetables used for family
the formation of smallholder needs;
associations. • transport: hiring and buying etc.,
• produce losses: damage, theft,
Costing etc.;
Vegetable production and marketing • capital costs : interest rates
require payments initially to be made on borrowed money, keeping
to buy such things as seed, farm processed vegetables in storage,
tools, fertilizers, renting land, hiring etc.;
transport, fees to enter markets, etc. • fees, taxes, unofficial payments:
These payments are referred to as fees to pay to access urban
costs. Production costs are typically: markets or pay porters to unload
produce, government taxes, road
• labour: for ploughing, planting, payments to make while in transit
scouting for pests, applying etc.;
68
• unexpected costs: costs of Good record keeping will tell the
accessing an urban market have farmer, with some good degree
increased, etc. of precision, how much money is
flowing into and flowing out of the
Costing is fundamental for any farm farm in specific time periods. Record
that operates in a commercial way. keeping is a fundamental aspect of
This will help the farmer understand good farm management practices and
many aspects of the farm business training is required and advisable.
and enable improved decision-
making regarding both production Pricing
and marketing of vegetables and Farmers producing and marketing
69
example, in organic production, this dispersed areas, organize the
allowing for product differentiation distribution of such vegetables, find
and also a price differential. markets in which to sell, etc. Without
Importantly though, costs and traders, farmers would not be able
benefits of such plans need to be to make a living and consumers
carefully evaluated. would not be fed. The greater the
Prices in markets do not stay the competition and the more dynamic
same and change very often. For the trading sector is , the greater
example, prices vary in consequence the volume of produce taken out of
of changes in production and rural areas and incomes returned to
demand at different times of the the farming community. Trading
year. Typically prices are high at in vegetable marketing channels,
the start of the harvest season, start hence needs to be encouraged and
to decrease as the harvest season supported.
progresses and then rise again, when
the harvest season is nearing its Building trust
end. The supply of vegetables often Essential to any marketing operation
varies from season to season and is that buyers trust the farmer.
because of weather, plant diseases Buyers need to feel that they are
and farmer’s decisions, prices can not being cheated and that they
vary from year to year. Importantly are getting value for their money.
prices also vary depending on the Without this premise, buyers will
availability of competing products. not buy from a farmer who they do
Prices that are found in marketing not trust. Improving and supporting
channels also vary. For example, the marketing of vegetables as
there will be the farmer’s price when well as vegetable production, via
selling vegetables at the farm gate training, promotion and an enabling
and there will be the rural merchants environment, can only but foster and
selling price. It is important that all improve trust between producers and
members of the vegetable supply buyers.
chain are aware of vegetable prices
and there differentials along the Profits for improved livelihoods
vegetable supply chain. Vegetables production and marketing
Traders in marketing channels has a strong influence on improving
are important. Traders perform such farmers’ livelihoods. If farmers
tasks as buying farmers’ vegetables, understand that quality vegetables
collecting vegetables from widely are not only for family consumption,
70
but can also be marketed, this can yields, but improved prices on
help their livelihoods, others in the current quantities sold have a greater
vegetable supply chain and also in impact on profitability, then increased
developing local communities. yield. This highlights the danger of
Typically consumers want to increasing production without being
pay low prices for vegetables and confident of the additional vegetable
farmers want to receive high prices yield being sold. An increase in price
for their vegetables. A manner that has a significant effect on improving
enables farmers to achieve a balance profit, normally because production
is by becoming skilled and efficient and marketing costs are constant.
in the marketing of their vegetables; Cost-efficient production and
71
Speciality vegetables
73
1 The cherry type, with small fruit, Tomatoes have a high commercial
some 10 to 20 g and 20 to 30 viability and are easy to process.
fruits per truss. Simple sun dried tomatoes and bottled
2 The standard type, with medium- tomatoes are economically important
sized fruit, some 80 to 120 g with products. Tomatoes provide for good
five to six fruit per truss. nutrition in the human diet. Tomatoes
3 The beefsteak type, with fruit up have plenty of minerals, vitamins,
to 250 g, with one to three fruit sugars, vitamins B and C, iron and
per truss. phosphorus. Tomatoes accompany
many dishes, for example meat and
Fruit shape can also vary considerably fish, are commonly used in soups, can
from pear shaped to round or flat. be eaten raw in salads and processed
Colour also varies; they are generally into juice and purees. Choice of
red but can also be yellow or even tomato variety for cultivation has to
pink. be based on marketing opportunities.
74
Asparagus Asparagus production has a high
Asparagus has been used both as a entrance cost, caused by complex
vegetable and as a medicine for many planting needs, but usually within
centuries. The medicinal value of the fourth year of production, costs
asparagus lies mainly in its diuretic are entirely recuperated. Once in full
values, and is used to treat urinary commercial production, asparagus are
tract infections, kidney and bladder one of the least expensive vegetable
stones. crops to maintain. Since planting
Interestingly asparagus grows well asparagus has a long term perspective,
in saline solis, unlike other vegetables when considering such a vegetable,
that have very little tolerance for it is advisable that smallholders
75
FIGURE 32 Greenhouse cucumber harvest
(Photo: © FAO/12426/F. Botts)
76
control. Much like tomatoes, growing The sweet pepper fruit starts from
cucumbers in greenhouses needs a green (like tomatoes), but as it ripens
good knowledge of such particular colour changes; different varieties
cultivation practices and training is have different fruit colours. Although
advised for successful commercial red is the most common colour, it is
production. possible to have yellow, orange and
even purple coloured ripe fruit. Size
Greenhouse sweet peppers is not the sole criterion regarding
Peppers, both sweet and hot variety selection, as thickness of the
are originally from Mexico and fruit wall can be a critical factor. A
surrounding Central American large fruited variety may have a very
77
may be grown larger, and harvested is required and training can be of
as a large leafy lettuce. great help, training is a requirement
Lettuce has good commercial for more ‘resistant’ varieties that
viability, is versatile and there are destined to the ‘cut fresh’ salad
is always a good demand for it. markets. ‘Cut fresh’ salad markets
Greenhouse production produces a offer higher prices than simple fresh
much higher quality product than lettuce markets and if packaged
field production, and is fairly easy to ‘appropriately’ (air tight) can extend
cultivate. Some previous knowledge the shelf-life of the lettuce. In all
is required though. But even though cases lettuce requires fast marketing
knowledge of greenhouse cultivation and has very little storage capacity.
Farmer Ameena Austin is helping the largest supermarket chain in Barbados to achieve
complete import substitution for romaine lettuce and she can barely keep up with
demand. Three times a week, Ameena delivers a dozen 15 kg boxes of romaine to five
supermarket outlets. At BDS$5.50 (€2), she can make up to BDS$1 000 (€364) a week.
She has already bought a transport vehicle with her earnings. She started by planting
lettuce for her family’s consumption, selling the surplus from a roadside stall. One day,
the marketing agent of the largest supermarket chain bought a sample. The quality and
price compared favourably with the lettuce they were importing, and the chain asked
Ameena to start supplying it. She began with a small plot and a garden hose, but has
since leased 8 ha, where she plants 20 000 heads of romaine twice a month and uses
a drip irrigation system.
“When I was planning to start, my husband was sceptical and asked me what I knew
about agriculture,” said Ameena. “Since then he has given up his job and is my partner
on the farm.” The supermarket chain, which is actively trying to replace costly imported
products with locally grown ones, has asked Ameena to experiment with new crops and
sometimes offers her seeds. She has had good results with zucchini (courgette) and is
considering growing coconut trees to help meet local demand for fresh coconut water.
She is also looking into finger squash, pimento peppers and leeks. Now Ameena, a
founding member of Women in Agriculture in Barbados, is searching for a bank to lend
her BDS$10 000 (€3 636) to erect two shade houses for her produce.
78
Selected further reading
Anschütz, J., Kome, A., de Neef, R. & van de Van, T. 2003. Water
harvesting and soil moisture retention, Agrodok 13, CTA, Wageningen.
Boland, J., Koomen, I., van Lidth de Jeude, J. & Oudejans, J. 2004.
Pesticides: Compounds, use, and hazards. Agrodok 29, Agromisa,
Wageningen.
79
Cramer, G. L., Jensen, C. W. & Southgate, D. D. 2001. Agricultural
economics and agribusiness, 8th edtion, Wiley.
80
FAO. 2006a. Farm Management and planning in Asia, Rome.
FAO. 2005d. Urban food supply and distribution in developing countries and
countries in transition; a guide for planners, by O. Argenti & C.Marocchino,
AGSF Occasional Paper No.3, Rome.
FAO. 2004d. Manual for the preparation and sale of fruits and vegetables,
by A.F. López Camelo, FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin No.151, Rome.
FAO. 2004f. Improving the quality and safety of fresh fruits and vegetables:
a practical approach manual for trainers, by L.B. Diaz Rios & M. Piñeiro,
Rome.
81
FAO. 2003. Planning and designing rural markets, by J.Tracey-White,
Marketing Extension Guides No.4, Rome.
FAO. 1998b. Storage and processing of roots and tubers in the tropics, by
A.Diop, Rome.
82
FAO. 1998c. Rural processing and preservation techniques for fruits and
vegetables, Rome.
FAO. 1997a. Basic finance for marketers, by S. Carter, N.J. Macdonald &
D.C.B. Cheng, AGS Marketing and Agribusiness Text, Vol. 1, Rome.
FAO. 1993. A guide to marketing costs and how to calculate them, by A.W.
Shepherd, Marketing Extension Guides, Rome.
83
FAO.1991. Wholesale markets; planning and design manual, by J. Tracy-
White, FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin, No.90, Rome.
FAO. 1989b. Prevention of food losses: fruit, vegetable and root crops: a
training manual, Rome.
FAO. 1988. Packaging for fruits, vegetables and root crops, by . C.C. M.
Schuur, Rome.
84
Kitinoja, L. & Kader, A. A. 2002. Small-scale post-harvest handling
practices: a manual for horticultural crops,4th edition, University of
California, Post-harvest horticultural series 21.
Ngeze, P. B. 2000a. Learning how to grow onions, garlic and leaks, CTA,
Wageningen.
Ostertag, C., Lundy, M., Gottret, M., Best, R. & Ferris, S. 2007a.
Identifying market opportunities for rural smallholder producers, good
practice guide 3, CIAT.
85
Ostertag, C., Lundy, M., Gottret, M., Best, R. & Ferris, S. 2007b.
Participatory market chain analysis for smallholder producers, good practice
guide 4, CIAT.
Scott, G.J., Wheatly, C., Best, R. & Wiersema, S. 1995. Adding value to root
and tuber crops, a manual on product development, CIAT.
86
Waaijenberg, H. 2008. The home garden in the tropics, Agrodok 9, CTA,
Wageningen.
Journals
87
Sources of further information
and support
Cornell University
http://www.vegetables.cornell.edu/
89
Rural Transport
http://www.fao.org/ag/ags/subjects/en/farmpower/power/transport.html
Crop and Grassland service
http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/default.htm
Good Agricultural Practices
http://www.fao.org/prods/gap/index_en.htm
Eco-friendly roof gardens in Egypt
http://www.fao.org/food/photo_report/Egypt/Egypt1_en.htm
90
University of California, Davis
Post-Harvest Technology: Research and Information Centre
http://postharvest.ucdavis.edu/
University of Georgia
College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences
Department of Horticulture
http://www.uga.edu/vegetable/
University of Missouri
91
Notes
SMALLHOLDER VEGETABLE PRODUCTION REQUIRES A SMALL
PLOT OF LAND, SOME WATER, LABOUR AND MINIMAL CAPITAL.
Vegetables that are easy to grow provide economic, social,
gender and nutritional advantages that can significantly
contribute to livelihood diversification and sustainability. By
highlighting the basic and easy to grow vegetable production
systems, potatoes, sweet potatoes, onions and shallots, and
also more specialised vegetable production systems, such as
tomatoes and greenhouse vegetable cultivation, it is hoped that
policy-makers and development personnel will recognize the
opportunities that are available for producing and marketing
quality vegetables.
Photo: O. Argenti