BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF ROADS (HIGHWAY)

Road

A wide way leading from one place to another, especially one with a
specially prepared surface which vehicles can use.

Classification of roads
The roads can be classified in many ways. The classification based on speed
and accessibility is the most generic one. Note that as the accessibility of road
increases the speed reduces. Accordingly, the roads are classified as follows in the
order of increased accessibility and reduced speeds.

Freeways:
Freeways are access controlled divided highways. Most freeways are
four lanes, two lanes each direction, but many freeways widen to incorporate
more lanes as they enter urban areas. Freeways are roads that have on and off-
ramps only, no driveways, no stop lights and it is also free of charge unlike
many highways, where toll is charged from motorists. If other roads go across
a freeway, they go above or below it.
Access is controlled through the use of interchanges, and the type of
interchange depends upon the kind of intersecting road way (rural roads,
another freeway etc.).

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Expressways:
Expressways are highways that have limited access or controlled
access, but are very high quality and have features like lane dividers and
access ramps to provide a pleasing motoring experience at high speed .They
are generally provided with grade separations at intersections. Parking,
loading and unloading of goods and pedestrian traffic is not allowed on
expressways.

Highways:
They represent the superior type of roads in the country. Highways are
of two types’ rural highways and urban highways. Rural highways are those
passing through rural areas (villages) and urban highways are those passing
through large cities and towns, i.e.Urban areas.

Arterials:
It is a general term denoting a street primarily meant for through traffic
usually on a continuous route. They are generally divided highways with fully
or partially controlled access. Parking, loading and unloading activities are
usually restricted and regulated. Pedestrians are allowed to cross only at
intersections/designated pedestrian crossings.

Local streets:
A local street is the one which is primarily intended for access to
residence, business or abutting property. It does not normally carry large

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volume of traffic and also it allows unrestricted parking and pedestrian
movements.

Collector’s streets:
These are streets intended for collecting and distributing traffic to and
from local streets and also for providing access to arterial streets. Normally
full access is provided on these streets. There are few parking restrictions
except during peak hours.

Nagpur classification

a. National highways
They are main highways running through the length and breadth of the
country connecting major ports, foreign highways, capitals of large states and
large industrial and tourist centers including roads required for strategic
movements.
It was recommended by Jacamar committee that the National highways
should be the frame on which the entire road communication should be based.

b. State highways
They are the arterial roads of a state, connecting up with the national
highways of adjacent states, district headquarters and important cities within
the state. They also serve as main arteries to and from district roads.

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 c. Major district roads
Important roads with in a district serving areas of production and
markets, connecting those with each other or with the major highways.

Village roads
They are roads connecting villages or group of villages with each other
or to the nearest road of a higher category like ODR or MDR.

Roads classification criteria

Based on usage
This classification is based on whether the roads can be used during
deferent seasons of the year.

a. All-weather roads:
Those roads, which are negotiable during all weathers, except at major
river crossings where interruption of traffic is permissible up to a certain
extent, are called all weather roads.

b. Fair-weather roads:
Roads, which are negotiable only during fair weather, are called fair
weather roads.

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Based on carriage way
This classification is based on the type of the carriage way or the road
pavement.

a. Paved roads with hard surface:

If they are provided with a hard pavement course such roads are called
paved roads. (e.g.: stones, Water bound macadam (WBM), bituminous
macadam (BM), concrete roads)

b. Unpaved roads:
Roads, which are not provided with a hard course of at least a WBM
layer, they are called unpaved roads. Thus, earth and gravel roads come under
this category.

Geometric Design of Roads

The geometric design of highways deals with the dimensions and layout
of visible features of the highway. The features normally considered are the
cross section elements, sight distance consideration, horizontal curvature,
gradients, and intersection. Proper geometric design will help in the reduction
of accidents and their severity. Therefore, the objective of geometric design is
to provide optimum efficiency in traffic operation and maximum safety at
reasonable cost.

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Rigid Pavements
A rigid pavement is constructed from cement concrete or reinforced
concrete slabs. Grouted concrete roads are in the category of semi-rigid
pavements. The design of rigid pavement is based on providing a structural
cement concrete slab of sufficient strength to resists the loads from traffic.
The rigid pavement has rigidity and high modulus of elasticity to distribute
the load over a relatively wide area of soil.

Flexible pavements
Flexible pavements will transmit wheel load stresses to the lower layers
by grain-to-grain transfer through the points of contact in the granular
structure as shown in the figure.
The wheel load acting on the pavement will be distributed to a wider
area, and the stress decreases with the depth. Taking advantage of these stress
distribution characteristic, flexible pavements normally has many layers.
Hence, the design of flexible pavement uses the concept of layered system.
Based on this, flexible pavement may be constructed in a number of layers
and the top layer has to be of best quality to sustain maximum compressive
stress, in addition to wear and tear. The lower layers will experience lesser
magnitude of stress and low quality material can be used. Flexible pavements
are constructed using bituminous materials. These can be either in the form of
surface treatments (such as bituminous surface treatments generally found on
low volume roads) or, asphalt concrete surface courses (generally used on
high volume roads such as national highways). Flexible pavement layers
reflect the deformation of the lower layers on to the surface layer (e.g., if there

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is any undulation in sub-grade then it will be transferred to the surface layer).
In the case of flexible pavement, the design is based on overall performance
of flexible pavement, and the stresses produced should be kept well below the
allowable stresses of each pavement layer.

Difference between Flexible Pavements and Rigid Pavements:

Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement
It consists of a series of layers with the It consists of one layer Portland cement
1. highest quality materials at or near the concrete slab or relatively high flexural
surface of pavement. strength.
It reflects the deformations of sub grade It is able to bridge over localized failures and
2.
and subsequent layers on the surface. area of inadequate support.
Its stability depends upon the aggregate Its structural strength is provided by the
3.
interlock, particle friction and cohesion. pavement slab itself by its beam action.
Pavement design is greatly influenced by Flexural strength of concrete is a major factor
4.
the sub grade strength. for design.
It distributes load over a wide area of subgrade
It functions by a way of load distribution
5. because of its rigidity and high modulus of
through the component layers
elasticity.
Temperature variations due to change in
Temperature changes induce heavy stresses in
6. atmospheric conditions do not produce
rigid pavements.
stresses in flexible pavements.
Flexible pavements have self-healing Any excessive deformations occurring due to
7. properties due to heavier wheel loads are heavier wheel loads are not recoverable, i.e.
recoverable due to some extent. settlements are permanent.

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Typical layers of a flexible pavement:
Typical layers of a conventional flexible pavement includes seal coat,
surface course, tack coat, binder course, prime coat, base course, sub-base
course, compacted sub-grade, and natural sub-grade.

Seal Coat:
Seal coat is a thin surface treatment used to water-proof the surface and
to provide skid resistance.

Tack Coat:
Tack coat is a very light application of asphalt, usually asphalt emulsion
diluted with water. It provides proper bonding between two layers of binder
course and must be thin, uniformly cover the entire surface, and set very fast.

Prime Coat:
Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an
absorbent surface like granular bases on which binder layer is placed. It
provides bonding between two layers. Unlike tack coat, prime coat penetrates
into the layer below, plugs the voids, and forms a water tight surface.

Surface course:
Surface course is the layer directly in contact with traffic loads and
generally contains superior quality materials. They are usually constructed

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with dense graded asphalt concrete (AC). The functions and requirements of
this layer are:
o It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness, drainage, etc.
Also it will prevent the entrance of excessive quantities of surface water
into the underlying base, sub-base and sub-grade,
o It must be tough to resist the distortion under traffic and provide a
smooth and skid- resistant riding surface,
o It must be water proof to protect the entire base and sub-grade from the
weakening effect of water.

Binder course:
This layer provides the bulk of the asphalt concrete structure. Its chief
purpose is to distribute load to the base course the binder course generally
consists of aggregates having less asphalt and doesn't require quality as high
as the surface course, so replacing a part of the surface course by the binder
course results in more economical design.

Base course:
The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface
of binder course and it provides additional load distribution and contributes to
the sub-surface drainage It may be composed of crushed stone, crushed slag,
and other untreated or stabilized materials.

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Sub-Base course:
The sub-base course is the layer of material beneath the base course and
the primary functions are to provide structural support, improve drainage, and
reduce the intrusion of fines from the sub-grade in the pavement structure If
the base course is open graded, then the sub-base course with more fines can
serve as a filler between sub-grade and the base course.
A sub-base course is not always needed or used. For example, a
pavement constructed over a high quality, stiff sub-grade may not need the
additional features offered by a sub-base course. In such situations, sub-base
course may not be provided.

Sub-grade:
The top soil or sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive
the stresses from the layers above. It is essential that at no time soil sub-grade
is overstressed. It should be compacted to the desirable density, near the
optimum moisture content.

General causes of pavement failures:

Some of the general causes of pavement failures needing maintenance
measures may be classified as given below:
 Defects in the quality of materials used.
 Defects in construction method and quality control during construction.
 Inadequate surface or subsurface drainage in the locality resulting in the
stagnation of water in the sub grade or in any of the pavement layers.

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  Increase in the magnitude of wheel loads and the number of load
repetitions due to increase in traffic volume.
 Settlement of foundation of embankment of the fill material itself.
 Environmental factors including heavy rainfall, soil erosion, high water
table, snow fall, frost action, etc.

INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

The constructions which I supervised in the mentioned Shawar Road

Swat are listed below:

Following were my duties on the said road

1. Given instruction to worker for watering to the working structure, such

as column, beam, brick wall, etc.
2. Instruction given to the worker for coming earlier in the morning at
working place.
3. Observing all the site plan sheet and work as it is, if there is
requirecreating some change in site plan then discussing about that
issue with our Sr. Engineer.
4. Taking all the safety precaution such as, safety of cement from water,
safety of worker from electric shock.
5. Wrote all the site work day to day with attendance of worker.
6. Get record of all the materials coming at site such as brick, mudroom,
sand, aggregates. Cement bag, bar, and other.

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 7. Calculating the estimate of working day work such as, steel work,
concreting work, form work, excavation, filling mudroom, plastering,
etc.
8. Write all the above data into working record book.

The following Drawing are Detail of Industrial Training Report

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