SPE 165311

Applicability of Hydroxyethylcellulose Polymers for Chemical EOR

Sayeed Abbas, Aaron W. Sanders, James C. Donovan, Dow Oil & Gas

Copyright 2013, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE Enhanced Oil Recovery Conference held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 2-4 July 2013.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper have not been
reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect any position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its
officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the written consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited. Permission to
reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of SPE copyright.

Abstract

Polymer flooding is a well established tertiary EOR technique to improve mobility control of a waterflood. Currently
partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide (HPAM) is the industry workhorse in polymer EOR in reservoirs with low salinity and
temperature. Biopolymers including hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC) and Xanthan are soluble and excellent viscosifiers in high
salinity conditions. This paper will provide a literature review on the use of biopolymers for EOR and focus specifically on
the benefits of HEC as a mobility control polymer.

Introduction

Polymer flooding is the dominant chemical enhanced oil recovery (EOR) method practiced on a commercial scale in the
oilfield today. Partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide (HPAM), first developed by the Dow Chemical Company in the 1960’s
(Pye 1964), continues to be the industry workhorse for polymer flooding. Most of these applications are conducted under low
temperature (< 70 °C) and low salinity (and hardness) conditions where the polymer is soluble in brine. At higher
temperatures, the rate of hydrolysis of the amide functionalities of HPAM increases creating greater amounts of acrylic acid
in the backbone. A simplistic description of this hydrolysis mechanism is shown in Figure 1. Polyacrylic acid is very
sensitive to hardness, and above a critical level of hardness (usually > 200 ppm) the polymer precipitates out.

Figure 1 Simplistic description of the mechanism of HPAM hydrolysis.

Detailed studies have been performed on the rate of hydrolysis and its effect on HPAM solubility in brines (Moradi-Araghi
and Doe 1984 , Levitt and Pope 2008). These studies have laid the groundwork for the development of new co-monomers,
which when polymerized with acrylamide slow down the hydrolysis process. The most prominent among these co-
monomers are N-vinylpyrrolidone (Doe et al. 1987) (NVP) and acrylamide 2-Acrylamido-2-methylpropane sulfonic acid,
sodium salt (AMPS) (Moradi-Araghi, Cleveland, and Westerman 1987). Among them NVP deserves special mention
because when the co-monomer content exceeds 50% in the backbone, the copolymer is able to withstand temperatures of 120
ºC for six months in synthetic seawater (Stahl, Moradi-Araghi, and Doe 1988). The drawback of these copolymers is that
increasing degree of NVP or AMPS incorporation in the backbone reduces the highest achievable molecular weight of the
polymer. The molecular weight reduction happens primarily due to free radical chain transfer during polymerization (Odian
2004). For example, HPAM is available commercially in molecular weights of 18-20 million Da, whereas AM-NVP
copolymer molecular weights are limited to 5-8 million Da. The reduced molecular weight leads to reduced viscosifying
power of the copolymers compared with HPAM. In addition, these co-monomers, especially NVP, are much more expensive
2 SPE 165311

than acrylamide, increasing the cost of the copolymers. All these factors contribute to an overall higher cost for the
implementation of AM-NVP or AM-AMPS copolymers in the field.

HPAM and the copolymers described above are not universally applicable. One area of particular interest is in situations
where salinity is high (>100,000 TDS) and temperature is low (<70 ºC), such as in the Bartlesville Sands of Oklahoma. Even
though the temperature is low, HPAM and its copolymers are insoluble and cannot be applied in the field. In these situations
the better choice are biopolymers either from fermentation (Xanthan and Scleroglucan) or synthetic sources (cellulosic
polymers). These biopolymers have enhanced solubility in brines with high salinity and hardness and have viscous stability at
low temperatures. In this paper we will review the suitability of these biopolymers for EOR, with special emphasis on
hydroxyethylcellulose.

Fermentation based biopolymers

Figure 2 Structure of Xanthan and diagram showing the side chains folded down along the chain. The acetate caps and pyruvate ketals are
shown on the side chain.

Xanthan Gum.
The most common fermentation based biopolymer used in chemical EOR is Xanthan gum, which is derived from the micro-
organism Xanthomonas Campestris. Figure 2 shows the molecular structure of Xanthan. The backbone consists of the
regular cellulose repeat units, however every two glucose units has a pendant trisaccharide sequence, which plays an
important role in determining the conformation of the molecules in solution. X-ray diffraction studies have shown that the
Xanthan backbone has a helical structure where the side chains fold down along the helix (Moorhouse, Walkinshaw M, and
Arnott 1977). This unique structure makes Xanthan solution viscosity insensitive to temperature (< 85 °C) or salinity. The
helical structure changes to a random coil either at elevated temperatures (> 85 °C) or higher salinity/hardness, after which
the viscosity of the solution drops. Figure 3 shows the viscosity versus temperate behavior of Xanthan in brine.
SPE 165311 3

Figure 3 Viscosity as a function of temperature for 3000 ppm of Xanthan.

Oxidative Stability.
A critical attribute of EOR polymers is chemical stability of the solution under reservoir conditions for an extended period of
time (i.e., months to a year). Viscosity retention at a particular temperature and shear rate is used as a measure of polymer
stability. Usually if precipitation occurs, viscosity of the solution is also reduced. Over the years a number of studies have
reported the chemical stability of different polymers, (Akstinat 1980 , Davison and Mentzer 1982 , Shupe 1981 , Glass et al.
1983 , Ryles 1983 , Ash et al. 1983 , Martin et al. 1983 , Moradi-Araghi and Doe 1984 , Yang and Treiber 1985 , Stahl,
Moradi-Araghi, and Doe 1988, Seright and Henrici 1990 , Wellington 1983 , Manichand et al. 2013) out of which only a few
have focused exclusively on polysaccharides and Xanthan (Wellington 1983 , Seright and Henrici 1990 , Ash et al. 1983).
Wellington suggested that the primary degradation pathway for biopolymers is oxidation reactions involving free radicals,
which occur in the presence of oxygen. He claimed that the problem could not be solved by addition of free radical inhibitor
or anti-oxidant alone. A complex chemical package including a radical transfer agent, a sacrificial alcohol, an oxygen
scavenger and high brine concentrations was suggested as means of mitigating the problem. It would be very difficult to
propagate such a complex chemical cocktail through a reservoir without chromatographic separation.

Chemical Stability.
A better solution is to avoid oxygen in the reservoir brine in the first place and to add the polymer after oxygen is removed
from the brine. This approach mitigates polymer degradation via oxidation-reduction. Even if oxidation is avoided, there still
remains the issue of hydrolytic stability of polysaccharides. Polymers like Xanthan are interlinked by the glycosidic acetal
linkages which are prone to hydrolysis, especially under acidic conditions. The degradation is more severe above the helix-
coil transition temperature (Tm) of Xanthan (Seright and Henrici 1990). It has been hypothesized that the double helix
conformation of Xanthan molecules shields these linkages from chemical attack, thereby increasing long term stability of the
polymer.

Researchers have found three factors that influence the helix-coil transition: (i) Pyruvate content (ii) Acetate content (iii)
Ionic character of the brine. A description of pyruvate ketals and acetate caps in relation to Xanthan’s structure are shown in
Figure 2. An increase in pyruvate content leads to lower Tm, whereas the opposite effect is observed with acetate content. In
a long term aging experiment, both the pyruvate and acetate content change due to hydrolysis, as a result of which viscosity
can change in an unpredictable manner depending on the degree of hydrolysis of each moiety. High ionic strength increases
Tm, and Xanthan solutions have been observed to display better viscous stability in high salinity brines. Apart from these
three factors, the pH of the solution plays an important role because it influences the chemical attack on the glycoside
linkage. At both low and high pH conditions chain degradation is significant, whereas at near neutral conditions (pH
between 7 to 8) the polymer is most stable (Seright and Henrici 1990).
4 SPE 165311

Mechanical Degradation.
Another essential property displayed to some extent by Xanthan is its resistance to mechanical degradation. EOR polymers
can experience high shear, especially when it is being pumped downhole and near the wellbore. HPAM has been found to be
very prone to shear degradation, whereas biopolymers in general are more shear resistant (Akstinat 1980 , Seright 1983).
This result has been attributed to the mechanical conformation of the polymer chains in solutions. Coil shaped polymer
chains like HPAM or polyethylene oxide tend to exhibit viscoelastic behavior due to chain entanglement and when sheared at
a high rate the polymer chains are unable to relax fast enough and thus break or degrade. On the contrary rigid rod chains
formed by Xanthan and biopolymers tend to align themselves in the flow field and have faster relaxation times, which
minimize chain breakage.

Impurities and Formation Damage.

Xanthan is an exocellular polysaccharide and purification after completing fermentation has always been an issue. Untreated
Xanthan contains cellular debris and micro gels, which can plug the pore throats resulting in poor injectivity of the solutions
(Chauveteau and Kohler 1984 , Patton 1973 , Lipton 1974 , Seright, Seheult, and Talashek 2009). In the laboratory,
injectivity of polymer solutions are evaluated by filtration tests (API 1990)(Levitt and Pope 2008) and results show that
injectivity issues are amplified at higher flow rates and lower permeabilities. Unfortunately, high flow rates near well bores
are unavoidable in field implementation.

Several purification processes have been proposed, among which enzymatic treatments have been the most popular. A review
of these enzymatic processes has been discussed previously (Schroder et al 1985). Purified versions of Xanthan suitable for
EOR are available in the market place today, typically at a premium over unpurified technical grade. The purified enzyme
Xanthan broths have been found to have less plugging tendencies compared to Xanthan powder (Kohler and Chauveteau
1981 , Kobzeff et al. 2003). Another option is to filter out cellular debris and micro gels after polymer hydration in the field,
which increases operational complexity of field implementation.

Field Trials.
A few field trials have been performed using Xanthan as the mobility control agent. In the 1980’s Exxon completed a
surfactant-polymer microemulsion flood in the watered out portion of the Weiler sand, Loudon Field in Illinois. The field had
a high salinity of approximately 104,000 ppm total dissolved solids and low temperature of 78 °F. The flood was performed
without a pre-flush using Xanthan as the high salinity mobility control agent. Loss of viscosity was observed in the polymer
drive bank and was attributed to bacterial degradation of the polymer (Bragg, Gale, and Canning 1983). Subsequently
formaldehyde was used as an anti-bacterial agent and was found to protect the biopolymer under field conditions. The field
tests were successful and recovered more than 60% of oil left after waterflood. Cores drilled from the test area after the
surfactant/polymer flood confirmed low final oil saturations.

In another trial conducted in the Eddesse-Nord sandstone reservoir (Germany), a 2% Xanthan biopolymer broth was injected
at a concentration of 800 ppm from 1985 to 1988 in two wells (KIeinitz and Littmann 1996). Temperature of the field was 22
ºC, and salinity was 120,000 TDS. A low molecular weight Xanthan with low pyruvate content was used in the trial. No
problems with injectivity were observed, however the viscosity yield was low because of the low molecular weight and
pyruvate content of the polymer. Results from the pilot showed an incremental oil production of 5-7% of the original oil in
place which was attributed to the polymer.

The successful pilot led to two more trials in Vorhop-Knesebeck (temperature 56 ºC and salinity of 210,000 TDS) and
Scheerhorn (temperature 49 ºC and salinity 77,000 TDS). The Vorhop-Knesebeck field trial used a 3% Xanthan broth, which
was further diluted with brine before injection. Higher concentrations of the broth were deemed prohibitively expensive. The
results of the trial were disappointing. The oil cut increased marginally upon polymer breakthrough, but the recovered oil
was in the form of an emulsion which was difficult to break. No injectivity problems were reported in the trial.
The Scheehorn trial used a high molecular weight Xanthan with higher pyruvate content, which led to higher viscosity yield
compared to the polymers used in the other trials. Batch variability led to injectivity issues, although the trial was not halted
because of them. The results from this trial were also disappointing with only 3% of OOIP recovered from the polymer
flood. The failure was attributed to the loss of Xanthan’s viscosity under field conditions and under-estimation of oil
viscosity.

Another trial using a 3% Xanthan broth was performed in the Shengli oilfield (temperature 65 ºC and salinity of 5,500 TDS)
(Guo et al. 1999). The results of the trial were positive; a reduction in water cut to 92% from 97% was obtained. A high
viscosity loss was again reported, in this case attributed to mechanical degradation contrary to prior literature reports. The
polymer solutions were found to be stable under reservoir conditions. Formaldehyde was used as a biocide without which
viscosity loss was reported in the laboratory due to bacterial degradation.
SPE 165311 5

Hydroxyethylcellulose polymers

Hydroxyethycellulose (HEC) polymers are obtained from water insoluble cellulose by chemical modification. The insoluble
cellulose is reacted with ethylene oxide which adds a pendant hydroxyethyl group to the backbone, thereby making the
polymer soluble in water. Unlike Xanthan, HEC is produced synthetically and does not have cellular debris, which has been
implicated as a cause of formation damage. The process is much more flexible given that various molecular weights of
starting material can be used with, as well as the level of ethoxylation. As shown in Figure 4, HEC is naturally nonionic and
has a fairly rigid backbone which enables it to viscosify brines at low concentrations.

Figure 4 Structure of hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC)

Unlike Xanthan, HEC polymer chains do not attain a helical conformation in solution. As a result, its viscosity decreases with
temperature, like any conventional polymer. Due to the non-ionic nature of HEC, it is insensitive to salinity and is
surprisingly soluble even in high salinity brines (as shown in Figure 5). HEC solutions are non-Newtonian in nature, and the
viscosity of the solution is reduced with shear. HEC polymers are already in wide use in the oilfield today. These properties
are why it is often used as the viscosifier in well workover and completion fluids and in hydraulic fracturing. One of its most
important advantages over other thickeners is reduced formation damage, which also makes it a promising candidate for
enhanced oil recovery.
6 SPE 165311

Figure 5 Viscosity as a function of temperature for 3000 ppm of CELLOSIZE™ HEC-10 HV.

Oxidative Stability.
HEC and Xanthan are both biopolymers with similar backbone structures, and therefore their stability in reservoir conditions
is influenced by the same factors. Oxygen reduces the viscosity of HEC solutions over time due to oxidation-reduction
reactions. Additives like tetraethylenepentamine have been shown to improve HEC’s resistance to thermal-oxidative
degradation, but the best approach is again to prepare injection solutions in an inert atmosphere (Glass et al. 1983). This
practice has become a “Best Practice” with polyacrylamide polymer floods and should be implemented in biopolymer floods
also.

Chemical Stability.
Oxygen is not the only source of viscosity loss with HEC. Low pH is detrimental to the stability of cellulosic polymers, due
to hydrolysis of the acetal linkages in the backbone. At neutral and high pH the hydrolysis rate is greatly reduced, and HEC
solutions can be stable for months. Similar to Xanthan, HEC solutions are resistant to mechanical shear (Szabo, Guilbault,
and Sherwood 1976). HEC and Xanthan were evaluated after shearing in terms of dollars per unit viscosity of the solution,
and both had relatively similar viscosification power.

Ease of Solubilization.
One particular issue with using water soluble polymers in oil field applications is getting them dissolved in the brine.
Problems with solubilizing HPAM are well known. Improper hydration can lead to fish-eyes and micro gels which can
damage the formation. The problems are such that highly specialized equipment for the dissolution is necessary in the field,
adding an extra layer of complexity to implementation. In comparison, cellulosics are much easier to hydrate and are not
prone to forming micro gels or fish-eyes. In side by side comparison, however, as shown in Figure 6, the rate of hydration of
HEC is superior to that of Xanthan. This ease of handling can reduce the cost of capital necessary in the field.
SPE 165311 7

Xanthan HEC

Figure 6 Ease of solubilization of HEC compared to Xanthan. 3000 ppm of each biopolymer was stirred with brine (8% NaCl + 2% CaCl2) for 12 hours.
Xanthan jar visibly shows undissolved material.

Formation Damage.
The biggest benefit that HEC has over other biopolymers is absence of impurities, due to the nature of its manufacture.
Fermentation processes leave behind cellular material that is insoluble and has been shown to plug pore-throats in low
permeability formations. As was seen in at least one field trial, lot-to-lot variability created injectivity issues, and may have
contributed to a failed polymer trial. With HEC these issues are not observed as the material is created synthetically leaving
behind an insignificant amount of insoluble material.

Field Trials.
Due to the tolerance of HEC to high salinities, they are particularly useful for polymer flooding low temperature-high salinity
formations, where polyacrylamides are excluded due to precipitation. In 1992 a joint venture of Total and TATNEFT carried
out a polymer flood of the Romashkino field in Tatarstan (Loppinet, Lakovlev, and Glenat 1997). The field conditions at the
time of the polymer flood were a temperature of 38 ºC and a salinity of 250 g/Liter with a Na/Ca ratio of 15:1. More than
3500 tons of HEC was injected into 180 wells, leading to the production of 1,000,000 tons of incremental oil. The efficiency
of the project was near the desired goal, attaining a level of 377.7 tons of oil per ton of HEC at the time the report was
written.

The report on the field trial in the Romashkino field also pointed out another potential advantage of HEC in implementation.
As is typical of the polymer floods, the HEC was supplied as a powder to the field and the powder was maintained under an
inert atmosphere of nitrogen until it was used. The HEC could be dissolved easily “on the fly” utilizing simple mixing,
without the need for the specialized mixing protocols necessary with polyacrylamide (Yukihiko and Osamu 1985 , Rodgers
and Schieber 1987). This was particularly useful since it allowed them to design equipment to easily vary the dosage for each
well and better optimize the flood.

Conclusion

Based on the review of the literature and observations in the laboratory we have found the following to be true:
(i) HPAM is considered the industry standard for water soluble polymers but is not universally applicable.
(ii) HPAM is very difficult to hydrate requiring specialized equipment.
(iii) Water soluble polymers are prone to oxidative degradation, although this has been mitigated by inerting the
atmosphere of operations in the field.
(iv) Cellulosic polymers are particularly well suited for high salinity-low temperature applications, such as those
found in parts of Oklahoma.
(v) Xanthan is a salt tolerant biopolymer, but can be formation damaging, due to extracellular material from the
fermentation process.
(vi) Xanthan broths have very low concentrations, and dry Xanthan is difficult to hydrate creating problems with
logistics and field handling.
(vii) HEC is non-formation damaging due purity imparted by to the synthetic nature of the molecule.
(viii) HEC is easy to hydrate “on the fly” making it an excellent choice in terms of handling and risk to field
injectivity.
8 SPE 165311

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