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&/4*0/4 Different Types of System of Units
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
x All the quantities in terms of which laws of physics
can be described and which can be measured are
known as physical quantities.
x There are two types of physical quantities :
– Fundamental quantities
– Derived quantities
x Fundamental quantities : Those physical quantities
which do not depend upon any other quantity are
known as fundamental quantities or base quantities.
x There are seven fundamental or base quantities in
SI system. They are Length, Mass, Time, Electric
current, Thermodynamic temperature, Amount of
substance, Luminous intensity.
x Derived quantities : Those physical quantities
which are derived from the fundamental quantities
are known as derived quantities.
Distance
e.g. Speed =
Time
UNITS
x Unit : Measurement of any physical quantity
involves comparison with a certain basic arbitrarily
chosen, internationally accepted reference standard
known as unit.
x The result of a measurement of a physical quantity
is expressed by a number (or numerical measure)
accompanied by a unit. In general,
Measure of a physical quantity = numerical value (n)
× unit (u)
Characteristics of a Standard Unit
x A unit selected for measuring a physical quantity
should fulfill the following requirements :
– It should be of suitable size.
– It should be well defined.
– It should be easily accessible.
– It should be easily reproducible at all places.
– It should not change with time.
– It should not change with change in its physical
conditions like temperature, pressure etc.
Fundamental and Derived Units
x Fundamental units : The units of fundamental or
base quantities are known as fundamental or base
units.
x Derived units : The units of derived quantities are
known as derived units.
System of Units
x A complete set of units having, both the base units
and derived units is known as system of units.
x CGS system : In this system centimetre, gram and
second are the fundamental units of length, mass
and time respectively. It is a metric system of units.
It is also known as Gaussian system of units
x FPS system : In this system foot, pound and second
are the fundamental units of length, mass and time
respectively. It is not a metric system of units. It is
also known as British system of units.
x MKS system : In this system metre, kilogram and
second are the fundamental units of length, mass and
time respectively. It is also a metric system of units.
x International System of Units (SI) : The system of
units which is at present internationally accepted
for measurement is the Système Internationale d’
Unites (French for International System of
Units), abbreviated as SI. It is based on the
seven fundamental units or base units and two
supplementary units.
x The two supplementary units in SI system are :
– Radian (rad) : It is defined as the plane angle
subtended at the centre of circle, by an arc of the
circle equal in length to its radius.
– Steradian (sr) : It is defined as the solid angle
subtended at the centre of a sphere by an area of the
sphere equal to square of its radius.
Advantages of SI
x The main advantages of SI over the other systems of
units are the following :
– SI is a coherent system of units.
– SI is a rational system of units.
– SI is an absolute system of units.
– SI is a metric system.
ACCURACY AND PRECISION OF MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS
x Accuracy : The accuracy of a measurement is a
measure of how close the measured value is to the
true value of the quantity.
x Precision : Precision tells us to what resolution
or limit the quantity is measured by a measuring
instrument.
x The accuracy in measurement may depend on
several factors, including the limit or the resolution
of the measuring instrument.
x Precision is determined by the least count of the
measuring instrument. Smaller the least count,
greater is the precision.
x Seven base quantities, their units with definitions are as shown in the table.
Base quantity SI Units
Name Symbol Definition
Length metre m The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during
a time interval of 1/299,792,458 of a second.
Mass kilogram kg The kilogram is equal to the mass of the international prototype of
the kilogram (a platinum-iridium alloy cylinder) kept at International
Bureau of Weights and Measures, at Sevres, near Paris, France.
Time second s The second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the
ground state of the cesium-133 atom.
Electric current ampere A The ampere is that constant current which, when flowing in two
straight parallel conductors of infinite length and of negligible
circular cross-section, and placed 1 metre apart in vacuum,
would produce between these conductors a force equal to
2 × 10–7 newton per metre of length.
Thermodynamic kelvin K The kelvin, is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature
temperature of the triple point of water.

Amount of mole mol The mole is the amount of substance of a system, which contains as
substance many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of
carbon-12.
Luminous candela cd The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction,
intensity of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency
540 × 1012 hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of
1/683 watt per steradian.

ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
x Error : The result of every measurement by any
measuring instrument contains some uncertainty.
This uncertainty is known as error. Every calculated
quantity which is based on measured values, also
has an error
x The difference in the measured value and the
true value of a quantity is known as error in
measurement. In general, the errors in measurement
can be broadly classified as :
– Systematic errors
– Random errors.
x Systematic errors : Systematic errors are those
errors that tend to be in one direction, either
positive or negative. Some of the sources of
systematic errors are :
– Instrumental errors : These arise from the
errors due to imperfect design or calibration of the
measuring instrument, zero error in the instrument
etc.
– Imperfection in experimental technique or
procedure.
– Personal errors : These arise due to an
individual’s bias, lack of proper setting of the
apparatus or individual’s carelessness in taking
observations without observing proper precautions,
etc.
x Systematic errors can be minimised by improving
experimental techniques, selecting better instruments
and removing personal bias as far as possible.
x Random errors : Random errors are those errors,
which occur irregularly and hence are random
with respect to sign and size. These can arise
due to random and unpredictable fluctuations
in experimental conditions (e.g. unpredictable
fluctuations in temperature, voltage supply,
mechanical vibrations of experimental set-ups,
etc), personal (unbiased) errors by the observer
taking readings etc.
x Least count error : The smallest value that can be
measured by the measuring instrument is known as
its least count. All the readings or measured values
are good only up to this value.
x The least count error is the error associated with the
resolution of the instrument.
x Least count error belongs to the category of random
errors but within a limited size; it occurs with both
systematic and random errors.
x Using instruments of higher precision, improving
experimental techniques, etc., we can reduce the
least count error.
Absolute Error, Relative Error and Percentage Error x Subtraction : If X = A – B then the maximum absolute
x Let a physical quantity a be measured n times. error in X is
Let the measured values be a1, a2, a3, ..... an. The 'X = 'A + 'B
arithmetic mean of these values is When two quantities are subtracted, the maximum
a + a + a3 + ...... + an absolute error in the final result is the sum of the
Arithmetic mean, amean = 1 2 absolute errors in the individual quantities.
n
1 n x Multiplication : If X = AB, then the maximum
amean = ∑ ai relative error in X is
n i =1
ΔX ΔA ΔB
x Absolute error : The magnitude of the difference = +
X A B
between the individual measurement and the true Maximum percentage error in X is
value of the quantity is known as the absolute error ΔX ΔA ΔB
of the measurement. It is denoted by |'a|. × 100 = ×100 + ×100
The errors in the individual measured values from X A B
the true value are When two quantities are multiplied, the maximum
'a1 = a1 – amean relative error in the final result is the sum of
'a2 = a2 – amean the relative errors in the individual quantities
'a3 = a3 – amean multiplied.
... ... ...
... ... ... A
x Division : If X = , then the maximum relative
'an = an – amean B
'a may be positive in certain cases and negative in error in X is
some other cases. Absolute error |'a| will always be ΔX ΔA ΔB
= +
positive. X A B
x Mean absolute error : It is the arithmetic mean of Maximum percentage error in X is
all the absolute errors. It is denoted by 'amean. ΔX ΔA ΔB
× 100 = ×100 + ×100
| Δa1 | + | Δa2 | + | Δa3 | ... + | Δan | X A B
Δamean =
n When two quantities are divided, the maximum
relative error in the final result is the sum of the
1 n
Δamean = ∑ | Δai
ni =1
relative errors in the individual quantities divided.
x Power : If X = Ak, then the maximum relative error
The final value of measurement may be written as in X is
a = amean ± 'amean ΔX ΔA
amean – 'amean d a d amean + 'amean =k
X A
This implies that any measurement of the physical Maximum percentage error in X is
quantity a is likely to lie between ΔX ΔA
(amean + 'amean) and (amean – 'amean). × 100 = k ×100
X A
x Relative error or fractional error : It is defined as The maximum relative error in a physical quantity
the ratio of mean absolute error to the mean value raised to the power k is the k times the relative error
of the quantity measured. in the individual quantity.
Relative error or fractional error
A p Bq
mean absolute error Δamean x In more general form if X =
= = Cr Ds
mean value amean
Maximum relative error in X is
x Percentage error : When the relative error is ΔX ΔA ΔB ΔC ΔD
expressed in percentage, it is known as percentage =p +q +r +s
X A B C D
error. Maximum percentage error in X is
Δa
Percentage error, δa = mean × 100% ΔX ΔA ΔB
amean × 100 = p ×100 + q ×100
X A B
Combination of Errors ΔC ΔD
+r × 100 + s × 100
x Addition : If X = A + B, then the maximum absolute C D
error in X is
'X = 'A + 'B
When two quantities are added, the maximum
absolute error in the final result is the sum of the
absolute errors in the individual quantities.