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FILE11
FILE11
Introduction:
Raft foundations (sometimes known as Mat Foundations) are a large concrete slab
which
can support a number of columns and walls. The slab is spread out under the entire
building or at least a large part of it which lowers the contact pressure compared
to the
traditionally used strip or trench footings. Because of the speed and volume of
houses
required after the Second World War, the raft foundation was widely used. The raft
foundation was cheaper, easier to install and most importantly, did not require as
much
excavation as the usual strip foundations. When the Building Regulations were
introduced
in 1965 there were no generic rules for raft foundations as there were for strip
foundations.
This meant that to use a raft foundation, it had to be designed and approved by
Building
Control. This made the entire operation much more difficult and time consuming so
raft
foundations became less widely used almost overnight.
Page | 1
There are also situations (usually in areas where mining has occurred)
where there
may be areas of movement in the strata.
They are much more commonly used in the construction of commercial building
in
the UK that they are for domestic homes, but can be used very successful in
both
situations. To understand when it is better to use raft foundations, you
need to
understand how they work.
A raft foundation spreads the weight of the building over the whole ground floor
area of
that building. The raft is laid on a hardcore, or scalping bed and usually
thickened at the
edges, especially in very poor ground. Rafts are most suitable when the ground is
of good
load bearing capacity and little work is required to get a solid foundation.
The foundation may stiffened by ribs or beams built in during construction which
will add
extra strength and rigidity.
it is used for large loads, which is why they are so common in commercial
building
which tend to be much larger, and therefore heavier, than domestic homes
The soil has a low bearing capacity so the weight of the building needs to be
spread
would cover over half of the construction area then raft foundation would
be used
Page | 2
If the walls of the building are so close that it would cause the individual
footings to
Raft foundations tend to be cheaper and quicker to use than traditional footings.
There are
a number of reasons why this is the case:
The foundation and floor slab is combined, which saves time and materials
Other reasons that make raft foundations preferable to footings are due to their
engineering benefits. They are ideal for poor ground condition where normal
footings
would not cope well as they cannot spread the load as effectively.
The main disadvantage is that they can prone to edge erosion if they are not
treated
properly. They are not effective is the load of the building is going to be
focused on a
single point, although this is rare in domestic construction, so this isn't
generally of
concern.
Classification of Rafts:
Page | 3
1.1 Design a raft foundation supporting the columns of a building Fig shows the
position
of the columns. The load of each column 400kN, Use M20 concrete and Fe 415 steel.
Safe bearing capacity of the soil is 120 kN/m2
Solution:
44
Width required for the raft slab = = 1.22 metre
36
4800
Net upwards pressure intensity on the raft slab = = 106.67 kN/m2
36 � 1.25
Page | 4
Design of raft slab
Projection of the raft slab from the face of the raft beam
1.25−0.35
= = 0.45m
2
Consider a 1 metre wide strip of the raft slab cantilevering from the face of the
beam.
106.67 � 0.452
Maximum bending moment = = 10.80 kN m
2
Equating Mu,lim to Mu
d = 77 mm
�� 16.2 � 106
= = 1.62
�� 2 100 � 1002
Percentage of steel required
4.6
1 − √1 − � 1.62
20
�� = 50 = 0.50 %
415
[ 20 ]
0.50
��� = � 1000 � 100 = 500��2
100
Ast = 0.50 x 1000x 100 = 500 mm2
Page | 5
�� 2 32
Maximum bending moment = = 133.33 � = 120 ���
10 10
d = 432 mm
10
Providing 16mm ∅ bars, overall depth = 432 + (50 + 2
+ 16
2
) = 432 + 63
= 495��
�� 180 � 106
= = 1.493
�� 2 350 � 5872
Percentage of steel required
4.6
1 − √1 − � 1.493
20
�� = 50 = 0.457 %
415
[ 20 ]
0.457
��� = � 350 � 587 = 939��2
100
360 � 103
Nominal shear stress �� = = 1.75 �/��2
350 � 587
1005
Percentage of steel provided = � 100 = 0.49 %
350 � 587
Page | 6
Shear resistance of the concrete = �� �� = 0.47 � 350 � 587 = 96561 �
Net shear =�� = 360000 − 96561 = 263439 �
0.87 � 415 � 4 � 79 � 587
Spacing of 4 legged 10mm ∅stirrups= = 254 ��
263439
The above spacing may be adopted for a distance of 1 metre from each support. For
the
middle 1 metre length 2-legged 8mm diameter stirrups at 250mm c/c
Page | 7
1.2.DESIGN:
A building rests on six columns 450 mm × 450 mm arranged as shown in figure. Each
central column carries a load of 800 KN and the end columns carry 500 KN each.
Design a raft foundation for the column. The design shall also allow for a wind
load
moment of 1200 KN about the base of the raft. Use M 20 Concrete and Fe 415 Steel.
Solution:
Total = 3960 KN
Page | 8
Pressure due to weight of foundation= 360/(12 × 7) = 4.3 KN/m2
Since the columns are 450 mm × 450 mm, let the width of the
main beams be 500 mm.
This acts at [(52.5 + 2 × 55.1) / (52.5 + 55.1)] × (0.75 / 3) meter from the edge
of beam
Maximum Bending moment for the cantilever slab per meter width = 40.4 × 0.39 KNm
= 15.7 KNm
Equating Mu,lim to Mu
Therefore d = 93 mm
Page | 9
Page | 10
Effective depth d = 180 – (60 + 5) = 115 mm
Maximum bending moment per meter width = (48.7 / 12) × (5 / 3) 2 =11.27 KNm
Page | 11
Factored moment, Mu = 1.5 × 11.27 = 16.905 KNm.
The loading on an intermediate secondary beam is less than that on the end
secondary beam.
The loading on the end secondary beam varies
Page | 12
From 51.6 × 1 × (5 / 6) = 94.6 KN / m
To 34.1 × 1 × (5 / 6) = 62.5 KN / m
= 2.67 m from A
Vb × 5 = 392.8 × 2.67
Vb = 209.7 KN
Maximum Bending Moment: This occurs at a section where the shear force is zero.
Equating the general expression for shear force to zero, we have
S = x2 + 19.47 x – 57.05 = 0
Page | 13
= [(62.5 × 2.582) / 2] + [(3.21 × 2.582) / 3] – (183.1 × 2.58) KNm
= 246.02 KNm
Breadth of flange
Hence width of the flange B = 2263 mm. Assuming the neutral axis to lie within the
flange
and equating the ultimate moment of resistance to the factored moment,
Page | 14
Shear Analysis
Nominal Shear Stress at the end B = (314.55 × 103) / (350 × 720) = 1.25 N/mm2
Nominal Shear Stress at the end a = (274.65 × 103) / (350 × 720) = 1.09 N/mm2
Percentage of steel provided = (Ast / bd) × 100 = (1570 / (350 × 720)) × 100 =
0.62%
Page | 15
Main Beams
The load system acting on the main beam is shown in figure. Let the resultant point
load at
each end be Q. Resolving forces on the main beam vertically, we have,
Q = 343.25 KN
Page | 16
S.F Calculations
Sa = -343.25 KN
B.M Calculations
Ma = 0
x = 2.86 m
Page | 17
Percentage of steel required
Shear reinforcement
= 237 mm
Page | 18
Shear Resistance of concrete = τc bd = 0.51 × 500 × 920 = 234600 N
= 298 mm
Page | 19
3. Design a raft foundation for the layout of columns shown in Figure
(a). All columns are of square shape of size 40X40 cm. ADSP=80 kN/m3. Use M 15
concrete and Fe 415 steel Assume 10% as the load of raft and soil above.
Solution:
A. Design of Raft Slab
+1000+800+1000+1200+600 = 14000kN
�� = 9.1714�
ex = 9.1714-(6+3) = 0.1714m
�� = 5.4285�
Page |
20
19.4∗11.43
ey = 5.4285-5 = 0.4285m Ix = = 2395.16 �4
12
11.4∗19.43
Iy = = 6936.31 �4 A = 19.4 x 11.4 = 221.16 m2
12
2400 6000
� = 63.302 ± � ± �
6936.31 2395.16
σ = 63.302 ± 0.346 x ± 2.505 y
Page | 21
At corner A-4
= 80.93kN/m2
At corner C-4
= 74.225 kN/m2
At corner A-1
At corner C-1
= 45.67 kN/m2
At corner B-4
=66.658 kN/m2
At corner B-1
= 59.943 kN/m2
Page | 22
In the X-direction the raft is divided in three strips that is three equivalent
beams
80+66.65
2) Beam B-B with 5.0m width and soil pressure of (
)=
2
73.325 ��/�2
66.65+52.38
3) Beam C-C with 5.0m width and soil pressure of (
)=
2
59.52 ��/�2
1
The bending moment is obtained by using a coefficient and L as the
center to
10
center of column distance
��2
±M=
10
For strip AA
80∗62
Maximum moment = = 288�� − �/�
10
For strip BB
73.32∗62
Maximum moment = = 263.95�� − �/�
10
For Strip CC
59.52∗62
Maximum moment = = 214.272�� − �/�
10
��2
For any strip in the Y- direction take M= Since there is only a two
span
8
equivalent beam for strip 4-4.
80∗54
Maximum moment = = 250�� − �/�
8
The depth of the raft is governed by two way shear at one of exterior columns.
If the location of critical shear it is not obvious it may be necessary to check
all
possible locations.
Page | 23
Shear strength of Concrete �� = 0.25√���
= 0.25√15
= 0.97 �/��2
= d+1800mm
��
�� =
��
1.5 ∗ 800 ∗ 1000
0.97 =
(� + 1800)�
d = 530.773mm
= 2d +2200 mm
��
�� =
�0 �
1.5∗1600∗1000
0.97 = (2�+2200)�
d = 690.811 mm
At= 1109.51mm2
Page |
24
1109.51
Number of bars = = 3.531≈ 4 bars
314.151
Π
1000∗ ∗202
4
Spacing of long bars = = 283.152mm
1109.51
Provide 4 bars 20mmΦ bars for reinforcement @ 260mm C/C at top and bottom
in both directions.
= 960mm2/m
Page | 25
DESIGN OF PILES AND PILE CAP
Introduction
Pile foundations are deep foundations. They are formed by long, slender, columnar
elements
typically made from steel or reinforced concrete, or sometimes timber. A foundation
is
described as 'piled' when its depth is more than three times its breadth (Atkinson,
2007).
Pile foundations are principally used to transfer the loads from superstructures,
through weak,
compressible strata or water onto stronger, more compact, less compressible and
stiffer soil or rock at depth, increasing the effective size of a foundation and
resisting
horizontal loads. They are typically used for large structures, and in situations
where soil is
not suitable to prevent excessive settlement.
Page | 26
Why Pile Foundation?
Pile foundations are the part of a structure used to carry and transfer the
load of the
structure to the bearing ground located at some depth below ground surface.
Offshore structures
For structures near flowing water, (eg: bridge abutments) to avoid problems
due to
erosion.
Page | 27
Friction Pile
Cohesive Pile
Piles are also used to resist uplift loads. Piles used for this purpose are called
tension piles,
uplift piles or anchor piles. Uplift forces are developed due to hydrostatic
pressure or
overturning moments
Page | 28
Anchor Pile
Timber Pile
Page | 29
Keeping the timber below the ground water level will
protect the
timber against decay and putrefaction.
Concrete Pile
Usual length: 10 m – 45 m
Usual Load: 7500 kN – 8500 KN
Usual length: 5 m – 15 m
Usual Load: 200 kN – 500 kN
Advantage:
Relatively cheap
It can be easily combined with concrete
Superstructure
Corrosion resistant
It can bear hard driving
Disadvantage:
• Difficult to transport
Page | 30
Steel Pile
Steel pile/ Iron piles are suitable for handling and driving
in long
lengths.
Their relatively small cross-sectional area combined with
their high
strength makes penetration easier in firm soil.
Composite Pile:
Combination of different materials in same pile.
Page | 31
As indicated earlier, part of a timber pile which is
installed above
ground water could be vulnerable to insect attack and decay.
Driven Piles
Driven piles are considered to be displacement piles.
In the process of driving the pile into the ground, soil is moved
radially as
the pile shaft enters the ground.
Pile Caps
Page | 32
Definition
The Pile cap should normally be rigid so as to distribute the forces
equally on
the piles of a group.
The Pile cap should normally be rigid so as to distribute the forces
equally on
the piles of a group.
Pile caps are thick reinforced concrete mat which rest on top of the
concrete or
timber piles (driven or bored and cast-in-situ) to provide stability
to the
foundation.
The main objective of constructing the pile caps is to distribute the
load of
column(s), which generally huge for large constructions, to the under
lying
piles.
Pile heads are hinged to the pile cap and hence no bending moment is
transmitted to piles from pile caps.
Since the piles are short and elastic columns, the deformations and
stress
distribution are planer.
Arrangement of reinforcement.
Minimum grade of concrete that can be used in construction of piles and pile
caps is
M25.
Complete cap can be casted monolithically in case of smaller pile like for
2-3 piles.
Reinforcement bars of columns are embedded into the pile caps up to their
development lengths.
After casting, pile caps are cured for 28 days and the shuttering is removed.
Page | 34
When number of piles in a group is too high, pile caps are constructed in the form
of
raft instead of constructing small pile caps
o The upper portions of piles are then chipped off with ordinary hammer and jack-
hammer.
o As per design and detailing, the depth of the pile caps are assured and
reinforcement is provided.
Page
| 35
DESIGN OF PILES
Solution:
Since the minimum eccentricity has not exceeded 0.05 b, the ultimate load for the
pile is
given by
In the body of the pile the ties shall have a volume equal to 0.20% of the volume
of the pile.
Page | 36
Clear cover to main bars = 40 mm
p= 186 mm
= 450/2
= 225 mm
From each end of the pile, for a distance equal to three times the least width, the
spacing of
the lateral ties shall be such that the volume of the ties will be 0.6% of the
volume of the pile.
In our case, three times the least width = 3 × 450 = 1350 mm. Hence for
1350 mm
length from each end of the pile the volume of the lateral ties will be atleast0.6%
of the
volume of the pile.
p = 62.2 mm say 60 mm
In addition to these lateral ties, the longitudinal bars shall be held apart at
intervals of 1.5 m
by spreaders of 12 mm diameter to prevent inward buckling. Besides this 6 mm
diameter
links should also be provided as ties to prevent displacement.
The pile is also provided with a hole at 0.293 l = 0.293 × 6250 = 1831 mm say 1830
mm
from the upper end for hoisting and also at 0.207 l = 0.207 × 6250 = 1294 mm say
1290 mm
for stalking.
Page | 37
Page | 38
2.2. Design a pile under a column transmitting an axial load of 800kn. The pile is
to be
driven to a hard stratum available at a depth of 8m.Use M20 concrete and Fe415
steel.
Solution:
Main Reinforcement:
P= σccAc + σscAsc
= (400×400)-Asc
= (16×104)-Asc
Asc=1087mm2
Since the length of the pile is less than 30 times the width, minimum reinforcement
@ 1.25%
of gross c/s area is calculated as
1.25
(400 × 400) = 2000mm2
100
i.e. 4×490=1960mm2. Provide a nominal cover of 50mm. cover to the center of main
reinforcement using 8mm Ø ties is
50+8+(25/2)=70.5mm
Page | 39
Lateral reinforcement in the body of the pile:
400-2(50)-8=292mm
�
Area �Ø = 4 82 = 50.3��2
Pitch =58750/320=183mm
1
Max pitch permissible = 2 × 400 = 200��
Hence provide 8mm Ø ties @ 180mm c/c throughout the length of the pile.
0.6
(400 × 400 × 1) = 960��2
100
Using 8 mm Ø spiral, having A Ø=50.3mm2, pitch is given by
����������������������� × �Ø
�=
960
�×292×50.3
= = 48��
960
Provide the spiral at 45mm pitch. Provide 6 additional bars of 16mm Ø vertically
with in the
spiral will be in addition to the normal ties.
Page | 40
Page | 41
2.3. Design: A column 300 mm×300 mm in section stands on a pile cap supported on
three piles. The column is situated at the centroid of the pile group. The total
load
transferred to the column is 600kN. The piles are 1.20 meters centre to centre.
Design
the pile cap. Use M 20 concrete and Fe 415 steel.
Solution:
Fig shows the plan of the column and the piles and the imaginary beams AB and CD
having a
width of 300 mm i.e., the same as the corresponding lateral dimension of the pile.
D = 500mm
Page | 42
b) B.M. Consideration. Consider the beam DC. Maximum live load bending moment
for
this beam
= 400×0.2√3 kNm
= 138.56kNm
The dead load consists of the weight of the beam plus the weight of the
part of the
slab. For design purposes the self-weight may be calculated as the weight of the
slab whose
width equals three times the width of the beam. The depth of the pile cap from
bending
moment consideration is generally found to be more than 750 mm. Let us therefore
assume
the pile cap to be 800 mm deep for estimating the self-weight of the pile cap.
= 18000 N/metre
= 18 kN/metre
18×0.6√3 18
B.M. at G due to self-weight of the pile cap = × 0.2√3 −
(0.2√3)2 kNm
2 2
= 2.16 kNm
= 140.72 kNm
Dead load moment due to dead load transferred by the beam DC to the beam AB
0.6√3 1.2
= 18 × ( ) ×
4 2
= 2.80 kNm
Page | 43
Overall depth provided = 800 mm
Since the beam DC has been taken as supported at one end on a pile and at
the other
end over the beam AB, the reinforcement for the beam DC must be above the level of
the
reinforcement for the beam AB.
4.6 ��
1− √1−
��� ��2
Pt = 50 [ �� ]
���
4.6 ×1.251
1− √1−
20
Pt = 50 [ 415 ]
20
= 0.376%
0.376
Ast = × 300 × 750 = 846 mm2
100
�� 189.06 × 106
= = 1.074
��2 300 × 7662
4.6 ��
1− √1−
��� ��2
Pt = 50 [ �� ]
���
4.6 ×1.074
1− √1−
20
Pt = 50 [ 415 ]
20
= 0.319%
0.319
Ast = × 300 × 766 = 733 mm2
100
Page | 44
Secondary Reinforcement. This reinforcement shall be at least 20% of the maximum
steel
required for a beam
Page |
45
2.4. Design: A column carrying a load of 2500 kN has to be supported by four piles
each
of size 300mm ×300mm. The piles are spaced at 1 meter centres as shown in fig. The
column size is 600mm × 600mm. Design the pile cap, Use ��� concrete and Fe 415
steel
Solution:
The pile cap may b taken to provide two beams like AB and CD, together supporting
the total
load W. For purpose of design the maximum bending moment per beam may be taken
equal
to
� � ��
× =
4 2 8
The width of the beam will be assumed to be equal to the corresponding width of
the column
i.e., equal to 600mm.
∴ d = 649mm
�� 695.955×106
= =1.432
��2 600×9002
Page | 46
Percentage of steel required
4.6×1.432
1 −√1−
20
�� = 50 [ 415 ] = 0.436%
20
0.436
��� = × 600 × 900 = 2355��2
100
Page | 47