Digital Logic

CS504
 Lecture ONE (Revision on CS500)
Course content:
1) Digital System and Binary Numbers
2) Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates
3) Gate-Level Minimization
4) Combinational Logic
5) Synchronous Sequential Logic
6) Registers and Counters
7) Memory & Programmable Logic
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

1) Is it Worth the Effort?

Digital circuits are employed in the design of:
 Digital computers
 Data communication
 Digital phones
 Digital cameras
 Digital TVs, etc.

This course presents the basic concepts and tools for the design of digital circuits and
hence digital systems.
‫ اﻧﻨﺎ ﻧﻌﻤﻞ ﺗﺼﻤ�ﻢ ﻟﻠﺪواﻳﺮ اﻟ�ﻬ���ﺔ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﺔ ﻓ�ﻪ ﺻﻨﻊ اﻟ�ﻮﻣﺒﻴﻮﺗﺮ واﻟﺘﻠﻔﻮﻧﺎت‬digital logic‫ﻫﺪف ال‬
.‫واﻟﺘﻠﻔ��ﻮﻧﺎت واﻟﻤﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﺔ ف ي� ﻧﻘﻞ اﻟﺒ�ﺎﻧﺎت‬
‫يف‬
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

2) Analog versus Digital:

Analog Data
 Analog means continuous
 An analog parameter has continuous range of values
 Example: Temperature is an analog parameter
 Temperature increases/decreases continuously
 What are other examples of analog data?

Page 1 of 61
 ‫ ف� اﻟ�ﻮﻣﺒﻴﻮﺗﺮ ﻣﻌﻨﺎﻫﺎ ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮ و�ﻘﺼﺪ بكﻠﻤﺔ ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮ ان ﻟﻬﺎ ﻗ�ﻢ ﻻﻧﻬﺎﺋ�ﺔ بﻤﺮور اﻟﺰﻣﻦ ف‬Analog ‫كﻠﻤﺔ‬
‫�ﻌئ كﻞ ﺛﺎﻧ�ﺔ ﻟﻴﻬﺎ‬ ‫ي‬
� ‫ﻗ�ﻤﺔ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ذي ﻣﺜﻼ اﻟﺼﻮت وذي اﻟﺤﺮارة ﺑﺘﻘﻞ ت‬
.‫و���ﺪ بﺎﺳﺘﻤﺮار‬
Digital Data
 Digital means numerical digits.
 A digital parameter has fixed set of discrete
values
 Example: Month number is a digital
parameter (cannot be 1.5!). Month number ∈
{1, 2, 3, …, 12}
 What are other examples of digital data?

‫ ﻟﻴﻬﺎ ﻗ�ﻢ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺔ وﻣﺤﺪدة ذي ﻣﺜﻼ ارﻗﺎم اﻟﺸﻬﻮر ﻗ�ﻢ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﻪ وﻣﺤﺪدة وﻛﺬﻟﻚ‬data‫ ﻫﻨﺎ �ﻘﺼﺪ ان ال‬digital ‫وكﻠﻤﺔ‬
‫ن‬
.‫واﻟﺜﻮاي‬ ‫اﻟﺴﺎﻋﺎت واﻟﺪﻗﺎﻳﻖ‬
‫ي‬
...digital devices‫ وال‬analog devices‫�ﻌى ﻋﻨﺪي ال‬ ‫ﻃبﻘﺎ ﻟﻨ�ع اﻟﺪاﺗﺎ ﻓ�ﻪ ﻋﻨﺪي أﺟﻬﺰة ف‬
 Are computers analog or digital systems?
Computer are digital systems
‫ ﻻﻧﻪ ﺑيﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ بﺎﻟﻨﻈﺎم‬digital‫؟ بﺎﻟﺘﺄ��ﺪ ﻣﻦ ال‬digital‫ وﻻ ال‬analog‫�ﻌﺘ� ﻣﻦ أﻧﻈﻤﺔ ال‬ ‫ﻃ�ﺐ ﻫﻞ اﻟ�ﻮﻣﺒﻴﻮﺗﺮ ب‬
‫ن‬ ‫ن‬
.١‫ و‬٠ ‫ او أي ارﻗﺎم يﺑن‬١٫٥ ‫ ﻣﺸﻮﻓﻨﺎش ﻣﺜﻼ اﻧﻪ ﺑيﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻊ‬.١ ‫ او‬٠ ‫ﻗ�ﻤﺘن ﻣﺤﺪدﻳﻦ؛ اﻣﺎ‬
‫ي‬ ‫ اﻟﻤﻜﻮن ﻣﻦ‬binray‫ال‬

 Which is easier to design an analog device or a digital device?

Digital device is easier to design, because it deals with a limited set of values rather than
an infinitely large range of continuous values

 But the world around us is analog, so, how to measure analog data using digital
devices?? It is common to convert analog parameters into a digital form by the
digitization process
 Digitization is converting an analog signal into digital form
‫ف‬
analog ‫ ﻟﻼﻧﻬﺎ اﻣﺎ ﺑتﺴﺘﻘبﻞ‬analog devices ‫ ﻃبﻌﺎ اﻟﻤ�ﻜﺮوﻓﻮﻧﺎت واﻟﺴﻤﺎﻋﺎت كﻠﻬﺎ ﻋبﺎرة ﻋﻦ‬.... ‫�ﻌى ا�ﻪ اﻟ�ﻼم دە‬
‫ ﻻن اﻟﻤﻮﺟﺎت اﻟﺼﻮﺗ�ﻪ ﻟﻴﻬﺎ ﻗ�ﻢ ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮة ف ي� كﻞ ﻟﺤﻈﺔ وﻟ�ﻦ اﻟ�ﻮﻣﺒﻴﻮﺗﺮ وأﺟﻬﺰة‬analog data ‫ او ﺑﺘﺨ�ج‬data
‫ ﻃ�ﺐ ﻫﻞ دە ﻣﻌﻨﺎە اىن ﻟﻤﺎ ادﺧﻞ ﺻﻮت‬... ‫ �ﻌىن ﻻزم �ﺴﺘﻘبﻞ ﻗ�ﻢ ﻣﺤﺪدة وﺛﺎﺑﺘﻪ‬digital ‫اﻟﺘﻠﻔﻮن واﻟﺘﺎبﻠﺖ كﻠﻬﺎ أﺟﻬﺰة‬

Page 2 of 61
‫ﻋ� اﻟ�ﻮﻣﺒﻴﻮﺗﺮ وﻫﻮ ‪ analog data‬ﺑ�ﺤﻮﻟﻬﺎ ا� ‪ .... digital data‬اﻳﻮة ﻃبﻌﺎ وال ﻋﻤﻠ�ﺔ دي ﺑنﺴﻤﻴﻬﺎ ‪digitization‬‬
‫وﺗﻌﺎﻟﻮا �ﺸﻮف ﻣﺜﺎل اذاي ﺑﻨﺤﻮل اﻟﺼﻮت ل‪.... digital data‬‬
‫‪ Example: consider digitizing an analog voltage signal‬‬
‫}‪ Digitized output is limited to four values = {V1,V2,V3,V4‬‬

‫اي ﻫﺤﻮل اﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ اﻟ�ﻬ���ﺔ دي ل‪ digital value‬ودي ﻃبﻌﺎ ﻟﻴﻬﺎ ‪...voltage‬ﻫﻌﻤﻞ ا�ﻪ ‪ ...‬ﻫﻘﺴﻢ اﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ‬ ‫ض‬
‫وﻟﻨﻔﺮض ي‬
‫يف‬
‫ﻣﺴﺘ��ن ﻓﻬﺪ�ﻠﻪ ﻗ�ﻤﺔ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى اﻷﻗﺮب ﻟ�ﻪ ‪ ...‬وﻟ�ﻦ ﻫﻮ ﻫﻨﺎ ﻫ�ﺨﺘﺎر اﻟﻘ�ﻢ‬ ‫ا� ار�ــﻊ ﻣﺴﺘ��ﺎت وﻟﻮ اﻟﺨﻂ ﺟﻪ ي ف‬
‫ﺑن‬
‫اﻟﻮاﻗﻌﺔ ﻋ� أي ﺧﻂ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻄﻮط اﻟﻤﺴﺘ��ﺎت اﻟﻤﺤﺪدة ‪� ....‬ﻌىن ﻛﺪة‬

‫‪ Some loss of accuracy, why? Because many values are ignored.‬‬
‫‪ How to improve accuracy? Add more voltage values‬‬
‫ﻛﺘ� ي ن‬
‫ﺑن‬ ‫ﻃ�ﺐ ﻫﻞ دە ﺣﻮل ال‪ voltage signal‬ك ‪ analog data‬ل‪ digital data‬بﺪﻗﺔ ‪ ...‬ﻻ ‪ ....‬ﻻﻧﻪ اﻫﻤﻞ ﻗ�ﻢ ي‬
‫ا�� واﺣﻮل ال‪analog data‬‬ ‫ال‪ ٤‬ﻣﺴﺘ��ﺎت ‪ ...‬ﻃ�ﺐ ا�ﻪ اﻟﺤﻞ ‪ ...‬اﻟﺤﻞ ناي ازود اﻟﻤﺴﺘ��ﺎت بﺎﻟﺘﺎ� اﻗﺪر اﺧﺪ ﻗ�ﻢ ت‬
‫ي‬ ‫ي‬
‫ل‪ digital‬بﺪﻗﺔ‪.‬‬

‫‪Page 3 of 61‬‬
Example for Digitization of Analog Signals:

 Microphone converts acoustic waves to electrical energy. It’s a transducer.

 Analog signal: continuously varying electrical energy of the sound pressure wave.
 ADC (Analog to Digital Converter) converts analog to digital electrical signal.
 Digital signal: digital representation of signal in binary numbers.
 DAC (Digital to Analog Converter) converts digital signal in computer to analog for
your headphones.
‫ض‬
‫ ﻓﺎﻻول‬.‫ داﺧﻞ اﻟ�ﻮﻣﺒﻴﻮﺗﺮ‬digital data �‫ ا‬analog data‫ي� اﻟﻤﺜﺎل دە ﺑﻴﻮﺿﺢ ﻣﺮاﺣﻞ ﺗﺤ��ﻞ اﻟﺼﻮت ك‬
‫ كﻠﻤﺔ‬.transducer ‫اﻟﻤ�ﻜﺮوﻓﻮن ﺑ�ﺤﻮل اﻟﻤﻮﺟﺎت اﻟﺼﻮﺗ�ﻪ ﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻛﻬ���ﺔ او إﺷﺎرة ﻛﻬ���ﺔ �ﻌىن ﻫﻮ ﻋبﺎرة ﻋﻦ‬
‫اﻟﻔ��ﺎﺋ�ﺔ او اﻟﻤﻮﺟﺎت ي ض‬
�‫اﻟﻔ��ﺎﺋ�ﺔ ذي اﻟﻤﻮﺟﺎت اﻟﺼﻮﺗ�ﺔ او اﻟﻀﻐﻂ ا‬ ‫ ﻣﻌﻨﺎﻫﺎ ﺟﻬﺎز ﺑ�ﺤﻮل اﻟ�ﻤ�ﺎت ي ض‬transducer
.‫إﺷﺎرة ﻛﻬ���ﺔ‬

.‫ﺑﺘﻐ� ﻗ�ﻤﺔ اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ اﻟ�ﻬ���ﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻮﺟﺔ اﻟﺼﻮﺗ�ﺔ بﺎﺳﺘﻤﺮار‬

‫ ي‬analog signal‫بﻌﺪ ﻛﺪة ال‬

‫ ودە‬Analog to Digital Converter �‫ ودە اﺧﺘﺼﺎر ا‬ADC ‫اﻟﻤ�ﻜﺮوﻓﻮن ﺑ�ﻌﻤﻞ اﻟﺘﺤ��ﻞ دە ﻋﻦ ﻃ��ﻘﺔ ﺟﺰء اﺳﻤﻪ‬
.digital electrical signal �‫ ا‬analog‫اﻟ� ﺑ�ﺤﻮل ال‬

.‫ ﻻﺻﻔﺎر ووﺣﺎ�ﺪ‬digital signal‫بﻌﺪ ﻛﺪة ﺑيﺘﻢ ﺗﻤﺜ�ﻞ ال‬

‫ اﻟ� ﺑﺘﺨ�ج ﻣﻦ‬analog data �‫ ا‬digital signal‫وﻟﻤﺎ ﻧﺤﺐ �ﺴﻤﻊ اﻟﺼﻮت ﻣﻦ اﻟ�ﻮﻣﺒﻴﻮﺗﺮ ﺑيﺘﻢ ﺗﺤ��ﻞ ال‬
.Digital to Analog Converter�‫ ودە اﺧﺘﺼﺎر ا‬DAC‫اﻟﺴﻤﺎﻋﺎت ﻋﻦ ﻃ��ﻖ ال‬
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

3) Binary System:
 Binary set {0, 1}
 The elements of binary set, 0 and 1 are called “binary digits”.
 or shortly “bits”.
 The binary set is the easiest discrete set to represent digital data.
 Binary system is used to represent the information in digital systems. Just two signal
levels: 0 Volt and 4 Volt
 Elements of any discrete sets can be represented using groups of bits.
 In general, a number expressed in a base-r system has coefficients multiplied by
powers of r to convert it to decimal number system that is used in the normal life.

:�‫اﻟﺘﺎ‬
‫ي‬ ‫ واﻟ� ﻫﻤﺎ ف ي� اﻟﺠﺪول‬number systems‫ ال‬CS500‫اﻟ�م اﻷول ﻣﻦ ال‬
‫ﻋﺮﻓﻨﺎ ت‬

Page 4 of 61
 Number System Base/Radix Symbols
Decimal 10 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9
Binary 2 0,1
Ternary 3 0,1,2
Base 4 4 0,1,2,3
Base 5 5 0,1,2,3,4
Base 6 6 0,1,2,3,4,5
Base 7 7 0,1,2,3,4,5,6
Octal 8 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
Hexadecimal 16 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, A=10, B=11, C=12, D=13,
E=14, F=15.
‫ئ‬
binary digits‫ و��ﺴﻤﻮﻫﻢ ال‬1‫ و‬0 ‫اﻟﺜﻨﺎئ اﻟﻤﻜﻮن ﻣﻦ‬ ‫ ﺑ�ﻘﻮل ﻓ�ﻪ اﻧﻪ اﻟﻨﻈﺎم‬binary system‫وﻟ�ﻦ اﻟﺠﺰء ﺑﺘﺎع ال‬
‫ي‬ ‫ئ‬
‫ف‬
‫ �ﻌى ﻟ�ﻪ ﻗ�ﻢ ﻣﺤﺪدة ﻳﻨﻔﻊ ﻧﻤﺜﻞ ﺑ�ﻪ‬discrete ‫اﻟﺜﻨﺎئ ﻫﻮ اﺳﻬﻞ وا�ﺴﻂ ﻧﻈﺎم‬ ‫ كﺎﺧﺘﺼﺎر و��ﻘﻮل ان اﻟﻨﻈﺎم‬bits‫او‬
‫ف‬ ‫ي‬
‫ين‬
‫ﻣﺴﺘ��ن‬ ‫ت‬ ‫ئ‬
‫ و��ﻘﻮل ان ﺑيب� ﻋﻨﺪي‬digital systems‫اﻟﺜﻨﺎئ ﺑ�ﺴﺘﺨﺪم ﻟﺘﻤﺜ�ﻞ اﻟﺒ�ﺎﻧﺎت ي� ال‬ ‫ واﻟﻨﻈﺎم‬digital data‫ال‬
‫ن‬ ‫ي‬
‫ﻣﺸ� اﻟﻘ�ﻢ اﻟﺤﻘ�ﻘ�ﺔ ﻟ�ﻦ كﻤﺜﺎل‬ ‫ ودي‬4volt ‫واﻟﺘﺎي ﻣﺜﻼ‬ ‫ت‬
0 volt ‫اﻟ�ﻬﺮى واﺣﺪ ﻣﻨﻬﻢ ﻣﺜﻼ ﺑيب� ﻓ�ﻤﺘﻪ‬ ‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﺠﻬﺪ‬
‫ي‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ف‬ ‫بي‬
.binary system‫ ي� ال‬1‫� ال‬ ‫ ﺑﺘﻜﻮن ي‬4 volt‫ وال‬0‫ ﺑ�ﻜﻮن ﻫﻮ ال‬0 volt‫وال‬
‫ ﺑ�ﻜﻮن ﻋبﺎرة ﻋﻦ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎت ﻣﻦ اﻻﺻﻔﺎر واﻟﻮﺣﺎ�ﺪ او ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎت ﻣﻦ‬digital data‫و�ﻨﻘﻮل أي ﻋﻨ� ﺑيﺘﻢ ﺗﻤﺜ�ﻠﻪ ك‬
. ‫ �ﻌىن‬bits‫ال‬
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

Second: conversations types.

1) Conversion from any base number system to decimal number:

In general, a number expressed in a base(r) number system has coefficients multiplied by

powers of ( r ) to convert it to decimal number system that is used in the normal life

𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 . 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛−1 . 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎0 . 𝑟𝑟 0 + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 . 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑎𝑎−1 . 𝑟𝑟 −1 + 𝑎𝑎−2 . 𝑟𝑟 −2 + 𝑎𝑎−𝑚𝑚 . 𝑟𝑟 −𝑚𝑚

r is called base or radix

‫ض‬
‫ ﺧﻠﻴﻨﺎ �ﺸﻮف‬... ‫اﻟﻤﺤﺎ�ة ﻟ�ﻦ اﻟﺪﻛﺘﻮرة ﺧﻠﺘﻨﺎ �ﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﻬﺎ بﻄ��ﻘﺔ ﺳﻬﻠﺔ ﺟﺪا‬ �‫دي اﻟﻤﻌﺎدﻟﺔ اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ اﻟ� اﺧﺪﻧﺎﻫﺎ ف ي‬
:‫اﻷﻣﺜﻠﺔ‬
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Example 1: (conversion from binary to decimal)
Convert (1110.11)2 to the decimal system

Solution:

Page 5 of 61
 ‫ف‬ ‫ﻫﻨﺎ ﻫﻨﺤﻮل ﻣﻦ رﻗﻢ ‪ binary‬او ئ‬
‫ﺛﻨﺎئ ﻟﻠﺮﻗﻢ ث‬
‫اﻟﻌ�ي ال‪ ... decimal number‬ا�ﻪ اﻟﻄ��ﻘﺔ اﻟﺴﻬﻠﺔ اﻟ� اﺧﺪﻧﺎﻫﺎ ي�‬ ‫ي‬
‫ف‬
‫اﻟﺴﻜﺸﻦ؟؟؟ ‪ ...‬ﻃ��ﻘﺔ اﻟﺘﺤ��ﻞ ﻫنﺴﻤﻴﻬﺎ ﻃ��ﻘﺔ ال‪ ... index‬ودي �ﺴﻤ�ﻪ اﻟﺪﻛﺘﻮرة ي� اﻟﺴﻜﺸﻦ‬
‫ﻻزم ﻧﻌﺮف اﻷول ان اﻟﺮﻗﻢ دە )‪ (1110.11‬ﺑيﺘﻜﻮن ﻣﻦ ﺟﺰ ي ن‬
‫ﺋن ‪ ...‬واﺣﺪ ‪ integer‬او رﻗﻢ ﺻﺤﻴﺢ وواﺣﺪ ‪fractional‬‬
‫ﻋ�ي‬‫او ﻛ�ي او ش‬

‫‪1110.11‬‬
‫‪Integer fraction‬‬
‫ين‬
‫اﻟ�ﻤن ذي ﻣﺎ اﺣﻨﺎ ﻣﺘﻌﻮدﻳﻦ‬ ‫ق‬
‫ﻳب� ال‪ integer‬ﻋ� اﻟﺸﻤﺎل وال‪ fraction‬ﻋ�‬
‫ت‬
‫كﺎﻻي‪:‬‬
‫ي‬ ‫ﻃ�ﺐ ﻃ��ﻘﺔ اﻟﺤﻞ‬
‫ن‬
‫ﻟﻠ�ﻤن بﺪأ ﻣﻦ ﺻﻔﺮ‬
‫ي‬ ‫ش‬
‫‪ (١‬ﻫﺮﻗﻢ اﻟﺠﺰء ال‪ integer‬ﻣﻦ ﻋﻨﺪ اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ اﻟﻌ��ﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺸﻤﺎل‬
‫‪3210‬‬
‫‪1110.11‬‬
‫ين‬
‫اﻟ�ﻤن ﻟﻠﺸﻤﺎل‬ ‫‪ (٢‬ﻫﺮﻗﻢ اﻟﺠﺰء ال‪ fraction‬بﺪأ ﻣﻦ ‪ ٢- ، ١-‬وﻫﻜﺬا ﻣﻦ ﻋﻨﺪ اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ ش‬
‫اﻟﻌ�ي ﻣﻦ‬
‫‪3 2 1 0 -1 -2‬‬
‫‪1110.11‬‬
‫ﻫﻨ��ﻪ ض� ال‪ base‬ﻣﺮﻓﻮﻋﻪ ﻻس اﻟﺮﻗﻢ اﻟ� ﺣﻄﻨﺎە ‪ ...‬وال‪ base‬ﻫ�ﻜﻮن ﺑﺘﺎع ي ن‬
‫ﻣن ‪ ...‬ﺑﺘﺎع‬ ‫‪ (٣‬ﻫﻨﺎﺧﺪ كﻞ رﻗﻢ ض‬
‫ي‬
‫اﻟﻨﻈﺎم اﻟ� ﻫﻨﺤﻮل ﻣﻨﻪ ‪� ...‬ﻌىن اﺣﻨﺎ ﻫﻨﺎ ﻫﻨﺤﻮل ﻣﻦ ال‪ binary‬اﻟ� ال‪ base‬ﺑﺘﺎﻋﻪ ‪ ٢‬ا� ‪ decimal‬ق‬
‫ﻳب�‬
‫ﻫﻨ�ب ض� ‪ 2‬ﻣﺮﻓﻮﻋﺔ ﻻس ت‬
‫اﻟ�ﻗ�ﻢ اﻟ� ﺣﻄﻨﺎە ‪ ....‬ف‬
‫�ﻌى ﻛﺪة‪:‬‬ ‫ض‬
‫ي‬

‫‪3 2 1 0 -1 -2‬‬
‫‪1110.11‬‬

‫)‪(1110.11)2 = (1 × 23 ) + (1 × 22 ) + (1 × 21 ) + (0 × 20) + (1 × 2−1) + (1 × 2−2‬‬

‫‪ (٤‬ﻫﻨﺤﺴﺐ اﻟﻘ�ﻢ اﻟ� ي ن‬

‫ﺑن اﻻﻗﻮاس‬

‫‪(1110.11)2 = (8) + (4) + (2) + (0) + (0.5) + (0.25) = (14.75)10‬‬

‫ض‬ ‫دي ﻧﻔﺲ ﻃ��ﻘﺔ اﻟﺘﺤ��ﻞ ﻣﻦ أي ﻧﻈﺎم ا� ال ‪ ... decimal‬ﺑﺘﺎﺧﺪ اﻟﺮﻗﻢ ض‬
‫وﺗ��ﻪ ي� ال‪ base‬ﺑﺘﺎع اﻟﺮﻗﻢ اﻟ� ﺑﺘﺤﻮل‬
‫ﻣﻨﻪ ﻣﺮﻓ�ع ﻻس اﻟﺮﻗﻢ اﻟ� ﺣﻄﻨﺎە ﻓﻮق‬
‫––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––‬
‫‪2) Conversion from any decimal system to any base number system:‬‬

‫ذي ﻣﺎ اﺗﻔﻘﻨﺎ ‪ ...‬ان اﻟﺮﻗﻢ ﻓ�ﻪ ﺟﺰء ‪ integer‬وﺟﺰء ‪ ... fraction‬ﻫﻨﺎ ﻫﺸﺘﻐﻞ ﻋ� كﻞ ﺟﺰء ﻟﻮﺣﺪە ‪ ...‬ﻫﻌﻤﻞ ا�ﻪ؟‬

‫‪Page 6 of 61‬‬
 ‫ض‬ ‫ف� اﻟﺘﺤ��ﻞ ﻣﻦ أي ‪ base‬ﻟﻞ‪ decimal‬ﻛﻨﺎ ض‬
‫ﺑﻨ�ب ي� اﻟﺠﺰء ال‪ integer‬ﻟ�ﻦ ﻟﻤﺎ اﻋﻤﻞ اﻟﻌﻜﺲ واﺣﻮل ﻣﻦ ‪decimal‬‬
‫يﻻي ‪ base‬ق‬
‫ﻳب� ا��ﺪ ﻫﻘﺴﻢ ﻋ� ال‪ base‬ﺑﺘﺎع اﻟﺮﻗﻢ اﻟ� ﻫﺤﻮل ﻟ�ﻪ �ﻌىن ﻟﻮ ﻫﺤﻮل ﻣﻦ ‪ decimal‬ل‪ binary‬ق‬
‫ﻳب�‬
‫ﻫﻘﺴﻢ ﻋ� ‪٢‬‬
‫ﺑﻨ�ب ض� اس �ﺲ بﺎﻟﺴﺎﻟﺐ �ﻌىض كﺎىض ﻛﻨﺖ بﻘﺴﻢ ت‬
‫ﻳب�‬ ‫اﻟﺠﺰء ال‪ fraction‬ف� اﻟﺘﺤ��ﻞ ﻣﻦ أي ‪ base‬ل‪ decimal‬ﻛﻨﺎ ض‬
‫ي‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ي‬
‫ﻟﻤﺎ اﻋﻤﻞ اﻟﻌﻜﺲ ا��ﺪ ﻫ ض�ب ض ي� ال‪ base‬ﺑﺘﺎع اﻟﺮﻗﻢ اﻟ� ﻫﺤﻮل ﻟ�ﻪ ‪...‬‬
‫–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––‬
‫)‪Example 2: (conversion from decimal to binary‬‬
‫‪Convert (21.25)10 to the binary system‬‬

‫‪Solution:‬‬
‫ﻫﻨﺎ ﻫﻨﺤﻮل ﻣﻦ رﻗﻢ ‪ decimal‬اواﻟﺮﻗﻢ ش‬
‫اﻟﻌ�ي ا� ‪... binary‬‬
‫ﻃ�ﺐ ﻃ��ﻘﺔ اﻟﺤﻞ ت‬
‫كﺎﻻي‪:‬‬
‫ي‬
‫‪@ZÔ€bn€b◊@¥€ÎÜu@›‡»Á HQ‬‬

‫‪Integer Part‬‬ ‫‪Fraction part‬‬

‫‪Base ÷ Integer Reminder‬‬

‫÷‪2‬‬ ‫‪21‬‬ ‫‪Base × Fraction integer‬‬
‫÷‪2‬‬ ‫‪10‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫×‪2‬‬ ‫‪0.25‬‬
‫÷‪2‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫×‪2‬‬ ‫‪0.5‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬
‫÷‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪0.0‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫÷‪2‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬
‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬

‫ا�ﻪ اﻟﺤﺼﻞ ﻫﻨﺎ‪...‬‬

‫بﺎﻟنﺴبﺔ ﻟﻠﺠﺰء ال‪:integer‬‬

‫ت‬
‫ﻓﻬﺘب� ب‪ ١٠٫٥‬وﻃﺎﻟﻤﺎ ﻓ�ﻪ ﻛ�‬ ‫ﻫﻘﺴﻢ ال‪ ٢١‬ﻋ� ال‪ base‬ﺑﺘﺎع ال‪ binary‬ﻻن دە ﻫﻮ اﻟﻨﻈﺎم اﻟ� ﻫﺤﻮل ﻟ�ﻪ ‪....‬‬
‫ق‬ ‫ق‬ ‫ق‬
‫بﺎ� ‪ ...‬اﻟ� ﻫﻮ ال‪ ... reminder‬ﻃ�ﺐ اﻧﺎ اﻋﺮف ي‬
‫اﻟبﺎ� اذاي او اﻋﺮف ﺧﺎرج اﻟﻘﺴﻤﺔ‬ ‫ﻳب� اﻟﻘﺴﻤﺔ ﻟﻴﻬﺎ ﺧﺎرج ﻗﺴﻤﺔ او ي‬
‫اذاي؟؟‬

‫و�ب� ال‪ ١‬ﻫﻮ ﺧﺎرج اﻟﻘﺴﻤﺔ وﻫﺤﻄﻪ ف ي� ﺧﺎﻧﺔ ال‪reminder‬‬

‫بﺎ� ‪ ١‬ﻋ� ‪ ٢١‬ق‬ ‫و�ب� ﻛﺪة ق‬
‫اﻣﺎ اىن أﻗﻮل ‪ ٢ × ١٠‬ب ‪ ٢٠‬ق‬
‫ق‬ ‫ض‬ ‫ي‬
‫بﺎ� اﻟﻘﺴﻤﺔ ‪ ....‬وﻃ��ﻘﺔ ض�ب اﻟ�� دي‬ ‫ق‬ ‫ض‬
‫‪ ...‬اﻣﺎ ﻫﻤﺴﻚ اﻟ�� اﻟ� ﻃﻠﻊ وﻫﻨﺎ ﻫﻮ ال‪ ٠٫٥‬وﻫ��ﻪ ي� ‪ ٢‬و�ب� ﻫﻮ دە ي‬
‫اﻻﻓﻀﻞ‬

‫ﻫﻴب� ‪ ... ٥‬ﻃ�ﺐ ﻫﻞ‬ ‫ق‬ ‫و�ﻌﺪ ﻛﺪة ﻫﻤﺴﻚ ال‪ ١٠‬او اﻟﺠﺰء ال‪ integer‬واﺣﻄﻪ ف ي� ﺧﺎﻧﻪ ال‪ integer‬وﻫﻘﺴﻤﻪ ﻋ� ‪٢‬‬
‫ت‬
‫ﻫﺘب�‬ ‫ﻳب� ف ي� ﺧﺎﻧﺔ ال‪ reminde‬ﻫﺤﻂ ‪ ... 0‬ﻫﻤﺴﻚ ال‪ ٥‬ﻫﻘﺴﻢ ﻋ� ‪... ٢‬‬ ‫بﺎ� ﻗﺴﻤﺔ؟؟؟ ‪ .....‬ﻻ ﻃبﻌﺎ ‪ ...‬ق‬
‫ي‬
‫ﻫﻨﺎ ﻓ�ﻪ ق‬
‫بﺎ� اﻟﻘﺴﻤﺔ ‪ ١‬ﻫﺤﻄﻬﺎ ف ي� ال‪ ... reminder‬ﻃ�ﺐ ‪ ٢‬ﻋ� ‪ ٢‬ب‪ ١‬وﻣﻔ�ﺶ‬ ‫ي‬
‫ﻳب� اذن ق‬‫ب‪ ... ٢٫٥‬ﻃ�ﺐ ‪ ٢ × ٠٫٥‬ب‪ ١‬ق‬
‫ﻫﺘب� ب ‪ ... ٠٫٥‬ﻃ�ﺐ ﻫﻨﺎ ف ي� ﺟﺰء ‪integer‬‬
‫ت‬ ‫ﻳب� ﻫﺤﻂ ‪ 0‬ف ي� ال‪ ... reminder‬ﻫﻘﺴﻢ ‪ ١‬ﻋ� ‪... ٢‬‬ ‫ﺧﺎرج ﻗﺴﻤﺔ ق‬

‫‪Page 7 of 61‬‬
 ‫ف‬ ‫ق‬
‫‪ ...‬ﻻ ﻃبﻌﺎ ‪ ...‬ﻳب� ﻫﺤﻂ ي� ال‪ ... 0 integer‬ﻃ�ﺐ وال‪ reminder‬ﻫﺤﻂ ‪ ... ١‬ﻻﻧﻪ أﺻﻼ ﻟﺴﺔ ال‪ ١‬ب‬
‫�ﻌﺘ� ﻣﻠﻮش‬
‫ﻗﺴﻤﺔ ﺻﺤ�ﺤﺔ ﻋ� ‪ .... ٢‬وﻛﻘﺎﻋﺪة ﻗﺎﻟﺘﻬﺎ اﻟﺪﻛﺘﻮرة ‪ .... ¡éj€a@ÏÁ@Èn‡é”@Ô”bi@äé◊@c ....‬وﻃﺎﻟﻤﺎ وﺻﻠﺖ ﻟﻠﺼﻔﺮ‬
‫ﻳب� اﻧﺎ ﻛﺪة ﺧﻠﺼﺖ اﻟﺠﺰء ال‪integer‬‬ ‫ف� اﻟﺠﺰء ال‪ integer‬ت‬
‫ي‬
‫بﺎﻟنﺴبﺔ ﻟﻠﺠﺰء ال‪:fraction‬‬

‫� ال‪... ٢‬‬ ‫ض‬ ‫ض‬

‫ﻫ�ب ي� ال‪ base‬اﻟ� ي‬
‫اﻟ�ب ‪ ...‬ﻣﻔ�ﺶ ‪ ...‬ق‬ ‫ت‬
‫ﻫﺘب� ‪ ... ٠٫٥‬ﻫﻞ ﻫﻨﺎ ﻓ�ﻪ ﺟﺰء ‪ integer‬او رﻗﻢ ﺻﺤﻴﺢ بﻌﺪ ض‬ ‫ف‬ ‫ض‬
‫ﻳب� ﻫﺤﻂ ‪0‬‬ ‫ﻫ�ب ‪ ٠٫٢٥‬ي� ‪٢‬‬
‫ت‬ ‫ف‬ ‫ف� ﺧﺎﻧﺔ ال‪ integer‬ض� اﻟﺠﺪول ‪ ....‬و�ﻌﺪ ﻛﺪة ض‬
‫ﻫﺘب� ب‪ ١٫٠٠‬ﻫﺎﺧﺪ ال‪ ١‬ﻋﺸﺎن ‪ integer‬وﻫﺤﻄﻪ‬ ‫ﻫ�ب ‪ ٠٫٥‬ي� ‪٢‬‬ ‫ي‬ ‫في‬
‫ت‬ ‫‪...‬‬ ‫ض‬ ‫ض‬
‫ي� ﺧﺎﻧﺔ ال‪ integer‬و�ﻌﺪ ﻛﺪة ﻫﻤﺴﻚ ال‪ ٠٫٠‬وﻫ��ﻪ ي� ‪ ٢‬بﺼﻔﺮ ﻳب� ﻛﺪة اﻧﺎ اﻧﺘﻬ�ﺖ‬

‫‪@Zo»‹ü@Û‹€a@fiÎaܶa@Âfl@binaryfia@·”ä€a@knÿÁ HR‬‬

‫ﻫﻜﺘﺐ اﻟﺮﻗﻢ ال‪ binary‬ﻣﻦ اﻟﺠﺪاول اﻟ� ﻃﻠﻌﺖ‪:‬‬

‫‪Integer Part‬‬ ‫‪Fraction part‬‬

‫‪Base ÷ Integer Reminder‬‬

‫÷‪2‬‬ ‫‪21‬‬
‫‪Base × Fraction integer‬‬
‫÷‪2‬‬ ‫‪10‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫×‪2‬‬ ‫‪0.25‬‬
‫÷‪2‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬
‫×‪2‬‬ ‫‪0.5‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬
‫÷‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫‪0.0‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫÷‪2‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬
‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬

‫اﻷول ﻃبﻌﺎ ﻫﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻼﻣﺔ ش‬

‫ﻋ��ﺔ‬
‫___‪______.‬‬

‫و�ﻌﺪ ﻛﺪة ﻫﻤﺴﻚ اﻟﺠﺰء ال‪ ... integer‬ﻫﻜﺘﺐ اﻷرﻗﺎم ﻣﻦ ﻓﻮق ﻟﺘﺤﺖ ذي ﻣﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ بﺎﻟﺴﻬﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺟﻨﺐ اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ‬
‫ين‬
‫ﻟﻠ�ﻤن‬ ‫ش‬
‫اﻟﻌ��ﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺸﻤﺎل‬
‫___‪10101.‬‬
‫اﻟﻌ��ﺔ ش‬
‫ﻣبﺎ�ة‬ ‫و�ﻌﺪ ﻛﺪة ﻫﻤﺴﻚ اﻟﺠﺰء ال‪ fraction‬وﻫﻜﺘﺐ اﻷرﻗﺎم ﻣﻦ ﻓﻮق ﻟﺘﺤﺖ وﻟ�ﻦ ﻫبﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺟﻨﺐ اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ ش‬
‫ين‬
‫اﻟ�ﻤن ﻟﻠﺸﻤﺎل‬ ‫ﻣﻦ‬
‫‪(21.25)10 = (10101.01)2‬‬

‫ﻫﻨ�ب او ﻫﻨﻘﺴﻢ‬ ‫ﻃ�ﺐ بﺎﻟنﺴبﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﺤ��ﻞ ﻣﻦ ال‪ decimal‬إ� أي ﻧﻈﺎم ‪ ....‬ﻫﻨﻌﻤﻞ ﻧﻔﺲ اﻟ�ﻼم ﻣﻊ اﺧﺘﻼف اﻧﻨﺎ ض‬
‫ف‬ ‫ش‬ ‫ﻋ� ﺣﺴﺐ ال‪ base‬ﺑﺘﺎﻋﺔ اﻟﻨﻈﺎم اﻟ� ﻫﻨﺤﻮل ﻟ�ﻪ ‪...‬‬
‫ﻣﺸﻬن�ح كﻞ اﻟﺨﻄﻮات دي وكﻞ اﻟ�ﻼم دە ي� كﻞ‬ ‫و�ﺎﻟﺘﺎ�‬
‫ي‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎل‪.‬‬
‫–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––‬

‫‪Page 8 of 61‬‬
Example 3: (conversion from decimal to binary)
Convert (174.390625)10 to the binary system

Solution:
‫ اواﻟﺮﻗﻢ ش‬decimal ‫ﻫﻨﺎ ﻫﻨﺤﻮل ﻣﻦ رﻗﻢ‬
... binary �‫اﻟﻌ�ي ا‬

@ZÔ€bn€b◊@¥€ÎÜu@›‡»Á HQ

Integer Part Fraction part

Base ÷ Integer Reminder Base × Fraction integer

2÷ 174 2× 0. 390625
2÷ 87 0 2× 0.78125 0
2÷ 43 1 2× 0.5625 1
2÷ 21 1 2× 0.125 1
2÷ 10 1 2× 0.25 0
2÷ 5 0 2× 0.5 0
2÷ 2 1 0.0 1
2÷ 1 0
0 1

(174.390625)10 = (10101110.011001)2

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Example 4: (conversion from decimal to octal)
Convert (138.236)10 to the Octal system with precision up to 4 digits

Solution:
‫ اواﻟﺮﻗﻢ ش‬decimal ‫ﻫﻨﺎ ﻫﻨﺤﻮل ﻣﻦ رﻗﻢ‬
... octal �‫اﻟﻌ�ي ا‬

@ZÔ€bn€b◊@¥€ÎÜu@›‡»Á HQ

Page 9 of 61
 ‫‪Integer Part‬‬ ‫‪Fraction part‬‬
‫‪Base ÷ Integer Reminder‬‬ ‫× ‪Base‬‬ ‫‪Fraction‬‬ ‫‪integer‬‬
‫÷‪8‬‬ ‫‪138‬‬ ‫×‪8‬‬ ‫‪0. 236‬‬
‫÷‪8‬‬ ‫‪17‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫×‪8‬‬ ‫‪0.888‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫÷‪8‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫×‪8‬‬ ‫‪0.104‬‬ ‫‪7‬‬
‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫×‪8‬‬ ‫‪0.832‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬
‫×‪8‬‬ ‫‪0.656‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬

‫‪(138.236)10 = (212.1706)8‬‬
‫ض‬ ‫بﺎ� ﻗﺴﻤﺔ ‪ ...‬ﻫﺘﺎﺧﺪ ال‪ ٠٫٢٥‬ض‬ ‫ت‬ ‫ﻧﺎﺧﺪ بﺎﻟﻨﺎ ﻟﻤﺎ ﻗﺴﻢ ‪ ١٣٨‬ﻋ� ‪ ٨‬كﺎن ﻧﺎﺗﺞ اﻟﻘﺴﻤﺔ ‪ ١٧٫٢٥‬ف‬
‫ﻫﺘ��ــﻬﺎ ي� ‪٨‬‬ ‫ي‬ ‫�ﻌى ﻓ�ﻪ‬
‫ف‬ ‫بﺎ� اﻟﻘﺴﻤﺔ ‪ ...‬وﻟﻤﺎ ﻗﺴﻢ ‪ ١٧‬ﻋ� ‪ ٨‬كﺎن اﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ‪ ... ٢٫١٢٥‬وﻟﻤﺎ ض‬ ‫ق‬
‫ﺗ�ب ‪ ٠٫١٢٥‬ي� ‪ ٨‬ﻫ�ﻄﻠﻊ ب‪١‬‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ﻫﺘﻄﻠﻊ ب‪ ٢‬وﻫﻮ دە‬
‫ق‬ ‫ق‬ ‫ق‬ ‫ىن‬
‫ﺎ� اﻟﻘﺴﻤﺔ ﻫﻮ ‪٢‬‬
‫وﻟﻤﺎ ﺗﻘﺴﻢ ‪ ٢‬ﻋ� ‪� ٨‬ﻌ ﻫﻴب� ﻛ� وزي ﻣﺎ ﻗﻮﻟﻨﺎ ﺧﺎرج ﻗﺴﻤﺔ أي ﻛ� ﻫﻮ اﻟبﺴﻂ ﻳب� ب ي‬
‫ﺗ�ب ﻋﻠﻄﻮل وﻣﺸﻬﺘﻮﺻﻞ ﻟﻠﺼﻔﺮ ابﺪا ﻋﺸﺎن ﻛﺪة ﻗﺎل ﻓﺎﻟﻤﺴﺎﻟﺔ ‪with‬‬ ‫كﻤﺎن ﻫﻨﺎ ف� اﻟﺠﺰء ال‪ fraction‬ﻫﺘﻔﻀﻞ ض‬
‫ي‬
‫ىن‬ ‫ش‬ ‫ىن‬
‫‪� precision up to 4 digits‬ﻌ ﻷﻗﺮب ار�ــﻊ ارﻗﺎم ﻋ��ﺔ �ﻌ اول ﻣﺎ ﺗﺠ�ﺐ ‪ ٤‬ارﻗﺎم ‪ octal‬ﺗﻘﻒ‬
‫–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––‬
‫)‪Example 5: (conversion from decimal to Hexadecimal‬‬
‫‪Convert (247.390625)10 to the Hexadecimal system‬‬

‫‪Solution:‬‬
‫ﻫﻨﺎ ﻫﻨﺤﻮل ﻣﻦ رﻗﻢ ‪ decimal‬اواﻟﺮﻗﻢ ش‬
‫اﻟﻌ�ي ا� ‪...Hexadecimal‬‬
‫‪@ZÔ€bn€b◊@¥€ÎÜu@›‡»Á HQ‬‬

‫‪Integer Part‬‬ ‫‪Fraction part‬‬

‫‪Base ÷ Integer Reminder‬‬ ‫‪Base × Fraction integer‬‬
‫÷ ‪16‬‬ ‫‪247‬‬ ‫‪16 × 0. 390625‬‬
‫÷ ‪16‬‬ ‫‪15‬‬ ‫‪7‬‬ ‫× ‪16‬‬ ‫‪0.25‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬
‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪15=F‬‬ ‫‪0.00‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬

‫‪(247.390625)10 = (F7.64)16‬‬
‫ﻃبﻌﺎ ف� اﻟﺘﺤ��ﻞ ﻣﻦ ‪ hexadecimal‬ل‪ decimal‬ﺧﺎرج اﻟﻘﺴﻤﺔ او اﻟﺠﺰء ال‪ integer‬اﻟ� ﻫ�ﻄﻠﻊ بﻌﺪ ض‬
‫اﻟ�ب ﻟﻮ‬ ‫ي‬
‫كﺎن ﻣﻦ ‪ ١٠‬ل‪ ١٥‬ﻫنﺴﺘﻌﻤﻞ اﻟﺤﺮوف‪.‬‬
‫––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––‬
‫‪3) Conversion from base to base system:‬‬
‫اﺣﻨﺎ اﺧﺪﻧﺎ اﻟﺘﺤ��ﻞ ﻣﻦ أي ﻧﻈﺎم ا� ال‪ decimal‬وﻣﻦ ال‪ decimal‬ا� أي ﻧﻈﺎم ‪ ...‬ﻃ�ﺐ ﻫﻞ ﻳﻨﻔﻊ اﺣﻮل ﻣﻦ أي‬
‫يف‬
‫ﻃ��ﻘﺘن ‪...‬‬ ‫ﻧﻈﺎم ن‬
‫ﻟﻠﺘﺎي بﻌ�ﺪ ﻋﻦ ال‪ ... decimal‬ﻳﻨﻔﻊ ‪ ...‬وﻟ�ﻦ ﻓ�ﻪ‬
‫ي‬
‫‪Page 10 of 61‬‬
 ‫�ﻌى ﻣﺜﻼ ﻟﻮ ﻋﺎﻳﺰ اﺣﻮل ﻣﻦ ‪ octal‬ل‪ binary‬ق‬ ‫ﻏ� ش‬
‫ﻣبﺎ�ة‪ :‬ودي ﻻزم اﻋﺪي ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﻋ� ﻛ��ﺮي ‪ ...‬ف‬
‫ﻳب�‬ ‫‪ (١‬ﻃ��ﻘﺔ ي‬
‫ﻻزم اﻷول اﺣﻮل ﻣﻦ ‪ octal‬ل‪ decimal‬وﻣﻦ ‪ decimal‬ل‪binary‬‬
‫ﻣبﺎ�ة‪ :‬ودي ﻓﻴﻬﺎ بﺤﻮل ﻋﻠﻄﻮل ﻣﻦ أي ﻧﻈﺎم إ� ‪ binary‬ﻣﺜﻼ وﻟ�ﻦ ﻣﻦ ي‬
‫ﻏ� ﻣﺎ اﻋﺪى ﻋ�‬ ‫ش‬ ‫‪ (٢‬ﻃ��ﻘﺔ‬
‫ال‪decimal‬‬
‫ش‬
‫اﻟﻤبﺎ�ة ﺳﻬﻠﺔ ﻷﻧﻨﺎ اﺧﺪﻧﺎ اﻟﺘﺤ��ﻞ ﻣﻦ أي ﻧﻈﺎم ﻟﻞ‪ decimal‬وﻣﻦ ال‪ decimal‬إ� أي ﻧﻈﺎم ‪...‬‬ ‫اﻟﻐ�‬
‫ﻃبﻌﺎ اﻟﻄ��ﻘﺔ ي‬
‫ش‬ ‫ت‬
‫ﻟ�ﻦ اﻟ� ﻟﺴﺔ ﻫﻨﻌﺮﻓﻪ دﻟﻮﻗى ﻫﻮ اﻟﻄ��ﻘﺔ ﻣبﺎ�ة‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻟﻮا ش‬
‫��ح اﻟﻤﻮﺿ�ع بﺎﻟبﻠﺪي ﻻﻧﻚ ﻣﺸﻤﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﺗﻜﺘﺐ اﻟﺨﻄﻮات بﺎﻟ�ﻼم ‪...‬‬

‫ﻓﻠﻨﻔﺮض ﻫﻨﺤﻮل ﻣﻦ ‪ octal‬ل‪ ... binary‬ﻫﻨﻘﻮل ﻫﻨﺤﻮﻟﻬﺎ بﻄ��ﻘﺔ ال‪� 3 bits‬ﻌىن ا�ﻪ اﻟ�ﻼم دە‪:‬‬
‫ف‬ ‫ﻓﺎﻟﻨﻈﺎم ال‪ octal‬ﻓ�ﻪ ‪ ٨‬ارﻗﺎم ﻣﻦ ‪ ٠‬ل‪ ٧‬ف‬
‫ا�� رﻗﻢ ي� اﻟﻨﻈﺎم ال‪ octal‬ﻫﻮ ال‪ ... ٧‬ﻃ�ﺐ ﺗﻌﺎﻟﻮا ﻧﺤﻮل دە ل‪binary‬‬
‫�ﻌى ب‬
‫ﻫﻌﻤﻞ ا�ﻪ؟؟؟ ﻫﻘﺴﻢ ﻋ� ‪... ٢‬‬
‫‪2÷ 7‬‬
‫‪2÷ 3 1‬‬
‫‪2÷ 1 1‬‬
‫‪0 1‬‬
‫ف‬ ‫ف‬ ‫ف‬
‫و� اﻟﻨﻈﺎم ال‪binary‬‬ ‫ﻧﻼﺣﻆ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺠﺪول ‪ ...‬ان ب‬
‫ا�� رﻗﻢ ي� اﻟﻨﻈﺎم ال‪ octal‬ﺑ�ﻘﺎبﻠﻪ ‪ ٣‬ارﻗﺎم ﻓﻘﻂ ي� فاﻟﻨﻈﺎم ال‪ binary‬ي‬
‫ق‬
‫اﺣﻨﺎ ﺑﻨﻘﻮل ﻋ� ال‪ 0‬اﻧﻪ ‪ bit‬وﻛﺬﻟﻚ ال‪ 1‬ﻳب� اﻧﺎ ﻋﻨﺪي ﻫﻨﺎ ال‪ 7‬ﺑيﺘﻢ ﺗﻤﺜ�ﻠﻪ ي� ال‪ binary‬ب‪3 bits‬‬

‫ﺑﻨ�ب ض ي� ال‪ base‬ﻣﺮﻓﻮﻋﺔ ﻻس‬

‫ﺑن�� ﻧﺤﻮل ال‪ ١١١‬ل‪ decimal‬ﺑﻨﻌﻤﻞ ا�ﻪ ‪ ....‬ﻛﻨﺎ ضﺑ�ﻗﻢ و�ﻌﺪ ﻛﺪة ض‬
‫ﻃ�ﺐ ﻟﻤﺎ ب ي‬
‫ت‬
‫اﻟ�ﻗ�ﻢ �ﻌىن ﻛﺪة‬
‫‪210‬‬
‫‪111‬‬
‫وﻛﻨﺎ ﺑﻨﻌﻤﻞ ﻛﺪة‬
‫)‪2‬‬ ‫)‪1‬‬ ‫)‪0‬‬
‫‪(1 × 2‬‬ ‫‪+ (1 × 2‬‬ ‫‪+ (1 × 2‬‬
‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬

‫وﻃبﻌﺎ ‪ 1 + 2 +4‬ﺑتﺴﺎوي ‪ .... ٧‬ﻃ�ﺐ ﻣﺎ ﺗ�ﺠﻮا ﻧﺨﺘ� اﻟﻌﻤﻠ�ﻪ دي وﻧﻜﺘﺒﻬﺎ ﻛﺪة‬

‫‪42 1‬‬
‫‪111‬‬
‫كﺎى بﺤﻮل ﻟﻞ‪ decimal‬اﻷول �ﺲ بﻄ��ﻘﺔ ��ﻌﺔ ‪...‬‬ ‫�ﻌى ف‬
‫واﻗﺪر ا�ﺘﺐ اﻻﻗﻮاس اﻟ� ﻓﺎﺗﺖ بﺎﻟﻄ��ﻘﺔ دي �ﺴﻬﻮل ‪ ...‬ف‬
‫ق‬ ‫ي‬
‫ﻫﻴب� ﺧﺎرج اﻟﻘﺴﻤﺔ ﻫﻮ ‪... ٧‬‬ ‫و�ﻌﺪ ﻛﺪة ﻟﻤﺎ اﺣﺐ اﺣﻮل ال ‪ decimal‬ل‪ octal‬ﻫﻘﺴﻢ ﻋ� ‪ ٨‬وﻟﻮ ﻗﺴﻤﺖ ‪ ٧‬ﻋ� ‪٨‬‬
‫ت‬
‫ﻣﺸﺎ��‬ ‫ﻳب� ﻫﻮ أﺻﻼ ﺣﻮل ل‪ decimal‬اﻷول و�ﻌﺪ ﻛﺪة ل‪� octal‬ﺲ بﻄ��ﻘﺔ ��ﻌﺔ‬ ‫ق‬

‫ﻃ�ﺐ ﻫﻌﻤﻞ ا�ﻪ ﻣﻦ اﻻﺧﺮ ‪ ....‬ﻫﻜﺘﺐ اﻷرﻗﺎم ‪ ١‬و‪ ٢‬و‪ ٤‬وﻫﺸﻮف ﻣﺜﻼ ﻟﻮ اﻧﺎ ﻋﺎﻳﺰ ‪ ... ٥‬ال‪ ٥‬دي ﻋبﺎرة ﻋﻦ ‪ ١+٤‬ق‬
‫ﻳب�‬
‫ﻳب� ﻫﻜﺘﺐ ﺗﺤﺘﻬﺎ ‪ 0‬ت‬
‫وﺗب� ال‪ ٥‬ال‪ 3bits‬ﺑﺘﻮﻋﻬﺎ ﻋبﺎرة ﻋﻦ ‪١٠١‬‬ ‫ﻫﺤﻂ ‪ 1‬ﺗﺤﺖ ال‪ 4‬و‪ 1‬ﺗﺤﺖ ال‪ 1‬وال‪ ٢‬ﻣﺸﻌﺎﻳﺰﻫﺎ ت‬

‫بﺎ� اﻷرﻗﺎم ف ي� اﻟﻨﻈﺎم ال‪ octal‬بﺎﻟﻄ��ﻘﺔ دي ‪ ...‬ﻓﻬﻨﻌﻤﻞ ﺟﺪول‬

‫ت‬
‫ﻣﺎ ﺗ�ﺠﻮا ﻧﻤﺜﻞ ي‬

‫‪Page 11 of 61‬‬
 ‫‪octal number 4 2 1‬‬
‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪000‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪001‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪010‬‬
‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪011‬‬
‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪100‬‬
‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪101‬‬
‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪110‬‬
‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪111‬‬
‫–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––‬

‫ﻃ�ﺐ ﻟﻮ ﺣﺒ�ﺖ اﺣﻮل ﻣﻦ ‪ hexadecimal‬ل‪ .... binary‬ﻫﺴﺘﻌﻤﻞ ﻃ��ﻘﺔ ال‪ ... 4 bits‬ﻃ�ﺐ ﻟ�ﻪ ‪ 4 bits‬ﻋﺸﺎن‬
‫اﻻي‪:‬‬‫ت‬ ‫ت‬ ‫ف‬
‫ﻫﻼ� ي‬
‫ي‬ ‫ا�� رﻗﻢ ي� ال‪ hexadecimal‬ﻫﻮ ال‪ ... ١٥‬وﻟﻮ ﻓﻜﺮﻧﺎ ﻧﺤﻮﻟﻪ ل ‪ binary‬واﻗﺴﻢ ﻋ� ‪٢‬‬
‫ب‬
‫‪2 ÷ 15‬‬
‫‪2÷ 7 1‬‬
‫‪2÷ 3 1‬‬
‫‪2÷ 1 1‬‬
‫‪0 1‬‬

‫�ﻌىن ال‪ ١٥‬ﺑيﺘﻢ ﺗﻤﺜ�ﻠﻬﺎ ب‪ ٤‬ارﻗﺎم ف ي� ال‪ binary‬او �ﻌىن ‪ ... 4 bits‬ﻃ�ﺐ ﻟﻮ ﺣﺒ�ﺖ اﻋﻤﻞ اﻟﻌﻜﺲ‪..‬‬

‫‪32 1 0‬‬
‫‪1111‬‬
‫وﻛﻨﺎ ﺑﻨﻌﻤﻞ ﻛﺪة‬

‫) ‪(1 × 23 ) + (1 × 22 ) + (1 × 21 ) + (1 × 20‬‬
‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬

‫وﻃبﻌﺎ ‪ 1 + 2 +4 + 8‬ﺑتﺴﺎوي ‪ .... ١٥‬ﻃ�ﺐ ﻣﺎ ﺗ�ﺠﻮا ﻧﺨﺘ� اﻟﻌﻤﻠ�ﻪ دي وﻧﻜﺘﺒﻬﺎ ﻛﺪة‬

‫‪84 2 1‬‬
‫‪1111‬‬
‫ف ف‬
‫كﺎى بﺤﻮل ﻟﻞ‪ decimal‬اﻷول �ﺲ بﻄ��ﻘﺔ ��ﻌﻪ ‪...‬‬
‫واﻗﺪر ا�ﺘﺐ اﻻﻗﻮاس اﻟ� ﻓﺎﺗﺖ بﺎﻟﻄ��ﻘﺔ دي �ﺴﻬﻮل ‪� ...‬ﻌى ي‬
‫ﻃ�ﺐ ﻫﻌﻤﻞ ا�ﻪ ﻣﻦ اﻻﺧﺮ ‪ ....‬ﻫﻜﺘﺐ اﻷرﻗﺎم ‪ ١‬و‪ ٢‬و‪ ٤‬و‪ ٨‬وﻫﺸﻮف ﻣﺜﻼ ﻟﻮ اﻧﺎ ﻋﺎﻳﺰ‪ ... ١٠‬ال‪ ١٠‬دي ﻋبﺎرة ﻋﻦ ‪٢+٨‬‬
‫ﻳب� ﻫﻜﺘﺐ ﺗﺤﺘﻬﻢ اﺻﻔﺎر ت‬
‫وﺗب� ال‪ ١٠‬ال‪4bits‬‬ ‫ﻳب� ﻫﺤﻂ ‪ 1‬ﺗﺤﺖ ال‪ 8‬و‪ 1‬ﺗﺤﺖ ال‪ .... 2‬وال‪ ١‬وال‪ ٤‬ﻣﺸﻌﺎﻳﺰﻫﻢ ت‬ ‫ق‬
‫ﺑﺘﻮﻋﻬﺎ ﻋبﺎرة ﻋﻦ ‪١٠١٠‬‬

‫ﻃ�ﺐ ﻫﻞ ﻓ�ﻪ ﺣﺎﺟﺔ بﻌﺪ ال‪ ٨‬ﻫﻨﺎ ‪ ...‬اە‬

‫‪Page 12 of 61‬‬
 ‫‪32‬‬ ‫‪16‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬

‫ﻃ�ﺐ ﺗﻌﺎﻟﻮا ﻧﺎﺧﺪ اﻣﺜﻠﺔ ‪ ...‬اﻟ� ﺟﺎي اﻣﺜﻠﺔ ل‪5 BITS‬‬

‫‪16 8 4 2 1‬‬
‫‪16 1 0 0 0 0‬‬
‫‪12 0 1 1 0 0‬‬
‫‪20 1 0 1 0 0‬‬
‫‪24 1 1 0 0 0‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻟﻮ ﻧﺎﺧﺪ اﻣﺜﻠﺔ‪:‬‬
‫–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––‬
‫)‪Example 6: (conversion from Octal to binary‬‬
‫‪Convert (732.64)8 to the binary system‬‬

‫‪Solution:‬‬
‫ىن‬
‫اﻟﻤﻔﺮوض كﻞ رﻗﻢ ﻣﻦ ال‪ octal‬ﻫ�ﻘﺎبﻠﻪ ‪ ٣‬ارﻗﺎم ﻣﻦ ال‪� ... binary‬ﻌ ﻣﺜﻼ ﻫﻜﺘﺐ ‪ 4 2 1‬وﻫﻘﻮل ان ال‪ ٣‬ﻣﺜﻼ ﻋبﺎرة‬
‫ف‬ ‫ﻋﻦ ﻣﺠﻤ�ع ‪ ١ + ٢‬ق‬
‫ﻳب� ﻫﺤﻂ ‪ 1‬ﺗﺤﺖ ال‪ 2‬وال‪ 1‬وﺻﻔﺮ ﺗﺤﺖ ال‪ ... ٤‬ﻃ�ﺐ ﻣﺎﻧﺎ ﻣﻤﻜﻦ اﻋﻤﻞ كﻞ اﻷرﻗﺎم ي� ﺟﺪول‬
‫‪octal number 4 2 1‬‬
‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪100‬‬
‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪110‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪010‬‬
‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪011‬‬
‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪111‬‬
‫ف‬
‫اﻟ�ﻤن ﻟﻠﺸﻤﺎل ﻋﺸﺎن ﻟﻤﺎ ا�ﺘﺐ‬
‫ي‬ ‫ﻃبﻌﺎ اﻧﺎ ﻋﻤﻠﺖ اﻷرﻗﺎم اﻟ� ﻣﺤﺘﺎﺟﻬﺎ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻣﺸﻬﻜﺘﺐ كﻞ اﻟﺠﺪول ‪ ...‬وﻋﻤﻠﺘﻬﻢ ﻣﻦ‬
‫اﻷرﻗﺎم ﻫبﺪا ﻣﻦ ﺗﺤﺖ ﻟﻔﻮق وﻫﻜﺘﺐ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺸﻤﺎل ﻟﻠ ي ن‬
‫�ﻤن‬

‫‪(732.64)8 = (111011010.110100)2‬‬
‫–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––‬
‫)‪Example 7: (conversion from binary to Octal‬‬
‫‪Convert (1101111011011.0111)2 to the Octal system‬‬

‫‪Solution:‬‬
‫اﻟ�ﺒ� دە ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎت‬ ‫ت‬ ‫ين‬ ‫ن‬
‫اي ﻫﺤﻮل ﻣﻦ ‪ binary‬ل‪ ... octal‬واﺣﻨﺎ ﻗﻮﻟﻨﺎ‬
‫ﻣﺎﺷﻴن ﺑﻨﻈﺎم ال‪ 3 bits‬ﻳب� اذن ﻫﻌﻤﻞ اﻟﺮﻗﻢ ي‬ ‫بﻤﺎ ي‬
‫كﻞ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ‪ ٣‬ارﻗﺎم وﻫﻜﺘﺐ ﻓﻮق كﻞ ‪ ٣‬ارﻗﺎم ‪ 4 2 1‬وﻫﺠﻤﻊ ﻣﻨﻬﻢ اﻟ� ﺗﺤﺘﻪ ‪ ... 1‬ﺗﻌﺎﻟﻮ �ﺸﻮف‬

‫‪421 421 421 421 421.421 421‬‬

‫‪001 101 111 011 011.011 100‬‬
‫اﻻي‪:‬‬‫ﻻﺣﻆ ت‬
‫ت‬ ‫ي‬
‫وﻫﻼ� اﺧﺮ رﻗﻢ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺸﻤﺎل‬ ‫ﻗﺴﻤﺖ اﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎت ف� اﻟﺠﺰء ال‪ integer‬ﻣﻦ اول اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ ش‬
‫اﻟﻌ��ﺔ ﻣﺘﺠﻬﺎ ﻧﺎﺣ�ﺔ اﻟﺸﻤﺎل‬
‫ي‬ ‫ي‬
‫ﻣﺸﻤﻌﺎﻫﻢ أي ارﻗﺎم ﺗﺎﻧ�ﺔ ‪ ...‬ﻫﻮ ‪ 1‬ﻓﻘﻂ ‪ ...‬ﻓﻬﻀ�ﻔﻠﻪ ‪ 00‬ﻣﻦ اﻟﺸﻤﺎل ﻋﺸﺎن ﺗكﻤﻞ اﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ وﻓﻨﻔﺲ اﻟﻮﻗﺖ‬
‫ن‬
‫ﻣﺸﻬ�ﻜﻮن ﻟﻴﻬﻢ ﻗ�ﻤﺔ أﺻﻼ ‪ ...‬بﻌﺪ ﻛﺪة ﻫﻜﺘﺐ اﻟﺮﻗﻢ اﻟﻤﻘﺎبﻞ ﻟ�ﻞ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ي‬
‫بﺎي ﻫﺠﻤﻊ اﻷرﻗﺎم اﻟ� ﺗﺤﺖ ‪1‬‬

‫‪421 421 421 421 421 . 421 421‬‬

‫‪Page 13 of 61‬‬
 ‫‪001 101 111 011 011 . 011 100‬‬

‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3 . 3‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬

‫‪(1101111011011.0111)2 = (15733.34)8‬‬
‫–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––‬
‫)‪Example 8: (conversion from Hexadecimal to binary‬‬
‫‪Convert (E4F9.D7C)16 to the binary system‬‬

‫‪Solution:‬‬
‫ىن‬
‫اﻟﻤﻔﺮوض كﻞ رﻗﻢ ﻣﻦ ‪ Hexadecimal‬ﻫ�ﻘﺎبﻠﻪ ‪ 4‬ارﻗﺎم ﻣﻦ ال‪� ... binary‬ﻌ ﻣﺜﻼ ﻫﻜﺘﺐ ‪ ...8 4 2 1‬ﻃ�ﺐ اﻋﻤﻞ‬
‫ف‬
‫كﻞ اﻷرﻗﺎم ي� ﺟﺪول‬

‫‪Hexa number 8 4 2 1‬‬

‫‪C = 12‬‬ ‫‪1100‬‬
‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪0111‬‬
‫‪D = 13‬‬ ‫‪1101‬‬
‫‪9‬‬ ‫‪1001‬‬
‫‪F = 15‬‬ ‫‪1111‬‬
‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪0100‬‬
‫‪E = 14‬‬ ‫‪1110‬‬
‫ف‬
‫اﻟ�ﻤن ﻟﻠﺸﻤﺎل ﻋﺸﺎن ﻟﻤﺎ ا�ﺘﺐ‬
‫ي‬ ‫ﻃبﻌﺎ اﻧﺎ ﻋﻤﻠﺖ اﻷرﻗﺎم اﻟ� ﻣﺤﺘﺎﺟﻬﺎ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻣﺸﻬﻜﺘﺐ كﻞ اﻟﺠﺪول ‪ ...‬وﻋﻤﻠﺘﻬﻢ ﻣﻦ‬
‫يف‬
‫اﻟ�ﻤن ﻟﻠﺸﻤﺎل‬ ‫اﻷرﻗﺎم ﻫبﺪا ﻣﻦ ﺗﺤﺖ ﻟﻔﻮق وﻫﻜﺘﺐ ﻣﻦ‬

‫‪(E4F9.D7C)16 = (1110 0100 1111 1001 . 1101 0111 1100)2‬‬

‫‪E‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪F‬‬ ‫‪9‬‬ ‫‪.‬‬ ‫‪D‬‬ ‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪C‬‬
‫–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––‬
‫)‪Example 9: (conversion from Hexadecimal to binary‬‬
‫‪Convert (AB8.D6E)16 to the binary system‬‬

‫‪Solution:‬‬
‫اﻟﻤﻔﺮوض كﻞ رﻗﻢ ﻣﻦ ‪ Hexadecimal‬ﻫ�ﻘﺎبﻠﻪ ‪ 4‬ارﻗﺎم ﻣﻦ ال‪� ... binary‬ﻌىن ﻣﺜﻼ ﻫﻜﺘﺐ ‪ ...8 4 2 1‬ﻃ�ﺐ اﻋﻤﻞ‬
‫كﻞ اﻷرﻗﺎم ف ي� ﺟﺪول‬
‫‪Hexa number 8 4 2 1‬‬
‫‪E = 14‬‬ ‫‪1110‬‬
‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪0110‬‬
‫‪D = 13‬‬ ‫‪1101‬‬
‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪1000‬‬
‫‪B = 13‬‬ ‫‪1011‬‬
‫‪A = 10‬‬ ‫‪1010‬‬
‫ف‬
‫اﻟ�ﻤن ﻟﻠﺸﻤﺎل ﻋﺸﺎن ﻟﻤﺎ ا�ﺘﺐ‬
‫ي‬ ‫ﻃبﻌﺎ اﻧﺎ ﻋﻤﻠﺖ اﻷرﻗﺎم اﻟ� ﻣﺤﺘﺎﺟﻬﺎ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻣﺸﻬﻜﺘﺐ كﻞ اﻟﺠﺪول ‪ ...‬وﻋﻤﻠﺘﻬﻢ ﻣﻦ‬
‫يف‬
‫اﻟ�ﻤن ﻟﻠﺸﻤﺎل‬ ‫اﻷرﻗﺎم ﻫبﺪا ﻣﻦ ﺗﺤﺖ ﻟﻔﻮق وﻫﻜﺘﺐ ﻣﻦ‬
‫‪Page 14 of 61‬‬
 ‫‪(AB8.D6E)16‬‬ ‫‪= (1010 1011 1000 . 1101 0110 1110)2‬‬
‫‪A‬‬ ‫‪B‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪.‬‬ ‫‪D‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪E‬‬
‫––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––‬
‫ﻃ�ﺐ اﺣﻨﺎ ﻋﺮﻓﻨﺎ ان اﻟﺘﺤ��ﻞ ﻣﻦ ال‪ octal‬ﻟﻞ‪ binary‬بﻄ��ﻘﺔ ال‪ 3 bits‬وﻋﺮﻓﻨﺎ ان اﻟﺘﺤ��ﻞ ﻣﻦ ال‪hexdecimal‬‬
‫ﻟﻞ‪ binary‬بﻄ��ﻘﺔ ال‪ ... 4 bits‬ﻃ�ﺐ ﻟﻮ ﻋﺎﻳﺰ اﺣﻮل ﻣﻦ ال‪ base 4‬ﻟﻞ‪ .... binary‬اﻟﻄ��ﻘﺔ ﻫﺘﻜﻮن كﺎم ‪Bit‬؟؟ ‪....‬‬
‫ا�� رﻗﻢ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﻫﻮ ‪ .... ٣‬ﻃ�ﺐ‬ ‫ﻫنﺴتﻨﺘﺠﻬﺎ ذي ﻣﺎﻋﻤﻠﻨﺎ ﻗبﻞ ﻛﺪة ‪ .....‬اﻧﺎ ﻋﻨﺪي ال‪ base 4‬ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ‪ ٤‬ارﻗﺎم ﻣﻦ ‪ ٠‬ل ‪ ٣‬ف‬
‫�ﻌى ب‬
‫ال‪ ٣‬دە ﻟﻮ ﻋﺎﻳﺰ اﺣﻮﻟﻪ ل‪� binary‬ﻌىن ﻫﻘﺴﻢ ﻋ� ‪.... ٢‬‬
‫‪2÷ 3‬‬
‫‪2÷ 1 1‬‬
‫‪0 1‬‬

‫� ﻃ��ﻘﺔ ال‪ 2 bits‬ﺗﻌﺎﻟﻮا‬ ‫ت‬ ‫ىن‬ ‫ين‬ ‫�ﻌىن ﺑتﺘﻜﻮن ﻣﻦ‬

‫رﻗﻤن �ﺲ �ﻌ ‪ 2 bits‬ﻳب� ﻃ��ﻘﺔ اﻟﺘﺤ��ﻞ ﻣﻦ ‪ base 4‬ل‪ binary‬ي‬
‫�ﺸﻮف ﻣﺜﺎل‬
‫–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––‬
‫)‪Example 10: (conversion from base 4 to binary‬‬
‫‪Convert (2310.12)4 to the binary system‬‬

‫‪Solution:‬‬
‫رﻗﻤن ﻣﻦ ال‪� ... binary‬ﻌىن ﻣﺜﻼ ﻫﻜﺘﺐ ‪ ... 2 1‬ﻃ�ﺐ اﻋﻤﻞ كﻞ اﻷرﻗﺎم �ف‬
‫اﻟﻤﻔﺮوض كﻞ رﻗﻢ ﻣﻦ ‪ base 4‬ﻫ�ﻘﺎبﻠﻪ ي ن‬
‫ي‬
‫ﺟﺪول‬
‫‪Base 4 2 1‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪10‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪01‬‬
‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪00‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪01‬‬
‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪11‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪10‬‬
‫ف‬
‫اﻟ�ﻤن ﻟﻠﺸﻤﺎل ﻋﺸﺎن ﻟﻤﺎ ا�ﺘﺐ‬
‫ي‬ ‫ﻃبﻌﺎ اﻧﺎ ﻋﻤﻠﺖ اﻷرﻗﺎم اﻟ� ﻣﺤﺘﺎﺟﻬﺎ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻣﺸﻬﻜﺘﺐ كﻞ اﻟﺠﺪول ‪ ...‬وﻋﻤﻠﺘﻬﻢ ﻣﻦ‬
‫يف‬
‫اﻟ�ﻤن ﻟﻠﺸﻤﺎل‬ ‫اﻷرﻗﺎم ﻫبﺪا ﻣﻦ ﺗﺤﺖ ﻟﻔﻮق وﻫﻜﺘﺐ ﻣﻦ‬

‫‪(2310.12)4‬‬ ‫‪= (10 11 01 00 . 01 10)2‬‬

‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪0 .‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––‬
‫)‪Example 11: (conversion from binary to base 4‬‬
‫‪Convert (1100110111.0110)2 to the base 4 system‬‬

‫‪Solution:‬‬
‫اﻟ�ﺒ� دە‬ ‫ق‬ ‫ين‬
‫ﻣﺎﺷﻴن ﺑﻨﻈﺎم ال‪ 2 bits‬ﻳب� اذن ﻫﻌﻤﻞ اﻟﺮﻗﻢ‬ ‫اي ﻫﺤﻮل ﻣﻦ ‪ base 4‬ل‪ ... binary‬واﺣﻨﺎ ﻗﻮﻟﻨﺎ‬ ‫ن‬
‫ي‬ ‫بﻤﺎ ي‬
‫يف‬
‫كﻠﺮﻗﻤن ‪ 2 1‬وﻫﺠﻤﻊ ﻣﻨﻬﻢ اﻟ� ﺗﺤﺘﻪ ‪ ... 1‬ﺗﻌﺎﻟﻮ �ﺸﻮف‬ ‫ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎت كﻞ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ي ف‬
‫رﻗﻤن وﻫﻜﺘﺐ ﻓﻮق‬

‫‪21 21 21 21 21 . 21 21‬‬

‫‪Page 15 of 61‬‬
 ‫‪11 00 11 01 11 . 01 10‬‬
‫‪3 0 3 1 3 . 1 2‬‬

‫‪(1100110111.0110)2 = (30313.12)4‬‬
‫–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––‬
‫)‪Example 12: (conversion from binary to Hexadecimal‬‬
‫‪Convert (11011110110001111.011)2 to the Hexadecimal system‬‬

‫‪Solution:‬‬
‫اﻟ�ﺒ�‬ ‫ق‬ ‫ن‬
‫ﻣﺎﺷﻴن ﺑﻨﻈﺎم ال‪ 4 bits‬ﻳب� اذن ﻫﻌﻤﻞ اﻟﺮﻗﻢ‬ ‫اي ﻫﺤﻮل ﻣﻦ ‪ Hexadecimal‬ل‪ ... binary‬واﺣﻨﺎ ﻗﻮﻟﻨﺎ‬ ‫ن‬
‫ي‬ ‫ي‬ ‫بﻤﺎ ي‬
‫دە ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎت كﻞ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ‪ ٤‬ارﻗﺎم وﻫﻜﺘﺐ ﻓﻮق كﻞ ‪ ٤‬ارﻗﺎم ‪ 8 4 2 1‬وﻫﺠﻤﻊ ﻣﻨﻬﻢ اﻟ� ﺗﺤﺘﻪ ‪ ... 1‬ﺗﻌﺎﻟﻮ‬
‫�ﺸﻮف‬
‫‪8421 8421 8421 8421 8421 . 8421‬‬
‫‪0001 1011 1101 1000 1111 . 0110‬‬
‫اﻻي‪:‬‬‫ﻻﺣﻆ ت‬
‫ت‬ ‫ي‬
‫وﻫﻼ� اﺧﺮ رﻗﻢ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺸﻤﺎل‬ ‫ﻗﺴﻤﺖ اﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎت ف� اﻟﺠﺰء ال‪ integer‬ﻣﻦ اول اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ ش‬
‫اﻟﻌ��ﺔ ﻣﺘﺠﻬﺎ ﻧﺎﺣ�ﺔ اﻟﺸﻤﺎل‬
‫ي‬ ‫ي‬
‫ﻣﺸﻤﻌﺎﻫﻢ أي ارﻗﺎم ﺗﺎﻧ�ﺔ ‪ ...‬ﻫﻮ ‪ 1‬ﻓﻘﻂ ‪ ...‬ﻓﻬﻀ�ﻔﻠﻪ ‪ 000‬ﻣﻦ اﻟﺸﻤﺎل ﻋﺸﺎن ﺗكﻤﻞ اﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ وﻓﻨﻔﺲ اﻟﻮﻗﺖ‬
‫ﻣﺸﻬ�ﻜﻮن ﻟﻴﻬﻢ ﻗ�ﻤﺔ أﺻﻼ ‪ ...‬بﻌﺪ ﻛﺪة ﻫﻜﺘﺐ اﻟﺮﻗﻢ اﻟﻤﻘﺎبﻞ ﻟ�ﻞ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ بﺎىن ي ﻫﺠﻤﻊ اﻷرﻗﺎم اﻟ� ﺗﺤﺖ ‪ 1‬وﻛﺬﻟﻚ‬
‫اﻟ�ﻤن ﻋﺸﺎن ﻧكﻤﻞ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ وﻓﻨﻔﺲ اﻟﻮﻗﺖ ﻣﺸ�ﻜﻮن ﻟ�ﻪ ﻗ�ﻤﺔ‬ ‫يف‬ ‫اﻟﺠﺰء ال‪ fraction‬ﻣﺤﺘﺎج ازودﻟﻪ ﺻﻔﺮ ﻣﻦ‬

‫‪8421 8421 8421 8421 8421 . 8421‬‬

‫‪0001 1011 1101 1000 1111 . 0110‬‬

‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪B‬‬ ‫‪D‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪F‬‬ ‫‪.‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬

‫‪(11011110110001111.011)2 = (1BD8F.6)16‬‬
‫––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––‬
‫خ لت‬
‫�‬
‫ت‬
‫م��ص ا ح ي‬
‫و���ت�‬
‫‪1) Conversion from any base number to decimal (using index method).‬‬

‫اﻟﺘﺤ��ﻞ ﻣﻦ اي ﻧﻈﺎم ﻟﻞ‪ decimal‬بﻄ��ﻘﺔ ال‪ index‬اﻧﻨﺎ نﺑ�ﻗﻢ اﻷرﻗﺎم ‪ ...‬ﺑﺮﻗﻢ اﻟﺠﺰء ال‪ integer‬ﻣﻦ اول اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ‬
‫اﻟ�ﻗ�ﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺻﻔﺮ )ﻋﻤﻮﻣﺎ اﻟ�ﻤﺒﻴﻮﺗﺮ ت‬
‫اﻟ�ﻗ�ﻢ ﻓ�ﻪ دا�ﻤﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺻﻔﺮ( واﻟﺠﺰء ال‪fraction‬‬ ‫اﻟ�ﻤن ﻟﻠﺸﻤﺎل و�ﺪا�ﺔ ت‬
‫يف‬ ‫ش‬
‫اﻟﻌ��ﺔ ﻣﻦ‬
‫ض‬ ‫ﻟﻠ�ﻤن بﺪا�ﺔ ﻣﻦ رﻗﻢ ‪ -2 ، -1‬وﻫﻜﺬا و�ﻌﺪ ﻛﺪة ض‬
‫ين‬ ‫ﻣﻦ اول اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ ش‬
‫ب�ب كﻞ رﻗﻢ ي� ال‪ Base‬اﻟ�‬ ‫اﻟﻌ��ﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺸﻤﺎل‬
‫ﻫﺤﻮل ﻣﻨﻪ ﻣﺮﻓ�ع ﻻس اﻟﺮﻗﻢ اﻟ� ﺣﻄﻴﺘﻪ ﻋﻠ�ﻪ‬
‫‪2) Conversion from decimal to any base number system (divide the integer part‬‬
‫)‪by the base and multiply the fraction part by the base‬‬
‫اﻟﺘﺤ��ﻞ ﻣﻦ ال‪ decimal‬ﻻي ﻧﻈﺎم ن‬
‫ﺗﺎي ‪ ...‬بﻤﺴﻚ اﻟﺠﺰء ال‪ integer‬و�ﻘﺴﻤﻪ ﻋ� ال‪ base‬ﺑﺘﺎع اﻟﻨﻈﺎم اﻟ� ﺣﻮﻟﻪ‬
‫ت‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ﻟ�ﻪ واﺧ�ج ت‬
‫بﺎ� ﻗﺴﻤﺔ بﻜﺘﺐ ﺻﻔﺮ و�ﻔﻀﻞ اﻗﺴﻢ ﻟﺤﺪ ﻣﺎ أوﺻﻞ ﻟﻠﺼﻔﺮ و�ﺎﻟنﺴبﺔ‬ ‫ﻋ� ﺟﻨﺐ وﻟﻮ ﻣﻔ�ﺶ ي‬ ‫بﺎ� اﻟﻘﺴﻤﺔ‬
‫ي‬
‫وا�ب اﻟ�� �ﺲ ﻟﺤﺪ ﻣﺎ أوﺻﻞ ﻟﻠﺼﻔﺮ او ﻻﻗﺮب ﻋﺪد‬ ‫ب�ب ض� ال‪ base‬واﺧ�ج اﻟﺮﻗﻢ اﻟﺼﺤﻴﺢ ض‬‫ﻟﻠﺠﺰء ال‪ fraction‬ض‬
‫ي‬
‫ﻣﻦ اﻷرﻗﺎم ﻫﻮ ﻃﺎﻟبﻪ ﻟﻮ اﻟ�� ﻣﺸﻬ�ﻘﻒ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺻﻔﺮ‬
‫‪3) Conversion from base to base system:‬‬
‫‪Page 16 of 61‬‬
 a. Indirect method:
i. We should to convert to decimal first.
b. Direct method:
i. From octal to binary and vice versa (3 bits method)
ii. From hexadecimal to binary and vice versa (4 bits method)
iii. From base 4 to binary and vice versa (2 bits method)

There are no direct conversions between octal and hexadecimal and you should convert
to decimal first or binary.

The direct conversion found only between binary and octal and binary and hexadecimal
and binary and base 4. And to convert to binary from other base number system you
should use the indirect method.

‫ واﻟﻌﻜﺲ‬octal‫ ل‬binary ‫ ﺣﺎﻻت وﻫﻤﺎ ﻣﻦ‬٣ �‫ﻏ‬ ‫ش‬

‫اﻟﻤبﺎ�ة ﻣﻔ�ﺶ ي‬ ‫ بﺎﻟﻄ��ﻘﺔ‬base‫ ل‬base ‫ﻫﻨﺎ ﺑ�ﻘﻮل اﻟﺘﺤ��ﻞ ﻣﻦ‬
�‫ ا‬binary ‫ واﻟﻌﻜﺲ وﻟ�ﻦ ﻟﻮ ﻋﺎﻳﺰ ﺗﺤﻮل ﻣﻦ‬base 4‫ ل‬binary ‫ واﻟﻌﻜﺲ واﻟﺘﺎﻟﺘﺔ ﻣﻦ‬hexa‫ ل‬binary ‫واﻟﺘﺎﻧ�ﺔ ﻣﻦ‬
‫اﻟﻐ� ش‬
.‫ﻣبﺎ�ة‬ ‫ﻏ� دول ﻻزم �ﺴﺘﻌﻤﻞ اﻟﻄ��ﻘﺔ ي‬ ‫ ﺗﺎﻧ�ﺔ ي‬base ‫أي‬
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

4) Arithmetic Operation:
First: Binary Addition:
Rules for binary addition
0+0=0 1 + 1 = 2 in decimal
001 + 001 =010 in binary
1+0=1 1 + 1 = 0 with (1) carry

0+1=1
1 + 1 + 1 = 3 in decimal
1 + 1 = 0 with (1) carry for the next column 001 + 001 + 001=011 in binary
1 + 1 + 1 = 1 with (1) carry
1+1+1 =1 with (1) carry for the next column
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Example 13:
Find the sum of the binary numbers 110110110 + 11111011.
Solution:

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
11011011
+ 11111011
111010110

Page 17 of 61
 ‫اﻟ�ﻤن ‪ ....‬ﺑﻨﻘﻮل ‪ ١ + ١‬ذي ﻣﺎ ﻗﻮﻟﻨﺎ � ب‪ ٢‬ﻟ�ﻦ نن‬
‫ﻫ�ل ‪0‬‬ ‫يف‬ ‫ﻃبﻌﺎ ﻫﻨﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻃﺒﻖ اﻟﻘﻮاﻋﺪ اﻟ� ﻓﻮق ‪ ...‬ﺑنبﺪا ﻣﻦ ﻧﺎﺣ�ﺔ‬
‫ف ي‬ ‫ت‬ ‫ت‬
‫ف‬
‫ﻓﻬﺘ�ل ‪ ١‬وﻧﻄﻠﻊ ب‪carry‬‬ ‫ين‬
‫اﻟ�ﻤن ‪ ...‬ﻫﺘب� ‪ ١+١+١‬ﻫﺘب� ب‪٣‬‬ ‫ﺻﻐ� ﻣﻦ‬
‫ي‬ ‫وﻧﻄﻠﻊ ب‪ carry‬واﺣﺪ اﻟ� ﻫﻮ اول واﺣﺪ‬
‫نن‬
‫ﻓﻬﻴب� ‪ ٠+٠+١‬ﺑﻮاﺣﺪ ‪ ....‬و�ﻌﺪ ﻛﺪة ‪ ١+ ١‬ب‪ ٠‬وﻧﻄﻠﻊ ب‪ carry‬بﻌﺪﻫﺎ ‪ ١+١+١‬ب‪ ٣‬ﻧ�ل واﺣﺪ وﻧﻄﻠﻊ ﺑﻮاﺣﺪ‬ ‫ق‬ ‫واﺣﺪ‬
‫ق‬
‫وﻫﻜﺬا ﻟﺤﺪ اﺧﺮ رﻗﻢ ‪ ١+ ١+ ١‬ب‪ ٣‬ﻓﻬﻴب� ‪ ١‬وﻧﻄﻠﻊ ب‪ carry‬واﺣﺪ ‪� ....‬ﺲ ﻛﺪة‬
‫––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––‬
‫‪Example 14:‬‬
‫‪Find the sum of the binary numbers 110011.11 + 11011.1.‬‬
‫‪Solution:‬‬

‫‪1 1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1 1‬‬

‫‪110011.11‬‬
‫‪+ 011011.10‬‬
‫‪1001111.01‬‬
‫ﻧﻔﺲ اﻟ�ﻼم ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﻋﺎدي‪� ....‬ﺲ ﻓ�ﻪ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﺔ �ﺴ�ﻄﺔ ‪ ...‬ﻫﻨﻼﺣﻆ ان اﻟﺠﺰء ال‪ integer‬او ﺑﺘﺎع اﻟﺮﻗﻢ اﻟﺼﺤﻴﺢ‬
‫ن‬ ‫ف‬
‫واﻟﺘﺎي ‪ ... ٥‬ﻃ�ﺐ اﻟﺤﻞ ا�ﻪ ‪...‬‬
‫ي‬ ‫اﻟﺮﻗﻤن ‪� ...‬ﻌىن اﻟﺮﻗﻢ اﻷول اﻟﺠﺰء اﻟﺼﺤﻴﺢ ﺑﺘﺎﻋﻪ ‪ ٦‬ارﻗﺎم‬
‫يف‬ ‫ﻣﺸﻨﻔﺲ ﻋﺪد اﻷرﻗﺎم ي�‬
‫ض‬ ‫ف ف‬ ‫يف‬
‫ﻣتﺴﺎو�ن ي� ﻋﺪد ال‪ bits‬ﻓﻬﺘﻌﻤﻞ ا�ﻪ ‪ ...‬ﻫﻨﻀ�ﻒ اﺻﻔﺎر ﻋ� اﻟﺸﻤﺎل ي� اﻟﺠﺰء اﻟﺨﺎص‬
‫ي‬ ‫اﻟﺮﻗﻤن ﻻزم �ﻜﻮﻧﻮا‬ ‫اﻟﺤﻞ ان‬
‫ش‬ ‫ف‬ ‫ف‬
‫اﻟ�ﻤن ي� اﻟﺠﺰء اﻟ� ﻓ�ﻪ اﻟﺮﻗﻢ اﻟﻌ�ي‬ ‫بﺎﻟﺮﻗﻢ اﻟﺼﺤﻴﺢ وﻋ�‬
‫ي‬
‫––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––‬
‫‪Example 14:‬‬
‫‪Find the sum of the binary numbers 11011 + 11001.10.‬‬
‫‪Solution:‬‬

‫‪1 1‬‬ ‫‪1 1‬‬

‫‪11011.00‬‬
‫‪+ 11001.10‬‬
‫‪110100.10‬‬
‫ﻏ� ‪...‬‬ ‫ﻧﻔﺲ اﻟ�ﻼم ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﻋﺎدي‪� ....‬ﺲ ﻓ�ﻪ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﺔ �ﺴ�ﻄﺔ ‪ ...‬ﻫﻨﻼﺣﻆ ان ﻓ�ﻪ رﻗﻢ ﻓ�ﻪ ﻋﻼﻣﺔ ش‬
‫ﻋ��ﺔ وواﺣﺪ ﻣﻦ ي‬
‫يف‬
‫اﻟ�ﻤن واﻟﺸﻤﺎل ﻋﺸﺎن �ﺴﺎوي ﻋﺪد اﻷرﻗﺎم‪.‬‬ ‫ﻫﻨﻌﻤﻞ ا�ﻪ ‪ ...‬ا��ﺪ ف ف‬
‫ﻫ�ود اﺻﻔﺎر ﻣﻦ‬
‫––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––‬
‫‪Second: Binary Subtraction:‬‬
‫‪1) First: Using direct method.‬‬

‫‪Rules for binary Subtraction‬‬

‫‪0-0=0‬‬

‫‪1-0=1‬‬

‫‪0 - 1 = 1 with (1) borrowed from the next column‬‬

‫‪1-1=0‬‬

‫‪Page 18 of 61‬‬
‫‪Note that: (10) will be 1 after borrowing 1 from it as 10 – 1 = 1‬‬

‫ﻃبﻌﺎ اﻟ�ﻼم واﺿﺢ وﻟ�ﻦ اﻟﻔﻜﺮة كﻠﻬﺎ ﻓكﻠﻤﺔ ‪� .... borrow‬ﻘﺼﺪ ﺑﻴﻬﺎ ا�ﻪ اﻟ�ﻼم دە ‪ .....‬ﺑبﺴﺎﻃﺔ ‪ ...‬ﻓﺎ���ﻦ ﻟﻤﺎ ﻛﻨﺎ‬
‫ﺑﻨﻄ�ح ﻣﺜﻼ ي ن‬
‫رﻗﻤن زي ﻛﺪة ﻣﺜﻼ‪:‬‬
‫‪1 15‬‬
‫‪85‬‬
‫‪–79‬‬
‫––––––‬
‫‪-4‬‬
‫ﻛﻨﺎ ﺑﻨﻘﻮل ‪ ٥‬ﻧﺎﻗﺺ ‪ ٩‬ﻣ�ﺼﺤﺶ ﻓنﺴﺘﻠﻒ واﺣﺪ ﻣﻦ ال‪ ٨‬وﻟ�ﻦ بﻤﺎ ان ال‪ decimal‬ال‪ base‬ﺑﺘﺎﻋﻪ ب‪ ١٠‬ق‬
‫ﻳب� اﻟﻮاﺣﺪ‬
‫ﺗب� ‪ ٧‬وﻧﻘﻮل ‪ ١٥‬ﻧﺎﻗﺺ ‪ ٩‬ب‪ ٤‬وﻧﺮﺟﻊ ﻧﻘﻮل‬‫ﺘب� ‪ ١٥‬وال‪ ٨‬ت‬ ‫اﻟ� ﻫنﺴﺘﻠﻔﻪ ﻫ�وح كﺎﻧﻪ ‪ ١٠‬ﻟﻠﺮﻗﻢ اﻟ� ﻗبﻠﻪ �ﻌىن ال‪ ٥‬ﻫ ت‬
‫ي‬
‫ف‬ ‫� بﺎﻗ�ﺔ ﻣﻦ ال‪ ٨‬بﻌﺪ ﻣﺎ اﺳﺘﻠﻔﻨﺎ ﻧﺎﻗﺺ ‪ ٧‬بﺼﻔﺮ ‪...‬‬
‫ﻫ�وح‬
‫ﻓﺎﻟﺒﺘﺎ� ي� ال‪ Binary‬ﻟﻤﺎ اﺳﺘﻠﻒ واﺣﺪ اﻟﻮاﺣﺪ دە ي‬
‫ي‬ ‫‪ ٧‬اﻟ� ي‬
‫� ال‪ ٢‬ﺑﺮﺿﻮ ‪ ...‬ﺗﻌﺎﻟﻮا �ﺸﻮف ﻣﺜﺎل‪.‬‬ ‫ﻋ� ﺣﺴﺐ ‪ base‬ال‪ binary‬اﻟ� ي‬
‫ف‬
‫ﻃ�ﺐ اﻟﻤﻠﺤﻮﻇﺔ اﻟ� ﺑ�ﻘﻮل ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ دي ﻣﻌﻨﺎﻫﺎ ا�ﻪ ‪ ....‬ﻫﻨﺎ كﺎﺗﺐ ان ال‪ 10 – 1‬ب‪ ... ١‬اذاي قب� ‪ ...‬ﻻن ال‪ ١٠‬ي�‬
‫ال‪ binary‬ﻣﺸﻤﻌﻨﺎﻫﺎ ‪ ten‬ف� ال‪ ... decimal‬ﻟﻤﺎ ﺗﺤﻮل ال‪ ١٠‬ل‪ decimal‬ت‬
‫ﻫﺘب� ب‪ ٢‬ﻓﻠﻤﺎ ﺗﺎﺧﺪ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ واﺣﺪ ﻫﺘﺘﺤﻮل‬ ‫ي‬
‫ﺗب� أوﺿﺢ ﻣﻔ�ﺶ ﻣﺸكﻠﺔ‬ ‫ل‪ ١‬اﻟ� � ‪� ... 01‬ﺲ اﻧﺖ ﻟﻮ ﻋﺎﻳﺰ ﺗﻜﺘﺒﻬﺎ ‪ ٢‬ﻋﺸﺎن ت‬
‫ي‬
‫––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––‬
‫‪Example 15:‬‬
‫‪use the direct binary subtraction to get the result of 1001101 – 111011.‬‬
‫‪Solution:‬‬
‫‪Binary subtraction‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪0 2 2‬‬ ‫‪0 2‬‬
‫‪1001101‬‬
‫‪- 0111011‬‬
‫––––––––––––––––‬
‫‪0010010‬‬

‫ين‬
‫اﻟ�ﻤن ﻟﻠﺸﻤﺎل ‪...‬‬ ‫ش‬
‫اﻟﻤبﺎ�ة ‪ ...‬ﺑﻨﻄ�ح اذاي ‪ ...‬ﻃبﻌﺎ ﺑنبﺪأ ﻣﻦ‬ ‫ﻫﻨﺎ قب� بﺎﻟﻄ��ﻘﺔ‬

‫اﻟﻌﻤﻮد اﻷول‪1 – 1 = 0 :‬‬

‫ق‬ ‫ف‬ ‫ن‬
‫ﻣن ‪ ...‬ﻣﻦ اﻟﻮاﺣﺪ ﺑﺘﺎع اﻟﻌﻤﻮد اﻟﺘﺎﻟﺖ ﻓﻴب� ﻫﻮ ب ﺻﻔﺮ‬ ‫اﻟﺜﺎي‪ 0 – 1 :‬ﻣ�ﺼﺤﺶ ﻓﻼزم �ﺴﺘﻠﻒ ‪ ...‬ﻣﻦ ي‬ ‫ي‬ ‫اﻟﻌﻤﻮد‬
‫� ‪ 10-1‬ﺑﻮاﺣﺪ ﻃبﻌﺎ ‪...‬‬ ‫ت‬
‫واﻟﺼﻔﺮ اﻟ� ﺑنﺴﺘﻠﻒ ﻋﺸﺎﻧﻪ ب� ‪ ... ٢‬ﻓﻨﻘﻮل ‪ 2 – 1‬او اﻟ� ي‬
‫اﻟﻌﻤﻮد اﻟﺜﺎﻟﺚ‪0 – 0 = 0 :‬‬
‫اﻟﻌﻤﻮد اﻟﺮاﺑﻊ‪1 – 1 = 0 :‬‬
‫ف‬
‫اﻟﻌﻤﻮد اﻟﺨﺎﻣﺲ‪ 0 – 1 :‬ﻣﻴﻨﻔﻌﺶ ‪� .....‬ﺴﺘﻠﻒ ﻣﻦ اﻟ� بﻌﺪە ي� اﻟﻌﻤﻮد اﻟﺴﺎدس‪ ...‬ﻣ�ﻼﻗ�ﺶ ﺣﺎﺟﺔ �ﺴﺘﻠﻔﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ال‬
‫�� تب� اﻟﺼﻔﺮ ﺑﺘﺎع اﻟﻌﻤﻮد اﻟﺨﺎﻣﺲ‬ ‫ت‬
‫بﻌﺪە ‪ ...‬ﻓﺎﻟﺼﻔﺮ ال ﻓﺎﻟﻌﻤﻮد اﻟﺴﺎدس ﻫ�ﺴﺘﻠﻒ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻌﻤﻮد اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻊ و�ب� ب‪ ... ٢‬ب ي‬
‫و�ب� اﻟﻌﻤﻮد اﻟﺴﺎدس قب� ب‪ ١‬واﻟﺨﺎﻣﺲ قب� ب‪ ٢‬واﻟﺴﺎﺑﻊ‬ ‫ﻋﺎﻳﺰ �ﺴﺘﻠﻒ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻌﻤﻮد اﻟﺴﺎدس ﻓ�ﺎﺧﺪ واﺣﺪة ﻣﻦ ال‪ ٢‬ق‬
‫قب� ب ‪.0‬‬
‫اﻟﻌﻤﻮد اﻟﺴﺎدس‪1–1 = 0 :‬‬
‫اﻟﻌﻤﻮد اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻊ‪0 – 0 = 0 :‬‬

‫‪Page 19 of 61‬‬
 2) Using Complement method.

1) Methods for finding 1’s and 2’s complement for binary system:

A) Finding 1’s complement:

‫ق‬ ‫ف‬
‫ﻏ� اﻟﻤكﻤﻞ‬
‫ ﻳب� ﻣﻌﻨﺪ�ﺶ ي‬٢ ‫ ﻣﻌﻨﺎﻫﺎ‬10‫ وال‬١ ‫ ﻣﻌﻨﺎﻫﺎ‬01‫ وﻋﻨﺪي ال‬1‫ و‬0 �‫ﻏ‬
‫ ﻣﻌﻨﺪ�ﺶ ي‬binary‫ﻃبﻌﺎ ﻫﻨﺎ ي� ال‬
٢‫ﻟﻮاﺣﺪ واﻟﻤكﻤﻞ ل‬
In 1’ complement, replace every 1 by 0 and every 0 by
‫ف‬
‫ كﻞ اﻟﻬﺘﻌﻤﻠﻪ اﻧﻪ ﺗﻘﻠﺐ اﻟﻮاﺣﺪ ﺻﻔﺮ واﻟﺼﻔﺮ‬... ‫ ﻻي رﻗﻢ‬binary‫ﻫﻨﺎ ﻋﺎﻳﺰ �ﻘﻮﻟﻚ ﻋﺸﺎن ﺗﺠ�ﺐ اﻟﻤكﻤﻞ ﻟﻮاﺣﺪ ي� ال‬
‫ �ﺲ ﻛﺪة‬... ‫واﺣﺪ‬

‫ ﻋﺎدي ذي ﻣﺎ ﺷﻮﻓﻨﺎ ﻗبﻞ ﻛﺪة‬binary‫و�ﻌﺪ ﻛﺪة ﻫﻨﻄ�ح بﺠﻤﻊ ال‬

For example: the 1’s complement for 101101.10 is 010010.01

B) Finding 2’s complement:

The 2’s complement of a binary number can be obtained in two ways: -
A) By adding 1 to the 1’s complement.
B) Start the binary number from right. Leave the binary digits unchanged until the first
1 appear, after it replace every 1 by 0, and every 0 by 1.
‫ اىن‬.... ‫ واﻟﻄ��ﻘﺔ اﻟﺘﺎﻧ�ﺔ‬.... ١ ‫ اﻣﺎ ﻋﻦ ﻃ��ﻖ اىن اﺟ�ﺐ اﻟﻤكﻤﻞ ﻟﻮاﺣﺪ واﺟﻤﻊ ﻋﻠ�ﻪ‬٢‫ﻋﺎﻳﺰ �ﻘﻮﻟﻨﺎ ناي بﺠ�ﺐ اﻟﻤكﻤﻞ ل‬
‫ت‬ ‫ي‬
‫ﻫ�ﻟﻪ ذي ﻣﺎ ﻫﻮ واي ﺣﺎﺟﺔ بﻌﺪ اﻟﻮاﺣﺪ‬ ‫ نن‬١ �‫اﻻ‬ ‫ﻣﺎ‬ ‫ﻟﺤﺪ‬ � ‫ﻣﺎ‬ ‫ذي‬ ‫ﻟﻬﺎ‬
‫ﺰ‬ ‫اﻧ‬ ‫اﺻﻔﺎر‬ ‫ﻓ�ﻪ‬ ‫ﻟﻘ�ﺖ‬ ‫ﻟﻮ‬ ... ‫يف‬
‫اﻟ�ﻤن‬ ‫ﻣﻦ‬ ‫اﻣﺴﻚ اﻟﺮﻗﻢ‬
‫ي‬ ‫ي‬
.(٠‫ل‬١)‫( وال‬١‫ ل‬٠) �‫ﻫﺨ‬ ‫ىن‬ ‫ �ﻌ‬... ‫دە ﻫﻘﻠبﻪ‬
‫ي‬
.‫ﺗﻌﺎﻟﻮا �ﺸﻮﻓﻬﺎ ف ي� ﻣﺜﺎل‬
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Example 16:
Obtain the 2’s complement of the binary number 1011010.110
Solution:
First method: (addition of (1) to the 1st complement)
101101. 10
––––––––––––––
0 1 0 0 1 0 . 0 1 =====> 1st complement
+ 1
––––––––––––––––
0 1 0 0 1 0 . 1 0 =====> 2nd complement

Page 20 of 61
‫‪Second method:‬‬ ‫ﻫ�ل اﻻﺻﻔﺎر‬ ‫ﻫﻴ�ﻟﻮا ذي ﻣﺎ ﻫﻤﺎ ‪ ...‬فف‬
‫فف‬
‫ي ن‬
‫اﻟ�ﻤن ﻟﺤﺪ ﻣﺎ ﻧﻘﺎبﻞ )‪(١‬‬ ‫ا� ﻋ�‬
‫>===== ‪1 0 1 1 0 1 . 1 0‬‬ ‫ق‬
‫اﻟبﺎ�‬ ‫ﻫ�ﻟﻪ ﺑﺮﺿﻮ وﻧﻘﻠﺐ‬‫ضض‬
‫––––––––––––––‬ ‫ي‬
‫‪0 1 0 0 1 0 . 1 0 =====> 2st complement‬‬
‫اﻟﻄ��ﻘﺔ اﻟﺘﺎﻧ�ﺔ اﻓﻀﻞ‪.‬‬
‫‪2) Methods for finding 9’s and 10’s complement for binary system:‬‬
‫‪A) Finding 9’s complement:‬‬
‫ﻟﻮ اﺗكﻠﻤﺖ ﻋﻦ ال‪ decimal‬وﻗﻮﻟﺖ ﻋﻨﺪي رﻗﻢ ﻣﺜﻼ‬
‫‪7542‬‬
‫ىن‬
‫ﻋﺎﻳﺰ اﺟ�ﺐ اﻟﻤكﻤﻞ ﻟتﺴﻌﺔ او ﺑنﺴﻤ�ﻪ ‪ 9’s complement‬ﻫﻨﻌﻤﻞ ا�ﻪ ‪ ...‬ﻣﻌﻨﺎﻫﺎ ا ﻫﻄ�ح كﻞ رﻗﻢ ﻣﻨﻬﻢ ﻣﻦ ‪ ٩‬او‬
‫بﻤﻌىن اﺻﺢ ﻣﻤﻜﻦ اﻋﻤﻞ ﻛﺪة‬
‫‪9999‬‬
‫‪-7542‬‬
‫–––––––‬
‫‪2457‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻟﻮا �ﺸﻮف اﻣﺜﻠﺔ‬
‫––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––‬
‫‪Example 17:‬‬
‫‪Find the 9’s complement 20129 and 63700‬‬
‫‪Solution:‬‬
‫‪9’s complement‬‬
‫‪9 9 9 9 9‬‬ ‫‪9 9 9 9 9‬‬
‫‪20129‬‬ ‫‪63700‬‬
‫––––––––––––– –––––––––––––‬
‫‪79870‬‬ ‫‪36299‬‬
‫ت‬
‫ﻣﺸﺎ�� ﻣﻦ ﻛﺪة‬ ‫ﻫﻮ ﻫﻨﺎ ﻃ�ح ‪ ٩‬ﻣﻦ كﻞ رﻗﻢ ‪...‬‬

‫‪B) Finding 10’s complement:‬‬

‫ﻟﻌ�ة �ﻌىض ﻓﺮﺿﺎ ﻫﺠ�ﺐ اﻟﻤكﻤﻞ ش‬
‫ﻟﻌ�ة ﻟﻠﺮﻗﻢ ‪.... ٣١٦٧‬‬ ‫ﻃ�ﺐ ﻓ�ﻪ كﻤﺎن اﻟﻤكﻤﻞ ش‬

‫‪10000‬‬
‫‪3167‬‬

‫ﻃﺒ�� اﻧﻚ ﻫﺘﻔﻀﻞ �ﺴﺘﻠﻒ ﻣﻦ اﻻﺻﻔﺎر ﻟﺤﺪ ﻣﺎ ﺗﻮﺻﻞ ﻟﻠﻮاﺣﺪ ﻓكﺎﻧﻚ ﻋﻤﻠﺖ ﻛﺪة‬
‫ي‬ ‫ﻃ�ﺐ‬

‫‪0 9 9 9 10‬‬
‫‪10 000‬‬
‫‪3167‬‬
‫–––––––––‬
‫‪6833‬‬
‫ف‬
‫ﻃ�ﺐ اﺣﻨﺎ ﻓﻌﻠﻴﻨﺎ ﻋﻤﻠﻨﺎ ا�ﻪ ‪ ....‬ﻃﺮﺣﻨﺎ كﻞ رﻗﻢ ﻣﻦ ‪ ٩‬ﻣﺎ ﻋﺪا اول واﺣﺪ ي� ﺧﺎﻧﺔ اﻻﺣﺎد ﻃﺮﺣﻨﺎە ﻣﻦ ‪ ... ١٠‬او ﻣﻤﻜﻦ‬
‫ﻧﻘﻮل ﺟﺒﻨﺎ اﻟﻤكﻤﻞ اﻟﺘﺎﺳﻊ وﺟﻤﻌﻨﺎ ﻋ� اﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ‪� ... ١‬ﺲ ﻛﺪة‬
‫‪Page 21 of 61‬‬
 ‫ين‬
‫ﻟبﺎﻗﻴن ﻣﻦ ‪٩‬‬ ‫� وﺗﻄ�ح اول رﻗﻢ �ﻘﺎبﻠﻚ بﻌﺪ اﻻﺻﻔﺎر ﻣﻦ‪ ١٠‬وﺗﻄ�ح ا‬ ‫ي ف فف‬
‫اﻟ�ﻤن ﻫﺘ�ل ذي ﻣﺎ ي‬ ‫وﻟﻮ كﺎن ﻓ�ﻪ اﺻﻔﺎر ﻣﻦ‬
‫––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––‬
‫‪Example 18:‬‬
‫‪Find the 10’s complement 20129 and 63700‬‬
‫‪Solution:‬‬
‫‪10’s complement‬‬
‫‪9 9 9 9 9‬‬ ‫‪9 9 9 9 9‬‬
‫‪20129‬‬ ‫‪63700‬‬
‫–––––––––––––‬ ‫–––––––––––––‬
‫‪First method‬‬ ‫‪7 9 8 7 0 ==> 9’ complement‬‬ ‫‪3 6 2 9 9 ==> 9’ complement‬‬
‫‪+‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪+‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫–––––––––––––‬ ‫–––––––––––––‬
‫‪79871‬‬ ‫‪36300‬‬
‫‪9 9 9 9 10‬‬ ‫‪9 9 10‬‬
‫‪20129‬‬ ‫‪63700‬‬
‫––––––––––––– ‪Second method‬‬ ‫–––––––––––––‬
‫‪79871‬‬ ‫‪36300‬‬
‫ﻃبﻌﺎ اﻟ�ﻼم واﺿﺢ ‪ ...‬ض ي� اﻟﻄ��ﻘﺔ اﻷو� ﻃ�ح ‪ ٩‬ﻣﻦ كﻞ رﻗﻢ �ﻌىن ﺟﺎب اﻟﻤكﻤﻞ ﻟتﺴﻌﺔ و�ﻌﺪ ﻛﺪة ﺟﻤﻊ ﻋﻠ�ﻪ واﺣﺪ‬
‫يف‬ ‫ف‬ ‫ش‬
‫اﻟ�ﻤن ﻟﻮ كﺎن ﻓ�ﻪ وﻃ�ح ‪ ١٠‬ﻣﻦ اول‬ ‫ﻋﺸﺎن �ﺠ�ﺐ اﻟﻤكﻤﻞ ﻟﻌ�ة ق‪ ...‬ي‬
‫و� اﻟﻄ��ﻘﺔ اﻟﺘﺎﻧ�ﺔ ﻫﻮ ﻧﺰل اﻻﺻﻔﺎر اﻟ� ﻋ�‬
‫بﺎ� اﻷرﻗﺎم‪.‬‬ ‫ين‬
‫اﻟ�ﻤن وﻃ�ح ‪ ٩‬ﻣﻦ ي‬ ‫رﻗﻢ ﻣﻦ‬
‫––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––‬

‫‪Page 22 of 61‬‬
Example 19:
Calculate 1100.11 – 111.1, using direct, 1’s complement and 2’s complement
Solution:

Direct method 1’s complement 2’s complement

1100.11 1100.11
– 0111.10 – 0111.10
–––––––––––––––– –––––––––––––––– 2's
2 1 1 1 1 1 1
1's complement
0 0 2 2
1100.11 1100.11 complement
1100.11
– 0111.10 + 1000.01 + 1000.10
–––––––––––––––– –––––––––––––––– ––––––––––––––––
0101.01 10101.00 10101.01
+ 1 ––––––––––––––––
–––––––––––––––– 0101.01
0101.01
Conversion the result to decimal
(𝟎𝟎 × 𝟐𝟐 + 𝟏𝟏 × 𝟐𝟐 + 𝟎𝟎 × 𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟏 + 𝟏𝟏 × 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟎 + 𝟎𝟎 × 𝟐𝟐−𝟏𝟏 + 𝟏𝟏 × 𝟐𝟐−𝟐𝟐 ) = 5.25
𝟑𝟑 𝟐𝟐

Verification
By 10’s
Decimal system By 9’s complement
complement
12.75 12.75 12.75
– 07.50 – 07.50 – 07.50
––––––––––––– ––––––––––––– complement
9's ––––––––––––– complement
10's

05.25 12.75 12.75

+ 92.49 + 92.50
––––––––––––– –––––––––––––
105.24 105.25
+ 1 –––––––––––––
––––––––––––– 05.25
05.25

Page 23 of 61
Example 20:
Calculate 111.1–1100.11, using direct, 1’s complement and 2’s complement
Solution:

Direct method 1’s complement 2’s complement

0111.10 0111.10
– 1100.11 – 1100.11
2
0 0 2 –––––––––––––––– –––––––––––––––– 2's
1 1 1 1 1 1
0111.10 1's complement
0 1 1 1 . 1 0 complement 0111.10
– 1100.11
+ 0011.00 + 0011.01
‫ﻣﻴﻨﻔﻌﺶ اﺳﺘﻠﻒ‬ 0111.10
‫ﻫﻜﺘبﻪ بﺎﻟﺮﺻﺎص‬ –––––––––––––––– ––––––––––––––––
––––––––––––––––
–0101.01 1010.10 1010.01
The result = – 1’s comp of The result = – 2’s comp
(1010.10)2 = – (0101.01)2 of (1010.01)2 =
– (0101.01)2
Conversion the result to decimal
(𝟏𝟏 × 𝟐𝟐 + 𝟎𝟎 × 𝟐𝟐 + 𝟏𝟏 × 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟎𝟎 × 𝟐𝟐−𝟏𝟏 + 𝟏𝟏 × 𝟐𝟐−𝟐𝟐 ) = – 5.25
𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟏

Verification
By 10’s
Decimal system By 9’s complement
complement
07.50 07.50 07.50
– 12.75 – 12.75 – 12.75
––––––––––––– ––––––––––––– 9's ––––––––––––– 10's
– 05.25 07.50 complement 07.50 complement

+ 87.24 + 87.25
––––––––––––– –––––––––––––
94.74 94.75
The result = The result =
– 9’s comp of (94.74)10 – 10’s comp of
= – (5.25)10 (94.75)10 = – (5.25)10

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

Example 21:
Calculate the following, using direct, 9’s complement and 10’s complement
a) 27.750 – 13.625
b) 13.625 – 27.750
Solution:
a) 27.750 – 13.625

Page 24 of 61
 ‫‪Decimal system‬‬ ‫‪By 9’s complement‬‬ ‫‪By 10’s complement‬‬

‫‪27.750‬‬ ‫‪27.750‬‬ ‫‪27.750‬‬

‫‪– 13.625‬‬ ‫‪– 13.625‬‬ ‫‪– 13.625‬‬
‫––––––––––––– –––––––––––––‬ ‫‪9's‬‬
‫–––––––––––––‬ ‫‪10's‬‬

‫‪14.125‬‬ ‫‪27.750‬‬ ‫‪complement‬‬ ‫‪27.750‬‬ ‫‪complement‬‬

‫‪+ 86.374‬‬ ‫‪+ 86.375‬‬

‫–––––––––––––‬ ‫–––––––––––––‬
‫‪114.124‬‬ ‫‪114.125‬‬
‫‪+‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫–––––––––––––‬
‫–––––––––––––‬ ‫‪14.125‬‬
‫‪14.125‬‬

‫‪b) 13.625 – 27.750‬‬

‫‪Decimal system‬‬ ‫‪By 9’s complement‬‬ ‫‪By 10’s complement‬‬

‫‪13.625‬‬ ‫‪13.625‬‬ ‫‪13.625‬‬

‫‪– 27.750‬‬ ‫‪– 27.750‬‬ ‫‪– 27.750‬‬
‫––––––––––––– –––––––––––––‬ ‫–––––––––––––‬ ‫‪10's‬‬

‫‪13.625‬‬
‫‪9's‬‬
‫‪13.625‬‬ ‫‪complement‬‬
‫‪–14.125‬‬ ‫‪complement‬‬
‫‪+ 72.250‬‬
‫‪+ 72.249‬‬ ‫–––––––––––––‬
‫–––––––––––––‬ ‫‪85.875‬‬
‫‪85.874‬‬
‫= ‪The result‬‬ ‫= ‪The result‬‬
‫‪– 9’s comp of (85.874)10‬‬ ‫‪– 10’s comp of (85.875)10‬‬
‫‪= (–14.125)10‬‬ ‫‪= (–14.125)10‬‬

‫س ت� خ‬ ‫خ‬
‫م��ص ا��رح ب�ا �دام ال‪complement‬‬
‫اﺧﺪﻧﺎ ال ‪ addition‬ﻟﻞ‪ binary‬ودي ﺳﻬﻠﺔ ﺟﺪا ‪ ...‬اﻟﺘﻠﺨ�ﺺ ﻫ�ﻜﻮن ﻟﻞ‪subtraction‬‬
‫ﻛﺒ�‬
‫ﺻﻐ� ﻣﻦ رﻗﻢ ي‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ﻃ�ح رﻗﻢ‬ ‫ﺻﻐ�‬
‫ي‬ ‫ﻛﺒ� ﻣﻦ رﻗﻢ‬ ‫ﻃ�ح رﻗﻢ ي‬ ‫اﻟﻄ��ﻘﺔ‬
‫اﻟ�ﺒ� ﻣﻦ‬
‫ي‬ ‫ىن‬
‫ﻫنﺸﻘﻠﺐ �ﻌ ﻫﻨﻄ�ح‬
‫اﻟﻘﻮاﻋﺪ اﻟﻌﺎد�ﺔ‬ ‫‪Direct method‬‬
‫اﻟﺼﻐ� �ﺲ ﻫﻨﺤﻂ إﺷﺎرة ﺳﺎﻟﺐ‬ ‫ي‬
‫ﻟﻠ�ﺒ� وﻧﺠﻤﻊ‬
‫ي‬ ‫ﻟﻠﺼﻐ� ﺑﺘﺠ�ﺐ اﻟﻤكﻤﻞ اﻷول‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ﺑﺘﺠ�ﺐ اﻟﻤكﻤﻞ اﻷول‬
‫ق‬
‫اﻟﺼﻐ� ‪ ...‬بﻌﺪ ﻛﺪة ﺑﻨﺠ�ﺐ‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ﻫﻨﻼ� ﻋ�‬
‫ي‬ ‫اﻟ�ﺒ� ‪....‬‬
‫ي‬ ‫وﻧﺠﻤﻌﻪ ﻋ� اﻟﺮﻗﻢ‬
‫ال‪1’complement‬‬
‫اﻷﺧ� اﻟﻤكﻤﻞ اﻷول ﻟﻠﻨﺎﺗﺞ و�ﻨﺤﻂ إﺷﺎرة‬ ‫ي‬ ‫رﻗﻢ ز�ﺎدة اﻟ� ﻫﻮ ال‪carry‬‬
‫ﺳﺎﻟبﺔ‬ ‫ين‬
‫اﻟ�ﻤن‬ ‫ﻫﻨﺠﻤﻌﻪ ﻋ� اول رﻗﻢ ﻣﻦ‬
‫ﻟﻠ�ﺒ� وﻧﺠﻤﻊ‬ ‫ن‬
‫اﻟﺜﺎي‬ ‫ﻟﻠﺼﻐ� ﺑﺘﺠ�ﺐ اﻟﻤكﻤﻞ‬ ‫ن‬
‫اﻟﺜﺎي‬ ‫ﺑﺘﺠ�ﺐ اﻟﻤكﻤﻞ‬
‫ي‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ي‬
‫ق‬
‫اﻟﺼﻐ� ‪ ...‬بﻌﺪ ﻛﺪة ﺑﻨﺠ�ﺐ‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ﻫﻨﻼ� ﻋ�‬ ‫ي‬ ‫اﻟ�ﺒ� ‪....‬‬ ‫ي‬ ‫وﻧﺠﻤﻌﻪ ﻋ� اﻟﺮﻗﻢ‬
‫ن‬ ‫ال‪2’ complement‬‬
‫اﻟﺜﺎي ﻟﻠﻨﺎﺗﺞ و�ﻨﺤﻂ إﺷﺎرة‬ ‫ي‬ ‫اﻷﺧ� اﻟﻤكﻤﻞ‬ ‫ي‬ ‫رﻗﻢ ز�ﺎدة اﻟ� ﻫﻮ ال‪carry‬‬
‫ﺳﺎﻟبﺔ‬ ‫ﻫﻨﺤﺬﻓﻪ‬
‫––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––‬

‫‪5) Signed Binary number:‬‬

‫‪The signed binary numbers are represented with a bit placed in the leftmost position of‬‬
‫‪the binary number to represent the sign.‬‬
‫‪Page 25 of 61‬‬
The way of representing the signed binary numbers depends on the adopted notational
system. The most common notations are:
a. Signed-magnitude notation.
b. Signed-complement notation.
c. Excess notation.

For both The signed-magnitude and the signed-complement notations, the convention is
to make the sign bit (0) for positives and (1) for negatives.

For the excess notation, the convention is to make the sign bit is (1) for positives and (0)
for negatives.
‫ت‬
‫ وﻫﻮ ا�ﻪ‬.... ‫ ﻟ�ﻦ اﻟﺤﻘ�ﻘﺔ وﺿﻊ اﻹﺷﺎرة ﻟ�ﻪ ﻗﺎﻋﺪة‬... ‫ ﻗﻮﻟﻨﺎ ان اﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ بﺎﻟﺴﺎﻟﺐ‬BINARY‫دﻟﻮﻗى اﺣﻨﺎ ﻓﻮق ﻓﻄ�ح ال‬
‫ت‬
‫ ﻟ�ﻦ ﺧﻠﻴﻨﺎ‬... ‫دﻟﻮﻗى‬ ‫ ﻫنﺸﻮﻓﻬﻢ‬... ‫ ﻃﺮق‬٣ ‫ﺑ�ﻌ� ﻋﻦ اﻹﺷﺎرة وﻓ�ﻪ ﻋﻨﺪي‬ ‫ اول رﻗﻢ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺸﻤﺎل ﺧﺎﻟﺺ ﻫﻮ اﻟ� ب‬....
‫يف‬
‫ ﺧﻠﻴﻨﺎ �ﺸﻮف‬.... ‫ﻃﺮﻗﺘن ﺑ�ﻘﻮﻟﻚ اﻟﺼﻔﺮ ﻣﻌﻨﺎە ﻣﻮﺟﺐ واﻟﻮاﺣﺪ ﻣﻌﻨﺎە ﺳﺎﻟﺐ واﻟﻄ��ﻘﺔ اﻟﺘﺎﻟﺘﺔ اﻟﻌﻜﺲ‬ ‫ﻧﺘﻔﻖ ان اول‬
‫اول ﻃ��ﻘﺔ‬

1) Signed-magnitude notation:
The number consists of two parts: magnitudes and a symbol (+ or -). Changing the sign
of the binary number in this system is simply obtained by altering the leftmost bit from 0
to 1 , or vice versa.
‫ اﻷول اﻟ� ﻫﻮ زون اﻟﺮﻗﻢ ف‬.... ‫ﺋن‬
‫ ﻓﻮق اﻷرﻗﺎم‬٤ ٢ ١ ‫�ﻌئ ﻟﻤﺎ ﻛﻨﺎ ﺑﻨﻜﺘﺐ‬ ‫ﻫﻨﺎ ﺑ�ﻘﻮل ﻓﺎﻟﻨﻈﺎم دە اﻟﺮﻗﻢ ﺑيﺘﻘﺴﻢ ﺟﺰ ي ف‬
‫ وﻫﺤﻮﻟﻪ‬decimal ‫�ﻌ� ﻋﻦ اﻟﺴﺎﻟﺐ وﻟﻮ ﻋﻨﺪي رﻗﻢ‬ ‫واﻟﺠﺰء ف‬
‫ ب‬١ ‫�ﻌ� ﻋﻦ اﻟﻤﻮﺟﺐ واﻣﺎ‬ ‫اﻟﺘﺎي ﺑ�ﻜﻮن رﻣﺰ اﻣﺎ ﺻﻔﺮ ب‬
‫ي‬
‫ ﺗﻌﺎﻟﻮا �ﺸﻮف‬.... ‫ وﻓ�ﻪ إﺷﺎرة ﺑبﺴﺎﻃﺔ ﻫﺤﻂ رﻣﺰﻫﺎ ف ي� اﻗ� اﻟﺸﻤﺎل اﻣﺎ ﺻﻔﺮ او واﺣﺪ ﻋ� ﺣﺴﺐ اﻹﺷﺎرة‬binary
‫ﻏ� إﺷﺎرة‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎل ﻟﻮاﺣﺪ ﻓ�ﻪ إﺷﺎرة وواﺣﺪ ﻣﻦ ي‬
Unsigned binary number
Magnitude 8 4 2 1
Binary no. 1 0 0 1
Decimal
(9)10
No.

‫ ﻫﻜﺘﺐ ﻓﻮﻗ�ﻪ اﻷرﻗﺎم‬decimal‫ ﻟﻤﺎ اﺣﺐ اﺣﻮﻟﻪ ل‬....‫ �ﻌىن بﺪون اﺷﺎرة‬unsigned ‫( وﻟ�ﻦ‬١٠٠١) binary ‫دە رﻗﻢ‬
9 ‫ ﺑﺘﺎﻋﻪ‬decimal‫و�ﺎﻟﺘﺎ� ال‬
‫ي‬ ٨٤٢ ١

‫ ﻟ�ﻪ إﺷﺎرة ﻫ�ﺤﺼﻞ ا�ﻪ‬signed ‫ﻃ�ﺐ ﻟﻮ ﻓﺮﺿﻨﺎ اﻧﻪ ﻫ�ﻜﻮن‬

Signed binary number
Sign Magnitude
– 4 2 1
Binary
1 0 0 1
no.
Decimal (-١)10
Page 26 of 61
 ‫‪No.‬‬
‫ﻫﻨﺎ ق‬
‫ﻫﻴب� اول رﻗﻢ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺸﻤﺎل ﺧﺎﻟﺺ ﻋبﺎرة ﻋﻦ اﻹﺷﺎرة ﻓﻘﻂ و�ﻤﺎ اﻧﻪ واﺣﺪ ﻓﻬﺘﻜﻮن اﻹﺷﺎرة ﺳﺎﻟﺐ ‪ ....‬دە اﻟﻔﺮق ي ف‬
‫ﺑن‬
‫اﻟﺮﻗﻢ ال‪ binary‬اﻟ� ﻟ�ﻪ إﺷﺎرة واﻟ� ﻣﻠﻮش‬
‫––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––‬
‫‪The signed-magnitude conversion table of a 3-bit binary pattern is as‬‬
‫‪follows:‬‬
‫ﻟﻮ ﻋﻨﺪي رﻗﻢ ﺑيﺘﻜﻮن ﻣﻦ ‪ ... 3bits‬ﻫ�ﻜﻮن ﻋﻨﺪي ‪ ٣‬اﺣﺘﻤﺎﻻت ‪ ...‬ﻟ�ﻪ‬
‫‪3 bits‬‬
‫‪Bit 3 Bit 2 Bit 1‬‬
‫‪0 or 1 0 or 1 0 or 1‬‬
‫ف‬
‫اﺣﺘﻤﺎﻟن ي� ‪ ٣‬ﻣ��ﻌﺎت �ﻌىن ‪ ٢٣‬ﻣﻦ اﻻﺣﺘﻤﺎﻻت‬
‫يف‬ ‫ﻟﻤﺎ �ﻜﻮن ﻋﻨﺪي ‪ 3bits‬كﻞ واﺣﺪ ﻣﻨﻬﻢ اﺣﺘﻤﺎل �ﻜﻮن ‪ ... 0 or 1‬ف‬
‫�ﻌى‬
‫اﻟﺘﺎ�‬
‫ي‬ ‫�ﻌىن ﻋﻨﺪي ‪ ٨‬اﺣﺘﻤﺎﻻت ‪ ...‬ﺗﻌﺎﻟﻮا �ﺸﻮﻓﻬﻢ ﻓﺎﻟﺠﺪول‬
‫‪Signed-magnitude decimal‬‬
‫‪unsigned decimal range‬‬ ‫‪Bit pattern‬‬
‫‪value‬‬
‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪000‬‬ ‫‪+0‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪001‬‬ ‫‪+1‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪010‬‬ ‫‪+2‬‬
‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪011‬‬ ‫‪+3‬‬
‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪100‬‬ ‫‪-0‬‬
‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪101‬‬ ‫‪-1‬‬
‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪110‬‬ ‫‪-2‬‬
‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪111‬‬ ‫‪-3‬‬
‫ف‬ ‫ض‬
‫اﻟﻄ��ﻘﺔ دي ﻟﻸﺳﻒ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﻣﺸكﻠﺔ ‪ ...‬ﻻن ﻣﻔ�ﺶ ﺣﺎﺟﺔ ي� اﻟ��ﺎﺿﺔ اﺳﻤﻬﺎ ‪ +0‬او ‪� -0‬ﻌى اﻟﺼﻔﺮ ﻋﻤﺮە ﻣﺎ ﺑ�ﺎﺧﺪ إﺷﺎرة‬

‫‪Unsigned Decimal range:‬‬

‫‪While the “unsigned decimal” range of the 3-bit binary pattern is [0 , 7], the corresponding‬‬
‫‪“signed-magnitude” range is [– 3 , + 3 ].‬‬
‫دي ش�ﺣﻨﺎﻫﺎ ﻋﺎدي‪.‬‬

‫])‪ For a n-bit binary pattern, the allowed “unsigned decimal” range is [0 , (2n-1‬‬

‫دﻟﻮﻗى اﺣﻨﺎ ﻗﻮﻟﻨﺎ ان ﻟﻤﺎ كﺎن ﻋﻨﺪي ‪ 3bits‬كﺎن ﻋﻨﺪي ‪ ٨‬اﺣﺘﻤﺎﻻت �ﻌىن ‪ 23‬وﻋﻨﺪي ال‪ unsigned decimal‬اﻷرﻗﺎم‬
‫ت‬
‫و�ن ﻋﺪد ال‪ bits‬ق‬
‫ﻳب�‬ ‫ﺑن ال‪ unsigned decimal range‬ي ن‬ ‫�ﻌى ﻣﻦ ﺻﻔﺮ ل‪ 8-1‬وﻟﻮ ﻋﺎﻳﺰ اﻋﻤﻞ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ي ن‬‫ﻣﻦ ‪ ٠‬ل‪ ٧‬ف‬
‫� ب‪٧‬‬ ‫اﺣﺘﻤﺎﻻت وﻋﻨﺪي ال‪ unsigned decimal‬ﻣﻦ ﺻﻔﺮ ا� ‪ 2 – 1‬اﻟ� ي‬
‫‪3‬‬ ‫اﻗﺪر أﻗﻮل ﻟﻮ ﻋﻨﺪي ‪ 3bits‬ﻋﻨﺪي ‪23‬‬
‫ت‬
‫ﻫﺘب� اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ])‪[0 , (2n-1‬‬ ‫وﻛﺪة ﻟﻮ ﺷﻠﻨﺎ ال‪ ٣‬وﺣﻄﻴﻨﺎ ﻣكﺎﻧﻬﺎ ‪n‬‬
‫‪Signed-Magnitude Decimal range:‬‬
‫‪ For a n-bit binary pattern, the allowed “signed-magnitude decimal” range is‬‬
‫‪[– (2n-1 –1) , + (2n-1 –1)].‬‬
‫ين‬
‫اﻟﺮﻗﻤن دول او ال‪range‬‬ ‫ﺑن ﻋﺪد ال‪ bits‬ي ن‬
‫و�ن‬ ‫ﺗﻌﺘ� ﻧﻔﺲ اﻟ�ﻼم اﻧﺎ ﻋﻨﺪى ال‪ signed‬ﻣﻦ ‪ -3,3‬ﻃ�ﺐ ﻟﻮ ﻋﺎﻳﺰ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ي ن‬
‫ب‬
‫ض‬
‫دە ‪ ٣ ....‬ﻣﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﻜﻮن ﻋبﺎرة ﻋﻦ ‪ 4 – 1‬ﻃ�ﺐ أﻗﺪر أﻗﻮﻟﻬﺎ ‪ ... 2 – 1‬ﻃ�ﺐ اﺣﻨﺎ ﻋﺎﻳ��ﻦ ﻧﺤﻂ ﻋﺪد ال‪ bits‬ي� اﻟﻤﻮﺿ�ع‬
‫‪2‬‬

‫‪Page 27 of 61‬‬
 ‫ واﻧﺎ ﻋﺎﻳﺰ اﻻس ق‬٣‫ ب‬n ‫ اﻟ� ﻫﻮ‬bits‫ ﻋﻨﺪي ﻋﺪد ال‬... 2n ‫ وﻋﺎﻳﺰ اﺳﺘﺨﺪم ال‬٣ ‫ ﻫﻮ‬bits‫ﻃ�ﺐ ﻟﻮ ﻗﻮﻟﺖ ﻋﺪد ال‬
�‫ﻳب‬
‫ ت‬... n-1 ‫ﻳب� ﻫﺨ� اﻻس‬
‫ �ﺲ ﻛﺪة‬... 2n-1 -1 ‫وﺗب� ﺑبﺴﺎﻃﺔ‬ ‫ ق‬٢‫ب‬

Defects of signed-magnitude notation [(+0,–0) representation]:

 The “signed-magnitude system”, it is not convenient to implement arithmetic
operations in a computer since there are two different representations of 0 in the
table, which are 000 (+0) and 100 (-0).
‫ض‬ ‫ش‬
‫ اﻟ� ي‬...‫دي �ﺣﻨﺎﻫﺎ ﻋﺎدي ﺑﺮﺿﻮ‬
‫ ي� اﻟ��ﺎﺿﺔ‬-0‫ و‬+0 ‫� ﻣﻴﻨﻔﻌﺶ �ﻜﻮن ﻋﻨﺪي‬

2) Signed-complement notation.
‫ت‬ ‫ف‬ ‫ت‬
‫� واﻷرﻗﺎم‬ ‫ ﻫﺘب� ذي ﻣﺎ ي‬signed magnitude‫ ان اﻷرﻗﺎم اﻟﻤﻮﺟبﺔ اﻟ� ﺷﻮﻓﻨﺎﻫﺎ ي� ال‬... ‫ﻓﺎﻻى‬‫ي‬ ‫ﻣﻦ اﻻﺧﺮ اﻟﻔﻜﺮة كﻠﻬﺎ‬
‫ىن‬
... ‫ �ﻌ ﻣﺜﻼ‬... ‫ ﺑﺘﺎع اﻷرﻗﺎم اﻟﻤﻮﺟبﺔ‬2’s complement‫ او ال‬1’s complement‫اﻟﺴﺎﻟبﺔ ﻫﺘﻜﻮن ﻋبﺎرة ﻋﻦ ال‬
‫ ﻟﻮ‬... ‫ ﻫ�ﻜﻮن اذاي‬signed complement‫ ﺗﻤﺜ�ﻠﻬﺎ ف ي� ﻧﻈﺎم ال‬-3 �‫ﻳب‬ ‫ ق‬... 011 ‫ كﺎن‬3bits‫ اﻟﺘﻤﺜ�ﻞ ﺑﺘﺎﻋﻬﺎ ف� ال‬+3
‫ي‬
‫ وﻟﻮ‬-3‫ وﻫﻮ دە اﻟ� ﻫ�ﻤﺜﻞ ال‬100 ‫ �ﻌىن ﻛﺪة‬1’s complement‫ﻳب� ﻫﺠ�ﺐ ال‬ ‫ ق‬1’s complement‫ﻫﺴﺘﺨﺪم ال‬
‫ق‬
‫ دي اﻟﻔﻜﺮة كﻠﻬﺎ‬.... ‫ �ﺲ ﻛﺪة‬... 101‫ﻫﻴب� ﻫﻮ ﻋبﺎرة ﻋﻦ ال‬ 2’s complement‫ﻫﺴﺘﺨﺪم ال‬

 In this system, a negative number is indicated by its complement.

 The positive numbers always start with 0;(+), in the leftmost position, the complement
will always start with 1;(-)
 The signed-complement system can use either the “1’s complement” or the “2’s
complement” notations.

‫ و��ﻘﻮل بﻤﺎ ان اﻷرﻗﺎم اﻟﻤﻮﺟبﺔ‬... ‫ ﺑﺘﺎع اﻷرﻗﺎم اﻟﻤﻮﺟبﺔ‬complement‫� ال‬ ‫اﻟ�ﻼم دە ﻣﻌﻨﺎە ان اﻷرﻗﺎم اﻟﺴﺎﻟبﺔ ي‬
‫ق‬ ‫ف‬
‫ ﺑﺘﺎﻋﻬﺎ‬complement‫ﺑ�ﻜﻮن ﻓﻴﻬﺎ اﻹﺷﺎرة اﻟﻤﻮﺟبﺔ ﻣﻤﺜﻠﺔ بﺎﻟﺼﻔﺮ اﻟ� ي� اﻗ� اﻟﺸﻤﺎل ﻳب� ا��ﺪ ﻟﻤﺎ اﺟ�ﺐ ال‬
.‫ ودە ﻫ�ﻤﺜﻞ اﻷرﻗﺎم اﻟﺴﺎﻟبﺔ‬1 ‫ﻫ�ﻜﻮن اﻟﺮﻗﻢ اﻟ� ف ي� اﻗ� اﻟﺸﻤﺎل‬
Signed 2’S
Unsigned Signed 1’S
Signed-magnitude complement
decimal Bit pattern complement
decimal value decimal
range decimal value
value
0 000 +0 +0 +0
1 001 +1 +1 +1
2 010 +2 +2 +2
3 011 +3 +3 +3
4 100 -0 -3 -4
5 101 -1 -2 -3
6 110 -2 -1 -2
7 111 -3 -0 -1

‫ كﻞ اﻟﻤﻮﺿ�ع ان ﻣﺜﻼ ﻋﻨﺪ‬.... ‫ ﻋﺎﻣﻞ اﻷﻟﻮان ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ‬2’s complement‫ وال‬1’s complement‫اﻧﺎ ﻟ�ﻪ ﻋﻨﺪ ال‬
‫ىن‬
‫ ي‬+0 ‫ بﻤﻌ‬... ‫ ﻟﻼرﻗﺎم اﻟﻤﻮﺟبﺔ‬1’s complement‫� ﻋبﺎرة ﻋﻦ ال‬
‫� ﻋبﺎرة‬ ‫ اﻷرﻗﺎم اﻟﺴﺎﻟبﺔ ي‬1’s complement
‫ق‬
‫ال‬
‫ وﻫﻜﺬا‬111 ‫ ﻋبﺎرة ﻋﻦ‬-0 �‫ ﻳب‬000‫ﻋﻦ‬

Page 28 of 61
 ‫ف‬
‫ ﻟ�ﻦ‬singed-magnitude‫� اﻷرﻗﺎم اﻟﻤﻮﺟبﺔ ي� ال‬ ‫ ﻧﻔﺲ اﻟ�ﻼم اﻷرﻗﺎم اﻟﻤﻮﺟبﺔ ي‬... 2’s complement‫ال‬
‫� ي‬
2’s ‫ ﻟﻮ ﺟﺒﻨﺎ ال‬010 ‫ ﻫﻮ ﻋبﺎرة ﻋﻦ‬+2‫ ﻟﻠﺮﻗﻢ اﻟﻤﻮﺟﺐ �ﻌىن ال‬2’s complement‫اﻟﺴﺎﻟﺐ ﺑ�ﻜﻮن ﻋبﺎرة ﻋﻦ ال‬
‫ف‬
... ‫ﺑ�ﺪﻳى اﻹﺷﺎرة اﻟﺴﺎﻟبﺔ‬ ‫ف‬ ‫ق‬
�‫ ﻋﺸﺎن اﻟﻮاﺣﺪ ي� اﻗ� اﻟﺸﻤﺎل ﻫﻮ اﻟ‬-2 �
‫ اﻟ� ي‬110 �‫ ﻫﻴب‬complement
‫ض‬
2’s ‫ وﺟﺎﺑﻮا ال‬... +3 �‫ ﻟﻤﺎ وﺻﻠﻮا ا‬....‫ ا�ﻪ ﺣكﺎﻳﺘﻪ‬... ‫ اﻟ� ي� اﻟﻤ��ــﻊ ال بﺤﺪود ﻋ��ﻀﺔ‬-4‫ﻧ�� ل‬ ‫وﻟ�ﻦ � ي‬
‫ق‬
2’s ‫ ﻗﺎﻟﻮا ﺗﻌﺎﻟﻮا ﻧﺠ�ﺐ ال‬100‫ ﻟ�ﻦ وﺻﻠﻮا ﻋﻨﺪ ال‬.... -3 ‫ و�ب� ﻫﻮ دي اﻟ� ﺑ�ﻤﺜﻞ‬101 ‫ ﺑﺘﺎﻋﻪ ﻟﻘﻴﻮە‬complement
‫ﻫﺘ�ل‬ ‫ت‬
‫ ﻟ�ﻦ اﻧﺖ ﻟﻮ ﻋﻤﻠﺖ ﻛﺪة نن‬... �‫اﻟبﺎ‬ ‫ضض‬ ... ‫ ﺑﺘﺎﻋﻪ‬complement
‫ �ﻘﺎبﻠﻨﺎ وﻧﻘﻠﺐ ي‬1 ‫اﻟﻤﻔﺮوض ﻫﻨ�ل كﻞ اﻻﺻﻔﺎر وأول‬
‫ت‬
‫ت‬
‫ ﻗﺎﻟﻮا ﻃ�ﺐ‬... ‫ ﻟﻨﻔﺴﻪ‬2’s complement‫ ﻫﻮ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ ال‬100 �‫وﻣﺸﻬﺘﻼ� ﺣﺎﺟﺔ ﺗﻘﻠﺒﻬﺎ ﻳب‬ ‫ اﻟ� ﻫﻮ ﻧﻔﺲ اﻟﺮﻗﻢ‬100
‫ي‬
‫ �ﺲ ﻛﺪة‬.... -4 ‫ ﻗﺎﻟﻮا ﺧﻠﻮە �ﻤﺜﻞ‬... ‫دە ﻫﻨﺨﻠ�ﻪ �ﻤﺜﻞ ا�ﻪ‬
‫و�ﻜﺪة ق‬
-0‫ وال‬+0‫ ﺣﻞ ﻣﺸكﻠﺔ ال‬2’s complement‫ﻳب� ال‬
Unsigned Decimal range:
 For a n-bit binary pattern, the allowed “unsigned decimal” range is [0 , (2n-1)]
٧ ‫ل‬٠ ‫ ﻫ�ﻜﻮن ﻫﻮ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻦ‬unsigned‫ ﺑﺘﺎع ال‬range‫ﻃبﻌﺎ بﺎﻟنﺴبﺔ ﻟﻞ‬

Signed-complement Decimal range:

a) In case of 1’s complement notation:
 For 3-bit binary pattern, the corresponding signed “1’s complement decimal” range is
[-3,+3]
 For a n-bit binary pattern, the allowed signed “1’s complement decimal” range is
[– (2n-1–1), + (2n-1–1)]
range‫ ﻋﺸﺎن ﻧﻔﺲ ال‬... signed magnitude‫ﻃبﻌﺎ ﻧﻔﺲ اﻟ�ﻼم ﺑﺘﺎع ال‬
b) In case of 1’s complement notation:
 For 3-bit binary pattern, the corresponding signed “2’s complement decimal” range is
[-4,+3].
 For a n-bit binary pattern, the allowed signed “2’s complement decimal” range is
[– (2n-1), + (2n-1–1)].
‫ ﻓﺎﺣﻨﺎ ال‬... –3 ‫– ﻣﺶ‬4 ‫ ﻳبﺪا ﻣﻦ‬2’s complement‫ ال‬range‫ �ﺲ كﻞ اﻟﻤﻮﺿ�ع ان ال‬... ‫� ﻧﻔﺲ اﻟﻔﻜﺮة‬ ‫ﻃبﻌﺎ ي‬
‫ت‬
‫– ﻳب� ﻟﻮ ﺷﻠﺖ اﻟﻮاﺣﺪ اﻟﻤﻄﺮوح دە‬4 ‫– ﻃ�ﺐ اﺣﻨﺎ ﻋﺎﻳﺰﻧﻬﺎ‬3 ‫– ﻓﺎﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ �ﻜﻮن‬2 3-1 – 1 ‫– ﻛﻨﺎ ﺑﻨﺠﻴﺒﻬﺎ بﺎﻧﻨﺎ ﺑﻨﻘﻮل‬3

‫ ﻟﺤﺪ اﻻن واﺣﺪ ﻣﺎ ﻋﺪا اﻻﺧﺘﻼف‬range‫ﻳب� ﺗﻘ��بﺎ ال‬‫ ت‬... –4‫– �ﻌىن ب‬22 �‫ﻫﺘب‬
‫ت‬ –23-1 ‫– �ﻌىن ﻟﻮ ﻗﻮﻟﺖ‬1 ‫ﻫﺘﻜﻮن‬
2’s complement‫اﻟبﺴ�ﻂ ف ي� ال‬

Defects of signed-complement notation [(+0,–0) representation]:

 The signed “1’s complement notation” suffers the same problem as the “signed-
magnitude”, namely the existence of two different representations of 0 in the table,
which are 000 (+0) and 111(-0).
 The signed “2’s complement notation” provides a unique representation of 0, so it’s
the most commonly used notation to implement arithmetic operations in a computer.

Page 29 of 61
signed ‫ ﻓ�ﻪ ﻧﻔﺲ اﻟﻤﺸكﻠﺔ ذي ال‬1’s complement‫ﻫﻨﺎ ﺑ�ﻘﻮل اﻟ�ﻼم اﻟ� ﻗﻮﻟﻨﺎە ﻓﻮق ان اﻟﻤﺸكﻠﺔ ان ال‬
‫يف‬
‫ ﺣﻠﻬﺎ وﻓ�ﻪ ﺗﻤﺜ�ﻞ واﺣﺪ‬2’s complement‫ﺗﻤﺜ�ﻠن ﻟﻠﺼﻔﺮ بﺎﻟﻤﻮﺟﺐ واﻟﺴﺎﻟﺐ ﻟ�ﻦ ال‬ ‫ بﺎﻧﻪ ﻋﻨﺪە‬magnitude
.‫ﻓﻘﻂ ﻟﻠﺼﻔﺮ‬
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Example 22:
Obtain the decimal value of the binary number (1101)2 in case of:
a) Unsigned binary notation.
b) Signed-magnitude notation.
c) Signed-1’s complement notation.
d) Signed-2’s complement notation.
Solution:
a) Unsigned binary notation:
Weight 8 4 2 1

1 1 0 1

8 + 4 + 1 = 13

(1101)2 = (13)10
b) Signed-magnitude notation.
Sign (–) 4 2 1
1 1 0 1

(1101)2 = (–5)10
‫ ق‬1 ‫ﺑﻨﺨ� اﻟﺮﻗﻢ اﻷول ﻟﻺﺷﺎرة وﻃﺎﻟﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ‬
‫ إﺷﺎرة ﻣﻮﺟبﺔ‬0‫ﻳب� إﺷﺎرة ﺳﺎﻟبﺔ وال‬
c) Signed-1’s complement notation.
Sign
1 1 0 1
Weight 4 2 1

1’s complement 0 0 1 0

The result = – 1’s complement of (1101) = – (0010) = (–2)10

‫ �ﺲ ﻋﺸﺎن اﻋﺮف ﻫﻮ ﺳﺎﻟﺐ كﺎم ﻻزم اﺟ�ﺐ اﺻﻠﻪ‬١ ‫ﻫﻮ اﻟﻤﻔﺮوض اﻟﺮﻗﻢ دە بﺎﻟﺴﺎﻟﺐ ﻻن اﺧﺮ رﻗﻢ ﻋ� اﻟﺸﻤﺎل ﻫﻮ‬
.‫ واﻟﺮﻗﻢ اﻟ� ﻫ�ﻄﻠﻊ ﻫﺤﻂ ﺟﻨبﻪ ﺳﺎﻟﺐ‬... ‫ ﻟﻠﺮﻗﻢ كﻠﻪ‬1’s complement‫ﻓﺎﻟﺒﺘﺎ� ﻫﺠ�ﺐ ال‬
‫ي‬ ... ‫اﻟﻤﻮﺟﺐ‬

(1101)2 = (−2)10
d) Signed-2’s complement notation.
Sign
1 1 0 1
Weight 4 2 1

2’s complement 0 0 1 1

The result = – 2’s complement of (1101) = – (0011) = (–3)10

Page 30 of 61
‫ وﻫﻮ‬decimal‫ ﻋﺸﺎن اﻋﺮﻓﻪ ﺗﻤﺜ�ﻠﻪ ﻟﻞ‬binary‫ ﻟﻠﺮﻗﻢ ال‬2’s complement‫ ﻻزم اﺟ�ﺐ ال‬... ‫ﺑﺮﺿﻮ ﻧﻔﺲ اﻟ�ﻼم‬
‫ﻣﻮﺟﺐ كﺎم و�ﻌﺪ ﻛﺪة ﻫﺤﻂ اﻹﺷﺎرة اﻟﺴﺎﻟبﺔ‬
(1101)2 = (−3)10
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Example 23:
Obtain the decimal value of the binary number (0101)2 in case of:
a) Unsigned binary notation.
b) Signed-magnitude notation.
c) Signed-1’s complement notation.
d) Signed-2’s complement notation.
Solution:
a) Unsigned binary notation:
Conversion through weight method:
Weight 8 4 2 1

0 1 0 1

4+1=5

(0101)2 = (5)10
b) Signed-magnitude notation.

Conversion through weight method:

Sign (+) 4 2 1
0 1 0 1

(0101)2 = (+5)10
‫ ق‬1 ‫ﺑﻨﺨ� اﻟﺮﻗﻢ اﻷول ﻟﻺﺷﺎرة وﻃﺎﻟﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ‬
‫ إﺷﺎرة ﻣﻮﺟبﺔ‬0‫ﻳب� إﺷﺎرة ﺳﺎﻟبﺔ وال‬
c) Signed-1’s complement notation.
Sign 4 2 1
0 1 0 1

(0101)2 = (+5)10

.‫ أﺻﻼ‬complement‫اﻟﺮﻗﻢ اﻟﻤﻮﺟﺐ ﻣﺸبﻨﺠﻴبﻠﻪ ال‬

d) Signed-2’s complement notation.
Sign 4 2 1

0 1 0 1

(0101)2 = (+5)10

.‫ أﺻﻼ‬complement‫اﻟﺮﻗﻢ اﻟﻤﻮﺟﺐ ﻣﺸبﻨﺠﻴبﻠﻪ ال‬

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

Page 31 of 61
Example 24:
Convert (–12)10 to the binary equivalent in 4 bits:
a) Unsigned binary notation.
b) Signed-magnitude notation.
c) Signed-1’s complement notation.
d) Signed-2’s complement notation.
‫ف‬ ‫ف‬
‫ وﻟﻮ‬bits ‫ ﻻزم اﻋﺮف ي� كﺎم‬signed binary‫ ﺑﻨﻈﺎم ال‬binary‫ ا� ال‬decimal‫ ي� ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﺘﺤ��ﻞ ﻣﻦ ال‬:‫ﻣﻠﺤﻮﻇﺔ‬
.‫ﻣﺸﺤﺪد ﻓﺎﻻﻣﺘﺤﺎن ﻻزم اﺳﺎل اﻟﺪﻛﺘﻮر ف ي� اﻻﻣﺘﺤﺎن‬
‫ف‬
4bits �‫ ي‬signed‫ ﺑﻨﻈﺎم ال‬binary‫ ل‬decimal‫ ﻋﺸﺎن اﺗﺎ�ﺪ ﻫﻴﻨﻔﻊ اﺣﻮل اﻟﺮﻗﻢ ال‬range‫كﻤﺎن ﻻزم اﺟ�ﺐ ال‬
.‫وﻻﻻ‬
Solution:
Range Conversion
Weight 8 4 2 1
(𝟎𝟎, 𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏 − 𝟏𝟏)
1 1 0 0
Unsigned (0, 24 -1)
(–12)10 = (1100)2
(0, 15)
‫ ﺑنﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻊ اﻟﺮﻗﻢ‬unsign‫ وﻟ�ﻦ اﺣﻨﺎ ف ي� ال‬15‫ وال‬0‫ ﻣﺸﻤﻮﺟﻮدة ﺟﻮة ال‬-12‫ال‬
‫ اﻳﻮة‬... 15‫ وال‬0‫ ﻣﻮﺟﻮدة ﺟﻮة ال‬-12‫ ﻣﺶ ال‬١٢‫بﺪون إﺷﺎرة �ﻌىن ﻫﻨﻘﻮل ﻫﻞ ال‬
‫ ق‬...
binary‫ﻳب� ﻳﻨﻔﻊ ﻧﻤﺜﻠﻬﺎ ﺑﻨﻈﺎم ال‬

[±(𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟏)]
Out of range
Signed-magnitude [±(𝟐𝟐 𝟒𝟒−𝟏𝟏
− 𝟏𝟏)]
+7 ‫– و‬7‫– ﻣﺸﻤﻮﺟﻮدة ﺟﻮة ال‬12 ‫ﻃﺎﻟﻤﺎ‬
(–7, +7) ‫ت‬
out of range ‫ﻳب� ﻧﻜﺘﺐ‬
[±(2𝑛𝑛−1 − 1)]
Signed-1’s
[±(24−1 − 1)] Out of range
complement
(–7, +7)
𝑛𝑛−1 )
[−(2 , +(2𝑛𝑛−1 − 1)]
Signed-2’s
[−(2𝑛𝑛−1), +(2𝑛𝑛−1 − 1)] Out of range
complement
(–8, +7)
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Example 25:
Convert (–12)10 to the binary equivalent in 6 bits:
a) Unsigned binary notation.
b) Signed-magnitude notation.
c) Signed-1’s complement notation.

Page 32 of 61
 d) Signed-2’s complement notation.
‫ف‬ ‫ف‬
‫ وﻟﻮ‬bits ‫ ﻻزم اﻋﺮف ي� كﺎم‬signed binary‫ ﺑﻨﻈﺎم ال‬binary‫ ا� ال‬decimal‫ ي� ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﺘﺤ��ﻞ ﻣﻦ ال‬:‫ﻣﻠﺤﻮﻇﺔ‬
.‫ﻣﺸﺤﺪد ﻓﺎﻻﻣﺘﺤﺎن ﻻزم اﺳﺎل اﻟﺪﻛﺘﻮر ف ي� اﻻﻣﺘﺤﺎن‬
Solution:
Range Conversion
Weight 32 16 8 4 2 1
(𝟎𝟎, 𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏 − 𝟏𝟏)
0 0 1 1 0 0
Unsigned (0, 26 -1)
(–12)10 = (001100)2
(0, 63)
[±(𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟏)] Weight Sign 16 8 4 2 1

1 0 1 1 0 0
Signed-magnitude [±(𝟐𝟐𝟔𝟔−𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟏)]

(–31, +31) (–12)10 = (101100)2

[±(𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟏)] 0 0 1 1 0 0
Signed-1’s Weight Sign 16 8 4 2 1
[±(𝟐𝟐𝟔𝟔−𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟏)]
complement 1’s comp 1 1 0 0 1 1
(–31, +31) (–12)10 = (110011)2
[−(𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 ), +(𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟏)] 0 0 1 1 0 0
Weight Sign 16 8 4 2 1
Signed-2’s [−(𝟐𝟐𝟔𝟔−𝟏𝟏 ), +(𝟐𝟐𝟔𝟔−𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟏)]
complement 2’s comp 1 1 0 1 0 0
(–32, +31)
(–12)10 = (110100)2
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Example 26:
Convert (–21.75)10 to the binary equivalent in 6 bits:
a) Unsigned binary notation.
b) Signed-magnitude notation.
c) Signed-1’s complement notation.
d) Signed-2’s complement notation.
‫ف‬ ‫ف‬
bits ‫ ﻻزم اﻋﺮف ي� كﺎم‬signed binary‫ ﺑﻨﻈﺎم ال‬binary‫ ا� ال‬decimal‫ ي� ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﺘﺤ��ﻞ ﻣﻦ ال‬:‫ﻣﻠﺤﻮﻇﺔ‬
.‫وﻣﺸﺤﺪد ﻓﺎﻻﻣﺘﺤﺎن ﻻزم اﺳﺎل اﻟﺪﻛﺘﻮر ف ي� اﻻﻣﺘﺤﺎن‬
‫ف‬
4bits �‫ ي‬signed‫ ﺑﻨﻈﺎم ال‬binary‫ ل‬decimal‫ ﻋﺸﺎن أﺗﺄ�ﺪ ﻫﻴﻨﻔﻊ اﺣﻮل اﻟﺮﻗﻢ ال‬range‫كﻤﺎن ﻻزم اﺟ�ﺐ ال‬
.‫وﻻﻻ‬
Solution:
Range Conversion
𝒏𝒏
(𝟎𝟎, 𝟐𝟐 − 𝟏𝟏) Weight 32 16 8 4 2 1 ½ ¼

Unsigned (0, 26 -1) 0 1 0 1 0 1 . 1 1

(0, 63) (–21.75)10 = (010101.11)2

Page 33 of 61
 [±(𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟏)] Weight Sign 16 8 4 2 1 ½ ¼

1 1 0 1 0 1 . 1 1
Signed-magnitude [±(𝟐𝟐𝟔𝟔−𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟏)]

(–31, +31) (–21.75)10 = (110101.11)2

[±(𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟏)] 0 1 0 1 0 1 . 1 1
Weight Sign 16 8 4 2 1 ½ ¼
Signed-1’s [±(𝟐𝟐𝟔𝟔−𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟏)]
complement 1’s comp 1 0 1 0 1 0 . 0 0
(–31, +31)
(–21.75)10 = (101010.00)2
[−(𝟐𝟐 𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 )
, +(𝟐𝟐 𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏
− 𝟏𝟏)] 0 1 0 1 0 1 . 1 1
Weight Sign 16 8 4 2 1 ½ ¼
Signed-2’s [−(𝟐𝟐𝟔𝟔−𝟏𝟏 ), +(𝟐𝟐𝟔𝟔−𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟏)]
complement 2’s comp 1 0 1 0 1 0 . 0 1
(–32, +31)
(–21.75)10 = (110100.01)2
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Example 27:
Convert (+21.75)10 to the binary equivalent in 6 bits:
a) Unsigned binary notation.
b) Signed-magnitude notation.
c) Signed-1’s complement notation.
d) Signed-2’s complement notation.
‫ف‬
4bits �‫ ي‬signed‫ ﺑﻨﻈﺎم ال‬binary‫ ل‬decimal‫ ﻋﺸﺎن أﺗﺄ�ﺪ ﻫﻴﻨﻔﻊ اﺣﻮل اﻟﺮﻗﻢ ال‬range‫كﻤﺎن ﻻزم اﺟ�ﺐ ال‬
.‫وﻻﻻ‬
Solution:
Range Conversion
𝒏𝒏
(𝟎𝟎, 𝟐𝟐 − 𝟏𝟏) Weight 32 16 8 4 2 1 ½ ¼

Unsigned (0, 26 -1) 0 1 0 1 0 1 . 1 1

(0, 63) (+21.75)10 = (010101.11)2

[±(𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟏)] Weight 32 16 8 4 2 1 ½ ¼

0 1 0 1 0 1 . 1 1
Signed-magnitude [±(𝟐𝟐𝟔𝟔−𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟏)]
(+21.75)10 = (010101.11)2
(–31, +31)
[±(𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟏)] Weight 32 16 8 4 2 1 ½ ¼

Signed-1’s 0 1 0 1 0 1 . 1 1
[±(𝟐𝟐𝟔𝟔−𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟏)]
complement
(–31, +31) (+21.75)10 = (010101.11)2

Signed-2’s [−(𝟐𝟐 ), +(𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟏)]

𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏
Weight 32 16 8 4 2 1 ½ ¼

complement 0 1 0 1 0 1 . 1 1
[−(𝟐𝟐𝟔𝟔−𝟏𝟏 ), +(𝟐𝟐𝟔𝟔−𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟏)]

Page 34 of 61
 (–32, +31) (+21.75)10 = (010101.11)2

3) Excess notation:
The main idea:
To represent the signed decimal number in signed binary number, you will add 𝑥𝑥 to the
signed decimal values and representing the sum as unsigned binary value.
‫ ﻣﻌﻨﺎﻫﺎ ت‬excess notation ‫ وكﻠﻤﺔ‬... ‫ ﻣﻌﻨﺎﻫﺎ ز�ﺎدة‬excess ‫ كﻠﻤﺔ‬... ‫اﻟﻔﻜﺮة اﻟﺮﺋ�ﺴ�ﺔ ا�ﻪ‬
‫اﻟ� ي ن‬
‫ﻣ� او اﻟﺘﻤﺜ�ﻞ بﺎﻟ��ﺎدة‬
‫ وﻋﺎﻳﺰ اﻋﺮف‬singed decimal number ‫ﻋ�ي ﻟ�ﻪ إﺷﺎرة او �ﻌىن‬ ‫ �ﻘﺼﺪ ﺑﻴﻬﺎ ﻟﻤﺎ �ﻜﻮن ﻋﻨﺪي رﻗﻢ ش‬... ‫�ﻌىن ا�ﻪ‬
‫ وﻫﻘﻮل ان‬binary‫ ﻫﻀ�ﻒ ﻋﻠ�ﻪ رﻗﻢ واﺟ�ﺐ ﺗﻤﺜ�ﻞ ﻧﺎﺗﺞ اﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ دە بﺎل‬... ‫اﻟﺜﻨﺎئ‬ ‫ئ‬ ‫ او اﻟﻨﻈﺎم‬binary‫ﺷكﻠﻪ ا�ﻪ بﺎل‬
‫ت ف‬ ‫ي‬
‫دە ﻫﻮ ﺗﻤﺜ�ﻞ اﻟﺮﻗﻢ ث‬
‫ وﻫنﺸﻮف ا�� ي� اﻷﻣﺜﻠﺔ‬... ‫اﻟﻌ�ي وﻟ�ﻦ ﺑ��ﺎدة رﻗﻢ ﻛﺬا‬
What you need to get for using this notation system:
To use the excess notation, you must know 3 things:
1) Excess-x base:
2) n bits binary number in which the signed decimal number will be represented.
3) The range of signed decimal number that can be represented in the excess-x base
and n bits.

Excess-x base:
x = It represents the number that will be add on the signed decimal number. It is calculated
from the following equation:
𝒙𝒙 = 𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏
Note: the binary representation of (0) in the excess-x notation system is always the binary
representation of (x). For example, in excess-8 notation the binary representation of (0)
is 1000

n bits binary number

It represents the number of binary bits that will represent the signed decimal number in
binary number. You can know it from representing the (x) base in binary number. For
example, in case of Excess-4, 4 can be represented as 100 in binary number. So, the n bits
is 3 bits because 4 is represented by 3 bits. Or you can use, the last equation

The range
The range of signed decimal number that excess-x and n bits system can represent it. It
can be calculated from the following:

[−�𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 �𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 , �𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟏�𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ]

‫ا�ﻪ ف‬
‫ وﻋﺸﺎن اﺳﺘﺨﺪم اﻟﻨﻈﺎم‬... ‫ اﺣﻨﺎ ﻋﺮﻓﻨﺎ ان اﻟﻨﻈﺎم دە ﻣﺠﺮد ﻫﻨﻀ�ﻒ رﻗﻢ‬.... ‫ بﺎﺧﺘﺼﺎر ﺷﺪ�ﺪ‬... ‫ﻣﻌى اﻟ�ﻼم دە كﻠﻪ‬
‫ ﺣﺎﺟﺎت‬٣ ‫دە ﻣﺤﺘﺎج اﻋﺮف‬
Page 35 of 61
 ‫� اﻟﺮﻗﻢ اﻟ� ﻫﻀ�ﻔﻪ‪.‬‬ ‫ت‬
‫‪ (١‬اﻟﺮﻗﻢ اﻟ� ﻫﻀ�ﻔﻪ واﻟ� ﺑيب� ﻣﻜﺘﻮب ﻛﺪة ‪ excess-x‬و‪ x‬ﻃبﻌﺎ ي‬
‫‪ (٢‬ﻋﺪد اﻷرﻗﺎم ال‪ binary‬اﻟ� ﻫﻤﺜﻞ ﻓﻴﻬﻢ اﻟﺮﻗﻢ ال‪.signed decimal‬‬
‫ن‬
‫ﻣﻌن ﻣﻦ ال‪ bits‬ذي ﻣﺎ ﻗﻮﻟﻨﺎ ‪� ...‬ﺲ ﻃبﻘﺎ‬‫‪ (٣‬اﻟﻤﺪى ‪ ...‬ودە ا�ﻪ ﻧﻈﺎﻣﻪ ‪ ..‬أي ﻧﻈﺎم ‪ excess‬ﻻزم �ﻜﻮن ﻟ�ﻪ ﻋﺪد ي‬
‫ف‬
‫ﻣﻌن ﻣﻦ ال‪ signed decimal‬اﻗﺪر اﻣﺜﻠﻪ ي� اﻟﻨﻈﺎم دە وﻫﺠ�ﺐ‬ ‫ﻟﻌﺪد ال‪ bits‬وال‪ x‬ﻫ�ﻜﻮن ﻓ�ﻪ ‪ range‬ي ن‬
‫ف‬ ‫ف‬
‫ال‪ range‬دە ي� ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﺘﺤ��ﻞ ﻣﻦ ال‪ decimal‬ﻟﻞ‪ binary‬ﻋﺸﺎن اﻗﺪر اﺷﻮف ﻫﻞ ﻫﻘﺪر اﻣﺜﻠﻪ ي� ﻋﺪد‬
‫ال‪ bits‬اﻟﻤﻄﻠﻮب ﻓﻌﻼ وﻻ ﻻ‪ ...‬وﻫﻨﻔﻬﻢ ت‬
‫ا�� بﺎﻻﻣﺜﻠﺔ‪:‬‬
‫–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––‬
‫‪Example 28:‬‬
‫‪Find the excess-16 notations in 5 bits of the following signed decimal values:‬‬
‫‪a) +7.‬‬
‫‪b) –6.‬‬
‫‪c) –16‬‬

‫‪Solution:‬‬
‫ﻻن اﻷرﻗﺎم دي ﻟﻮ‬ ‫‪....‬‬ ‫‪...‬‬ ‫وﻋﺎرﻓن ﻋﺪد ال‪ ... bits‬ق‬
‫ﻳب� ﻓﺎﺿﻞ اﺟ�ﺐ ال‪ range‬ﻟ�ﻪ؟‬ ‫يف‬ ‫يف‬
‫ﻋﺎرﻓن ال‪excess-x‬‬ ‫ﻫﻨﺎ اﺣﻨﺎ‬
‫ف‬ ‫ت‬
‫ﺧﺎرج ال‪ range‬ﻳب� ﻫﻜﺘﺐ ي� اﻻﻣﺘﺤﺎن ‪.out of range‬‬
‫‪The range of excess-16 in 5 bits notation system is:‬‬

‫] 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏)𝟏𝟏 ‪[−(𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 )𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 , (𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 −‬‬

‫] 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏�𝟏𝟏 ‪[−�𝟐𝟐𝟓𝟓−𝟏𝟏 �𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 , �𝟐𝟐𝟓𝟓−𝟏𝟏 −‬‬

‫] 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏)𝟏𝟏 ‪[−(𝟐𝟐𝟒𝟒 )𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 , (𝟐𝟐𝟒𝟒 −‬‬

‫] 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏)𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏( ‪[−(𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏)𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ,‬‬

‫ﻳب� كﻞ اﻷرﻗﺎم دي ﺟﻮة ال‪ range‬ق‬
‫ﻳب� ﻳﻨﻔﻊ اﻣﺜﻠﻬﻢ بﺎل‪ excess-16‬وال‪5bits‬‬ ‫ﻛﺪة ق‬

‫‪a) (+7)10‬‬

‫‪+7 + 16 = +23‬‬
‫‪Weight‬‬ ‫‪16‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬

‫‪1 0 1 1 1‬‬

‫‪(+7)10 = (10111)2-excess-16‬‬

‫ﻫﻨﺎ ﺿﻔﻨﺎ ‪ ١٦‬واﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ﻣﺜﻠﻨﺎە بﺎل‪ binary‬ذي ﻣﺎ اﺧﺪﻧﺎ ف ي� ﻃ��ﻘﺔ اﻟﺘﺤ��ﻞ ﻣﻦ ‪ decimal‬ل‪ .... binary‬ﻃ�ﺐ ﻫﻞ‬
‫اﻟﻤﻔﺮوض ا�ﺘﺐ ‪ +‬او – ﻗﺪام اﻟﺮﻗﻢ ال‪binary‬؟ ‪ ...‬ﻻ ‪ ...‬ﻟ�ﻪ؟ ‪ ...‬ﻋﺸﺎن اﻹﺷﺎرة ﻣﻮﺟﻮدة ﺿﻤﻨﺎ ﺟﻮة ال‪.excess‬‬

‫‪b) (–6)10‬‬

‫‪–6 + 16 = +10‬‬
‫‪Weight‬‬ ‫‪16‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬

‫‪0 1 0 1 0‬‬

‫‪Page 36 of 61‬‬
 (–6)10 = (01010)2-excess-16

c) (–16)10

–16 + 16 = 0
Weight 16 8 4 2 1

0 0 0 0 0

(–16)10 = (00000)2-excess-16
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Example 29:
Convert each of the following binary numbers in excess notation to its equivalent
signed decimal values:
a) 1100.
b) 10011.
Solution:

‫� أﺻﻼ‬ ‫ دي ي‬binary‫ ﻻﻧﻪ ﻫﻮ ﻫﻨﺎ ﺑ�ﻘﻮل ان اﻷرﻗﺎم ال‬... ‫ ﻟ�ﻪ؟‬... range‫ﻟﻤﺎ اﻋﻤﻞ ف اﻟﻌﻜﺲ ﻣﺸﻤﺤﺘﺎج اﺟ�ﺐ ال‬
‫ ي‬Signed decimal‫ ف ﻣﻌﻤﻮل ﻋﺸﺎن اﺷﻮف اﻷرﻗﺎم ال‬range‫ و�ﻌﺪﻳﻦ ال‬... excess notation‫ﻣﻮﺟﻮدة ف ي� ال‬
�‫� اﻟ‬
‫ ﻓﻘﻂ‬binary ‫ ل‬decimal ‫ ي� ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﺘﺤ��ﻞ ﻣﻦ‬range‫ �ﻌىن ﻫﻨﺠ�ﺐ ال‬...‫ وﻻ ﻻ‬range‫ﻣﻮﺟﻮدة ي� ال‬
‫ ت‬... ‫ بكﺎم‬excess‫ ﺑﺘﺎﻋﺔ ال‬Base‫ﻫﻨﺎ ﻣﺸﻤﺤﺪد اﻟﻤﻔﺮوض ال‬
‫ﻳب� ﻫﺴﺘﺨﺪم اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟ� ﻓﻮق‬

a) 1100.
‫ ق‬4bits ‫ �ﻌىن‬binary ‫ ارﻗﺎم‬٤ ‫اﻧﺎ ﻋﻨﺪي ﻫﻨﺎ‬
n=4‫ﻳب� اذا ال‬

𝒙𝒙 = 𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏
𝒙𝒙 = 𝟐𝟐𝟒𝟒−𝟏𝟏 = 𝟐𝟐𝟑𝟑 = 𝟖𝟖
Convert to decimal value then subtract 8:
Weight 8 4 2 1

1 1 0 0

12 – 8 = +4

(1100)2 – excess 8 =(+4)10

a) 10011
‫ ق‬4bits ‫ �ﻌىن‬binary ‫ ارﻗﺎم‬٤ ‫اﻧﺎ ﻋﻨﺪي ﻫﻨﺎ‬
n=5‫ﻳب� اذا ال‬

Page 37 of 61
 ‫𝟏𝟏‪𝒙𝒙 = 𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏−‬‬
‫𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 = 𝟒𝟒𝟐𝟐 = 𝟏𝟏‪𝒙𝒙 = 𝟐𝟐𝟓𝟓−‬‬
‫‪Convert to decimal value then subtract 16:‬‬
‫‪Weight‬‬ ‫‪16‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬

‫‪1 0 0 1 1‬‬

‫‪19 – 16 = +3‬‬

‫‪(10011)2 – excess 16 =(+3)10‬‬

‫–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––‬
‫‪Example 30:‬‬
‫‪Find the excess-16 notations of (-12):‬‬

‫‪Solution:‬‬
‫ﻳب� ﻓﺎﺿﻞ اﺟ�ﺐ ﻋﺪد ال‪ bits‬وال‪� ... range‬ﺲ ﻋﺸﺎن ﻧﺠ�ﺐ ال‪ range‬ﻻزم‬ ‫ﻋﺎرﻓن ال‪ ... excess-x‬ق‬
‫يف‬ ‫ﻫﻨﺎ اﺣﻨﺎ‬
‫ف‬
‫ﻃﺮﻗﺘن ‪...‬‬ ‫ف‬
‫ﻋﺎرﻓن ﻋﺪد ال‪ ... bits‬ﻧﺠ�ﺐ ﻋﺪد ال‪ bits‬اذاي؟ ‪ ....‬ﻓ�ﻪ‬ ‫ﻧب�‬‫ق‬
‫ي‬ ‫ي‬
‫اﻟﻄ��ﻘﺔ اﻷو�‪ :‬اﺷﻮف ال‪ base‬ﺑﺘﺎﻋﺔ ال‪ excess‬ﺑﻨﻤﺜﻠﻬﺎ ‪ binary‬اذاي ‪ ...‬وﻫﻨﺎ ‪ ١٦‬ت‬
‫ﻳب� ﻣﻤﻜﻦ �ﺴﺘﺨﺪم ﻃ��ﻘﺔ‬
‫ال‪ weight‬وﻧﻌﻤﻞ ﻛﺪة‬
‫‪Weight‬‬ ‫‪16‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬

‫‪1 0 0 0 0‬‬
‫ق‬
‫ﻳب� اذا ﻋﺪد ال‪ bits‬ﻫﻮ ‪٥‬‬
‫‪n = 5 bits‬‬

‫اﻟﻄ��ﻘﺔ اﻟﺘﺎﻧ�ﺔ‪ :‬اﺳﺘﺨﺪم اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ اﻟ� بﺠ�ﺐ ﺑﻴﻬﺎ ال‪ ... x‬ﻛﺪة‬

‫𝟏𝟏‪𝒙𝒙 = 𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏−‬‬
‫𝟏𝟏‪𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 = 𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏−‬‬
‫ال‪ ١٦‬ﻋبﺎرة ﻋﻦ ‪ 2‬اس كﺎم ‪ ...‬ﻟﻮ ﻣﺸﻌﺎرف ﻣﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻋ� اﻻﻟﺔ اﻟﺤﺎﺳبﺔ )‪ log2(16‬ﻫﺘﻼﻗﻴﻬﺎ ‪ ٢٤‬وﻋ� اﻻﻟﺔ اﻟﺤﺎﺳبﺔ‬
‫ﻫﺘﻄﻠﻊ ‪٤‬‬

‫𝟏𝟏‪𝟐𝟐𝟒𝟒 = 𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏−‬‬
‫يف‬
‫اﻟﻄﺮﻓن ‪٢‬‬ ‫�ﻌى ﻋﻨﺪي اﻷﺳﺎس ف ي�‬ ‫ﻓ�ﻪ ﻗﺎﻋﺪة ﺑﺘﻘﻮل ﻃﺎﻟﻤﺎ اﻷﺳﺎس ﺑ�ﺴﺎوي اﻷﺳﺎس ت‬
‫ﻳب� اﻻس ﺑ�ﺴﺎوي اﻻس ‪ ...‬ف‬
‫ق‬
‫ﻳب� اذن‬
‫𝟒𝟒 = 𝟏𝟏 ‪𝒏𝒏 −‬‬
‫𝟓𝟓 = 𝟏𝟏 ‪𝒏𝒏 = 𝟒𝟒 +‬‬

‫‪Page 38 of 61‬‬
The range of excess-16 in 5 bits notation system is:

[−(𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 )𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 , (𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟏)𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ]

[−�𝟐𝟐𝟓𝟓−𝟏𝟏 �𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 , �𝟐𝟐𝟓𝟓−𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟏�𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ]

[−(𝟐𝟐𝟒𝟒 )𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 , (𝟐𝟐𝟒𝟒 − 𝟏𝟏)𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ]

[−(𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏)𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 , (𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏)𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ]
‫ ق‬range‫ ﺟﻮة ال‬-12 �‫ﻳب‬
5bits‫ وال‬excess-16‫ﻳب� ﻳﻨﻔﻊ اﻣﺜﻠﻬﻢ بﺎل‬ ‫ﻛﺪة ق‬

–12 + 16 = +4
Weight 16 8 4 2 1

0 0 1 0 0

(–12)10 = (00100)2 – excess-16

‫ ﻃ�ﺐ ﻫﻞ‬.... binary‫ ل‬decimal ‫ ذي ﻣﺎ اﺧﺪﻧﺎ ف ي� ﻃ��ﻘﺔ اﻟﺘﺤ��ﻞ ﻣﻦ‬binary‫ واﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ﻣﺜﻠﻨﺎە بﺎل‬١٦ ‫ﻫﻨﺎ ﺿﻔﻨﺎ‬
.excess‫ ﻋﺸﺎن اﻹﺷﺎرة ﻣﻮﺟﻮدة ﺿﻤﻨﺎ ﺟﻮة ال‬... ‫ ﻟ�ﻪ؟‬... ‫ ﻻ‬... ‫؟‬binary‫ او – ﻗﺪام اﻟﺮﻗﻢ ال‬+ ‫اﻟﻤﻔﺮوض ا�ﺘﺐ‬
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

6) Signed 2’s Complement Addition & Subtraction:

1) Signed 2’s complement addition:
When adding two signed numbers represented in signed 2’s complement system, perform
a normal addition including their sign bits. A carry out of the sign bit position is discarded.
‫ﻫﻮ ﻫﻨﺎ ﺑ�ﻘﻮل ناي ﻟﻤﺎ اﺟﻤﻊ ي ن‬
‫ ﻟ�ﻦ اﻟﺤﻘ�ﻘﺔ‬... ‫ ﻫﻌﻤﻞ ﺟﻤﻊ ﻋﺎدي واﻟﺮﻗﻢ اﻟ��ﺎدة ﻫﺸ�ﻠﻪ‬2’s complement‫رﻗﻤن بﺎل‬ ‫ي‬
‫ﻟﻮ ﻋﻨﺪي ي ن‬
.‫ ﺳﺎﻟﺐ او واﺣﺪ ﻓﻴﻬﻢ ﺳﺎﻟﺐ‬٢‫ أﺻﻼ اﻻ اذا كﺎﻧﻮا ال‬2’s complement‫رﻗﻤن ﻫﺠﻤﻌﻬﻢ بﺪون ﻣﺎ اﺣﻮل ﻟﻞ‬

2) Signed 2’s complement Subtraction:

Take the 2’s complement of the subtrahend ‫( اﻟﻤﻄﺮوح‬including the sign bit) and add it to
the minuend (including the sign bit). A carry out of the sign bit is discarded.

‫ ﻟﻠﺮﻗﻢ اﻟ� ﻟ�ﻪ إﺷﺎرة ﺳﺎﻟبﺔ وﺗﺠﻤﻌﻪ ﻋ� اﻟﺮﻗﻢ اﻟﻤﻮﺟﺐ و�ﺸ�ﻞ‬2’s complement‫ﻣﻦ اﻻﺧﺮ ﺑ�ﻘﻮل ﻫﺘﺠ�ﺐ ال‬
.‫اﻟﺮﻗﻢ اﻟ��ﺎدة‬
The following relations illustrate the above: rule:
(± A) – (+B) = (± A) + (-B) → EX: (+5) - (+4) = (+5) + (- 4) ====> (- + = + -)
(± A) – (-B) = (± A) + (+B) → EX: (+5) - (-4) = (+5) + (+4) ====> (- - = +)

Where:
(+B) in 2’s complement is → (- B)
Page 39 of 61
(- B) in 2’s complement is → (+B)
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Example 31:
using the signed 2’s complement notation, calculate the following arithmetic
operations in 5-bits
A) +5+2 B) +5 – 2 C) –5+2 D) –5–2
E) –5 – (+2) F) –5 + (–2) G) –5 – (–2)

Solution:
A) +5+2 ===> (+5) + (+2)
‫ف‬
5bits �‫ وﻧﺠﻤﻊ او ﻧﻄ�ح �ﺲ ي‬binary‫ بﺎل‬decimal‫ﻫﻨﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻋﺎﻳﺰ ﻧﻤﺜﻞ اﻷرﻗﺎم ال‬
Decimal Binary 2’s complement
+5 00101
‫دا� فاى اﺟﻴبﻪ ﻋﺸﺎن ﻣﻔ�ﺶ ارﻗﺎم ﺳﺎﻟبﺔ‬
‫ﻣﻔ�ﺶ ي‬
+2 + 00010
+7 00111

The answer: (00111)2 = (+7)10

B) +5 – 2 ===> (+5) + (–2)

‫ ﺑﺘﺎﻋﻬﺎ‬2’s complement‫ اﻷول و�ﻌﺪ ﻛﺪة ﻫﺠ�ﺐ ال‬binary‫ ف ي� ال‬+2 ‫– �ﻌىن ﻫﺠ�ﺐ ﺗﻤﺜ�ﻞ‬2 ‫ﻫﻨﺎ ﻃبﻌﺎ ﻋﻨﺪي‬
+5‫وﻫﺠﻤﻊ ﻋ� ال‬
Decimal Binary 2’s complement
+5 →+5 in binary 00101 00101
–2 →+2 in binary 00010 2’s complement of +2 + 11110
+3 1 00011

The answer: (00011)2 = (+3)10

C) –5 + 2 ===> (–5)+(+2)
Decimal Binary 2’s complement
–5 → +5 in binary 00101 2’s complement of +5 11011
+2 → +2 in binary 00010 + 00010
–3 11101
The 2’s complement for the result (–00011)2 = (–3)

The answer: (–00011)2 = (–3)10

D) –5–2 ===> (–5) + (–2)
Decimal Binary 2’s complement
(–5) →+5 in binary 00101 2’s complement of +5 11011
+(–2) →+2 in binary 00010 2’s complement of +2 + 11110

Page 40 of 61
 –7 111001
The 2’s complement for the result (–00111)= (–7)10

The answer: (–00111)2 = (–7)10

E) –5 – (+2) ===> (–5) + (–2)
‫ف‬
D ‫ﻧﻔﺲ اﻟﺤﻞ ي� ﻣﺜﺎل‬

F) –5 + (–2)
‫ف‬
D ‫ﻧﻔﺲ اﻟﺤﻞ ي� ﻣﺜﺎل‬

G) –5 – (–2) ===> (–5) + (+2)

‫ف‬
C ‫ﻧﻔﺲ اﻟﺤﻞ ي� ﻣﺜﺎل‬
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Example 32:
Calculate the following operations
a) (1100101)2-(100111)2 Using direct, 1’s complement and 2’s complement
b) (100111)2-(1100101)2 Using direct, 1’s complement and 2’s complement
c) (-6) + (+3) using signed 2’s complement in 4 bits
d) (-6) + (-3) using signed 2’s complement in 4 bits
e) (-10) + (-3) using signed 2’s complement in 4 bits

Solution:

a) (1100101)2-(100111)2 Using direct, 1’s complement and 2’s complement

Direct method 1’s complement 2’s complement
1100101 1100101
– 0100111 – 0100111
2 1 1 2
–––––––––––––––––––– ––––––––––––––––– 2's
complement
1 1's 1 1
0 0 0 0 2
1100101 1100101 complement
1100101
– 0100111 + 1011000 + 1011001
–––––––––––––– –––––––––––––––––––– –––––––––––––––––
0111110 10111101 10111110
+ 1 ––––––––––––––––
–––––––––––––––– 0111110
0111110
b) (100111)2-(1100101)2 Using direct, 1’s complement and 2’s complement

Page 41 of 61
 Direct method 1’s complement 2’s complement
0100111 0100111
– 1100101 – 1100101
–––––––––––––––––––– ––––––––––––––– 2's
1 1 1 1 1 1's 1 1 1 1 1 1
0100111 complement
0100111 complement
0100111
– 1100101
+ 0011010 + 0011011
‫ﻣﻴﻨﻔﻌﺶ اﺳﺘﻠﻒ‬
‫ﻫﻜﺘبﻪ بﺎﻟﺮﺻﺎص‬
0100111 –––––––––––––––––––– –––––––––––––––
–––––––––––––– 1000001 1000010
–0111110
The result = – 1’s comp of The result = – 2’s
(1000001)2 = – comp of (1000010)2
(0111110)2 = – (0111110)2
c) (-6) + (+3) using signed 2’s complement in 4 bits
The decimal range representation using 2’s complement in 4 bits is

[−(𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 )𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 , (𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟏)𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ]

[−(𝟐𝟐𝟒𝟒−𝟏𝟏 )𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 , (𝟐𝟐𝟒𝟒−𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟏)𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ]

[−(𝟐𝟐𝟑𝟑 )𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 , (𝟐𝟐𝟑𝟑 − 𝟏𝟏)𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ]

[−(𝟖𝟖)𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 , (𝟕𝟕)𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ]
Decimal Binary 2’s complement
→+6 in binary
(-6) 0110 2’s complement of +6 1010
in 4 bits
→+3 in binary
+3 0011 + 0011
in 4 bits
-3 1101
The 2’s complement for the result 0011 = (-3)

The answer: (0011)2 = –(3)10

d) (-6) + (-3) using signed 2’s complement in 4 bits
The decimal range representation using 2’s complement in 4 bits is

[−(𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 )𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 , (𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟏)𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ]

[−(𝟐𝟐𝟒𝟒−𝟏𝟏 )𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 , (𝟐𝟐𝟒𝟒−𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟏)𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ]

[−(𝟐𝟐𝟑𝟑 )𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 , (𝟐𝟐𝟑𝟑 − 𝟏𝟏)𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ]

[−(𝟖𝟖)𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 , (𝟕𝟕)𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ]

Decimal
(–6) Overflow problem because (–9) is out of range
Page 42 of 61
 + (–3) Solution: Increase the no. of bits to be 5 bits
–9
e) (-10) + (-3) using signed 2’s complement in 4 bits
The decimal range representation using 2’s complement in 4 bits is
[−(𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 )𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 , (𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟏)𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ]

[−(𝟐𝟐𝟒𝟒−𝟏𝟏 )𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 , (𝟐𝟐𝟒𝟒−𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟏)𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ]

[−(𝟐𝟐𝟑𝟑 )𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 , (𝟐𝟐𝟑𝟑 − 𝟏𝟏)𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ]

[−(𝟖𝟖)𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 , (𝟕𝟕)𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ]
Decimal
(–10) Overflow problem because (–13) is out of
+ (–3) range
– 13 Solution: Increase the no. of bits to be 5 bits
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

7) Binary Code:
CS504‫ﻣﻦ اول ﻫﻨﺎ بﺪا�ﺔ ال‬
1) Why Binary Codes?
 Digital systems represent and manipulate not only numbers, but also many other
discrete elements of information

 Any discrete element of information that is distinct among a group of elements can be
represented with a unique binary code (i.e. , a pattern of 0 's and 1's)

 The minimum number of bits required to code 𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏 distinct elements is 𝒏𝒏

 (i.e. , set of four elements can be coded with two bits, with each element assigned one
unique of following bit combinations: 00,01,10,11)

 Binary codes are suitable for the computer applications.

 Binary codes are suitable for the digital communications.

 Binary codes make the analysis and designing of digital circuits if we use the binary
codes.
 Since only 0 & 1 are being used, implementation becomes easy.
‫ﻫﻨﺎ ﺑ�ﻘﻮل ان اﻷﻧﻈﻤﺔ اﻟﺮﻗﻤ�ﺔ ذي اﻟ�ﻮﻣﺒﻴﻮﺗﺮ ﻣﺜﻼ ﻣﺶ �ﺲ ﺑتﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻊ اﻷرﻗﺎم وﻟ�ﻦ ﺑتﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻊ ﻋﻨﺎ� ﺗﺎﻧ�ﺔ ذي‬
‫وﻏ�ﻫﺎ و��ﻘﻮل ان كﻞ ﻋﻨ� ﺑيﺘﻢ ﺗﻤﺜ�ﻠﺔ بﺎﺻﻔﺎر‬
‫ﻣﺜﻼ اﻟ�ﻮﻣﺒﻴﻮﺗﺮ ﺑيﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻊ ارﻗﺎم وﺣﺮوف وﺻﻮر وﻓ�ﺪﻳﻮﻫﺎت ي‬
.Binary code‫وواﺣﺎ�ﺪ �ﻌىن ﺑيﺘﻢ ﺗﻤﺜ�ﻠﺔ ب‬

‫ كﻞ اﻟﻤﻮﺿ�ع‬... ‫؟‬A‫ اﻟ�ﻮﻣﺒﻴﻮﺗﺮ ﺑ�ﻔﻬﻢ اذاي ان دە ﺣﺮف ال‬،‫ ف ي� اﻟ�ﻮﻣﺒﻴﻮﺗﺮ‬A‫ ﻟﻤﺎ ﺑﺘﻀﻐﻂ ﻋ� ﺣﺮف ال‬... ‫�ﻌىض ﻣﺜﻼ‬
‫ تﺑ�وح إﺷﺎرة ﻟﻠ�ﻮﻣﺒﻴﻮﺗﺮ ﻋبﺎرة‬A‫ ﻣﺜﻼ ﻓﻠﻤﺎ ﺑﺘﻀﻐﻂ ﻋ� ﺣﺮف ال‬ASCII‫ ﻣﺘﻜﻮد بﺎﺻﻔﺎر ووﺣﺎ�ﺪ ﻓﺠﺪول ال‬A‫ان ال‬
‫ يﻓ�وح اﻟ�ﻮﻣﺒﻴﻮﺗﺮ ﻟﻠﺠﺪول و�ﺸﻮف اﻹﺷﺎرة دي ﺑﺘﺎﻋﺔ ي ف‬،‫ﻋﻦ اﺻﻔﺎر ووﺣﺎ�ﺪ‬
‫ ﻓ�ﻈﻬﺮە ﻋﺎﻟﺸﺎﺷﺔ‬A‫ﻣن ﻓ�ﻼﻗﻴﻬﺎ ﺑﺘﺎﻋﺔ ال‬
Page 43 of 61
 ‫ﻫﻨﺎ ﻧﻔﺲ اﻟ�ﻼم ‪ ...‬اﻟﻔﻜﺮة ﻓﺎل‪ BCD‬ي‬
‫� اﻧﻚ ﺑﺘﻜﻮد ﻋﻨﺎ� ﻣﻌﻴﻨﺔ‬

‫ﻗﺪا� ﻓﻘﻂ أ�ﻮن ب‪ ... 2 bits‬دە ﻫ�ﺪﻳىن كﺎم ا�ﻮد اﻗﺪر‬

‫ي‬ ‫ﻃ�ﺐ اﻧﺎ ﻫﻜﻮد كﻞ ﻋﻨ� ﻓكﺎم ‪ ... bit‬ﻓﻘﺎﻟﻚ اﻓﺮض ﻣﺜﻼ اﻧﺎ‬
‫ا�ﻮد ﺑ�ﻪ؟؟ ﺗﻌﺎﻟﻮ �ﺸﻮف‬
‫‪00‬‬ ‫‪01‬‬ ‫‪11‬‬ ‫‪10‬‬
‫ف‬ ‫ت‬
‫ﻓﺎى ا�ﻮد ﺑﻴﻬﻢ ﻋﻨﺎ� ﻣﻌﻴﻨﺔ‪ .‬ﻳب� ا�ﻪ اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ يﺑن ﻋﺪد‬ ‫ف‬ ‫ن‬ ‫�ﻌىن ال‪2 bits‬‬
‫ادوي ‪ ٤‬ا�ﻮاد اﻗﺪر اﺳﺘﺨﺪﻣﻬﻢ بﻌﺪ ﻛﺪة ي‬ ‫ي‬
‫اﻻ�ﻮاد اﻟ� اﻗﺪر ا�ﻮد ﺑﻴﻬﺎ ي ن‬
‫و�ن ﻋﺪد ال‪.bits‬‬

‫𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ‪2 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 4 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 22‬‬

‫𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒏𝒏𝟐𝟐 = 𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃 𝒏𝒏 ∴‬

‫و��ﻘﻮل ان ال‪ binary codes‬ﻣﻨﺎﺳبﺔ ف ي� ﺗﺼﻤ�ﻢ اﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻت اﻟﺮﻗﻤ�ﺔ واﻟﺪواﻳﺮ اﻟﺮﻗﻤ�ﺔ ف ي� اﻟ�ﻮﻣﺒﻴﻮﺗﺮ‪.‬‬
‫)‪2) Binary Coded Decimal (BCD‬‬
‫�ﻌﺘ� ﻣﺜﺎل ﻋ� اﻟﺘﻜ��ﺪ ﻟﻼرﻗﺎم ال‪decmial‬‬
‫دە ب‬

‫ﻃ�ﺐ اﻟﺴﺆال ﻫﻨﺎ ‪ ...‬ا�ﻪ اﻗﻞ ﻋﺪد ﻣﻦ ال‪ Bits‬اﻗﺪر اﻣﺜﻞ ﺑ�ﻪ اﻷرﻗﺎم ال‪decimal‬؟؟ ب‬
‫ا�� رﻗﻢ ﻫﻮ ال‪ ٩‬ﻟﻮ ﺟﻴﻨﺎ ﻧﻤﺜﻠﻪ‬
‫ف‬
‫‪ binary‬ﻫﻴﺘﻤﺜﻞ ي� ‪.4 bits‬‬
‫ق‬
‫ﻫﻴب� ﻋﻨﺪﻧﺎ ‪ ٦‬ا�ﻮاد‬ ‫ﻃ�ﺐ دە ﻣﻌﻨﺎە ان ﻋﻨﺪﻧﺎ ‪ 24‬ﻛﻮد �ﻌىن ﻋﻨﺪﻧﺎ ‪ ١٦‬ﻛﻮد ‪ ...‬وﻟ�ﻦ اﺣﻨﺎ ﻋﻨﺪﻧﺎ ‪ ١٠‬ارﻗﺎم ﻓﻘﻂ ف‬
‫�ﻌى‬
‫ﻫﻴب� ﻋﻨﺪي ‪ ٦‬ا�ﻮاد ﻫنﺴﻤﻴﻬﻢ ‪ ... invalid codes‬ﺗﻌﺎﻟﻮ �ﺸﻮف‬ ‫ق‬ ‫ﻣﺸﻬنﺴﺘﺨﺪﻫﻢ ف ي� ﺗﻜ��ﺪ أي ﺣﺎﺟﺔ؟ اە ﻓﻌﻼ‬
‫اﻻ�ﻮاد‬
‫‪Decimal Symbol BCD Digit‬‬
‫‪8421‬‬
‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪0000‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪0001‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪0010‬‬
‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪0011‬‬
‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪0100‬‬
‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪0101‬‬
‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪0110‬‬
‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪0111‬‬
‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪1000‬‬
‫‪9‬‬ ‫‪1001‬‬
‫‪1010‬‬
‫‪Invalid Code‬‬

‫‪1011‬‬
‫‪1100‬‬
‫‪1101‬‬
‫‪1110‬‬
‫‪1111‬‬

‫‪Page 44 of 61‬‬
‫ﻫﻨﻔ�ض اىض ي بﻌﻤﻞ اﻟﺔ‬
‫ت‬ ‫اﺣﻨﺎ ﻋﻤﻠﻨﺎ ا�ﻪ ﻫﻨﺎ ‪ ....‬ﻋﻤﻠﻨﺎ اﻻ�ﻮاد وﻛﻮدﻧﺎ اﻷرﻗﺎم ﻣﻦ ‪ ٠‬ل‪ ٩‬ﺑﻴﻬﻢ ‪ ...‬بﻤﻌىن ا�ﻪ؟ بﻤﻌىض ﻣﺜﻼ‬
‫ﺣﺎﺳبﺔ ﺑتبﻘبﻞ اﻷرﻗﺎم ﻣﻦ ‪ ٠‬ل‪ ٩‬ﻓﻘﻂ ‪ ...‬ﻃبﻌﺎ ﻋﺸﺎن اﺿﻐﻂ ﻋ� ‪ ١‬ﻣﺜﻼ ﻓﺎﻻﻟﺔ اﻟﺤﺎﺳبﺔ ﺗﻈﻬﺮە ﻻزم اﻟﺠﺪول دە‬
‫�ﻜﻮن ﻣﺘﺨﺰن ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﻋﺸﺎن ﻟﻤﺎ اﺿﻐﻂ ﻋ� ال‪ ١‬ﺗﻔﻬﻢ ان ‪ 0001‬ﻫﻮ ال‪ ... ١‬ﻃ�ﺐ ﺧﻠﻴﻨﺎ �ﺸﻮف اﻣﺜﻠﺔ‬
‫–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––‬
‫‪Example 33:‬‬
‫‪Represent (945)10 in BCD‬‬

‫‪Solution:‬‬

‫اﻋﺘ� كﺎﻧﻚ ﺿﻐﻂ ﻋ� زرار ‪ ٩‬و�ﻌﺪ ﻛﺪة ‪ ٤‬و�ﻌﺪ ﻛﺪة ‪� ٥‬ﻌىن ﻟﻤﺎ‬‫ب‬ ‫ﻫﻮ ﻫﻨﺎ ﻋﺎﻳﺰ �ﺨﻠﻴﻨﺎ ﻧﻤﺜﻞ ال‪ ٩٤٥‬بﺎل‪� ... BCD‬ﻌىض‬
‫ﻫﺘ�� ﺗﻤﺜﻠﻬﺎ بﺎل‪ BCD‬ﻫﺘﺤﻂ اﻟ�ﻮد ﺑﺘﺎع ال‪ ٩‬ﺟﻨبﻪ ﺑﺘﺎﻋﻪ ال‪ ٤‬ﺟﻨبﻪ ﺑﺘﺎع ‪� .... ٥‬ﺲ ﻛﺪة‬ ‫ب ي‬
‫‪9‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬
‫‪1001‬‬ ‫‪0100‬‬ ‫‪0101‬‬
‫𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵)‪∴ (945)10 = (100101000101‬‬
‫�ﻌىن ﻣﻦ اﻻﺧﺮ اﻧﺖ ﺑﺘﻜﺘﺐ اﻻﻟﺔ اﻟﺤﺎﺳبﺔ ﻣﺜﻼ ﺑتﺸﻮف اﻟﺮﻗﻢ ‪ ٩٤٥‬اذاي‪.‬‬
‫?‪Notes: Conversion or Coding‬‬
‫‪ Do NOT mix up conversion of a decimal number to a binary number with coding a‬‬
‫‪decimal number with a binary code.‬‬
‫‪ 1310 = (1101)2 (This is conversion).‬‬
‫‪ 13BCD (00010011) (This is coding).‬‬
‫‪ In general, coding requires more bits than conversion.‬‬
‫‪ A number with n decimal digits is coded with 4n bits in BCD.‬‬

‫و�ن اﻧﻚ ﺗﻤﺜﻞ‬‫ﺑن ﺗﺤ��ﻞ ال‪ decimal‬ل ‪ binary‬واﻟ� ﺑنﺴﻤﻴﻬﺎ ‪ conversions‬ي ن‬ ‫ﻫﻨﺎ ﻋﺎﻳﺰ �ﻘﻮﻟﻚ ﻣﺘﺨﻠﻄﺶ ي ن‬
‫ف‬
‫ال‪ decimal‬بﺎل‪ BCD‬ودي ﺑنﺴﻤﻴﻬﺎ ‪ coding‬او ﺗﻜ��ﺪ �ﻌىن واداﻟﻚ ﻣﺜﺎل ان ال‪ 13‬ي� ال‪ decimal‬ﻟﻤﺎ ﻧﺤﻮﻟﻬﺎ‬
‫ﻫﺘب� ﻛﺪة ‪ 1101‬ﻟ�ﻦ ﻟﻮ ﻫﺘﻌﻤﻠﻬﺎ بﺎل‪ BCD‬ﻫﺘﺤﻂ ﻛﻮد ال‪ ١‬بﺎل‪ binary‬ف ي� ال‪BCD‬‬
‫ل‪ binary‬ذي ﻣﺎ ﺗﻌﻠﻤﻨﺎ ﻗبﻞ ﻛﺪة ت‬
‫ق‬
‫ﻓﻬﻴب� ﻛﺪة ‪00010011‬ز‬ ‫ﺟﻨبﻪ اﻟ�ﻮد ﺑﺘﺎع ال‪ 3‬ف ي� ال‪BCD‬‬

‫ا�� ﻣﻦ ال‪ conversions‬ﻓﻠﻮ ﻻﺣﻈﺖ ﻟﻤﺎ ﺣﻮﻟﺖ ال‪ ١٣‬ل‪ binary‬ادﺗﻠﻚ‬ ‫و��ﻘﻮل ان ال‪ coding‬ﺑﺘﺎﺧﺪ ﻋﺪد ‪ bits‬ب‬
‫‪ 4 bits‬ﻟ�ﻦ ﻟﻤﺎ ﺟ�ﺖ ﻋﻤﻠﺘﻬﺎ بﺎل‪ BCD‬ﻛﺘبﺖ ‪ 8 bits‬ﻓﺘﻼﺣﻆ ان ال‪ ١٣‬ﻋبﺎرة ﻋﻦ ‪ 2 decimal digits‬واﺗﻤﺜﻠﻮا �ف‬
‫ي‬
‫و�‪:‬‬ ‫ىن‬
‫‪� 8bits‬ﻌ ﺗﻘﺪر ﺗﻄﻠﻊ بﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺑيﻨﻬﻢ ي‬
‫𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃 𝒏𝒏𝟒𝟒 = 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒏𝒏‬
‫‪3) BCD Addition:‬‬
‫ﺧﻠﻴﻨﺎ ث‬
‫��ﺣﻬﺎ بﻤﺜﺎل اﺣﺴﻦ‪.‬‬
‫‪Example 34:‬‬
‫‪Evaluate the following operations in BCD System‬‬
‫‪1) 3 + 4‬‬
‫‪2) 4 + 8‬‬

‫‪Page 45 of 61‬‬
 ‫‪3) 148 + 576‬‬
‫‪Solution:‬‬
‫‪1) 3 + 4‬‬

‫ﻃ��ﻘﺔ اﻟﺤﻞ ا�ﻪ‪ ...‬ﺑﺘﻜﺘﺐ اﻟ�ﻮد ال‪ binary‬ﻟﻞ‪ ٣‬ف ي� ال‪ BCD‬وكﻤﺎن ﻛﻮد ال‪ ٤‬وﺗﺠﻤﻌﻬﻢ ﻋ� بﻌﺾ ﻋﺎدي بﺎﻟﻄ��ﻘﺔ‬
‫اﻟﺠﻤﻊ ﻟﻞ‪ binary‬اﻟ� اﺗﻌﻠﻤﻨﺎﻫﺎ ﻗبﻞ ﻛﺪة‪.‬‬
‫‪2) 4 + 8‬‬

‫ت‬
‫ﻫﺘﻼ� اﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ﻫﻮ ‪ ... 1100‬ﻟﻮ ﺣﻮﻟﺖ دە ل‪decimal‬‬ ‫ﻧﻔﺲ اﻟ�ﻼم ﻫﻨﺠﻤﻊ ﻛﻮد ال‪ BCD‬ﺑﺘﺎع ال‪ ٤‬ﻋ� ﺑﺘﺎع ال‪ ٨‬ﻟ�ﻦ‬
‫ي‬
‫ﻫﺘﻼﻗ�ﻪ ﺑ�ﺴﺎوي ‪ ١٤‬ﻣﺶ‪ ١٢‬ودە ﻏﻠﻂ ‪ ...‬ﻃ�ﺐ اﻟﺤﻞ ا�ﻪ‪...‬‬
‫اﺣﻨﺎ ﻗﻮﻟﻨﺎ ﻋﻨﺪﻧﺎ ‪ ٦‬ا�ﻮاد ‪ Invalid‬ف� ال‪ ... BCD‬ﻓﺎﻟﺤﻞ ا�ﻪ ‪ ...‬ﺑﻨﻀ�ﻒ ﻋﺎﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ﻛﻮد ‪ BCD‬ﺑﺘﺎع ال‪ 6‬ﻋ� اﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ �ﻌىن‬
‫ي‬
‫ﻫﻨﺠﻤﻊ ‪ 1100 + 0110‬ﻫ�ﻜﻮن اﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ا�ﻪ ‪ 10010‬ودول ﻣﺶ ‪ 8 bits‬دول �ﺲ ‪ ... ٥‬واﻟﻤﻔﺮوض ﻃﺎﻟﻤﺎ ﻋﻨﺪي ي ض‬
‫رﻗﻤن‬
‫ت‬
‫ﻓﻬﺘﻼ�‬ ‫‪ decimal‬ﻫ�ﻜﻮن ﺗﻤﺜ�ﻠﻬﻢ ف ي� ال‪ BCD‬ب‪ ..... 8 bits‬ﻫﻨﻌﻤﻞ ا�ﻪ ‪ ...‬ﻫﻨﻀ�ﻒ ‪ ٣‬اﺻﻔﺎر ﻋ� اﻟﺸﻤﺎل ‪....‬‬
‫ي‬
‫ﻫﺘﻼ� ان ‪ 0001‬ﻫﻮ ﻛﻮد ال‪ 1‬ف ي� ال‪ BCD‬وال ‪0010‬‬
‫ت‬
‫ي‬ ‫اﻟ�ﻮد ﻓﻌﻠ�ﺎ قب� ‪ 00010010‬وﻟﻮ ﺷﻮﻓﺖ كﻞ ‪ 4 bits‬ﻟﻮﺣﺪﻫﻢ‬
‫ﻫﻮ ﻛﻮد ال‪� 2‬ﻌىن ‪ ١٢‬ودە اﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ اﻟﺼﺢ‪.‬‬

‫‪In BCD Addition, we add (0110)=(6) if the result value was greater than (1001)=(9) or if‬‬
‫‪the result was more than 4 digits‬‬

‫ا�� ﻣﻦ ‪� ٩‬ﻌىن ب‬
‫ا�� ﻣﻦ ‪ ١٠٠١‬او �ﻜﻮن اﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ‬ ‫ﻃ�ﺐ ت‬
‫اﻣى اﺣﺘﺎج اﺿ�ﻒ ﻛﻮد ال‪ BCD‬ﻟﻞ‪ ... ٦‬ﻟﻤﺎ �ﻜﻮن ﻧﺎﺗﺞ اﻟﺠﻤﻊ ب‬
‫ا�� ﻣﻦ ‪4 digits‬‬
‫ب‬
‫‪3) 148 + 576‬‬

‫‪Page 46 of 61‬‬
 ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬

‫يف‬
‫اﻟﺮﻗﻤن دول بﺎ�ﺪك‬ ‫يف‬
‫رﻗﻤن كﻞ واﺣﺪ ﻓﻴﻬﻢ ﻣﻜﻮن ﻣﻦ ‪ ٣‬ارﻗﺎم ‪ ... decimal‬ﻓﺎﻟﻌﺎدي ﻟﻮ ﻫﺘﺠﻤﻊ‬ ‫ﻓﺎﻟﻤﺜﺎل دە ﻫﻨﺠﻤﻊ‬
‫ق‬ ‫ىن‬ ‫ق‬ ‫ق‬
‫ﻋﺎﻟﻮرق ﻫﺘﻘﻮل ‪ ٦ + ٤‬ب‪ ١٠‬ﻳب� ‪ ٠‬وﻣﻌﺎﻧﺎ اﻟﻮاﺣﺪ ﻳب� ‪ ٧+٨+١‬ب‪� ١٦‬ﻌ ‪ ٦‬وﻣﻌﺎﻧﺎ اﻟﻮاﺣﺪ ﻳب� ‪ ٥+١+١‬ب‪... ٧‬‬
‫يض‬ ‫اﻧﺖ ﻓﻌﻠ�ﺎ ﻋﻤﻠﺖ ا�ﻪ ‪ ...‬ﺟﻤﻌﺖ كﻞ ي ض‬
‫� دي‬ ‫ﻋﺎﻟﺮﻗﻤن اﻟ� ﺟﻨﺒﻬﻢ ‪ ...‬ي‬ ‫رﻗﻤن ﺗﺤﺖ بﻌﺾ ﻋ� بﻌﺾ واﻟ��ﺎدة ﺟﻤﻌﺘﻪ‬
‫رﻗﻤن ﺗﺤﺖ بﻌﺾ ﻟﻮﺣﺪﻫﻢ وﻟﻮكﺎن ﻧﺎﺗﺞ ﺟﻤﻊ أي ي ف‬
‫رﻗﻤن ﻓﻴﻬﻢ‬ ‫ف‬
‫بﻤﻌى اﻧﻨﺎ ﻫﻨﺠﻤﻊ ﻛﻮد ال‪ BCD‬ﻟ�ﻞ ي ض‬ ‫ﻧﻔﺲ اﻟﻄ��ﻘﺔ ‪....‬‬
‫ا�� ﻣﻦ ‪ ٩‬ﻫﻀ�ﻒ ﻛﻮد ال‪ ٦‬اﻟ� ﻫﻮ ‪.0110‬‬ ‫ب‬
‫ﻫﻼ� ﻧﺎﺗﺞ اﻟﺠﻤﻊ ‪ ... 10000‬دول ‪ 5 bits‬ﻣﺶ‪ ٤‬ق‬
‫ﻳب� ال‪١‬‬ ‫ت‬ ‫ﻳب� ﻫﻀ�ﻒ ‪ 0110‬ﻋﺎﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ‪...‬‬ ‫�ﻌىن ﻣﺜﻼ ‪ ٦+٤‬ب‪ ١٠‬ق‬
‫ي‬ ‫ت‬
‫ﻫﻨﻼ� ﺑﺮﺿﻮ اﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ‪� 10000‬ﻌىن ‪ ... 5 bits‬ﻓﻬﻨﻀ�ﻒ ﻋﻠ�ﻪ ‪0110‬‬
‫ي‬
‫يض‬
‫ﻋﺎﻟﺮﻗﻤن اﻟ� بﻌﺪﻫﻢ‬ ‫ﻫ�وح ك‪carry‬‬ ‫اﻟ��ﺎدة دە ي‬
‫واﻟﺮﻗﻤنن‬ ‫اﻟ� بﻌﺪﻫﻢ ‪...‬‬ ‫ن‬ ‫ت‬ ‫ت‬
‫ي‬ ‫اﻟﺮﻗﻤن ي‬
‫ي‬ ‫ﻫ�ـ�ح ك‪ carry‬ﻋ�‬‫ﻫﻨﻼ� اﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ب� ‪ 10110‬و�ﺮﺿﻮ ﻓ�ﻪ ‪ ١‬ز�ﺎدة ودە اﻟ� ي‬
‫ي‬ ‫ﺑﺮﺿﻮ‬
‫ا�� ﻣﻦ ‪4 digits‬‬‫ﻣﺸﺎ�� ﻣﻦ ‪ ٩‬وﻻ ﻫﻮ ب‬
‫ب‬ ‫اﻟ� ﻓﺎﻻﺧﺮ ﻣﻊ ال‪ carry‬ﻫ�ﻜﻮن ﻧﺎﺗﺞ اﻟﺠﻤﻊ ﺑﺘﺎﻋﻬﻢ ‪ 0111‬اﻟ� ﻫﻮ ال‪ ٧‬ودە‬
‫ﻳب� اذن ﻣﺸﻬﻨﻀ�ﻒ ﻋﻠ�ﻪ ال‪ 6‬وﻟﻮ ﺷﻮﻓﺖ اﻷرﻗﺎم دي ﻣﻊ ا�ﻮاد ال‪ BCD‬ﻫﺘﻼﻗﻴﻬﺎ ﻣﻈﺒﻮﻃﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫ق‬

‫اﻻوﻻي ﻣﺶ‪ ١٨٤‬ﻟ�ﻦ ‪ 484‬وﻫ�ﻜﻮن ﻣﺠﻤ�ع ‪ ١٠٦٠=٥٧٦+٤٨٤‬ﻓﻬ�ﻜﻮن ﻓﺎﻻﺧﺮ ‪٥+ ٤ + ١‬‬ ‫ض‬ ‫ﻃ�ﺐ ﻓﺮﺿﺎ كﺎن اﻟﺮﻗﻢ‬
‫ي‬
‫ﻫﻴب� ب‪ ١٠‬ﻓﻬﻨﻘﻮل ‪ ٠‬وﻣﻌﺎﻧﺎ ‪ ١‬وﻟﻤﺎ ﻫﺠﻤﻊ ‪ 0100 + 0101‬وﻣﻌﺎ�ﺎ واﺣﺪ ‪ carry‬ﻫ�ﻜﻮن اﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ‪ 10000‬ودي ‪5‬‬ ‫ق‬
‫ي‬
‫فف‬
‫وﻫﻴ�ل ‪ ...‬ﻟ�ﻦ اﺣﻨﺎ ﻋﺎﻳ��ﻨﻪ ‪4 bits‬‬ ‫ق‬
‫ﻫﻴب� ﻟﻮﺣﺪە‬ ‫ﻫ�وح ي ف‬
‫ﻓﻴن ؟؟‬ ‫ق‬
‫‪ bits‬ﻳب� اﻟﻮاﺣﺪ اﻟ��ﺎدة ﻫ�ﻄﻠﻊ ‪� carry‬ﺲ ي‬
‫ﻓﻬﻨﻀ�ﻔﻠﻪ ﻓﺎﻟﺸﻤﺎل ‪ 000‬ف� اﻻﺧﺮ ق‬
‫ﻫﻴب� اﻟ�ﻮاد‬ ‫ي‬
‫‪0001 0000 0110 0000‬‬

‫اﻟ� ﻫﻮ ‪ 1060‬ﻓﺎل ‪ BCD‬ﻛﻮد‪.‬‬

‫‪In previous Example we added 0110 when the result was‬‬

‫)‪1 - greater than 9 (1001‬‬

‫)‪2 - more than 4 digits (10000‬‬

‫)‪Note : result more than 4 digit is greater than 9(1001‬‬

‫‪Page 47 of 61‬‬
 4) Is BCD Useful?
Disadvantage:
 The representation of a decimal number in BCD needs more bits than it’s equivalent
binary value when the decimal number isn’t between 0 and 9
Advantage:
 BCD numbers are decimal numbers coded with binary symbols, so they are more
convenient to the computer users whose their inputs and outputs are decimal
numbers
 The need to remember the binary equivalent of decimal numbers from 0 to 9 only
‫ اﻧﻨﺎ ﻫﻨﺤﺘﺎج ت‬BCD‫ﺑ�ﻘﻮل ان ﻋﻴﻮب ال‬
‫ ﻋﺸﺎن ﻧﻤﺜﻞ اﻷرﻗﺎم اﻟ� ﻣﺸﻤﻮﺟﻮدﻳﻦ ي ن‬4 bits ‫ا�� ﻣﻦ‬
.٩‫ وال‬٠ ‫ﺑن‬
‫يض‬
�‫ﻣﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣن اﻟ�ﻮﻣﺒﻴﻮﺗﺮ اﻟ‬ �‫ﺑ�ﺨ� اﻟﻤﻮﺿ�ع ﺳﻬﻞ ﻋ‬ ‫و��ﻘﻮل ي ن‬
‫ ودە‬binary‫ بﺎل‬decimal‫ﻣﻤ�اﺗﻪ اﻧﻪ ﺑ�ﻤﺜﻞ ال‬
‫ي‬
decimal ‫ﺑ�ﺪﺧﻠﻮ اﻷرﻗﺎم‬

.٩‫ ل‬٠ ‫ ﻟﻸرﻗﺎم ﻣﻦ‬BCD‫و��ﻘﻮل ان ﻣﺤﺘﺎج �ﺲ ﺗﺤﻔﻆ او ﺗﻌﺮف ا�ﻮاد ال‬

5) Excess-3 (ex-3)

Excess-three (ex-3) is unweighted code to represent a number (ex-3) is like (BCD) in the
way of representing number

i.e. each digit is represented in 4 bits

Except that: each digit is firstly incremented by three

‫ ﻫﻨﺠﻤﻊ‬deciaml‫ �ﻌىن كﻞ رﻗﻢ‬Excess-3‫ كﻞ اﻟﻤﻮﺿ�ع اﻧﻨﺎ ﻫﻨﻤﺜﻞ اﻷرﻗﺎم ض ي� ال‬.... Excess-3‫ بﺎل‬BCD‫ا�ﻪ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ال‬
.‫ ﺧﻠﻴﻨﺎ �ﺸﻮف ﻣﺜﺎل‬... ‫ وﻫﻨﺤﻄﻪ ﻋﺎدي ﺟﺪا‬binary‫ اﻷول و�ﻌﺪ ﻛﺪة اﻟﺮﻗﻢ اﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ﻫنﺸﻮف ﺗﻤﺜ�ﻠﻪ ف ي� ال‬٣ ‫ﻋﻠ�ﻪ‬
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Example 35:
represent in (945)10 in ex-3
Solution:

Page 48 of 61
‫ وﻫنﺸ�ﻞ كﻞ رﻗﻢ وﻫﻨﺤﻂ اﻟﺘﻤﺜ�ﻞ‬... binary ‫ واﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ﻫﻨﻤﺜﻠﻪ‬٣ �‫ اﻧﻨﺎ ﻫﻨﺠﻤﻊ كﻞ رﻗﻢ ﻟﻮﺣﺪە ﻋ‬... ‫كﻞ اﻟﻤﻮﺿ�ع‬
.binary ‫ﺑﺘﺎع‬

6) Other Binary Codes

‫ق‬
‫ﻫﻴب� ﻋبﺎرة ﻋﻦ ﻣﺠﻤ�ع اﻻوزان ﻃبﻘﺎ‬ decimal ‫ كﻞ اﻟﻔﻜﺮة ان كﻞ رﻗﻢ‬... ‫ ﻛﻮد‬BCD‫دي �ﺲ ﻣﺠﺮد أﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﺗﺎﻧ�ﺔ ﻟﻞ‬
‫ف‬ ‫ت‬
‫ ﻫ�ﻜﻮن ﺗﻤﺜ�ﻠﻪ‬decimal‫ ي� ال‬١‫ﻫﺘﻼ� ان ال‬ 8, 4 , -2 , -1‫�ﻌى ﻣﺜﻼ ف ي� ﻧﻈﺎم ال‬
‫ ف‬... ‫ﻟﻠﻨﻈﺎم اﻟﺘﻜ��ﺪ اﻟ� ﻫتﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﻪ‬
‫ي‬
4+(-2)+(-1)=1 ‫ ﻋﺸﺎن‬٤‫ وﺗﺤﺖ ال‬-2‫ وﺗﺤﺖ ال‬-1‫ ﻫﻮ ﺣﻂ واﺣﺪ ﺗﺤﺖ ال‬... ‫ ﻟ�ﻪ‬0111 ‫ف ي� اﻟﻨﻈﺎم دە ﻋبﺎرة ﻋﻦ‬
‫ف‬
.2421 ‫وﻧﻔﺲ اﻟ�ﻼم ي� ﻧﻈﺎم‬

 Other binary codes also assign 4-bit code to 10 decimal digits

 Each code uses only 10 combinations out of 16 to represent 10 decimal digits from 0
to 9
 2421 and 8,4,-2,-1 are also weighted codes as BCD
 Excess-3 and 8,4,-2,-1 are self-complementing codes while BCD is NOT
 Self-complementing property means that the 9's complement of a decimal number is
obtained directly by changing 1‟s to 0's and 0's to 1's, so the older computers used
these binary codes

Page 49 of 61
‫‪ 395 is represented in the excess-3 code as 0110 1100 1000 and the 9 's complement‬‬
‫‪of 395 is 604 which is represented in excess-3 code as 1001 0011 0111.‬‬

‫اﻟ�ﻼم دە ﻋﺎﻳﺰ ﻣﻨﻪ ا�ﻪ ‪ ....‬ﺑ�ﻘﻮل ان اﻷﻧﻈﻤﺔ اﻟﺘﺎﻧ�ﺔ ﺑﺘﺎﻋﺔ ال‪ BCD‬ﺑﺮﺿﻮ ﺑ�ﻜﻮدو ‪ ١٠‬ارﻗﺎم ‪ decimal‬ﻓﻘﻂ ﻻ ي‬
‫ﻏ�‬
‫ف‬
‫ﻣﺶ ‪ ١٦‬و��ﻜﻮدوﻫﻢ ي� ‪4 bits‬‬

‫و� ﻧﻈﺎم ال‪ BCD‬اﻟ�‬ ‫ش‬

‫و��ﻘﻮل أﻧﻈﻤﺔ ال‪ 2421‬او ‪ 84-2-1‬ﻫﻤﺎ ال‪ ٢‬أﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﻣﻌﺘﻤﺪة ﻋ� ‪ weight‬ذي ﻣﺎ �ﺣﻨﺎﻫﺎ ي‬
‫اﺷﺘﻐﻠﻨﺎ ﺑ�ﻪ اﻟ� ﻫﻮ ‪.... 8421‬‬

‫�ﻌﺘ�و ‪.. self-complementing‬‬ ‫ف‬

‫وﻟ�ﻦ ي� ﻣﻠﺤﻮﻇﺔ ‪ ...‬ﺑ�ﻘﻮل ان ﻧﻈﺎم ال‪ excess-3‬وﻧﻈﺎم ال‪84-2-1‬ﻫﻤﺎ ال‪ 2‬ب‬
‫بﻤﻌىن ا�ﻪ‪ :‬اﻧﻚ ﻟﻤﺎ ﺗﺤﻮل رﻗﻢ ‪ decimal‬ل‪ BCD‬ﺑﻨﻈﺎم ال‪ excess-3‬ﻣﺜﻼ ‪ ...‬و�ﻌﺪ ﻛﺪة ﻗﻠبﺖ اﻻﺻﻔﺎر وﺣﺎ�ﺪ‬
‫ت‬
‫ﻫﺘﻼ� اﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ﻫﻮ ال‪ 9’complement‬ﻟﻠﺮﻗﻢ ال‪decimal‬‬
‫ي‬ ‫واﻟﻮﺣﺎ�ﺪ اﺻﻔﺎر‬

‫�ﻌىن ﻣﺜﻼ‪:‬‬

‫‪ ٣٩٥‬ﻟﻤﺎ ﺗﻜﻮدﻫﺎ بﺎل‪ BCD‬ﺑﻨﻈﺎم ال‪ Excess-3‬ﻫﺘﻼﻗﻴﻬﺎ ﻛﺪة ‪1000 1100 0110‬‬
‫ن‬
‫اﻗﻠﺐ اﻻﺻﻔﺎر وﺣﺎ�ﺪ واﻟﻮﺣﺎ�ﺪ اﻻﺻﻔﺎر ‪ ...‬ﻫﺘﻼﻓﻴﻬﺎ ‪ 0111 0011 1001‬ودي ﻟﻮ رﺟﻌﺘﻬﺎ ي‬
‫ﺗﺎي ل‪ decimal‬ﻫﺘﻼﻗﻴﻬﺎ‬
‫‪ ٦٠٤‬اﻟ� ﻫﻮ ال‪ 9’complement‬ﻟﻞ‪٣٩٥‬‬

‫دي ﻣﻌىن كﻠﻤﺔ ال‪.self-complementing‬‬

‫‪Page 50 of 61‬‬
 Lecture TWO
1) Gray Code
As we count up/down using binary codes, the number of bits that change from one binary
value to the next varies
Digit Binary Gray Code
000 → 001 (1-bit change) 0 000 000
001 → 010 (2-bit change) 1 001 001
2 010 011
011 → 100 (3-bit change) 3 011 010
4 100 110
 Gray code: only 1 bit changes as we 5 101 111
count up or down 6 110 101
 Gray code can be used in low-power
7 111 100
logic circuits that count up or down,
because only 1 bit changes per count
 Error correction during transmission of gray-coded numbers is easier than using
other binary codes
‫ف‬
‫ ﻫﻮ ﻃ��ﻘﺔ ﺗﻜ��ﺪ وﻟ�ﻦ كﻞ ﻓﻜﺮﺗﻪ اﻧﻪ ﻓﻜﺮة ﻣﺮة ﺑ�ﺤﺼﻞ ي‬... gray code‫ا�ﻪ ﻓﻜﺮة ال‬
‫ ﻓﻘﻂ اﺛﻨﺎ ﻧﻘﻞ اﻟﺪاﺗﺎ‬1bit �‫ﺗﻐ� ي‬
gray ‫ وﻓ�ﻪ ﻃ��ﻘﺔ ﺗﺤ��ﻞ ﻣﻦ‬.‫ﺑتب� اﺣﺴﻦ ف ي� ا�تﺸﺎف اﻷﺧﻄﺎء‬ ‫ وكﻤﺎن ت‬low-power‫ﺑتب� اﻓﻀﻞ ض� اﻟﺪواﻳﺮ ال‬
‫ي‬
‫ودي ت‬
.‫ واﻟﻌﻜﺲ وﻟ�ﻦ ﻫﻨﺎﺧﺪﻫﺎ ف ي� اﻟﺴﻜﺸﻦ‬decimal‫ ل‬code
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
2) Character Codes:
The alphanumeric characters set is a set of 128 elements that includes the 10 decimal
digits, the 52 letters of the alphabet (uppercase & lowercase), the 32 printable symbols
(%,$,#,…) and the 34 non-printable special characters

 Alphanumeric characters set encoding:

 Standard ASCII: 7-bit character codes (0 – 127)
 Extended ASCII: 8-bit character codes (0 – 255)
ASCII is an abbreviation of American Standard Code for Information
Interchange
 Unicode: 16-bit character codes (0 – 65,535)
 Unicode standard represents a universal character set
 Defines codes for characters used in all major languages
 Used in Windows-XP: each character is encoded as 16 bits

ASCII ‫( و��ﻘﻮل ﻓ�ﻪ أﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﺗﻜ��ﺪ ذي ال‬%,$,#,…) ‫ﻫﻨﺎ ﺑيﺘكﻠﻢ ﻋﻦ ﺗﻜ��ﺪ اﻟﺤﺮوف واﻷرﻗﺎم واﻟﻌﻼﻣﺎت اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ذي‬
‫ف‬ ‫يف‬
٠ ‫ ودە ﻣﻌﻨﺎە اﻧﻪ ﻫ�ﻜﻮن ﻣﻦ‬7 bit �‫ ي‬characters‫ ودي ﺑﺘﻌﻤﻞ ﺗﻤﺜ�ﻞ ﻟﻞ‬standard‫ﻧﻮﻋن ال‬ ‫ﻣﺜﻼ ودي ﻓ�ﻪ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ‬
Page 51 of 61
‫ ودي‬Extended ASCII‫ وﻓ�ﻪ ال‬.‫ �ﻘﺼﺪ ﺑﻴﻬﺎ اﻟﺤﺮوف واﻷرﻗﺎم واﻟﻌﻼﻣﺎت اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ‬character ‫ ﺣﺎﺟﺔ وكﻠﻤﺔ‬١٢٧‫ل‬
255 characters ‫ﺑﺘﻜﻮد ﻟﺤﺪ‬
‫ف‬
‫ ودە اﻓﻀﻞ ﻻﻧﻪ ﺗﻘ��بﺎ ﻣﻜﻮد‬.... 65535 character ‫و�ﺎﻟﺘﺎ� ﺑﺘﻜﻮد ﻟﺤﺪ‬
‫ي‬ 16 bit �‫ ودە ﺑﺘﻜﻮد ي‬unicode‫وﻓ�ﻪ ال‬
�
.‫اﻷ�� اﺳﺘﺨﺪام‬ �‫�ﺎﻟﺘﺎ� ي‬
‫ي‬ ‫كﻞ اﻟﺤﺮوف واﻷرﻗﺎم واﻟﻌﻼﻣﺎت اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺘﺎﻋﺔ كﻞ ﻟﻐﺎت اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ و‬
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
3) Error Detecting Code:
Binary data are typically transmitted between computers. Because of noise, a corrupted
bit will change value. To detect errors, extra bits are added to each data value. The added
bit is called Parity bit. Its function is to make the number of 1‟s odd or even. So, there is
2 types of parity bits:

 Even parity: number of 1‟s in the transmitted data is even

 Odd parity: number of 1‟s in the transmitted data is odd.
with even parity with odd parity
ASCII A: 1000001 01000001 11000001
ASCII T: 1010100 11010100 01010100

‫ وﻋﺸﺎن‬noise‫ �ﺴبﺐ ال‬1 bit �‫ﺗﻐ� ف ي� اﻟﺪاﺗﺎ ف ي‬

‫ﺑن أﺟﻬﺰة اﻟ�ﻮﻣﺒﻴﻮﺗﺮ ﻣﻤﻜﻦ �ﺤﺼﻞ ي‬ ‫ﺑ�ﻘﻮل ان اﻟﺒ�ﺎﻧﺎت و� ﺑتﺘﻨﻘﻞ ي ف‬
‫ي‬
0 ‫ ودي ﺑﻨﻀ�ﻒ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ‬even parity ... ‫ﻧﻮﻋن ﻣﻨﻬﺎ‬ ‫يف‬ ‫ ﻓ�ﻪ‬...parity bit ‫ ﺑنﺴﻤ�ﻪ‬1 bit ‫ﻧﻜتﺸﻒ اﻷﺧﻄﺎء دي ﺑﻨﻀ�ﻒ‬
‫ﻧﺨ� ﻋﺪد‬
‫ي‬ ‫ ودي ﻻزم‬odd parity‫ وﻓ�ﻪ ال‬... �‫زو‬ ‫ ﻋﺸﺎن ﻳبﻘﻮ ب ي‬1 ‫زو� وﻟﻮ اﻟﻌﺪد ﻓﺮدي ﺑﻨﻀ�ﻒ‬ ‫ ب ي‬1‫ﻟﻮ كﺎن ﻋﺪد ال‬
‫زو� ﻋﺸﺎن ﻧﺨﻠﻴﻬﻢ ﻓﺮدي‬ ‫ ﻟﻮ ﻫﻤﺎ � ي‬١ ‫ ﻟﻮ ﻫﻤﺎ أﺻﻼ ﻓﺮدي و�ﻨﻀ�ﻒ‬0 ‫و�ﺎﻟﺘﺎ� ﺑﻨﻀ�ﻒ‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ ﻓﺮدي‬1‫ال‬

‫ ودە ﻋﺪد اﻟﻮﺣﺎ�ﺪ ﻓ�ﻪ‬1000001 ‫ ﻫﻮ‬ASCII‫ ف ي� ﻧﻈﺎم ال‬A‫ ﻟﺤﺮف ال‬binary code‫ﺷﺎ�ﻔن ال‬
‫يف‬ ‫�ﻌى ﻣﺜﻼ ﻓﺎﻟﺠﺪول‬ ‫ف‬
‫ق‬
‫ ﻋﺸﺎن اﻟﻮﺣﺎ�ﺪ أﺻﻼ‬0 ‫زو� ﻳب� ﻫﻀ�ﻒ‬ ‫ىض‬ ‫ش‬ ‫ىن‬
‫ �ﻌ ﻋﺎﻳﺰ ﻋﺪد اﻟﻮﺣﺎ�ﺪ ب ي‬even parity‫زو� �ﻌ ﻟﻮ اﻧﺎ ﻫﻤ� ﺑﻨﻈﺎم ال‬ ‫ي‬
.‫ ﻋﺸﺎن ﻳبﻘﻮ ﻓﺮدي‬١ ‫ﻳب� ﻫﻀ�ﻒ‬‫ �ﻌىض ﻋﺎﻳﺰ اﺧ� ﻋﺪد اﻟﻮﺣﺎ�ﺪ ﻓﺮدي ق‬odd parity‫اﻣ� ﺑﻨﻈﺎم ال‬
‫ وﻟﻮ ﻋﺎﻳﺰ ش‬.�‫زو‬
‫ي‬ ‫ب ي‬

Detecting Errors

‫ﻫﻨﺎ ﻫﻴﺘكﻠﻢ ﻋﻦ ﻃ��ﻘﺔ ا�تﺸﺎف اﻷﺧﻄﺎء‬

7-bit ASCII character + 1 Parity bit

Sender Receiver
Sent ‘A’ = 01000001, Received ‘A’ = 01000101

 Suppose we are transmitting 7-bit ASCII characters

 A parity bit is added to each character to make it 8 bits

 Parity can detect all single-bit errors:

 If even parity is used and a single bit changes, it will change the parity to odd,
which will be detected at the receiver end

Page 52 of 61
  The receiver end can detect the error, but cannot correct it because it does not
know which bit is erroneous

 Can also detect some multiple-bit errors

 Error in an odd number of bits

 Cannot detect an even number of erroneous bits, so additional error detection codes
may be needed to take care of that possibility

‫ اﻟ�ﻮد ﺑﺘﺎﻋﻪ ﺑيﺘﻜﻮن ﻣﻦ‬A ‫ ﻓﺒ�ﻘﻮل ﻣﺜﻼ ﻟﻮ ﻋﻨﺪي ﺣﺮف‬... ‫ﻫﻨﺎ ﺑيﺘكﻠﻢ ﻋﻦ ﻣﺜﺎل ﻻ�تﺸﺎف اﻷﺧﻄﺎء ف ي� ﻧﻘﻞ اﻟﺒ�ﺎﻧﺎت‬
1000001 ‫ رﻣﺰي‬A‫ ﻓﺒ�ﻘﻮل ال‬... 8bit �‫ﻫﻴب‬ ‫ت‬ �‫و�ﺎﻟﺘﺎ‬ odd ‫ او‬even parity ‫ ﻋﺸﺎن اﺧﻠ�ﻪ‬bit ‫ واﻧﺎ ﻫﻀﻔﻠﻪ‬7bit
‫ي‬
‫ت‬ ‫ت‬
‫ واﻓ�ض‬01000001 ‫زو� أﺻﻼ ﻓﺘب� ﻛﺪة‬ ‫ق‬
‫ ﻋﺸﺎن ﻋﺪد اﻟﻮﺣﺎ�ﺪ ب ي‬0 ‫ ﻳب� ﻫﻀ�ﻒ‬even parity‫وﻟﻮ اﻧﺎ ﻫﺴﺘﻌﻤﻞ ال‬
‫ت‬ ... 01000101 ‫ اﺛﻨﺎء ﻧﻘﻞ اﻟﺒ�ﺎﻧﺎت وﻟ�ﻜﻦ‬1bit �‫ان ﺣﺼﻞ ﺧﻄﺄ ف ي‬
�‫و�ﺎﻟﺘﺎ‬
‫ي‬ ‫ﻫﺘﻼ� ان ﻋﺪد اﻟﻮﺣﺎ�ﺪ تب� ﻓﺮدي‬
‫ي‬
‫ت‬
‫ﻟ� ﻋﺪد اﻟﻮﺣﺎ�ﺪ‬
‫و�ﺎﻟﺘﺎ� ﻟﻮ ي‬
‫ي‬ even parity‫ ﻫ�ﻘﺪر �ﻜتﺸﻒ ان ﻓ�ﻪ ﺧﻄﺄ ﺣﺼﻞ ﻻﻧﻪ ﻋﺎرف اﻧﻪ ﺷﻐﺎل بﺎل‬reciever‫ال‬
‫ �ﻌىن ﺣﺼﻞ ﺧﻄﺄﻳﻦ‬2bits �‫ ﻃ�ﺐ ﻓﺮﺿﺎ اﻟﺨﻄﺄ ﺣﺼﻞ ض ي‬... ‫ﻓﺮدي ﻫ�ﻘﻮل ان ﻓ�ﻪ ﺧﻄﺄ وﻟ�ﻦ ﻣ�ﻘﺪرش �ﺼﻠﺢ اﻟﺨﻄﺄ‬
‫ ﻻن ﻟﻤﺎ ﺣﺼﻞ ﺧﻄﺄﻳﻦ‬.... ‫ ﻟ�ﻪ‬.... ‫ ﻻ‬....‫ ﻫ�ﻘﺪر �ﻜتﺸﻒ اﻟﺨﻄﺄ؟؟‬reciever‫ ﻫﻞ ال‬... 01010101 ‫و�� اﻟ�ﻮد ﻛﺪة‬ ‫ق‬
‫و� ﻣ�ﻘﺪرش اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘبﻞ �ﻜتﺸﻔﻪ ف‬ ‫ق‬
‫�ﻌى ﻣﺜﻼ‬ ‫ دە ﻣﻌﻨﺎە ان ﻋﺪد اﻻﺧﻄﺄ اﻟﺰ ب ي‬... ‫زو� و�ﺎﻟنﺴبﺎﻟﻪ دە ﺻﺢ‬
‫ب� ﻋﺪد اﻟﻮﺣﺎ�ﺪ ب ي‬
even parity‫ وﻫﻜﺬا ﻟ�ﻦ ﻋﺪد اﻷﺧﻄﺎء اﻟﻔﺮدي �ﻘﺪر �ﻜتﺸﻒ وﻟﻮ ﻋﻤﻠﺖ ﻧﻔﺲ اﻟﻤﺜﺎل بﺎل‬٦ ‫ او‬٤ ‫ﻟﻮ ﺣﺼﻞ ﺧﻄﺄﻳﻦ او‬
.‫ﻫﺘﻼ� ﺑﺮﺿﻮ ﻧﻔﺲ اﻟ�ﻼم‬‫ت‬
‫ي‬
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

4) Binary Logic:
We study the binary logic as foundation for designing and analyzing digital systems.

Binary logic consists of binary logical variables and a set of binary logical operations. Each
binary variable takes one or two discrete values: 1 and 0.

The binary variables are designated by letters of the alphabet, such as A, B, C, x, y, z, etc.

There are three basic logic gates or operators (AND, OR, and NOT) implement the logical
operations. we use the following notation for them:

 AND is denoted by a dot (·)

 OR is denoted by a plus (+)
 NOT is denoted by an over bar (¯) the variable.

Notation examples:

 Y = A ∙ B is read “Y is equal to A AND B.”

 z = x + y is read “z is equal to x OR y.”
 X = 𝐴𝐴 is read “X is equal to NOT A.”

�‫ اﻟ‬digital circuits‫ ﻋﺸﺎن ﻧﻌﺮف ﻧﺼﻤﻢ ال‬NOT‫ وال‬OR‫ وال‬AND‫ بﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪام ال‬binary logic‫اﺣﻨﺎ ﺑﻨﺪرس ال‬
.‫� اﻟﺪواﻳﺮ اﻟ�ﻬ���ﺔ‬
‫ي‬
Page 53 of 61
 ‫وﻋﻨﺪي ﻓﺎل‪ binary logic‬ﻓ�ﻪ ‪ binary variables‬وﻓ�ﻪ ‪binary operations:‬‬

‫ﻓ�ﻤﺘن اﻣﺎ ‪ 0‬او‪ .1‬وال‪ variables‬دي فﺑ�ﻣﺰﻟﻬﺎ بﺤﺮوف ﻋﺎدي ﺟﺪا‬

‫يف‬ ‫‪ ‬ال‪ variables‬بﻤﺎ اﻧﻬﺎ ‪ binary‬ت‬
‫ﻳب� ﺑﺘﺎﺧﺪ‬
‫�ﻌىن ‪ A, B, C‬وﻫﻜﺬا‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬وال‪ binary operations‬او ﺑنﺴﻤﻴﻬﺎ ‪ Binary gates‬ﻫﻤﺎ ال‪ AND‬وال‪ OR‬وال‪ NOT‬وﻟﻴﻬﻢ رﻣﻮز ‪...‬‬
‫ف‬
‫ال‪ AND‬رﻣﺰﻫﺎ ﻋبﺎرة ﻋﻦ )‪ (.‬ﻓﻠﻤﺎ أﻗﻮل ‪ A.B‬ﻣﻌﻨﺎﻫﺎ ‪ A AND B‬وﻟﻮ ﻓﺎ���ﻦ ي� ال‪ CS500‬ﻗﻮﻟﻨﺎ ان ال‪AND‬‬
‫كﺎي بﻘﻮل ‪ ... A x B‬وﻗﻮﻟﻨﺎ ﺑﺮﺿﻮ ﻗبﻞ ﻛﺪة ان ال‪ OR‬ﻋبﺎرة ﻋﻦ ﺟﻤﻊ‬‫ن‬ ‫ض‬
‫ﻋبﺎرة ﻋﻦ �ب وﻓﻌﻼ ﻟﻤﺎ أﻗﻮل ‪ A.B‬ي‬
‫ﻋﺸﺎن ﻛﺪة رﻣﺰﻫﺎ ﻫ�ﻜﻮن ﻋﻼﻣﺔ اﻟﺰاﺋﺪ )‪ (+‬وال‪ NOT‬ﻛﻨﺎ ﺑﻨﺤﻂ ﻋﻼﻣﺔ ﻓﻮق اﻟﺤﺮف ﻋﺸﺎن ﻧﺮﻣﻮز ﻟﻞ‪... NOT‬‬
‫ض‬
‫ﻓﺎﻟﻤﺤﺎ�ة ﺑ�ﺴﺘﺨﺪم ال)¯(‪ .‬ﺷﻮف ال ‪Notation‬‬ ‫ﻓﻜﻨﺎ ﺑﻨﺤﻂ )‘( او ﺳﺎﻋﺎت كﺎﻧﺎ ﺑﻨﺤﻂ )^( ﻟ�ﻦ اﻟﺪﻛﺘﻮر‬
‫‪.Examples‬‬
‫‪1) Operator Definitions‬‬

‫ﻃبﻌﺎ دي كﻠﻨﺎ ﻋﺎرﻓﻴﻨﻬﺎ ‪ ...‬ان ‪ AND‬أي ﺣﺎﺟﺔ ﻣﻊ ال‪ 0‬بﺼﻔﺮ ف‬

‫�ﻌئ اﻟﺼﻔﺮ ﻫﻮ اﻟﺴﺎﺋﺪ وال‪ expression‬كﻠﻪ ﻣﻴبﻘﺎش‬
‫ﻏ� ﻟﻤﺎ ال‪ 2 operands‬ﺑﺘ�ع ال‪ AND‬ﻳبﻘﻮ ب‪ .1‬وال‪ OR‬اﻟﻮاﺣﺪ ﻫﻮ اﻟﺴﺎﺋﺪ وﻣﻴبﻘﺎش بﺼﻔﺮ ي‬
‫ﻏ� ﻟﻤﺎ ال ‪2‬‬ ‫ب‪ ١‬ي‬
‫‪ operands‬ﻳبﻘﻮ ب‪ 0‬وﻃبﻌﺎ ال‪ NOT‬ﻣﻌﺮوف‪.‬‬

‫‪2) Truth Tables‬‬

‫‪Tabular listing of the values of a function for all possible combinations of values on its‬‬
‫‪arguments‬‬

‫ذي ﻣﺎ ﻋﺮﻓﻨﺎ ف ي� ال‪ MS521‬ان ال‪ Truth table‬ﺑﻴﻮﺿﺢ كﻞ ال‪ Inputs‬اﻟﻤﺤﺘﻤﻞ دﺧﻮﻟﻬﺎ ف ي� ‪ circut‬ﻣﻌﻴﻨﺔ وكﻞ‬
‫ال‪ outputs‬اﻟﻤﺤﺘﻤﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ ال‪ inputs‬دي‪.‬‬
‫‪Example: Truth tables for the basic logic operations:‬‬
‫‪AND‬‬ ‫‪AND‬‬ ‫‪AND‬‬
‫‪X‬‬ ‫‪Y‬‬ ‫𝑌𝑌 ⋅ 𝑋𝑋 = 𝑧𝑧‬ ‫‪X‬‬ ‫‪Y‬‬ ‫𝑌𝑌 ‪𝑧𝑧 = 𝑋𝑋 +‬‬ ‫‪X‬‬ ‫𝑋𝑋 = 𝑧𝑧‬
‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬

‫–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––‬
‫‪Example 1:‬‬
‫‪Evaluate any logic function using Truth Table‬‬
‫𝒁𝒁𝒀𝒀 ‪𝑭𝑭(𝑿𝑿, 𝒀𝒀, 𝒁𝒁) = 𝑿𝑿𝑿𝑿 +‬‬
‫‪Solution:‬‬
‫‪Page 54 of 61‬‬
 ‫𝑿𝑿‬ ‫𝒀𝒀‬ ‫𝒁𝒁‬ ‫𝒀𝒀 𝑿𝑿‬ ‫𝒀𝒀‬ ‫𝒁𝒁 𝒀𝒀‬ ‫𝒁𝒁 𝒀𝒀 ‪𝑭𝑭 = 𝑿𝑿 𝒀𝒀 +‬‬
‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬
‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬
‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫ف‬
‫ﻣﺘﻐ� ‪ ...‬وﻫﻨﺤﺪد ﻋﺪد‬
‫ي‬ ‫ﻃ��ﻘﺔ ﻋﻤﻞ ال‪ ... Truth table‬ﺷبﻪ اﻟ� اﺗﻌﻤﻠﻨﺎﻫﺎ ي� ال‪ ... MS521‬ﻫنﺸﻮف ﻋﻨﺪﻧﺎ كﺎم‬
‫ﻫﻴب� ﻋﻨﺪي ‪� 23‬ﻌىن ‪8 inputs‬‬‫ال‪ Inputs‬واﻟ� ﺑتﺴﺎوي 𝑛𝑛‪ 2‬و‪ � n‬ﻋﺪد اﻟﻤﺘﻐ�ات ‪ ...‬ﻓبﻤﺎ ان ﻋﻨﺪي ‪ ٣‬ﻣﺘﻐ�ات ت‬
‫ي‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ي‬
‫ن‬ ‫ف‬
‫ﻟﻠ�ﻤن ‪ x y z‬ذي‬‫ي‬ ‫اﻟﺸﻤﺎل‬ ‫ﻣﻦ‬ ‫ﻋﻮاﻣ�ﺪ‬ ‫‪٣‬‬ ‫اول‬ ‫�‬‫ي‬ ‫ﻣﺜﻼ‬ ‫‪ ...‬ﻫﻨﻜﺘﺒﻬﻢ اذاي ‪ ...‬ﻃبﻌﺎ ﻫﻨﻜﺘﺐ‬
‫اﻟﺠﺪول ﻛﺪة بﺎﻟﻈبﻂ ‪ ...‬وﻫﺘﻌﻤﻞ ﺣﺎﺟﺔ ﻣﻦ ‪ ... ٢‬اﻣﺎ اﻧﻚ ﺗبﺪا ﻣﻦ ﻋﻨﺪ ال‪ z‬وﺗﻜﺘﺐ ﺻﻔﺮ‬
‫ﺗ�ب اﻟﺼﻔ��ﻦ ض ي�‪٢‬‬ ‫واﺣﺪ ﺻﻔﺮ واﺣﺪ ﻟﺤﺪ اﻻﺧﺮ و�ﻌﺪ ﻛﺪة ﺗبﺪا بﺼﻔ��ﻦ و�ﻌﺪ ﻛﺪة ض‬
‫ﻫﻴب� ‪ ٤‬اﺻﻔﺎر و‪ ٤‬وﺣﺎ�ﺪ ‪ ...‬اﻣﺎ اﻧﻚ ﻫﺘﻘﺴﻢ ﻋﺪد‬ ‫ق‬ ‫اﻷﺧ�‬ ‫ﻓﻴبﻘﻮ ‪ ٤‬ﻟﺤﺪ اﻟﺼﻒ‬
‫ي‬
‫ق‬
‫اﻻﺣﺘﻤﺎﻻت ﺑﺘﺎﻋﺔ ال‪ inputs‬اﻟ� ﻫﻮ ال‪ ٨‬ﻋ� ‪ ٢‬ﻓﻴب� ‪ ٤‬ﻓﺘﻜبﺖ ﻓﺎول ﻋﻤﻮد ‪ ٤‬اﺻﻔﺎر‬
‫ﻓﻴب� ﺻﻔ��ﻦ ق‬
‫و�ب�‬ ‫و�ﻌﺪە ‪ ٤‬وﺣﺎ�ﺪ و�ﻌﺪ ﻛﺪة ﺗﻘﺴﻢ ﻋﺪد اﻻﺻﻔﺎر اﻟ� ﻫﻮ ﻋ� ‪ ٤‬ﻋ� ‪ ٢‬ق‬
‫اﻟﻌﻤﻮد اﻟ� بﻌﺪە ﺗﻜﺘﺐ ﺻﻔ��ﻦ وواﺣﺪﻳﻦ وﺻﻔ��ﻦ وواﺣﺪﻳﻦ وﻫﻜﺬا‪ .‬و�ﻌﺪ ﻛﺪة ﻫﺘبﺪا‬
‫‪Scan To watch‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ال ‪ AND‬وال‪ OR‬ذي ﻣﺎ اﺗﻌﻠﻤﻨﺎ ﻗبﻞ ﻛﺪة‪.‬‬
‫ﻟﻮ ﻣﻔﻬﻤتﺶ ﻗﻮي ﺷﻮف اﻟﻔ�ﺪﻳﻮ دە )‪ (http://bit.ly/truth_table‬ش‬
‫ﻟ�ح ال‪ Truth table‬ﻓﻘﻂ‬
‫‪Notes:‬‬
‫‪The order of evaluation is:‬‬
‫‪ Parentheses‬‬
‫‪ NOT‬‬
‫‪ AND‬‬
‫‪ OR‬‬
‫ف‬
‫ا� ﻛ��ﺲ ﻗﻮي اﻻﺳبﻘ�ﺔ اﺛﻨﺎء ﻋﻤﻞ ال‪ truth table‬وﻛﺬﻟﻚ ي� رﺳﻢ ال‪ logic diagrams‬ذي ﻣﺎ‬
‫ﻃبﻌﺎ ﻻزم ﻧﺮ ي‬
‫ﻫنﺸﻮف‬

‫‪3) Logic Gates‬‬

‫‪The logical operations are represented by logic gates. The logic gate is an electronic circuit‬‬
‫‪that accepts one or more input signals to produce an output.‬‬

‫‪The symbols of the logical gates are:‬‬

‫‪Page 55 of 61‬‬
 ‫ او ت‬one input ‫ ﺑﺘﺎﺧﺪ‬AND‫ ال‬... ‫ اﺛﻨﺎء رﺳﻢ اﻟﺪواﻳﺮ اﻟ�ﻬ���ﺔ‬logical gates‫دول رﻣﻮز ال‬
‫ واﺣﺪ‬output ‫ا�� و�ﺘﺪي‬
‫ واﺣﺪ‬Output ‫ و�ﺘﺨ�ج‬one input ‫ ﺑﺘﺎﺧﺪ‬NOT‫ ﻟ�ﻦ ال‬OR‫وﻛﺬﻟﻚ ال‬

And signal behavior in time as follows:

.‫ ﺑﺮﺿﻮ‬truth table‫و� ف ي� اﻟﺪاﻳﺮاة وﺗﻼﺣﻆ ان دي ﻋبﺎرة ﻋﻦ ال‬

‫ ي‬signal‫ﻫﻨﺎ ﻋﺎﻳﺰ ﻳﻮر�ﻨﺎ ﺷكﻞ ال‬

4) Logic Diagrams and Expressions

... MS521‫ ﺑﻨﻔﺲ اﻟﻄ��ﻘﺔ اﻟ� اﺗﻌﻠﻤﻨﺎﻫﺎ ف ي� ال‬... logical circuit‫ﻫﻨﺎ ﻫﻨﺘﻌﻠﻢ اذاي ﻧﺮﺳﻢ ال‬
We get logic diagram or circuit from the truth table.
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Example 2:
Evaluate any logic function using Truth Table and draw the logic diagram
𝑭𝑭 = 𝑿𝑿 + 𝒀𝒀𝒁𝒁
Solution:
X Y Z 𝑭𝑭 = 𝑿𝑿 + 𝒀𝒀𝒁𝒁
000 0
001 1
010 0
011 0
100 1
101 1
110 1
111 1

Page 56 of 61
 ‫ف‬ ‫ف‬
‫ ﺑﻨﻌﻤﻠﻬﺎ‬... ‫ﻛﺘ�ة‬
‫ﻣﺘﻐ�ات ي‬
‫ﻛﺒ�ة ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ي‬
‫ ي‬logic circuit ‫ﻓ�ﻪ ﻃ��ﻘﺔ رﺳﻢ ﺗﺎﻧ�ﺔ ﺑﺘﻜﻮن اﺳﻬﻞ واﺣ� ﺧﺼﻮﺻﺎ ي� ﻟﻮ ﻫ�ﺳﻢ‬
‫اذاي‬
𝑋𝑋 𝑌𝑌 𝑍𝑍

𝑿𝑿

𝒀𝒀 𝑭𝑭 = 𝑿𝑿 + 𝒀𝒀Z
𝒀𝒀Z
𝒁𝒁

�‫ﻣﺘﻐ‬
‫ي‬ ‫ ﻓﻬﻨﻌﻤﻞ ﺳﻠ�ﺔ ﺗﺤﺖ كﻞ‬NOT‫ او ب‬NOT �‫ﻏ‬ ‫ﻣﺘﻐ� اﻣﺎ اﻧﻪ �ﻜﻮن ﻣﻦ ي‬
‫ي‬ ‫ بﻤﺎ ان كﻞ‬... ‫ﻓﺎﻟﻄ��ﻘﺔ دي ﺑﻨﻌﻤﻞ ا�ﻪ‬
‫اﻟ�ﺒ�ة‬
‫ي‬ ‫ وﻫﺘﻄﻠﻊ اﺳﻼك ﻋ� ﺣﺴﺐ اﻟﻤﻌﺎدﻟﺔ اﻟ� ﻋﻨﺪك �ﺲ ﻻزم ﺗﺤﻂ اﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ‬NOT‫ وﻓ�ع ب‬NOT �‫ﻏ‬ ‫ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﻓ�ع ﻣﻦ ي‬
.Gate‫اﻟﻤﺘﻐ� ﻣﻊ ﻓ�ع اﻟﺴﻠﻚ اﻟ� ﻫ�ﺪﺧﻞ ﻋ� ال‬
‫ي‬ ‫ذي اﻟ� اﻧﺎ ﺣﺎﻃﻄﻬﺎ ﻋ� ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺗﻘﺎﻃﻊ اﻟﺴﻠﻚ ﺑﺘﺎع‬

 Boolean equations, truth tables and logic diagrams describe the same function!
 Truth tables are unique, but expressions and logic diagrams are not. This gives
flexibility in implementing functions.

‫ كﻠﻬﻢ ﺑﻴﻮﺻﻔﻮا ﻧﻔﺲ‬logic diagrams‫ وال‬utrth tables‫ وال‬Boolean equations‫اﻟ�ﻼم دە ﺑ�ﻘﻮل ان ال‬
‫ او ف‬function‫ال‬
.output‫�ﻌى كﻠﻬﻢ ﺑﻴﻮﺻﻠﻮ ﻟﻨﻔﺲ ال‬

‫ واﺣﺪ ﻓﻘﻂ ذي اﻟبﺼﻤﺔ‬truth table ‫ ﻟ�ﻪ‬function ‫ ﻣﺒتﺘﻜﺮش بﻤﻌىن ان كﻞ‬Truth table‫ﻟ�ﻦ ﺑ�ﻘﻮل ان ال‬
‫يف‬
‫بﻄﺮﻗﺘن‬ ‫ﺷكﻠن ﻟ�ﻦ اﻟﺮﺳﻢ ﻣﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﺮﺳﻢ ت‬
‫بﺎ�� ﻣﻦ ﺷكﻞ ذي ﻣﺎ اﻟﻤﺜﺎل اﻟ� ﺷﻮﻓﻨﺎە اﺣﻨﺎ رﺳﻤﻨﺎ‬ ‫يف‬ ‫ﻣﻴﻨﻔﻌﺶ �ﻜﻮن ﻟ�ﻪ‬
‫ف‬
.‫ بﻌﺪ ﺷ��ﺔ‬simplification‫ﻳﺘﻐ� ذي ﻣﺎ ﻫنﺸﻮف ي� ال‬
‫ او اﻟﻤﻌﺎدﻟﺔ ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ ﺷكﻠﻬﺎ ي‬expression‫وكﻤﺎن ال‬

5) Logical Gate Delay:

In actual physical gates, if an input changes that causes the output to change, the output
change does not occur instantaneously.

The delay between an input change and the output change is the gate delay denoted by
𝑡𝑡𝐺𝐺 :

Page 57 of 61
‫ ذي اﻟﺮﺳﻤﺔ‬١‫ ل‬٠ ‫ﻳﺘﻐ� ﻣﺜﻼ ﻣﻦ‬ ‫ت‬
‫ ي‬Input‫دﻟﻮﻗى ﻟﻤﺎ ال‬ ... ‫ بﻤﻌىن ا�ﻪ‬... logical gate‫اﻟﺘﺎﺧ� ف ي� ال‬
‫ي‬ ‫ﻫﻨﺎ ﺑيﺘكﻠﻢ ﻋﻦ‬
‫ ذي‬... ‫ﺻﻐ�ة ﺟﺪا ﺟﺪا‬ ‫ت‬
‫ﻫﻴﺘﻐ� بﻌﺪ ﻓ�ة‬ ‫ﻣﺸﻬﻴﺘﻐ� ﻟﺤﻈ�ﺎ ﻟ�ﻦ‬ ‫ﻫﻴﺘﻐ� ﻫﻮ كﻤﺎن وﻟ�ﻦ‬ Output‫ﻃﺒ�� ان ال‬ ‫دي‬
‫ي‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ي‬
delay‫� ال‬ ‫ت‬
‫ﺻﻐ�ة اﻟ� ي‬
‫ي‬ ‫ وﻟ�ﻦ بﻌﺪ ﻓ�ة‬١‫ ل‬٠ ‫اﺗﻐ� ﻣﻦ‬
‫ ﺑﺮﺿﻮ ي‬output‫ ال‬١‫ ل‬٠ ‫اﺗﻐ� ﻣﻦ‬ ‫ ي‬input‫اﻟﺮﺳﻤﺔ ﻣﺜﻼ ﻟﻤﺎ ال‬
‫ن‬
‫واﻟﺘﺎﺧ� دە‬
‫ي‬ ‫ �ﻌىن اﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺛﺎﻧ�ﺔ ي‬0.3 nanosecond ‫ كﺎن ﻋبﺎرة ﻋﻦ‬delay‫و��ﻣﺰﻟﻬﺎ بﺎﻟﺮﻣﺰ 𝐺𝐺𝑡𝑡 وﻓﺎﻟﺮﺳﻤﺔ ﻣﺜﻼ ال‬
�‫بﻜﺘ‬
.‫ﻃبﻌﺎ ﻣﺸﻤﻠﻮﺣﻆ ﻗﻮي وﻣﺒ�ﻌﻤﻠﺶ ﻣﺸكﻠﺔ‬
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
5) Binary Algebra:
 Invented by George Boole in 1854
 An algebraic structure defined by a set B = {0, 1}, together with two binary operators
(+ and ·) and a unary operator (¯)

‫ﻣﺘﻐ�ات‬
‫ي‬ �‫ وﻛﺘﺐ رﻣﻮزﻫﻢ ﺑ�ﺸﺘﻐﻠﻮ ﻋ‬NOT‫ وال‬OR‫ وال‬AND‫ اﻟ� ﻫﻤﺎ ال‬3 operators ‫ﻫﻨﺎ ﺑ�ﻘﻮل ان ﻓ�ﻪ ﻋﻨﺪي‬
‫ض‬ ‫ض‬ ‫يض‬ ‫يض‬
... ‫ﻗﻮاﻧن ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺔ او ﻧﻘﻮل ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﻣﺴﻠﻤﺎت‬
�‫اﻟﻘﻮاﻧن دي اﺣﻨﺎ اﺧﺪﻧﺎﻫﺎ ﻓﺎﺧﺮم ﺣﺎ�ة ي‬ ‫ وﻓ�ﻪ‬١ ‫ او‬٠ ‫ﺑﺘﺎﺧﺪ اﻟﻘ�ﻢ‬
.logical equation‫ او ﺗبﺴ�ﻂ ﻟﻠﻤﻌﺎدﻻت او ال‬simplification ‫ واﺳﺘﺨﺪﻣﻨﺎﻫﺎ ﻋﺸﺎن ﻧﻌﻤﻞ‬MS521‫ال‬
RULE NAME RULE
𝑋𝑋 + 0 = 𝑋𝑋 𝑋𝑋 ⋅ 1 = 𝑋𝑋
Identity element
𝑋𝑋 + 1 = 1 𝑋𝑋 ⋅ 0 = 0
Idempotence 𝑋𝑋 + 𝑋𝑋 = 𝑋𝑋 𝑋𝑋 ⋅ 𝑋𝑋 = 𝑋𝑋
Complement 𝑋𝑋 + 𝑋𝑋 = 1 𝑋𝑋 ⋅ 𝑋𝑋 = 0
Involution 𝑋𝑋 = 𝑋𝑋
Commutative 𝑋𝑋 + 𝑌𝑌 = 𝑌𝑌 + 𝑋𝑋 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 = 𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌
Associative (𝑋𝑋 + 𝑌𝑌) + 𝑍𝑍 = 𝑋𝑋 + (𝑌𝑌 + 𝑍𝑍) (𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋)𝑍𝑍 = 𝑋𝑋(𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌)
Distributive 𝑋𝑋(𝑌𝑌 + 𝑍𝑍) = 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 + 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 𝑋𝑋 + 𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌 = (𝑋𝑋 + 𝑌𝑌)(𝑋𝑋 + 𝑍𝑍)
DeMorgan’s 𝑋𝑋 + 𝑌𝑌 = 𝑋𝑋 ⋅ 𝑌𝑌 𝑋𝑋 ⋅ 𝑌𝑌 = 𝑋𝑋 + 𝑌𝑌
‫يف‬
.(http://bit.ly/BinaryAlgebra)‫اﻟﻘﻮاﻧن دي‬ ‫ﻣﻤﻜﻦ �ﺸﻮف اﻟﻔ�ﺪﻳﻮ دە ﻟﺘبﺴ�ﻂ‬

Boolean Algebra is defined in general by a set B that can have more

than two values.

A two-valued Boolean algebra is also known as Switching Algebra.

The Boolean set B is restricted to 0 and 1. Switching circuits can be
represented by this algebra.

The dual of an algebraic expression is obtained by interchanging + Scan To watch

and · and interchanging 0‟s and 1‟s. The identities appear in dual
pairs. When there is only one identity on a line the identity is self-dual, i. e., the dual
expression = the original expression.

Sometimes, the dot symbol (⋅) (AND operator) is not written when the meaning is clear.

Page 58 of 61
 ‫ين‬
‫ﻗ�ﻤﺘن واﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ دي ﺑ�ﻜﻮن رﻣﺰﻫﺎ ‪ B‬وﻟ�ﻦ‬ ‫ﻫﻨﺎ ﺑ�ﻘﻮل ان ال‪ Boolean algebra‬ﻋبﺎرة ﻋﻦ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ ت‬
‫ا�� ﻣﻦ‬
‫و�ﺎﻟﺘﺎ� اﺣﻨﺎ ﺑنﺘكﻠﻢ ﻋﻦ ‪Boolean algebra‬‬ ‫يف‬
‫ﻗ�ﻤﺘن ﻓﻘﻂ ‪ ...‬ﻫﻤﺎ ال‪ 0‬وال‪1‬‬ ‫ﻫﻨﺎ اﺣﻨﺎ ﺑنﺘكﻠﻢ ﻋﻦ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺔ ﻣﻦ‬
‫ي‬
‫ﻣﻌ��ﻦ ﻋﻦ ال‪Switch on‬‬ ‫ﻗ�ﻤﺘن وﻣﻤﻜﻦ �ﺴﻤﻴﻬﺎ ‪ switching algebra‬بﺎﻋﺘبﺎر ان ال‪ 0‬وال‪ 1‬ب‬ ‫ين‬ ‫ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺔ ﻣﻦ‬
‫ف‬
‫ﺑ�ﻌ�و ﻋﻨﻬﺎ بﺎل‪.algebra‬‬
‫وال‪ switch off‬ي� ال‪ circuits‬او اﻟﺪواﺋﺮ اﻟ�ﻬ���ﺔ اﻟ� ب‬
‫ئ‬
‫اﻟﺜﻨﺎئ ﺑﺘﺎﻋﻪ ودە ﻋبﺎرة ﻋﻦ ﻧﻔﺲ ال‪expression‬‬ ‫�ﻌئ‬‫ﻓ�ﻪ ﻋﻨﺪي ﺣﺎﺟﺔ اﺳﻤﻬﺎ ‪ dual‬ﻟ�ﻞ ‪ algebraic expression‬ف‬
‫ي‬
‫ﻟﻠﻤﺘﻐ� �ﻌىن‬
‫ي‬ ‫و�ﻨﻐ� ال‪ or‬ل‪ and‬وال‪ and‬ل‪ or‬وﻟ�ﻦ ﻣﺸبﻨﺠ�ﺐ ال‪NOT‬‬ ‫ي‬ ‫�ﺲ ﺑﻨﻘﻠﺐ اﻟﺼﻔﺮ ﻟﻮاﺣﺪ واﻟﻮاﺣﺪ ﻟﺼﻔﺮ‬
‫ف‬ ‫ف‬
‫ﻣﺜﻼ ‪ X+0=X‬ال‪ dual‬ﺑﺘﺎﻋﻬﺎ ﻫﻮ ال𝑋𝑋 = ‪ 𝑋𝑋 ⋅ 1‬و��ﻘﻮل أﺣ�ﺎﻧﺎ ﻋﻼﻣﺔ ال)⋅( ﻣﺸبﺘﺘﻜﺘﺐ ﻟﻤﺎ �ﻜﻮن اﻟﻤﻌى ﻣﻔﻬﻮم �ﻌى‬
‫ا��ﺪ ﻟﻤﺎ ا�ﺘﺐ ‪ XY‬ﻣﻔﻬﻮم اﻧﻬﺎ ‪.X AND Y‬‬
‫‪Examples:‬‬
‫‪Function‬‬ ‫‪Dual‬‬
‫𝟎𝟎 ‪𝑭𝑭 = (𝑨𝑨 + 𝑪𝑪) · 𝑩𝑩 +‬‬ ‫𝐵𝐵 ‪𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐹𝐹 = (𝐴𝐴 · 𝐶𝐶) + 𝐵𝐵 · 1 = 𝐴𝐴 · 𝐶𝐶 +‬‬
‫)𝒁𝒁 ‪𝑮𝑮 = 𝑿𝑿 · 𝒀𝒀 + (𝑾𝑾 +‬‬ ‫)𝑍𝑍 ‪𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐺𝐺 = (𝑋𝑋 + 𝑌𝑌) · (𝑊𝑊 ⋅ 𝑍𝑍) = (𝑋𝑋 + 𝑌𝑌) · (𝑊𝑊 +‬‬
‫𝑪𝑪 · 𝑩𝑩 ‪𝑯𝑯 = 𝑨𝑨 · 𝑩𝑩 + 𝑨𝑨 · 𝑪𝑪 +‬‬ ‫)𝐶𝐶 ‪𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐻𝐻 = (𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵) · (𝐴𝐴 + 𝐶𝐶) · (𝐵𝐵 +‬‬

‫‪Unless it happens to be self-dual, the dual of an expression does not equal the expression‬‬
‫‪itself Are any of these functions self-dual? H is self-dual‬‬

‫𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 ‪(𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵)(𝐴𝐴 + 𝐶𝐶)(𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶) = (𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵)(𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶) = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 +‬‬

‫ﻫﻨﺎ ﺑ�ﺪي اﻣﺜﻠﺔ ﻋ� ال‪ Dual‬وﻻزم ﻧﻌﺮف اﻧﻚ ﻟﻮ ﻋﻤﻠﺖ ‪ Truth table‬ﻟﻞ‪ function‬وال‪ dual‬ﺑﺘﺎﻋﻬﺎ ﻫﺘﻼﻗﻴﻬﻢ‬
‫و�‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎل ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ي‬ ‫ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔن وﻟﻮ كﺎن ال‪ truth table‬واﺣﺪ ف ي� ال‪ ٢‬ﻫﻨﻘﻮل ﻋ� ال‪ function‬اﻧﻬﺎ ‪ .self dual‬وﻣﺪي‬
‫يف‬
‫ت‬
‫ﻫﺘﻼ� ﻫﻮ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ‬
‫ي‬ ‫ال‪ Function‬اﻟ� اﺳﻤﻬﺎ ‪ H‬دي ﻋبﺎرة ﻋﻦ ‪ ... self dual‬ﻓﻤﺜﻼ ﻟﻮ ﻋﻤﻠﺖ ال‪ Truth table‬ﻟﻞ‪H‬‬
‫ال‪ truth table‬ﺑﺘﺎع ال‪.dual H‬‬
‫–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––‬
‫‪Example 3:‬‬
‫‪Proof that‬‬
‫𝑨𝑨 = 𝑩𝑩 · 𝑨𝑨 ‪𝑨𝑨 +‬‬ ‫)‪(Absorption Theorem‬‬
‫‪Solution:‬‬
‫‪Proof Steps‬‬ ‫‪Justification‬‬
‫𝐵𝐵 · 𝐴𝐴 ‪𝐴𝐴 +‬‬
‫𝐵𝐵 · 𝐴𝐴 ‪= 𝐴𝐴 · 1 +‬‬ ‫‪Identity element: A · 1 = A‬‬
‫)𝐵𝐵 ‪= 𝐴𝐴 · ( 1 +‬‬ ‫‪Distributive and 1 + B = 1‬‬
‫‪= 𝐴𝐴 · 1‬‬ ‫‪Identity element‬‬
‫𝐴𝐴 =‬
‫ث�ح اﻷﻣﺜﻠﺔ دي ف ي� اﻟﻔ�ﺪﻳﻮ دە ‪http://bit.ly/BinaryAlgebraEx‬‬

‫‪Scan To watch‬‬

‫‪Page 59 of 61‬‬
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Example 4:
Proof that
𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 + 𝑨𝑨𝑪𝑪 + 𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩 = 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 + 𝑨𝑨𝑪𝑪 (Consensus Theorem)
Solution:
Proof Steps Justification
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶 + 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
= 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶 + 1 · 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 Identity element
= 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶 + (𝐴𝐴 + 𝐴𝐴) · 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 Complement
Distributive
= 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶 + 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝐴𝐴𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
Commutative
= 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶 + 𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
Identity element
= 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 · 1 + 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶 · 1 + 𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 Distributive
= 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 (1 + 𝐶𝐶) + 𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶 (1 + 𝐵𝐵) 1+X = 1
= 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 . 1 + 𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶 . 1 Identity element
= 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Example 5:
Proof that
𝑿𝑿 + 𝑿𝑿 𝒀𝒀 = 𝑿𝑿 + 𝒀𝒀 (Simplification Theorem)
Solution:
Proof Steps Justification
𝑋𝑋 + (𝑋𝑋 𝑌𝑌)
= (𝑋𝑋 + 𝑋𝑋)(𝑋𝑋 + 𝑌𝑌) Distributive
= 1 ⋅ (𝑋𝑋 + 𝑌𝑌) Complement
= (𝑋𝑋 + 𝑌𝑌)

Useful Theorems
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 ∶
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴:
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷’𝑠𝑠
𝑋𝑋 𝑌𝑌 + 𝑋𝑋 𝑌𝑌 = 𝑌𝑌 Minimization (dual) (𝑋𝑋 + 𝑌𝑌)(𝑋𝑋 + 𝑌𝑌) = 𝑌𝑌
𝑋𝑋 + 𝑋𝑋 𝑌𝑌 = 𝑋𝑋 Absorption (dual) 𝑋𝑋 · (𝑋𝑋 + 𝑌𝑌) = 𝑋𝑋
𝑋𝑋 + 𝑋𝑋 𝑌𝑌 = 𝑋𝑋 + 𝑌𝑌 Simplification (dual) 𝑋𝑋 · (𝑋𝑋 + 𝑌𝑌) = 𝑋𝑋 · 𝑌𝑌
𝑋𝑋 + 𝑌𝑌 = 𝑋𝑋 · 𝑌𝑌 DeMorgan’s (dual) 𝑋𝑋 · 𝑌𝑌 = 𝑋𝑋 + 𝑌𝑌

Truth Table to Verify DeMorgan’s

𝑿𝑿 𝒀𝒀 𝑿𝑿 · 𝒀𝒀 𝑿𝑿 + 𝒀𝒀 𝑿𝑿 𝒀𝒀 𝑿𝑿 + 𝒀𝒀 𝑿𝑿 · 𝒀𝒀 𝑿𝑿 · 𝒀𝒀 𝑿𝑿 + 𝒀𝒀
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

Complementing Functions
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Use DeMorgan's Theorem:
 Interchange AND and OR operators
 Complement each constant and literal
Example: Complement 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦𝑧𝑧 + 𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 𝑧𝑧
𝐹𝐹 = (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑧𝑧)(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑧𝑧)

Example: Complement 𝐺𝐺 = (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 )𝑑𝑑 + 𝑒𝑒

𝐺𝐺 = �𝑎𝑎 �𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐� + 𝑑𝑑�𝑒𝑒

‫ ﻟ�ﻦ كﻤﺎن ﺑ�ﺠ�ﺐ‬AND‫ ل‬OR‫ﺑ�ﻐ� ال‬

‫ي‬ ‫ �ﻌىن ﻣﺸبﺲ‬complement �‫�ﻌﺘ‬
‫ب‬ ‫ﻫﻨﺎ ﺑ�ﻘﻮل ان ﻗﺎﻧﻮن د�ﻤﻮرﺟﺎن‬
.NOT‫ﻟﻠﻤﺘﻐ� �ﻌىن ﺑ�ﺤﻂ ﻋﻠ�ﻪ ﻋﻼﻣﺔ ال‬
‫ي‬ complement‫ال‬

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