An Overview of Acoustics and Lighting

Design in architecture
Course Manual

By:
Ar. Christopher P. Luna, uap.

2015 Edition
The use of this document is authorized for academic purposes only. The
copyrights reside with respective publishers, and any unauthorized distribution
is against the copyright law. All the information provided in the course manual is
intended for informational purposes only and should not be used to replace
other official documents.
BUILDING UTILITIES 3:
Introduction to Acoustical Systems
By: Ar. Chris Luna, uap
Acoustics is the study of how sounds are
created, transmitted and received. The branch
of Physics that deals with the production,
control, transmission, reception and effects of
sound waves
Room Acoustics
The qualities or characteristics of a room,
auditorium or concert hall that determine the
audibility of speech or fidelity of musical sounds
in it
Branches and Applications of Acoustics
Architectural Acoustics
A branch of acoustics that deals with providing
rooms and buildings with good conditions for
listening to speech and music, it plays an
important role in the planning and construction
of auditorium, churches, halls, libraries and
music halls

Acoustics is the science of sound

It deals with:
 the production of sound
 the propagation of sound from the source to
the receiver
 the detection and perception of sound
The word sound is often used to describe two
different things:
 an auditory sensation in the ear
 the disturbance in a medium that can cause
this sensation.
Engineering Acoustics
The technology of sound production and
recording, sound motion pictures and radio and
television, as well as the study of vibrations of
solids and their control and the use of high
intensity ultrasonic in industrial processing.
Noise is an important aspect in engineering
acoustics.

Acoustical Analysis
A detailed study of the use of the building, the
location and orientation of its spaces, possible
sources of noise and the desirable acoustical
environment in each usable area.

Acoustical Design
The planning, shaping, finishing, and furnishing
of an enclosed space to establish the acoustical
environment necessary for distinct hearing

Acoustical Treatment
The application of absorbent or reflecting
materials to the wall, ceilings and floor of an
enclosed space to alter or improve its acoustic
properties

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Environmental Acoustics Musical Acoustics
Involves the control of noise pollution, Deals with the physics of musical instruments
environmental noise which includes automobile
and other motor vehicles, aircraft, industrial plant
and heavy construction equipment

Speech and Communication Acoustics

Considers the production and transmission of
speech
Underwater Acoustics
Deals specifically with all aspects of the sound
of the sea and its use for detection of vessels
and the exploration of the seabed

Basic Elements in an Acoustical Situation

1. Source: human speech, mechanical

equipment etc.
Bioacoustics or Medical Acoustics 2. Path: air, earth, building materials,
It uses sound (particularly in high frequency) in water etc.
medical diagnosis and therapy as well as its use 3. Receiver: humans, animals, medical
in the study of overall behavior of animals in equipments etc.
general.

Page 2 of 66
The Human Ear

In the 6th century BC, the ancient Greek

The ear is the organ that detects sound. It not
only receives sound, but also aids in balance
and body position. The ear is part of the auditory
system.
philosopher Pythagoras wanted to know why
some musical intervals seemed more
beautiful than others, and he found answers
in terms of numerical ratios representing the
harmonic overtone series on a string.

Aristotle (384-322 BC) understood that sound

consisted of contractions and expansions of
the air "falling upon and striking the air
which is next to it...", a very good expression
of the nature of wave motion.
Acoustics in World history

The scientific study of sound is generally

considered to have its origin in ancient Greece.

The word acoustics is derived from the Greek

word akouein

To address large groups for entertainment,

military, or political purposes, the Greeks
introduces

―concentric circle‖

This approach brought the greatest number of In about 20 BC, the Roman architect and
people close to the central area engineer Vitruvius wrote a treatise on the
acoustic properties of theatres including
discussion of interference, echoes, and

Page 3 of 66
reverberation, the beginnings of architectural
acoustics
The physical understanding of acoustical
processes advanced rapidly during and after the
Scientific Revolution. Mainly Galileo Galilei
(1564–1642) but also Marin Mersenne (1588–
1648), independently, discovered the complete
laws of vibrating strings (completing what
Pythagoras and Pythagoreans had started 2000
years earlier).
In the nineteenth century the major figures of
mathematical acoustics were Helmholtz in
Germany, who consolidated the field of
physiological acoustics, and Lord Rayleigh in
England, who combined the previous knowledge
with his own copious contributions to the field in
his monumental work The Theory of Sound
(1877). Also in the 19th century, Wheatstone,
Ohm, and Henry developed the analogy
between electricity and acoustics.
Pioneers on Acoustics in the 19th century
1867 - John Tyndall published his book On
Sound
1862 – Hermann von Helmholtz published his
work On Sensations of Tone
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1842 - John William Strutt (Baron Rayleigh)
monumental work Theory of Acoustic was
published
1876 – Alexander Graham Bell invented his
electrical speech machine, known today as the
telephone
1877 – Thomas Edison invented the first
phonograph, a talking machine wherein voice
could be recorded
1862 – Rudolph Koenig invented the
manometric flame apparatus, which allowed the
visualization of acoustic signals.
Pioneers in the 20th century
Wallace Clement Sabine (1868–1919) is
generally considered to be the father of
architectural acoustics. He was the first to make
quantitative measurements on the acoustics of
rooms.
1932 - Vern Knudsen (1893–1974), physicist at
University of California Los Angeles (UCLA)
published a book on Architectural Acoustics, and
in 1950, a book Architectural Designing in
Acoustics
Biographies of Renowned People in the
Development of Acoustics
Jens Blauert is a German scientist specializing
in psycho-acoustics and an emeritus professor
at the Ruhr-Universität Bochum, where he
founded the Institute of Communication
Acoustics. His major scientific fields of interest
are spatial hearing, binaural technology,
aural architecture, perceptual quality, speech
technology, virtual environments and tele-
presence.
Ernst Chladni was a German physicist and
musician. His important works include research
on vibrating plates and the calculation of the
speed of sound for different gases. For this
some call him the "father of acoustics"
Hermann von Helmholtz was a German
physician and physicist who made significant
contributions to several widely varied areas of
modern science.
In 1863 Helmholtz published On the Sensations
of Tone, once again demonstrating his interest
in the physics of perception. This book
influenced musicologists into the twentieth
century. Helmholtz invented the Helmholtz
resonator to identify the various frequencies or
pitches of the pure sine wave components of
complex sounds containing multiple tones.
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Werner Meyer-Eppler (30 April 1913–8 July
1960), was a German physicist, experimental
acoustician, phoneticist, and information
theorist.
He contributed to the development of the
Electrolarynx, which is still used today for
the speech-impaired
John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh, OM,
PRS (12 November 1842 – 30 June 1919) was
an English physicist who, with William Ramsay,
discovered argon, an achievement for which he
earned the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1904.
Around the year 1900 Lord Rayleigh developed
the duplex (combination of two) theory of human
sound localization using two binaural cues,
interaural phase difference (IPD) and interaural
level difference (ILD) (based on analysis of a
spherical head with no external pinnae). The
theory posits that we use two primary cues for
sound lateralization, using the difference in
the phases of sinusoidal components of the
sound and the difference in amplitude (level)
between the two ears.
The rayl unit of acoustic impedance is named
after him.
Joseph Sauveur (24 March 1653 – 9 July 1716)
was a French mathematician and physicist. He
was a professor of mathematics and in 1696
became a member of the French Academy of
Sciences.
Thomas Young (13 June 1773 – 10 May 1829)
was an English polymath. Young made notable
scientific contributions to the fields of vision,
light, solid mechanics, energy, physiology,
language, musical harmony, and Egyptology.

He developed Young temperament, a method

Sauveur is known principally for his detailed
of tuning musical instruments
studies on acoustics. Indeed, he has been
credited with coining the term acoustique,
Essential Elements of Architectural
which he derived from the ancient Greek
Acoustics
word ακουστός, meaning "able to be heard".
Room Acoustics:
Dr. Dale Vance Holliday (May 29, 1940 –
February 4, 2010) was born in Ennis, Texas and  Cubic Volume (and coupled spaces)
attended the University of Texas at Austin. He  Shape and Proportion (length to width,
graduated with a B.S. and M.A. in Physics and height to width)
did extensive theoretical and experimental  Finishes (selection and placement)
research on the Mössbauer effect.  Audience Layout (floor slope, speaker to
listener distances)
 Seating and other furnishings
 Special Treatment (suspended reflectors,
resonant absorbers, quadratic-residue
diffusers)

Holliday published hundreds of papers on

underwater acoustics and acoustical
oceanography and given dozens of talks and
symposia in several countries. In 2004
Holliday became only the third recipient of the
Acoustical Society of America Silver Medal in
Acoustical Oceanography, for "contributions to
the study of marine life, from plankton to
whales".

Page 6 of 66
Sound Isolation:
 Site Noise Characteristics (sound level,
character, duration)
 Outdoor barriers, nearby buildings,
vegetation and earth berms
 Location of activities within buildings
(zoning, buffer spaces)
 Wall, floor and ceiling constructions
 Background noise criteria (HVAC System,
electronic amplification) Reverberation is the persistence of sound in a
 Coordination with room acoustics particular space after the original sound is
produced. A reverberation, or reverb, is created
when a sound is produced in an enclosed space
causing a large number of echoes to build up
and then slowly decay as the sound is absorbed
by the walls and air.

Mechanical System Noise and Vibrations

 Equipment noise and characteristics
 Location of mechanical equipment
 Vibration isolation (springs, pad)
 Air duct and pipe treatment (linings,
mufflers, laggings)
 Background noise from air outlets
(coordination with sound isolation)

The decibel is commonly used in acoustics as a

unit of sound pressure level, for a reference
pressure of 20 micropascals in air

Electronic Sound Amplification Systems

 System compatibility with room acoustics
 Loudspeaker selection, placement and
orientation
 System components and controls
 Background masking (loudspeaker layout,
sound spectra)

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  High Blood Pressure
 Stress
 Heart Problems
 Respiratory Ailments

Productivity
Numerous studies demonstrate that noise is the
#1 inhibitor to productivity

Comfort and Human Factors

Noise is frequently the cause of irritating,
uncomfortable or even oppressive environments
 Painfully noisy restaurant
 Conference rooms w/ annoying
reflections
 Cafeterias w/ overwhelming
reverberation
 Lecture halls where it’s difficult to
understand speech

Functionality
Spaces wherein ―QUIET‖ is a necessity:
 Libraries
 Museums
Importance of Acoustics in the Architectural  Health Care facilities
Design Spaces wherein ―UNDERSTANDING OF
SPEECH‖ are vital:
Architects need to consider aside from aesthetic:  Classrooms
 health and safety  Boardrooms
 productivity  Lecture Halls
 comfort & human factors  Courtrooms
 functionality Spaces that requires ―BUZZ‖ isn’t
overwhelming
Effects on Humans  Restaurants
 Lobbies
 Hearing loss is the #1 disability in the world  Food Courts
 Malls
 Hearing loss is one of the most common Spaces that ensure ―PUBLIC
occupational hazard.....with nearly more ANNOUNCEMENTS‖ audibility
than 100 million workers exposed to  Airports
potentially hazardous noise levels on the job  Educational Facilities
 Government Facilities
 Excessive noise exposure can cause  Public Spaces
“Tinnitus” (characterized by a constant Spaces wherein ―SPEECH PRIVACY‖ is a key
ringing, hissing or other sound in the ears or  Open office
head when no external sound is present)  Call center
 Meeting areas
Health & Safety Spaces wherein ―MUSIC ENHANCEMENT‖ is
Noise had been linked to a number of ailments crucial
other than hearing loss, such as:  Recording studios
 Headaches  Concert halls
 Digestive Issues  Practice rooms
 Ulcers  Performance spaces

Page 8 of 66
As architects, we need to consider acoustics BUILDING UTILITIES 3:
during the “design development stage”, in order Sound Theory
to: By: Ar. Chris Luna, uap
 Reduce costs
 Don’t sacrifice aesthetics Sound: A Definition
 Limit your liability
 Protect your client Sound is a mechanical wave that is an
oscillation of pressure transmitted through some
NOTHING FOLLOWS medium (like air or water), composed of
frequencies which are within the range of
hearing.

The Physics of Sound

 Sound is a sequence of waves of pressure

that propagates through compressible media
such as air or water.

 Sound can propagate through solids as well,

but there are additional modes of
propagation.

 Sound that is perceptible by humans has

frequencies from about 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.

 In air at standard temperature and pressure,

the corresponding wavelengths of sound
waves range from 17 m to 17 mm.

 During propagation, waves can be reflected,

refracted, or attenuated by the medium.

Page 9 of 66
Propagation of Sound
The behavior of sound propagation is generally
affected by three things:
1. A relationship between density and
pressure. This relationship, affected by
temperature, determines the speed of sound
within the medium.
2. The propagation is also affected by the
motion of the medium itself. For example,
sound moving through wind. Independent of
the motion of sound through the medium, if
the medium is moving, the sound is further
transported.
3. The viscosity of the medium also affects the
motion of sound waves. It determines the
rate at which sound is attenuated. For many
media, such as air or water, attenuation due
to viscosity is negligible.
Longitudinal and Transverse Waves
 Sound is transmitted through gases,
plasma, and liquids as longitudinal
waves, also called compression waves.
 Through solids, however, it can be
transmitted as both longitudinal waves
and transverse waves.
 Longitudinal sound waves are waves of
alternating pressure deviations from the
equilibrium pressure, causing local
regions of compression and rarefaction,
while transverse waves (in solids) are
waves of alternating shear stress at right
angle to the direction of propagation.
Page 10 of 66
Longitudinal Wave
Longitudinal waves, also known as "l-waves",
are waves in which the displacement of the
medium is in the same direction as, or the
opposite direction to, the direction of travel of the
wave.
Mechanical longitudinal waves are also called
compressional waves or compression waves,
because they produce compression and
rarefaction when traveling through a medium.
Transverse Wave
A transverse wave is a moving wave that
consists of oscillations occurring perpendicular
(or right angled) to the direction of energy
transfer. If a transverse wave is moving in the
positive x-direction, its oscillations are in up and
down directions that lie in the y–z plane. Light is
an example of a transverse wave.
Sound Frequency
Sound Frequency is characterized as a periodic
vibration whose frequency is audible to the
average human. It is the property of sound that
most determines pitch and is measured in hertz
(Hz).
Wavelength
In physics, the wavelength of a sinusoidal wave
is the spatial period of the wave, the distance
over which the wave's shape repeats.
Page 11 of 66
Amplitude
Amplitude is the objective measurement of the
degree of change (positive or negative) in
atmospheric pressure (the compression and
rarefaction of air molecules) caused by sound
waves.
Sounds with greater amplitude will produce
greater changes in atmospheric pressure from
high pressure to low pressure.
Velocity of Sound Wave Propagation
The speed of sound is the distance travelled
during a unit of time by a sound wave
propagating through an elastic medium.
Sound is a sequence of waves of pressure
which propagates through compressible media
such as air or water. (Sound can propagate Inverse Square Law (Free field Condition)
through solids as well, but there are additional
modes of propagation).

During their propagation, waves can be

reflected, refracted, or attentuated by the
medium. The purpose of this experiment is to
examine what effect the characteristics of the
medium have on sound

Sound Intensity (Free field Propagation)

Sound intensity or acoustic intensity (I) is

defined as the sound power Pac per unit area A.
The usual context is the noise measurement of
sound intensity in the air at a listener's location
as a sound energy quantity.
The sound intensity from a point source of
sound will obey the inverse square law if there
are no reflections or reverberation. A plot of this
intensity drop shows that it drops off rapidly.

Sound intensity is not the same physical quantity

as sound pressure.

Hearing is directly sensitive to sound pressure

which is related to sound intensity.

Page 12 of 66
Sound Pressure and Sound Pressure Levels

Sound pressure or acoustic pressure is the local

pressure deviation from the ambient (average,
or equilibrium) atmospheric pressure, caused by
a sound wave.

In air, sound pressure can be measured using a

microphone, and in water with a hydrophone.

The SI unit for sound pressure p is the pascal

(symbol: Pa).

Sound Absorption, Reflection and

Transmission

Sound Absorption Coefficient (SAC)

Sound Level Meter Acoustic absorption refers to a material,

A sound level meter or sound meter is an
instrument that measures sound pressure level,
commonly used in noise pollution studies for the
quantification of different kinds of noise,
especially for industrial, environmental and
aircraft noise.
structure or object absorbing sound energy
when sound waves collide with it, as opposed to
reflecting the energy.
Part of the absorbed energy is transformed into
heat and part is transmitted. The energy
transformed into heat is said to have been 'lost'.

Page 13 of 66
 Noise Reduction and Noise Reduction
Coefficient (NRC)

Noise reduction is the process of removing noise

from a signal.

The Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC) is a

single-number index for rating how absorptive a
particular material is.

Although the standard is often abused, it is

simply the average of the mid-frequency sound

Page 14 of 66
absorption coefficients (250, 500, 1000 and
2000 Hertz rounded to the nearest 5%).

The NRC gives no information as to how

absorptive a material is in the low and high
frequencies, nor does it have anything to do with
the material’s barrier effect (STC).

Soundproofing
Soundproofing is any means of reducing the
sound pressure with respect to a specified
sound source and receptor.
There are several basic approaches to reducing
sound:
Moderate absorption (25 to 50 percent
coverage) suits listening and control rooms that
typically feature more subdued music, as well as
larger business spaces. Moderate absorption of
around 50 percent is a good estimate for many
home theaters.

1. increasing the distance between source

and receiver, using noise barriers to
reflect or

2. absorb the energy of the sound waves,

using damping structures such as sound
baffles, or

3. using active anti-noise sound Heavy absorption (50 to 100 percent

generators.
Sound Absorption and Treatment
The right amount of absorption for a room
acoustics treatment depends on four main and
related variables:
coverage)—suits drum rooms, music practice
space, rooms that handle high-energy music.
Vocal booths and recording isolation booths
require the most absorption.
NOTHING FOLLOWS

 intended use of the room and the sound

source;
 room size, including ceiling height;
 materials in the room, including
furnishings and wall, floor, and ceiling
type; and
 the type of absorption used.

Light absorption (5 to 25 percent coverage) is

appropriate for live recording or listening rooms,
offices, conference rooms and rooms where
people gather and converse.

Page 15 of 66
BUILDING UTILITIES 3:
Acoustical Materials and its Application Each doubling the total amount of absorption in
By: Ar. Chris Luna, uap a room reduces reverberation time by one-half.

Acoustical Treatment

When sound impinges on the boundary surfaces

of a room, part of its energy is absorbed and
transmitted and part is reflected back into the
room.

Noise Reduction in Rooms

When correctly used, sound absorbing materials

can be effective in controlling noise build up
within a room.

Sound levels in a room can be reduced by the

effective use of sound-absorbing treatment such
as fibrous ceiling boards, curtains and carpets

In large open plan rooms, sound absorbing

materials can contribute to speech privacy by
causing sound energy to decrease with distance

Echo Control

Sound – absorbing materials can be used to

control echoes (usually simultaneously with
controlling reverberation).

Application for Sound Absorbing Materials

Reverberation Control

Sound-Absorbing materials can be used to

control reverberation so speech will not be
garbled.

The larger the room volume, the longer

reverberation time because sound waves will
encounter room surfaces less often than in small
rooms.

Page 16 of 66
Echoes are long, delayed, distinct reflections of
sound

CONCRETE

Concrete is a composite material composed of

Acoustic absorption refers to a material,
structure or object absorbing sound energy
when sound waves collide with it, as opposed to
reflecting the energy.
coarse granular material (the aggregate or filler)
embedded in a hard matrix of material (the
cement or binder) that fills the space among the
aggregate particles and glues them together
 Concrete provides no absorption
 Concrete readily accepts and transmits
impact sounds

MASONRY

Part of the absorbed energy is transformed into
heat and part is transmitted. The energy
transformed into heat is said to have been 'lost'.
Common Building Materials
BRICK
A brick is a block or a single unit of a ceramic
material used in masonry construction.
Masonry is any large variety of stone-like
materials.
Concrete Masonry Units
Modular building blocks made of concrete
 Attenuates sound very well
 If well sealed, it becomes a good all
frequency reflector

Typically bricks are stacked together or laid as

brickwork using various kinds of mortar to hold
the bricks together and make a permanent
structure

 Brick attenuates sound very well

 Brick is a good all frequency sound
reflector

Page 17 of 66
GLASS WOOD PANELING

Glass is an amorphous (non-crystalline) solid
material that exhibits a glass transition, which is
the reversible transition in amorphous materials
(or in amorphous regions within semicrystalline
materials) from a hard and relatively brittle state
into a molten or rubber-like state.
Wood paneling means a relatively thin finish
made of boards and panels.
 Wood absorbs low frequency sound by
resonance and may lead to serious bass
deficiency in rooms

 Reflective in high frequencies

 Absorptive in low frequencies
 Better sound attenuation for “Laminated
Glass”

PLY WOOD

Plywood is a laminate of several layers of wood

veneer.
WOOD DECKING
 Absorber in low frequencies
Wood decking is one of the several structural
 Reflector in high frequencies
materials supported by beams and trusses to
form floors and roofs.

 Wood decks are generally reflective

METAL

Metals are any of the family of alloys but

especially steel, which is commonly used to
provide structural support.

 Poor acoustic material

Page 18 of 66
Sound Absorbing Materials and Construction Applications:

All materials have sound absorbing properties.  For walls: perforated or expanded metal,
perforated hardwood, metal slats, fabric-
Incident sound energy which is not absorbed covered panels or shredded formboard
must be reflected, transmitted or dissipated.  Membrane-faced or ceramic tile:
swimming pool areas, kitchen or locker
A material’s sound absorbing properties can be rooms (humid)
described as sound absorption coefficient in a
particular range.

Three (3) Basic Categories of Sound

Absorbers:
1. Porous Materials
2. Panel (Membrane)
3. Resonators

1. Porous Materials

The basic acoustical characteristics of all porous

materials, such as fiber boards, soft plasters,
mineral wools and isolation blankets, is a cellular
network of interlocking pores.
Acoustical Plaster and Sprayed-on Materials:

 Fibrous material w/ binder

 Acoustical plaster is not a reliable sound
absorber

Applications:

 These acoustical finishes are used

mostly for auditoriums

Sound absorption in porous materials is more

efficient at high than at low frequencies but their
acoustical efficiency improves in the low
frequency range with increase thickness and
with distance from their solid backing

Samples:

Prefabricated Acoustical Units:

 Wall board and tile board

 Mineral fiber tiles
 Lay-in panels
 Perforated metal pans

Page 19 of 66
Acoustical Tile: Acoustical Blanket:

 Ceiling material with mineral or cellulose  Manufactured from rock wool, glass
fibers or of fiber glass fibers, hair felt etc.
 They are suspended on a metal grid  Generally installed on a wood or metal
framing system
Applications:
Applications:
 Suspended Tile provides low frequency
than glued on tile  Their absorption increases with
thickness

Fiberglass:
Acoustical Foam:
 Available in the form of batts, blankets
 One of a variety of cellular materials
and boards
usually made of polyurethane
Applications:
Applications:
 Stud walls and ducts
 Excellent sound absorbers
 Industrial noise control
 Theater seats (stabilize reverberation)

Page 20 of 66
Fibrous Batts and Blankets: Fibrous Plank:

 Usually made of fiberglass or mineral  Made of coarse fibers such as wood

fiber fibers
 For thermal insulation
Applications:
Applications:
 Reduces noise and reverberation in the
 Wall and ceiling finish room
 They absorb and reduce noise and
reverberation in the room

Fibrous Spray:

 Sprayed on insulating material for

Fibrous Board: fireproofing application

 Works like batts and blankets but of a Applications:

higher density
 Highly absorptive
Applications:

 Excellent sound absorbers

 Walls and ceilings

Page 21 of 66
Insulation (Loose): Curtains and Fabrics:

 Similar to fibrous batts and blankets  Range of textiles

Applications: Applications:

 Improves attenuation through partition  Sound absorbing material

2. Panel and Membrane Absorbers

Carpets:
Impervious material installed on a solid backing
 Made of synthetic materials such as but separated from it by airspace that will act as
nylon and natural materials such as panel absorber and will vibrate when struck by
wool sound waves.

Applications: Panel absorbers are built with a membrane such

as thin plywood or linoleum in front of a sealed
 Sound absorbing material airspace generally containing absorbent material

Application:

 Low frequency absorption

 High frequency is unwanted
 Recording studios

Page 22 of 66
3. Volume and cavity Resonator
 Hemholtz Resonator
 Consists of an enclosed body of air
confined walls and connected by a
narrow opening (called the neck) to the
surrounding space in which the sound
travels
Types of Volume or Cavity Resonators:
Individual Resonator
Perforated Resonator
Slit Resonator
Page 23 of 66
Sound Absorbing Materials and Construction
Prefabricated Sound Absorbing Materials
 Most sound absorbing tiles and panels
are not sufficiently durable for wall
application
 For walls, use fibrous materials with
protective open facings
 Use membrane faced or ceramic tile
materials for humid environment
Regular Perforated Tile
Fissured Tile or Panel
Random Perforated Tile Slotted tile or panel

Shredded Wood Form board

Membrane-faced or ceramic tile

Glass-fiber blankets and boards

Smooth spray-on material and Rough spray-

on materials

Textured and patterned tile or panel

Page 24 of 66
Suspended Sound Absorbing Panels and Commercial Type Acoustical Materials for
Units Various Building Applications:

These units are installed with all edges and Polyurethane Foam Sound Absorber
sides exposed
Material: Open Cell Acoustical Foam
Types of Suspended sound absorbing panels:
 Parallel Features: reduces reflected noise and
 Honeycomb reverberation time
 Egg crate
Applications:
 Industrial
 Commercial
 Churches
 Schools
 Recording studios
 Gun ranges
 Audio room
 Equipment closure

Transondent Facings

Sound transparent facings (called transondent)

tend to reduce the effectiveness of sound –
absorbing materials by reflecting high –
frequency sound waves.

Page 25 of 66
Melamine Foam Linear Wedges Acoustical Baffles

Material: Open Cell Melamine or polyurethane Material: Porous Expanded Polypropylene

(PEPP), Fiberglass - free
Features: excellent in sound absorption
Features: economical, moisture resistant,
Applications: cleanable
 Industrial
 Commercial Applications:
 Churches  Gymnasium
 Mechanical room  Auditoria
 Recording studios  Arena and stadia
 Gun ranges  Concert halls
 Audio room  Plants
 Cafeteria
 Offices

Melamine Foam Sound Absorber

Material: Open Cell Melamine Acoustical Foam

Absorptive / Noise Barrier Quilted Curtains
Features: excellent in sound absorption in a
wide range of frequency
Material: Acoustical Foam or Fiberglass core,
Applications: faced with quilted aluminized fabric
 Industrial
Features: durable absorber
 Commercial
 Churches Applications:
 Board room  Wide range of noise control problems
 Recording studios
 Gun ranges
 Audio room

Page 26 of 66
Melamine Foam Composite Containment Low Frequency Sound Absorber / Insulator
System
Material: recycled bonded acoustical fiber
Material: 1 inch Melamine Acoustical Foam
Features: good low frequency absorption
Features: efficient absorber
Applications:
Applications:  Industrial
 Utility and mechanical rooms  Mechanical room
 Harsh noisy environment

Hanging Acoustical Baffles

Material: Bonded Acoustical Pad (BAP)

Sound Deadening, Sound Absorbing,
Features: economical, high performance,
Insulating, Low Cost
lightweight
Material: recycled wood fiber residue
Applications:
 Gymnasiums Features: good absorbing material
 Auditoria
 Arena Applications:
 Theaters  Office
 Restaurants  Recording studio
 Water treatment plants  Typical rooms
 Church
 Machine rooms

Page 27 of 66
Porous Expanded Polypropylene (PEPP) Polyuretherane Foam Composite Sound
Acoustical Wall Panels Containment System

Material: acoustical bead foam Material: Acoustical Foam

Features: impact resistant Features: high acoustical performance

Applications: Applications:
 Gymnasiums  Mechanical Rooms
 Auditoria
 Restaurants
 Car wash facility

Bonded Acoustical Pad

Material: Acoustical Pad (Foam)

Features: high acoustical performance

Sailcloth and Vinyl Encapsulated Acoustical Applications:

Baffles  School related facilities

Material: Fiberglass core encapsulated in

polyvinyl chloride film or sailcloth

Features: high acoustical performance

Applications:
 Large open areas

Page 28 of 66
Acoustical Cotton Fiber Composite Panel Other Materials:

Material: Bonded Acoustical Pad  Ceiling Tiles: excellent choice for controlling
sound reverberation
Features: high performance absorption
 Gypsum Board: fire resistance
Applications:
 Gymnasium  Foam Baffle: absorbs unwanted echo
 Classroom
 Music room  Pyramids: Ideal for studio application
 Concert halls
 Water treatment plants  Foam Panel: acoustical absorption
 Gun ranges
 Offices  Fireflex: sound absorption

 Bass Trap: combat low impact noise

 Acoustical Noise Reduction Blanket

 Acoustical Foam

 Loose Insulation

 Helmholtz Resonator

NOTHING FOLLOWS

Page 29 of 66
BUILDING UTILITIES 3: Acoustical Design of Rooms
Building Acoustics
By: Ar. Chris Luna, uap The floor plan and shape of the ceiling and walls
of a room are important factors in determining its
Checklist for effective Sound Absorption: acoustical properties

 Apply sound absorbing materials that may

contribute to excessive reverberation,
produce annoying echoes, or focused sound
energy.

 In auditoriums and similar facilities, use

sound absorbing materials to control echoes
and reverberation.

 Excessive reverberation can seriously

interfere with listening conditions, especially
for the hearing impaired and older persons
 Do not use sound absorbing materials on
surfaces which could provide useful sound
reflections (e.g. above lecterns in
auditoriums
In order to bring a large audience as close as
possible to the stage of the auditorium, it is
usually advantageous to design a floor plan with
diverging side walls
Acoustical Design for Various Spaces

 Use sound absorbing ceilings to control the Office Building

build-up of noise within rooms, unless the
floor is carpeted and the room is filled with Four Key Elements for Successful Office
heavy draperies and other sound absorbing Acoustics:
furnishings.
1. partial height barriers at least 1.65m high
 Place absorption on the walls of very large 2. Absorptive material typically 25 mm (1 in)
rooms, small rooms, or long narrow rooms fiberglass panels on the reflecting walls
where flutter echo may occur. 3. a highly absorbent ceiling
4. an electronic sound masking system with
 Mounting method used should be best loudspeakers located above the acoustical
suited for the amount of absorption desired. tile ceiling

Page 30 of 66
Partial Height Barriers:

 the direct sound path can be controlled by

using full or partial height barriers

Privacy in an open-office work environment can

be achieved thru the following:

 Use of intercoms, personal radios, pagers,

speaker phones, and other extraneous noise
sources should be discouraged

 Telephone rings should be set to their

minimum volume

 Prefabricated furniture panels can be used

as speech barriers
Privacy in an open-office work environment can
be achieved thru the following:  All the potential transmission paths must be
considered, namely over, under, around,
 careful arrangement of the furniture and and through the barrier
occupants, including the orientation of both
talkers and listeners

 Offices should be carpeted to reduce

walking and furniture noise

Page 31 of 66
Privacy in an open-office work environment can
be achieved thru the following:
 ceiling must be highly absorptive, choice
should be plaster, gypsum board, mineral or
fiberglass tile, acoustic board
 Transitional Privacy can be achieved with a
mineral tile ceiling
 Normal Privacy can only be achieved by
using a fiberglass ceiling tile
 ceiling height can also have an effect on the
degree of privacy
“As the ceiling height increases the distance loss
for reflected sounds also increases”
Room for Speeches
Includes:
 classrooms
 conference rooms
 auditoria
Page 32 of 66
Fundamental requirements in designing rooms
for speech:
 There must be adequate loudness.
 The sound level must be relatively uniform.
 The reverberation characteristics of the
room must be appropriate.
 Background noise levels must be low
enough to not interfere with the listening
environment.
 The room must be free from acoustical
defects such as long delayed reflections,
flutter echoes, etc
The floor of a large auditorium should be sloped
to provide adequate sight lines. Good sight lines
result in good listening conditions.
Beyond 30 to 40 feet it is difficult to understand
unreinforced speech, especially in a reverberant
space. The volume per seat should be low, no
more than 2.30 - 4.30 cu.m. per seat
Hard ceiling is preferred in a lecture hall and
auditorium (50–500 seats)

Acoustics for Music

In small classrooms (< 50 seats) the direct field,
provides sufficient loudness and control of Includes:
reverberant noise using an absorptive ceiling as
the normal choice
 concert halls

 opera house

Acoustics for Movie Theaters:

 motion picture theatres are built to be

acoustically dead

 Absorptive material on virtually every The acoustician can only work indirectly with the
surface except the floor room surfaces that reflect, diffuse, or absorb the
primal energy
 ceilings are dark-colored acoustical tile

 side and rear walls are covered with

fiberglass panels with acoustic fabric

 curved rear walls should include 6” of

fiberglass batt behind the panels to reduce
focusing

Page 33 of 66
Concert halls are rooms designed specifically An opera house is a mix of a legitimate theater
for music in which the musicians and the and a concert hall, which constrains the design
audience occupy the same space more than a pure concert hall.

In opera, the stage performance rather than the

orchestra is the main attraction

The orchestra is seated in a pit below the stage

to balance the level between the singer and the
orchestra.

The conductor, who must be visible to both the

orchestra and the vocalists, stands with his head
just at stage level.

In good concert halls the number of seats

ranges from 1700 to 2600, with the best halls
averaging around 1850.

Above 2600 seats, the chances of success are

much reduced and the preferred capacity is
between 1750 and 2200.

GENERAL DESIGN PARAMETERS

 The audience should feel enveloped or

surrounded by the sound

 Sound must have adequate loudness that is

evenly distributed throughout the hall.

 Noise from exterior sources and mechanical

equipment must be controlled so that the
quietest instrumental sound can be heard
There is no division between the stage and the
audience in a concert hall.
NOTHING FOLLOWS
The orchestra is positioned on a raised platform,
sometimes with an organ and choir seating
behind it

To attain long reverberation times, the ceilings of

concert halls are high, 15m or more, and
diffusive, with coffered patterns having deep (15
cm) fissures.

Side walls are adorned with columns, caryatids,

statuary, and convex shapes that help diffuse
the reflected energy.

Page 34 of 66
BUILDING UTILITIES 3: A Historical Development
Introduction to Lighting
By: Ar. Chris Luna, uap

Architectural Lighting

Architectural lighting design is a field within

architecture and architectural engineering that
concerns itself primarily with the illumination of
buildings.

The objective of architectural lighting design is to

obtain sufficient light for the purposes of the
building, balancing factors of initial and
operating cost, appearance, and energy
efficiency.

 With the discovery of fire, the earliest form of

artificial lighting used to illuminate an area
was campfires or torches.

 As early as 400,000 BCE, fire was kindled in

the caves of Peking Man.

 Prehistoric people used primitive lamps to

illuminate surroundings.

 These lamps were made from naturally

occurring materials such as rocks, shells,
horns and stones, were filled with grease,
and had a fiber wick.

Lighting designers are often specialists who  The earliest man-made light sources:
must understand the physics of light production  fire
and distribution, and the physiology and  torches
psychology of light perception by humans  candles

Lighting: A Definition  Ancient Egypt , 3000 BC - used hollowed-

out stones filled with fat, with plant fibers as
Lighting or illumination is the deliberate use of wicks (the first candle)
light to achieve a practical or aesthetic effect.
 Middle Ages - candles were made of tallow,
Lighting includes the use of both artificial light a type of animal fat then of beeswax or
sources like lamps and light fixtures, as well as paraffin.
natural illumination by capturing daylight.
 Present – candles still is a type of fat lamp,
but their use today is almost entirely
decorative

Page 35 of 66
 Ancient Greeks and Romans made lamps
from bronze or pottery that burned olive oil
or other vegetable oils in their spouts.
 Middle Ages, when reflectors were added to
their designs.
1831 - Michael Faraday discover the principles
of electromagnetism
1879 – Swan (UK) and Edison (US) developed
the first practical electric lamp known as
“incandescent filament lamp”

 Early American colonists used fish oil and Thomas Edison patented his incandescent lamp.
whale oil in their Betty lamps.
During this period, electric lights became
popular

Timeline:

1784 – Argand, a Swiss chemist invented a

lamp that used a hollow wick to allow air to
reach the flame, resulting in a bright light
The birth of the petroleum industry, kerosene
became a widely used fuel in these lamps
1800s - gas lamps became popular as street
lights, originating in London, England.
1792 William Murdoch installed gas piping and
jets in his property in Cornwall
1810 - Sir Humphrey Davy developed arc lamp
used predominantly for public lighting, building
lighting and in lighthouses
Evolution of Lighting Development in History
 With the development of electricity and the
incandescent light bulb, the luminosity of
artificial lighting improved enough to be used
indoors.
 They became widely used and extended the
time that people could stay up, among other
developments
 Fireflies have been used as lighting sources.
 Candles and glass and pottery lamps were
also invented.

1827 - Friction match was invented  Chandeliers were an early form of "light
fixture".
1860 - Mineral oil was turned into paraffin which
was used for lamps and for the manufacture of
wax candles.

1893 - Count Aver von Welsbach developed the

incandescent mantle where the production of
light is not dependent upon the luminosity of the
flame

Page 36 of 66
Lighting: Health Effects
It is valuable to provide the correct light intensity
and color spectrum for each task or
environment. Otherwise, energy not only could
be wasted but over-illumination can lead to
adverse health and psychological effects.
 Light pollution is described as artificial light
that is excessive or intrudes where it is not
wanted.
 Well-designed lighting sends light only
where it is needed without scattering it
elsewhere.

 Poorly designed lighting can also

compromise safety.

 For example, glare creates safety issues

around buildings by causing very sharp
shadows, temporarily blinding passersby
making them vulnerable to would-be
assailants.

A Street light, lamppost, street lamp, light

standard, or lamp standard is a raised source of
light on the edge of a road or walkway, which is
turned on or lit at a certain time every night.
Over-illumination

Over-illumination is the presence of lighting

intensity higher than what is appropriate for a
specific activity.

Over-illumination was commonly ignored

between 1950 and 1995, especially in office and
retail environments.

Since then, however, the interior design

community has begun to reconsider this
practice.

Over-illumination encompasses two separate

Light Pollution concerns

1. Unnecessary artificial lighting is expensive

 Light pollution is a growing problem in
and energy-intensive. Lighting accounts for
reaction to excess light being given off by
approximately 9% of residential electricity
numerous signs, houses, and buildings.
use and about 40% of commercial electricity
use
 Polluting light is often wasted light involving
unnecessary energy costs and carbon
2. Excessive levels of artificial light produce
dioxide emissions.
annoyance and can adversely affect health.
These detrimental effects may depend on
the spectrum as well as the overall
brightness level of light.

Page 37 of 66

Light Glare
Glare is difficulty seeing in the presence of bright
light such as direct or reflected sunlight or
artificial light such as car headlamps at night.
Glare is caused by a significant ratio of
luminance between the task (that which is being
looked at) and the glare source. Factors such as
the angle between the task and the glare source
and eye adaptation have significant impacts on
the experience of glare.
Page 38 of 66
Ambient Light
The term usually refers to sources of light that
are already available naturally (e.g. the sun,
moon, lightning) or artificial light already being
used (e.g. to light a room).
Lighting Unit of Measurements:
 Illuminance is the total luminous flux
incident on a surface, per unit area. It is a
measure of how much the incident light
illuminates the surface, wavelength-
weighted by the luminosity function to
correlate with human brightness perception.
 Foot-Candle is a non-SI unit of illuminance
or light intensity widely used in the United
States in photography, film, television,
conservation lighting, the lighting industry,
construction-related engineering and in
building codes.
The name "foot-candle" conveys "the
illuminance cast on a surface by a one-
candela source one foot away".
As natural as this sound, this style of
name is now frowned upon, because
dimensionally illuminance is not length
time’s luminous intensity but luminous
flux per unit area.
Light Characteristics BUILDING UTILITIES 3:
Physics of Light and Light Sources
Lamp efficacy By: Ar. Chris Luna, uap
 The amount of light emitted by a lamp for
each Watt of power consumed. The Nature of Light

Light is a transverse, electromagnetic wave that

can be seen by humans. The wave nature of
light was first illustrated through experiments on
diffraction and interference. Like all
electromagnetic waves, light can travel through
a vacuum. The transverse nature of light can be
Lamp life
demonstrated through polarization
 life expectancy of the lamp
The Physics of Light

Light provides the stimulus which allows

recognition, organization and evaluation of
visual information perceived within the
environment. Light defines form, color, creates
mood, atmosphere, and emphasizes direction
and movement.

Types of Visible Light Sources

1. Natural Phenomena

Radiation of the complete spectrum of light from

the sun or stars, the reflection of sunlight off the
moon, sky, clouds, earth, and bodies of water,
lighting etc.

NOTHING FOLLOWS

Page 39 of 66
 3. Luminescence

Luminescence is the emission of light by a

substance not resulting from heat; it is thus a
form of cold body radiation. It can be caused by
chemical reactions, electrical energy, subatomic
motions, or stress on a crystal. This
distinguishes luminescence from
incandescence, which is light emitted by a
substance as a result of heating.

a. Photoluminescence, a result of
absorption of photons
b. Fluorescence, photoluminescence as a
result of singlet–singlet electronic
2. Incandescence or Temperature Radiation relaxation (typical lifetime: nanoseconds)
c. Phosphorescence, photoluminescence
Incandescence is the emission of light (visible as a result of triplet–singlet electronic
electromagnetic radiation) from a hot body as a relaxation (typical lifetime: milliseconds to
result of its temperature. The term derives from hours)
the Latin verb incandescere, to glow white d. Electroluminescence, a result of an
electric current passed through a
substance

Incandescence is a special case of thermal

radiation. Incandescence usually refers
specifically to visible light, while thermal
radiation refers also to infrared or any other
electromagnetic radiation.

Page 40 of 66
Fundamental Laws of Light Based on Color Surface:

1. Absorption

Occurs when a light beam passes through a

transparent or translucent medium or meets a
dense body such as an opaque reflector surface

Based on Surface Materials

2. Reflection

Reflection is the process by which a part of the

light falling on a medium leaves that medium
from the incident side.

Reflection may be:

a. Specular
b. Spread
c. Diffuse or compound
d. Selective or non-selective

3. Transmission

A material transmits light when it allows the light

to pass through it. Transparent materials allow
all the light to pass through them so that you can
easily see what is on the other side.

Examples of transparent materials are glass,

water, and air.

Page 41 of 66

4. Diffusion
The breaking up of a beam of light and the
spreading of its rays in many directions by
irregular reflection and refraction
microscopic crystalline particles, droplets or
bubbles within a transmitting medium, or from
microscopic irregularities of a reflecting surface
5. Refraction
The property of a material to change direction of
light at the interface between two different
materials such as air and glass
6. Polarization
The Phenomena wherein the waves vibrates
only in one plane
from Light is a form of energy
It passes from one body to another and can do
so without the need for any substance in the
intervening space
Page 42 of 66
Light travels sinusoidally in waves
A relationship exists between the length of the
wave, its frequency and the velocity of
propagation such that:
Illuminance (symbol E) is the term given to the
quantity of luminous flux falling on unit area of a
surface. It is measured in lux, which is
equivalent to lumens per square meter.

Radiant flux is the term given to the total power

of electromagnetic radiation (measured in watts)
emitted or received

The radiant efficiency of a radiating source is the

term given to the ratio:

Luminance (symbol L) is the luminous intensity

Luminous intensity a measure of the luminous
flux per steradian emitted in a given direction,
and is measured in candela (cd).
emitted by a light source per unit area. It is
measured in candela per square meter
Lumen (symbol: lm) is the SI derived unit of
luminous flux, a measure of the total "amount" of
visible light emitted by a source.

Candela is referred to as the luminous intensity

of a light source which emits monochromatic
radiation of a frequency 540 X 10" Hz, and
Luminous flux differs from power (radiant flux) in
which has a radiant intensity in the same
that luminous flux measurements reflect the
direction of (1/683) Watts per steradian
varying sensitivity of the human eye to different
wavelengths of light, while radiant flux
measurements indicate the total power of all
electromagnetic waves emitted, independent of
the eye's ability to perceive it. A lux is one lumen
per square meter.

Page 43 of 66
Foot-candle (sometimes foot candle;
abbreviated fc, lm/ft2, or sometimes ft-c) is a
non-SI unit of illuminance or light intensity widely
used in the United States in photography, film,
television, conservation lighting, the lighting
industry, construction-related engineering and in
building codes.
Electric Light Sources
Incandescent Lamp or incandescent light globe
is an electric light which produces light with a
filament wire heated to a high temperature by an
electric current passing through it, until it glows.

The name "foot-candle" conveys "the

illuminance cast on a surface by a one-candela
source one foot away".
Types of Incandescent light bulbs:

Page 44 of 66
Common Lamp Base of Incandescent light 2. Rough Service Lamps are designed to be
bulbs: resistant to vibration and other external
stresses that can damage the filament of a
regular lamp, causing failure. They are
available in a variety of wattages and
finishes. They are known for their durability
and long life as compared to regular
incandescent bulbs.

3. "Long-life" lamps or Extended Life Lamps

are an example of lamps with thicker,
stronger filaments that can last much longer
than a standard service lamp, but they are
less energy efficient.

Major Types of Incandescent light bulb:

1. General Service Lamp is a standard

incandescent or halogen incandescent lamp
that is intended for general service
applications

Page 45 of 66
4. Dichroic Reflector Lamp almost always
refers to low-voltage MR11 or MR16
halogen spotlights. The interior surface of
these lights is designed as a multifaceted
reflector (MR), with the purpose of gathering
up the widespread light of the burning
tungsten filament and projecting it forward
through the front of the lamp.
5. Krypton Light Bulbs are bulbs that use
krypton gas,which results in high efficiencies
and longer lamp life. Krypton gas possesses
a heavier molecular structure.
Page 46 of 66
6. Mini Reflector Bulbs provide the perfect
light for dramatic accents and display
lighting as well as general lighting in a
variety of applications.
Fluorescent Lamp or fluorescent tube is a low
pressure mercury-vapor gas-discharge lamp that
uses fluorescence to produce visible light. An
electric current in the gas excites mercury vapor
which produces short-wave ultraviolet light that
then causes a phosphor coating on the inside of
the bulb to fluoresce, producing visible light.
A fluorescent lamp converts electrical energy
into useful light much more efficiently than
incandescent lamps.
A fluorescent lamp converts electrical energy Types of Fluorescent Lamp Base
into useful light much more efficiently than
incandescent lamps.

Major Types of Fluorescent Lamps:

Types of Fluorescent Lamp
1. Pre-Heat Lamp:

This technique uses a combination filament–

cathode at each end of the lamp in conjunction
with a mechanical or automatic (bi-metallic)
switch that initially connect the filaments in
series with the ballast to preheat them; when the
arc is struck the filaments are disconnected.
This system is described as preheat and
sometimes switch start

Page 47 of 66
2. Instant Start Lamp: 4. A Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL), also
called compact fluorescent light, energy-
saving light, and compact fluorescent tube,
is a fluorescent lamp designed to replace an
incandescent lamp; some types fit into light
fixtures formerly used for incandescent
lamps. The lamps use a tube which is
curved or folded to fit into the space of an
incandescent bulb, and a compact electronic
ballast in the base of the lamp

Another type of tube does not have filaments to

start it at all. Instant start fluorescent tubes
simply use a high enough voltage to break down
the gas and mercury column and thereby start
arc conduction.

3. Rapid Start Lamp:

5. Blacklights are a subset of fluorescent

lamps that are used to provide near
ultraviolet light (at about 360 nm
wavelength).

Ballasts for rapid start lamps have separate

windings to provide continuous heating voltage
for the lamp electrodes. The lamp starts in less
than one second.

Page 48 of 66
6. UV Lamp or Germicidal lamps depend on Electrical ballast is a device intended to limit
the property that spectrum of 254 nm kills the amount of current in an electric circuit.
most germs.
Types of Ballast:

1. Magnetic Type is the conventional core and

coil type of ballast operating at 60hz with
secondary voltage between 200 and 700
volts

7. Plant Growth Lamps contain phosphor

blends that encourage photosynthesis,
growth, or flowering in plants, algae,
photosynthetic bacteria, and other light-
dependent organisms
2. Hybrid Magnetic Type has a built-in
electronic switching device to save energy
by disengaging the cathode current after the
lamp or lamps are started.

8. Cold-cathode fluorescent lamps are used

as backlighting for LCD displays in personal 3. Hybrid Electronic Type is a combination of
computer and TV monitors. electronic electromagnetic type of ballast
that consists of an input electromagnetic
interference (emi) filter.

Page 49 of 66
4. Electronic Type is the newest type of
ballast with all electronics components.

High-Intensity Discharge Lamps (HID lamps)

are a type of electrical gas-discharge lamp
which produces light by means of an electric arc
between tungsten electrodes housed inside a
translucent or transparent fused quartz or fused
alumina arc tube. This tube is filled with both gas
and metal salts. The gas facilitates the arc's
initial strike.
Once the arc is started, it heats and evaporates
the metal salts forming plasma, which greatly
increases the intensity of light produced by the
arc and reduces its power consumption. High-
intensity discharge lamps are a type of arc lamp.
Classification of High-Intensity Discharge
Lamps

1. High Pressure Sodium are smaller and

contain additional elements such as
mercury, and produce a dark pink glow
when first struck, and an intense pinkish
orange light when warmed.

High-intensity discharge lamps make more

visible light per unit of electric power consumed
than fluorescent and incandescent lamps since
a greater proportion of their radiation is visible
light in contrast to infrared.

Page 50 of 66
2. Metal-Halide Lamp is an electric light that
produces light by an electric arc through a
gaseous mixture of vaporized mercury and
metal halides (compounds of metals with
bromine or iodine).
3. Mercury-Vapor Lamp is a gas discharge
lamp that uses an electric arc through
vaporized mercury to produce light. The arc
discharge is generally confined to a small
fused quartz arc tube mounted within a
larger borosilicate glass bulb.
Page 51 of 66
4. Xenon Arc Lamp or Short Arc Lamp is a
specialized type of gas discharge lamp, an
electric light that produces light by passing
electricity through ionized xenon gas at high
pressure. It produces a bright white light that
closely mimics natural sunlight.
Xenon arc lamps are used in movie
projectors in theaters, in searchlights,
and for specialized uses in industry and
research to simulate sunlight
5. Low-Pressure Sodium (LPS) Lamps have
borosilicate glass gas discharge tube (arc
tube) containing solid sodium, a small
amount of neon, and argon gas in a Penning
mixture to start the gas discharge.
7. Electrodeless Lamp or induction light is a
gas discharge lamp in which the power
required to generate light is transferred from
outside the lamp envelope to the gas inside
via an electric or magnetic field, in contrast
with a typical gas discharge lamp that uses
internal electrodes connected to the power
supply by conductors that pass through the
lamp envelope.

6. Electroluminescent wire (often abbreviated

as EL wire) is a thin copper wire coated in a
phosphor which glows when an alternating
current is applied to it. It can be used in a
wide variety of applications like vehicle
and/or structure decoration, safety and
emergency lighting, toys, clothing and much
as rope light or Christmas lights are often
used

NOTHING FOLLOWS

Page 52 of 66
BUILDING UTILITIES 3: Lighting Reflectance in a Room
Lighting Design and Calculation
By: Ar. Chris Luna, uap Reflectance values express the percentage of
light that is reflected back from a surface, the
The objective of architectural lighting design is to difference having been absorbed or transmitted
obtain sufficient light for the purposes of the by the surface.
building, balancing factors of initial and
operating cost, appearance, and energy
efficiency.

Lighting Calculation

A. Lumen Method, (also called Zonal Cavity

Method), is a simplified method to calculate
the light level in a room.

Reflectances of room surfaces are used in

determining coefficient of utilization values for
luminaires.

The method is a series of calculations

that uses horizontal illuminance criteria
to establish a uniform luminaire layout in
a space.

B. Coefficient of Utilization (CU) is a

measure of the efficiency of a luminaire in
transferring luminous energy to the working
plane in a particular area.

Reflectance is also commonly used as an

evaluation criterion for luminaire reflectors.

Lighting Design:
Types of Artificial Lighting

A. Indoor Lighting is usually accomplished

using light fixtures, and is a key part of
interior design, these light fixtures or light
luminaires can be defined as follows:
The CU is the ratio of luminous flux from  Luminaire is a device that distributes
a luminaire incident upon a work plane filters or transforms the light emitted
to that emitted by the lamps within the from one or more lamps.
luminaire. As a ratio, the coefficient of
utilization is unit less.  The luminaire includes all the parts
necessary for fixing and protecting the
lamps, except the lamps themselves.

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 Layer 3 – Focal or Accent
 In some cases, luminaires also include The lighting used to illuminate features and
the necessary circuit auxiliaries, displays such as artwork, architectural features,
together with the means for connecting retail displays, and signs
them to the electric supply.

 The basic physical principles used in

optical luminaire are reflection,
absorption, transmission and refraction.

Basic Approach:

Step 1 – Determine Number of Fixtures

(By Area Method)

Step 2 – Lighting Design by Layers

Layer 4 – Decorative
Layer 1 – Ambient Lighting intended as ornament to the space such
The overall lighting of a room for safety and as chandeliers, sconces, lanterns, pendants,
basic visual recognition lamps, and other traditional lighting types

Interior Lighting Types

Layer 2 – Task
The lighting in a room intended for the
performance of a specific task

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 B. Outdoor Lighting is usually accomplished
using light fixtures, and is a key part of
outdoor/site/landscape design

Outdoor Light fixtures / luminaires are classified

according to the following:
 The light location and function.
 Lamp type.

Outdoor Lighting fixtures will be categorized

according to the location where it can be
installed or its function which make it suitable to
this location as follows:

Floodlight

 Often used for building lighting and

other special application such as
billboard lighting

 Most types of HID lamps are used in

Lighting Design Scheme floodlight luminaires.

 Floodlights can be used to illuminate

outdoor playing fields or work zones
during night time hours.

 The most common type of floodlights is

metal halide and high pressure sodium
lights.

 Use floor plans, section cuts, and elevations

based on your program of light in spaces.

 Consider activities, furniture, and building

materials to establish the balance you need.

 Consider how light relates spaces and how

outside elements contribute.

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Sports Lighting

 Have very narrow luminous intensity

distributions and typically mounted to
the side and well above the playing
area.

 High wattage Metal halide lamps are Pathway

common from 1000-3500W.
 Usually provided with special aiming
and locking gear( goniometer).
 Internal or external louvers also may be
provided to control glare and light
trespass and to improve observer
comfort.
 Walkway and grounds lighting are often
done with bollards.
 Mounted in the ground and have the
form of a short thick post similar to that
found on a ship or wharf.
 They are used for localized lighting.

 Lights placed just above grade level

along sidewalks, driveways, or informal
paths in the landscape to safely lead a
person from one location to another.

 Path light fixtures are generally low to

the ground and cast a spreading light

Street and Roadway

 Usually mounted on arms on a pole, or

are post-top mounted.

 All types of HID lamps are used; High

Pressure Sodium Lamps commonly
used for roadway application.

 Because of their appearance, they are

referred to as “cobra head” luminaires.

 Street Lights are used to light roadways

and walkways at night.

 Some manufacturers are designing LED

and photovoltaic luminaires to provide
an energy-efficient alternative to
traditional street light fixtures.

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Parking Lot and Garage

 Often uses cut-off or semi-cut-off

luminaries with flat bottomed lenses.

 Mounted on post-top brackets or on

short arms and can be arranged in
single, twin, or quad configurations.

 Wall mounted luminaries are often used

in for small parking lots immediately
adjacent to a building or in parking
structures, often referred to as “wall
packs” wall-mounted luminaries

Landscape

 Designed to light buildings, planting,

water features (fountains, swimming
pools and the like), and walkways.

 They can be mounted in the ground, on

poles, on trees, or underwater.

 Have special housing, gasketting,

lenses, and electrical wiring hardware
that protects against the effects of water
and corrosion.

Security

 Typically outdoor luminaries designed to

help visually secure an area.

 Provides sufficient illuminance for visual

surveillance or security camera
surveillance. Signage

 These luminaries are typically mounted  Signage luminaires specifically designed

in inaccessible places and have sturdy for signs are equipped with asymmetric
housings and lenses to help them make reflectors to evenly light the sign
vandal proof. surface.

 Security lights can be used along  Signage luminaires must be rated for
roadways in urban areas, or behind outdoor use in the position they will be
homes or commercial facilities. oriented.

 These are extremely bright lights used  They should be designed to shed water
to deter crime. and resist ice build-up.

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  Externally mounted signage luminaires Grocery
should be mounted at the top of the
sign.

 By aiming downward onto the sign, light

pollution is reduced.

Outdoor

Architectural Design Issues:

Industrial

Outdoor courts

Office

NOTHING FOLLOWS

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BUILDING UTILITIES 3: Types of Day Lighting in Architecture
Architectural Lighting
By: Ar. Chris Luna, uap

A Good Design Satisfies 3 Essential Criteria:

 It works well, serving the needs and

requirements of its users,
 It is well made of good and appropriate
materials,
 It is aesthetically successful.

METHODS OF ILLUMINATING SPACE:

1. AMBIENT / GENERAL LIGHTING: The

overall level of light in a space: COVE,
VALANCE, CORNICE, SOFFIT, PANEL
LIGHTING

2. TASK: PORTABLE LAMPS AND FIXTURE

3. ACCENT LIGHTING: Directional lighting to

emphasize a particular object or draw
attention to a part of the field of view (SPOT
LIGHTING THAT EMPHASIZE THE
CENTER OF INTEREST)

LIGHT AFFECTS PEOPLES:

 MOOD OR EMOTION
 PRODUCTIVITY
 AWARENESS

Designing with Light

 Light plays a central role in the design of a

visual environment.
 The architecture, people and objects are all
made visible by the lighting.
 Light influences our well-being, the aesthetic
effect and the mood of a room or area.

Our perception of architecture will be

influenced by light:

 Light defines zones and spatial boundaries,

 Light expands and accentuates rooms,
 Light creates links and delineates one area
from another

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Shading and Redirecting Natural Light Luminance Patterns

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Degrees of Brightness CORRIDORS:

The degree of brightness contrast evokes  Daylighting (integration & control)

emotions in the same way as background music.  Direct Glare
It affects…..  Light Distribution on Surfaces
 Illuminance (vertical)
1. the performance of task,  Point of Interest
2. influences the behavior of people at work or
play, and
3. Impact the amount of containment and
pleasure we experience.

The degree of brightness contrast establishes

the emotional setting, which either enforces or
undermines the intended activity.

Steps in the design process:

1. Define the activity that will occur in the

space
2. Determine the degree of simulation that will
enforce the activity
3. Establish the degree of brightness contrast
that will yield the necessary level of LECTURE ROOMS:
simulation
 Illuminance (horizontal)
Brightness contrast is established by developing  Illuminance (vertical)
patterns of light and shade – select which  Lighting Distribution on Task Plane
surfaces to receive light or leave other is (uniformity)
darkness

Educational Facilities

CLASSROOMS:

 Color Appearance (and color contrast)

 Daylighting (integration & control)
 Direct Glare
 Light Distribution on Task Plane (uniformity)
 Reflected Glare
 Luminances of Room Surfaces

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LIBRARIES: GYMNASIUM:

 Color Appearance (and color contrast)  Direct Glare

 Daylighting (integration & control)  Reflected Glare
 Direct Glare  Light Distribution on Task Plane (uniformity)
 Light Distribution on Task Plane (uniformity)  Light Distribution on Surfaces
 Light Distribution on Surfaces  Illuminance (horizontal)
 Reflected Glare  Illuminance (vertical)
 Illuminance (vertical)  Shadows
 Illuminance (horizontal)

The goal of educational facility lighting is to:

SCIENCE LABORATORIES:  provide a visual environment for both
students and instructors that is supportive of
the learning processes
 Color Appearance (and color contrast)
 Daylighting (integration & control)
Can be achieved only if the occupants can see
 Direct Glare their visual tasks:
 Light Distribution on Task Plane (uniformity)
 accurately
 Reflected Glare  quickly
 Illuminance (horizontal)
 comfortably
 Illuminance (vertical)
 Shadows Visual tasks in educational facilities:
 Reading
 Writing

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Hospitality Facilities KITCHEN:

GUEST ROOMS:  Color Appearance & Color Contrast

 Illuminance (horizontal)
 Appearance of space & luminaires  Reflected Glare
 Color Appearance & Color Contrast  Shadows
 Modeling of Faces or Objects
 Luminances of Room Surfaces

RESTAURANTS:
LOBBY:
 Appearance of space & luminaires
 Appearance of space & luminaires  Color Appearance & Color Contrast
 Color Appearance & Color Contrast  Daylighting Integration & Control
 Daylighting Integration & Control  Direct Glare
 Direct Glare  Flicker
 Reflected Glare  Shadows
 Light Distribution on Surfaces
 Luminances of Room Surfaces
 Point(s) of Interest

The goal of hotel lighting is to:

 create an attractive, comfortable, and

functional environment that could be used
as a marketing tool

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The following general objectives should be Healthcare Facilities
addressed:
Design Considerations for Specific
 Achieve harmony with the architectural and Locations:
decorative character of the facility
 provide high-quality illumination for visual Higher illuminances from localized lighting are
tasks required for good visibility in:
 control glare and luminance ratios  surgery
 Provide an adequate illuminance  obstetrics
 Optimize costs to maximize net revenues,  dentistry
including first costs, operating costs, and  emergency treatment
maintenance costs  trauma
 Use energy efficiently  autopsy rooms

Design Considerations for Specific General lighting with dimmer for:

Locations:  patients room
 nurse station
Exterior and Site
The exterior lighting system should draw Intensive Care Unit (ICU)
attention to the facility at night and create a Illumination should enable the observer to note
favorable visual impression changes in tissue contour and color

Outdoor Lighting
The primary focus of exterior areas around
hotels and restaurants is either for pedestrian
walkways or for sit-down enjoyment

Public Spaces
The lobby establishes the main design themes
for the facility. The entrance foyer is a transition
space between the outdoors and the interior
space therefore should promote a sense of
security and welcome while allowing adaptation
between high and low illuminances.

Corridor Nurse Station

Corridor lighting should illuminate room Task lighting and general lighting illumination
numbers, room name identification signs, and
the locks in doors.Lighting should be designed
to make the passage through hallways, on
stairs, and to elevators a pleasant and safe
experience

Guestrooms
Lighting must establish an inviting, homelike
atmosphere through the use of a variety of
lighting equipment and some decorative in
appearance

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Pediatric Section Mentally-ill Persons
A bright and cheerful atmosphere is essential. Lighting should be designed to be inaccessible
Should incorporate warm surface colors & to these patients
diffuse lighting

Surgical Holding Area

Subdued illumination is necessary

Nurseries
General lighting and flicker free

Operating Room
There should be no dense shadows and
flickering

Elderly Persons
Require higher illuminances and free from glare
Recovery Room
Indirect illumination is necessary

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Central Supply Room
Flicker-free & have good general lighting with
low glare

Examination & Treatment

General lighting with supplementary lighting on
the table

NOTHING FOLLOWS

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