There have been many ways in which stress has been defined by various theorists.

For example, some viewed stress as a stimulus event that presents difficult demands (a divorce, for instance),
while other have viewed stress as the response to physiological arousal elicited by a troublesome event (Cooper
& Dewe, 2004).
However, the emerging consensus among contemporary researchers is that stress is neither a stimulus nor a
response but a special stimulus-response transaction in which one feels threatened (McEwen, 2000).

Hence, stress can be defined as any circumstances that threaten or are perceived to threaten one's well-being and
thereby tax one's coping abilities.

A common belief about stress is that it is something imposed on us from outside factors. However, a study of
college students' stress found that stress is self-imposed surprisingly often. For example, you might sign up for
extra classes to get through school quickly. Or you might actively seek additional responsibilities at work to
impress your boss. People frequently put pressure on themselves to get good grades or to climb the corporate
ladder rapidly. Many people create stress by embracing unrealistic expectations for themselves. In short, people
have more control over their stress than they probably realize.
STRESS IS AN EVERYDAY EVENT. It is clubbed with daily hassles. Many everyday events can turn into minor
stressors, such as waiting in line, having car trouble, shopping for Christmas presents, misplacing your check
book, staring at bills you can't pay, and so forth.
Both major and minor stressors co-exist in an individual's life and are not entirely independent. A major
stressful event, such as going through a divorce, can trigger a cascade of minor stressors, such as looking for an
attorney, taking on new household responsibilities, and so forth. It can be assumed that minor stressors would
produce minor effects, but that isn't necessarily true.

Research shows that routine hassles may have significant negative effects on a person's mental and physical
health (Folkman, Lazarus et al., 1988).
It is not very clear why daily hassles are more strongly related to mental health, but many theorists believe that
stressful events can be cumulative or additive impact (Seta et al., 2002), that is, stress can add up. Routine stress
at home, school, and at work might be fairly benign individually, but collectively they could create great strain.

Keeping that in mind, it should be contemplated clearly that stress is not an objective notion. It is a highly
subjective experience for each individual. Not everyone feels the same degree of stress from the same event.
Events that are stressful for one person may be ho-hum routine for another.

The experience of feeling threatened depends on what events you notice and how you choose to interpret them.
For example, many people find flying in an airplane somewhat stressful, but frequent fliers may not even bat an
eye.

This difference in interpreting the events is called STRESS APPRAISAL. Monumental work was done by Lazarus
and Folkman in 1984. They distinguished between Primary appraisal and Secondary appraisal.
 STRESS

NO STRESS

NO STRESS

As pointed out before, stress isn't an objective phenomenon but rather a subjective experience. We can
distinguish stress into some major types:
Acute Stressors: Threatening events with a rather short durations and clear endpoints. For example, evacuating
for a hurricane, studying for finals, etc.

Chronic Stressors: Threatening events with long durations and no apparent endpoint. For example, living with a
serious medical condition, living in poverty, etc.

People often also suffer from stress about events that still have to happen. This anticipatory stress is also called
future stress. Its causes include uncertainty about future events and/or the uncertainty someone feels about
their personal responsibility. This stress can be very frustrating, mostly because nothing can be done about it yet
and people have no control over it. Sometimes, this stress can be related to a specific event, like giving a
presentation. It can be accompanied by vague feelings: ‘What if something will go wrong?’
Classifying stressful events into nonintersecting categories is virtually impossible, but it need not prevent us
from describing three major types of stress: frustration, conflict, and pressure. Change can also pose as a severe
stressor.
Frustration: Situations in which pursuit of a goal is thwarted. For example, traffic jams, difficult daily commutes,
and annoying drivers, for instance, are a routine source of frustration that can elicit anger and aggression.
Failures and losses are two common kinds of frustration that are often very stressful.
Excessive noise, heat, pollution, and crowding are most likely stressful because they frustrate the desire for
quiet, a comfortable body temperature, clean air, and adequate privacy. Fortunately, most frustrations are brief
and insignificant. You may be quite upset when you go to the auto shop to pick up your car and find that it hasn’t
been fixed as promised. However, a few days later you’ll probably have your precious car back, and all will be
forgotten.

Conflict: Deciding between two or more incompatible goals or behaviour. Sigmund Freud proposed over a
century ago that internal conflicts generate considerable psychological distress. Conflict is an unavoidable
feature of everyday life. Conflicts come in three types, which were originally described by Kurt Lewin in 1935.
1. Approach – approach – must make a choice between two attractive goals.
2. Avoidance – avoidance – must make a choice between two unattractive goals.
3. Approach – avoidance – must choose whether or not to pursue ONE goal, which has both pros and cons.
(KHUD KARDENA ELABORATE IDFC) INTERESTING
Change: Life changes are any noticeable alterations in one’s living circumstances that require readjustment.
Research on life change began when Thomas Holmes, Richard Rahe, and their colleagues set out to explore the
relation between stressful life events and physical illness (Holmes & Rahe, 1967; Rahe & Arthur, 1978). They
interviewed thousands of tuberculosis patients to find out what kinds of events preceded the onset of their
disease. Surprisingly, the frequently cited events were not uniformly negative. The list included plenty of
aversive events, as expected, but patients also mentioned many seemingly positive events, such as getting
married, having a baby, or getting promoted. According to Holmes and Rahe, it is because they produce change.
Their thesis is that disruptions of daily routines are stressful. According to their theory, changes in personal
relationships, changes at work, changes in finances, and so forth can be stressful even when the changes are
welcomed. However, experts have criticized this research, citing problems with the methods used and raising
questions about the meaning of the findings. More research is needed, but it is quite plausible that change
constitutes a major type of stress in people’s lives. However, we have little reason to believe that change is
inherently or inevitably stressful. Some life changes may be quite challenging, while others may be quite non-
threatening.

Pressure: Involves expectations or demands that one behaves in a certain way. Pressure can be divided into two
subtypes: the pressure to perform and the pressure to conform. You are under pressure to perform when you
are expected to execute tasks and responsibilities quickly, efficiently, and successfully. For example, salespeople
are usually under pressure to move lots of merchandise. Pressure may be an important form of stress that merits
more attention from researchers.
 RESPONSES TO STRESS

The human response to stress is complex and multidimensional.

For example - Consider again the chapter’s opening scenario, in which you’re driving home in heavy traffic,
thinking about overdue papers, tuition increases, and parental pressures. Let’s look at some of the reactions we
mentioned. When you groan in reaction to the traffic report, you’re experiencing an emotional response to
stress—in this case, annoyance and anger. When your pulse quickens and your stomach knots up, you’re
exhibiting physiological responses to stress. When you shout insults at another driver, your verbal aggression is
a behavioural response to the stress at hand. Thus, we can analyse people’s reactions to stress at three levels.
EMOTIONAL RESPONSES:
Everybody has had extensive personal experience with emotions. Emotions are powerful, largely uncontrollable
feelings, accompanied by physiological changes. When people are under stress, they often react emotionally.
More often than not, stress tends to elicit unpleasant emotions (Lazarus, 1993).

NEGATIVE EMOTIONS -

1. Fear and anxiety. Anxiety is a normal response to threatening events. Many people find that certain cues
associated with a traumatic event repeatedly trigger their anxiety.
2. Reexperiencing the trauma. Many people are troubled by unwanted thoughts of the traumatic event that
they are unable to control. Some experience flashbacks in which they vividly relive the traumatic moments.
Nightmares about traumatic experiences are also common.
3. Increased arousal. In the aftermath of traumatic events people tend to feel jumpy, jittery, and physically on
edge. This physiological arousal may make sleep difficult.
4. Avoidance. Many people try to avoid situations or cues that remind them of their trauma. People also tend to
suppress painful thoughts and feelings. This coping strategy sometimes results in feelings of psychological
numbness.
 5. Anger and irritability. Anger is a normal response to the perceived injustice of disastrous events. Coupled
with increased arousal, this anger makes many people highly irritable. Ironically, some people get angry with
themselves about their irritability.
6. Grief and depression. In the wake of traumatic events, people often experience sadness, despair, and
hopelessness. Future plans that once were important seem trivial. Activities that were once enjoyable seem
empty. People understandably grieve for what they have lost.
7. Increased sense of vulnerability. Traumatic events often lead to negative changes in one’s view of the world.
People come to believe that the world is a dangerous place and that others cannot be trusted. One’s sense of
self-efficacy may be undermined by feelings of helplessness, vulnerability, and the perception that events are
uncontrollable.

These reactions are normal short-term responses to traumatic events. Experiencing such reactions does not
mean that you are weak or that you are “losing it.” For most people these reactions usually dissipate within three
months, although others may recover more slowly. If reactions such as these persist indefinitely and interfere
with one’s social, occupational, or family functioning, a diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder may be
applicable.
 BHAI EW WTF

1. FIGHT-OR-FLIGHT RESPONSE - The fight-or-flight response is a physiological reaction to threat that

mobilizes an organism for attacking (fight) or fleeing (flight) an enemy.

It occurs in the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) which is made up of the nerves that connect to the heart,
blood vessels, smooth muscles, and glands.
The ANS is broken into two divisions
• Sympathetic division – mobilizes energy during emergencies, engages the “fight-flight” response.
• Parasympathetic division – conserves energy, has calming effect on body.
–Unfortunately, the fight-flight response is not well suited for coping with modern threats.

2. GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME - Hans Seyle’s “General Adaptation Syndrome” is a three-phase model
of the body’s reaction to chronic stress.
A Alarm phase – initial response to threat, fight-flight response engages.
 B. Resistance phase – if threat continues, physiological changes stabilize, coping begins.
C. Exhaustion phase – if threat continues too long, body’s resources are depleted, leading to physical
exhaustion and illness.
.

1. BRAIN-BODY PATHWAYS - The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete chemicals called hormones
into the bloodstream.
– Two Brain-Body Pathways control our physiological responses to stress:
A. The Catecholamine Pathway – hypothalamus activates sympathetic system; adrenal glands release
catecholamines that mobilize the body for action. SECRETION OF CATECHOLAMINES Increased
cardiovascular response, Increased respiration, Increased perspiration, Increased blood flow to active
muscles, Increased muscle strength, Increased mental activity.
 B. The Corticosteroid Pathway – hypothalamus signals pituitary gland to secrete ACTH; adrenal cortex to
release corticosteroids that increase energy. SECRETION OF CORTICOSTEROIDS Stress Increased protein
and fat mobilization, Increased access to energy storage, Decreased inflammation.

BEHAVIOURAL RESPONSES: Although people respond to stress at several levels, their behaviour is the
crucial dimension of these reactions. Emotional and physiological responses to stress—which are often
undesirable—tend to be largely automatic. However, dealing effectively with stress at the behavioural level may
shut down these potentially harmful emotional and physiological reactions. Most behavioural responses to
stress involve coping. Coping refers to active efforts to master, reduce, or tolerate the demands created by stress.
Coping response may be either:
• Healthy (e.g., actively trying to solve problem by asking for help or generating solutions) or
• Unhealthy (e.g., ignoring problem, indulging in alcohol or excessive eating).