THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY
Pharyngeal tonsils – located near
Functions of the Lymphatic System
1. Fluid Balance – excess fluid enters the
lymphatic capillaries, where the fluid is
called lymph, and it passes to the lymphatic
vessels to return to the blood.
2. Fat Absorption – fats and other substance
are absorbed in the digestive tract through
the lacteals.
3. Defense – microorganisms and other
substances are filtered from lymph by
lymph nodes and from blood by the spleen.
Lympocytes and other cells are capable of
destroying microorganisms and foreign
substances.
Lymphatic Capillaries and Vessels
1. Lymphatic Capillaries – tiny, closed-
ended vessels consisting of simple
squamous epithelial tissues. More
permeable than blood capillaries that
makes the flow of fluid easier.
2. Lymphatic Vessels –collection of
lymphatic capillaries that carries Lymph
away from the tissue. Valves in the end
ensure the one-way flow of lymph.
Lymphatic Organs
1. Tonsils – protect the opening of the
nasal and oral cavities and the pharynx.
They provide protection against
pathogens and potentially harmful
materials entering from the nose and
the mouth.
a. Palatine tonsils – located on each
side of the posterior opening of
the oral cavity.
b.
the internal opening of the nasal
cavity.
c. Lingual tonsils – located on the
posterior surface of the tongue.
2. Lymph nodes –filters the lymph that passes
through them before going to the blood. They
are distributed along various type of lymph
vessels all through out the body but there are
three superficial aggregation of lymph nodes:
inguinal nodes (groin area), cervical nodes
(neck) and axillary nodes (armpit).
• Lymph nodules – dense aggregation
of tissues
• Lymphatic sinuses – spaces between
lymphatic tissues which contains
macrophages on a network of fibers.
3. Spleen – located in the left, superior corner
of the abdominal cavity. The spleen filters blood
instead of lymph. It also serves as a reservoir for
blood.
• White pulp – lymphatic tissue
surrounding the arteries.
• Red pulp – associated with the veins;
consists of fibrous network filled with
macrophages and red blood cells.
4. Thymus – located in the upper
mediastinum; site of the production and
maturation of lymphocytes.
IMMUNITY
-It is the ability to resist damage from foreign
substances, such as toxins released by
microorganisms.
ABIGAIL ARELLANO
MT-1A
»Classification of Immunity:
1. Innate Immunity
-a kind of immunity where in the body
recognizes and destroys certain foreign
substances, but the response to them is the
same each time the body is exposed to them.
2. Adaptive Immunity
-another kind of immunity that the body
recognizes and destroys foreign substances, but
the response to them improves each time the
foreign substance is encountered.
SPECIFICITY
-The ability of adaptive immunity to recognize a
particular substance.
MEMORY
-The ability of adaptive immunity to
“remember” previous encounters with a
particular substance.
Innate Immunity
Mechanical mechanisms
-prevent the entry of microorganisms and
chemicals into the body in two ways:
a. The skin and mucous membranes
from barriers that prevent their
entry; and
a. Tears, saliva, and urine act to wash
them from the surfaces of the body.
Chemical mediators
-are molecules responsible for many
aspects of innate immunity. Some of the
chemicals that are found on the surface of cells
kill microorganisms or prevent their entry into
the cells.
Lysozyme – in tears and saliva kills certain
bacteria.
Mucus – on mucous membranes prevents the
entry of microorganisms.
» Other Chemical mediators:
-This promotes inflammation by causing
vasodilatation, increasing vascular permeability,
and stimulating phagocytosis. In addition,
interferons protect cells against viral disease.
Complement
-is a group of approximately 20 proteins
found in plasma. The operation of complement
proteins is similar to that of clotting proteins.
Normally, these proteins circulate in the blood
in an inactive form.
Interferons
-are proteins that protect the body against
viral infections. When a virus infects a cell, the
infected cell produces viral nucleic acids and
proteins, which are assembled into new viruses.
The new viruses are then released to infect
other cells.
Cells
White blood cells
-These are the most important cellular
components of immunity. White blood cells are
produced in red bone marrow and lymphatic
tissue and are released into the blood.
Chemicals released from microorganisms or
damaged tissues attract the white blood cells,
and they leave the blood and enter affected
tissues.
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MT-1A
Chemotaxis
-is the movement of white blood cells
toward these chemicals.
Phagocytosis
-is the ingestion and destruction of
particles by cells called phagocytes. The
particles can be microorganisms or their parts,
foreign substances, or dead cells from the
individual’s body.
Neutrophil
- are small phagocytic cells that are usually
the first cells to enter infected tissues from the
blood in large numbers; however, neutrophils
often die after phagocytizing a single
microorganism.
Pus
- is an accumulation of fluid, dead
neutrophils, and other cells at a site of
infection.
Macrophages
-are monocytes that leave the blood,
enter tissues, and enlarge about fivefold.
Monocytes and macrophages form the
mononuclear phagocytic system because they
are phagocytes with a single (mono), unlobed
nucleus. Macrophages can ingest more and
larger items that can neutrophils.
-Macrophages usually appear in infected
tissues after neutrophils and are responsible for
most of the phagocytic activity in the late stages
of an infection, including the cleanup of dead
neutrophils and the other cellular debris.
Cells of Inflammation
Basophils
-which are derived from red bone marrow,
are motile white blood cells that can leave the
blood and enter infected tissues.
Mast cells
-which are also derived from red bone
marrow, are non-motile cells in connective
tissue , especially near capillaries. Like
macrophages, mast cells are locally near
capillaries.
Eosinophils
-are produced in red bone marrow, enter
the blood, and within a few minutes enter
tissues. Enzymes released by eosinophils break
down chemicals released by basophils and mast
cells. Thus at the same time that inflammation
is initiated, mechanism are activated that
contain and reduce the inflammatory response.
Natural Killer Cells
- are a type of lymphocyte produced in
red bone marrow, and they account for up to
15% of lymphocytes, NK cells recognize classes
of cells, such as tumor cells or virus – infected
cells infected cells do not exhibit a memory
response , NK cells are classified as a part of
innate immunity.
-NK cells use a variety of methods to kill
their target cells, including the release of
chemicals that damage cell membranes, causing
the cells to lyse.
ABIGAIL ARELLANO
MT-1A
Inflammatory Response other cells, stimulates fever
production.
-The inflammatory response to injury involves
many of the chemicals and cells. Most c. In severe cases, vascular
inflammatory responses are very similar, permeability can increase so much
although some details can vary depending on that large amounts of fluid are lost
the intensity of the response and the type of from the blood into the tissues.
injury.
Adaptive Immunity
» The Chemicals produce several effects:
Antigens
1. Vasodilation, which increases blood flow
and brings phagocytes and other white -are substances that stimulate adaptive
blood cells to the area; immune responses.

2. Chemotactic attraction of phagocytes, which » Classifications of Antigens:

leave the blood and enter the tissue; and 1. Foreign antigens
3 Increased vascular permeability, allowing -are introduced from outside the body.
fibrinogen and complement to enter the tissue Microorganisms, such as bacteria and viruses,
from the blood. cause diseases, and components of
microorganism and chemicals released by
» Types of Inflammation:
microorganisms are examples of foreign
1. Local Inflammation antigens.

-It is an inflammatory response confined Allergic reaction – are caused by pollen, animal
to a specific area of the body. Symptoms of hairs, foods, and drugs because these are
local inflammation include redness, heat, foreign antigens that produce an overreaction
swelling, pain, and loss of function. of the immune system.

2. Systemic Inflammation 2. Self-antigens

-It is an inflammatory response that is -are molecules produced by the person’s

generally distributed throughout the body. In body that stimulate an immune system
addition to the local symptoms at the sites of response. The response to self-antigens can be
inflammation, here are the additional features: beneficial.

a. Red bone marrow produces and Autoimmune disease – results when self-
releases large numbers of antigens stimulate unwanted destruction of
neutrophils, which promote normal tissue.
phagocytosis.
» Divisions of Adaptive Immunity Response:
b. Pyrogens, are chemicals released by
microorganisms, neutrophils, and 1. Humoral Immunity

2. Cell-mediated Immunity

ABIGAIL ARELLANO
MT-1A
» Types of Lymphocytes:
1. B cells
-give rise to cells that produce proteins
called antibodies, which are found in the
plasma. The antibodies are responsible for
humoral immunity, which is now called
antibody-mediated immunity.
2. T cells
-are responsible for cell-mediated
immunity.
Cytotoxic T cells – produce the effects of cell-
mediated immunity.
Helper T cells – can promote or inhibit the
activities of both antibody-mediated immunity
and cell-mediated immunity.
Stem cells
-are cells that are found in the red bone
marrow in which they are capable of giving rise
to all blood cells. Some stem cells give rise to
pre-T cells, which migrate through the blood, to
the thymus gland, where they divide and are
processed into T-cells.
Clones
-are small groups of identical B or T cells
which are formed during embryonic
development.
» Events that must occur having effective
adaptive immune response:
1. Antigen recognition by lymphocytes;
and
2. Proliferation of the lymphocytes
recognizing the antigen.
Antigen receptors
-are proteins found on the surfaces of the
lymphocytes.
B-cell receptors
-are the antigen receptors on B cells.
T-cell receptors
-are the antigen receptors on T cells.
Major histocompatability complex (MHC)
molecules
-are glycoprotein, and they have binding
sites for antigens. Different MHC molecules
have different binding sites, that is, they are
specific for certain antigens. They serves as
“serving trays” that hold and present a
processed antigens on the outer surface of the
cell membrane.
Helper T-cells
-a special type of T cell can be stimulated in
the combined MHC molecule and processed
antigen can then bind to the antigen receptor
on a B or T cell and stimulate them.
Antibody-Mediated Immunity
Antibodies
-are proteins produced in response to
an antigen. They are Y-shaped molecules
consisting of four polypeptide chains: two
identical heavy chains and two identical light
chains.
Variable Region
-are the ends of each “arm” of the
antibody which is the part of the antibody that
combines with the antigen.
ABIGAIL ARELLANO
MT-1A
Constant Region
-is the rest part of the antibody which
has several functions.
Gamma globulins
-one of the characteristics of antibodies
wherein they are found mostly in the gamma
globulin part of plasma.
Immunoglobulins (Ig)
-another characteristic of antibodies
such that the antibodies are globulin proteins
involved in the immunity.
» General Classes of Immunoglobulin:
1. IgG
-activates complement and functions to
increase phagocytosis.
2. IgM
-activates complement and acts as an
antigen-binding receptor on the surface of B
cells.
3. IgA
-secreted into saliva, tears, and onto
mucous membranes to provide protection on
body surfaces.
4. IgE
-binds to mast cells and basophils, and
stimulates the inflammatory response.
5. IgD
-functions as antigen-binding receptors
on B cells.
» Effects of Immunoglobulin:
1. Inactivates the antigen.
2. Binds antigen together.
3. Activates the compliment cascade.
4. Initiates the release of inflammatory
chemicals.
5. Facilitates phagocytosis.
Primary Response-results from the first
exposure of a B cell to an antigen.
Plasma cells- produces antibodies.
Memory B cells- responsible for the secondary
or memory response.
Secondary Response -occurs when the immune
system is exposed to an antigen against which it
has already produced a primary response.
Cell- Mediated Immunity
-Cell-mediated immunity is a function of
cytotoxic T cells and is most effective against
microorganisms that live inside the cells of the
body.
» Main Effects of Cytotoxic T Cells:
1. They release cytokines that activate
additional components of the immune
system.
2. Cytotoxic T cells can come into contact
with other cells and kill them.
Immune Interactions
⦿ Innate immunity, antibody-mediated
immunity, and cell-mediated immunity
can function together to eliminate an
antigen.
Acquired Immunity
⦿ There are four ways to acquire adaptive
immunity: active natural, active
artificial, passive natural, and passive
artificial.
Immunotherapy
⦿ Immunotherapy treats disease by
altering immune system function or by
directly attacking harmful cells.
ABIGAIL ARELLANO
MT-1A
 ⦿ Stimulates or inhibits the immune
system to treat disease.
APPROCHES in Immunotherapy:
➢ By boosting immune system function in
general
Ex. administering cytokines in destructing tumor
cells
➢ Inhibiting immune system
ex. in treating autoimmune diseases
such as multiple scleroses
➢ By taking a more specific approach
ex. Vaccination
Effects of Aging on the Lymphatic System and
Immunity
⦿ Example of hypersensitivities:
o Hay fever
o Asthma
o Urticaria or hives (a skin rash or
localized swelling that can be caused
by an ingested allergen
o Anaphylaxis ( a systemic allergic
reaction, often resulting from insect
stings or drugs such as penicillins)
 AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency
Syndrome)- a life threatening disease
caused by the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

1. Aging has a little effect on the lymphatic

system to remove fluid from tissues,
absorb fats form the digestive tract, or
remove defective red blood cells from the
blood.
2. Decreased helper T cell proliferation
results in decreased antibody-mediated
immunity and cell-mediated immunity
responses to antigens.
3. The primary and secondary antibody
responses decrease with age.
4. The ability to resist intracellular pathogens
decreases with age.
Pathology of the Lymphatic System and
Immunity

⦿ Sjorgen Syndrome- a systemic,

autoimmune inflammatory disorder
affecting glands and mucous
membranes

⦿ Allergy- also called hypersensitivity; a

harmful response to an antigen that
does not stimulate an adaptive immune
response in most people.

ABIGAIL ARELLANO
MT-1A