The

Veterinary Journal
The Veterinary Journal 171 (2006) 314–321
www.elsevier.com/locate/tvjl

Diagnostic ultrasonography in cattle

with diseases of the mammary gland
M. Flöck *, P. Winter
Clinic for Ruminants, Department for Farm Animals and Herd Management, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria

Accepted 4 November 2004

Abstract

Fifty-two cattle with diseases of the udder were evaluated by means of sonography between 2000 and 2004. The udders were
examined with 3.5 and 5.0 MHz convex transducers and 7.5 and 13.0 MHz linear transducers. Bacteriological examinations were
also performed on individual quarter samples. Ultrasonography gave additional information on the status of the udder and showed
findings specific for some causal agents, e.g., Enterobacteriaceae and Arcanobacterium pyogenes as well as udder haematomas. All
forms of mastitis required bacteriological confirmation for the final diagnosis.
Ó 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Sonography; Mammary gland diseases; Mastitis; Bacteriology; Cattle

1. Introduction
In human medicine, sonography is routinely used to
examine the mammary gland and is furthermore sup-
posed to provide additional information alongside a
mammogram. Scanners at 5–13 MHz are used to differ-
entiate between cystic and solid lesions, to aid in con-
ducting fine needle biopsies, and to examine
mammographically unclear hardening and areas that
are not accessible by means of a conventional mammo-
gram (such as metastases in the axillary lymph nodes)
(Andersson, 1999; De Rubeis et al., 2001). Similar stud-
ies have also been conducted in veterinary medicine.
Gonzalez de Bulnes et al. (1998) investigated the sono-
graphic results of benign and malign mammary tumours
of dogs, whereas Mahler et al. (1994) and Andreasen et
al. (1993) documented fibroepithelial hyperplasia of the
gland parenchyma of a cat and a goat.
Ultrasound examinations of the bovine mammary
gland have been reported previously in particular for
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +43 1 25077 5221; fax: +43 1 25077
5291.
E-mail address: martina.floeck@vu-wien.ac.at (M. Flöck).
the teat (Flöck et al., 2004; Franz et al., 2001). Neoplasia
is rarely found in ruminants and sonography for mastitis
has hardly ever produced conclusive diagnostic results
with the exception of selective changes such as abscesses.
A few reports describing the physiological and patho-
logical characteristics of gland parenchyma of cattle
have been published by Banting (1998), Cartee et al.
(1986), Jenninger (1989), Stocker and Rüsch (1997),
Trostle and OÕBrien (1998) and for sheep by Ruberte
et al. (1994). Ayadi et al. (2003) and Wojtowski et al.
(2002) applied ultrasonography to measure the dimen-
sion of the gland cistern of cattle and goats to try to
draw conclusions in respect of milk production.
Diseases of the udder are a common phenomenon in
cattle and the present study was undertaken to examine
whether sonography could become an aetiological tool
of prognostic value.
2. Materials and methods
Fifty-two cattle with diseases of the mammary gland
that were admitted to the Clinic for Ruminants, Univer-

1090-0233/$ - see front matter Ó 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tvjl.2004.11.002
 M. Flöck, P. Winter / The Veterinary Journal 171 (2006) 314–321
sity of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, between 2000 and
2004 were included in the study. The animals were given
a physical examination on the day of arrival (Baumgart-
ner, 1999), which also included inspection and palpation
of the udder.
The types of clinical mastitis were categorised as fol-
lows (Schroeder, 1997; Radostits et al., 2000):
Clinical Mastitis: visible signs of mastitis that
included:
 Mild signs: flakes or clots in the milk; may have slight
swelling of infected quarter.
 Severe signs: secretion abnormal; hot, swollen quarter
or udder; cow may have a fever, rapid pulse, loss of
appetite, dehydration and depression; death may occur.
Subclinical mastitis was not included in this study.
Ultrasound examinations were performed using an
Esaote AU5. The affected quarters of the udder were
shaved and the skin was degreased with alcohol before
coupling gel (Arbo Ultrasound Gel Y05, Kendall) was
applied topically. A 3.5 and a 5 MHz convex transducer,
as well as a 7.5 and a 13 MHz linear-array scanner were
placed directly onto the udder skin (Stocker and Rüsch,
1997).
The California mastitis test (CMT) was used for the
indirect estimation of somatic cell count. The classifica-
tion was based on the criteria for cattle elaborated by
Schalm (1960). Milk samples were obtained, using an
aseptic technique, and analysed in accordance with the
guidelines of the Clinic for Ruminants for bacteriologi-
cal examination (Diernhofer, 1950). The sero-types of
the streptococcal isolates were determined according to
LancefieldÕs criteria.
Where the prognosis was unfavourable, patients were
euthanased and sent for postmortem examination.
3. Results
The animals studied included Simmental Fleckvieh
(n = 42), Holstein (n = 7), Holstein–Friesian (n = 1)
and Brown Swiss (n = 2). The mean age was 5.2 years
(range: 2–9 years). Twenty-seven animals were admitted
to the hospital on account of mastitis, and another three
due to Ôenlarged uddersÕ. The remaining 22 animals were
admitted for a variety of other reasons (abomasal dis-
placement 9, traumatic reticuloperitonitis 3, parturient
paresis 2, retained placenta and abomasal displacement
3, actinomycosis 1, teat injury 2 and therapy resistant fe-
ver 2). The results of the control examinations for these
22 patients yielded pathological findings in the udder
and the mammary glands were therefore examined
sonographically.
315
Forty-one percent of all animals were in the early lac-
tation period (1–14 days of lactation). The animals had
suffered from the disease for between one day and four
monthsÕ duration (median: 7 days). Forty-three percent
of all animals had been sick for <1 week (57% for >1
week). In 28% of all cases, the front quarters were af-
fected; in 61% the rear quarters, and in 11% several
quarters. The affected quarter or the entire udder was
enlarged in 35 animals. The texture of the udder was
classified as being swollen or hard in 44 cases. Pain dur-
ing palpation was only found in nine animals.
The appearance of the milk was normal in 10 animals
but was watery with clots or pus-like in 42. All milk
samples tested were CMT grade 1 or greater. The results
of the bacteriological examination were negative for
eight animals. The results of the remaining 44 quarter
milk samples were as follows: Coagulase-negative staph-
ylococci (CNS) 3, Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) 8,
Streptococci 8 (Streptococcus spp. 3, Str. faecalis 1,
Str. dysgalactiae 3, Str. agalactiae 1), Arcanobacterium
pyogenes (A. pyogenes) 8, yeasts 1, Gram-negative
pathogens 15 (Escherichia coli 12, Klebsiella spp. 3),
Actinomyces bovis 1.
The sonographic aberrations found in the 52 patients
were classified into seven Groups:
0 = physiological sonographic pattern: medium homo-
geneous echogenicity, isolated anechoic lactiferous ducts
and vessels (12 animals, Fig. 1).
1 = non-homogeneous hyperechoic, few lactiferous
ducts (10 animals, Fig. 2).
Fig. 1. Sonogram of a physiological gland parenchyma with medium
homogeneous echogenicity and isolated anechoic lactiferous ducts and
vessels (Group 0). This sonogram was obtained with a 5 MHz convex
transducer and a 15 cm displayed depth. The udder skin is on the top
of the ultrasonogram, the dorsal portion of the udder is to the left,
ventral to the right.
316 M. Flöck, P. Winter / The Veterinary Journal 171 (2006) 314–321

5 = non-homogeneous hypoechoic (four animals, Fig.

6).
6 = hypoechoic spotted, characteristic ‘‘moth-like dam-
age’’ echo pattern of the parenchyma, multiple round
hypoechoic spots of an average size of 1 cm with a
small centre with high echoic density (5 animals, Fig.
7a–c).

The degree of the sonographic changes was recorded

and evaluated as follows:

 physiological sonographic pattern (12 animals,

Fig. 2. Non-homogeneous hyperechoic parenchyma with few lactifer-
ous ducts and a subcutaneous oedema (Group 1). This sonogram was
obtained with a 5 MHz convex transducer and a 20 cm displayed
depth. The udder skin is on the top of the ultrasonogram, the dorsal
portion of the udder is to the left, ventral to the right.
2 = abscesses: round, well-defined structures of varying
size with a distinct capsule and hypoechoic content
(six animals, Fig. 3a and b).
3 = non-homogeneous with hyperechoic zones, gas for-
mation (10 animals, Fig. 4a and b).
4 = haematoma: large septal spaces filled with anechoic
up to hypoechoic fluids (five animals, Fig. 5).
Fig. 1).
 mild changes: only small percentages of the udder tis-
sue are affected with only few obvious sonographic
changes (12, Fig. 6).
 moderate changes: larger areas of the udder tissue
affected with more pronounced sonographic changes
(7, Fig. 2).
 severe changes: normal udder structure is hardly
extant anymore (21, Figs. 3a and b; 4a and b; 5;
7a–c).
Fig. 8 compares clinical mastitis and the sono-
graphic results of 47 cattle. Patients with haematomas
of the udder (no mastitis) were not included in the
figure.
Only a physiological sonographic appearance (Group
0) was found in mild mastitis, whereas gas formation
(Group 3) and hypoechoic spots (Group 6) were seen
in severe cases. Taking the results of the bacteriological
examination into account, Gram-negative bacteria and

Fig. 3. (a) Abscess of 10 cm length, round with a 1 cm wide hypoechoic capsule and primarily hyperechoic content in non-homogeneous gland
parenchyma (Group 2). This sonogram was obtained with a 5 MHz convex transducer and a 20 cm displayed depth. The udder skin is on the top of
the ultrasonogram, the dorsal portion of the udder is to the left, ventral to the right. (b) Abscess of 4.5 cm length with varying (up to 1 cm)
hypoechoic capsule and non-homogeneous content (Group 2). This sonogram was obtained with a 7.5 MHz linear transducer and a 5 cm displayed
depth. The udder skin is on the top of the ultrasonogram, the dorsal portion of the udder is to the left, ventral to the right.
 M. Flöck, P. Winter / The Veterinary Journal 171 (2006) 314–321 317

Fig. 4. (a) Non-homogeneous parenchyma with hyperechoic zones (gas), casting dirty acoustic shadows, and subcutaneous oedema (Group 3). This
sonogram was obtained with a 5 MHz convex transducer and a 15 cm displayed depth. The udder skin is on the top of the ultrasonogram, the dorsal
portion of the udder is to the left, ventral to the right. (b) Non-homogeneous parenchyma with strap shaped hyperechoic zones (gas) casting dirty
shadows (Group 3). This sonogram was obtained with a 5 MHz convex transducer and a 15 cm displayed depth. The udder skin is on the top of the
ultrasonogram, the dorsal portion of the udder is to the left, ventral to the right.

Fig. 5. Sonogram of an udder haematoma. Thin hyperechoic mem-

branes are floating in large (on the average 10 cm) spaces filled with
hypoechoic fluid (Group 4). This sonogram was obtained with a 5
MHz convex transducer and a 25 cm displayed depth. The udder skin
is on the top of the ultrasonogram, the dorsal portion of the udder is to
the left, ventral to the right.
Fig. 6. Non-homogeneous hypoechoic parenchyma (Group 5). This
sonogram was obtained with a 5 MHz convex transducer and a 20 cm
displayed depth. The udder skin is on the top of the ultrasonogram, the
dorsal portion of the udder is to the left, ventral to the right.

infection was non-homogeneous hyperechoic and

A. pyogenes were the only representatives of Group 3
(Gram-negative bacteria nine times; A. pyogenes once)
and Group 6 (A. pyogenes five times). The organisms
that did not cause any sonographic changes (Group 0)
included CNS, S. aureus, Streptococci, yeasts and
Gram-negative bacteria. In Groups 1, 2 and 5, mostly
streptococci and S. aureus were isolated. The udder
parenchyma of one cow with an Actinomyces bovis-
showed abscess formation.
Fig. 9 correlates the severity of the sonographic find-
ings with the corresponding isolated organisms from the
quarter milk samples. Gram-negative bacteria and A.
pyogenes were more often linked to severe sonographic
changes compared to other bacteria. Streptococci were
linked to minor changes and quarters infected with S.
aureus to multiple changes. An infection with CNS
318 M. Flöck, P. Winter / The Veterinary Journal 171 (2006) 314–321

Fig. 7. (a) Characteristic echo pattern of parenchyma in case of an infection with A. pyogenes: multiple hypoechoic round spots that measure a few
mm with a small hyperechoic centre casting narrow acoustic shadows (Group 6). This sonogram was obtained with a 5 MHz convex transducer and a
15 cm displayed depth. The udder skin is on the top of the ultrasonogram, the dorsal portion of the udder is to the left, ventral to the right. (b)
Parenchyma with multiple hypoechoic spots measuring a few mm with a small hyperechoic centre (Group 6).This sonogram was obtained with a 7.5
MHz linear transducer and a 9 cm displayed depth. The udder skin is on the top of the ultrasonogram, the dorsal portion of the udder is to the left,
ventral to the right. (c) Sonogram of a parenchyma with hypoechoic round spots of a few mm (arrows) and ramified lactiferous ducts (arrowheads)
with partly hyperechoic content (Group 6). This sonogram was obtained with a 13 MHz linear transducer and a 4 cm displayed depth. The udder skin
is on the top of the ultrasonogram, the dorsal portion of the udder is to the left, ventral to the right.

and yeasts could not be detected by sonography. Actino- Subcutaneous oedema (Fig. 2) was sonographically
myces bovis caused severe changes. Yeasts and Actino- detected with the following organisms: A. pyogenes (five
myces bovis were found only in one case and thus they times, corresponding to 62.5% of this species), E. coli
are not included in the figure. (five times, 41.7%), Streptococci (three times, 37.5%),
 M. Flöck, P. Winter / The Veterinary Journal 171 (2006) 314–321 319

14 ria. The total number of affected quarters is indicated

Clinical form in brackets. A. pyogenes and Gram-negative organisms
12
mild were clinically and sonographically more pathogenic
10 severe
than S. aureus and Streptococci. Table 2 provides the
examination results of the seven cows that had to be
8
euthanased on account of a poor prognosis and which
Count

6
exhibited clear sonographic udder parenchyma changes.

4. Discussion
2

0 The normal bovine mammary glandÕs ultrasonic im-

age is uniformly echoic with a granular structure. This
0

6
(p

(h

(a

(g

(h

(h
yp

yp
hy

bs

ypo
s

characteristic image is a result of the even distribution

s

er

oe
c

fo
io

es

ec
ec

ch
l.)

m
s)

ho
ho

oi
at

of connective tissue with a higher echoic density and

ic

c
ic

io

sp
)

n)

ot
gland parenchyma with less echoic density. The anec-
s)
Sonographic changes
hoic antrums may not always be determined correctly.
Fig. 8. Comparison between sonographic results and mastitis types. They can either correspond to blood vessels or lactifer-
ous ducts. The gland cistern is depicted as an anechoic
antrum with a possible occurrence of echoic particles
found in the milk. The entries of the large lactiferous
ducts into the gland cistern are clearly visible. The de-
gree of echogenicity of the lactiferous gland is also
dependent upon its filling level. The differences in gran-
ularity and echogenicity of the ultrasonographic image
before and after milking are however only minimal
(Cartee et al., 1986; Stocker and Rüsch, 1997).
Udder oedema was found in 16 quarters by sono-
graphic means. The interchanging pattern of echoic con-
necting tissue and anechoic space that was filled with
oedema fluid yielded an image of the subcutis that resem-
bles the skin of an onion (Stocker and Rüsch, 1997).
The percentage of echoic particles increases in the
milk secretion of the inflamed lactiferous ducts and
may complicate the identification of lactiferous antrums.
Trostle and OÕBrien (1998) found an increased mixed-
Fig. 9. Severity of sonographic changes of the parenchyma and the
heterogenous echogenicity in milk in the case of in-
results of the bacteriological examination of the milk.
creased cell content as a result of mastitis; however, no
direct correlation was established between the cell count
S. aureus (twice, 25%) and for a bacteriologically nega- and echogenicity. This phenomenon was also encoun-
tive quarter. tered in the present study.
Table 1 gives an overview of clinical and sonographic The sonographic image of the udder in cases of
examinations of the four most frequently found bacte- mastitis depends on the degree of structural changes that

Table 1
Comparison between the clinical and sonographic results classified by pathogen group
a b c
Bacteriological examination Mastitis Sonography Severity
1 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3
S. aureus (8) 6 2 3 3 1 1 3 2 3
Streptococci (8) 4 4 1 4 2 1 1 5 2
A. pyogenes (8) 8 1 1 1 5 1 1 6
Gram-negative bacteria (15) 4 11 3 1 1 9 1 3 3 2 7
a
Mastitis: 1, mild; 2, severe.
b
Sonography: 0, physiological sonographic appearance; 1, non-homogeneous hyperechoic; 2, abscesses; 3, non-homogeneous with hyperechoic
zones, gas formation; 4, haematoma; 5, non-homogeneous hypoechoic; 6, hypoechoic spotted.
c
Severity of sonographic changes: 0, physiological sonographic appearance; 1, mild changes; 2, moderate changes; 3, severe changes.
320 M. Flöck, P. Winter / The Veterinary Journal 171 (2006) 314–321

Table 2
Comparison of the sonographic changes with the necropsy results for seven euthanased animals
a
Cause of admission Mastitis BEb SSOC c
Sonographic examination Necropsy results
Mastitis Severe E. coli Moderate Non-homogeneous with Parenchymatous mastitis,
hyperechoic zones, gas formation pneumonia
Enlargement of udder Negative Severe Large septal spaces Udder haematoma
Abomasal displacement Severe A. pyogenes Moderate Abscesses Summer mastitis,
abomasal ulcer
Traumatic reticuloperitonitis, Severe E. coli Severe Non-homogeneous with Catarrhal-suppurative
therapy resistant fever hyperechoic zones, gas formation mastitis, croupous
pneumonia
Traumatic reticuloperitonitis Severe A. pyogenes Severe Non-homogeneous with Necrotizing-abscessing
hyperechoic zones, gas formation mastitis
Therapy resistant fever Mild S. aureus Moderate Non-homogeneous hyperechoic, Chronic abscessing mastitis,
few lactiferous ducts ulcerous abomasitis
Therapy resistant fever Mild S. aureus Moderate Non-homogeneous hyperechoic, Chronic interstitial mastitis,
few lactiferous ducts ulcerous abomasitis
a
Mastitis, clinical mastitis type.
b
BE, Result of bacteriological examination of the milk.
c
SSOC, Severity of sonographic changes.

occur in the tissue. Banting (1998), Stocker and Rüsch
(1997) and Trostle and OÕBrien (1998) documented an
non-homogeneous primarily hypoechoic pattern in the
case of acute mastitis, as well as an increased echogenic-
ity as a result of fibrosing chronic mastitis, whereas
Jenninger (1989) found an increased echogenicity in
gangrenous mastitis. In the case of chronic infections a
smaller percentage of lactiferous ducts and a larger per-
centage of connective tissue were linked to loss of gland
parenchyma. We found a non-homogeneous hypoechoic
pattern in four animals but in the absence of acute mas-
titis. A hyperechoic parenchyma with only a few lactifer-
ous ducts was also found in animals that had been sick
for a shorter period (median one week). No correlation
was found between the duration of the illness and the
degree of sonographic changes. In infections with strep-
tococci and S. aureus (frequently in combination with
mild mastitis), non-homogeneous hyperechoic as well
as hypoechoic patterns were found.
Abscessating mastitis is a chronic condition and the
sonographic image of udder abscesses varies. The six
animals that were affected with this disease exhibited
varying degrees of echogenicity and homogeneity of ab-
scess content, and the capsule was generally wide and
hypoechoic. According to Stocker and Rüsch (1997),
in the early stages the abscess capsule tends to be wider
with a lower echoic density, and distinctive acoustic
shadows form on the edge of the capsule that is tangen-
tially hit by ultrasonic waves.
Apart from a decreased or increased echogenicity and
the formation of an abscess, other sonographic patterns
were also found in the present study. For haematomas
of the udder the sonographic image showed large anec-
hoic or hypoechoic spaces with thin echoic free-floating
septae. The gland parenchyma was compressed by the
pressure of the fluid and could not be depicted in most
cases. Compared to oedema of the udder haematomas
resulted in a larger extension of the spaces filled with
fluid.
Non-homogeneity with hyperechoic spots or with
bands casting dirty shadows was an indicator of gas for-
mation in the parenchyma. In such cases a regular
parenchyma structure was rarely found in the affected
quarter and the changes extended mostly across the en-
tire quarter. Another finding was the presence of hypo-
echoic round spots (ca. 1 cm) each with a small
hyperechoic centre. In contrast to the other findings,
these were only found in severe cases of mastitis and
in connection with certain bacterial species; the first phe-
nomenon was connected with Gram-negative organ-
isms, whereas the latter one only with A. pyogenes.
These two species were also responsible for the most dis-
tinctive sonographic changes in the parenchyma and
were isolated in 4/7 of the euthanased animals.
Yeasts and three CNS mastitis cases showed few
sonographically significant results in agreement with
findings of a fungus mastitis described by Jenninger
(1989), even though the affected quarters were enlarged
and hardened with an altered milk secretion (watery,
flakes).
5. Conclusion
Ultrasonography does not replace bacteriological
examination or somatic cell counts but gives additional
information on the status of the udder and consequently
aids in determining a prognosis. Furthermore, some
striking parallels could be found in the present study be-
tween the sonographic image of the affected udder
parenchyma and certain pathogen species particularly
for A. pyogenes and Gram-negative organisms. How-
 M. Flöck, P. Winter / The Veterinary Journal 171 (2006) 314–321
ever, these were routine tests performed at the Clinic for
Ruminants and thus further studies on this topic per-
formed under standardised conditions and using larger
number of animals are warranted.
Acknowledgements
We thank the staff of the Institute of Pathology and
Forensic Veterinary Medicine at the University of Veter-
inary Medicine, Vienna for carrying out the necropsies.
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