General Chemistry VCSMS Senior High

Quantum Mechanics  Wavelength (λ) - distance from crest to crest or

trough to trough
 foundation of chemistry
 Amplitude - maximum disturbance of wave form
 science of a very small - how intense the light is (brightness)
 electrons exist and behave in atoms  Frequency (v) - number of times per second
Max Planck - number of waves = number of
cycles
 radiation is quantized - 1 Hz = 1 cycle per second
 it comes in discrete amounts - 1 Hz = 1s-1 or 1 Hz = 1/s

Niels Bohr * Total energy is proportional to the amplitude and

frequency of waves
 atom as mini-solar system
1. The higher the wave amplitude, the higher the
 fixed orbit force.
 quantum leap - electrons leap due to sudden 2. The higher the frequency, the higher the force.
energy release
 measurement changes everything Wave
Speed of wave:
Albert Einstein  λv = c
 (wavelength)(frequency) = speed
 principle of certainty
 wavelength is in nanometers
 proposed quantum of the light (photons) which
 frequency is in s-1
behave like particles
 speed is equal to 3.00x108 m/s (speed of light)
 particle-wave duality of photons
 speed of light is always constant
 entanglement

Erwin Schrodinger Types:

 Mechanical Wave - requires medium
 electron spread out as a wave  Electromagnetic Wave - passes through vacuum
 wave mechanics as behavior of quantum Unit Symbol Length in meters
systems Angstrom A 1 A = 10-10 m
Nanometer nm 1 nm = 10-9 m
Max Born Micrometer um 1 um = 10-6 m
Millimeter mm 1 mm = 10-3 m
 peculiarity of quantum mechanics
Centimeter cm 1 cm = 10-2 m
 probability wave Meter m 1m=1m
 likelihood of where the electron is likely to be
1. 10 angstrom = 1 nanometer
Electronic Structure of Atoms
2. 109 nanometer = 1 meter
3. 102 centimeter = 1 meter
4. 106 micrometer = 1 meter
5. 103 millimeter = 1 meter

Sample Problem:
Calculate the wavelength of a radio signal with a
frequency of 100.7 MHz.
 General Chemistry VCSMS Senior High

*1 MHz = 106/s Hz  E = energy; v = frequency

 Planck’s constant (h) = 6.626 x 10-34 Joules
Given: λ = ? v = 100.7 MHz c = 3.00x108 m/s seconds
Solution:
λ = 3.00x108 m/s PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
(100.7 MHz)(106)  electrons are ejected in the surface of metal
= 3000 m 1 nm heated exposed to light if they reach the
1007 10-9 m maximum frequency or the threshold frequency
= 2.98 x 108 nm  at lower energy, electrons are not emitted but
absorbed
o Calculate the energy (in joules) of (a) a photon
with a wavelength of 5.00 × 104 nm(infrared Photon
region) and b) a photon with a wavelength of  particles of light
5.00 × 10−2 nm (X ray region):  the energy of photon is directly proportional to
o E = h (c / λ) frequency
o Convert wavelength to meters:  the energy of photon is inversely proportional to
o 5.00 × 104 nm X (10-9 m / 1 nm) = 5.00 X its wavelength
10-5 m  E = h●v
o Plug in known values:  Energy = Planck’s Constant ● Frequency
o E = (6.63 X10-34 J x s) (3. 00 x 108 m/s /
 E = (h●c)/ λ
5.00 X 10-5 m)
 Energy = (Planck’s Constant ● Speed of Light)
o E = 3.98 X 10-21 J
divided by Wavelength
o B) E = h (c / λ)
 E = W + KE
o Convert wavelength to meters:
 Energy = Work + Kinetic Energy
o 5.00 × 10−2 nm X (10-9 m / 1 nm) = 5.00 X
10-11 m
Sample Problem:
o Plug in known values:
The work function of the energy needed to eject an
o E = (6.63 X10-34 J x s) (3. 00 x 108 m/s /
electron in cesium metal is 3.42 x 10-19 J. If an incident
5.00 X 10-11 m)
light of frequency 1.00 x 1015/s is used to irradiate the
o E= 3.98 X 10-15 J
metal, will the electrons be ejected?

Color
A) At the minimum frequency, KE = 0:
 determined by wavelength and frequency hv = W
 white is mixture of all colors Plug in known values:
 black is absence of colors v = (3.42 × 10−19 J / 6.63 X10-34 J x s)
 ROYGBIV v= 5.16 X 1014 Hz
B) KE = hn – W
Plug in known values:
Max Planck
KE = [(6.63 X10-34 J x s)(1.00 × 1015 s−1 )] - 3.42 × 10−19 J
 quanta - smallest particle an atom emit KE = 3.21 X 10-19 J
 electromagnetic radiation are all quantized of
have a discrete energy Wave-Particle Duality
 hot or glowing object could emit only certain
quantities of energy  photons have zero mass and rest energy
 E = h●v
 General Chemistry
 destroyed or emitted when radiation is absorbed
or created
 photons are destroyed when radiation is
absorbed
 photons are emitted when radiation is created
Niels Bohr
 adopted Planck’s assumption and explained
using mini-solar system model
 Zeeman effect - splitting of the spectral lines of
an atom due to the distortion of the electron
orbital because of the magnetic field.
 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle Violator
- In the Bohr atom, the electron
positions are known exactly (they are a precise
distance from the nucleus) and their energies are
also known exactly (because distance is related
to energy).
Louis de Broglie
 if light have material properties, matter should
exhibit wave properties
 mass and wavelength are inversely proportional
ℎ
 λ = 𝑚𝑣
 λ = wavelength (nanometer)
 h = 6.626 x 10-34 (joules seconds)
 m = mass (kilogram)
 v = frequency (meters/second)
Werner Heisenberg
 a particle has a précised momentum but less
précised position
 the higher the momentum, the lower the
probability of finding the electron
ℎ
 (∆𝑥)(∆𝑚𝑣) ≥ 4𝜋
Erwin Schrodinger
 quantum model
 wave and particle can be incorporated
 wave equation: lower case Greek psi (Ψ)
 Ψ2 gives electron density
VCSMS Senior High
-electron density is the probability of
where an electron is likely to be at a given time
 HΨ = EΨ
NOTE:
 mass of electron = 9.10938356 × 10-31 kilograms
 1 Joule = 1 kgm2/s2
Number of photons:
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
 arrangement of electron in an atom
Location of Electrons
1. Energy Level (energy shells)
 general distance of electron from nucleus
 the farther from nucleus, the greater the energy
 electron cloud
 to find the max number of electron: 2n2, where n
= no. of energy levels
Valence shell - last energy level
- contains valence electron
- 8 valence electron = stable
2. Energy sub-levels (sub-shells)
 spdf
 s-sharp, p-principal, d-diffuse, f-fundamental
 no. of energy level = no. of energy sub-levels
3. Orbitals
 region in space around nucleus
 greatest probability of finding the nucleus
Sub-levels No. of Orbitals
S 1
P 3
D 5
F 7
G 9
 General Chemistry VCSMS Senior High

RULES IN ELECTRON CONFIGURATION  Period - highest energy level

 Group - number of valence electron
1. Aufbau Principle - [s/p = A] [d/f=B]
 electrons will successively occupy the available
orbital in increasing energy Examples:
Na = 1s22s22p63s1
Electrons = 11
Period 3 | Group 1A

Zn = 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s2
Electrons = 30
Period 4 | Group 2B
*Note that the Group Number is based on the number of
valence electron and the Group Letter is based on the
Mnemonics: highest energy level.
 Si Sally pumasok sa pinto. Sa door pinto. Sa door
pinto. Sa front door pinto. Sa front door pinto. Noble Gas Configuration
 Si Sharon pumunta sa party. Si Daddy pumunta  choose the nearest Noble gas to the element.
sa disco. Paano si Francis, Daddy? Paano si The noble gas must be before the element and
Francis, Daddy? Paano siya? cannot be after the element.

Sub-levels Maximum No. of Electrons 1. = [He] 2s22p4

S 2
P 6
D 10
F 14
1s2
1 = energy level
s = energy sub -level
2 = number of electrons
2. Na = [Ne] 3s1
Anomalies
 sublevel d should be either half filled or full
 a completely full or half full d sub-level is more
stable than a partially filled d sub-level, so an
electron from the 4s orbital is excited and rises
to a 3d orbital.

Elements with anomalies

2 2 4
16
8 O = 1s 2s 2p Predicted
Actual Electron
Element Electron
Group 6A | Period 2 Configuration
Configuration
No. of Protons = 8
copper, Cu [Ar] 3d9 4s2 [Ar] 3d10 4s1
No. of Electrons = 8
No. of Neutrons = 8 silver, Ag [Kr] 4d9 5s2 [Kr] 4d10 5s1
gold, Au [Xe] 4f14 5d9 6s2 [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s1
palladium, Pd [Kr] 4d8 5s2 [Kr] 4d10
8N
2e 6e — valence shell with
8P chromium, C r [Ar] 3d4 4s2 [Ar] 3d5 4s1
6 valence electrons
molybdenum,
[Kr] 4d4 5s2 [Kr] 4d5 5s1
nucleus with Second energy level Mo
8 neutrons
and 8 protons First energy level
 General Chemistry VCSMS Senior High

2. Hund’s Rule of Multiplicity 2. Azimuthal Quantum Number (ℓ)

 electron pairing will not take place in orbitals of - angular momentum number
same energy (same sub-shell) until each orbital is - shape of orbital
first singly filled with parallel spin - 0 to n-1
 orbital diagram - sublevels

ℓ Sub level Orbital shape

0 S Spherical
1 P Dumbbell-shaped
2 D 4 cloverleaf-shaped
3 f Too complex

sublevels n ℓ shape
S 1 0 Spherical
S 1 0 Spherical
S 2 0 Spherical
S 2 0 Spherical
P 2 1 Dumbbell-shaped
P 2 1 Dumbbell-shaped

3. Pauli’s Exclusion Principle

 in an atom or molecule, no two electrons can
3. Magnetic Quantum Number (mℓ)
have the same four electronic quantum
 distinguishes the orbitals available within a
numbers.
subshell
 As an orbital can contain a maximum of only two
 used to calculate the azimuthal component of
electrons, the two electrons must have opposing
the orientation of orbital in space
spins
 interval ranging from - ℓ to + ℓ
No. of Orbitals
1. Principal Quantum Number (n) Azimuthal - ℓ Magnetic (mℓ)
- 2ℓ + 1
- describes the main energy on which the orbital 0 (s-subshell) 1 0
resides 1 (p-subshell) 3 -1, 0, 1
- integer > 0 2 (d-subshell) 5 -2, -1, 0, 1, 2
3 (f-subshell) 7 -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3
12
6 C = 1s22s22p2  s-subshell always have 0 magnetic quantum
number
sublevels n interpretation
S 1 There are two electrons on first  magnetic quantum numbers of s, p and f are
S 1 energy level. written singly and alternately
S 2 sublevels n ℓ mℓ
S 2 There are four electrons on S 1 0 0
P 2 second energy level. S 1 0 0
P 2 S 2 0 0
S 2 0 0
P 2 1 -1
P 2 1 0
 General Chemistry VCSMS Senior High

 The forces an electron experiences depend on

4. Spin Quantum Number (ms) both factors.
 an electron spins around an axis and has both  Zeff = Z − S ; where Z is the atomic number and S
angular momentum and orbital angular is a screening constant, usually close to the
number of inner electrons.
momentum
 because angular momentum is a vector, the Spin
Quantum Number (s) has both a magnitude (1/2)
and direction (+ or -).
sublevels n ℓ mℓ ms
S 1 0 0 +1/2
S 1 0 0 -1/2
S 2 0 0 +1/2
S 2 0 0 -1/2
P 2 1 -1 +1/2
P 2 1 0 -1/2
Periodic Properties of Elements
Atomic Radius
 Dmitri Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer
independently came to the same conclusion  The nonbonding atomic
about how elements should be grouped. radius or van der Waals
 Chemists mostly credit Mendeleev because he radius is half of the
shortest distance
also used chemical properties to organize the
separating two nuclei
table and predicted some missing elements and during a collision of
their expected properties, including germanium. atoms.
 Mendeleev’s table was based on atomic masses.  The bonding atomic
It was the most fundamental property of radius is half the
elements known at the time. internuclear distance
when atoms are
 About 35 years later, the nuclear atom was
bonded.
discovered by Ernest Rutherford.
 Henry Moseley developed the concept of atomic
number experimentally. The number of protons
was considered the basis for the periodic
property of elements.

Periodicity

 Periodicity is the repetitive pattern of a property

for elements based on atomic number.

Effective Nuclear Charge

 Many properties depend on attractions between

valence electrons and the nucleus.
 Electrons are both attracted to the nucleus and
repelled by other electrons.
 General Chemistry VCSMS Senior High

Ionic Size

 Determined by interatomic distances in ionic

compounds
 Ionic size depends on the nuclear charge, the
number of electrons and the orbitals in which
electrons reside.
 Cations are smaller than their parent atoms.
 Anions are bigger than their parent atoms.

 Smaller atoms have higher I values.

 I values depend on effective nuclear charge and
average distance of the electron from the
nucleus.

Isoelectronic Series Electron Affinity

 ions have that have same number of electrons.  Electron affinity is the energy change
 as the nuclear charge increases, the ionic size accompanying the addition of an electron to a
decreases gaseous atom:
 Note increasing nuclear charge with decreasing  Cl + e−  Cl−
ionic radius as atomic number increases  It is typically exothermic, so, for most elements,
it is negative.
O2– F– Na+ Mg2+ Al3+  gaining of electron to achieve the 8-valence
electron or stability of an atom
1.26 Å 1.19 Å 1.16 Å 0.86 Å 0.68 Å

 whenever there are same number of electrons,

the one with lower nuclear charge have larger
ionic radius

Ionization Energy (I)

 The ionization energy is the minimum energy
required to remove an electron from the ground
state of a gaseous atom or ion.
o The first ionization energy is that energy
required to remove the first electron.
o The second ionization energy is that
energy required to remove the second
electron, etc.
 The higher the number of valence electron, the
higher the ionization energy, the harder to
remove the electron
 General Chemistry
Electronegativity
 a measure of an atom's ability to attract the
shared electrons of a covalent bond to itself
Metals, Metalloids and Non-metal
 Metals tend to form cations.
 Metals tend to lose and give electrons.
 Nonmetals tend to form anions.
 Nonmetals tend to gain or receive electrons.
Alkali Metals
 Alkali metals are soft, metallic solids.
 They are found only in compounds in nature, not
in their elemental forms.
 Typical metallic properties (luster, conductivity)
are seen in them.
 They have low densities and melting points.
 They also have low ionization energies.
 Their reactions with water are famously
exothermic.
VCSMS Senior High
 Flame test - Qualitative tests for alkali metals
include their characteristic colors in flames.
Alkaline Earth Metals—Compare to Alkali Metals
 Alkaline earth metals have higher densities and
melting points than alkali metals.
 Their ionization energies are low, but not as low
as those of alkali metals.
Alkaline Earth Metals
 Beryllium does not react with water, and
magnesium reacts only with steam, but the other
alkaline earth metals react readily with water.
 Reactivity tends to increase as you go down the
group.
Group 6A—Increasing in Metallic Character down the
Group
 Oxygen, sulfur, and selenium are nonmetals.
 Tellurium is a metalloid.
 The radioactive polonium is a metal.
Group 7A—Halogens
 The halogens are typical nonmetals.
 They have highly negative electron affinities, so
they exist as anions in nature.
 They react directly with metals to form metal
halides.
Group 8A—Noble Gases
 The noble gases have very large ionization
energies.
 General Chemistry VCSMS Senior High

 Their electron affinities are positive (can’t form 2. Write symbol for positive ion first. Draw e-dot
stable anions). diagram for negative ion.
 Therefore, they are relatively unreactive. 3. Enclose both with brackets and show each
 They are found as monatomic gases. charge.

Chemical Bonding
Three types of Chemical bonds:
1. Ionic
o Electrostatic attraction between ions *Since Chlorine needs only one electron to have full
o Metal and Nonmetal valence shell, Sodium will lose electron for the Chlorine
2. Covalent to gain stability.
o Sharing of Electrons
o Nonmetal and Nonmetal
3. Metallic
o Metal atoms bonded to several other
atoms or sea of electrons
o Metal and Metal

Ionic Bonding

 electrons transferred between valence shell

 ions that tend to form salts or crystals
 elements tend to lose or gain electrons once
they attain a noble gas configuration because
Covalent Bonding -
energy would be expended that cannot be
Electrostatic Structure
overcome by lattice energies
 atoms share
Lattice energy - The energy required to completely
electrons
separate a mole of a solid ionic compound into its
 attractions
gaseous ions
between electrons
and nuclei because
of different charge
 repulsion between
electrons because of same charge
 repulsions between nuclei because of same
charge

Polar Covalent Bonds

 Covalent bond, sharing electrons,

 But electron sharing not always equal
 The greater the difference in electronegativity,
the more polar is the bond.
 Asymmetrical

Lewis Diagram of Ionic Bonds

Nonpolar Covalent Bonds
1. Determine which will be positive ion and
 Sharing of electron is even
negative ion.
 General Chemistry VCSMS Senior High

 The lesser the difference in electronegativity, the Molecular Geometries

lesser polar is the bond
 Symmetrical Molecular Shapes

 geometry & shape of molecule critical

Lewis Structures  we can easily predict the 3D structure of a
A way to keep track of those valence electrons molecule just by adding up:
 bonding atoms + lone pairs
1. Find the sum of
valence electrons of all
atoms in the
polyatomic ion or
molecule. Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR)
– If it is an anion, “The best arrangement of a given number of
add one electron for each negative things is the one that minimizes the repulsions among
charge. them.”
– If it is a cation, subtract one electron for Geometries
each positive charge.

2. The central atom is

the least
electronegative
element except
hydrogen. Connect
the outer atoms to it
by single bonds.

3. Put eight electrons

around the outer atoms
(“fill their octet”)

4. Fill the octet of the

central atom.

*If you run out of electrons before the central atom

has an octet, form multiple bonds until it does.
 General Chemistry VCSMS Senior High

Molecular Geometries

 The geometry is often not the shape of the

molecule, however.
 The “shape” is defined by the positions of only the
atoms in the molecules, not the lone pairs.

Different Molecular Geometry and Electron Domain

Geometry

 Lone pairs are physically larger than atoms.

 Therefore, their repulsions are greater; this
tends to decrease bond angles in a molecule.
 Double and triple bonds
place greater electron
density on one side of the
central atom than do
single bonds.
 Therefore, they also
affect bond angles.

Larger Molecules

 In larger molecules, we talk about the geometry

about a particular atom rather than the geometry of
the molecule as a whole.
 General Chemistry VCSMS Senior High

Polarity  However, if atoms get too close, the internuclear

By adding the individual bond dipoles, one can repulsion greatly raises the energy.
determine the overall dipole moment for the molecule.

Valence Bond Theory

 Hybridization is a major player in this approach

to bonding.
 There are two ways orbitals can overlap to form
bonds between atoms.

Key Points

1. The number of hybrid orbitals obtained equals

the number of atomic orbitals mixed.
2. The type of hybrid orbitals obtained varies with
the types of atomic orbitals mixed.
3. The use of hybrid orbitals rationalizes the
equivalence of bonds.

Types
s-sigma p-pi
2 3 3 3 2
sp, sp , sp , sp d, sp d

 Polar - asymmetrical, goes towards the element

 Non-polar - symmetrical, goes away from the
element
Electron Domain Geometry

Overlap and Bonding  arrangement of atoms or a molecule in space

 3D

Electron Group

 an atom or a lone pair of electrons around

central atom
 Increased overlap brings the electrons and nuclei
closer together while simultaneously decreasing  electron group = atoms plus lone pairs
electron-electron repulsion.