Unit 10

Group
Homomorphisms
Submitted by:

Shruti Pathak 5078

Sahil Gupta 5079

Hariom Sarswat 5104

Insight View :-

10.1 Homomorphism :Definition and Examples.

10.2 Kernel of Homomorphism

10.3 Properties of Homomorphism

10.4 Isomorphism theorems

10.5 Solved Exercises

 HOMOMORPHISM

Homo+ Morphe {Greek words }

Like Form

If we drop the basic idea of one - one ,onto from the isomorphic mapping {𝜑: 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ | 𝜑 is one- one, onto
& 𝜑(𝑎𝑏) = 𝜑(𝑎). 𝜑(𝑏) } then the remaining mapping is called Homomorphism.

The concept of Homomorphism was introduced by CAMILLE JORDAN in 1870.

Definition: Homomorphism

A homomorphism 𝜑 from a group (𝐺,∙) to a group (𝐺′,∗ ) is a mapping from 𝐺 to 𝐺' that preserves the
group operation ,that is, 𝜑(𝑎 ∙ 𝑏) = 𝜑(𝑎) ∗ 𝜑(𝑏), ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.

NOTE: It is to be noted that the binary operation on the left hand side is that of 𝐺, whereas on the right
hand side is that of 𝐺′.

𝑎, 𝑏 𝜑 𝜑(𝑎 ), 𝜑(𝑏)

. *

𝑎 ∙𝑏 𝜑 𝜑(𝑎 ∙ 𝑏) = 𝜑(𝑎) ∗ 𝜑(𝑏)

Example 1: Any isomorphism is homomorphism that is also onto and one- one.
Example 2: Consider two groups 𝐺 and 𝐺′ with identity elements 𝑒 and 𝑒' , respectively. Define

𝜑: 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ 𝑏𝑦 𝜑(𝑔) = 𝑒 ′ , ∀𝑔 ∈ 𝐺.

Then 𝜑 is a homomorphism. It is called trivial homomorphism.

Example 3: Consider any group (𝐺,∗). Define

𝜑: 𝐺 → 𝐺 𝑏𝑦 𝜑(𝑔) = 𝑔, ∀𝑔 ∈ 𝐺.

Then 𝜑 is a homomorphism. It is called identity homomorphism , as every element maps to itself.

Before going onto further examples let us define another important concept i.e. kernel of a
homomorphism.

10.2 Kernel of Homomorphism

In a homomorphism, all those elements that are mapped to the identity element are of special importance.

Definition:
If 𝜑 is a homomorphism of a group 𝐺 to a group 𝐺′, then the set of all those elements of 𝐺 which are
mapped by 𝜑 onto the identity 𝑒′ 𝑜𝑓 𝐺′ (𝑖. 𝑒. {𝑥 ∈ 𝐺: 𝜑(𝑥) = 𝑒′}) is called the kernel of the
homomorphism 𝜑 .The kernel of 𝜑 is denoted by 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑.

Theorem(10.a):
Let 𝐺 and 𝐺′ be any two groups and let 𝑒 and 𝑒′ be their respective identities. If 𝜑 is a homomorphism
of 𝐺 into 𝐺′, then

(i) 𝜑 (𝑒) = 𝑒′

(ii) 𝜑 (𝑥 −1 ) = [ 𝜑 (x)]−1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺

Proof:
(i) We know that for 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺, 𝜑 (𝑥) ∈ 𝐺′.
𝜑 (𝑥) ⋅ 𝑒′ = 𝜑 (𝑥) = 𝜑 (𝑥 𝑒) = 𝜑 (𝑥) ⋅ 𝜑 (𝑒) , and therefore by using left cancellation law we have
𝑒′ = 𝜑 (𝑒) 𝑜𝑟 𝜑 (𝑒) = 𝑒′.

(ii) Since for any 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑥𝑥 −1 = 𝑒 we get

𝜑(𝑥). 𝜑 (𝑥 −1 ) = 𝜑 (𝑥𝑥 −1 ) = 𝜑 (𝑒) = 𝑒′

Similarly 𝑥 −1 𝑥 = 𝑒, gives 𝜑 (𝑥 −1 ) ⋅ 𝜑 (𝑥) = 𝑒′

Hence by the definition of [ 𝜑 (x)]−1 in 𝐺′ we obtain the result
 𝜑 (𝑥 −1 ) = [ 𝜑 (𝑥)]−1 .

Note: The Kernel of isomorphism is identity.

Let us give some examples of homomorphism:

Example 4:
∗ ∗ ∗
Consider the group (ℝ ,∙ ).The mapping 𝜑: ℝ → ℝ defined by 𝜑(𝑥) = |𝑥| is a homomorphism .

𝑥1 = 𝑥2 ⇒ 𝜑(𝑥1 ) = 𝜑(𝑥2 )

therefore 𝜑 is well defined .

Consider, 𝜑(𝑥. 𝑦) = |𝑥. 𝑦|

= |𝑥|. |𝑦|

=𝜑(𝑥). 𝜑(𝑦)

𝜑 is homomorphism.
∗
𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ |𝜑(𝑥) = 1}
∗
= { 𝑥 ∈ ℝ : |𝑥| = 1}

= {−1,1}.

Example 5: Let 𝐺 = 𝐺𝐿(2, ℝ).Prove that the mapping

∗
𝜑: 𝐺 → (ℝ ,∙) defined by 𝜑(𝐴) = 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴

is a homomorphism with kernel 𝑆𝐿(2, ℝ).

Sol. Let 𝐴, 𝐵 ∈ 𝐺. Then

𝜑(𝐴𝐵) = det(𝐴𝐵) = det(𝐴) det(𝐵) = 𝜑(𝐴)𝜑 (𝐵).

Hence 𝜑 is a homomorphism . The identity element of ℝ∗ is 1.

𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 = {𝐴 ∈ 𝐺: 𝜑(𝐴) = 1}

= {𝐴 ∈ 𝐺: 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) = 1}

= 𝑆𝐿(2, ℝ).

Example 6 :. Let 𝐺 = (ℤ, +) and 𝐻 = (ℤ𝑛 , +) for some 𝑛 > 1. Define

𝜙 ∶ 𝐺 → 𝐻 by 𝜙(𝑥) = [𝑥]. Then 𝜙 is a homomorphism.

Sol. Since operation in both groups is addition,

Claim: 𝜙(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝜙(𝑥) + 𝜙(𝑦).

𝜙(𝑥) + 𝜙(𝑦) = [𝑥] + [𝑦]

= [𝑥 + 𝑦]

= 𝜙(𝑥 + 𝑦)

(where equality [𝑥] + [𝑦] = [𝑥 + 𝑦] holds by definition of addition in ℤ𝑛 ).

Note : All isomorphism are homomorphism (although not all homomorphism are isomorphism).

Isomorphism are homomorphism by definition. Kernels of isomorphism are the identity (or else it would
not be one-to-one), and images are the entire target group (or else it would not be onto).

Example 7: φ: (ℤ , +) → (ℤ𝑛 , ⨁𝑛) defined by 𝜑(𝑚) = 𝑟, (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 = 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛) . Prove that 𝜑 is

group homomorphism .
𝑚1 𝑚2
Sol : 𝜑 is well defined as if 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 ⇒ 𝑛
= 𝑛
⇒ 𝑟1 = 𝑟2

Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℤ be s.t. 𝜑(𝑥) = 𝑟1 & 𝜑(𝑦) = 𝑟2

𝜑(𝑥 + 𝑦) = (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑛

= ((𝑥 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛) + (𝑦 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛 ))𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛

= (𝑟1 ⊕𝑛 𝑟2 )

= 𝜑(𝑥) ⊕𝑛 𝜑(𝑦)

therefore 𝜑 is a homomorphism.

Ker 𝜑 = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|𝜑(𝑥) = 0}

= {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|𝑥 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛 = 0}

= 𝑛 ℤ (set of all multiple of n)

i.e. Ker 𝜑 =< 𝑛 >

Example 8: 𝐺 = ℝ[𝑥] , group of polynomials with real coefficients under operation addition. Define
𝜑: ℝ[𝑥] → ℝ[𝑥] given by

(𝑓) = 𝑓′ is a group homomorphism.

Sol : Since derivative of a polynomial in 𝑥 is again a polynomial in 𝑥

 𝜑(𝑓) = 𝑓 ′ ∈ ℝ[𝑥]

𝜑 is well defined.

𝜑(𝑓 + 𝑔) = (𝑓 + 𝑔)′

= 𝑓 ′ + 𝑔′

= 𝜑(𝑓) + 𝜑(𝑔)

𝜑 is homomorphism.

then, 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 = {𝑓 ∈ 𝐺 |𝜑(𝑓) = 0}

= { 𝑓 ∈ 𝐺 |𝑓 ′ = 0 }

= Set of all constant polynomials.

Example 9: The mapping 𝜑 from the group of real numbers under addition to itself given by 𝜑(𝑥) =
[𝑥],the greatest integer less than or equal to 𝑥, is not a Homomorphism , since [1/2 + 1/2] ≠ [1/2] +
[1/2].

Types of group homomorphism

Monomorphism
A group homomorphism that is injective (or one-to-one) i.e. injective homomorphism

Epimorphism
A group homomorphism that is surjective (or onto). i.e. surjective homomorphism

Isomorphism
A group homomorphism that is bijective; i.e., injective and surjective. Its inverse is also a group
homomorphism. i.e. bijective homomorphism

Endomorphism
A homomorphism, h: G → G; the domain and codomain are the same. Also called an endomorphism
of G. i.e. homomorphism of a group to itself.

Automorphism
An endomorphism that is bijective , and hence an isomorphism from a group G onto itself. It is denoted
by Aut (G). i.e. isomorphism of a group with itself.

Example 10: The mapping

𝜙 ∶ (ℝ, +) → (ℝ+ ,·)
 𝑥 → 𝑒𝑥

is an isomorphism, and 𝜑 −1 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑥.

Example 11: The mapping

𝜙 ∶ ℝ3 → ℝ2

(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) → (𝑥, 𝑧)

is a surjective homomorphism and 𝐾𝑒𝑟(𝜙) = {(0, 𝑦, 0) ∶ 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅}. .

Example 12: The mapping

𝜑 ∶ (ℤ12 ,⊕𝑛 ) → (ℤ12 ,⊕𝑛 )

𝑥 → 3𝑥

Show that 𝜑 is a homomorphism and find 𝜑 −1 (𝐾), where 𝐾 = {0,6}.

Sol: 𝜑(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 3(𝑥 + 𝑦)

= 3𝑥 + 3𝑦

= 𝜑(𝑥) + 𝜑(𝑦)

∴ 𝜑 is a homomorphism.

now, 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ12 |𝜑(𝑥) = 0}

= {𝑥 ∈ ℤ12 |3𝑥 = 0}

= {0,4,8}

∵ |𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑| = 3

∴ 𝜑 is 3 − 𝑡𝑜 − 1 mapping

∵ 𝜑(2) = 6

∴ 𝜑−1 (6) = 2 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 [∵ 𝜑(𝑔) = 𝑔′ , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜑−1 (𝑔′ ) = 𝑔 𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑 ]

= {2,6,10}

Next , 𝐾 = {0,6} =< 6 >⊆ ℤ12 = 𝐺 ′

Now, 𝜑−1 (0) = {0,4,8}

𝜑 −1 (6) = {2,6,10}
∴ 𝜑 −1 (𝐾) = {0,2,4,6,8,10} =< 2 > ⊆ 𝐺 = ℤ12 .

Example 13: For every 𝑟 ∈ ℚ , the mapping

𝜑 ∶ (ℚ, +) → (ℚ, +)

𝑞 → 𝑟𝑞

is an automorphism of (ℚ, +).

 (10.b) In 1770, L. Euler proved that every positive integer can be written as sum of the four
square (𝑎2 + 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 + 𝑑2 ).
Q. Prove that no integer equal to 7 𝑚𝑜𝑑 8 can be written in form (𝑎2 + 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 )
[i.e. sum of three squares ]
Sol: Let 𝑥 = 7 𝑚𝑜𝑑 8
To show: 𝑥 ≠ (𝑎2 + 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 ), 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℤ
Let, if possible 𝑥 = (𝑎2 + 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 ), 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℤ
⇒ 𝑥 𝑚𝑜𝑑 8 = (𝑎2 𝑚𝑜𝑑 8 + 𝑏2 𝑚𝑜𝑑 8 + 𝑐 2 𝑚𝑜𝑑 8)𝑚𝑜𝑑 8
7 = (𝑎2 𝑚𝑜𝑑 8 + 𝑏2 𝑚𝑜𝑑 8 + 𝑐 2 𝑚𝑜𝑑 8)𝑚𝑜𝑑 8

But, square of every even integer is 0 𝑜𝑟 4 𝑚𝑜𝑑 8 , and square of every odd integer = 1 𝑚𝑜𝑑 8
and no combination of 0,1 & 4 will result in 7.
Hence,
𝑥 ≠ (𝑎2 + 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 )

Example 14: Example of a function that is not a homomorphism.

𝜑: (ℝ +) ⇒ (ℝ +) defined by

𝜑(𝑥) = [𝑥] , the greatest integer function is not a homomorphism

Take 𝑥 = 0.6 , 𝑦 = 0.4

𝜑(𝑥 + 𝑦) = [𝑥 + 𝑦] = 1

𝜑(𝑥) + 𝜑(𝑦) = [𝑥] + [𝑦] = 0 + 0 = 0

𝜑(𝑥 + 𝑦) ≠ 𝜑(𝑥) + 𝜑(𝑦)

10.3 Properties of Homomorphism:

Recall: A function 𝜑 ∶ 𝐺 → 𝐺′ is a homomorphism if 𝜑(𝑎. 𝑏) = 𝜑(𝑎) ∗ 𝜑(𝑏) ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.

Let 𝜑 be a homomorphism from a group 𝐺 to a group 𝐺′ and 𝑔 be an element of 𝐺. Then,

 (1) 𝜑 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐺 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐺′.
(2) 𝜑(𝑔𝑛 ) = [𝜑(𝑔)]𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑍.
(3) 𝐼𝑓 |𝑔| 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 |𝜑(𝑔)| 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 |𝑔|.
(4) 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝐺.
(5) 𝐼𝑓 𝜑(𝑔) = 𝑔′, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜑−1 (𝑔′ ) = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐺: 𝜑(𝑥) = 𝑔′ } = 𝑔𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑

PROOF:
(1) Since 𝑒 = 𝑒. 𝑒 , we have

𝜑(𝑒) = 𝜑(𝑒. 𝑒) = 𝜑(𝑒). 𝜑(𝑒)

Also, 𝑒′ being the identity element of 𝐺′ ,we have

𝜑(𝑒) = 𝜑(𝑒)𝑒 ′

Thus, 𝜑(𝑒). 𝜑(𝑒) = 𝜑(𝑒) 𝑒′

By the left cancellation law in 𝐺' ,

we get, 𝜑(𝑒) = 𝑒 ′

(2) If 𝑛 > 0 , then

𝜑(𝑔𝑛 ) = [𝜑(𝑔)]𝑛 , as 𝜑 is homomorphism.

If 𝑛 < 0 , then 𝑛 = −𝑚 for some 𝑚 ∈ ℤ, 𝑚 > 0.

So, 𝜑(𝑔𝑛 ) = 𝜑(𝑔−𝑚 )

= 𝜑(𝑔𝑚 )−1

= ( 𝜑(𝑔𝑚 ))−1

= [𝜑(𝑔)]−𝑚

= [𝜑(𝑔)]𝑛

Hence, 𝜑(𝑔𝑛 ) = [𝜑(𝑔)]𝑛

Also if 𝑛 = 0, then 𝜑(𝑥 0 ) = 𝜑(𝑒) = 𝑒 ′ ,

Hence, 𝜑(𝑔𝑛 ) = [𝜑(𝑔)]𝑛 , ∀ 𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑍.

(3) Let 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑔| = 𝑛 ⇒ 𝑔𝑛 = 𝑒 (𝑖)

Since, 𝜑 is homomorphism

(𝜑(𝑔))𝑛 = 𝜑(𝑔𝑛 )

= 𝜑(𝑒) using (i)

 = 𝑒′ property (1)

Thus, (𝜑(𝑔))𝑛 = 𝑒′

Hence, |𝜑(𝑔)| divides |𝑔|.

(4) The kernel (𝐾𝑒𝑟(𝜑)) of a homomorphism 𝜑 ∶ 𝐺 → 𝐺′ is a subgroup of 𝐺.

Proof. Let 𝐾𝑒𝑟(𝜑) = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 | 𝜑(𝑥) = 𝑒′}

Clearly, 𝑒 ∈ 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 as 𝜑(𝑒) = 𝑒′

Therefore, 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 ≠ 𝜑

Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 be arbitrary ,

⇒ 𝜑(𝑥) = 𝜑(𝑦) = 𝑒 ′
−1
Now , 𝜑(𝑥𝑦 −1 ) = 𝜑(𝑥). 𝜑(𝑦 −1 ) = 𝜑(𝑥). (𝜑(𝑦))

= 𝑒′. (𝑒′)−1 = 𝑒′

∴ 𝑥𝑦 −1 ∈ 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑

Hence , by One-Step Subgroup Test 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 ≤ 𝐺.

(5) First, we prove that 𝜑 −1 (𝑔′ ) ⊆ 𝑔𝐾 (= 𝑔𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑)

Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝜑 −1 (𝑔′ ).

then, 𝜑(𝑥) = 𝑔′ = 𝜑 (𝑔).

−1
therefore 𝑒′ = (𝜑(𝑔)) 𝜑(𝑥) = 𝜑(𝑔−1 )𝜑(𝑥) = 𝜑(𝑔−1 𝑥)

therefore 𝑔−1 𝑥 ∈ 𝑔𝐾

Thus 𝜑−1 (𝑔′ ) ⊆ 𝑔𝐾 .

We now prove that 𝑔𝐾 ⊆ 𝜑−1 (𝑔′ ).

Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝑔𝐾 , then 𝑥 = 𝑔𝑘 , for some 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾

Now 𝜑(𝑥) = 𝜑(𝑔𝑘)

= 𝜑(𝑔)𝜑(𝑘)

= 𝜑(𝑔). 𝑒′

= 𝜑(𝑔) = 𝑔′

Thus , 𝑥 ∈ 𝜑−1 (𝑔′ ) so that 𝑔𝐾 ⊆ 𝜑 −1 (𝑔′ )

Hence ,we get 𝜑 −1 (𝑔′ ) = 𝑔𝐾 .

(10.c)Few other important properties of subgroup under Homomorphism .

Let 𝜑 be a homomorphism from group 𝐺 to group 𝐺′ and 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺, then

(a) 𝜑(𝐻) is a subgroup of 𝐺 ′.

(b)𝐻 is Abelian subgroup of 𝐺 ⇒ 𝜑(𝐻) is Abelian .

(c) 𝐻 = < 𝑎 > is cyclic then 𝜑(𝐻) =< 𝜑(𝑎) > is cyclic.

(d) 𝐻 is normal subgroup of 𝐺 then 𝜑(𝐻) is normal subgroup of 𝜑(𝐺)

(e) if |𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 | = 𝑛, then 𝜑 is 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑜 − 1 mapping from 𝐺 𝑡𝑜 𝐺′.

(f) if 𝐻 is finite (𝑖. 𝑒. |𝐻| = 𝑛), then 𝜑(𝐻) is finite and divides |𝐻|.

(g) if 𝐾 is subgroup of 𝐺′, then 𝜑 −1 (𝐾) is a subgroup of 𝐺.

(h) 𝜑−1 (𝐾) is a normal subgroup of 𝐺 if 𝐾 is a normal subgroup of 𝐺′.

(i) 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 is normal subgroup of 𝐺.

(j) If 𝜑 is onto and 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 = {𝑒}, then 𝜑 is an isomorphism from 𝐺 𝑡𝑜 𝐺′.

Proof:
(a) ∵ 𝜑(𝑒) = 𝑒 ′

⇒ 𝜑(𝐻) ≠ 𝜙 , [∵ 𝑒 ′ = 𝜑(𝑒) ∈ 𝜑(𝐻)]

Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝜑(𝐻) be arbitrary

⇒there exist 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 , 𝑠. 𝑡. 𝜑(𝑎 ) = 𝑥 and 𝜑(𝑏) = 𝑦

Now, 𝑥𝑦 −1 = 𝜙(𝑎)𝜙 (𝑏)−1 = 𝜙(𝑎)𝜙(𝑏 −1 ) = 𝜙(𝑎𝑏−1 ) ∈ 𝜑(𝐻)

Hence , by one step subgroup test 𝜑(𝐻) ≤ 𝜑(𝐺).

(b) 𝜑(𝐻) = { 𝜑(ℎ ): ℎ ∈ 𝐻}

Let 𝜑(𝑥), 𝜑(𝑦) ∈ 𝜑(𝐻) be arbitrary

Consider, 𝜑(𝑥). 𝜑(𝑦) = 𝜑(𝑥. 𝑦) [ as 𝜑 is operation preserving ]

= 𝜑(𝑦. 𝑥) [ 𝐻 is abelian]

= 𝜑(𝑦). 𝜑(𝑥)
This holds ∀ 𝜑(𝑥), 𝜑(𝑦) ∈ 𝜑(𝐻)

Therefore, 𝜑(𝐻) is abelian.

(c) 𝐻 =< 𝑎 > = { 𝑎 𝑛 : 𝑛 ∈ 𝕫}. Then,

𝜑(𝐻) = {𝜑(𝑎𝑛 ): 𝑛 ∈ 𝑧}
𝑛
= {(𝜑(𝑎)) : 𝑛 ∈ 𝑧}

=< 𝜑(𝑎) >

Hence 𝜑(𝐻) is cyclic and is generated by 𝜑(𝑎).

(d)Let 𝐻 be a normal subgroup of 𝐺. Let 𝜑(ℎ ) ∈ 𝜑(𝐻) and 𝜑(𝑔) ∈ 𝜑(𝐺 ) be arbitrary
−1
Then , 𝜑(𝑔)𝜑(ℎ )(𝜑(𝑔)) = 𝜑(𝑔)𝜑(ℎ ) (𝜑(𝑔−1 ))

= 𝜑(𝑔ℎ𝑔−1 ) as 𝜑 is a homomorphism

∈ 𝜑(𝐻), 𝑎𝑠 𝐻 is a normal subgroup of 𝐺

Hence, 𝜑(𝐻) is a normal subgroup of 𝜑(𝐺 ).

(e) We know that

if 𝜑(𝑔) = 𝑔′ , then 𝜑 −1 (𝑔′ ) = 𝑔 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑

Since |𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑| = 𝑛,

⇒ |𝜑−1 (𝑔′ )| = |𝑔 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑| = |𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑| = 𝑛

⇒every element 𝑔′ 𝑖𝑛 𝜑(𝐺 )has 𝑛 pre-images.

Hence, 𝜑 is an 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑜 − 1 mapping .

(f) Suppose 𝐻 ≤ 𝐺 and |𝐻| = 𝑛. then the restriction of 𝜑𝐻 of 𝜑 to 𝐻 is a homomorphism of

𝐻 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝜑(𝐻). [ 𝜑𝐻 : 𝐻 → 𝜑(𝐻) s.t. 𝜑𝐻 (ℎ ) = 𝜑(ℎ )∀ ℎ ∈ 𝐻]

Let |𝐾𝑒𝑟(𝜑𝐻 )| = 𝑚 then by above theorem (e) , 𝜑𝐻 is an 𝑚 − 𝑡𝑜 − 1 mapping ,so | 𝜑 (𝐻)| = |𝐻| ÷
𝑚.

therefore , |𝐻| = 𝑚 |𝜑 (𝐻 |.

Hence |𝜑 (𝐻) | divides |𝐻|.

(g) if 𝐾 is a subgroup of 𝐺′ , then 𝜑−1 (𝐾) = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐺: 𝜑(𝑥) ∈ 𝐾}

Since 𝜑(𝑒) = 𝑒′ ∈ 𝐾 ⇒ 𝜑−1 (𝑒′) ∈ 𝜑−1 (𝐾) so that 𝜑−1 (𝐾) is non empty.

Let 𝑘1 , 𝑘2 ∈ 𝜑−1 (𝐾).

then 𝜑( 𝑘1 )𝜑(𝑘2 ) ∈ 𝐾,

⇒ 𝜑( 𝑘1 )(𝜑(𝑘2 ))−1 ∈ 𝐾, since 𝐾 is a subgroup 𝑜f 𝐺

⇒ 𝜑( 𝑘1 𝑘2 −1 ) ∈ 𝐾

⇒ 𝑘1 𝑘2 −1 ∈ 𝜑−1 (𝐾), by definition of 𝜑 −1 (𝐾).

Hence 𝜑−1 (𝐾) is a subgroup of 𝐺.

(h) by (g) , 𝜑 −1 (𝐾) is a subgroup of 𝐺.

Let 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝜑−1 (𝐾) be arbitrary,

Then 𝜑(𝑥) ∈ 𝐾 and 𝜑(𝑔) ∈ 𝐺 ′

−1
⇒ 𝜑(𝑔)𝜑(𝑥)(𝜑(𝑔)) ∈ 𝐾, since 𝐾 is normal subgroup of 𝐺'.

⇒ 𝜑(𝑔𝑥𝑔−1 ) ∈ 𝐾 , as 𝜑 is a homomorphism

⇒ 𝑔𝑥𝑔−1 ∈ 𝜑−1 (𝐾).

⇒ 𝜑−1 (𝐾) is a normal subgroup of 𝐺.

(j) 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 = {𝑒} ⇒ 𝜑 is 1 − 𝑡𝑜 − 1 mapping from 𝐺 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝐺 ′ and 𝜑 is onto and operation preserving as
well.

Hence, 𝜑 is an isomorphism.
 Fig 10.1: Pictorial representation of properties.

Example 15: Let 𝜑: 𝑈(40) → 𝑈(40) be homomorphism with Kernel 𝐾 = {1,9,17,33}. if 𝜑(11) = 11,
Let us find all the element which map to 11.

(𝜑)−1 (11) = 11𝐾 = {11 ⊙40 1, 11 ⊙40 9, 11 ⊙40 17, 11 ⊙40 33 } = {11,19,27,3} = {3,11,19,27}

Thus, 𝜑 is 4 − 𝑡𝑜 − 1 map.

Example 16: There is no homomorphism from ℤ32 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜 ℤ4 ⊕ ℤ4 .

Since, if there is a homomorphism 𝜑 from ℤ32 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜 ℤ4 ⊕ ℤ4 , then 𝜑( ℤ32 ) = ℤ4 ⊕ ℤ4

but ℤ32 is cyclic whereas ℤ4 ⊕ ℤ4 is not cyclic .Therefore, there is no homomorphism possible from
ℤ32 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜 ℤ4 ⊕ ℤ4

Theorem(10.d): Kernels are Normal

Let 𝜑 be a group homomorphism from 𝐺 𝑡𝑜 𝐺′ . Then 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 is a normal subgroup of 𝐺.

Proof: Let 𝜑 ∶ 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ be a homomorphism

Claim: 𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑 ⊲ G

Let 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 and 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 be arbitrary

Then 𝜑(𝑘) = 𝑒 ′
−1
Now , 𝜑(𝑔𝑘𝑔−1 ) = 𝜑(𝑔)𝜑(𝑘)(𝜑(𝑔)) since 𝜑 is homomorphism
−1
= 𝜑(𝑔)𝑒′(𝜑(𝑔))
−1
= 𝜑(𝑔)(𝜑(𝑔))

= 𝑒′

Hence, (𝑔𝑘𝑔−1 ) ∈ 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑, so that 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 is a normal subgroup of 𝐺.

Theorem(10.e): Normal subgroups are Kernels

Every normal subgroup of a group 𝐺 is a kernel of a homomorphism of 𝐺. In particular , a normal
subgroup 𝑁 is the Kernel of mapping 𝑔 → 𝑔𝑁 (from 𝐺 𝑡𝑜 𝐺/𝑁).
𝐺
Proof: Define 𝜑: 𝐺 → 𝑁 𝑏𝑦 𝜑(𝑔) = 𝑔𝑁 {this mapping is called the natural homomorphism from
𝐺 𝑡𝑜 𝐺/𝑁. }

𝜑 is well defined:

Let 𝑎=𝑏

⇒ 𝑎𝑁 = 𝑏𝑁

⇒ 𝜑(𝑎) = 𝜑(𝑏)

∴ 𝜑 𝑖𝑠 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑

𝜑 is homomorphism:

𝜑(𝑥𝑦) = (𝑥𝑦)𝑁

= (𝑥𝑁)(𝑦𝑁 )

= 𝜑(𝑥)𝜑(𝑦)

∴ 𝜑 is a homomorphism & is clearly onto.

Now 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 |𝜑(𝑥) = 𝑒𝑁 = 𝑁}

= {𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 |𝑥𝑁 = 𝑁}

= {𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 |𝑥 ∈ 𝑁}

= 𝑁∩𝐺

=N [∵ 𝑁 ⊲ 𝐺 ⇒ 𝑁 ⊆ 𝐺]
Note:(1) We can always define a natural homomorphism from a group onto any of its quotient group.

(2) If 𝜑: 𝐺 → 𝐺′ be an onto homomorphism , then G' is called the homomorphic image of G.

Example 17 : Let 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺′ be a homomorphism. Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 be s.t. |𝑎| = 𝑛, |𝑓(𝑎)| = 𝑚

then (𝑖 ) 𝑚|𝑛

(𝑖𝑖 ) 𝑚 = 𝑛 𝑖𝑓𝑓, 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 1 − 1

Proof: (i) |𝑎 | = 𝑛 ⇒ 𝑎 𝑛 = 𝑒
𝑛
⇒ 𝑓(𝑎𝑛 ) = 𝑓(𝑒) ⇒ (𝑓(𝑎)) = 𝑒 ′

∴ 𝑚|𝑛

(ii) Let 𝑚 = 𝑛 ⇒ |𝑓(𝑎)| = |𝑎|

Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑦)

⇒ 𝑓 (𝑥𝑦 −1 ) = 𝑒 ′

⇒ |𝑓(𝑥𝑦 −1 )| = 1

⇒ |𝑥𝑦 −1 | = 1

⇒ 𝑥𝑦 −1 = 𝑒

⇒𝑥=𝑦

∴ 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 1 − 1.

Conversely,

Let 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 1 − 1

|𝑓(𝑎)| = 𝑚
𝑚
⇒ (𝑓(𝑎)) = 𝑒′

⇒ 𝑓(𝑎𝑚 ) = 𝑓 (𝑒)

⇒ 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑒

⇒ 𝑛|𝑚

∴𝑛=𝑚 (∵ 𝑚|𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙)

Example 18 : If 𝑁 ⊴ 𝐺, then for all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺, (𝑥𝑁)(𝑦𝑁) = (𝑥𝑦)𝑁.

Proof. Since 𝑁 is a normal subgroup of 𝐺, we have
(𝑥𝑁)(𝑦𝑁) = (𝑥(𝑦𝑁𝑦 −1 )(𝑦𝑁) [𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑦𝑁𝑦 −1 = 𝑁]

⇒ (𝑥𝑦)(𝑁𝑁) = (𝑥𝑦)𝑁 .

Example 19 : Let 𝐺 be a group and 𝑁 a normal subgroup of 𝐺. Let 𝜑 ∶ 𝐺 → 𝐺/𝑁 𝑣𝑖𝑎 𝜑(𝑔) =
𝑁𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺.

Then for all 𝑔, ℎ ∈ 𝐺, 𝜑(𝑔ℎ) = 𝑁(𝑔ℎ) = (𝑁𝑔)(𝑁ℎ) = 𝜑(𝑔)𝜑(ℎ).

We will see that every homomorphism can be considered to be of this form.

Example 20 : If 𝐾 is the kernel of a homomorphism 𝜑 ∶ 𝐺 → 𝐻, then for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺, 𝜑(𝑎) = 𝜑(𝑏)

if and only if 𝐾𝑎 = 𝐾𝑏.

Proof. Suppose 𝜑(𝑎) = 𝜑(𝑏). Then 𝑒′ = 𝜑(𝑏)𝜑(𝑎−1 ) = 𝜑(𝑏𝑎−1 ) 𝑠𝑜 𝑏𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐾. Then the cosets 𝐾
and 𝐾𝑏𝑎−1 are the same, and

⇒ 𝐾 = 𝐾𝑏𝑎−1

⇒ 𝐾𝑎 = 𝐾𝑏

Conversely, 𝐾𝑎 = 𝐾𝑏.

Then 𝑎𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐾, 𝑠𝑜 𝜑(𝑎𝑏−1 ) = 𝑒′

Then 𝑒′ = 𝜑(𝑎𝑏 −1 )

𝑒′ = 𝜑(𝑎)𝜑(𝑏−1 )

𝑒 ′ = 𝜑(𝑎)𝜑(𝑏)−1

𝜑(𝑏) = 𝜑(𝑎)

10.4: ISOMORPHISM THEOREM :In this section we will deal with the group G, normal subgroup
N of G and quotient group G/N , their interconnection and Cayley table and relation between number of
Homomorphic images and number of quotients.

First Isomorphism Theorem:

The first group isomorphism theorem, also known as the fundamental homomorphism theorem, states
that if 𝜑 be a homomorphism from a group 𝐺 to a group 𝐺' . Then 𝐺/𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 ≈ 𝜑(𝐺 ).

i.e. the mapping from 𝐺/𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 𝑡𝑜 𝜑(𝐺) ,given by 𝑔𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 → 𝜑(𝑔) ,is an isomorphism.

Proof: Let 𝐾 = 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 .For 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 , 𝜑(𝑔) ∈ 𝜑(𝐺 ), 𝑔𝐾 ∈ 𝐺/𝐾

Define 𝜓: 𝐺/𝐾 → 𝜑(𝐺 ) by 𝜓(𝑔𝐾) = 𝜑(𝑔). We will prove the following

1. 𝜓 is well defined

2. 𝜓 is one- one

3. 𝜓 is onto

4. 𝜓 is homomorphism.

Step 1: To prove that 𝜓 is well defined.

𝐺
Let 𝑔𝐾 , ℎ𝐾 ∈ 𝐾 𝑠. 𝑡. 𝑔𝐾 = ℎ𝐾

⇒ 𝑔ℎ −1 ∈ 𝐾

⇒ 𝜑(𝑔ℎ −1 ) = 𝑒 ′

⇒ 𝜑(𝑔)𝜑(ℎ −1 ) = 𝑒 ′
−1
⇒ 𝜑(𝑔) (𝜑(ℎ)) = 𝑒′

⇒ 𝜑(𝑔) = 𝜑(ℎ )

Hence, 𝜓(𝑔𝐾) = 𝜓(ℎ𝐾) ,so 𝜓 is well defined.

Step 2 :.To prove that 𝜓 is one -one.

Let 𝑔𝐾, ℎ𝐾 ∈ 𝐺/𝐾 𝑠. 𝑡. 𝜓(𝑔𝐾) = 𝜓(ℎ𝐾) then

𝜑(𝑔) = 𝜑(ℎ )

⇒ 𝜑(𝑔ℎ −1 ) = 𝑒 ′ , as 𝜑 is homomorphism

⇒ 𝑔ℎ −1 ∈ 𝐾

⇒ 𝑔𝐾 = ℎ𝐾

Hence, 𝜓 is one -one.

Step3: To prove 𝜓 is onto.

Let 𝑦 ∈ 𝜑(𝐺 ). Since 𝜑 is onto ∃ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 𝑠. 𝑡. 𝑦 = 𝜑(𝑔)

Then 𝑔𝐾 ∈ 𝐺/𝐾 and 𝜓(𝑔𝐾) = 𝜑 (𝑔) = 𝑦

Hence 𝜓 is onto.

Step 4: To prove 𝜓 is homomorphism.

Let 𝑔𝐾, ℎ𝐾 ∈ 𝐺/𝐾

𝜓(𝑔𝐾ℎ𝐾) = 𝜓(𝑔ℎ𝐾)
 = 𝜑(𝑔ℎ )

= 𝜑(𝑔) 𝜑(ℎ ) (as 𝜑 is homomorphism)

= 𝜓(𝑔𝐾)𝜓(ℎ𝐾)

Hence, 𝜓 is homomorphism.

Hence 𝜓 is a homomorphism from 𝐺/𝐾 onto 𝜑(𝐺 ) , which is one- one also , so
𝐺
≈ 𝜑(𝐺 ) 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐺/𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 ≈ 𝜑(𝐺 ).
𝐾
Diagrammatically this theorem can be represented as

𝐺 𝜑(𝐺 )

𝜂 𝜓

𝐺/𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑

Then 𝜑 = 𝜂 𝜓

Result: Each quotient of 𝐺 is a homomorphic image and each homomorphic image is isomorphic to some
quotient group thereof.

Second Isomorphism Theorem : If 𝐾 is a subgroup of a group 𝐺 and 𝑁 is a normal subgroup , then

𝐾/(𝐾 ∩ 𝑁) ≈ 𝐾𝑁/𝑁 .

Proof: Since 𝑁 is normal subgroup of 𝐺, therefore 𝑁𝐾 = 𝐾𝑁

so that 𝐾𝑁 is a subgroup of 𝐺. Moreover, 𝑁 = 𝑒𝑁 ⊆ 𝐾𝑁

So that 𝑁 is a normal subgroup of 𝐾𝑁 . Thus 𝐾𝑁/𝑁 is defined.

Define 𝜑: 𝐾 → 𝐾𝑁/𝑁 by 𝜑(𝑘) = 𝑘𝑁

Then 𝜑 is a homomorphism since it is operation preserving .Moreover, 𝜑 is onto

for if, 𝑥𝑁 ∈ 𝐾𝑁/𝑁

then 𝑥 ∈ 𝐾𝑁

⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑘𝑛 , for some 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁, 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾

⇒ 𝑥𝑁 = 𝑘𝑛𝑁 = 𝑘𝑁 = 𝜑(𝑘)
Thus , 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾 ⇒ 𝜑(𝑘) = 𝑥𝑁

So, 𝜑 is onto.

By first isomorphism theorem

𝐾/𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 ≈ 𝐾𝑁/𝑁 . (1)

Let us now find 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑.

𝑘 ∈ 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑

⇔ 𝜑(𝑘) = 𝑁 , as 𝑁 is the identity element of the 𝐾𝑁/𝑁.

⇔ 𝑘𝑁 = 𝑁
⇔𝑘 ∈ 𝑁

⇔ 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾 ∩ 𝑁 , as the mapping is defined on 𝐾 so 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾.

Hence 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 = 𝐾 ∩ 𝑁. (2)

from (1) & (2) we get

𝐾/(𝐾 ∩ 𝑁) ≈ 𝐾𝑁/𝑁 .

Third Isomorphism Theorem:

If 𝑁 and 𝑀 are normal subgroup of a group 𝐺 and 𝑁 ⊆ 𝑀, Then (𝐺/𝑁)/(𝑀/𝑁) ≈ 𝐺/𝑀.

Proof : Since 𝑀 ⊲ 𝐺 and 𝑁 ⊲ 𝐺, so 𝐺/𝑀, 𝐺/𝑁 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀/𝑁 are defined.

Define 𝜑: 𝐺/𝑁 → 𝐺/𝑀 𝑏𝑦 𝜑(𝑔𝑁) = 𝑔𝑀

we will prove that

1. 𝜑 is well defined

2.𝜑 is onto

3. 𝜑 is homomorphism

4. 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 = 𝑀/𝑁

Step 1. Let 𝑥𝑁 , 𝑦𝑁 ∈ 𝐺/𝑁 𝑠. 𝑡. 𝑥𝑁 = 𝑦𝑁

Then 𝑦 −1 𝑥 ∈ 𝑁 ⊆ 𝑀

⇒ 𝑥𝑀 = 𝑦𝑀
 ⇒ 𝜑(𝑥) = 𝜑(𝑦).

Hence, 𝜑 is well defined.

Step 2. Let 𝑔𝑀 ∈ 𝐺/𝑀. Then 𝑔𝑁 ∈ 𝐺/𝑁 , so that 𝜑(𝑔𝑁) = 𝑔𝑀

Hence, 𝜑 is onto.

Step 3. Let 𝑥𝑁, 𝑦𝑁 ∈ 𝐺/𝑁.

𝜑(𝑥𝑁𝑦𝑁) = 𝜑((𝑥𝑦)𝑁) = (𝑥𝑦)𝑀 = (𝑥𝑀)(𝑦𝑀) = 𝜑(𝑥)𝜑(𝑦)

Hence, 𝜑 𝑖s homomorphism

Step 4: 𝑥𝑁 ∈ 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑

⇔ 𝜑(𝑥𝑁) = 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐺/𝑀

⇔ 𝑥𝑀 = 𝑀

⇔𝑥 ∈ 𝑀

⇔ 𝑥𝑁 ∈ 𝑀/𝑁

Hence, 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 = 𝑀/𝑁

Since the Kernel of Homomorphism is a normal subgroup , 𝑀/𝑁 is a normal subgroup of 𝐺/𝑁.

By the first isomorphism theorem ,

(𝐺/𝑁)𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 ≈ 𝐺/𝑀.

Therefore, (𝐺/𝑁)/(𝑀/𝑁) ≈ (𝐺/𝑀).

This is also known as Freshman's Theorem.

N/C Theorem: Let 𝐻 be a subgroup of a group 𝐺. Then normalizer of 𝐻 in 𝐺 is 𝑁(𝐻) = {𝑥 ∈

𝐺 |𝑥𝐻𝑥 −1 = 𝐻} and the centralizer of 𝐻 in 𝐺 is 𝐶 (𝐻) = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 |𝑥ℎ𝑥 −1 = ℎ ∀ ℎ ∈ 𝐻}. Consider the
mapping from 𝑁(𝐻) to 𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐻) given by 𝑔 → 𝜑𝑔 , where 𝜑𝑔 is the inner automorphism of 𝐻 induced by
𝑔 [that is, 𝜑𝑔 (ℎ ) = 𝑔ℎ𝑔−1 ∀ ℎ ∈ 𝐻]. This mapping is a homomorphism with kernel 𝐶(𝐻). So, by
fundamental theorem of homomorphism , 𝑁(𝐻)/𝐶(𝐻) is isomorphic to a subgroup of 𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐻).

Example 21 : The mapping

𝜓 ∶ (ℤ12 , +) → (ℤ3 , +)

𝑥 → 𝑥 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 3)

is a surjective homomorphism with 𝐾𝑒𝑟(𝜓) = {0,3,6,9} = 3ℤ12

and thus, by first isomorphism theorem ℤ12 /3ℤ12 and ℤ3 are isomorphic.
Example 22 : To illustrate 1𝑠𝑡 isomorphism theorem
Consider 𝜑: 𝐷4 → 𝐷4

𝑅0 𝑅180 𝑅90 𝑅270 𝐻 𝑉 𝐷 𝐷′

𝑅0 𝐻 𝑅180 𝑉

Then 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 = {𝑅0 , 𝑅180 }

𝜑(𝐷4 ) = {𝑅0 , 𝐻, 𝑅180 , 𝑉}

𝐷4
= {𝑅0 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 , 𝑅90 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 , 𝐻 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 , 𝐷 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 }
𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑
𝐷4
Define 𝜓: 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑
→ 𝜑(𝐷4 ) as

𝜓(𝑅0 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑) = 𝑅0 = 𝜑( 𝑅0 )

𝜓(𝑅90 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑) = 𝐻 = 𝜑(𝑅90 )

𝜓(𝐻 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑) = 𝑅180 = 𝜑 (𝐻)

𝜓(𝐷 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑) = 𝑉 = 𝜑 (𝐷)

Then 𝜓 is desired isomorphism.

Example 23 : If 𝜑 is a homomorphism from ℤ30 onto a group of order 5, Determine 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑.

Sol: Let 𝐺 be a group of order 5.By first isomorphism theorem ,
𝑍30 /𝐾 ≈ 𝐺 , where 𝐾 = 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑

Comparing the Order, we get |𝐾| = 6

𝐾 being a subgroup of cyclic group ℤ30 , it is cyclic

𝐾 =< 𝑎 >, where |𝑎| = 6

Since, ℤ30 has unique subgroup of order 6 [by fundamental theorem of cyclic group ]

So, 𝐾 =< 5 >

Example 24: Prove that there is no Homomorphism from ℤ4 ⨁ℤ4 onto ℤ8.
Sol: Let there exist an onto homomorphism 𝜑: ℤ4 ⨁ℤ4 → ℤ8.
By first isomorphism theorem ,
 ℤ4 ⨁ℤ4 /𝐾 ≈ ℤ8. where 𝐾 = 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑

Comparing the order , we get

|𝐾| = 2

Since ℤ8. is a cyclic group of order 8, so ℤ4 ⨁ℤ4 /𝐾 is a cyclic group of order 8.

But 4(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 0 ∀ (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℤ4 ⨁ℤ4

⇒ 4((𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝐾) = 𝐾 ∀ (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℤ4 ⨁ℤ4

⇒ no element of ℤ4 ⨁ℤ4 is of order 8.

which is contradiction to ℤ4 ⨁ℤ4 /𝐾 is a cyclic group of order 8.

Hence, no such homomorphism exist.

Example 25: Consider , 𝜑: ℂ∗ → ℂ∗

Given by , 𝜑(𝑥) = 𝑥 4

∵ 𝜑(𝑥. 𝑦) = (𝑥. 𝑦)4

= 𝑥4 . 𝑦 4

= 𝜑(𝑥). 𝜑(𝑦)

∴ 𝜑 is a homomorphism.

ker 𝜑 = {𝑥 ∈ ℂ∗|𝜑(𝑥) = 1}

= {𝑥 ∈ ℂ∗ |𝑥 4 = 1}

= {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖}

∴ |𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑| = 4

So, 𝜑 is 4 − 𝑡𝑜 − 1 mapping

We will find all elements of ℂ∗ that are mapped to 2.

i.e. we find 𝑥 ∈ ℂ∗ 𝑠. 𝑡. 𝜑(𝑥) = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 4 = 2

i.e. 4 complex roots of 2

4 4
We know ( √2) = 2
4
∴ 𝜑−1 (2) = √2 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑
4 4 4 4
= { √2 , − √2 , 𝑖 √2 , −𝑖 √2}
SOLVED EXERCISE :

Problem 1: Let ℝ∗ be the group of non zero real numbers under multiplication, and let 𝑟 be a positive
integer. Show that the mapping that takes 𝑥 to 𝑥 𝑟 is a homomorphism from ℝ∗ to ℝ∗ and determine the
kernel. Which values of 𝑟 yield an isomorphism?

Sol: 𝜑: 𝑅∗ → 𝑅∗

𝑥 → 𝑥𝑟 𝑟 > 0 & 𝑟 €𝑍

𝜑(𝑥. 𝑦) = 𝜑(𝑥. 𝑦)𝑟

= 𝑥𝑟 . 𝑦 𝑟

=𝜑(𝑥). 𝜑(𝑦)

⇒ 𝜑 is a group homomorphism.

𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑅∗ |𝑥 𝑟 = 1}

For odd values of 𝑟 𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑 = {1}

And for even values of 𝑟 𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑 = {±1}

⇒ 𝜑 𝑖𝑠 𝑎n isomorphism if 𝑟 is odd.

Problem 2: If 𝜑 is a homomorphism from 𝐺 to 𝐻 and 𝜎 is a homomorphism from 𝐻 to 𝐾, show that

𝜎 𝜑 is a homomorphism from 𝐺 to 𝐾. How are 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 and 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜎 𝜑 related? If 𝜑 and 𝜎 are onto and 𝐺 is
finite, describe [𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜎 𝜑: 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑] in terms of |𝐻| and |𝐾|.

Sol: .Clearly, 𝜎 𝜑: 𝐺 → 𝐾 is well defined.

We need to prove that 𝜎 𝜑 preserve operation. We know that 𝜎 and 𝜑 preserve operation,

Now, (𝜎𝜑)(𝑥𝑦) = 𝜎(𝜑(𝑥𝑦) ) = 𝜎(𝜑(𝑥)𝜑(𝑦) ) = 𝜎(𝜑(𝑥) )𝜎(𝜑(𝑦) ) = (𝜎𝜑)(𝑥)(𝜎𝜑)(𝑦)

∴ 𝜎 𝜑 is a homomorphism from 𝐺 to 𝐾

Take any 𝑥 ∈ 𝐾𝑒𝑟 (𝜑). This means 𝜑(𝑥) = 𝑒, and then ,

(𝜎𝜑)(𝑥) = 𝜎(𝜑(𝑥)) = 𝜎(𝑒) = 𝑒

This implies that 𝐾𝑒𝑟(𝜑) ⊆ 𝐾𝑒𝑟(𝜎𝜑).

The mappings 𝜎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜑 are onto implies that 𝜑(𝐺 ) = 𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜑(𝐻) = 𝐾. Consequently, mapping 𝜎 𝜑 is
onto, 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝜎𝜑(𝐺) = 𝐾.
 |𝐺| |𝐺|
Now using First Isomorphism Theorem we conclude that |𝐾𝑒𝑟(𝜑)| = |𝜑(𝐺)| = |𝐻| .

|𝐺| |𝐺|
Analogously, |𝐾𝑒𝑟(𝜎𝜑)| = = .
|𝜎𝜑(𝐺)| |𝐾|

Now we can compute the desired index:

|𝐺|
𝐾𝑒𝑟(𝜎𝜑) |𝐾| |𝐻|
[𝐾𝑒𝑟(𝜎𝜑) ∶ 𝐾𝑒𝑟(𝜑)] = = =
𝐾𝑒𝑟(𝜑) |𝐺| |𝐾|
|𝐻|

Problem 3: Prove that the mapping from 𝐺 ⨁ 𝐻 to G given by (𝑔, ℎ) → 𝑔 is a homomorphism . What
is the kernel? This mapping is called the 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐺 ⨁ 𝐻 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝐺.

Sol : 𝜑((𝑔, ℎ)(𝑔′ , ℎ ′ )) = 𝜑(𝑔𝑔′ , ℎℎ′ ) = 𝑔𝑔′ = 𝜑(𝑔, ℎ)𝜑(𝑔′ , ℎ′ )

𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑 = {(𝑒, ℎ )| ℎ ∈ 𝐻 }

Problem 4: Prove that (ℤ⨁ ℤ)/(< (𝑎, 0) > × < (0, 𝑏) >) is isomorphic to ℤ𝑎 ⨁ ℤ𝑏 .
Sol: We define a mapping 𝜑: ℤ ⊕ ℤ → ℤ𝑎 ⊕ ℤ𝑏 with 𝜑((𝑚, 𝑛)) = (𝑚 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑎, 𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑏).

Kernal of mapping 𝜑 is found in solving equation 𝜑((𝑚, 𝑛)) = (0,0).This translates to two simultaneous
equation:

𝑚 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑎 = 0

𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑏 = 0

Solutions to first equation form a set < 𝑎 >, and to second < 𝑏 >. Then the Kernel of 𝜑 is:

𝐾𝑒𝑟(𝜑) = {(𝑚, 𝑛)|𝑚 ∈ < 𝑎 >, 𝑛 ∈ < 𝑏 >} = < (𝑎, 0) >× < (𝑏, 0) >

Now we apply First Isomorphism Theorem to mapping 𝜑, which exactly yields the desired isomorphism.

(ℤ⨁ ℤ)/(< (𝑎, 0) > × < (0, 𝑏) >) ≈ ℤ𝑎 ⨁ ℤ𝑏

Problem 5: Prove that (𝐴 ⊕ 𝐵)/(𝐴 ⊕ {𝑒}) ≈ 𝐵.

Sol: We define a mapping 𝜑: 𝐴 ⊕ 𝐵 → 𝐵 with 𝜑((𝑎, 𝑏)) = 𝑏

Kernel of mapping 𝜑 is found solving the equation 𝜑((𝑎, 𝑏)) = 𝑒.This translates to equation 𝑏 = 𝑒.

Then the Kernel of 𝜑 is 𝐴 ⊕ {𝑒}.

Now we apply First Isomorphism Theorem to mapping 𝜑, which exactly yields the desired isomorphism.

Problem 6: Suppose that 𝜑 is a homomorphism from ℤ30 𝑡𝑜 ℤ30 and 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 = {0, 10, 20}. If 𝜑(23) =
9, determine all elements that map to 9.

Sol:
𝜑: ℤ30 → ℤ30

𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑 = {0, 10, 20}

If 𝜑(23) = 9

Then 𝜑 −1 (9) = 23 + 𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑 = {23, 13, 3} [∵ 𝑖𝑓 𝜑(𝑔) = 𝑔′ , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜑−1 (𝑔′ ) = 𝑔 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 ]

Problem 7: Prove that there is no homomorphism from ℤ16 ⊕ ℤ2 onto ℤ4 ⊕ ℤ4 .

Sol: Assume on the contrary that there is such a homomorphism 𝜑 ∶ ℤ16 ⊕ ℤ2 → ℤ4 ⊕ ℤ4 .

Then applying the First Isomorphism Theorem to homomorphism 𝜑 because of 𝜑(ℤ16 ⊕ ℤ2 ) = ℤ4 ⊕

ℤ4 (𝜑 is onto) yields the following:

ℤ16 ⊕ ℤ2 / 𝐾𝑒𝑟(𝜑) ≈ 𝜑(ℤ4 ⊕ ℤ4 ) = ℤ4 ⊕ ℤ4

|ℤ16 ⊕ℤ2 | 32
This further implies that |𝐾𝑒𝑟(𝜑)| = = = 2, which we will use now.
|ℤ4 ⊕ℤ4 | 16

The only possibilities for 𝐾𝑒𝑟(𝜑) are now: < (8,0) > 𝑜𝑟 < (8,1) > 𝑜𝑟 < (0,1) >, as these are the
only elements of order 2 in 𝑍16 ⊕ 𝑍2 .

in any case |(1, 0) + 𝐾𝑒𝑟 (𝜑)| = 8 𝑜𝑟 16

Since there are no elements of order 8 nor 16 in ℤ4 ⊕ ℤ4 , we conclude it can not be isomorphic
to ℤ16 ⊕ ℤ2 / 𝐾𝑒𝑟 (𝜑), which is a contradiction.
Problem 8:. Suppose that there is a homomorphism 𝜑 from ℤ17 to some group and that 𝜑 is not one-to-
one. Determine 𝜑.

Sol: We know that 𝐾𝑒𝑟 (𝜑) is a sub group of cyclic group ℤ17 . Since the mapping 𝜑 is not one-one, it
has to be 𝑘 − 𝑡𝑜 − 𝑜𝑛𝑒, where 𝑘 = |𝐾𝑒𝑟 (𝜑)|

But we know that order of sub group of cyclic group divides the order of the group, i. e. 𝑘|17. This
implies 𝑘 = 17 (since 17 is prime and 𝑘 ≠ 1, which means 𝐾𝑒𝑟 (𝜑) = ℤ17.
Hence, 𝜑 maps every element of ℤ17 to identity.

Problem 9: If 𝜑 is a homomorphism from ℤ30 onto a group of order 5, determine the kernel of 𝜑.
Sol: Since 𝜑 is onto, we know that |𝜑(ℤ30 )| = 5. Then first isomorphism theorem implies
|𝑍30 | 30
that |𝐾𝑒𝑟(𝜑)| = 5
= 5
= 6.

But 𝐾𝑒𝑟(𝜑) is a sub group of ℤ30 and there is only one sub group of order 6 in ℤ20 .

This implies 𝐾𝑒𝑟(𝜑) = < 5 >

Problem 10: Suppose that 𝜑 is a homomorphism from ℤ36 to a group of order 24.
a. Determine the possible homomorphic images.
b. For each image in part a, determine the corresponding kernel of 𝜑 .
Sol: Part a: First of all note that homomorphic image of cyclic group is cyclic as well. We use corollary
of first isomorphic theorem which says that |𝜑(𝐺 )| divides both |𝐺| and |𝐺′|.

In this case we have 𝜑(ℤ36 ) that divides |ℤ36 | = 36 and 24, which implies that it divides 𝑔𝑐𝑑(36,24) =
12. The cyclic group of order which divides 12 are following:

 ℤ1
 ℤ2
 ℤ3
 ℤ4
 ℤ6
  ℤ12
And these are or possible homomorphic images.

|𝐺|
Part B :From first isomorphism theorem we know that |𝐾𝑒𝑟(𝜑)| = ̅̅̅,
|𝐺|
so we can easily determine the

order of kernel. But in cyclic groups, there is only one sub group of given order, so the kernels are of the
following order:

 𝐾𝑒𝑟(𝜑) = < 1 >

 𝐾𝑒𝑟(𝜑) = < 2 >
 𝐾𝑒𝑟(𝜑) = < 3 >
 𝐾𝑒𝑟(𝜑) = < 4 >
 𝐾𝑒𝑟(𝜑) = < 6 >
 𝐾𝑒𝑟(𝜑) = < 12 >

Problem 11: Determine all homomorphisms from ℤ𝑛 to itself.

Sol: Any homomorphism acting on cyclic group is uniquely determined on its effect on any generator,
so we just have to see where we have to send element 1 ∈ ℤ𝑛 .

There are 𝑛 options 0, 1, … … . 𝑛 − 1. If 𝜑(1) = 𝑘 then we can easily compute 𝜑(𝑥) = 𝑥𝜑(1) = 𝑥𝑘

Problem 12: Suppose that 𝜑 is a homomorphism from 𝑈(30) to 𝑈(30) and that 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 = {1, 11}. If
𝜑(7) = 7 find all elements of 𝑈(30) that map to 7.

Sol: We just use statement 5 of properties of homomorphism [𝐼𝑓 𝜑(𝑔) = 𝑔′, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜑 −1 (𝑔′ ) =
{𝑥 ∈ 𝐺: (𝑥) = 𝑔′ } = 𝑔𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑]to conclude that

𝜑−1 (7) = 7𝐾𝑒𝑟(𝜑) = 7{1, 11} = {7, 17}

Problem 13: Suppose that 𝜑 is a homomorphism from 𝑈(40) to 𝑈(40) and that 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 =
{1, 9, 17, 33}. If 𝜑(11) = 11, find all elements of 𝑈(40) that map to 11.

Sol: We just use statement 5 of properties of homomorphism[𝐼𝑓 𝜑(𝑔) = 𝑔′, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜑 −1 (𝑔′ ) =
{𝑥 ∈ 𝐺: (𝑥) = 𝑔′ } = 𝑔𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑] to conclude that

𝜑−1 (11) = 11𝐾𝑒𝑟 (𝜑) = 11{1, 9, 17, 33} = {11, 19, 27, 3}
Problem 14: Prove that the mapping 𝜑: ℤ ⨁ ℤ → ℤ given by (𝑎, 𝑏) ⟶ 𝑎 − 𝑏 is a homomorphism.
What is the kernel of 𝜑 ? Describe the set 𝜑−1 (3) .(that is, all elements that map to 3).

Sol: To verify that 𝜑: ℤ ⊕ ℤ → ℤ defined like this is homomorphism, we need to make sure that it
preserves operation.

Here is the calculation:

φ((a, b) + (𝑐, 𝑑)) = 𝜑( 𝑎 + 𝑐, 𝑏 + 𝑑) = (𝑎 + 𝑐) − (𝑏 + 𝑑) = (𝑎 − 𝑏) + (𝑐 − 𝑑)

= 𝜑(𝑎, 𝑏) + 𝜑(𝑐, 𝑑 )

The kernel of 𝜑 is obtained from equation 𝜑(𝑎, 𝑏) = 0, which translatesto 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 0, 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑎 = 𝑏.

This implies that 𝑘𝑒𝑟(𝜑) = {(𝑥, 𝑥)| 𝑥 ∈ ℤ }

One element that maps to 3 is easy to spot it is (3, 0)

(1) Use statement 5 of properties of homomorphism [𝐼𝑓 𝜑(𝑔) = 𝑔′, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜑−1 (𝑔′ ) = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐺: (𝑥) =
𝑔′ } = 𝑔𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑] we get that set of all elements that map to 3 is:
𝜑−1 (3) = (3,0) + 𝐾𝑒𝑟(𝜑) = {(𝑥 + 3, 𝑥)| 𝑥 ∈ 𝑍}

Problem 15: Let 𝐻 = {𝑧 ∈ 𝐶 ∗ ||𝑧| = 1}. Prove that 𝐶 ∗ /𝐻 is isomorphic to ℝ+ , the group of positive
real numbers under multiplication.

Sol: 𝜑: 𝐶 ∗ → ℝ∗defined by

𝜑(𝑥) = |𝑥|

𝜑(𝑥𝑦) = |𝑥𝑦| = |𝑥|. |𝑦| = 𝜑(𝑥)𝜑(𝑦)

i.e. 𝜑 is a homomorphism

𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑 = { ℤ ∈ 𝐶 ∗ ||𝑍| = 1 }
𝐶∗ 𝐶∗
𝜑 is onto ⇒ 𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑 = 𝐻
≈ ℝ+

Problem 16: Prove that the mapping 𝑥 → 𝑥 6 from ℂ∗ 𝑡𝑜 ℂ∗ is a homomorphism. What is the kernel?
Sol: Take any 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐶 ∗ and because of commutativity of multiplication of complex numbers, we get
directly: (𝑥𝑦)6 = 𝑥 6 𝑦 6

The kernel is given with equation 𝑥 6 = 1 has 6 solutions

1 √3 1 √3 1 √3 1 √3
𝐾𝑒𝑟(𝜑) = {−1, 1, + 𝑖 , −𝑖 ,− +𝑖 ,− −𝑖 }
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Problem 17: (Second Isomorphism Theorem) If 𝐾 is a subgroup of 𝐺 and 𝑁 is a normal subgroup of 𝐺,
prove that 𝐾/(𝐾 ∩ 𝑁) is isomorphic to 𝐾𝑁/𝑁.

Sol: See prove of isomorphism theorem [ second isomorphism theorem in text ]

Problem 18: (Third Isomorphism Theorem) If 𝑁 and 𝑀 are normal subgroup of a group 𝐺 and 𝑁 ⊆ 𝑀,
Then (𝐺/𝑁)/(𝑀/𝑁) ≈ 𝐺/𝑀.

Sol: See prove of isomorphism theorem [ Third isomorphism theorem in text ]

Problem 19: Determine all homomorphic images of 𝐷8 (up to isomorphism).

Sol: Let 𝜑: 𝐷8 → 𝐺 be a homomorphism
𝐷
By first isomorphism theorem 𝐾𝑒𝑟8 𝜑 ≈ 𝜑(𝐷8 )

∵ |𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑| divides 8 ∴ |𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑| = 1,2,4 𝑜𝑟 8

⇒ |𝜑(𝐷8 )| = 1,2,4,8

Case 1: |𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑| = 1 ⇒ 𝜑(𝐷8 ) = 𝐷8

Case 2: |𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑| = 2 ⇒ 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 = {𝑅0 , 𝑅180 }

∵ {𝑅0 , 𝑅180 } is the only subgroup of order 2 .Hence

𝐷8
= {𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑, 𝑅90 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑, 𝐻 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 , 𝐷 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑}
𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑
𝐷 𝐷
Every element of 𝐾𝑒𝑟8 𝜑 is of order 2 therefore 𝐾𝑒𝑟8 𝜑 ≈ ℤ2 ⨁ ℤ2

𝐷8 𝐷8
Case 3: |𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑| = 4 ⇒ | | = 2 therefore ≈ ℤ2
𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑

Case 4: |𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑| = 8 ⇒ 𝜑(𝐷8 ) = {𝑒} =< 𝑒 >

Hence, all the homomorphic images of 𝐷8 = ℤ2 , ℤ2 ⨁ ℤ2 , 𝐷8 , < 𝑒 >.

Problem 20: Determine all homomorphic images of 𝐷4 (up to isomorphism).

4 𝐷
Sol: 𝜑: 𝐷4 → 𝐺 is an homomorphism, then 𝐾𝑒𝑟𝜑 ≈ 𝜑(𝐷4 )

|𝐷4 | = 8 so the possible order of images of 𝐷4 = 1,2,4,8

By first isomorphism theorem 𝜑(𝐷4 ) is same as the factor group 𝐷4 /𝑁

 𝐺
Problem 21: Prove that 𝐺 ≈ {𝑒}.

Sol: Define 𝜑: 𝐺 → 𝐺 as

𝜑(𝑔) = 𝑒 , ∀𝑔 ∈𝐺

𝜑 is well defined: Let 𝑔1 , 𝑔2 ∈ 𝐺 be arbitrary, such that

𝑔1 = 𝑔2

⇒ 𝜑(𝑔1 ) = 𝑒 = 𝜑 (𝑔2 ) =

𝜑 is homomorphism: 𝜑(𝑔1 . 𝑔2 ) = 𝑔1 . 𝑔2 = 𝜑(𝑔1 ). (𝑔2 )

And 𝜑 is clearly onto

∴ 𝜑 is onto homomorphism

By first isomorphism theorem

𝐺
≈ {𝑒} (1)
𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑

𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 |𝜑(𝑥) = 𝑒}

=𝐺

∴ 𝑒𝑞. 1 becomes
𝐺
≈ {𝑒}
𝐺

Problem 22: Suppose that for each prime 𝑝, 𝑍𝑝 is the homomorphic image of a group 𝐺. What can we
say about |𝐺|? Give an example of such a group..

Sol: If 𝐺 is finite, |ℤ𝑃 | = 𝑝 will divide |𝐺|, for all prime p.

Since this is not possible, we conclude that |𝐺| = ∞ .

𝑍
One example is 𝐺 = 𝑍, because Image of mapping 𝜑(𝑘) = 𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝 is 𝑝𝑍 ≈ 𝑍𝑃 .

𝐺
Problem 23: Prove that {𝑒} ≈ 𝐺.

Sol: Define 𝜑: 𝐺 → 𝐺 as

𝜑(𝑔) = 𝑔 , ∀𝑔 ∈𝐺
𝜑 is well defined: Let 𝑔1 , 𝑔2 ∈ 𝐺 be arbitrary, such that

𝑔1 = 𝑔2

⇒ 𝜑(𝑔1 ) = 𝜑(𝑔2 )

𝜑 is homomorphism: 𝜑(𝑔1 . 𝑔2 ) = 𝑔1 . 𝑔2 = 𝜑(𝑔1 ). (𝑔2 )

And 𝜑 is clearly onto

∴ 𝜑 is onto homomorphism

By first isomorphism theorem

𝐺
𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑
≈𝐺 (1)

𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 |𝜑(𝑥) = 𝑒}

= {𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 |𝑥 = 𝑒}

= {𝑒}

∴ 𝑒𝑞. 1 becomes
𝐺
≈𝐺
{𝑒}

Problem 24: Prove that the mapping from ℂ∗ 𝑡𝑜 ℂ∗ given by 𝜑(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 is a homomorphism and that
ℂ∗ /{1, −1} is isomorphic to ℂ∗ .

Sol: 𝜑: ℂ∗ → ℂ∗
𝑧 → 𝑧2

𝜑(𝑧𝑤) = 𝑧 2 𝑤 2 = 𝜑(𝑧)𝜑(𝑤).

𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 = {+1, −1}

φ is onto on ℂ∗
ℂ∗
By first isomorphism theorem ⇒ {1,−1} ≈ ℂ∗.

Problem 25: Let 𝐺 be an Abelian group. Determine all homomorphisms from 𝑆3 𝑡𝑜 𝐺.

Sol: Let 𝜑 be a homomorphism from 𝑆3 𝑡𝑜 𝑍𝑛.

Since |𝜑(𝑆3 )| must divide 6 we have that |𝜑(𝑆3 )| = 1,2,3, 𝑜𝑟 6.

In the first case 𝜑 maps every element to 0.

If |𝜑(𝑆3 )| = 2, then n is even and 𝜑 maps the even permutations to 0, and the odd permutations to 𝑛/2.

Case 3:

|𝜑(𝑆3 )| = 3 cannot occur because it implies that 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 is a normal subgroup of order 2 whereas 𝑆3 has
no normal subgroup of order 2.

Case 4: |𝜑(𝑆3 )| = 6 cannot occur because it implies that 𝜑 is an isomorphism from a non-Abelian group
to an Abelian group.

ℤ
Problem 26: Prove that <𝑛>
≈ ℤ𝑛 .

Sol: Define 𝜑: ℤ → ℤ𝑛

as 𝜑(𝑥) = 𝑟 , where 𝑟 = 𝑥 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛

Then 𝜑 is an onto homomorphism

𝜑(𝑥 + 𝑦) = (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑛

= (𝑥 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛 + 𝑦 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛 )𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛

= 𝜑(𝑥) ⊕𝑛 𝜑(𝑦)

Then, by first isomorphism theorem

ℤ
≈ 𝜑(ℤ) = ℤ𝑛 [as 𝜑 is onto]
𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑

𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜑 = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|𝜑(𝑥) = 0}

= {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|𝑥𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛 = 0}

= {𝑥 ∈ ℤ| 𝑛|𝑥}

=< 𝑛 > = 𝑛ℤ {multiple of 𝑛}

ℤ
Hence, <𝑛> ≈ ℤ𝑛

Problem 27: Prove that every group of order 77 is cyclic.

Sol: Let 𝐺 be a group of order 77. By Lagrange’s Theorem every nonidentity of 𝐺 has order 7, 11, 𝑜𝑟 77.
If 𝐺 has an element of order 77, then 𝐺 is cyclic.
So, we may assume that all non-identity elements of 𝐺 have order 7 𝑜𝑟 11. Not all non-identity elements
of 𝐺 can have order 11 because[we know in a finite group, the number of elements of order 𝑑 is a
multiple of Φ(𝑑) ], the number of such elements is a multiple of 10. Similarly not all nonidentity
elements of 𝐺 can have order 7 , the number of such elements is a multiple of 6.

So, 𝐺 must have elements 𝑎 and 𝑏 such that |𝑎| = 11 and |𝑏| = 7. Let 𝐻 = < 𝑎 >. Then 𝐻 is the
only subgroup of 𝐺 of order 11 for if 𝐾 is another one then |𝐻𝐾| = |𝐻||𝐾|/|𝐻 ∩ 𝐾| = 11 • 11/1 =
121. But 𝐻𝐾 is a subset of 𝐺 and 𝐺 only has 77 elements. Because for every 𝑥 in 𝐺, 𝑥𝐻𝑥 −1 is also a
subgroup of 𝐺 of order 11 , we must have 𝑥𝐻𝑥 −1 = 𝐻.

So, 𝑁 (𝐻) = 𝐺. Since 𝐻 has prime order, 𝐻 is cyclic and therefore Abelian. This implies that 𝐶(𝐻)
contains 𝐻. So, 11 divides |𝐶(𝐻)| and |𝐶(𝐻)| divides This implies 77 that 𝐶(𝐻) = 𝐺 or 𝐶(𝐻) = 𝐻. If
𝐶(𝐻) = 𝐺, then |𝑎𝑏| = 77.

If 𝐶(𝐻) = 𝐻, then |𝑁 (𝐻)/𝐶(𝐻)| = 7. But by the “𝑁/𝐶” 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚

𝑁 (𝐻)/𝐶(𝐻) is isomorphic to a subgroup of 𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝐻)

≈ 𝐴𝑢𝑡(𝑍11 ) ≈ 𝑈 (11) . Since 𝑈 (11) = 10, we have a contradiction.

Thus 𝐺 is a cyclic.

Problem 28: Find all homomorphisms from ℤ12 𝑡𝑜 ℤ30 .

Sol: Let, 𝜑: ℤ12 → ℤ30 be a homomorphism

∵ 𝑥 ∈ ℤ12 can be written as

𝑥 = 1 + 1 + 1 + ⋯ + 1 (𝑥 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠)

∴ 𝜑(𝑥) = 𝑥𝜑(1)

∴ 𝜑 can be determined using the value of 𝜑(1).

∵ 𝜑(1) ∈ ℤ30

and order of an element divides order of the group

∴ |𝜑(1)| 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 30

Also, |𝜑(1)| 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 12 [∵ |𝜑(1)|𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 |𝑎|]

i.e. |𝜑(1)| 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 12,30

∴ possible value of |𝜑(1)| are 1,2,3,6

Now, 0 is the only element of order 1 in ℤ30 .

15 is the only element of order 2 in ℤ30

10 and 20 are two element of order 3 in ℤ30

and, 5 and 25 are two element of order 6 in ℤ30

∴ 𝜑(1) can take value 0,5,10,15,20,25

So, there are six homomorphism from ℤ12 to ℤ30 ,given by

𝜑1 : ℤ12 → ℤ30 as 𝜑1 (𝑥) = 0

𝜑2 : ℤ12 → ℤ30 as 𝜑2 (𝑥) = 5𝑥

𝜑3 : ℤ12 → ℤ30 as 𝜑3 (𝑥) = 10𝑥

𝜑4 : ℤ12 → ℤ30 as 𝜑4 (𝑥) = 15𝑥

𝜑5 : ℤ12 → ℤ30 as 𝜑5 (𝑥) = 20𝑥

𝜑6 : ℤ12 → ℤ30 as 𝜑6 (𝑥) = 25𝑥

Problem 29: Prove that an infinite cyclic group is isomorphic to (ℤ , +) .

Sol: Let 𝐺 =< 𝑎 > be an infinite cyclic group

(⇒ |𝑎| is not finite 𝑖. 𝑒. ∄ any positive integer 𝑠. 𝑡. 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒)

Define: 𝜑: 𝐺 → ℤ as

𝜑(𝑎𝑖 ) = 𝑖 ,𝑖 ∈ ℤ

Claim: 𝜑 is well defined, 1-1, onto and operation preserving

Let 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑎 𝑗

⇒𝑖=𝑗 [for if 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗 then 𝑎𝑖−𝑗 = 𝑒 ⇒ |𝐺 | = |𝑎 |is finite ]

⇒ 𝜑(𝑎𝑖 ) = 𝜑(𝑎 𝑗 )

∴ 𝜑 is well defined

One-One:

Let 𝜑(𝑎𝑖 ) = 𝜑(𝑎 𝑗 )

⇒𝑖=𝑗

⇒ 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑎 𝑗
 so, 𝜑 is one one.

Onto:

For any 𝑖∈ ℤ , 𝑎𝑖 ∈ 𝐺

s. t. 𝜑(𝑎𝑖 ) = 𝑖

∴ 𝜑 is onto.

Operation Preserving:

Consider 𝜑(𝑎𝑖 . 𝑎 𝑗 ) = 𝜑(𝑎𝑖+𝑗 )

=𝑖+𝑗

= 𝜑(𝑎𝑖 ) + 𝜑(𝑎 𝑗 )

Therefore, 𝜑 is operation preserving.

Hence , 𝐺 ≈ (ℤ, +)

Remark: Since subgroup of an infinite cyclic group is infinite cyclic group.

Let 𝐺 =< 𝑎 > & 𝐻 ≤ 𝐺 then 𝐻 =< 𝑎𝑚 >

⇒ 𝐻 ≈ (ℤ, +) ≈ 𝐺

⇒𝐺≈𝐻

Thus , we note that subgroup of an infinite cyclic group is isomorphic to group itself .