Mechatronics Assignment By Waqas Ali Tunio

(07ME34)

Mechatronics Assignment
Submitted to Sir Dr. Altaf Rajper
Sahab
By Waqas Ali Tunio (07ME34)
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Quaid-e-Awam University of Engineering, Science & Technology,
Nawabshah - Pakistan

Differentiate between Robots and Robotics? How to classify Robots?

Define Robot components and Robot degrees of freedom.

 Robots are artificial devices that replicates human work

 Robotics an art of how to develop

Classification by Mechanical Structure

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The following is a popular way of classifying industrial robots according to the mechanical structure. Each
has its own set of limitations and benefits. Mechanical structure is one of the important consideration when
selection an industrial robotic arm for performing a particular task.
 Cartesian Robot
Cartesian robot is form by 3 prismatic joints, whose axes are
coincident with the X, Y and Z planes.

 Gantry Robot
Cartesian coordinate robots with the horizontal member supported
at both ends are sometimes called Gantry robots.

 Cylindrical Robot
Cylindrical robot is able to rotate along his main axes forming a
cylindrical shape.

 
Parallel Robot
Parallel robot constitutes two or more kinematics chains between
the base and the platform where the end-effectors are located.
Parallel robot is a complex mechanism which is constituted by two
or more kinematics chains between, the base and the platform
where the end-effectors are located. Good examples are the flying
simulator and 4-D attractions at Univ. Studios.

 SCARA Robot

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SCARA robot is built with 2 parallel rotary joints to provide

compliance in a plane.

 Spherical Robot
It is still in the research laboratory, the Spherical robot is actually a
spherical shape robot, which has an internal driving source.

 Polar Robot
Polar robot is able to rotate in two different directions along his
main axes and the third joint moves in translation forming a
hemisphere or polar coordinate system.

 Articulated Robot
Articulated robots are mechanic manipulator that looks like an arm
with at least three rotary joints.

Robot Components
Components of Industrial Robot

•Physical parts or anatomy

•Built-in instructions or instinct
•Learned behavior or task programs

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Physical Parts of an Industrial Robot

•Mechanical part or manipulator (Body, Arm, Wrist) •End effector (Tool or Gripper)
•Actuators
•Controller (Sensors, Processor)
•Power supply,
•Vehicle (optional).

Robot Anatomy
Manipulator is constructed of a series of Joints & Links. A Joint provides relative motion between the
input link and the output link. Each joint provides the robot with one degree of freedom.

Robot Joints
Linear, rotational, twisting and revolving

Five Main Parts of Robot

1. Arm
2. Controller
3. Drive
4. End Effector
5. Sensor

Arm
The arm of the robot is a significant part of the robotic architecture. It positions the End effector and the
sensors that the robot will require. Most arms resemble the human limb-the arm. Some of these arms
have many complex parts including fingers, wrists, and elbows. This enables the robot different methods
of movement.

Seven degrees of freedom are needed for a robot to reach all points in its work envelope. Each direction
a joint can go gives an arm one degree of freedom. Simple robots usually have three degrees of
freedom-it can move in three ways: up and down, left and right, and forward and backward.

To determine what each degree of freedom means and represents:

First degree of freedom is called a shoulder pitch. To find your arm's first degree of freedom, point your
entire arm straight out in front of you. Move your shoulder up and down. The up and down movement
of the shoulder is called the shoulder pitch.

Second degree of freedom is called an arm yaw. Point your entire arm straight out in front of you. Move
your entire arm from side to side. This side-to-side movement is called the arm yaw.

Third degree of freedom is called a shoulder roll. Point your entire arm straight out in front of you. Now,
roll your entire arm from the shoulder, as if you were screwing in a light bulb. This rotating movement is
called a shoulder roll.

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 Mechatronics Assignment By Waqas Ali Tunio
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Fourth degree of freedom is called elbow pitch. Point your entire arm straight out in front of you. Hold
your arm still, and then bend only your elbow. Your elbow can move up and down. This up and down
movement of the shoulder is called the elbow pitch.

Fifth degree of freedom is called a wrist pitch. Point your entire arm straight out in front of you. Without
moving your shoulder or elbow, flex your wrist up and down. This up and down movement of the wrist
is called the wrist pitch.

Sixth degree of freedom is called a wrist yaw. Point your entire arm straight out in front of you. Without
moving your shoulder or elbow, flex your wrist from side to side. The side-to-side movement is called
the wrist yaw.

Seventh degree of freedom is called the wrist roll. Point your entire arm straight out in front of you.
Without moving your shoulder or elbow, rotate your wrist, as if you were turning a doorknob. The
rotation of the wrist is called the wrist roll.

Controller
The controller functions as the "brain" of the robot. It can also network to other
systems so that the robot may work together with other robots or machines.
Controllers can become very complicated. There are many computer-based
controllers on the market and many robot languages, such as Prolog.

Drive
The drive is the engine of the robot. It enables mobility and movements between the
joints of the arm. It can be powered by air, electricity, and/or water.

End Effector
The End Effector is the hand connected to the arm. In humans, the End
effector is the hand. However, in robots, the End effector can be of many
different things. It could range from a being a tweezer, to a blowtorch.

Sensors
Sensors provide a robot with feedback so that it can "understand" it’s
surroundings-otherwise a robot would be not only blind, but also deaf to
its environment.

A few common kinds of sensors are listed below.

 Cameras - Cameras are inexpensive and usable for many kinds of imaging applications. They
enable a robot to process its environment so that it can move freely without bumping into
something.
 Range finding devices - There are four basic techniques for distance measurement using
electromagnetic radiation. They are Doppler methods, interferometry, phase comparison, and
pulse timing.

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 Sonar sensors - These kinds of sensors work by measuring the time it takes for an acoustic pulse
to propagate through air or water, reflect from the environment, and finally return to a
detector, is proportional to the distance to that object.

Robot Degrees of Freedom

Six degrees of freedom (6DoF) refers to motion of a rigid body in three-dimensional space, namely the
ability to move forward/backward, up/down, left/right (translation in three perpendicular axes)
combined with rotation about three perpendicular axes (pitch, yaw, roll). As the movement along each
of the three axes is independent of each other and independent of the rotation about any of these axes,
the motion indeed has six degrees of freedom.

Robot arms are often categorized by their degrees of freedom (typically achieving more than six degrees
of freedom). This number typically refers to the number of single-axis rotational joints in the arm, where
a higher number indicates an increased flexibility in positioning a tool. 

Degrees of Freedom (DOF) 

The degrees of freedom, or DOF, are a very important term to understand. Each degree of freedom is a
joint on the arm, a place where it can bend or rotate or translate. You can typically identify the number
of degrees of freedom by the number of actuators on the robot arm. Now this is very important - when
building a robot arm you want as few degrees of freedom allowed for your application!!! Why? Because
each degree requires a motor, often an encoder, and exponentially complicated algorithms and cost.

Q.2 Identify Robot coordinates and reference frames? Define Robot

applications and typical workspace for common robot configurations?

Robot coordinates
Different types of coordinate systems with different points of
origin are used to program robots depending on their
workspace and kinematics.

Cartesian coordinate robot

A cartesian coordinate robot (also called linear robot) is
an industrial robot whose three principal of control are linear
(i.e. they move in a straight line rather than rotate) and are at
right to each other. Among other advantages, this mechanical arrangement simplifies the Robot arm

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solution. Cartesian coordinate robots with the horizontal member supported at both ends are
sometimes called Gantry robots. They are often quite large.
A popular application for this type of robot is a computer numerical control machine (CNC machine). The
simplest application is used in milling and drawing machines where a pen or router translates across an
x-y plane while a tool is raised and lowered onto a surface to create a precise design.

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 Mechatronics Assignment By Waqas Ali Tunio
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Space coordinates
The point of origin of the space coordinate system usually
is located at the first axis of universal robots. In linear
robots the point of origin is located at the intersection
point of the three linear axes.

Detailing the points in space coordinates in the

workspace is simple.

One disadvantage is the ambiguity of the joint

positioning. The coordinate details also have transformed
into joint coordinates. This implicates a high
computational effort for controlling and a major
programming effort for the producer control unit.

Coordinate description:  P (x, y, z, A, B, C)

Joint coordinates
The angle and length description of the particular robot axes describe the orientation of
the TCP explicitly. A polar insertion of the coordinates is best.

P (angle A1, angle A2, ...., angle A6).

Joint coordinates are mainly used for programming articulated robots. Internal controls always use joint
coordinates to control the position. 

 Gripper coordinates
Gripper coordinates describe the orientation and position of the effector in
space.

The zero point of the coordinate systems is located at the Tool-Center-Point

(TCP) of the effector.

Usually the coordinates

are stated Cartesian,
whereas one of the axes
have to point into the
extended direction of the
gripper.The gripper
coordinate system makes
it easy to program linear movements of the gripper.

Joint coordinates would be much more complex,

because multiple axes must be moved at the same

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time.

Workpiece coordinates
If a workpiece has to be processed in different
positions, one can site a workpiece coordinate
system into one corner of the workpiece. 

This coordinate system is also used primarily where

the workpiece is moving under the (stationary)
machine (CNC, milling or turning).

With this workpiece coordinate, it is easy for the

programmer to approach the various machining
positions at the workpiece and to program the
machining.

  
The point of origin is also called work piece point of origin (W). The control unit
has to know the position of the coordinate system relatively to the space
coordinates.

Applications in the industry

We can claim that manufacturers in many sectors may like robots more than human workers. A robot
does not eat, does not drink, does not strike, does not protest when taken out from the production line.
If programmed and adjusted well, it works faster and more precisely than a human worker.

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 Mechatronics Assignment By Waqas Ali Tunio
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For many, the statement above may sound like a joke, but it is really the mere fact itself. Robots find a
large area of application as it reduces the costs and makes it possible to automate the production.
Therefore, robot applications increase from day to day especially in developed countries such as
Germany, USA, and Japan etc. In the nineties, the countries were listed as follows according their robot
population: Japan, USA, Germany, France, Italy, UK, Sweden, etc.

There are several factors leading to an increase in robot population. (5) The list of main factors
accelerating robot applications vary with the countries, but they are in general directly related to cost of
production and human health. A common list could be as follows: Increasing the quality, increasing the
production capacity, labor saving, increased flexibility in production, ease of production control, more
humane work conditions (i.e. the necessity of automation applications where work conditions for
human are not healthy).

In consideration with those factors, largest investments have been made on flexible automation and
robotic systems by the automotive and white goods sectors. Applications may be classified according
the type of work in the related industry.

As mentioned before, automotive industry is the leader in robot utilization and applications worldwide.
There are many examples of applications in this sector some of which are:

 Body; spot and arc welding, sticking

 Paint workshop; painting of the inner and outer sides of the body, sealing, running the mould
press
 Edge smoothing and final assembly; cleaning, ground dyeing, sticking, glazing of front windows,
ultrasonic welding of instrument cluster
 Motor and transmission; installation of block, gasket and cylinder heads, assembling of water
and oil pumps, cleaning of crank shaft burrs, application of fluid sealing to motor components, handling
and palletizing of machines
 Production of automobile parts; arc welding, painting, cutting, installation, handling etc. of
various components.

We may also give some examples from the second leading industry in robot applications, namely the
white goods sector. Main applications are as follows:

 Production; assembling as well as the sealing and painting of bodies of microwave ovens,
washing machines etc.
 Assembling; motor and valve installations of the above machines.

There are various other applications in the industries such as the aluminum parts production, plastics
part production, woods product manufacturing industry and food industry, but we prefer to give a
general list of applications including references to related industries in order not to lead to a very long
list.

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Main applications

 Arc welding, spot welding and painting: Automotive,

white goods industries and automotive subsidiaries
 Assembly: Automotive industry and automotive
subsidiaries
 Casting: Metal and white goods industries, and
automotive subsidiaries
 Cutting, sticking, material handling, palletizing and
packaging: General

From the above list, packaging has an interesting situation as

it has direct relations with other applications. Packaging is
inevitable in many sectors, especially the food sector, and it
is applied mostly parallel with material handling and
palletizing. Packages of foods for example are transported
and palletized respectively after being packaged.

We should also mention in short that miscellaneous applications in the medical technology, space
researches and even Cleanroom technology where SCARA type robots are used have found place, but
those should be mainly seen as non-industrial with specific definitions and features, at least nowadays.
Anyway, nobody can claim them to remain non-industrial in the near future.

It can be concluded that although the biggest robot user is the automotive industry for the time being,
due to flexible automation opportunities, robots will be adopted by almost all the production units in
the world. Requirements of high quality, fast production and positive effect in protecting environment
and human health will necessitate the more and more use of robots in the industry.

Robot Workspace
The robot workspace (sometimes known as reachable space) is all places that the end effectors (gripper)
can reach. The workspace is dependent on the DOF angle/translation limitations, the arm link lengths,
the angle at which something must be picked up at, etc. The workspace is highly dependent on the
robot configuration.

Since there are many possible configurations for your robot arm, from
now on we will only talk about the one shown below. I chose this 3
DOF configuration because it is simple, yet isn’t limiting in ability.

Now let’s assume that all joints rotate a maximum of 180 degrees,
because most servo motors cannot exceed that amount. To
determine the workspace, trace all locations that the end effectors
can reach as in the image below.

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Now rotating that by the base joints another 180 degrees to get 3D, we have this workspace image.
Remember that because it uses servos, all joints are limited to a max of 180 degrees. This creates a
workspace of a shelled semi-sphere (it’s a shape because I said so).

If you change the link lengths you can get very different sizes of workspaces, but this would be the
general shape. Any location outside of this space is a location the arm can’t reach. If there are objects in
the way of the arm, the workspace can get even more complicated.

Q.3 How to represent a point in Space in Matrix form, vector in space in

matrix form? Represent a frame at the origin of fixed - reference frame
and represent a frame in a fixed - reference frame?

How should a reference frame be fixed to a body?

According to this work, if we consider that anybody is a particle or a system of particles, then the origin
of any reference frame should be fixed to the center of mass of a body. Since the center of mass of any
body is a point in space without rotation, then it is possible that the origin of a non-rotating reference
frame be always fixed to the center of mass of any body. However, it is not possible that the origin of an
inertial reference frame be always fixed to the center of mass of any body. Therefore, if the origin of any
reference frame should be fixed to the center of mass of a body, then it is possible to agree that any
reference frame fixed to a body should be non-rotating.

According to this work, every non-rotating reference frame is defined by an origin that is fixed to the
center of mass of a body, and three perpendicular coordinate axes, where each axis is parallel to the
corresponding axis of a universal reference frame defined by four widely separated stars. On the other
hand, several laws of physics would take a simpler form if no reference frame were a rotating reference
frame. However, the rotation of a body would be absolute; for example, the rotation of the Earth would
be absolute. But, in the theory of relativity, the speed of light is also absolute. In addition, according to
this work, every body is a possible non-rotating reference frame. Therefore, every body is also a possible
observer. Finally, the laws of physics should be the same for all observers. Therefore, according to this
work, the laws of physics should have the same form in all non-rotating reference frames.

Point and Vector in Space at origin of reference plane

3D projection is any method of mapping three-dimensional points to a two-dimensional plane. As most
current methods for displaying graphical data are based on planar two-dimensional media, the use of
this type of projection is widespread, especially in computer graphics, engineering and drafting.
Orthographic projection

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Orthographic projections are a small set of transforms often used to show profile, detail or precise
measurements of a three dimensional object. Common names for orthographic projections include plan,
cross-section, bird's-eye, and elevation.
If the normal of the viewing plane (the camera direction) is parallel to one of the 3D axes, the
mathematical transformation is as follows; To project the 3D point ax, ay, az onto the 2D point bx, by using
an orthographic projection parallel to the y axis (profile view), the following equations can be used:
bx = sxax + cx
by = szaz + cz
Where the vector s is an arbitrary scale factor and c is an arbitrary offset. These constants are optional,
and can be used to properly align the viewport. Using matrix multiplication, the equations become:

.
While orthographically projected images represent the three dimensional nature of the object
projected, they do not represent the object as it would be recorded photographically or perceived by a
viewer observing it directly. In particular, parallel lengths at all points in an orthographically projected
image are of the same scale regardless of whether they are far away or near to the virtual viewer. As a
result, lengths near to the viewer are not foreshortened as they would be in a perspective projection.

Perspective projection
The perspective projection requires greater definition. A conceptual aid to understanding the mechanics
of this projection involves treating the 2D projection as being viewed through a camera viewfinder. The
camera's position, orientation, and field of view control the behavior of the projection transformation.
The following variables are defined to describe this transformation:

  - the point in 3D space that is to be projected.

  - the location of the camera.
  - The rotation of the camera. When   and   
the 3D vector <1,2,0> is projected to the 2D vector <1,2>.
  - the viewer's position relative to the display surface. [1]
Which results in:

  - the 2D projection of  .

First, we define a point   as a translation of point   into a coordinate system defined by  . This is
achieved by subtracting   from  and then applying a vector rotation matrix using   to the result. This
transformation is often called a camera transform, and can be expressed as follows, expressing the
rotation in terms of rotations about the x, y, and z axes (these calculations assume that the axes are
ordered as a left-handed system of axes):

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This representation correspond to rotating by three Euler angles (more properly, Tait–Bryan angles),

using the xyz convention, which can be interpreted either as "rotate about the extrinsic axes (axes of
the scene) in the order z, y, x (reading right-to-left)" or "rotate about the intrinsicaxes (axes of
the camera) in the order x, y, z) (reading left-to-right)". Note that if the camera is not rotated (
), then the matrices drop out (as identities), and this reduces to simply a
shift: 
Alternatively, without using matrices, (note that the signs of angles are inconsistent with matrix form):

This transformed point can then be projected onto the 2D plane using the formula (here, x/y is used as
the projection plane, literature also may use x/z):[4]

Or, in matrix form using homogeneous coordinates, the system

in conjunction with an argument using similar triangles, leads to division by the homogeneous
coordinate, giving

The distance of the viewer from the display surface, directly relates to the field of view,
where   is the viewed angle. (Note: This assumes that you map the points (-1,-
1) and (1,1) to the corners of your viewing surface)
Subsequent clipping and scaling operations may be necessary to map the 2D plane onto any particular
display media.

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