Vehicle Body Engineering and Safety Notes PDF

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VEHICLE CODY ENGINEERING AND SAFETY M A QADEER SIDDIQUI
BY
MOHD ABDUL QADEER SIDDIQUI
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Roadmap to syllabus
VEHICLE BODY ENGINEERING AND SAFETY
UNIT 1: Structural materials
Aluminum alloy sheet, extrusion and casting,austentite and ferrite stainless
steels, different types of composites,FPR and Metal Matrix Composite,
structural timbers-properties designing in GRP and high strength composites
different manufacturing techniques of composites, Thermo plastics, ABS and
styrene, load bearing plastics, semi-rigid PUR foams and sandwich panel
construction
UNIt2: Shaping and packaging:

Product design and concepts, Aesthetics and industrial design, formal
aesthetics and shape. Computer aided drafting, surface development,
interior ergonomics, ergonomics system design, dash –board instruments,
advances in electronic display, CV legal dimension, CV-cab ergonomics, and
Mechanical package layout.
Unit 3: Aerodynamics
Basics,aerofoils,aerodynamics drag lift,pitching,yawing and rolling moments,
determination of aerodynamics coefficient(wind tunnel testing), racing car
aerodynamics, bluff body aerodynamics, local air flows.
Unit4: Load distribution:

Types of load carrying structures-closed,integral,open,flat types, calculation
of loading cases-static,asymmetric,vertical loads, load distribution, stress
analysis of structure, body shell analysis.
Unit5: Body Fitting and I control:

Driver‘s seat, window winding mechanism ,door lock mechanism, other
interior mechanism, driver‘s visibility and test for visibility, minimum space,
requirements and methods or improving space in cars, electric wiring and
electronic control systems, advanced body electronics, networking or body
system controls
Unit 6: Noise, vibration, harshness:

Noise and vibration basics, body structural vibrations, chassis bearing
vibration, designing against fatique,rubber as an isolator, CV body
mounting, automatic enclosure, sandwich panels, structure dynamics
applied, surety under impacts, Impact protection basics, design for crash
worthiness ,occupant and cargo restrains, passive restraints systems, side
impact analysis ,bumper system ,energy absorbent foams, law of
mechanism applied to safety.
UNIT 7:
Vans, Trucks, and busses:
types of Mini coach with trailers, single and double deckers,design criteria
based on passenger capacity ;goods to be transported and distance to be
covered, constructional details, weight and dimensions, Convectional and
integral type
UNIT 8:
Vehicle Stability:
Steering geometry vehicle and curvilinear path, and lateral stability, effects
of tyre factors, mass distribution and engine location on stability.
1) Structural Material
Aluminum Alloy Sheets for Automobile Panel
Features
 The TM Series (type 6000 alloy) is bake hardened, making its lightweight
and strong.
 The TG Series (type 5000 alloy) is highly ductile, lightweight and with high
formability.
 We offer a variety of products with different surface finishes, surface
treatments, lubricants and sizes.
Specification Description
Material Type 5000 or 6000 rolled sheet alloy
Surface finishes Dull or milled finished
Surface
Acid washing possible
treatments
Lubricants Can be coated with various types of lubricant
Coils and sheets (longitudinal circular sheets also
Shapes
possible)
Applications
Automotive panel materials (engine hoods, trunk lids, doors, etc.)
Product Characteristics
Typical characteristics of aluminum alloy sheets used to make
automobile panels
Alloy proof
By alloy Tensile Yield strength
By Elongation
Alloy and strength strength after Notes
quality (Note1)
quality baking
TS(MPa) YS(MPa) EL (%) YS(MPa)
General
5052 O 195 90 27
materials
General
5182 O 270 130 28
materials
Good
5000 formability,
TG19 O 270 125 30
Alloys SS-mark
improvement
High
formability,
TG25 O 275 120 33
SS-mark
improvement
High BH,
superior
TM30 T4 210 110 27 200
corrosion
resistance
Good
formability,
TM45 T4 245 135 29 165 superior
corrosion
resistance
High BH,
6000
superior
Alloys TM55 T4 230 120 29 220
corrosion
resistance
Good
TM66 T4 240 115 29 210 formability,
High BH
Good
High BH-
T4 255 120 29 215 formability,
TM67
High BH
High High
T4 285 145 29 175
formability- formability
TM67
Steel
SPCC 314 176 42 Reference
sheet
Note 1
Baking conditions: After applying 2% pre-distortion, test value after 20
min at 170°C
Note 2
The "stretcher-strain mark" (SS mark) is a distortion pattern that
appears during forming.
Note 3
The BH (bake-hard effect) is the property of strength increased by
applying the bake coating.
Extrusion
Extrusion is the process by which long straight metal parts can be
produced. The cross-sections that can be produced vary from solid round,
rectangular, to L shapes, T shapes. Tubes and many other different types.
Extrusion is done by squeezing metal in a closed cavity through a tool,
known as a die using either a mechanical or hydraulic press.
Extrusion produces compressive and shear forces in the stock. No tensile is

produced, which makes high deformation possible without tearing the metal.
The cavity in which the raw material is contained is lined with a wear
resistant material. This can withstand the high radial loads that are created
when the material is pushed the die.
Extrusions, often minimize the need for secondary machining, but are not of
the same dimensional accuracy or surface finish as machined parts. Surface
finish for steel is 3 µm; (125 µ in), and Aluminum and Magnesium is 0.8 µm
(30 µ in). However, this process can produce a wide variety of cross-sections
that are hard to produce cost-effectively using other methods. Minimum
thickness of steel is about 3 mm (0.120 in), whereas Aluminum and
Magnesium is about 1mm (0.040 in). Minimum cross sections are 250
mm2 (0.4 in2) for steel and less than that for Aluminum and Magnesium.
Minimum corner and fillet radii are 0.4 mm (0.015 in) for Aluminum and
Magnesium, and for steel, the minimum corner radius is 0.8mm (0.030 in)
and 4 mm (0.120 in) fillet radius.
Cold Extrusion: Cold extrusion is the process done at room temperature or

slightly elevated temperatures. This process can be used for most materials-
subject to designing robust enough tooling that can withstand the stresses
created by extrusion. Examples of the metals that can be extruded are lead,
tin, aluminum alloys, copper, titanium, molybdenum, vanadium, steel.
Examples of parts that are cold extruded are collapsible tubes, aluminum
cans, cylinders, gear blanks. The advantages of cold extrusion are:
• No oxidation takes place.
• Good mechanical properties due to severe cold working as long as the

temperatures created are below the re-crystallization temperature.
• Good surface finish with the use of proper lubricants.
Hot Extrusion: Hot extrusion is done at fairly high temperatures,

approximately 50 to 75 % of the melting point of the metal. The pressures
can range from 35-700 MPa (5076 - 101,525 psi). Due to the high
temperatures and pressures and its detrimental effect on the die life as well
as other components, good lubrication is necessary. Oil and graphite work at
lower temperatures, whereas at higher temperatures glass powder is used.
Typical parts produced by extrusions are trim parts used in automotive and
construction applications, window frame members, railings, aircraft
structural parts.
Casting
In metalworking, casting involves pouring liquid metal into a mold, which

contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowing it to cool
and solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected
or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting is most often
used for making complex shapes that would be difficult or uneconomical to
make by other methods.
Casting processes have been known for thousands of years, and widely used
for sculpture, especially in bronze, jewellery in precious metals, and
weapons and tools. Traditional techniques include lost-wax casting, plaster
mold casting and sand casting.
The modern casting process is subdivided into two main categories:
expendable and non-expendable casting. It is further broken down by the
mold material, such as sand or metal, and pouring method, such as gravity,
vacuum, or low pressure
Austenitic stainless steel
Austenitic stainless steels have high ductility, low yield stress and relatively
high ultimate tensile strength, when compare to typical carbon steel.
Carbon steel on cooling transforms from Austenite to a mixture of ferrite and

cementite. With austenitic stainless steel, the high chrome and nickel
content suppress this transformation keeping the material fully austenite on
cooling (The Nickel maintains the austenite phase on cooling and the
Chrome slows the transformation down so that a fully austenitic structure
can be achieved with only 8% Nickel).
Heat treatment and the thermal cycle caused by welding, have little
influence on mechanical properties. However strength and hardness can be
increased by cold working, which will also reduce ductility. A full solution
anneal (heating to around 1045°C followed by quenching or rapid cooling)
will restore the material to its original condition, removing alloy segregation,
sensitization, sigma phase and restoring ductility after cold working.
Unfortunately the rapid cooling will re-introduce residual stresses, which
could be as high as the yield point. Distortion can also occur if the object is
not properly supported during the annealing process.
Austenitic steels are not susceptible to hydrogen cracking, therefore pre-

heating is seldom required, except to reduce the risk of shrinkage stresses in
thick sections. Post weld heat treatment is seldom required as this material
as a high resistance to brittle fracture; occasionally stress relief is carried out
to reduce the risk of stress corrosion cracking, however this is likely to cause
sensitization unless a stabilized grade is used (limited stress relief can be
achieved with a low temperature of around 450°C )
Ferrite Stainless steel
Plain chromium steels (12 to 27 percent chromium) with

no significant nickel content which results in lower corrosion resistant
than austenitic stainless steels. However, they have slightly
higher yield strengths and much lower strain hardening than austenitic.
Ferritic steels have body centered cubic crystal, are less ductile than
austenitic steel, and are not hardenable by heat treatment like martensitic
steels. Older ferritics (such as AISI 409 and 430) are used mainly
for household utensils and other applications not demanding in anti-
corrosion properties. Ferritics with high chromium content (such as AISI
446) are used mainly for high temperature (but below 475°C) applications
and those with extremely low carbon and nitrogen content (such as S44400)
are used where protection against stress corrosion cracking is required. They
are the second largest selling type of stainless steels behind austenitic.
ALLOY STEELS
Steel is a metal alloy consisting mostly of iron, in addition to small amounts
of carbon, depending on the grade and quality of the steel. Alloy steel is any
type of steel to which one or more elements besides carbon have been
intentionally added, to produce a desired physical property or characteristic.
Common elements that are added to make alloy steel are
molybdenum, manganese, nickel, silicon, boron, chromium, and vanadium.
Alloy steel is often subdivided into two groups: high alloy steels and low
alloy steels. The difference between the two is defined somewhat arbitrarily.
However, most agree that any steel that is alloyed with more than eight
percent of its weight being other elements beside iron and carbon, is high
alloy steel. Low alloy steels are slightly more common. The physical
properties of these steels are modified by the other elements, to give them
greater hardness, durability, corrosion resistance, or toughness as compared
to carbon steel. To achieve such properties, these alloys often require heat
treatment.
If the carbon level in a low alloy steel is in the medium to high range, it can
be difficult to weld. If the carbon content is lowered to a range of 0.1% to
0.3%, and some of the alloying elements are reduced, the steel can achieve
a greater weldability and formability while maintaining the strength that
steel is known for. Such metals are classified as high strength, low alloy
steels.
Perhaps the most well-known alloy steel is stainless steel. This is a steel
alloy with a minimum of 10% chromium content. Stainless steel is more
resistant to stains, corrosion, and rust than ordinary steel. It was discovered
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in 1913 by Harry Brearley of Sheffield, England, but the discovery was not
announced to the world until 1915. Stainless steel is commonly used in table
cutlery, jewelry, watch bands, surgical instruments, as well as in the aviation
industry. Its familiar luster has also been appropriated for many famous
architectural designs, such as the Gateway Arch in St. Louis, Missouri, and
the pinnacle of the Chrysler Building in New York City.
In all types of alloy steel, the alloying elements tend to either form carbides
or compounds, rather than simply being uniformly mixed in with the iron and
carbon. Nickel, aluminum, and silicon are examples of the elements that
form compounds in the steel. Tungsten and vanadium will form carbides,
both of which increase the hardness and stability of the finished product.
Alloy steel - steel whose characteristics are determined by the addition of

other elements in addition to carbon
Steel - an alloy of iron with small amounts of carbon; widely used in
construction; mechanical properties can be varied over a wide range
Chromium steel, stainless, stainless steel - steel containing chromium that
makes it resistant to corrosion
Chrome-nickel steel, Elinvar - Elinvar is a trademark for a kind of steel used
for watch springs because its elasticity is constant over a wide range of
temperatures
Chrome-tungsten steel - a steel alloy made with chromium and tungsten
Austenitic manganese steel, manganese steel - a steel with a relatively large
component (10-14%) of manganese; highly resistant to wear and shock
Molybdenum steel - steel containing 10-15% molybdenum; properties are
similar to tungsten steel
Nickel steel - an alloy steel containing nickel
Tool steel - alloy steel that is suitable for making tools; is hard and tough
and can retain a cutting edge
Tungsten steel, wolfram steel – a very hard heat-resistant steel containing
tungsten
Vanadium steel - steel alloyed with vanadium for greater strength and high-
temperature stability
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DIFFERENT TYPES OF COMPOSITES
What are composite materials?
Composites are a unique class of materials made from two or more distinct
materials that when combined are better (stronger, tougher, and/or more
durable) than each would be separately. They are non-corroding, non-
magnetic, radar transparent and they are designed to provide strength and
stiffness where it is needed.
Although many man-made materials have two or more constituents, such as

metallic alloys, but they are usually not classified as composites because the
structural unit is formed at microscopic level (it means that the combination
of materials are combined in such a way that
the individual components are indistinguishable)
rather than at the macroscopic level (that
means the constituents retain their identities in
the composite, they do not dissolve or otherwise
merge completely into each other). In
composite materials, the components can be
physically identified and exhibit an interface
between one another.
The most common composite is the fibrous composite consisting of

reinforcing fibers embedded in a binder, or matrix materials.
IMPORTANCE
Composites have properties, which could not be achieved by either of the

constituent materials alone. We can see that composites are becoming more
and more important as it can help to improve our quality of life. Composites
are put into service in flight vehicles, automobiles, boats, pipelines,
buildings, roads, bridges, and dozens of other products. Researchers are
finding ways to improve other qualities of composites so they may be strong,
lightweight, long-lived, and inexpensive to produce.
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Different type of composites
Actually the production of composites is an attempt to copy nature. Wood is

a composite of cellulose fibers cemented together with lignin. This kind of
composite is called natural composites.
And for man-made composites, there are polymer matrix composites

(PMCs), metal matrix composites (MMCs) and ceramic matrix composites
(CMCs). They are made from adding reinforcing fibres into polymer matrix,
metal matrix or ceramic matrix respectively.
Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC‘s) - These are the most common and will
be the main area of discussion in this website. Also known as FRP - Fiber
Reinforced Polymers - these materials use a polymer-based resin as the
matrix, and a variety of fibers such as glass and carbon as the
reinforcement. For example ―fiberglass‖, the first successful modern
composites, is one of the polymer matrix composites. It is used for making
boat hulls, storage tanks, pipes, and car components.
Metal Matrix Composites (MMC‘s) - Increasingly found in the mobile

industry, these materials use a metal such as aluminum as the matrix, and
reinforce it with fibers such as silicon carbide.
Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC‘s) - Used in very high temperature

environments, these materials use a ceramic as the matrix and reinforce it
with short fibers, such as those made from silicon carbide and boron nitride.
Disadvantages of composite materials
Although composite materials have certain advantages over conventional

materials, composites also have some disadvantages. The common one is
the high manufacturing costs. However, as improved manufacturing
techniques are developed, it will become possible to produce composite
materials at higher volumes and at a lower cost than is now possible.
FRP (Fiber Rain forced Composites)
Faber-reinforced plastic (FRP) (also fiber-reinforced polymer) is a composite

material made of a polymer matrix reinforced with fibers. The fibers are
usually glass, carbon, basalt or aramid, although other fibers such as paper
or wood or asbestos have been sometimes used. The polymer is usually an
epoxy, vinyl ester or polyester thermosetting plastic, and phenol
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formaldehyde resins are still in use. FRPs are commonly used in the
aerospace, automotive, marine, and construction industries.
A polymer is generally manufactured by Step-growth polymerization or

addition polymerization. When combined with various agents to enhance or
in any way alter the material properties of polymers the result is referred to
as a plastic. Composite plastics refer to those types of plastics that result
from bonding two or more homogeneous materials with different material
properties to derive a final product with certain desired material and
mechanical properties. Faber-reinforced plastics are a category of composite
plastics that specifically use fiber materials to mechanically enhance the
strength and elasticity of plastics. The original plastic material without fiber
reinforcement is known as the matrix. The matrix is a tough but relatively
weak plastic that is reinforced by stronger stiffer reinforcing filaments or
fibers. The extent that strength and elasticity are enhanced in a fiber-
reinforced plastic depends on the mechanical properties of both the fiber and
matrix, their volume relative to one another, and the fiber length and
orientation within the matrix. Reinforcement of the matrix occurs by
definition when the FRP material exhibits increased strength or elasticity
relative to the strength and elasticity of the matrix alone.
What is FRP?
Fiberglass-reinforced plastic is one of the strongest and most

durable materials in the world.
Bedford manufactures most of its profiles out of fiberglass-reinforced

polymers (FRP), also known as ―composites,‖ which are a combination of:
 Resin, such as polyester or vinyl ester;

 Reinforcements, such as fiberglass roving and mat;
 Additives, such as pigments, UV inhibitors, fire retardant, etc.; and
 Surface veil, which enhances corrosion resistance, UV protection and
appearance
These materials work in concert to provide a specific set of strength and

performance properties, including:
 Light weight with high strength

 Corrosion free and impact resistant
 Dimensional stability
 Electrically non-conductive
 Non-magnetic and non-sparking
 Low thermal conductivity
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 Rapid installation with standard tools

 RF transparency
MMC (Metal Matrix composites)
A metal matrix composite (MMC) is composite material with at least two

constituent parts, one being a metal. The other material may be a different
metal or another material, such as a ceramic or organic compound. When at
least three materials are present, it is called a hybrid composite. An MMC is
complementary to a cermets.
Composition
MMCs are made by dispersing a reinforcing material into a metal matrix. The
reinforcement surface can be coated to prevent a chemical reaction with the
matrix. For example, carbon fibers are commonly used in aluminum matrix
to synthesize composites showing low density and high strength. However,
carbon reacts with aluminum to generate a brittle and water-soluble
compound Al4C3 on the surface of the fiber. To prevent this reaction, the
carbon fibers are coated with nickel or titanium boride.
Matrix
The matrix is the monolithic material into which the reinforcement is

embedded, and is completely continuous. This means that there is a path
through the matrix to any point in the material, unlike two materials
sandwiched together. In structural applications, the matrix is usually a
lighter metal such as aluminum, magnesium, or titanium, and provides a
compliant support for the reinforcement. In high temperature applications,
cobalt and cobalt-nickel alloy matrices are common.
Reinforcement
The reinforcement material is embedded into the matrix. The reinforcement

does not always serve a purely structural task (reinforcing the compound),
but is also used to change physical properties such as wear resistance,
friction coefficient, or thermal conductivity. The reinforcement can be either
continuous, or discontinuous. Discontinuous MMCs can be isotropic, and can
be worked with standard metalworking techniques, such as extrusion,
forging or rolling. In addition, they may be machined using conventional
techniques, but commonly would need the use of polycrystalline diamond
tooling (PCD).
14
Continuous reinforcement uses monofilament wires or fibers such as carbon

fiber or silicon carbide. Because the fibers are embedded into the matrix in a
certain direction, the result is an anisotropic structure in which the alignment
of the material affects its strength. One of the first MMCs used boron
filament as reinforcement. Discontinuous reinforcement uses "whiskers",
short fibers, or particles. The most common reinforcing materials in this
category are alumina and silicon carbide.
Application
 Carbide drills are often made from a tough cobalt matrix with hard
tungsten carbide particles inside.
 Some tank armors may be made from metal matrix composites,
probably steel reinforced with boron nitride, which is a good
reinforcement for steel because it is very stiff and it does not dissolve
in molten steel.
 Some automotive disc brakes use MMCs. Early Lotus Elise models used
aluminum MMC rotors, but they have less than optimal heat properties
and Lotus has since switched back to cast-iron. Modern high-
performance sport cars, such as those built by Porsche, use rotors
made of carbon fiber within a silicon carbide matrix because of its high
specific heat and thermal conductivity. 3M sells a preformed aluminum
matrix insert for strengthening cast aluminum disc brake calipers,
allowing them to weigh as much as 50% less while increasing stiffness.
3M has also used alumina performs for AMC pushrods.
 Ford offers a Metal Matrix Composite (MMC) driveshaft upgrade. The
MMC driveshaft is made of an aluminum matrix reinforced with boron
carbide, allowing the critical speed of the driveshaft to be raised by
reducing inertia. The MMC driveshaft has become a common
modification for racers, allowing the top speed to be increased far
beyond the safe operating speeds of a standard aluminum driveshaft.
TIMBERS in Automobiles-
The Weymann system comprises an ultra-light wood framework with special

metal joints so that timber does not touch timber. Small metal panels are
inserted between the fabric and the framework to make rounded external
corners. Straining wires are fitted to hold the doors in shape when they are
stressed by acceleration or bumps. The frame is then covered with muslin
over chicken wire with a thin layer of cotton batting used to span large open
areas and over this a top layer of fabric, usually a pigmented synthetic
leather, is placed. Any exposed joints in the fabric are covered with
aluminum moldings. The seats are fixed directly to the chassis.
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Passengers were therefore in almost direct contact with the firmly mounted
engine. Where the market permitted some isolation was provided by
luxuriously sprung passenger-seating often topped with inflated pneumatic
cushions. For the luxury market it further encouraged the development of
inherently smoother multi-cylinder engines in place of sixes and eights and,
too late for Weymann, the introduction of flexible engine mounts and better
chassis suspension systems in place of primitive leaf springs.
Fiber glass is an excellent example of a relatively modern composite material (Invented in

1938 by Russell Games). In industry it is often referred to as Glass Reinforced Plastic
(GRP).
GRP is composed of strands of glass. Each individual glass fiber is very fine with a small
diameter, and they are woven to form a flexible fabric. The fabric is normally placed in a
mould, for instance a mould for a canoe and polyester resin is added, followed by a
catalyst (to speed up the reaction). The process is repeated so that there are many layers
of fiber glass and resin and allowed to dry/cure. The resulting material is strong and light.
Glass Reinforced Plastic can be sanded for a smooth finish and painted.
Three samples of different weaves of fiberglass are seen below. The pattern of weave
determines the strength and weight of the Glass Reinforced Plastic, after resin has been
added. Different weaves have been developed for different practical applications.
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Glass reinforced plastic is lightweight and has good thermal insulation properties. It has a
high strength to weight ratio, making it useful for the production of products such as
water tanks, surfboards, canoes, small boat hulls and similar products. The new European
fighter plane, called ‗Eurofighter‘, has an airframe which includes 12% glass reinforced
plastic.
TWO TYPICAL USES OF GRP
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GRP (Glass reinforced fiber)
Properties of GRP
Glass-reinforced plastic (GRP), also known as glass fiber-reinforced plastic

(GFRP) is a lightweight, extremely strong, and robust material.
These advantages of using GRP over other materials include:

Freedom of Design
The practical uses of GRP are virtually endless and it has literally bought the
designers imagination to life. GRP opened many new avenues for creative
designers. Its unique physical properties allow it to be easily tooled, molded
and manufactured to meet almost any specifications. With GRP there are few
constraints on size, shape, color or finish, the styling and appearance can
take precedence over manufacturing costs.
Versatility and Affordability
The lightweight strength of GRP makes it a popular choice for

manufacturing. GRP reduces weight and requires less maintenance making it
highly attractive over more traditional materials like timber, metal or brick.
18
The flexibility of GRP and the cost effectiveness of its composite materials
also make it an extremely affordable solution and an economical alternative.
By using GRP industry can manufacture virtually any component or finished
product in any quantity.
Strength and Durability
GRP has a high strength to weight ratio and high flexural strength making it
an attractive lightweight material that builds strength into almost any
finished product or component. Pound for pound GRP can be stronger than
steel and sheet metals.
GRP also has high resistance to environmental extremes and requires very
little maintenance - no rust, no painting, no wood rot plus GRP is non-
corrosive and has a much longer life expectancy when compared to a variety
of construction materials.
In highly corrosive environments GRP is the preferred choice over metal,

wood, or plastic. GRP provides resistance to ultra violet light, extreme
temperatures, salt air, and a variety of chemicals including most acids. As
GRP is chemically inert and corrosion-resistant, it offers an economical
alternative to stainless steel.
Appearance
GRP products can be manufactured in numerous finishes, textures and colors

including brick and stone effect.
With sheet metal, you get a plain box. GRP products have sleek contours
and a superior molded appearance.
Dielectric
GRP is non-conductive, RF transparent, and helps to insulate against

electromagnetic fields, making GRP the obvious choice for electrical and
electronic equipment storage like electrical meter boxes and cabinets.
Acoustic Properties
GRP provides superior acoustical properties when compared to plastic or

metal. Various type of sound deadening materials can be laminated between
high strength layers of GRP to achieve the preferred level of sound
deadening.
GRP parts have excellent dimensional stability and will hold their shapes
under severe mechanical and environmental stresses.
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Properties of GRP
Glass-reinforced plastic (GRP), also known as glass fiber-reinforced

plastic (GFRP) is a lightweight, extremely strong, and robust material.
These advantages of using GRP over other materials include:
 Freedom of Design
The practical uses of GRP are virtually endless and it has literally bought
the designers imagination to life. GRP opened many new avenues for
creative designers. Its unique physical properties allow it to be easily
tooled, molded and manufactured to meet almost any specifications. With
GRP there are few constraints on size, shape, color or finish, the styling
and appearance can take precedence over manufacturing costs.
 Versatility and Affordability
The lightweight strength of GRP makes it a popular choice for

manufacturing. GRP reduces weight and requires less maintenance
making it highly attractive over more traditional materials like timber,
metal or brick.
The flexibility of GRP and the cost effectiveness of its composite materials
also make it an extremely affordable solution and an economical
alternative. By using GRP industry can manufacture virtually any
component or finished product in any quantity.
 Strength and Durability
GRP has a high strength to weight ratio and high flexural strength making
it an attractive lightweight material that builds strength into almost any
finished product or component. Pound for pound GRP can be stronger
than steel and sheet metals.
GRP also has high resistance to environmental extremes and requires

very little maintenance - no rust, no painting, no wood rot plus GRP is
non-corrosive and has a much longer life expectancy when compared to a
variety of construction materials.
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In highly corrosive environments GRP is the preferred choice over metal,

wood, or plastic. GRP provides resistance to ultra violet light, extreme
temperatures, salt air, and a variety of chemicals including most acids. As
GRP is chemically inert and corrosion-resistant, it offers an economical
alternative to stainless steel.
 Appearance
GRP products can be manufactured in numerous finishes, textures and

colours including brick and stone effect.
With sheet metal, you get a plain box. GRP products have sleek contours
and a superior molded appearance.
 Dielectric
GRP is non-conductive, RF transparent, and helps to insulate against

electromagnetic fields, making GRP the obvious choice for electrical and
electronic equipment storage like electrical meter boxes and cabinets.
 Acoustic Properties
GRP provides superior acoustical properties when compared to plastic or

metal. Various type of sound deadening materials can be laminated
between high strength layers of GRP to achieve the preferred level of
sound deadening.
GRP parts have excellent dimensional stability and will hold their shapes
under severe mechanical and environmental stresses.
High strength Composites-
What Is Carbon Fiber?
Before you can understand how carbon fiber can help solve the oil crisis, you
have to understand what it is. Carbon fiber is a super strong material that's
also extremely lightweight. Engineers and designers love it because it's five
times as strong as steel, two times as stiff, yet weighs about two-thirds less.
Carbon fiber is basically very thin strands of carbon -- even thinner than
human hair. The strands can be twisted together, like yarn. The yarns can
be woven together, like cloth. To make carbon fiber take on a permanent
shape, it can be laid over a mold, then coated with a stiff resin or plastic
(kind of like how you would make something out of papier-mâché by putting
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newspaper strips over a mold, then adding paste to force it to hold the
shape).
Most car components are made of steel. Replacing steel components with
carbon fiber would reduce the weight of most cars by 60 percent. That 60
percent drop in weight would, in turn, reduce that car's fuel consumption by
30 percent and cut greenhouse gas and other emissions by 10 to 20 percent
that‘s a huge fuel savings, even without changing the car's engine. With a
lighter carbon fiber body, car makers could build cars with smaller, more
efficient engines, or increase the use of electric engines, resulting in even
more fuel savings. Reducing weight, increasing fuel efficiency and allowing
for the development of different kinds of engines: That's how carbon fiber
can solve the oil crisis.
The Difficulties of Carbon Fiber
Only a few cars available at your local dealership use carbon fiber. The BMW
M6 has some carbon fiber panels on its body, as does the Chevrolet Corvette
ZR1 and the Ford GT. The Audi R8 also includes some carbon fiber. What do
all these cars have in common? They cost a lot of money -- most start above
$100,000. It's rare to see a car with carbon fiber because it's expensive! Ten
years ago, carbon fiber cost $150 a pound. Now, the price is around $10 a
pound. Steel, on the other hand, costs less than a dollar per pound. Many
analysts say that for carbon fiber to make it into widespread use in cars, the
price will have to drop to about $5 per pound Cost is the main hurdle carbon
fiber will have to overcome before it can provide a viable energy solution.
The second hurdle is waste disposal. When a typical car breaks down, its
steel can be melted and used to construct another car (or building, or
anything else made of steel). Carbon fiber can't be melted down, and it's not
easy to recycle. When it is recycled, the recycled carbon fiber isn't as strong
as it was before recycling. Carbon fiber recycled from a car isn't strong
enough to be used in building another car. That's a big issue. Having more
cars use carbon fiber would save a lot of oil, but it could also generate a lot
of waste.
As it stands now, carbon fiber could solve the oil crisis. It's lightweight,
durable and safe. But it's also expensive and difficult to recycle. For now, it
looks like carbon fiber is just going to be one of many solutions to the oil
crisis. When combined with efficient engines, other, cheaper materials and a
change in driving habits, carbon fiber is just one piece of the energy puzzle.
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Carbon fiber body
Thermoplastic
A thermoplastic (sometimes written as thermo plastic) is a type of plastic

made from polymer resins that becomes a homogenized liquid when heated
and hard when cooled. When frozen, however, a thermoplastic becomes
glass-like and subject to fracture. These characteristics, which lend the
material its name, are reversible. That is, it can be reheated, reshaped, and
frozen repeatedly. This quality also makes thermoplastics recyclable.
There are dozens of kinds of thermoplastics, with each type varying in

crystalline organization and density. Some types that are commonly
produced today are polyurethane, polypropylene, polycarbonate, and acrylic.
Celluloid, which is considered the first thermoplastic, made its appearance in
the mid-1800s and reigned in the industry for approximately 100 years.
During its peak production, it was used as a substitute for ivory. Today, it is
used to make guitar picks.
Sometimes, thermoplastics are confused with thermosetting plastics.

Although they may sound the same, they actually possess very different
properties. While thermoplastics can be melted to a liquid and cooled to a
solid, thermosetting plastics chemically deteriorate when subjected to heat.
Ironically, however, thermosetting plastics tend to be more durable when
allowed to cool than many thermoplastics.
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Tensile Yield Strength
Tensile yield strength is the maximum engineering stress in psi (or Pa) at
which a permanent non-elastic deformation of the thermoplastic material
begins.
Yield Point
Yield point is the first point where the specimen yields, where the specimen's
cross-sectional area begins to contract significantly, or where the strain can
increase without increase in the stress.
Ultimate Tensile Strength
Ultimate tensile strength is the maximum stress the thermoplastic material

can withstand before failing, whichever occurs at the higher stress level.
Tensile Modulus
Tensile modulus or Young's Modulus is the ratio of stress to strain within the
elastic region of the stress-strain curve before the yield point.
Thermoplastic Characteristics
ABS - Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene
Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) is the polymerization of Acrylonitrile,

Butadiene, and Styrene monomers. Chemically, this thermoplastic family of
plastics is called "terpolymers", in that they involve the combination of three
different monomers to form a single material that draws from the properties
of all three. ABS possesses outstanding impact strength and high mechanical
strength, which makes it so suitable for tough consumer products.
Additionally, ABS has good dimensional stability and electrical insulating
properties. Dynalab Corp's plastic fabrication shop fabricates thousands of
catalog and custom ABS products. Strong and rigid resistant to a variety of
bases and acids some solvents and chlorinated hydrocarbons may damage
the material maximum usable temperature 160oF (71oC) common as DEV -
Drainage, Waste and Vent - pipes
PB - Polybutylene
 flexible pipe
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 used for pressurized water systems

 usable for hot and cold water
 only compression and banded type joints used
PE - Polyethylene
 flexible pipe
 Used for pressurized water systems - sprinkler.
 not usable for hot water
PEX - Polyethylene Cross Linked
 flexible pipe
 Used for pressurized water systems - sprinkler.
PP - Polypropylene
 lightweight
 temperature up to 180oF (82oC)
 highly resistant to acids, bases and many solvents
 usable in laboratory plumbing
PVC - Polyvinyl Chloride
 strong and rigid

 resistant to a variety of acids and bases
 may be damaged by some solvents and chlorinated hydrocarbons
 maximum usable temperature 140oF (60oC)
 usable for water, gas and drainage systems
 not useable in hot water systems
CPVC - Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride
 similar to PVC - but designed for water up to 180oF (82oC)
PVDF - Polyvinylidene Fluoride
 strong and very tough material

 resistant to abrasion, acids, bases, solvents and much more
 usable to 280oF (138oC)
 usable in laboratory plumbing
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Styrene
Styrene, also known as vinyl benzene and phenyl ethene, is an organic

compound with the chemical formula C6H5CH=CH2. This derivative of
benzene is a colorless oily liquid that evaporates easily and has a sweet
smell, although high concentrations confer a less pleasant odor. Styrene is
the precursor to polystyrene and several copolymers. Approximately 25
million tons (55 billion pounds) of styrene was produced in 2010.
Styrene is essential in the creation of many products that we use every day.
A few of the most familiar uses of styrene include:
 Solid and film polystyrene, used in rigid foodservice containers, CD

cases, appliance housings, envelope windows and many other
products.
 Polystyrene foam, used in food service products and building
insulation.
 Composite products, used in tub and shower enclosures, automobile
body panels, wind turbine parts, boats and many other applications.
Other styrene-based materials include:
 ABS plastic, used in refrigerator liners, medical devices, small

household appliances and luggage.
 SAN plastic, used for food containers and optical fibers.
 SB Rubber (SBR), which reduces dependence on natural rubbers and
provides improved performance in applications such as vehicle tires,
leading to improved fuel efficiency.
 SB latex (SBL) used in many paper coatings and in more than 90% of
the carpeting made in the United States to attach carpet fibers to a
backing material.
Strength, Durability, Comfort, Safety
Styrene is so widely used today because it enables a multitude of products

to deliver many benefits that are highly valued by consumers. These benefits
include strength, durability, comfort and safety. For example, styrene-based
products cushion bicycle helmets, strengthen military armor, create wind
power turbines, reduce coal plant emissions, enhance components that
make cars and trains lighter and more fuel-efficient, enable manufacturing
high-performance and cost-effective recreational products such as boats and
other watercraft, and reduce dependence on costly natural resources such as
tropical hardwoods used in boats and marble and granite used in homes and
buildings.
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Sandwich panel construction
A sandwich-structured composite is a special class of composite materials

that is fabricated by attaching two thin but stiff skins to a lightweight but
thick core. The core material is normally low strength material, but its higher
thickness provides the sandwich composite with high bending stiffness with
overall low density.
Open- and closed-cell-structured foams like polyvinylchloride, polyurethane,

polyethylene or polystyrene foams, balsa wood, syntactic foams, and
honeycombs are commonly used core materials. Open- and closed-cell metal
foam can also be used as core materials.
Laminates of glass or carbon fiber-reinforced thermoplastics or mainly

thermoset polymers (unsaturated polyesters, epoxies...) are widely used as
skin materials. Sheet metal is also used as skin material in some cases.
The core is bonded to the skins with an adhesive or with metal components
by brazing together.
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UNIT 2) SHAPING AND PACKAGING
Product design is the process of creating a new product to be sold by a

business to its customers. A very broad concept, it is essentially the efficient
and effective generation and development of ideas through a process that
leads to new products.
In a systematic approach, product designers conceptualize and evaluate

ideas, turning them into tangible inventions and products. The product
designer's role is to combine art, science, and technology to create new
products that other people can use. Their evolving role has been facilitated
by digital tools that now allow designers to communicate, visualize, analyze
and actually produce tangible ideas in a way that would have taken greater
manpower in the past.
Product design is sometimes confused with (and certainly overlaps with)

industrial design, and has recently become a broad term inclusive of service,
software, and physical product design. Industrial design is concerned with
bringing artistic form and usability, usually associated with craft design and
ergonomics, together to mass-produce goods.Other aspects of product
design include engineering design, particularly when matters of functionality
or utility (e.g. problem-solving) are at issue, though such boundaries are not
always clear.
Concept is a fundamental category of existence. In contemporary

philosophy, there are at least three prevailing ways to understand what a
concept is:
 Concepts as mental representations, where concepts are entities that

exist in the brain.
 Concepts as abilities, where concepts are abilities peculiar to cognitive
agents.
 Concepts as abstract objects, where objects are the constituents of
propositions that mediate between thought, language, and referents
Industrial Design is the use of both applied art and applied science to
improve the aesthetics, ergonomics, functionality, and/or usability of a
product, and it may also be used to improve the product's marketability and
even production. The role of an industrial designer is to create and execute
design solutions for problems of form, usability, physical ergonomics,
marketing, brand development, and sales.
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Industrial design can overlap significantly with engineering design, and in

different countries the boundaries of the two concepts can vary, but in
general engineering focuses principally on functionality or utility of products
whereas industrial design focuses principally on aesthetic and user-interface
aspects of products. In many jurisdictions this distinction is effectively
defined by credentials and/or licensure required to engage in the practice of
engineering."Industrial design" as such does not overlap much with the
engineering sub-discipline of industrial engineering, except for the latter's
sub-specialty of ergonomics.
Aesthetics (also spelled æsthetics) is a branch of philosophy dealing with

the nature of art, beauty, and taste, with the creation and appreciation of
beauty. It is more scientifically defined as the study of sensory or sensory-
emotional values, sometimes called judgments of sentiment and taste. More
broadly, scholars in the field define aesthetics as "critical reflection on art,
culture and nature."
More specific aesthetic theory, often with practical implications, relating to a
particular branch of the arts is divided into areas of aesthetics such as art
theory, literary theory, film theory and music theory. An example from art
theory is aesthetic theory as a set of principles underlying the work of a
particular artist or artistic movement: such as the Cubist aesthetic.
What is aesthetics?
The term 'aesthetics' concerns our

senses and our responses to an
object. If something is
aesthetically pleasing to you, it is
'pleasurable' and you like it. If it is
aesthetically displeasing to you, it
is 'displeasurable' and you don't
like it. Aesthetics involves all of
your senses - vision, hearing,
touch, taste, and smell - and your
emotions.
Elements of Aesthetics
There are many different things that contribute to your overall

perception of a product, and to your opinion as to whether it is
aesthetically pleasing to you.
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Vision Hearing Touch Taste Smell

Colour Loudness Texture Strength Strength
Shape Pitch Shape Sweetness Sweetness
Pattern Beat Weight Sourness 'Pleasantness'
Line Repetition Give Texture
Texture Melody Comfort
Visual weight Pattern Temperature
Balance Noise Vibration
Scale Sharpness
Movement Ease of use
Your opinion about a product may also be influenced by certain

associations that are important to you, such as:
 how fashionable it is
 whether it is a novelty, or an old favourite
 whether it is a symbol of wealth or love
 how much danger or risk is involved
 if it provides a link with your past
You might also take into account whether it is safe and reliable and fit
for its purpose.
Consistency with a particular

aesthetic concept may be a
significant factor in creating a
product's appeal too, for example,
the current appreciation of 'retro'
designs.
However, such trends are often
cultural and almost certainly
always short-lived, so their
popularity can't be guaranteed.
Computer Aided Drafting
Computer-aided design/drafting (CAD) is the use of computer systems to

assist in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design.
CAD software is used to increase the productivity of the designer, improve
the quality of design, improve communications through documentation, and
to create a database for manufacturing. CAD output is often in the form of
electronic files for print, machining, or other manufacturing operations.
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Computer-aided design is used in many fields. Its use in electronic design is

known as Electronic Design Automation, or EDA. In mechanical design is
known as Mechanical Design Automation, or MDA, it is also known as
computer-aided drafting (CAD) which describes the process of creating a
technical drawing with the use of computer software.
CAD software for mechanical design uses either vector based graphics to
depict the objects of traditional drafting, or may also produce raster graphics
showing the overall appearance of designed objects. However, it involves
more than just shapes. As in the manual drafting of technical and
engineering drawings, the output of CAD must convey information, such as
materials, processes, dimensions, and tolerances, according to application-
specific conventions.
Ergonomics of vehicle
Dictionaries generally define ergonomics as a scientific discipline that uses

principles of biotechnology and engineering to make products more
comfortable for workers and consumers. But ergonomics isn't just about
design. It also factors in how we use things.
In the context of a car, that means considering anything from the placement
of a radio dial to how a person sits in a passenger seat. One ergonomics
engineer for Ford described her job as‖ human factors engineering‖. So while
engineers may design cars to be ergonomically friendly, it doesn't mean that
one design will work for all users, especially if the car is designed for a
person of certain proportions.
It's also up to us passengers and drivers to make ourselves comfortable. For

instance, if you're a driver and position your seat so that your feet barely
reach the pedals, you may induce unnecessary strain on your arms -- just as
sitting too close can cause leg or back pain. Seat position, posture and time
spent in the car all can affect a person's health. According to one study, if
you drive four or more hours a day, you're six times more likely to develop
back problems .Musculoskeletal disorders also pose a concern for long-
distance drivers, particularly those who drive for a living: truck drivers, taxi
drivers, even police officers on patrol.
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In this article, we'll take a look at the design of car ergonomics and how to
take full advantage of them for health, comfort, efficiency and safety. First,
let's see what role ergonomics play for a person in the driver's seat.
Vehicle Surfaces
The materials used for vehicle load beds (in rigid, curtain-sided and flatbed
vehicles) generally present a low-slip risk when dry, but it is likely that they
will become wet during normal use. They may then become slippery.
Tests have been carried out on a range of materials used on vehicle load
areas, looking at the surface or micro roughness and slip resistance in both
wet and dry conditions.
Composite resin and aggregate surfaces have been found to give good slip-
resistance in both wet and dry conditions while aluminium chequer plate
performs relatively poorly when wet.
DASH BOARD INTRUMENTS
At minimum, your dashboard display has a speedometer and a fuel gauge.

In addition to those gauges, the display will feature some combination of a
tachometer, charging system gauge, oil pressure gauge and engine
temperature gauge. Let's have a quick dashboard confessional that covers
what each part does.
The speedometer, one of the most frequently used tools, tells you how fast
you're going. Traditionally, this gauge relied upon a cable that connected the
speedometer to a gear inside the transmission, but now, electric sensors are
used with most dashboard devices. Instrument panels basically have a feed
of constantly updated information from around the car; in fact, about one-
half of a vehicle's total wiring can be found in the dashboard display.
If you drive a stick, you're probably well familiar with the tachometer,
which measures revolutions per minute (RPM) in the engine. Knowing this
information can help you shift at a time when you'll get maximum fuel
economy.
Ever needed a jump when your battery went dead? You might have paid
more attention to the charging system gauge or warning light afterwards.
The amount of electrical current that the charging system provides to your
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vehicle's battery is monitored by either a voltmeter, which measures the

voltage in the charging system, or an ammeter, which measures amperage
leaving the battery. When the battery is using too much of its own juice and
depleting itself without getting refilled by the charging system, then these
gauges or warning lights should alert you to the problem.
While many of us strive to lower our blood pressure, we should never strive
to have low oil pressure. The oil pressure gauge measures oil pressure in
pounds per square inch, and you're going to have a big problem if that
pressure falls in a car. Unless you want to destroy your vehicle, stop the car
as soon as possible when this gauge alerts you to a problem; you'll likely be
warned via an oil lamp warning light in the dash. Similarly, if your engine
gets too hot, you should also get off the road as soon as you can. Your
temperature gauge, which measures the temperature of engine coolant,
will alert you to a dangerous situation.
There are a host of other warning lights designed to let you know about the
status of the car. Though there have been some efforts to standardize these
lights in all makes and models, they are currently personalized to some
extent by car manufacturers. You might see these lights for everything from
a reminder that someone's not wearing a seatbelt to a warning that tire
pressure is low. For more details about what a certain light is trying to tell
you, consult your car's manual.
The configuration and arrangement of these instruments varies according to

each car. In fact, it may surprise you to learn how much time carmakers
spend designing dashboard displays.
Dashboard Display Design
First impressions are important, and a dashboard provides your introduction

to each automobile you drive. Designers get paid to think about what each
person might want from the dashboard, because, unlike with potential
partners, you're not likely to ask for a second date with that car if you don't
get the information you need upfront. The style, shape and layout of the
dashboard can be a deal-breaker when buying a car.
That's why some drivers may have a completely electronic dashboard

display, while others still watch the rise and fall of a needle; it seems that
young drivers and women, in particular, have more of an affinity for the
digital model. Some drivers want as much information as possible about
their driving and their car; people with displays that show real-time fuel
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economy information might make a game out of trying to improve their

driving with each mile. The aging baby boomer generation, however, wants
basic information in an easy-to-read format.
The need to control additional technology, from power mirrors to a stereo

system, means that dashboard displays will only become more diverse in the
future. In 2006, writers at PC Magazine imagined a future dashboard that
included drowsiness sensors, advanced navigation systems and voice
recognition systems that allow you to ask your car questions. This dashboard
of the future will also let you pick which instrument gauges you want to see
at a given time and project that display on the windshield, so that less eye
movement is required That means you'll have more time to move your eyes
toward the custom entertainment system, full of your favorite music and
videos.
That begs the question, of course, as to when a dashboard display becomes

a dashboard distraction. Safety advocacy groups worry that drivers will
perceive that most of the driving is being done for them with dashboard
gadgets such as self-parking devices, lane-change alerts and cruise control.
These people will pay less attention to the road and their driving, while even
those who are trying to pay attention will be distracted by the constant hum
of beeps and the constant flash of notifications from the dashboard. There's
a balance to strike multitasking and keeping those eyes on the road.
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ADVANCES IN DASH BORAD INSTRUMENTS
LCD instrument panels are coming, trickling down from a handful of

expensive cars today to affordable cars. You need an LCD display in front of
you to process all the information you‘re getting from the car and connected
devices. Any car instrument panel tells you how fast you‘re going and how
much fuel remains. When you also want to see navigation instructions, song
info, hybrid battery efficiency, and the name of an incoming caller, it‘s time
for a big-screen LCD instrument panel. They‘re on a dozen premium car
models today. Affordable cars are getting hybrid displays in the instrument
panel: The speedometer, tachometer, and fuel gauge are traditional
mechanical devices; inset among them or in a bottom strip is an LCD display
that can show all the other information.
The car instrument panel is following the lead of the center stack in going to
LCDs. The instrument cluster or instrument panel is what‘s on the far side of
the steering wheel. The center stack is where the radio/head unit and
climate control knobs live. Within five years (by 2017), nearly two thirds of
cars sold in North America will have a center stack with a display radio, or
head unit with an LCD of at least 4.5 inches rather than a dumb, one- or
two-line text display, according to IHS Automotive, a Minnesota consulting
group. Try scrolling a thousand-song smartphone list on a text display for
quick proof of why you want an LCD display. As for the instrument panel,
85% of cars will have at least a partial LCD and more than 10% will be full
LCDs. ―Infotainment is the main driver for most display radios,‖ says Mark
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Boyadjis, an IHS senior analyst. ―Safety is the main driver for LCD displays
in the instrument cluster or small displays in the head unit.‖ The US is
requiring all cars built by September 2014 to have a rear camera and display
in the cockpit. An LCD backup (reversing) camera display embedded in the
inside mirror is acceptable, too, though they‘re small and can be affected by
sunlight.
The industry hasn‘t yet settled on a term for an instrument panel that uses
an LCD or brighter OLED, so you‘ll hear digital dashboard, virtual instrument
cluster, reconfigurable instrument cluster, glass cockpit (borrowed from the
aviation industry), and digital instrument cluster display (ICD) used to
describe the instrument panel of the near future. Information presented in
the instrument panel is easier to see at a glance because the driver just
looks down, not over and down as with center stack displays. A head-up
display is even better, but the cost is around $1,000 and some drivers find
them distracting even when they show a pared-down subset of info (speed,
cruise-control speed, next turn).
The full monty: 12-inch, all-glass instrument panel
Full digital ICDs have been on a handful of cars for 3-4 years. Jaguar and
Land Rover were early pioneers in full digital ICDs with the Jaguar XJ and
Land Rover‘s Range Rover (pictured above). Both use 12.3-inch LCD panels.
At the very least, a full digital instrument panel usually lets the driver switch
between a digital and analog speedometer, or even have the digital readout
set inside the analog speedometer gauge. Switching from miles to
kilometers is a snap when you drive in Canada or Mexico. It could allow the
over-40 driver to increase the font size of information. For old farts who
maybe shouldn‘t be driving at all, the text could be really big. For the forty-
something driver who needs reading glasses and isn‘t wearing them, or who
36
has sunglasses ground only for distance vision, larger fonts would make
make the make the cockpit information more legible. So far, automakers
haven‘t rushed to implement sizable fonts, even though they talk a good
game about being sensitive to the boomer population.
Cadillac XTS: Move apps from center stack to instrument panel
The most recent car to make a splash with a full LCD instrument cluster is
the full-size Cadillac XTS (pictured at the top of the story), announced in the
spring, and followed by the compact Cadillac ATS sport sedan, with a partial
digital ICD. It, too, has a 12.3-inch, 1280×480 panel.
The Cadillac XTS display is highly but not infinitely configurable. First, you
can set four themes for the instrument panel display, called Simple,
Enhanced, Balanced (photo), and Performance, with less or more
information. Then you can tinker with the display elements. The 3-inch
center of the speedometer (middle gauge) can be digital speed readout or a
moving map. This is part of the Cadillac User Experience (CUE) infotainment
package that also includes an 8-inch capacitive touch center stack LCD. The
XTS driver can swipe or flick windows of information from the center stack
over to the instrument panel LCD.
But you can‘t make the map any bigger in the instrument panel or move it
to the seemingly underused gauge on the right. Boy racers believe the
tachometer (left gauge) redline should point straight up in a properly
sporting car run at the track, but that is something you can‘t do, a Cadillac
marketing manager said with a bit more NFW emphasis than I thought the
question called for. It goes without saying that you can‘t download an
instrument panel template and roll your own interface. Yet Hackers, take
your marks…
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Partially customizable LCDs
Some automakers started their trek to the glass cockpit with partial digital
ICDs such as this 2010 BMW 7 Series. The small and large gauges on top
are mechanical and that trademark look hasn‘t changed much since the
seventies. The strip at the bottom is a wide LCD that you can customize a bit
by deciding what elements you‘d like to see. BMW has since expanded to a
full digital ICD, 12 inches across, for the 7 Series and 5 Series. The Cadillac
ATS, a compact sports sedan, also has a partial digital ICD.
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The eco-friendly partial LCD instrument panel
If you build a hybrid, the owner gets, free of charge, all manner of positive
reinforcement telling you what great job you‘re doing. Ford calls this attaboy
LCD Smart Gauge, a pair of 4.5-inch LCDs flanking the speedometer. If
you‘re a conservative driver, you collect green leaves, as on the Ford Fusion
Hybrid (pictured above). The driver can customize what the gauges show,
including a small navigation screen, phone info, infotainment (artist, track,
album), or efficiency on the right. The left-side information can be made
more or less complex as well. Ford offers the Smart Gauge on a wide line of
cars, not just hybrids that have the My Ford Touch and Ford Sync
infotainment system.
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Small MID adds information at low cost
A multi-information display (MID) has been in the center of car instrument

panels for years and has been upgraded from a text-only display, good for
showing the outside temperature or miles to empty, to a small color LCD
that can show navigation arrows, MP3 album art, or an icon of the car with
information such the four tires‘ pressures. The Chevrolet Malibu Eco (above)
is typical of the current genre of smallish LCDs that provide a lot of
information for just a few dollars of manufacturing cost.
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The future: LCD instrument panels, two center stack LCDs
Can you have too much of a good thing? Concept cars and soon production
cars may have high and low LCD displays in the center stack with dual 7- or
8-inch displays. While some higher-end cars have 10-inch displays, IHS‘
Boyadjis says prices are falling most for 8-inch LCDs. A higher panel is
better for quickly seeing information. Low is better for touching and swiping
with your finger. The Infiniti LE concept car incorporates two center stack
panels in addition to to a full digital instrument panel.
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Commercial Vehicle Dimensions
Part 2 - Vehicle Weights and Dimensions Limits by Configuration
Category 1: Tractor Semi-trailer
Section 1 - Dimension Limits
DIMENSION LIMIT
Overall Length Maximum 23 m1, 2
Overall Width Maximum 2.6 m3
Overall Height Maximum 4.15 m4
Tractor
Wheelbase Maximum 6.2 m5
Tandem axle spread Minimum 1.2 m/Maximum 1.85
m
Semi-trailer
Length Maximum 16.2 m
Wheelbase Minimum 6.25 m/Maximum 12.5
m6
Kingpin setback Maximum 2.0 m radius
Effective rear overhang Maximum 35% of wheelbase7
Tandem axle spread Minimum 1.2 m/Maximum >
1.85 m
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Tridem axle spread Minimum 2.4 m/Maximum 3.7 m

Triaxle axle spread Minimum 2.4 m/Maximum 4.8 m
Track width Minimum 2.5 m/Maximum 2.6 m
Interaxle Spacing
Single Axle to Single, Tandem, or Tridem Minimum 3.0 m
Axle
Tandem Axle to Tandem Axle Minimum 5.0 m
Tandem Axle to Tridem Axle Minimum 5.5 m
1 A tractor semi-trailer while being used to transport poles, pipe or
material that cannot be dismembered must not exceed a length of 25 m.
2 A tractor semi-trailer designed and being used as an auto carrier must
not exceed a length of 23 m when not loaded and 25 m when loaded.
3 The load of a tractor semi-trailer designed and being used as an auto
carrier that overhangs the front or rear of the tractor semi-trailer must
not have an overall width that exceeds 2.1 m.
not have an overall height that exceeds 4.15 m when not loaded and 4.30
m when loaded. The driver must ensure there is a safe clearance under
any physical overpass, including structures and utility lines.
5 A tractor wheelbase can be up to a maximum of 7.2 m, if the wheelbase
of the semi-trailer is not greater than the wheelbase as set out in
Schedule A-1.
6 The minimum wheelbase for a semi-trailer, model year 2002 or earlier,
is 3.75 m.
not have a rear overhang that exceeds 35% of the wheelbase when not
loaded and 42% of the wheelbase when loaded.
Schedule A, Part 2, Category 1, Section 1 replaced: O.I.C. 2010-5,

N.S. Reg. 4/2010.
Category 1: Tractor Semi-trailer
Section 2 - Weight Limits
43
The maximum axle weight limits and maximum gross vehicle weight limits
set out in this Section are for axles equipped with dual tires, except for
steering axles. The maximum gross vehicle weight limit for a vehicle or
combination of vehicles composed of axles equipped with single tires or a
combination of single tires and dual tires is the sum of the maximum axle
weight limits in Section C–Axle Weight Limits of Part 1–Vehicle Weight and
Dimension Limits for the particular axles equipped with single tires or a
combination of single tires and dual tires for a specified class of highway.
The maximum gross vehicle weight limit of a vehicle or combination of
vehicles equipped with single tires or a combination of single and dual tires
must not exceed the maximum gross vehicle weight limit of a similar vehicle
or combination of vehicles equipped, except for the steering axle, with dual
tires for a specified class of highway.
WEIGHT LIMIT
Axle Weight Limits:
Steering Axle Maximum 5500 kg1
Single Axle (dual tires) Maximum 9100 kg
Tandem Axle (including tandem
equivalent axle)
Axle spread 1.2 m to 1.85 m Maximum 18 000 kg
Axle spread > 1.85 m Maximum 18 000 kg
Tridem Axle (including tridem equivalent
axle)
Axle spread 2.4 m to less than 3.0 m Maximum 21 000 kg
Axle spread 3.0 m to less than 3.6 m Maximum 24 000 kg
Axle spread 3.6 m to 3.7 m Maximum 26 000 kg
Axle spread greater than 3. 7 m Maximum 18 000 kg4
Triaxle Axle
44
Axle spread 2.4 m to less than 3.0 m Maximum 18 000 kg2

Axle spread 3.0 m to less than 3.6 m Maximum 18 000 kg3
Axle spread 3.6 m to 4.9 m Maximum 18 000 kg4
Gross Vehicle Weight Limits18:
Maximum Weight Roads
Three axles Maximum 23 700 kg
Four axles–with tandem spread 1.2 m to Maximum 32 600 kg
1.85 m
Four axles–with semi-trailer tandem spread Maximum 32 600 kg
> 1.85 m
Five axles–with tandem spreads 1.2 m to Maximum 41 500 kg
1.85 m
Five axles–with semi-trailer tandem spread Maximum 41 500 kg
> 1.85 m
Five axles–with tridem spread 2.4 m to < Maximum 35 600 kg
3.0 m
3.6 m
Five axles–with tridem spread 3.6 m to 3.7 Maximum 40 600 kg
m
Five axles–with tridem spread > 3.7 m Maximum 32 600 kg9,11
Five axles–with triaxle spread 2.4 m to < Maximum 32 600 kg10,12
3.0 m
Five axles–with triaxle spread 3.0 m to < Maximum 32 600 kg10,13
3.6 m
Five axles–with triaxle spread 3.6 m to 4.9 Maximum 32 600 kg10,14
m
Six axles–with tridem spread 2.4 m to < Maximum 44 500 kg
3.0 m
3.6 m
Six axles–with tridem spread 3.6 m to 3.7 Maximum 49 500 kg
m
Six axles–with tridem spread > 3.7 m Maximum 41 500 kg9,16
Six axles–with triaxle spread 2.4 m to < 3.0 Maximum 41 500 kg5
m
m
Six axles–with triaxle spread 3.6 m to 4.9 Maximum 41 500 kg7
m
Intermediate Weight Roads
1.85 m
45

> 1.85 m
1.85 m
> 1.85 m
3.0 m
3.6 m
Five axles–with tridem spread 3.6 m to 3.7 Maximum 38 600 kg8
m
Five axles–with tridem spread > 3.7 m Maximum 32 600 kg9,15
Five axles–with triaxle spread 2.4 m to < Maximum 32 600 kg10
3.0 m
3.6 m
Five axles–with triaxle spread 3.6 m to 4.9 Maximum 32 600 kg10
m
3.0 m
3.6 m
Six axles–with tridem spread 3.6 m to 3.7 Maximum 49 500 kg
m
Six axles–with tridem spread > 3.7 m Maximum 41 500 kg9,16
m
m
m
All Other Highways
1.85 m
> 1.85 m
1.85 m
> 1.85 m
Five axles–with tridem spread 2.4 m to < Maximum 32 600 kg9
3.0 m
46
Five axles–with tridem spread 3.0 m to < Maximum 32 600 kg9

3.6 m
Five axles–with tridem spread 3.6 m to 3.7 Maximum 32 600 kg9
m
Five axles–with tridem spread > 3.7 m Maximum 32 600 kg9
3.0 m
3.6 m
Five axles–with triaxle spread 3.6 m to 4.9 Maximum 32 600 kg10
m
Six axles–with tridem spread 2.4 m to < Maximum 41 500 kg9
3.0 m
Six axles–with tridem spread 3.0 m to < Maximum 41 500 kg9
3.6 m
Six axles–with tridem spread 3.6 m to 3.7 Maximum 41 500 kg9
m
Six axles–with tridem spread > 3.7 m Maximum 41 500 kg9
m
m
m
47
UNIT 3) Aerodynamics
Automotive aerodynamics is the study of the aerodynamics of road

vehicles. Its main goals are reducing drag and wind noise, minimizing noise
emission, and preventing undesired lift forces and other causes of
aerodynamic instability at high speeds. For some classes of racing vehicles,
it may also be important to produce down force to improve traction and thus
cornering abilities.
It's unpleasant to think about, but imagine what would happen if you drove
your car into a brick wall at 65 miles per hour (104.6 kilometers per hour).
Metal would twist and tear. Glass would shatter. Airbags would burst forth to
protect you. But even with all the advancements in safety we have on our
modern automobiles, this would likely be a tough accident to walk away
from. A car simply isn't designed to go through a brick wall.
But there is another type of "wall" that cars are designed to move through,
and have been for a long time -- the wall of air that pushes against a vehicle
at high speeds.
Most of us don't think of air or wind as a wall. At low speeds and on days
when it's not very windy outside, it's hard to notice the way air interacts
with our vehicles. But at high speeds, and on exceptionally windy days, air
resistance (the forces acted upon a moving object by the air -- also defined
as drag) has a tremendous effect on the way a car accelerates, handles and
achieves fuel mileage.
This where the science of aerodynamics comes into play. Aerodynamics is

the study of forces and the resulting motion of objects through the air. For
several decades, cars have been designed with aerodynamics in mind, and
carmakers have come up with a variety of innovations that make cutting
through that "wall" of air easier and less of an impact on daily driving.
Essentially, having a car designed with airflow in mind means it has less
difficulty accelerating and can achieve better fuel economy numbers because
the engine doesn't have to work nearly as hard to push the car through the
wall of air.
Engineers have developed several ways of doing this. For instance, more
rounded designs and shapes on the exterior of the vehicle are crafted to
channel air in a way so that it flows around the car with the least resistance
possible. Some high-performance cars even have parts that move air
smoothly across the underside of the car. Many also include a spoiler -- also
48
known as a rear wing -- to keep the air from lifting the car's wheels and
making it unstable at high speeds. Although, as you'll read later, most of the
spoilers that you see on cars are simply for decoration more than anything
else.
In this article, we'll look at the physics of aerodynamics and air resistance,
the history of how cars have been designed with these factors in mind and
how with the trend toward "greener" cars, aerodynamics is now more
important than ever.
Vehicle Aerodynamic Factors
 Aerodynamic Forces
 Laminar Separation
 Tripping of Boundary Layer
 Pressure Distribution
 Wake
 Tires
 Glass and Trim
 General Improvements
 Unconventional Features
Aerodynamic Forces
 Lift force
 Drag force
 Side force
49
Effects of aerodynamic forces are profound
 Force coefficients
Example
o What is a vehicle‘s drag force, with a frontal area of 1.5 m2, CD

of 0.4, and traveling at 30 m/s
50
Aerodynamic down force
o Opposite of lift in direction

o Uses an inverted airfoil
o Increases load on tires without increasing the vehicle‘s weight
(up to 10% of vehicle‘s weight)
o Improves cornering performance with no weight penalty
o First discovered in 1960s!
 Example of down force
 Example
o Rear Spoiler (Mazda RX-7 R-2)
o CD = 0.31 (0.29 without spoiler)
o CL front = 0.10 (0.16 without spoiler)
o CL rear = 0.08 (0.08 without spoiler)
51
 Underbody improvements
o Aerodynamic properties
o Reduce drag
o Increase down force
Laminar Separation
 Laminar Separation
o Flow separation inside the boundary layer
 Laminar Bubble
o Streamlines enclosed within the laminar separation
52
 Laminar bubble area is sensitive and can easily separate, resulting in

excess drag
 Can appear in low Re range (104-105), and disappear as speed
increases, causing severe discrepancies in flow visualization and
analysis
 The rear end shape is the most critical factor in lowering the drag
coefficient
 Flow separation above the rear window can cause annoying dirt
deposits on the glass
Tripping of Boundary Layer
 Introduction of aerodynamic disturbances

o Fins
o Vortex generators
o Strips of coarse sand paper
 Forcing laminar to turbulent flow
 Drag reduction due to delay in the onset of flow separation
Pressure Distribution
 Helps the placement of inlets and outlets

o Lower pressure at the outlet
o Higher pressure at the inlet
 Favorable pressure distribution
53
o Prevents flow separation

 Unfavorable pressure distribution
o Promotes flow separation
o Promotes turbulent flow within boundary layer
 Example of inlet
 Radiator inlet configurations
54
Wake
 The disturbed air flow left behind the vehicle

 Usually in the form of a vortex
 Caused by merging air flows at different velocities near sharp edges
 Increases drag
 Presents danger to the following vehicles
 Can be controlled with small fins or smooth edges
Tires
 Tires influence a vehicle‘s aerodynamic properties

o Cross sectional area
o Frontal area
o Rotation of tires
55
 Effects of tire rotation
56
 Effect of all-wheel-steering
Glass and Trim
 Drag can be reduced by making glass and trim as flush with the body
as possible
57
 Elimination of rain gutter improves the vehicle aerodynamics
General Improvements
1- Front spoiler
2- Ducted engine cooling
3- Shrouded windshield wiper arms
4- Aerodynamic mirrors
5- Smooth windshield transitions
6- Smooth side window transitions
7- Smooth rear window transition

58
8- Optimized trunk corner radii
9- Optimized lower rear panel
10 - Smooth fuel tank and underbody
11- Optimized rocker panels
12- Flush wheel covers
13- Elimination of the rain gutter
Unconventional Features
 Large rear fins promote lateral stability in the 1966 Peugeot CD
 1969 Chaparral 2J used auxiliary fans to create suction under the car
59
 Ford‘s rear mounted transverse engine

 Fans improve aerodynamic properties and reduce drag
Aerofoil
What is an airfoil, and how does it work:

An airfoil is a body (such as an airplane wing or helicopter blade) designed
to provide a desired reaction force when in motion relative to the
surrounding air.
There has been much discussion with regards to how and why airfoils really
work. The popularly-known explanation (as seen in K-6 textbooks) involves
mis-applying Bernoulli‘s principle by stating that high-pressure, low-velocity
air on the bottom-side of the airfoil and low-pressure, high-velocity air on
the top-side, which recombines at the trailing edge of the airfoil at the
same time, regardless of angle-of-attack, is the sole mechanism by which
lift is generated.
Well, if this is the case, then we would have a really, really tough time
trying to explain how airplanes fly upside down:
60
The truth is, the top-side air travels significantly faster than the bottom-
side air. They never recombine
(Velocity field around a wing)
Additionally, the image below illustrates, using pressure patterns, that the
angle-of-attack indeed has profound effects on the lift that's generated.
61
(Pressure patterns at different angle-of-attacks (red shaded regions

indicate positive pressure relative to atmosphere, blue shaded regions
indicate negative pressure relative to atmosphere)
Besides using Bernoulli‘s principles (which accounts for conservation of
energy), Newton‘s principles (conservation of momentum), Euler‘s
equations (conservation of mass, momentum, and energy), and Navier-
Stokes equations (all of the above plus viscosity) must also be dealt with in
order to fully understand the generation of lift.
Why put airfoils on cars:

Airfoils, when properly mounted at the rear-end of a race car, can generate
large amounts of down force. This down force offsets the aerodynamic lift
inherent to the car, and in turn increases the amount of tire grip available.
This increased tire grip allows the car to carry higher speeds through the
corners and out of corner exits. Being able to carry the greatest corner exit
speeds is critical to producing the lowest lap times, especially when there
are many corners that lead to long straight-aways.
62
What to consider when putting airfoils on cars:

In application (airfoil on a race car), the key point to understand is to know
that the amount of lift an airfoil generates is dependent on many things,
including (but not limited to):
1. Angle-of-Attack (AOA).
2. Shape.
3. Size.
4. Position in the air stream.
Considerations must be made for all of the above items when designing,
installing, and using an airfoil on a race car.
3D airfoils:
(APR Performance GTC series airfoil)
A 3D airfoil is an airfoil that has variable airfoil cross section across its
span. Most modern aircraft airfoils are 3D airfoils. When a 3D airfoil is
designed for use on a production-based race car, the outer sections will
typically have much more AOA built-in than the center section. For
example, if the center section is set to zero degrees (relative to the
ground), then the outer sections may end up at 15 degrees angle (relative
to the ground.
63
Why and when to use a 3D airfoil (rather than a 2D airfoil):
(Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) illustration of airflow around Aston

Martin race car)
There is a popular notion that, in order for an airfoil to function on a race

car, the airfoil needs to be in clean, free-air at or above the rear roofline of
the car. This is only a partially-true statement. On cars with solid roofs and
sloping rear windows, the air that flows from the rear center edge of the
roof will travel downward at an angle toward the airfoil. The problem here
is that only the center section of the 2D airfoil will see this downward
"push" of air, while the outer section of the 2D airfoil will see much less of
this (it will see straighter, freer air).
Decreasing the 2D airfoil's angle-of-attack to accommodate for the
downward airflow causes the outer sections to produce relatively less down
force. Increasing the 2D airfoil's angle-of-attack causes the center section
to produce relatively more down force. The 2D airfoil ends up functioning
inefficiently in this unbalanced state. This is a situation where the 3D airfoil
has an advantage. The 3D airfoil's built-in angle-of-attack variations allow
it to function more efficiently when it is mounted below the roofline. When
the center section is mounted at 0 degrees angle-of-attack (relative to the
ground), it acts as though it has a positive (typically 15 to 20 degrees in a
sedan-type car) angle-of-attack relative to the airflow coming from the rear
center edge of the roof. The outer sections, with the higher angle-of-attack
built-in, are better-suited to take advantage of the cleaner, freer air
stream. Therefore, the 3D airfoil, when used in a sedan-type car and
mounted below the roofline, is able to function more efficiently (and in a
more balanced state) than a 2D airfoil.
64
Which type of airfoil is better?
(APR Performance GTC series airfoil for C6 Corvette application)
There is not going to be one simple answer to this question. In reality, a

better question to ask may be, "which type of airfoil is better for my
application?" In some cases, it may be better to use the 2D airfoil. In other
cases, it may be better to use the 3D airfoil.
In order to find the answer, we must know our intended use and we must
consider the following:
1. Type of car (sedan, coupe, hatchback, open-wheel, etc.).
2. Approval of the specific airfoil (type, size, supplier, etc.) for the race
series.
3. Mounting-height rules for the race series.
Typically, when there is a mounting-height restriction that requires the

airfoil to be mounted below the roofline, it will likely be better to use a 3D
airfoil. When there is no mounting-height restriction, either 2D airfoil
mounted above the roofline or a 3D airfoil mounted below the roofline may
65
work.
(Dark Horse racing‘s 2007 SCCA ITO entry)

It is definitely not advisable to run a 3D airfoil above the roofline for any
type of car. This is especially true with hatchback type cars, where there is
no rear deck (or trunk lid) to mount the airfoil to. The initial inclination may
be to mount any airfoil on the roof, which would probably be a great idea
for a 2D airfoil, but it would definitely be bad idea for a 3D airfoil (the 3D
airfoil functions in an unbalanced state when it is in free air).
Basic Aerofoil Shapes
Overview
The four basic categories of airfoil shapes are Reflex, Wright Brothers,
Bernoulli, and Modern.
To make a reflex wing from a lunch tray, just sand the leading edge and
trailing edge enough to round the corners.
If you can find a lunch tray that is warped or bent, you can round the
leading and trailing edges to make a Wright Brothers wing.
To make a symmetrical Bernoulli wing, round the leading edge but sand
back about 1/4 to 1/3 of the way back. For the trailing edge, sand along the
length of the wing from both the top and bottom. Sand until the trailing edge
is a smooth wedge from about half way back on the wing to the trailing
edge.
66
To make a modern airfoil shape with a lunch tray, round the leading edge.
But, just round the bottom edge slightly and round the top edge to 1/4 to
1/3 of the way back. For the trailing edge, sand down just from the top.
You can also make a modern wing with a 1/2 inch or 3/4 inch thick piece of
pink insulation foam.
To sand the trailing edge of a Bernoulli or Modern wing, place the wing blank
along the edge of a table. Use the sandpaper and sand lengthwise to achieve
your desired wing shape. Use many light passes.
Reflex (flat plate) wing
The simplest airfoil shape is the flat plate

(or reflex). This is easy to make, but it is
not very strong. And it is easy to stall.
Simple models such as this balsa wood
glider use this airfoil.
To get any lift, the wing must be tipped

up a little bit. To do this, the tail of the
glider is angled down causing the nose of
the model to tip up. This action is called
reflex action, hence the name of this
airfoil.
Wright Brothers Wing
The relex airfoil stalls easily and

does not provide very much lift.
To get more lift and to make
their wing less likely to stall, the
Wright Brothers curved their
wing.
With a good curve, the wing will

get some lift when it is flying
straight into the wind. This is a
handy thing for a main wing. The Wright Brother's wing shape is also harder
to stall and gives more warning of a stall.
67
Bernoulli Wing
Daniel Bernoulli was a mathematician who lived long before airplanes. He

explained that as air (or water) speeds up, the pressure drops. We now call
this Bernoulli‘s Principle.
As airplanes when from biplanes to monoplanes, the wings needed to get

thicker to support the internal structures. As time went on, wings developed
a classic shape of a rounded front (leading edge) and tapered back (trailing
edge), like this
As air moves past a streamlined shape like this the air speeds up on the top
and bottom and the pressure drops. If you tip the wing up a little, the
pressure will drop more on the top than the bottom and you will get lift.
A Bernoulli wing will not get any lift until you tip it up a little bit. It will
then get more lift than the reflex wing. The Bernoulli wing will also resist
stalling for a larger angle than a reflex wing.
Since the Bernoulli airfoil does not give any lift when it goes straight into the
wind, it is just the thing for your tail surfaces, the horizontal and vertical
stabilizers. You can also use the Bernoulli wing shape for your main wing.
"Modern" Airfoil Shape
To get lift when going straight into the wind and good stall resistance,
combine the Wright Brother's wing and the Bernoulli wing into the Modern
68
wing airfoil shape.
Aerofoil Theory
Aerofoil are streamline shaped wings which are used in airplanes and turbo
machinery. These shapes are such that the drag force is a very small
fraction of the lift. The following nomenclatures are used for defining an
aerofoil
Fig 23.4 Aerofoil Section
69
 The chord (C) is the distance between the leading edge and trailing
edge.
 The length of an aerofoil, normal to the cross-section (i.e., normal to
the plane of a paper) is called the span of a aerofoil.
 The camber line represents the mean profile of the aerofoil. Some
important geometrical parameters for an aerofoil are the ratio of
maximum thickness to chord (t/C) and the ratio of maximum camber
to chord (h/C). When these ratios are small, an aerofoil can be
considered to be thin. For the analysis of flow, a thin aerofoil is
represented by its camber.
The theory of thick cambered aerofoils uses a complex-variable mapping

which transforms the inviscid flow across a rotating cylinder into the flow
about an aerofoil shape with circulation.
Generation of Vortices Around a Wing
 The lift around an aerofoil is generated following Kutta-

Joukowski theorem. Lift is a product of ρ , and the circulation .
 When the motion of a wing starts from rest, vortices are formed at the
trailing edge.
 At the start, there is a velocity discontinuity at the trailing edge. This is
eventual because near the trailing edge, the velocity at the bottom
surface is higher than that at the top surface. This discrepancy in
velocity culminates in the formation of vortices at the trailing edge.
 Figure 23.6(a) depicts the formation of starting vortex by impulsively
moving aerofoil. However, the starting vortices induce a counter
circulation as shown in Figure 23.6(b). The circulation around a path
(ABCD) enclosing the wing and just shed (starting) vortex must be
zero. Here we refer to Kelvin's theorem once again.
70
Fig 23.6 Vortices Generated when an Aerofoil Just Begins to Move
 Initially, the flow starts with the zero circulation around the closed
path. Thereafter, due to the change in angle of attack or flow velocity,
if a fresh starting vortex is shed, the circulation around the wing will
adjust itself so that a net zero vortices is set around the closed path.
 Real wings have finite span or finite aspect ratio (AR) λ , defined as
Where b is the span length, As is the plan form area as seen from the top..
 For a wing of finite span, the end conditions affect both the lift and the
drag. In the leading edge region, pressure at the bottom surface of a
wing is higher than that at the top surface. The longitudinal vortices
are generated at the edges of finite wing owing to pressure differences
between the bottom surface directly facing the flow and the top
surface.
Fig 23.7 Vortices around a Finite Wing
71
72
Heave Pitch, Roll, Warp and Yaw -In order to study the response of the
car to control inputs or disturbances, it is necessary to combine more than
one coordinate system to fix the position of the components in space. The
convention for the complete car has been taken from aeronautics with an
Earth-Fixed axis system XYZ as shown in the diagram.
The car has its own axis notation xyz. the suspension pick up points related
to a z axis O-Line plane for the base of the chassis (this may not be the
lowest point on the car). The x axis often points rearwards and is normally
related to a front bulkhead. The y axis is lateral from the centre line. Note
that the z axis origin is not at the ground plane, and there is no rake to the
z plane. These coordinates must be related to the Earth-Fixed system before
handling analysis can take place.
73
Yaw
The yaw allows the vehicle to move towards the left or right while in motion. The
movement is done about a vertical axis
Pitch
The pitch refers to the movement of the vehicle‘s nose either up or down.
Roll
Roll is known as the rising or dipping of the vehicle.
HOW TO CALCULATE AERODYNAMIC DRAG COEFFICIENT
The drag coefficient is defined as:
where:
is the drag force, which is by definition the force component in the direction of
the flow velocity,
is the mass density of the fluid,
is the speed of the object relative to the fluid and
is the reference area.
Fd is the force on the vehicle due to air resistance (drag) in Newtons

Frr is the force on the vehicle due to rolling resistance in Newtons
F is the total force on the vehicle in Newtons
V is the vehicle‘s velocity in m/s
a is the vehicle‘s acceleration in m/s2
A is vehicle frontal area in m2
M is vehicle mass including occupants in kg
rho is the density of air which is 1.22 kg/m3 at sea level
g is the gravitational acceleration constant which is 9.81 m/s2
Cd is the vehicle‘s drag coefficient we want to determine
Crr is the vehicle‘s coefficient of rolling resistance we want to determine
74
Now for some formulas:
Fd = -Cd*A*0.5*rho*V2 (formula for force due to air resistance or drag)

Frr = -Crr*M*g (formula for force due to rolling resistance)
F = Fd + Frr (total force is the sum of Fd and Frr)
F = M*a (Newton‘s second law)
Note that both Fd and Frr are negative indicating that these forces act opposite to the
direction of the velocity. Note also that Fd is increases as the square of velocity. This is
why driving at high speeds is much less efficient than driving at low speeds. Combining
these formulas with a bit of algebra gives us the acceleration due to air and wind
resistance as a function of velocity:
a = -(Cd*A*0.5*rho*V2)/M – Crr*g
Wind tunnel testing
Automotive Wind Tunnel
The Automotive Wind Tunnel Emmen (AWTE) infrastructure is specifically dedicated to the
development of race and production cars up to 50% size.
The wind tunnel is equipped with a rolling road system and a multi axis model
manipulator for modeling ride height, yaw, roll and steering conditions. The ultimate
aerodynamic optimization can be achieved by the use of the dynamic shaker system in
combination with time dependent acquisition for in stationary driving behavior. RUAG
customers can count on state of the art infrastructure, motivated employees, and efficient
testing.
Maximum airspeed 50 m/s 180 km/h

Test section size 2.5 x 1.5 meter
Test section length 3.8 x 1.8 meter
Reynolds number 4 x 106
75
RACE CAR AERODYNAMICS
The aerodynamics of the race car is multi-functional. The first purpose is to make it as
streamline as possible. The second purpose is to provide downforce for the race vehicle.
The last reason is to control the airflow over the car‘s body.
This is a computer generate red image of the airflow over the cars' body.
Streamlining a vehicle means reducing the drag of the vehicle traveling through the air.
This is done two ways: one is making the surfaces in contact with the air as smooth as
possible. The second way is decreasing the size of the car. This is due to the fact that
DRAG = ½DρAυ²; where D is a drag coefficient (which is dependent on the smoothness
76
of the material), ρ is the density of air, υ is the velocity traveling through the air, and A is
the cross-sectional area of the vehicle. By reducing the cross-sectional area of the
vehicle, vehicles can have less drag and in turn drive faster. As mentioned before, the
drag coefficient is related to how smooth the material is that the air is traveling over.
DRAG = ½DρAυ²
Photo courtesy: Ferrari / Shell racing
Down force is the opposite of lift. This is the result of Bernoulli‘s effect. Bernoulli‘s effect
explains how fluids, in this case the air, will react when traveling over the wing surface.
Lift occurs due to a difference in pressures on opposite sides of airfoils caused by this
effect. The wings on race cars are essentially wings flipped upside-down so that the lifting
force is directed in a downward direction. This is downforce.
The theory behind creating downforce is to increase the force the vehicle has on the
ground. This in turn will increase the traction of the tires, enabling the race cars to make
sharp corners at higher speeds. Most race cars create so much downforce that at speeds
greater than 100 mph they have enough downforce that they could drive on a road that
was up-side down.
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Photo courtesy: Mclaren / Mercedes Benz racing
By controlling the airflow over the car‘s body, designers can direct more air to those
components that need it most. For example, most cars have vents located on the inside
of tires to direct air over the brake discs and brake calibers. This helps keeping the brakes
cool therefore making them more effective. Designers also try to direct more air to the
cooling and powering of the engines. By increasing the airflow to these components,
mainly the engine‘s radiators, turbo chargers, and intakes, they can make the car more
powerful and faster.
1991 Nissan NPT-90 GTP
78
High down force configuration:
Single ride height point, FRH: 2.0" RRH: 2.5"
Down force:
4539 lbs. @ 150 mph, with 893 lbs. of drag
Lift-to-drag ratio: 5.08:1
Bluff Body AEROCYNAMICS
79
80
- Pressure drag or form drag which is based on the pressure difference

between the upstream and downstream surfaces of the object
- Skin Friction which results from the viscous shear of the fluid flowing over
the object surfaces.
The form drag is the resultant of resolved forces normal to the surface of the
object and the skin-friction is the resultant of resolved forces tangential to
the surface. The total drag on an object is called the profile drag and is the
sum of the pressure and skin-friction drag
when the drag is primarily viscous drag, the body is streamlined, and when
the drag force is primarily pressure drag the body is called a bluff body.
A perfect fluid flowing past an infinitely long cylinder is represented as

streamlines which are arranged such that the flow through each streamline
is fixed at Q . The streamlines flow over the cylinder and all forces are
balanced front/back and top /bottom and there is therefore no form drag. A
perfect fluid cannot transfer shear stress so there is no viscous drag. In real
fluids there is a pressure build up on the front surface as the fluid is slowed
and the streamlines are re directed round the cylinder. As the fluid flows
over the cylinder the fluid separates into a wake which is a lower pressure
region. There is therefore significant form drag. There is also skin-friction
drag as the fluid passes over the surface.
If the cylinder rotates, as shown below, the drag between the surface and
the fluid results in the fluid flow as shown. The flow results in higher fluid
velocities above the cylinder compared with the flow below the cylinder
. Application of bernoulli's equation results a lower pressure above the
cylinder and a consequent lift.
81
UNIT4) LOAD DISTRIBUTION

Introduction
The automotive chassis provides the strength necessary to support the
vehicular components and the payload placed upon it. The suspension
system contains the springs, the shock absorbers, and other components
that allow the vehicle to pass over uneven terrain without an excessive
amount of shock reaching the passengers or the cargo. The steering
mechanism is an integral portion of the chassis, as it provides the operator
with a means of controlling the direction of travel. The tyres grip the road
surface to provide good traction that enables the vehicle to accelerate,
brake, and make turns without skidding. Working in conjunction with the
suspension, the tyres absorb most of the shocks caused by road
irregularities. The body of the vehicle encloses the mechanical components
and passenger compartment. It is made of relatively light sheet metal or
composite plastics. The components which make up the chassis are held
together in proper relation to each other by the frame.
Frames
The seperate frame and body type of vehicle construction (image 1 and 2) is
the most common technique used when producing most full-size and cargo
vehicles. In this type of construction, the frame and the vehicle body are
made seperately, and each is a complete unit by itself. The frame is
designed to support the weight of the body and absorb all of the loads
imposed by the terrain, suspension system, engine, drive train, and steering
system, ad the body merely contains and, in some cases, protects the cargo.
The body generally is bolted to the frame at a few points to allow for flexure
of the frame and to distribute the loads to the intended load-carrying
members. The components of this type of frame are as follows:
The SIDE MEMBERS or rails are the heaviest part of the frame. The side
members are shaped to accomodate the body and support the weight. They
are narrow toward the front of the vehicle to permit a shorter turning radius
for the wheels and then widen under the main part of the body where the
body is secured to the frame. Trucks and trailers commonly have frames
with straight side members to accomodate several designs of bodies and to
give the vehicle added strength to withstand heavier loads.
The CROSS MEMBERS are fixed to the side members to prevent weaving and
twisting of the frame. The number, size and arrangement of the cross
members depend on the type of vehicle for which the frame was designed.
Usually, a front cross member supports the radiator and the front of the
engine. The rear cross members furnish support for the fuel tanks and rear
trunk on passenger cars and the tow bar connections for trucks. Additional
82
cross members are added to the frame to support the rear of the engine or
power train components.
The GUSSET PLATES are angular pieces of metal used for additional
reinforcement on heavy-duty truck frames. With this type of frame
construction, the body structure only needs to be strong and rigid enough to
contain the weight of the cargo and resist any dynamic loads associated with
cargo handling and cargo movement during vehicle operation and to absorb
shocks and vibrations transferred from the frame. In some cases,
particularly under severe operating conditions, the body structure may be
subjected to some torsional loads that are not absorbed completely by the
frame. This basically applies to heavy trucks and not passenger vehicles. In
a typical passenger vehicle, the frame supplies approximately 37 percent of
the tensional rigidity and approximately 34 percent of the bending rigidity;
the balance is supplied by the body structure. The most important
advantages of the separate body and frame construction are as follows:
 Ease of mounting and dismounting the body structure.

 Versatility; various body types can be adapted to a standard truck chassis.
 Strong, rugged designs are achieved easily; however, vehicle weight is
increased.
 Isolation of noise generated by the drive train components from the
passenger compartment through the use of rubber mounts between the
frame and the body.
 Simplistic design that yields a relatively inexpensive and easy
manufacturing process.
Frame members serve as supports to which springs, independent

suspensions, radiators, or transmissions may be attached. Additional
brackets, outriggers and engine supports are added for the mounting of
running boards, longitudinal springs, bumpers, engines, towing blocks, shock
absorbers, fuel tanks, and spare tyres.
83
Image 1 - Separate Frame and Body
Image 2 - Components of a typical Frame Design

Integrated Frame and Body (Monocoque)
The integrated frame and body type of construction (image 3) also referred
to as unitized construction, combines the frame and body into a single, one-
84
piece structure. This is done by welding the components together, by

forming or casting the entire structure as one piece, or by a combination of
these techniques. Simply by welding a body to a conventional frame,
however, does not constitute an integral frame and body construction. In a
truly integrated structure, the entire frame-body unit is treated as a load-
carrying member that reacts to all loads experienced by the vehicle-road
loads as well as cargo loads.
Integrated-type bodies for wheeled vehicles are fabricated by welding

preformed metal panels together. The panels are preformed in various load-
bearing shapes that are located and oriented so as to result in a uniformly
stressed structure. Some portions of the integrated structure resemble
frame like components, while others resemble body like panels. This is not
surprising, because the structure must perform the functions of both of
these elements.
An integrated frame and body type construction allows and increases in the
amount of noise transmitted into the passenger compartment of the vehicle.
However, this disadvantage is negated by the following advantages:
 Substantial weight reduction, which is possible when using a well-designed

unitized body.
 Lower cargo floor and vehicle height.
 Protection from mud and water required for driveline components on
amphibious vehicles.
 Reduction in the amount of vibration present in the vehicle structure.
85
Image 3 - Integrated Frame and Body

Ladder Frame (Truck Frame)
The truck frame (image 4) allows different types of truck beds or enclosures
to be attached to the frame. For larger trucks, the frames are simple,
rugged, and of channel iron construction. The side rails are parallel to each
other at standardized widths to permit the mounting of stock transmissions,
transfer cases, rear axles, and other similar components. Trucks that are to
be used as prime movers have an additional reinforcement of the side rails
and rear cross members to compensate for the added towing stresses.
86
Image 4 - Ladder Frame (Truck Frame)

Frame Maintenance
Frames require little, if any, maintenance. However, if the frame is bent
enough to cause misalignment of the vehicle or cause faulty steering, the
vehicle should be taken off of the road. Drilling the frame and fish plating
can temporarily repair small cracks in the frame side rails. Care should be
exercised when performing this task, as the frame can be weakened. The
frame of the vehicle should not be welded by gas or arc welding unless
specified by the manufacturer. The heat removes temper from the metal,
and, if cooled too quickly, causes the metal to crystallize. Minor bends can
be removed by the use of hydraulic jacks (also known as a portal-power -
image 5), bars and clamps.
Image 5 - Body Repair tool, Porte-Power
87
UNIT 5) BODY FITTINGS AND INTERIOR CONTROLS
Window winding Mechanism

There are three basic systems used to raise and lower car windows:
mechanical linkage with scissor action; cable and pulley; or rack and
pinion.
No two manufacturers use exactly the same design for window-lifting
systems of the same basic type. Details vary from car to car.
If you need to fit a new mechanism because of accident damage, breakage
or wear on the old one, obtain the correct replacement from the spares
department of a main dealer for the car.
Renewing a link-type mechanism

Fully close the window and tape the glass to the top of the window frame.
Use strong tape, as this must hold the glass to prevent it dropping when the
mechanism is removed.
Take off the door fittings and trimmings and the inner door panel. Carefully
remove the polythene condensation-barrier sheet behind the panel and set it
aside for reuse.
Undo and remove the screws holding the toothed regulator to the door
frame and put them in a safe place. Push the regulator into the door interior.
Reach through the door access aperture to disconnect the sliding arm. It
may fit into a bottom channel, or it may be held by a centre pivot secured by
three screws.
After disconnecting the sliding arm, move the regulator and the arm
sideways in both directions until the upper end comes away from the sliding
channel at the bottom of the glass. Lift out the mechanism through the
access aperture.
88
Renewing a link-type window mechanism
Mechanical linkage for lifting and lowering the window glass includes a
sliding arm that operates by scissor action.
Before fitting the new mechanism, grease the pivot and sliding bearings and
the gear teeth on the regulator. Lightly smear the whole mechanism with
petroleum jelly which will act as a protection against rust.
To refit the new assembly, which includes the regulator and sliding arm,
follow the removal procedure in reverse. Retape the polythene sheet in
position. Test the mechanism before refitting the door panel and trim.
Adjusting a cable-and-pulley system

The cable may slacken after long use, causing play in the winder mechanism
as the handle changes direction between up and down. Adjusting a pulley to
take up the slack in the cable will correct the fault.
Take off the door fittings and trimmings and the inner door panel, including
the polythene condensation-barrier sheet (See SHEET 65). Check the
condition of the cable; even if it is only slightly frayed, it must be renewed.
If not frayed, it can be adjusted.
Look for the adjustable pulley, which slides sideways on a mounting in the
door frame to alter the cable tension.
Loosen the pulley mounting and move it to take up the slack in the cable.
Retighten the mounting and check that the winder action is smooth. If
89
necessary, readjust the pulley until it is. Take care not to over-adjust, which
will strain the cable and regulator.
If the cable is broken or frayed and needs renewing, you will probably have
to buy it as part of a complete assembly with a new regulator.
There are different assemblies for right-hand doors and left-hand doors.
Make sure you buy the correct one.
To fit a new cable, take the cable clamps off the bottom of the window glass,
push the window closed, and tape it to the top of the frame.
Undo the fixing screws to remove the regulator and cable drum, and the
cable.
Slacken the adjustable pulley. Screw the new regulator and its loop of cable
in position.
To wind the cable on to the grooves of the cable drum, take the length fixed
to the drum on the side nearest to the middle of the car. Loop it round the
furthest bottom pulley.
Fit the winder to the regulator and drum. Keeping the cable taut, wind it on
to the drum. Turn the winder anti-clockwise on a right-hand door, clockwise
on a left-hand door.
90
Take care that the spare part of the cable does not wrap round the drum,
and wind until all the grooves in the drum are filled and the upper part of the
cable is vertical.
Keeping the cable taut, loop it round the rear upper pulley, the front lower
pulley, and the front upper pulley. Make sure it does not kink.
Tension the cable by moving the adjustable pulley. Oil the pulley spindles
with engine oil, and grease the cable.
To re-attach the window glass to the mechanism, wind the cable fully down,
then up again one full turn of the winder. Some regulators have an indicator
to mark the point. UN tape the glass, lowers it fully and re-clamp it to the
cable.
Window regulator using rack-and-pinion system.

Test the winding action several times. If the glass does not move up and
down smoothly, reposition it on the cable until it does. Replace the
polythene sheet and refit the door panel and trim.
Replacing a rack-and-pinion system

Take off the door fittings and trimmings and the inner door panel, including
the polythene condensation-barrier sheet.
Wind the window down until you can undo the plate holding the glass to the
rack. Push the glass to the top of the frame and secure it with tape.
To remove the rack, undo the screws at its top and bottom and at the
winder-handle boss.
91
The bottom screws of the rack may be on the underside of the door. Lift out
the rack and winder boss through the access aperture.
Grease all the moving parts of the new rack assembly before fitting.
Position the handle-fixing holes on the boss to align with the winder handle.
Refit the handle and wind the mechanism fully down. Untape the glass and
refit it on the rack.
Check that the glass moves smoothly up and down. If not, adjust its position
on the rack until it does.
Door lock mechanism
Inside a Car Door
In this car, the power-door-lock actuator is positioned below the latch. A

rod connects the actuator to the latch, and another rod connects the latch to
the knob that sticks up out of the top of the door.
When the actuator moves the latch up, it connects the outside door handle
to the opening mechanism. When the latch is down, the outside door handle
is disconnected from the mechanism so that it cannot be opened.
92
Inside a car door
To unlock the door, the body controller supplies power to the door-lock
actuator for a timed interval.
This actuator can move the metal hook shown in this photo to the
left or right. When mounted in the car, it is vertical, so the hook can
move up or down. It mimics your motions when you pull the knob up
or push it down.
Inside the Actuator
The power-door-lock actuator is a pretty straightforward device.
93
Inside the power-door-lock actuator
This system is quite simple. A small electric turns a series of spur gears that
serve as a gear reduction. The last gear drives a rack-and-pinion gear
set that is connected to the actuator rod. The rack converts the rotational
motion of the motor into the linear motion needed to move the lock.
One interesting thing about this mechanism is that while the motor can turn
the gears and move the latch, if you move the latch it will not turn the
motor. This is accomplished by a neat centrifugal clutch that is connected to
the gear and engaged by the motor.
Centrifugal clutch on the drive gear
When the motor spins the gear, the clutch swings out and locks the small
metal gear to the larger plastic gear, allowing the motor to drive the door
latch. If you move the door latch yourself, all of the gears will turn except
for the plastic gear
SOME INTERIOR MECHANISMS OF AN AUTOMOBILE
 Instrumentation
 Steering Wheel
 Ignition
 Accelerator
 Brakes
 Gearshift
 Clutch
 Horn
 Mirrors
 Lights
 Turn Signals
 Hazard Lights
 Windshield Wipers
94
 Fuel gauge, which shows the

 Instrumentation fuel level in your car's fuel tank
 Oil gauge, which shows oil level
In order to be able to operate your


vehicle safely, you must know the Warning lights are provided on
functions and locations of all the your car's instrument panel. They
interior mechanisms of your car. light up in case of a serious
problem. There are three kinds of
warning lights:
 Oil Pressure Warning Light

 Temperature Warning Light
 Battery Low Warning Light
Temperature Warning Light/Gauge:

this light goes on when the engine
temperature or the radiator's
coolant is too hot. In some
 vehicles, a gauge is used that
The instrument panel contains would show the needle in the
gauges which include the following: warning zone of HOT. If this
warning light comes on while
 Speedometer, which indicates
driving, STOP as soon as you can
speed in both miles and
at a safe place and shut the engine
kilometers per hour off. Never remove the radiator cap
 Tachometer, which indicates to check the coolant level when the
rotations in the engine in engine is hot. The coolant is at
revolutions per minute (RPMs) boiling temperature and under
 Odometer, which indicates the
pressure. If the cap is released, the
total number of miles your car hot coolant will release with
has been driven since it was pressure and can cause severe
manufactured burns if you are standing too close.
95
 Steering Wheel

Oil Pressure Warning Light: this
light goes on when the engine oil is
not circulating at the required
The steering wheel is located
pressure. Some vehicles have an
directly in front of the driver‘s seat.
oil pressure gauge that reads LOW
Turning the steering wheel
when the engine's oil pressure is
transmits force, which turns the
too low. If you see an oil pressure
wheels to determine the direction
warning while driving, STOP
of travel.
immediately at a safe place and
turn off the engine.

Most vehicles today have power

steering, which makes turning the
Battery Low Warning Light: when
wheel relatively easy. If you have
this light goes on or the battery
power steering and find it
gauge reads LOW, this means that
necessary to exert a lot of physical
the battery power is running out.
force to turn your wheel, you
should probably take your car to a
mechanic.
96
the dashboard instruments to

 Ignition activate. The final position causes
your engine to start.
Accelerator
`
The ignition is located either on the
side of the steering column or on
the dashboard. It is a multifunction The accelerator is also known as
switch, into which you insert your gas pedal. It is the pedal located
key, in order to energize the on the floor on the far-right. This
electrical circuits and activate your pedal controls the amount of gas
starter motor. being fed into the engine and
thereby controls the speed of the
vehicle. You push the accelerator
with your right foot with your heel
resting on the ground. Do not be
jerky with the accelerator. Rather,
push it gradually while your car
speeds up.
 Brakes

Ignitions usually have three
positions which serve different
purposes. You turn your key
clockwise to go to a higher position
and counter-clockwise to
deactivate it. The first position is
the off position when your car is in
park. The second position causes
97
The brake pedal is located on the

 Gearshift
floor to the left of the accelerator.
When pressed, it applies the
brakes, causing the vehicle to slow
down and/or stop. You must use
your right foot (with your heel on
ground) to exert force on the pedal
to cause the brakes to engage. If
your vehicle has standard brakes,
the pedal will move a little bit
before it resists. If you have power
brakes, you do not need to exert
as much pressure on the pedal to
use the brakes.
If your car has an automatic
transmission, the gearshift is
located either on the steering
column or on the console between
the front seats. The gearshift is
used to move a vehicle forward, in
reverse, or remain in neutral.

The parking brake can be either a
pedal operated by your left foot, a
lever under the dashboard, or a
lever to the right on the floor. It
applies brakes to keep the car from
moving when parked or to slow the
car down if the regular brakes fail.

On cars with a manual
transmission, the gearshift is
actually a stick shift. You must
learn to synchronize your gear
shifting with pushing the clutch
pedal.
98
The horn is usually located in the

 Clutch center of your steering wheel.
Make sure your horn is fully
functioning and can be heard at a
distance of 100-200 ft. Do not use
your horn excessively. Only use it
to communicate with other drivers
when necessary or as a warning to
others.
The clutch pedal is found only in

cars with manual transmission. The  Mirrors
clutch pedal is located on the floor
to the left of the brake pedal.
When pressed, it disengages the
clutch which eliminates the
transmission of power from the
engine to the transmission. When
released, it smoothly applies power
through to the transmission. The
clutch must be operated with your
left foot, again, with your heel
resting on the ground.
 Horn
Your car is equipped with both
rearview and side mirrors. Make
sure that your mirrors are properly
adjusted before you begin driving.
The rearview mirror is located at
the top center of your windshield.
It is shaped like a rectangle and
allows you to see what is
happening behind you.
99
vehicle has these fixtures in place

and that they are fully functioning.
The side mirrors are located on the

exterior side of your vehicle and
allow you to view periphery traffic. 
Vehicles must be equipped with
low-beam as well as high-beam
headlights. Low-beams must be
 Lights
turned on when it gets dark or in
any moment of low visibility due to
bad weather. Most states (e.g.,
Alaska, Michigan, Nevada, Texas,
and Utah) require that lights must
be turned on from one-half hour
after sunset until one-half hour
before sunrise. Other states, (e.g.,
Arizona, Virginia) require that
lights are turned on from sunset to
sunrise. Consult your state's
Drivers Handbook for details.
Lights are significant because they

allow you to see your
surroundings, give others a way to
see you, and give other drivers
indications of your future actions.
Cars are required to have certain
lighting fixtures, and these
generally have luminosity
regulations. Make sure that your Some states (e.g., California,
Connecticut, and Delaware) require
100
by law that if you turn on your side of the road. Most of the states
wipers you must also turn on your require that you switch to low-
lights. beams 500 ft. or more from
oncoming vehicles. Consult your
state's Drivers Handbook for
details. The switch for headlights
varies between vehicles. Consult
your car's owner manual to make
sure you know exactly how to turn
your headlights on.
High-beams are also located at the

front of your vehicle and have a
higher luminosity that covers
greater distance. High-beams are
to be used in times of very low
visibility. However, you are not to
use high-beams in fog, for they will
only reflect the dampened air and Each vehicle must also have
blind other drivers. taillights and brake lights. Most of
the states require that the taillights
be visible from 500 ft. Taillights are
red and are located on the back of
your vehicle. Brake lights light up
when you hit brakes to signal the
drivers behind you to stop.
High-beams are to be turned off

when another vehicle is in front of
you or approaching on the opposite
101
Parking lights are located at the

Hazard Lights
front and back of your vehicles;
they are white or amber in the
front and red on the back. All of
them must be visible for 500 ft. It
is never legal to drive with your
parking lights on; they are only to
be used during parking.
 Turn Signals
Your car is equipped with turn
signal lights on its four corners. On
Your hazard lights warn other
the inside of your car, these turn
drivers of an emergency situation
signals usually appear as green
you may be encountering. All four
arrows facing the direction of the
turn signal lights come on when
intended turn.
you activate your hazard lights.
Again, consult your car owner's
manual for the exact location of
the hazard lights switch/button in
your vehicle.
Windshield Wipers
On most cars, the turn signal lever

is located to the left of the steering
wheel. Shifting the lever up
indicates a right turn and shifting it
down indicates a left turn. Your
turn signal should turn off after a
turn or a lane change, but if it does
not, you should turn it off On most vehicles, the windshield
manually, as soon as possible. wipers can be activated by a lever
located to the right of the steering
wheel. Usually, you can adjust the
speed of your wipers to optimize
performance for specific driving
conditions.
102
Driver’s Visibility
In transport, driver visibility is the maximum distance at which the driver of a vehicle can
see and identify prominent objects around the vehicle. Visibility is primarily determined
by weather conditions and by a vehicle's design. The parts of a vehicle that influence
visibility include the windshield, the dashboard and the pillars. Good driver visibility is
essential to safe road traffic.
Wiring
A car's wiring has to distribute power from the battery to devices located all over the car. It
also has to transmit data on a data bus, as well as a variety of digital and analog signals
from switches and sensors.
This means that there are many different types of wires in your car. Some wires that
transmit signals from switches or sensors carry almost no current. Those that provide
power to large electric motors carry lots of current.
103
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The amount of current
that a wire can handle depends on its length, composition, size and how it is bundled. Let's
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ENGINEERING at SAFETY
AND how each of these properties M affects theSIDDIQUI
A QADEER wire's current-carrying
capacity:
 Length - Each type of wire has a certain amount of resistance per foot -- the longer the
wire, the larger the resistance. If the resistance is too high, a lot of the power that flows
down the wire will be wasted; the energy lost as heat builds up in the wire. Ultimately, heat
build-up limits the current-carrying capacity of the wire, as the temperature must not get
hot enough to melt the insulation.
 Composition - Automotive wire is usually composed of fine copper strands. Generally, the
finer the strands, the lower the resistance and the more current the wire can carry. The type of
copper used has an effect on the resistance of the wire, too.
 Wire gauge - The wire gauge, or size of the wire, also determines how much resistance the
wire has. The larger the wire, the less resistance. The smaller the gauge, the larger the wire --
so a 16-gauge wire is bigger than a 24-gauge wire. Wire gauges go all the way down to zero,
which is also called 1/0 (one aught). Even bigger than 1/0 is 00 (2/0, or two aught), and so
on. The diameter of a 4/0 (four aught) wire is almost half an inch (1.27 cm).
 Bundling - The way a wire is bundled affects how well it can dissipate heat. If the wire is in a
bundle with 50 other wires, it can carry a lot less current than if it were the only wire in the
bundle.
Fuses
The main job of the fuse is to protect the wiring. Fuses should be sized and located to
protect the wire they are connected to. If a device like your car radio suddenly draws enough
current to blow the fuse, the radio is probably already toast. The fuse is there to protect the
wire, which would be much harder to replace than the radio.
Most cars have two fuse panels. The one in the engine compartment holds the fuses for
devices like the cooling fans, the anti-lock brake pump and the engine control unit -- all of
which are located in the engine compartment. Another fuse panel, usually located in the
dashboard near the driver's knees, holds fuses for the devices and switches located in the
passenger compartment.
Interior fuse panel
We saw in the last section how the heat build-up in the wire depends on the resistance and the
amount of current flowing through the wire. Fuses are really just a special type of wire in a
self-contained connector. Most automotive fuses today have two blade connectors and a plastic
housing that contains the conductor. There are also some fuses that are in the wiring of the
car, called fusible links.
104
An assortment of automotive fuses
The conductor inside the fuse is made of a metal similar to solder. It has a lower melting
point than the wire itself. The size of the conductor is calibrated very carefully so that when
the rated current is reached, enough heat is generated to melt the conductor and so break the
circuit.
When a fuse is blown, it must be replaced before the circuit will work. A blown fuse must be
replaced with a fuse of the same amperage.
Checking Fuses
The most foolproof way to check a fuse is to pull it out of its receptacle and hook up a
continuity tester to both blades of the fuse. But if you do this while the fuse is plugged in,
you could get continuity through a path other than the fuse (for instance, both sides of the
wire may be grounded when you check the fuse). You can usually tell if a fuse is blown by a
visual inspection:
Connectors
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Connectors are critical to|| today's
www.android.jntuworld.com || www.jwjobs.net
cars. Without them, it would be || www.android.jwjobs.net
nearly impossible to build or
service a car. Whenever a bundle of wires passes through or attaches to a component of the
car CODY
VEHICLE that ENGINEERING
might haveAND to SAFETY
be removed, there must be a M connector there to allow for that removal.
A QADEER SIDDIQUI
A single connector can have more than 100 wires.
In the past, unreliable connectors have been the source of many electrical problems.
Connectors have to be waterproof (modern connectors have several seals to keep out
moisture), corrosion proof and provide good electrical contact for the life of the vehicle.
The connector pictured below is an eight-terminal connector -- it connects eight wires to each
other.
The parts of a typical automotive connector: Everything on the left connects to

everything on the right.
To make this connection, there are a total of 23 separate parts. The main parts are:
 The shell
 The pins and sockets
 The pin retainer
 The seals
The Shell
The shell is an intricate piece that has a complicated shape. There is a locking clip on the
outside that holds the two halves of the connector together. There are holes for the pins, and
there are special barbs that lock the pins in place once they are inserted. There are numerous
grooves to hold seals and make sure things fit together tightly. All of these features are
molded into the piece when it is made.
The Pins and Sockets

The pins and sockets are responsible for conducting electricity from one half of the connector
to the other. These are made very precisely so that the pins and sockets fit together with just
enough force to ensure a good connection, but not enough force to make connecting and
disconnecting too difficult.
A socket (left) and a pin (right)

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The pinswww.jntuworld.com
are crimped to || www.android.jntuworld.com
the wires using a special ||crimping
www.jwjobs.net
tool. ||Part
of the pin wraps around
the bare wire, while another part clamps onto the insulation. This makes it harder to pull the
wireCODY
VEHICLE away from theAND
ENGINEERING pin.
SAFETY M A QADEER SIDDIQUI
The Pin/Socket Retainer

The pin/socket retainer is a piece of plastic that slides into the connector from the front. It
wedges against all of the plastic locking barbs so they can't release. This piece makes it nearly
impossible for the pins and sockets to work their way loose.
The retainer keeps the pins and sockets in place.
The Seals
The seals prevent water from entering the connection once the connectors are locked
together. Each connector has a rubber seal through which all of the wires are fed. This
seal fits firmly into the back of the connector. One side of each connector has a round
seal that keeps water from entering the space between the connectors once they are
locked together.
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BODY CONTROL SYSTEM
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UNIT7) VANS TRUCKS AND BUSES
A coach (also motor coach, often simply called a bus) is a type of bus used for conveying
passengers on excursions and on longer distance intercity bus service between cities—or
even between countries. Unlike transit buses designed for shorter journeys, coaches often
have a luggage hold separate from the passenger cabin and are normally equipped with
facilities required for longer trips including comfortable seats and sometimes a toilet.
The term 'coach' was previously used for a horse-drawn carriage designed for the
conveyance of more than one passenger, the passengers' luggage, and mail, which is
covered for protection from the elements. The term was applied to railway carriages in the
19th century, and later to motor coaches (buses).
Coaches, as they hold passengers for significant periods of time on long journeys, are
designed for comfort. They vary considerably in quality from country to country and within
counties. Higher specification vehicles include luxury seats and air conditioning. Coaches
typically have only a single, narrow door, as an increased loading time is acceptable due to
infrequent stops. Some characteristics include:
Comfortable seats that may include a folding table, armrests, and recliner. Comfort is
considered to be an important feature in coaches.
Luggage racks above the seats where passengers can access their carry-on baggage during
the journey
Baggage holds, accessed from outside the vehicle, often under the main floor or at the rear,
where passengers' luggage can be stowed away from the seating area
Passenger service units, mounted overhead, on which personal reading lights and air
conditioning ducts can be controlled and used by individual passengers with little
disturbance to other passengers
On-board rest rooms fitted with chemical toilets, hand basins and hand sanitizer.
On some buses, on-board entertainment including movies may be shown to passengers
On-board refreshment service or vending machines
Wheelchair accommodation, possibly including a wheelchair lifts for access.
SINGLE DECKER BUS - A single-decker bus or single-decker is a bus that has a single
deck for passengers. Normally the use of the term single-decker refers to a standard two-
axled rigid bus, in direct contrast to the use of the term double-decker bus, which is
essentially a bus with two passenger‘s decks and a staircase. These types of single-deckers
may feature one or more doors, and varying internal combustion engine positions.
In regions where double-deckers are not common, the term single-decker may lack
common usage, as in one sense, all other main types of bus have a single deck. Also, the
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term www.jntuworld.com
may become synonymous with the name||transit
|| www.android.jntuworld.com bus or ||related
www.jwjobs.net terms, which can
correctly be applied to double-deckers too.
VEHICLEWith the exception
CODY ENGINEERING AND of regions of major double deck
SAFETY orQADEER
MA articulated
SIDDIQUIbus operation, usually
urban areas, the single Decker is the standard mode of public transport bus travel,
increasingly with low floor features.
With their origins in van chassis, minibuses are not usually considered single-deckers,
although modern minibus designs blur this distinction. Minibuses can also be regarded as
both included with and separate from standard single-deckers, in terms of full size length
and vehicle weights, although again design developments have seen this distinction blurred.
Some coach style buses that do not have under floor luggage space can also be correctly
termed as single-deckers, with some sharing standard bus chassis designs, such as the
Volvo B10M, with a different body style applied.
DOUBLE DECKER BUS-

A double-decker bus is a bus that has two storeys or decks. Red double-decker buses are
used for mass transit in London. Double-decker buses are also used in other cities in
Europe, Asia, and former British colonies and protectorates such as Hong Kong, Singapore
and Canada.
Almost all double-deckers have a single, rigid chassis.
This type of bus is often used for touring rather than for mass transit. As William Ewart
Gladstone observed, "...the way to see London is from the top of a 'bus".
In India, Bangalore had double deckers for a while before discontinuing. Madras's
Metropolitan Transport Corporation (MTC) has a small fleet of double-decker buses mostly
in the high-density, longer distance routes. Mumbai has operated double-decker buses since
1937. They are operated by the Brihanmumbai Electric Supply and Transport undertaking.
Thiruvananthapuram, Kochi, Kolkata and Hyderabad also have double-decker buses. They
are mode led on the London buses. Ashok Leyland Titan double Decker buses are used in all
cities. Articulated double Decker buses from Ashok Leyland were used till it was phased out
in early 1990s and Volvo B9TL Wrights are now begun operating in Mumbai and Chennai
since early 2010 and Enviro400s were also brought into Hyderabad since 2011.
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UNIT 8) VEHICLE STABILITY
Steering geometry
The steering system on every car is very important and requires regular
maintenance to keep it at an optimum standard. The steering rack on all
motor vehicles is easily knocked out of alignment by all the speed humps
and potholes in the road. When the wheel alignment becomes out of
tolerance the tyres will wear unevenly on either edge of the side walls.
Noticeable signs of displaced geometry or alignment are:
 Steering wheel is off-set when the vehicle is travelling in a straight line

 The vehicle may drift/pull to the left or right
 The front tyres will wear bald or show signs of uneven wear on either edge
If any of these faults are present on your vehicle we strongly recommend

you have your wheel alignment and steering geometry checked and adjusted
if necessary. We advise checking wheel alignment and steering geometry no
less than at least once a year though possibly more if there has been
noticeable impact are identified. Our highly trained technicians can be of
assistance to advise you of the best solution for any steering geometry
problems.
Curvilinear path
Curvilinear motion is defined as motion that occurs when a particle travels

along a curved path. The curved path can be in two dimensions (in a plane),
or in three dimensions. This type of motion is more complex than rectilinear
(straight-line) motion.
Motion on a curve
=> The net force on a car traveling around a curve is the centripetal
force, Fc = m v2 / r, directed toward the center of the curve.
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=> For a level curve, the centripetal force will be supplied by the friction
force between the tires and roadway.
=> A banked curve can supply the centripetal force by the normal force
and the weight without relying on friction.
LATERAL STABILITY
The stability of a vehicle is that occurs about the longitudinal axis. A vehicle is
laterally stable in that when a slight turn takes place, the forces acting on the
vehicle tend to restore it.
Vehicle Stability Control (VSC)
Helps prevent wheels from slipping sideways when cornering or sudden

steering
VSC is a system that helps prevent side skids and help stabilize the vehicle
while turning on a curve. According to the National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration's (NHTSA) report, vehicles equipped with VSC compared to
those without can effectively reduce single-vehicle accidents by 35% for
automobiles and 67% for Sport Utility Vehicles (SUV).
When the vehicle senses a loss of traction or a slip, braking is automatically

applied to all 4 individual wheels and engine power is reduced to help secure
the safety of the vehicle. For example, if the steering wheel refuses to turn
from over-speeding (under-steering), the vehicle will take control to steer
toward the inner curve. Also, when the vehicle begins to spin from abrupt
steering handling (over-steering), the vehicle will take control to steer
toward the outer curve.
*VSC is designed to help the driver maintain vehicle control, and it is not a
substitute for safe driving
Active Safety
For Maneuvering
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Anti-Lock Brake System (ABS)

Helps prevent brakes from locking
Brake Assist
Supports unexpected braking in case of emergency
Traction Control (TRC)

Helps prevent wheel slippage when the vehicle is starting or
accelerating on wet or slippery roads
Vehicle Stability Control (VSC)

Helps prevent wheels from slipping sideways when cornering or
sudden steering
Vehicle Dynamic Integrated Management (VDIM)

Integrated control of "Drive, Turn and Stop" and maintains driving
stability
Hill-Assist Control (HAC)/Downhill-Assist Control (DAC)

Supports drivers on steep hills and descending slopes
Tire Pressure Monitoring System (TPMS)

Helps prevent accidents caused by decreased tire air pressure
For Driving Support
Radar Cruise Control

Manages constant distance from the proceeding vehicle
Lane Keeping Assist

Helps keep drivers within lanes
Navigation-Brake Assist
Works with the navigation system to provide stop sign information
For Visibility
Front and Side View Monitor

Helps to verify safety in hard-to-view areas
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Multi-Angle Monitor
Verifies the vehicle's surroundings
Intelligent Adaptive Front-lighting System (AFS)

Changes the direction of the headlights based on the cornering angle
Night View
Detects objects and pedestrians during the nighttime
For Pedestrian
Approaching Vehicle Audible System

Notifies pedestrians of your vehicle
Factors affecting tyre performance
The factors which influence tyre life:

 Inflation Pressure
o The science and the technology that has gone into producing even the best
quality of tyre will go waste if the tyres are not inflated to the recommended
pressure – Pressure comensurating to the load carried. The best
performance of tyres can only be achieved when the tyre is inflated to the
designated pressure based on the load per tyre.
o ―Under inflation‖ or ―Over inflation‖ on the tyre tends to impact tyre life,
vehicle handling and safety. There are two factors with weight distribution of
the vehicle. One is contact patch and other linked to the tyre wear. This
result in heat buildup/tyre temperature and thus loss of tyre life, premature
tyre removals, increased rolling resistance and fuel consumption.
o ―Under Inflation‖ is more common than over inflation. Tyre users are not
always conscious about maintaining or matching tyre pressure to the loads
carried.
o In pneumatic tyre the ―Air carries the load‖. The best tyre performance and
lower tyre CPKM are obtained by maintaining correct tyre inflation pressure.
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o It is important to remember that the total weight (GVW) carried may not
exceed the registered laden weight (RLW) or vehicle passing weight, but one
side of the truck or one axle may be severely overloaded due to improper
distribution of the load in the pay load platform or loading area.
o Improper load distribution overloads the tyre(s). This condition combines
with high speed , long hauls and load transfers result in tyres wearing fast
and premature removal of tyres
o Loads and Loading practices
 It is important to remember that even one trip of the truck; with
improper load distribution may cause irreversible damage to the tyres.
o Speed
 Excessive high speeds results in increased tyre running temperature.
As the rubber gets heated up its modulus (stiffness) gets reduced.
 Rubber being a good non conductor of heat the residual heat is
retained causing increased tyre wear and separation of components.
o Wheel Alignment
 A vehicle is said to be properly align when all the steering and
suspension components and set as per the vehicle manufacturer and
when the tyre wheel assembly are running straight and true.
 Proper alignment is necessary for perfect vehicle control, uniform and
even tyre wear and safety.
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 Recommended to get the vehicle alignment checked and corrected as

per vehicle owner‘s manual as soon as tyre are wearing unevenly or
ride handling problems(vibrations, pulling to one side etc).
o Wheel Balancing
 A wheel which is not properly balanced may setup vibrations which can
affect steering control. Wheels, tyres and tubes are usually checked for
balance before leaving factory.
 This balance is achieved by positioning weights on the wheel to
counterbalance heavy spots on the tyre wheel assembly.
 Properly balanced tyres are important for driving comfort and long tyre
life.
 Tyres should be balanced when they are mounted on the wheels for
the first time or when they are removed for repair or periodically as
per vehicle manufacturer‘s recommendations.
o Tyre rotation
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 Rotation of tyre in a vehicle is recommended for a uniform tyre tread

wear on all wheel position to achieve optimum tyre life.
 It is preferred to rotate tyres as per vehicle manufacturer‘s
recommendation or in case of any uneven tyre wear noticed.
 It is suggested to check wheel alignment, wheel balance and
suspension before the tyres are rotated.
Rotation patterns /pictures to be incorporated.
o Road Conditions
 Vehicle /tyre operating conditions which significantly influence tyre life
both in terms of new tyre life and structural durability.
 Rough/abrasive road surface
 Paved road
 Straight road
 Broken up roads
 Hilly windings roads
 Unmade country roads
o Driving habits
 Careful driving habits will ensure optimum tyre life, unavoidable
damages besides avoiding serious road accidents. Some of the habits
which cause serious damages to tyre and road accidents are:
 Over speeding
 Speeding over pot holes, stone etc.
 Quick starts and sudden stops
 Riding over road divider and other obstacles
 Sharp turns at high speeds
 Hitting the road, curbs, objects etc.
 Running on improperly inflated tyres
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o Seasonal Effects
 Climatic and whether conditions in our country vary widely from region
to region. Dry and extremely hot during summer, extreme cold during
winter and rains during monsoon.
 These variations in climatic conditions influence tyre life in terms of
mileage and structural durability.
o Do's & Don’ts
 Tyre Pressure checks including the spare tyre must be done regularly
at least once in two weeks.
 Tyre pressure should be checked using an accurate pressure gauge.
 Tyre pressure should be checked when tyres are cold.
 Under inflation and over inflation will cause rapid tread wear and
premature tyre failures.
 Tyre pressure should always be maintained as per the vehicle
manufacturers recommendations, mentioned at information placard, at
door, owner‘s manual.
Weight distribution
Weight distribution is very important; not only does it affect the static
weight on the different tires; it also affects how the weight shifts in dynamic
conditions.
The easiest way to judge weight distribution is to determine the car's Center
of Gravity (CG). This is a point in space where the mass of the entire car is
accounted for. Because of its location, it can be used to simplify the effects
of inertia forces. In reality, every little bit of mass is subjected to inertia, but
it's much easier to make use of an equivalent condition: assume all the mass
of the object is concentrated in its center point, i.e. it's CG. So instead of
having to figure out how every part of a 1.5kg car reacts to a certain force,
we only have to figure out how a weightless car with a 1.5kg dot in its
center(the CG) reacts to it. The latter is much easier: the force only works in
the CG, and not in the rest of the car.
Of course, this only works when the CG is determined correctly. I think

that's a lot of work, and it might not be accurate, so I propose a different
method. It's based on the fact that when an object is statically balanced, its
CG is right above the point where it's supported. By applying this in three
different planes, you can determine an object's CG. Here's an example.
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Here we have an object with a heavy part (dark) and a lighter part (bright)
we'd like to determine the CG of. Since the right part is heavier the CG will
probably be located somewhere at the right.
We try to balance it on a sharp edge, and this is the position in which the
object stays put. So we know the CG is somewhere right above the point
where the object is supported.
The red line contains all the points above the point where the object was
being supported, so the CG has to be located somewhere on the red line.
We can follow the same procedure, but in a different dimension. Again, we

can draw a red line on which the CG is located.
Because this is a 2D example, trying to balance the object 2 times is

sufficient to determine it‘s CG (circled in purple). For a car, which has 3
dimensions, you'll need to do it 3 times. It might impose some practical
problems, but this is where you'll have to use your imagination.
Now that we know where the car's CG is located, we can easily calculate the
amount of weight on the tires, and the weight distribution.
First, let's have a look at the front-to-rear weight distribution:
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The wheelbase is the distance between the front and rear axle, F is the
distance between the CG (green) and the front axle, R is the distance
between the CG and the rear axle.
Weight on the front axle = weight of the car*(R/WB)
Weight on the rear axle = weight of the car*(F/WB)
or, in percentages:
Front weight percentage = (R/WB)*100%
Rear weight percentage = (F/WB)*100%
obviously, this will have its effects on handling: more weight on a tire means
more grip. So if the CG is located further towards the rear, the car will have
a lot of rear traction, which is nice to have if acceleration is important. If the
CG is located further towards the front, the car will have a lot of steering,
but it might lack rear traction, which increases the risk of spinning out.
In some cases, lateral weight distribution is a major concern, especially in

so-called LTO (left turn only) cars, which race on oval tracks. It's basically
the same deal:
TW is the tread with, the distance between the centers of the tires at the
axle, E is the distance between the CG(green) and the centerline of the left
side tires, I us the distance between the CG and the centerline of the right
side tires. If the front and rear axles aren't equally wide, E and I have to be
measured at the CG.
Weight on left side = (I/TW)*weight of the car
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Weight on right side = (E/TW)*weight of the car

Or, in percentages: left side weight percentage = (I/TW)*100%
Right side weight percentage = (E/TW)*100%
Note that if you need to know the amount of weight on one tire, you need to
multiply the weight of the car by 2 factors, one of the lateral balance, and
one of the longitudinal balance, for example:
Weight on left front tire = Weight of the car*(I/TW)*(R/WB)
Weight on right front tire = Weight of the car*(E/TW)*(R/WB)
Weight on left rear tire = Weight of the car*(I/TW)*(F/WB)
Weight on right rear tire = Weight of the car*(E/TW)*(F/WB)
Note that this is only true when the car isn't tweaked; spring preload should
be the same on the left and right hand side.
Again, having the CG away from the center of the car has consequences for
the car's handling: having it toward the left improves the car's ability to turn
left, but it might make it very difficult to drive the car in a straight line,
especially under acceleration.
The height of the CG is also very important: it determines the car's roll
characteristics and weight transfer.
Sadly enough, that isn't all there is to it; inertia has been left out, rotational
inertia to be more precise. Here's an example:
These drawings represent two cars, the first one on the left has all the heavy
stuff (blue) located at its ends, far removed from the CG (purple). The
second one on the right has all the heavy stuff lined up right in the middle,
very close to the CG. Both cars weigh just as heavy, and their CGs are in
exactly the same place.
So both cars will transfer the same amount of weight while braking or
cornering, and their roll angles will also be identical. Yet they won't handle
the same, because their rotational moment of inertia is different. The first
car will react slowly, turn in a little sluggishly and it will generally be more
reluctant to change direction. Some might say it is slow, others might find it
very stable, and it‘s the same thing. The second car will feel like the
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opposite: it will change direction very quickly, and it will feel very nimble,
and thus also unstable.
So, rotational moment of inertia doesn't change how far the car's chassis
moves, it changes how fast it does so. It's kind of like swinging a baseball
bat with a big, heavy tip: you'll need a lot of effort to get it going, and once
you get it going, there's not much you can do to alter its course.
The rotational moment of inertia can be calculated too: the rotational
moment of inertia of a body around an axis is the sum of all the elementary
masses of the body multiplied by their distance to that axis squared. For
simple-looking bodies like cylinders, cubes and cones and such, you can do
this by hand, but for real-life applications you'll need a sophisticated CAD
program.
Note that it's also important around which axis you're calculating the
rotational moment of inertia. Consider the following example:
These drawings represent identical cars, except for the fact that they have
their weight distributed differently: the first one has its heavy components
(blue) lined up along its lateral axis (purple) and the second one has its
heavy stuff lined up along its longitudinal axis.
Consider the first car. If we calculate the rotational moment of inertia around
its lateral axis, we have to multiply all of the masses with their distance to
the axis squared. In this case, we have to multiply most of the mass with a
very small distance squared, resulting in a very small value. On the other
hand, if we calculate its rotational moment of inertia around its longitudinal
axis (not drawn), we have to multiply most of the mass with a very large
distance squared, resulting in a large value. So, the first car has a very large
moment of inertia around its longitudinal axis, and a very small one around
its lateral axis. In other words, this car will react very slowly while cornering;
it will move from side to side (roll) very slowly. But, it will move from front
to rear (pitch) very easily, this might be beneficial for quick braking, but it
will make the car bounce back and forth in bumps, making it very unstable.
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For the second car, the opposite is true: it has a large value for its rotational
moment of inertia around its lateral axis (not drawn) and a very small one
around the longitudinal axis. This means that the car will roll quickly, and be
very responsive in turns, but it will be very stable front to rear. This helps
stabilize the car in bumps while maintaining good cornering abilities.
Maybe now you can understand the hype about mid-mounted motors in full-
scale cars: the motor is by far the heaviest item, so by positioning it
centrally, the car's rotational moment of inertia is reduced, making for a
more nimble handling car.
Most modern vehicles‘ engines are located to the front of the driver.
However, some manufacturers place locate the engine at some location point
behind the driver. Due to the weight of the engine, its location can
substantially impact a vehicle‘s handling, behavior, and response
characteristics. The goal of this article is to discuss the dynamic differences
among front-, mid-, and rear-engine configurations.
Have you ever lifted the hood of a modern passenger car, only to find no
motor? For most drivers, this has not occurred, as most vehicles‘ engines
are located up front. But if you drive a mid- or rear-engine vehicle, you
would be accustomed to having only storage space up front under the hood.
The goal of this article is to discuss the different engine locations and their
impact on vehicle dynamics.
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Front-Engine Vehicles
By far the most common engine location is at the front of the vehicle, ahead
of the driver and the front axle line. While the earliest automobiles used a
variety of engine locations, front-engine vehicles quickly became the norm
for financial and engineering reasons. For example, most front-engine
vehicles feature relatively easy access to the motor for maintenance and
repair.
Positioning the engine ahead of the driver also impacts space considerations
such as permitting permits a full-size interior. In addition, most front-engine
vehicles feature large cabins, usually with seating for four or more
occupants, including relatively spacious rear seating areas. Interior sound
levels are also reduced because the engine is not directly adjacent to the
cabin. The static weight distribution of front-engine vehicles (the weight of
the front and rear of the automobile expressed in percentages) is generally
favorable with between 50-66% of the vehicle‘s weight over the front wheels
(Bondurant ‗ Blakemore, 1998). Most front-engine vehicles feature relatively
easy access to the motor for maintenance and repair.
Placing the engine up front also has some disadvantages. First, braking
ability is somewhat diminished. Diminished braking occurs because weight
transfers forward under braking (Karasa, 2001), leaving relatively little
weight remaining over the rear wheels during braking and thus, limiting the
ability of the rear tires to contribute the braking task. Second, accelerative
ability is limited somewhat by the relative lack of static weight over the rear
tires when, the weight of the vehicle shifts rearward upon acceleration
(Scotti, 1995). Despite its relative drawbacks, the front-engine layout
remains the most popular.
Mid-Engine Vehicles
In a mid-engine configuration the engine is located directly behind the cabin

just ahead of the rear axle line. Essentially, the engine is located in the rear
seat area. A rare configuration, the mid-engine vehicle is usually associated
with high performance automobiles for several reasons. First, the static
weight distribution tends to be close to the optimal 50/50 ratio, with the bias
being slightly rearward, resulting in superior balance and handling
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characteristics (Bondurant ‗ Blakemore, 1998). Second, the vehicle‘s mass

(center of gravity) is the static weight distribution of front-engine vehicles
(the weight of the front and rear of the automobile expressed in
percentages) is generally favorable with between 50-66% of the vehicle‘s
weight over the front wheels (Bondurant ‗ Blakemore, 1998). Most front-
engine vehicles feature relatively easy access to the motor for maintenance
and repair.
Placing the engine up front also has some disadvantages. First, braking
ability is somewhat diminished. Diminished braking occurs because weight
transfers forward under braking (Karasa, 2001), leaving relatively little
weight remaining over the rear wheels during braking and thus, limiting the
ability of the rear tires to contribute the braking task. Second, accelerative
ability is limited somewhat by the relative lack of static weight over the rear
tires when, the weight of the vehicle shifts rearward upon acceleration.
Despite its relative drawbacks, the front-engine layout remains the most
popular.
Rear-Engine Vehicles
In rear-engine vehicles, the motor is located in the rearmost portion, behind

the rear axle line. Essentially, the engine is located in the trunk. Also a rare
configuration, rear-engine automobiles tend to demonstrate exceptional
braking ability due to a greater amount of weight from the engine remaining
over the rear tires during braking. Thus, all four tires are heavily involved
during braking instead of just the front tires. Acceleration is also enhanced,
as the rearward transfer of weight and the engine weight combine to put
maximum downward force on the rear tires (the tires responsible for
acceleration in this configuration) resulting in a larger rear tire contact patch
that enhances accelerative traction (Bentley, 1998).
While it may appear that rear-engine vehicles are the answer to all
automotive needs, they do have drawbacks. First, the cabin generally has
less room for rear passengers than does a front-engine vehicle. Some rear-
engine cars do feature rear seats, but many do not offer enough room to
carry rear passengers. Even in vehicles that do feature rear seats, the seats
are often so small that the only passengers able to sit comfortably in them
are children.
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Perhaps even more disadvantageous is the rear-engine vehicle‘s tendency to

oversteer due to greater weight resident in the rear of the vehicle that
results in greater momentum. Recalls that oversteer (rear wheel) skids occur
when the rear tires lose traction before the front tires, resulting in the rear
of the car sliding out sideways or "fishtailing." (How to Drive, 2004). As
oversteer skids are less easily corrected than understeer (front wheel) skids,
this can be a problem for drivers not experienced and skilled in the driving
dynamics of rear-engine cars" (Rich, 1998).
To help visualize this situation, imagine that you are playing a friendly game
of darts. Instead of throwing your next dart normally, with the nose-heavy
pointed end leading, you turn the dart around, throwing it fin-first toward
the dartboard. Which end of the dart will eventually contact the dartboard?
Indeed, the heavier end will spin in mid air during flight and contact the
dartboard first. Under conditions of low traction or excessive speed, it‘s the
same with rear-engine vehicles; the rear of the vehicle will always want to
"swap ends" with the front.
Front-engine vehicles can be either front or rear wheel drive, while all mid-
and rear-engine vehicles are rear wheel drive. Table 1 displays a summary
of the relative advantages and disadvantages of each engine location.
In dry conditions under normal driving conditions, the location of the engine
does not make much of a difference in terms of driving dynamics. Aside from
the mid-engine vehicle‘s tendency to yield higher interior noise levels, most
drivers will not detect a difference in the way these different vehicles
respond to driver inputs. However, as the driving turns more spirited or
involved emergency situations requiring abrupt driver inputs, these
differences can surface, sometimes to the negative surprise of the driver.
Generally, mid- and rear-engine vehicles will benefit the driver by offering
shorter potential stopping distances and will disadvantage the driver to the
degree that these layouts are more ends" with the front.
Front-engine vehicles can be either front or rear wheel drive, while all mid-
and rear-engine vehicles are rear wheel drive. Table 1 displays a summary
of the relative advantages and disadvantages of each engine location.
In dry conditions under normal driving conditions, the location of the engine
does not make much of a difference in terms of driving dynamics. Aside from
the mid-engine vehicle‘s tendency to yield higher interior noise levels, most
142
drivers will not detect a difference in the way these different vehicles
respond to driver inputs. However, as the driving turns more spirited or
involved emergency situations requiring abrupt driver inputs, these
differences can surface, sometimes to the negative surprise of the driver.
Generally, mid- and rear-engine vehicles will benefit the driver by offering
shorter potential stopping distances and will disadvantage the driver to the
degree that these layouts are more likely to oversteer than their front-
engine counterparts.
As with front-, rear- and all-wheel-drive, modern traction maintenance

systems tend to equalize the dynamic differences among front-, mid- and
rear-engine vehicles (Wilson, 2005). Known generally as "dynamic stability
control" systems, these computerized anti-skid systems help prevent
negative events resulting from driving beyond these vehicles‘ limits. These
systems monitor the vehicle‘s accelerative forces and very quickly adjust
individual wheel speeds to reduce the chance of the driving losing control.
Manufacturers currently offer few mid- and rear-engine vehicles. The front-
engine configuration remains the most popular layout. However, driving
instructors may find themselves in a position to field questions about the
difference among engine locations. It is hoped that this article contributes to
preparing instructors to provide accurate information on this topic.
143

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VEHICLE CODY ENGINEERING AND SAFETY M A QADEER SIDDIQUI

VEHICLE CODY ENGINEERING AND SAFETY M A QADEER SIDDIQUI

UNIt2: Shaping and packaging:

Unit4: Load distribution:

Unit5: Body Fitting and I control:

Unit 6: Noise, vibration, harshness:

VEHICLE CODY ENGINEERING AND SAFETY M A QADEER SIDDIQUI

VEHICLE CODY ENGINEERING AND SAFETY M A QADEER SIDDIQUI

Aluminum Alloy Sheets for Automobile Panel

Automotive panel materials (engine hoods, trunk lids, doors, etc.)

VEHICLE CODY ENGINEERING AND SAFETY M A QADEER SIDDIQUI

VEHICLE CODY ENGINEERING AND SAFETY M A QADEER SIDDIQUI

Extrusion produces compressive and shear forces in the stock. No tensile is

VEHICLE CODY ENGINEERING AND SAFETY M A QADEER SIDDIQUI

Cold Extrusion: Cold extrusion is the process done at room temperature or

• No oxidation takes place.

• Good mechanical properties due to severe cold working as long as the

• Good surface finish with the use of proper lubricants.

Hot Extrusion: Hot extrusion is done at fairly high temperatures,

In metalworking, casting involves pouring liquid metal into a mold, which

VEHICLE CODY ENGINEERING AND SAFETY M A QADEER SIDDIQUI

Austenitic stainless steel

Carbon steel on cooling transforms from Austenite to a mixture of ferrite and

Austenitic steels are not susceptible to hydrogen cracking, therefore pre-

VEHICLE CODY ENGINEERING AND SAFETY M A QADEER SIDDIQUI

Ferrite Stainless steel

Plain chromium steels (12 to 27 percent chromium) with

VEHICLE CODY ENGINEERING AND SAFETY M A QADEER SIDDIQUI

Alloy steel - steel whose characteristics are determined by the addition of

VEHICLE CODY ENGINEERING AND SAFETY M A QADEER SIDDIQUI

DIFFERENT TYPES OF COMPOSITES

What are composite materials?

Although many man-made materials have two or more constituents, such as

The most common composite is the fibrous composite consisting of

Composites have properties, which could not be achieved by either of the

VEHICLE CODY ENGINEERING AND SAFETY M A QADEER SIDDIQUI

Different type of composites

Actually the production of composites is an attempt to copy nature. Wood is

And for man-made composites, there are polymer matrix composites

Metal Matrix Composites (MMC‘s) - Increasingly found in the mobile

Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC‘s) - Used in very high temperature

Disadvantages of composite materials

Although composite materials have certain advantages over conventional

FRP (Fiber Rain forced Composites)

Faber-reinforced plastic (FRP) (also fiber-reinforced polymer) is a composite

VEHICLE CODY ENGINEERING AND SAFETY M A QADEER SIDDIQUI

A polymer is generally manufactured by Step-growth polymerization or

Fiberglass-reinforced plastic is one of the strongest and most

Bedford manufactures most of its profiles out of fiberglass-reinforced

 Resin, such as polyester or vinyl ester;

These materials work in concert to provide a specific set of strength and

 Light weight with high strength

VEHICLE CODY ENGINEERING AND SAFETY M A QADEER SIDDIQUI

 Rapid installation with standard tools

MMC (Metal Matrix composites)

A metal matrix composite (MMC) is composite material with at least two

The matrix is the monolithic material into which the reinforcement is

The reinforcement material is embedded into the matrix. The reinforcement

VEHICLE CODY ENGINEERING AND SAFETY M A QADEER SIDDIQUI

Continuous reinforcement uses monofilament wires or fibers such as carbon

The Weymann system comprises an ultra-light wood framework with special

VEHICLE CODY ENGINEERING AND SAFETY M A QADEER SIDDIQUI