H

ILL IN 0 S
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN

PRODUCTION NOTE
University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign Library
Large-scale Digitization Project, 2007.
 ABSTRACT

THE CRACKING OF CONCRETE IN HIGH-

WAY PAVEMENTS AND STRUCTURES IS UNDESIR-
ABLE SINCE CRACKING OF THE CONCRETE IS
ASSOCIATED WITH THE DETERIORATION OF
BOTH THE CONCRETE AND REINFORCING STEEL.
MANY STUDIES ON THE PHENOMENON OF CRACK-
ING IN PLAIN AND REINFORCED CONCRETE
HAVE BEEN CONDUCTED; HOWEVER, THESE
INVESTIGATIONS HAVE CORRELATED THE
CRACKING OF CONCRETE WITH VARIOUS PARA-
METERS OF THE CONCRETE AND THE ENVIRON-
MENT, BUT HAVE NOT CONSIDERED THE MECHA-
NISM OF CRACKING.
A THREE-PHASE INVESTIGATION WAS
UNDERTAKEN TO PROVIDE A BETTER UNDER-
STANDING OF THE INITIATION AND GROWTH
OF CRACKS IN CONCRETE, WHICH IS ESSEN-
TIAL IF CRACKING OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES
IS TO BE CONTROLLED. THE EFFECT OF
SEVERAL CONCRETE PARAMETERS ON THE FRAC-
TURE TOUGHNESS (MATERIAL'S RESISTANCE
TO PROPAGATION OF AN EXISTING FLAW) IS
PRESENTED. A SYSTEMS-TYPE ANALYSIS IS
PRESENTED TO DESCRIBE THE COMPLEX CRACK-
ING MECHANISM IN CONCRETE STRUCTURES,
AND MODELS ARE DEVELOPED FOR STUDYING
CRACKING IN CONCRETE BEAMS AND RIGID
PAVEMENTS. AN APPROXIMATE SOLUTION FOR
THE PROBLEM OF SHRINKAGE STRESSES IN
PLAIN AND REINFORCED CONCRETE MEMBERS
WHICH ARE EXTERNALLY LOADED IS DEVELOPED.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study was conducted as a part of the research

under the Illinois Cooperative Highway Research Program
Project IHR-92, "The Control of Cracking of Concrete."
The project has been undertaken by the Engineering
Experiment Station of the University of Illinois in
cooperation with the Illinois Division of Highways of
the State of Illinois and the U.S. Department of Trans-
portation, Federal Highway Administration, Bureau of
Public Roads.
On the part of the University, the work covered
by this report was carried out under the general admin-
istrative supervision of D. C. Drucker, Dean of the
College of Engineering, R. J. Martin, Director of the
Engineering Experiment Station, T. J. Dolan, Head of
the Department of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics,
and Ellis Danner, Director of the Illinois Cooperative
Highway Research Program and Professor of Civil Engi-
nee ring.
On the part of the Illinois Division of Highways,
the work was under the administrative direction of
R. H. Golterman, Chief Highway Engineer, and J. E. Burke,
Engineer of Research and Development.
Technical advice was provided by a Project Advisory
Committee consisting of the following personnel:
Representing the Illinois Division of Highways:
J. E. Burke, Engineer of Research and
Development
R. L. Duncan, Field Engineer
W. Griffin, Structural Design Engineer

Representing the University of Illinois:

J. L. Lott, formerly Assistant Professor of
Theoretical and Applied Mechanics
G. M. Sinclair, Professor of Theoretical
and Applied Mechanics
C. E. Kesler, Professor of Theoretical and
Applied Mechanics and of Civil Engineering and David Raecke,
Research Associate in the Department of Theoretical and
Applied Mechanics, served as Chairman and Secretary,
respectively, of the Project Advisory Committee.
 CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCT ION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I

1.1 Genera l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2 Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.3 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.4 Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

II. EFFECT OF CONCRETE PARAMETERS

ON FRACTURE TOUGHNESS . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2.2 Experimental Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2.3 Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2.4 -Discussion of Results.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

III. CRACK MECHANISM FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES . . . . . . . 10

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3.2 Fracture System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3.3 Fracture of Concrete Structures. . . . . . . .. . 11

IV. ANALYTICAL STUDY OF CRACK DEVELOPMENT

ASSOCIATED WITH VOLUME CHANGE . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

iv
 4.2 Development of Stiffness Matrix for
Finite Element Analysis. . . . . . . . .. . . . . 14

4.3 Application of the Method and

Boundary Conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

V. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

5.1 Effect of Concrete Parameters

on Fracture Toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

5.2 Crack Mechanism for Concrete Structures. . . . . 21

5.3 Analytical Study of Crack Development

Associated with Volume Change. . . . . . . . . . 2 1

VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

6.1 Object and Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

6.2 Results of Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

6.3 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 25

VII. SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH . . . . . . . . . . . 27

VI I I. REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 28

IX. APPENDIX I, USER'S GUIDE FOR

COMPUTER PROGRAM IN FORTRAN IV. . . . . . . . . . . . 29

X. APPENDIX II, COMPUTER PROGRAM IN FORTRAN IV

FOR DETERMINATION OF VOLUME CHANGE STRESSES
IN PLAIN AND REINFORCED CONCRETE USING
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
 FIGURES

Test Setup.
Typical Load - Deformation Curves: Concrete.
Maximum Load and Effective Fracture Toughness vs a/w.
Effect of w/c Ratio on K .
c,
Effect of Air Content on K .
Effect of Curing Time on Kc : Mortars and Pastes. -I

Effect of Curing Time and Type of Coarse Aggregate on K : Concretes.

Effect of Fine Aggregate on K': Mortars.c

Effect of Fine Aggregate on K : Concretes.

c
Effect of Fineness Modulus of Coarse Aggregate on K : Concretes.
-I c
Effect of Coarse Aggregate on K : Concretes.
Schematic of Fracture System.
Cracked Concrete Element from Reinforced Concrete Body.
Reinforced Concrete Tension Member.
Cracked Concrete Element from Tension Member.
Load, T, vs a /d e for Different Unbonded Lengths, A .
Cracked Rigid Pavement.
A Typical Element.
Reinforced Concrete Model.
I. INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL 1.3 SCOPE

Undesirable cracking of concrete 1.3.1 Effect of Concrete Parameters
on Fracture Toughness
in highway pavements and structures is
associated with the deterioration of The fracture toughnesses* of sever-
both the concrete and the reinforcing al pastes, mortars, and concretes were
steel. Corrective maintenance is costly determined by flexural tests of speci-
and inconvenient so that ideal designs mens containing flaws of various depths
should minimize the size of cracks in cast at the center of the tensile sur-
hardened concrete. Such a control can face. Variables in the tests were:
be improved through a basic understand- water-cement ratio, air content, degree
ing of crack development in concrete. of hydration, sand-cement ratio, gravel-
Many studies of cracking in plain cement ratio, and gradation and type of
and reinforced concrete have been con- coarse aggregate.
ducted. However, these investigations
have correlated the cracking of concrete 1.3.2 Crack Mechanism for Concrete
Structures
with various parameters without consid-
ering how cracking occurs. A systems-type analysis was used
to describe the complex cracking mecha-
1.2 OBJECT nism that occurs in concrete structures.
The object of this investigation The cracking mechanism in a reinforced
is to determine the effect of concrete beam subjected to a pure moment, and
parameters (mix design) on the cracking the cracking mechanism in a reinforced
of concrete, to study the complex crack- concrete member with the steel loaded
ing mechanism in concrete structures, in tension was examined by this approach.
and to develop an analytical solution
for the problem of volume-change stresses 1.3.3 Analytical Study of Crack
reinforced concrete. The
Development Associated with
for plain and
Volume Change
result, a better understanding of the
An approximate solution for the
initiation and growth of cracks in con-
problem of shrinkage stresses in plain
crete, is essential to control cracking
and reinforced concrete was developed
concrete structures.
using finite element analysis. The
*Fracture toughness is the material's
method can be used to calculate stresses
resistance to propagation of an existing
flaw. in members which are externally loaded.
Cracking is incorporated into the analy- = depth of pavement
sis, and crack width and spacing can be = stress intensity factor at
the tip of a flaw
calculated.
= change in stress intensity
factor due to a load cycle
1.4 NOTATION
= effective stress intensity
A = area of steel reinforcement factor in the matrix of a
heterogeneous material
a = crack length of an edge-
that is assumed to be homo-
cracked specimen or half
geneous
the crack length of a
center-cracked specimen = symmetrical stiffness ma-
trix for one element
a1 , a 2 = constants relating the vol-
ume change strains at any = symmetrical stiffness ma-
point in the element to the trix for the entire model
y-coordinate of the point = critical stress intensity
a' = crack length from level of factor at the onset of
reinforcement to the crack rapid, unstable crack
tip propagation
B = flexure specimen width = effective fracture tough-
ness
b = height of an element
= average effective fracture
[C] = matrix relating stresses
toughness for a test series
to strains
= stress intensity factor
C1, C2 = coefficients for different for the concrete subjected
crack lengths only to the resultant for-
c = cement content of a partic- ces at the level of the
ular mix, by weight steel

C , . S.,c8 = constants relating the dis- = stress intensity factor

placements of a point in an for the concrete subjected
element to the coordinates only to moments M
of that point = stress intensity factor
= a matrix relating strains for the concrete subjected
to displacements only to the axial force P
= length of an element = stress intensity factor
resulting from a series of
= effective depth of reinforced
forces and/or moments
concrete tension member
= shear span
= effective modulus of elas-
ticity of the concrete = length of reinforced con-
crete tension member
= a column matrix representing
the forces at the nodal = unbonded length of steel
points of one element reinforcement in concrete
tension member
= a column matrix representing
forces at all nodes = applied bending moment
= bond forces = moments applied to a rein-
forced concrete beam
= a force at a point i in the
elemen t = total number of nodes in
the model
= a column matrix representing
the nodal forces in an ele- = applied load
ment resulting from volume = polar coordinates
change
= one-half distance over
= critical energy-release rate which concrete is examined
at the onset of rapid, un- in reinforced concrete beam
stable crack propagation subjected to constant moment
 = force transmitted across A = crack opening displacement
cracked section in tension at level of reinforcement
member for equilibrium con-
ditions [E] = a column matrix representing
the strains in an element
= force which concrete trans- T
E. = transpose of matrix of com-
mits across the cracked I
patible strains due to a
section in reinforced con-
unit displacement in the
crete tension member
direction of F.
I
T = force in steel at cracked
s = normal strain in x-direction
section in concrete tension x
in an element
member
= normal strain in y-direction
t = thickness of reinforced con- y in an element
crete tension member
= normal volume change strain
[u] = column matrix representing xs
in the x-direction
the displacements at the
four nodes of an element E = normal volume change strain
ys
in the y-direction
[u] = a column matrix of displace-
ments at all nodes [1 = nondimensionalized coordi-
nate y/b
u = x-displacement of a point
x
in the element = nondimensionalized coordi-
nate x/d
u = y-displacement of a point
y in the element [o] = a column matrix representing
the stresses in an element
w = flexure specimen depth
= a matrix representing volume
w = water content of a particu-
change stresses
lar mix, by weight
x = stress normal to y-z plane
x,y = cartesian coordinate system
in x-direction
of axes with origin at lower
left-hand node of an element = stress normal to x-z plane
in y-direction
= shear strain in an element
"xy T
xy = shear stress on plane perpen-
= shear volume change strain
Yxys dicular to x-axis in y-
in an element direction
II. EFFECT OF CONCRETE PARAMETERS ON FRACTURE TOUGHNESS

2.1 INTRODUCTION propagation yields the critical stress

2.1.1 Linear-Elastic Fracture Mechanics intensity K which is assumed to be a
Linear-elastic fracture mechanics material property called the fracture
is a study of the stress and displace- toughness, i.e., the material's resis-
ment fields near the tip of a flaw in an tance to propagation of an existing
ideal, homogeneous, elastic material at flaw. Fracture can thus be predicted
the onset of rapid, unstable crack prop- for a structure since crack propagation
agation, i.e., fracture. Its concepts will occur when the stress intensity
are most applicable to brittle materials factor reaches its limiting condition
in which the inelastic region near the K .
c
crack tip is small compared to flaw and As the ratio of plastic zone size
specimen dimensions so that elastic to specimen dimensions increases, the
stress field equations provide a good inelastic region becomes significant
approximation ( :* and adjustments must be made to correct
for effects of plastic strains adjacent
K e [sn 3S
a = - cos [1-sin sin 3 2
to the crack tip region.(2) An exact
solution to correct for the zone of
cos [+sin 8
- sin -- , (1)
S=--- 2 yielding is presently unknown; however,
y C os 2
an approximate solution can be attained
K . 9 6 36 by assuming a crack tip extension to
r = -- sn - cos - cos -- ,
xy 2-- 2 2 2 the central portion of the inelastic
region and solving the problem with
where r and 8 are polar coordinates with elastic stress field equations for the
origin at the crack tip. increased crack length.
Equation (1) indicates that the
stress and displacement fields can be 2.1.2 Applications of Fracture Mechanics
to Concrete
expressed in terms of a stress intensity
Several applications of linear-
factor K which is a function of loading
elastic fracture mechanics have been made
and crack geometry. The evaluation of
to pastes, mortars, and concretes.
K at the onset of rapid, unstable crack
Concrete, a polyphase material, has a
more complex fracture process than a
*Superscript numbers in parentheses
homogeneous, ideally brittle material.
refer to entries in References, Chap-
ter VII. Fracture of the concrete can occur by
fracture of the cement paste, fracture the aggregate percentages remained con-
of the aggregate, failure of the bond stant; the critical stress intensity
between the cement paste and aggregate, factor was independent of fine aggre-
or any combination of these mechanisms. gate percentage for three mortars with
Kaplan was the first to apply the same water-cement ratio; the critical
fracture mechanics to concrete when he stress intensity factor varied directly
investigated one mortar and two con- with coarse aggregate content for con-
cretes. An analytical and experimental cretes with the same water-cement ratio
approach, both neglecting slow crack and fine aggregate content; and the
propagation prior to fracture, were critical stress intensity factor for
used to evaluate the critical strain concrete was found to be approximately
energy release rate G . The results 20 per cent greater than that for a
obtained by Kaplan indicated that G mortar with the same water-cement ratio
c
was influenced by the mix proportions, and fine aggregate content.
specimen dimensions, and loading.
6 )
Lott and Kesler conducted a 2.2 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
study to develop a hypothesis for 2.2.1 General
propagation of cracks in plain concrete The fracture toughnesses of sever-
and to compare the hypothesis to results al pastes, mortars, and concretes were
of an experimental investigation of determined by flexural tests of speci-
crack propagation in several mortars mens containing flaws of various depths
and concretes. It was suggested that cast at the center of the tensile sur-
7)
the critical stress intensity factor face. Parameters investigated in-
K for plain concrete was derived from cluded: water-cement ratio, air con-
the stress intensity factor of the tent, degree of hydration, sand-cement
paste and a crack arresting mechanism ratio, gravel-cement ratio, and grada-
developed by the heterogeneity of the tion and type of coarse aggregate.
concrete. Since the critical stress
intensity factor for the paste was a 2.2.2 Materials
material constant, variations in the Type I portland cement was used
critical stress intensity factor of the in all mixes. The fine aggregate used
concrete were reflected through the was a Wabash River sand from near Coving-
arresting function. The effects of ton, Indiana. Two gravels were used in
several concrete parameters (water- the concrete series: a Wabash River
cement ratio, sand-cement ratio, and gravel from near Covington, Indiana,
gravel-cement ratio) on the fracture and a crushed limestone which was ob-
toughness of the concrete were evalu- tained locally.
ated . The air-entraining agent used was
For the range of variables investi- a proprietary compound consisting of an
gated, it was found that: the critical aqueous solution of salts of sulfonated
stress intensity factor was independent hydrocarbons containing a catalyst.
of water-cement ratio for the three
mortars and for various concretes where 2.2.3 Specimen Description
 Nominal dimensions of the paste demolded and stored in a moisture room
and mortar flexural specimens were 2 by for curing at 100 per cent relative
2 by 14 in., and nominal dimensions of humidity. The specimens were removed
the concrete specimens were 4 by 4 by from the moisture room at various ages
12 in. A flaw was cast at the center and stored in water until they were
of the tensile surface of the specimens. tested.
The flaw was formed with a 0.003-in.-
thick piece of teflon-coated fiberglass 2.2.5 Testing Procedure
cloth. Nominal flaw depths were: 0.25 A hydraulic testing machine was
in., 0.5 in., and 1.0 in. for the paste used for the flexural tests. Figure I
and mortar specimens, and 0.5 in., 1.0 shows the test setup. The lower loading
in., and 1.5 in. for the concrete speci- plate acted as a dynamometer to measure
mens. Actual dimensions of the flexure load applied to the specimen. A defor-
specimens were measured after testing meter, supported by needlepoint screws,
since variations in nominal dimensions was used to measure elongation of the
occurred in fabrication. tensile surface.
Prior to each series of flexural
2.2.4 Fabrication and Curing tests, the deformeter and dynamometer
A two-cubic-foot horizontal pan were calibrated. After calibration,
mixer was used. The dry ingredients the deformeter was placed between the
were blended one minute before water was needlepoint screws of the first specimen
added to the mix. After addition of and precompressed to a pseudozero point.
the water, the mixing was continued for The recorder was zeroed and load was
three minutes. When air-entraining applied at a rate of approximately
agents were used, they were added to the 250 lb per minute for the paste and
mix water. mortar specimens and 1500 lb per minute
The flexure specimens were cast for the concrete specimens until failure
with the plane of the flaw in a vertical occurred.
position. The molds were filled in one
lift and compacted on a vibrating table. 2.3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
A total of twenty flexural specimens 2.3.1 Load-Deformation Curves
were cast in steel forms for each series During each test, a recorder plot-
of the paste and mortar series, and a ted a continuous record of deformation
total of eight flexural specimens were response against load response until
cast in plywood forms for each series failure of the flexural specimen. Typi-
of the concrete series. The exposed cal load-deformation curves for a con-
surface of all specimens was troweled crete series are presented in Figure 2.
smooth immediately after casting.
Two to four hours after casting the 2.3.2 Stress Intensity Factor
specimens were covered with wet burlap Brown and Srawley used boundary
and plastic sheeting to prevent the loss value collocation calibrations to devel-
of moisture. Approximately twenty-four op the following expression for the
hours after casting, the specimens were stress intensity factor K for a single-
edge-cracked specimen subjected to pure K' decreased 18.3 per cent when the
c
bending: water-cement ratio was increased from
0.45 to 0.60 as shown in Figure 4.
K = Y 6 Ma (2) However, in the concrete series K was
BW
2 c
independent of the water-cement ratio
where for the range of water-cement ratios
investigated as shown in Figure 4.
Y = 1.99 - 2.47 (a/W) + 12.97 (a/W) 2
3 4
- 23.17 (a/W) + 24.80 (a/W) ,
Air Content

P2. In the paste series there was a

M - ,
2 23.4 per cent decrease in K
c when the
and a is the flaw depth, W is the speci- air content was increased from 2.0 to
men depth, P is the applied load, Z is 8.0 per cent as shown in Figure 5. In
the shear span, and B is the specimen the mortar series K' decreased by 19.2
c
width. per cent when the air content was in-
In the evaluation of K using creased from 3.0 to 9.0 per cent as
c
Equation (2), it was assumed that the shown in Figure 5. K decreased by
c
material was homogeneous and the flaw 8.2 per cent when the air content in
depth at failure was equal to the cast the concrete series was increased from
flaw depth. Since concrete is hetero- 2.0 per cent to 12.0 per cent as shown
geneous and the stress intensity factor in Figure 5.
is a function of the instantaneous crack
depth, the analysis yields an effective Curing Time
stress intensity factor K rather than For 28 days moist cure K was
I C
the actual stress intensity factor. 6.5 per cent greater than K for six
The effective fracture roughness days moist cure as shown in Figure 6
K , a measure of concrete's resistance for the paste series. For the mortar
to propagation of an existing crack, is series there was a 47.5 per cent increase
the determination of K at M from in K when the length of moist cure was
max I c
Equation (2). Figure 3 presents K and increased from three days to 92 days as
P as a function of a/W for a concrete shown in Figure 6. When the length of
max
series. The horizontal line in Figure 3 moist cure was increased from three days
represents the mean value of effective to 28 days for concrete using a river
fracture toughness for the particular gravel coarse aggregate, K increased
C
test series, K 54.2 per cent. However, the increase
in Kc was only 7.7 per cent when the
2.3.3 Effect of Concrete Parameters length of moist cure was increased from
on Effective Fracture Toughness
28 days to 90 days as shown in Figure 7.
Water-Cement Ratio
When a crushed limestone coarse aggre-
In the paste series there was a gate was used, K increased 23.0 per
decrease in K of 43.3 per cent when the cent with an increase in moist cure
water-cement ratio was increased from from three days to 28 days; however,
0.27 to 0.36, while in the mortar series there was no apparent change in K
c when
the length of moist cure was increased series cast with a river gravel coarse
from 28 days to 90 days as shown in aggregate was 5.0 per cent higher than
Figure 7. The percentage increases in the concrete series cast with a crushed
K when the moist curing period was limestone coarse aggregate as shown in
c
increased from six days to 28 days for Figure 7.
the paste series, the mortar series,
the concrete series cast with a crushed 2.4 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
limestone coarse aggregate, and the 2.4.1 Behavior of Fracture Toughness
Specimens
concrete series cast with a river gravel
coarse aggregate were 6.5 per cent, The load-deformation curves (Fig-
12.4 per cent, 21.3 per cent and 24.2 ure 2) illustrate the stages of behavior
per cent, respectively. of the concrete near the tip of the
flaw: linear stage where the cement
Fine Aggregate Content paste matrix has no crack extension;
In the mortar series there was a slow cracking stage in which stable
16.2 per cent increase in K when the cracking occurs to result in a decreas-
fine aggregate content was increased ing slope of the load-deformation curve;

from 55.0 per cent to 70.0 per cent as and fracture stage where unstable crack
shown in Figure 8. However, for the propagation occurs and results in the
concrete series there was a 2.3 per cent deformation increasing without an

decrease in K when the fine aggregate increase in applied load.

c
content was increased from 35.0 per cent
to 50.0 per cent as shown in Figure 9. 2.4.2 Effect of Concrete
Parameters on R
c
Water-Cement Ratio
Gravel Content, Gradation,
and Type There was a decrease in the effec-

For the concretes cast with crushed tive fracture toughness of the paste

limestone coarse aggregate, K increased and mortar series with increasing water-

13.3 per cent when the fineness modulus cement ratio because the fracture

was increased from 6.3 to 7.1 as shown toughness was dependent on the strength

in Figure 10. When the percentage of of the cement paste matrix which was a

coarse aggregate was increased from function of gel-space ratio. With

0.0 per cent to 50.0 per cent there was increasing water contents the gel-space

a 37.0 per cent increase in K c as shown ratio decreased resulting in a reduction

in Figure 11. of strength and effective fracture

For the concrete series cast with toughness. The fine aggregate of the

limestone K c was 28.9 per mortar series reduced the effect of the
a crushed
cent, 17.7 per cent, and 1.7 per cent water-cement ratio because of the crack

higher than K for the concrete series arresting phenomenon of the fine aggre-

cast with a river gravel coarse aggre- gate particles.

three days, six days The effective fracture toughness

gate at ages of
respectively. However, at of concrete depended on both the frac-
and 28 days,
Kc for the concrete ture toughness of the paste and the
an age of 90 days,
presence of coarse aggregate. The range because the coarse aggregate particles
of water-cement ratios apparently did were much better crack arresters and
not affect the effective fracture tough- thus concealed the effect of the fine
ness of the concrete because the effect aggregate.
of the aggregate as a crack arresting
function was more significant than the Gravel Content, Gradation
and Type
effect of the water-cement ratio on the
The effective fracture toughness
paste matrix strength.
increased with an increase in maximum
size particles because the larger aggre-
Air Content
Increasing the air content of the gate particles are more effective as

matrix resulted in a decrease in effec- crack arresters. However, a maximum

size can be reached in conjunction with
tive fracture toughness because of a
a poor gradation that will produce a
reduced matrix strength. With increasing
lower effective fracture toughness
aggregate contents, the decrease was
because of the effects of segregation
not as significant because of the crack
as shown in Figure 10 for a fineness
arresting phenomenon of the aggregate.
modulus of 7.45.
An increased gravel content in-
Curing Time
creased the effective fracture toughness
The increase in effective fracture
because the larger gravel content en-
toughness with age was the result of
continuing hydration of the cement parti- larged the concentration of crack arrest-

cles to produce a higher strength. ers in the matrix.

The effective fracture toughness

Fine Aggregate Content for the crushed limestone coarse aggre-

gate was greater than the effective
The effective fracture toughness
fracture toughness for the river gravel
for the mortar increased with an increas-
coarse aggregate until 28 days, indicating
ing amount of fine aggregate because of
an increased concentration of crack that the crushed limestone apparently
developed greater bond strength. How-
arresting particles in the matrix. The
ever, after an age of 28 days the bond
effective fracture toughness of the con-
strengths for the two types of coarse
crete was not significantly affected by
aggregate appeared to be equivalent.
an increasing fine aggregate content
III. CRACK MECHANISM FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES

3.1 INTRODUCTION processes that responds to outside

Control of cracking in concrete stimuli and interacts with each other
structures subjected to varying load was developed. Quantitative analysis
and environment requires a basic under- of the system requires that the stimuli
standing of the crack mechanism to corre- and responses of the various processes
late laboratory data with service con- be expressed in compatible terms
ditions. The fracture process in con- (stress), which can be either theoreti-
crete structures is similar to the cal or empirical.
fracture that occurs in the fracture A similar system is useful for
toughness specimens of Chapter II, in analysis of cracking of concrete
that both crack growths are associated structures and is shown in Figure 12.
with a fracture phenomenon that occurs The structure ) consists of the struc-
in the highly stressed region surrounding tural elements such as concrete, rein-
the crack tip. In the fracture tough- forcement, and supports, including
ness specimen, the crack propagates when pavement base materials. The relation
the stress intensity factor of Equation between load, environment, and the
(2) reaches the effective fracture tough- stresses in the various structural
ness K c . There is no simple stress elements is required. Stress-strain
1 1)
intensity factor for a crack in a con- modifiers include flaws, cracks,
crete structure since the structural inclusions, and other stress concentra-
components interact with each other and tors. The general level of stress is
with the stress field surrounding the intensified locally near these modifiers.
crack tip. A systems-type analysis of The linear-elastic fracture mechanics
the fracture process is used to describe techniques are used to evaluate the
the complex cracking mechanism for elastic stress field surrounding sharp
concrete structures. flaws. Inelastic deformations (I I I)
may occur in regions that are highly
3.2 FRACTURE SYSTEM stressed relative to strength. These
Hahn and Rosenfield(0O) have pre- inelastic deformations modify the rela-
sented a systems-type analysis of the tive stiffness of the structural elements
fracture problem and applied it to the and cause a redistribution of stress in
fracture of metal plates and incorporated the structure. Cracking mechanisms (IV)
the effect of yielding in the region of are initiated when critical conditions

the crack tip. A fracture system of develop in the region of a crack tip,
and crack growth takes place. This separately for each action on the free
crack growth also modifies the relative body. The resultant stress field is
stiffness of the structural elements obtained by summing the individual
and results in a stress redistribution. stress intensity factors K., and the
The general fracture process of a condition of crack instability occurs
concrete structure is as follows: when the resultant K equals the effec-
The input (A) of load and environ- tive fracture toughness of the concrete
ment to the structure (1) causes stresses K .
c
to develop within the structural ele-
i=m
ments. The general stress levels are
7 K. = K - K
/ I r
transmitted (B) to any modifiers (I I) i=
in the system. The stresses are in-
creased and transmitted (D) to the 3.3 FRACTURE OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES
inelastic deformations (Ill) and trans- The analysis of concrete cracking
mitted (F) to the fracture mechanisms in structures is based on a resultant
(IV). At a critical stress level the stress intensity factor for a crack in
inelastic deformations occur and are the concrete, which is the stress modi-
transmitted back (E) to the modifiers, fier associated with the cracking
and at some critical condition existing mechanism that interacts with the loads
cracks propagate, and the effect of and the other elements of the structure.
increased crack lengths are fed back (G) A concrete body containing the crack
to the modifiers. These effects on the is isolated, and the stress intensity
modifiers are reflected back (C) to the factors for the various actions are
structure as changes in relative stiff- determined using available expressions
ness and result in stress redistribution. and summed to obtain the resultant
Inelastic deformations tend to stress intensity factor K r . Equilibrium
increase the relative stiffness of con- crack conditions, which relate crack
crete and promote cracking, while crack geometry and load, correspond to the
growth tends to reduce the relative limiting condition of Equation (3),
stiffness of the concrete and arrests
K = K. (3-1)
r c
crack growth.
The systems-type analysis of 3.3.1 Crack in Constant Moment Region
of Reinforced Concrete Beam
cracking concrete structures is based on
a free body diagram of the concrete The cracking mechanism in a rein-
portion of the structure, which is the forced concrete beam subjected to a
structural element that contains the constant moment M is analyzed by consid-
crack that will propagate. The effects ering the concrete within a distance s
of load, environment, reinforcement, of the crack as shown in Figure 13.
and other structural elements on concrete The concrete is subjected
to moments M c
fracture are obtained by superposition. and axial compressive forces P which
The stress intensity factor describing are the actions of the adjacent concrete,
the stress field surrounding the tip and of resultant bond forces Fb at the
of the crack in the concrete is evaluated level of the reinforcement, which are
the net forces transferred to the con- quantitative analysis of crack equili-
crete over the interval s. The resul- brium is based on the concrete element
tant stress intensity factor K which of Figure 15. The only forces acting
describes the stress field surrounding on the concrete are the bond forces Fb
b
the crack tip in the beam is that develop as the reinforcement elon-
gates. The unbonding at the free ends
K = KMc + Kp + K (4)
and at the cracked section affect the
where KMc is the stress intensity factor magnitude of the bond forces. The
for the concrete subjected only to the bond forces cause an opening A of the
moments Mc, Kp is the stress intensity crack at the level of the reinforcement.
factor for the concrete subjected only The stress intensity factor K may
to the axial forces P, and KF is the be expressed in terms of the bond
(1
stress intensity factor for the concrete forces Fb or the opening A. 2)
subjected only to the resultant forces
CIFb C2 Ec
at the level of the steel. Expressions K = - 1 = A
for these stress intensity factors are t d' d 2
e e
available. (1 ' 1 2) However, the magni-
tudes of Mc, P, and Fb are functions of where t is the thickness, d is the
e
the forces in the reinforcement. The effective depth, E is the modulus of
c
steel forces are dependent upon the elasticity of the concrete, and C 1 and
inelastic deformations associated with C 2 are coefficients that are evaluated
unbonding and cannot be defined with for various crack , effective lengths a
sufficient accuracy for a quantitative depths d , and .((12)
specimen lengths
e s
analysis of cracking. The maximum equilibrium crack
A qualitative analysis of cracking length corresponds to a stress intensity
indicates that KMc is the parameter that factor K that is equal to the effective
tends to cause crack extension; Kp is fracture toughness of the concrete KC',
negative for compressive forces and
K = K
tends to arrest crack growth; KF is c
negative when the bond forces Fb act The force which the concrete transmits
toward the crack and tends to arrest across the cracked section, T , is
cracking and is positive and tends to equal to the bond force Fb'
cause cracking when the load forces act
K t d
away from the cracks. T = F = c e
c b

3.3.2 Crack in Reinforced Concrete and is usually small relative to the

Tension Member
force in the steel T . The wedge open-
s
A reinforced concrete member with
ing L which corresponds to an equili-
the steel loaded in tension, Figure 14,
brium crack is
has been suggested as a useful model of
the cracking mechanism in beams,
1
3) K d 2
c e
and crack development under increasing
4 C2 Ec
load has been investigated.(1 ) A
and is assumed to be equal to the elon- Crack data from Reference (14) is
gation of the steel reinforcement over shown in Figure 16 for increasing loads.
an equivalent unbonded length £ , and The first cracks initiated in two dif-

T P ferent specimens at the 20 kip load

S EU (9) level. They corresponded to equivalent
S S
unbonded lengths of 0.5 and 1.2 in.
where T is the force in the steel at At the higher load levels of 25 and
s
the cracked section, A is the steel 35 kips, the crack lengths corresponded
area, and E is the modulus of elastic- to unbonded lengths of 1.2 to 1.5 in.
ity for steel. The total force T trans- At crack initiation there was a large
mitted across the cracked section for range in the unbonded length. As the
equilibrium conditions is load increased, the unbonded lengths
increased and the range was reduced.
K td K A E d
T = T + T = c This is an example of the interaction
c
e + c s s e (10)
s
Ci C2 u E of an inelastic deformation, the un-
bonding, with the concrete cracking
T is unique for a given equilibrium
mechanism.
crack length, and T s varies inversely
with the unbonded length A . The total 3.3.3 Crack in Rigid Pavement
load T may be calculated for a given Cracking in rigid pavements may
crack length a by substituting various be analyzed by using the cracked beam
unbonded lengths £u into Equation (10) . on an elastic foundation of Figure 17.
This has been done for the specimen The stress intensity factor should vary
geometry and material properties of with the inverse of crack length
crack specimens of Reference (14), and
the relationships between T and the K = f ( ) , (ll)
ratio of crack length to effective a /d since an increase in the crack length
are given in Figure 16 for different a transfers more load to the elastic
unbonded lengths. The effective frac- foundation in the region of the crack
ture toughness has been assumed to be and reduces the stresses on the cracked
approximately 0.6 ksiv'-n . section. The limiting condition is a
The relationships of Figure 16 in- crack through the pavement depth (a = h),
dicate the following: and the load is still transferred to
(a) The equilibrium crack lengths the foundation. This is a stable crack
a increase with total force T if the growth condition. Crack growth arrests
unbonded length 2u is constant; additional cracking until the applied
(b) The total force T transmitted load is increased. Crack growth may
across a given cracked section decreases also be caused by repeated loadings,
as the unbonded length increases; and this model should find applications
(c) An increased unbonded length in the fatigue of rigid concrete pave-
is associated with an increased crack ments.
length corresponding to a virtual load
increase.
IV. ANALYTICAL STUDY OF CRACK DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATED WITH VOLUME CHANGE

4.1 INTRODUCTION 4.2 DEVELOPMENT OF STIFFNESS MATRIX

FOR FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
The volume of concrete changes with
4.2.1 Assumptions
age through shrinkage or swelling asso-
ciated with moisture movement. Nonuni- The following assumptions are made
form volume change of concrete takes in developing the finite element model:
place because of nonuniform moisture (a) Concrete and steel have linear
exchange. Changes occur in the shape stress-strain diagrams;
of concrete members, and stresses are (b) Loads and deformations are
induced. The nonuniform shrinkage of applied to nodal points;
concrete has not been studied to the (c) Shrinkage strains are applied
same extent as uniform shrinkage, and to elements;
more information is available in the (d) A perfect bond exists between

literature on uniform shrinkage of steel and concrete;

concrete than on nonuniform or relative (e) Concrete and steel are homo-

shrinkage of concrete. geneous and isotropic materials and each

Theoretical analysis of shrinkage has an identical stress-strain relation

stresses in concrete involves a tedious in tension and compression (except con-

solution of partial differential equa- crete is assumed to fail at a limiting

tions of diffusion and compatibility. stress in tension but not in compression);

If the analysis of reinforced concrete (f) The steel element has no

is desired, these differential equations physical dimensions and is assumed to

become more complex. be present on a horizontal line of nodes

In recent years the solutions to only;
the problems that have been extremely (g) Loading is one directional.

difficult to solve by means of analyti-

cal approaches have been obtained by 4.2.2 Concrete Element

numerical computations through the use Elements of various shapes may be

of digital computers. In particular, used in the finite element analysis.

the analysis of shrinkage stresses in However, the shape of the element should

plain and reinforced concrete can be be selected so it fits the needs of the

performed by use of the finite element analysis. In this analysis a rectan-

method. gular element was selected since it fits

the structural shapes (beams and slabs) on the position of the horizontal rein-
in which shrinkage is to be studied. forcement other than being restricted
A rectangular element also allows appli- to a single line.
cation of linearly varied shrinkage
strains to any particular element. Fig- 4.2.4 Analytical Model
ure 18 depicts a typical rectangular The complete reinforced concrete
element. The four corners of the rec- model used in this study is shown in
tangle are called the nodes. The forces Figure 19. The model is assumed to be
and displacements that are to be applied of unit thickness, although this is not
to the structural element being analyzed a necessary requirement for the analysis.
by the finite element method must be Boundary conditions specified at
applied through these nodal points. the nodal points on the model can be
The stresses and strains in any varied to fit a specific problem, i.e.,
one element are not constants, but a fixed condition at the left end of
depend on the coordinates of the point the beam is realized when the displace-
at which they are evaluated. The coor- ments in the x- and y-directions are
dinates of a point in any one element set equal to zero for all the nodes at
are measured from a set of axes with the left-most side of the model. Loads
the origin at the lower left node of are applied at the nodes, and distri-
the element as shown in Figure 18. buted loads are represented by a series
A set of stresses, x' , T xy, is of concentrated loads acting at the
calculated for each node and also for nodes. If the model is loaded by in-
the center of the element. Principal ducing deformations on it, the deforma-
stresses are calculated at the center tions must also be applied at the nodes.
of the element. In order to detect the Only strains are applied to the ele-
occurrence of cracking in an element, ments.
the maximum principal stress is compared
with the limiting stress at which con- 4.2.5 Derivation of Stiffness Matrix
for One Element
crete is assumed to crack.
In this study the finite element
4.2.3 Steel Element problem is restricted to two dimensions
The physical size of steel is resulting in either a plane stress or
usually small compared to concrete. In plane strain condition. The stiffness
particular, when one considers shrinkage matrix is derived for the general case
reinforcement, this difference in size partly from the work of Przemieniecki(15)
becomes very noticeable. In this study, and will be valid for both plane stress
the steel element is assumed to have no and plane strain.
physical dimension but only mechanical Consider the element in Figure 18.
properties. The steel is assumed to be To simplify the analysis, the nondimen-
present along a line of horizontal nodal sionalized coordinates e = x/d and rn =
points as shown in Figure 19. No steel y/b are used.(15) The displacements at
is assumed to be present inside the con- any point in an element are functions
crete elements. There is no restriction of the coordinates of the point and will
be assumed to be of the following to displacements and [u] is a column
nature: matrix representing the displacements
at the four nodes of an element. It is
u = C1 s + C2Cn + C3n + C4
x (12) important to note that the strain in
u = Cs5 + C 6 Vn + C 7r1 + C8
each element is not a constant, but is
where: dependent on the coordinates of the
ux, u are displacements in the x- point at which it is to be evaluated.
and y-directions and C 1 , C 2 ,..., The stress-strain relationship for
C8 are constants which can be eval- the element can be represented in matrix
uated from the following boundary notation as
conditions:
[a] = [C] [e] (14)
at (0, 0) u = ui, u = u2
x y where [C] is a matrix relating stresses
(0, b) u = u3, u = U4
x y to strains and [e] is a column matrix
(d, b) u = us, u = u6
x y representing the strains in an element.
(d, 0) u = uy, u = uO
x y Substitution of Equation (13a) into
The displacements will then be repre- Equation (14) yields
sented by
[c] = [C] [D] [u] , (15)
u = (l-c)(l-n)u 1 + (l-O)nu3 + Tnus which relates the stresses to the nodal
+ C(1-n)u7 , (12a) displacements for one element.
u = (I-0)(l-nl)u2 + (I-O)nu4 + ýTu6 A typical force F. at a point i
+ C(l-n)u8 . in the element can be calculated by
(1
the unit displacement theorem 5)
The total strains can be determined by
differentiating the displacement equa-
F. = f T a dV (16)
tions

au au
x d x where:
Sx = x = d '
T
C. = transpose of matrix of compat-
Du I au ible strains due to a unit
Ey =y b=
b -
•rn ' (13) displacement in the direction
of F.,
au Du x I u u
uI a = stress matrix resulting from
Yxy ay ax b all forces acting on the ele-
3n d '
ment,
dV = element of volume in the
where E and e
are the normal strains
x y element,
in the x- and y-directions, respective-
= integration over total volume
ly, and xy is the shear strain.
Sof the element.
The strain-displacement relation- v
ship for the rectangular element becomes The forces at the nodal points of
in matrix notation the elements can be found by substituting
the matrices into Equation (16) and then
[E] = [D] [u] (13a)
integrating the product over the total
where [D] is a matrix relating strains
volume of the element.
to displacements and [u] is a column
FIGURE 1. TEST SETUP
6.6

6.0

5.4

4.8

4.2

3.6

3.0

2.4

1.8 - a/w=0.125

1.2

0.6
0 V

0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0 0.001 0002 0.003

Deformation, A., in. Deformation, AA, in.

3.

3.'

2.
2.'

2.

1.1

O.c

O.(

0.:
I
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0 0.001 0.002 0003
Deformation, A&, in. Deformation, tA, in.

FIGURE 2. TYPICAL LOAD-DEFORMATION CURVES: CONCRETE

 0K

0
E
CL
n

o,
'U

E
0
E

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

o/w

FIGURE 3. MAXIMUM LOAD AND EFFECTIVE

FRACTURE TOUGHNESS VS A/W.

0.8
o Concrete -
a Pastes -----
* Mortors -
0.7

0.6

05
5-.--.

-S.--
-S.
-5
04

,' S -S.--.- 5-

0.3

0.2

.I

0
0.25 0.30 035 0.40 045 050 0.55 0.60 065 0,70
w/c

FIGURE 4. EFFECT OF W/C RATIO ON R c

 0 2.0 4.0 6.0 80 10.0 12.0 14.0
Air Content, Percent

FIGURE 5. EFFECT OF AIR CONTENT ON Rc

Log Days

FIGURE 6. EFFECT OF CURING TIME ON K c: MORTARS & PASTES

 A-)

Log Days

FIGURE 7. EFFECT OF CURING TIME AND TYPE

OF COARSE AGGREGATE ON K c: CONCRETES

0.8

0.7

0.6

05

0.3

0.2-

0.1

0 ___
50 55 60 65 70 75
Fine Aggregate by Weight, per cent

FIGURE 8. EFFECT OF FINE AGGREGATE ON K c: MORTARS

 0.8

0.7

0.6 -

05

02

02-- --- -- --- --

30 40 50 63
.

65
67
69
71
d
., ,.
3

Fine Aggregate by Weight, per cent Fineness Modulus

FIGURE 9. EFFECT OF FINE AGGREGATE FIGURE 10. EFFECT OF FINENESS MODULUS

ON R c: CONCRETES OF COARSE AGGREGATE ON R c: CONCRETES

08 -

0.7 ---- --- -- ---

_--

0.6

0.4 ------ -------

0,3----------- -
tOAD I ENVIRONMENT
03

02

0.1

0o
o 10 20 30 40 50
Coarse Aggregate by Weight, per cert

FIGURE 11. EFFECT OF COARSE AGGREGATE FIGURE 12. SCHEMATIC OF

ON K c: CONCRETES FRACTURE SYSTEM

 Ic

(
FIGURE 13. CRACKED CONCRETE ELEMENT FROM REINFORCED CONCRETE BODY

FIGURE 14. REINFORCED CONCRETE TENSION MEMBER

FIGURE 15. CRACKED CONCRETE ELEMENT FROM TENSION MEMBER

 0 01 02 03 04 05 0.6 0.7 0e 09 1.0
FIGURE
16.
LOAD,
T,
VS
/dFOR

FIGURE 16. LOAD, T, VS 6/d e FOR DIFFERENT UNBONDED LENGTHS, ku

FIGURE 17. CRACKED RIGID PAVEMENT Id 4

d

FIGURE 18. A TYPICAL ELEMENT

L
I-JL-^ -Steel
m

FIGURE 19. REINFORCED CONCRETE MODEL

r•- a -'-i
 Yxys = shearing shrinkage strain,
a, and a2 = constants,
[F] = ( ; [B]T [C] [B] dV [u]
n = y/b.
v (17) Equation (18) can be written in matrix
notation as:
where [F] is a column matrix represent-
ing the forces at the four nodal points
al + a2n
of the xs
element, [D] is the transpose
remaining expressions al + a2nT (18a)
of [D], and the
are as defined above. 0
Yxys
The final equation can be expressed
in matrix notation as follows: The reason for assuming e and e
xs ys
being equal at any particular point in
[F] = [K) [u] (17a)
the element is that these shrinkage
where:
strains are very similar in nature to
T
[K] = f [D] [C] [D] dV. thermal strains. Other assumptions
v concerning the distributions of shrink-
[K] is called the stiffness matrix
age stresses can be incorporated into
for one element and it relates the nodal
the analysis.
point forces to the nodal point displace-
The forces that are induced at
ments. The stiffness matrix of the en-
each node as a result of the shrinkage
tire system can be obtained by directly
strains must be found in order to incor-
adding the contribution of each individ-
porate the effect of shrinkage strains
ual element stiffness in the proper
in the model. Consider Figure 18 and
location.
assume that the element is acted upon

4.2.6 Incorporation of Shrinkage by a state of shrinkage strain of the

Strains in the Model type described above. The forces pro-
The free shrinkage strain at any duced by this state of strain can be
point in an element is a function of found by using the fact that the work
the relative humidity at that point. done by the external forces must equal
For purposes of consistency of the dis- the change of the internal energy.
placements u , u , the shrinkage strains
for a specimen drying from one side only [F ]T[u] = f [a ]T[e] dV
(19)
are assumed to be defined by the follow-
ing formulas:
where:
n
xs = al + a2 , [u] = matrix of unit displacements
at the nodes of the element;
e = ai + a21 , (18)
ys [F i = transpose of the matrix of
, forces that are produced at
y xys = 0
the nodes as a result of
where : shrinkage strains;
T
E = normal shrinkage strain in [ao] = transpose of the matrix of
xs x-direction stresses produced by shrink-
age strains;
e = normal shrinkage strain in
ys y-direction
 [e] = matrix of strains produced [u] = a 2 n x 1 column matrix of
by unit displacements at the displacements at all nodes;
nodes; [E] = [D] since the
magnitude of the displacement [F ] = a 2n x 1 column matrix of
is unity; -- forces induced at nodal
points by shrinkage strains;
dV = element of volume in the
element; n = total number of nodes.
Eouation (23) represents a system of
= integration over total volume
of the element. 2n simultaneous equations which can be
v solved for the nodal displacements.
From the stress-strain relationship These equations are derived from the
force equilibrium equations in the x-
[os] = [C][ei]
and y-directions, i.e., the sum of all
and
the forces in the x- and y-directions
[ ]T[C]T ,
[ T = at any node must equal zero unless a

however, since boundary condition is defined at the

[C] is a symmetric matrix
[C] T
= [C]. Therefore, node. When a boundary condition is
defined at a node the sum of the forces
[0 T = [ i] T C] (20)
at the node will equal the external
The forces resulting from shrinkage load applied at that node.
strains can be found by substituting
Equation (20) into Equation (19), thus 4.2.7 Development of Cracks

[Fs]T = f [ ]T[c][D] dV. Stresses are calculated at five

v (21) points for every element -- the four

corners and the center of the element.
The final equation that relates nodal
The principal stresses and the direction
forces to nodal displacements and shear-
of the maximum principal stress are
ing strains is
calculated at the center of every ele-
[F] = [K][u] + [Fs]. (22) ment. The maximum principal stress at

As a result of the center is compared to a limiting

shrinkage strains,
stress for cracking and if it exceeds
nodal forces are produced which may be
the limiting stress, the element is
obtained for the entire model by adding
assumed to have cracked and thus does
the contributions of individual elements
not carry any tensile stresses. When
in the proper locations. The equation
cracking does occur, the element can
relating nodal forces to nodal displace-
be completely ignored since the loading
ments and shrinkage strains for the en-
is assumed to be one directional. If
tire model is
the stresses in two or more horizontally
[F] = [K] [u] + [F ] (23)
adjacent elements exceed the limiting
where: stress at the same time, the element
[F] = a 2n x I column matrix of with the largest stress is assumed to
forces at all nodes;
be cracked. Cracks are found through
[K] = a 2n x 2n symmetrical stiff-
an iteration process and every time a
ness matrix for the entire
body; new crack appears the analysis is re-
peated in order to find other cracks
that might have appeared as a result of assumed that all of the elements in a
the new crack. Thus the crack pattern row are under the influence of the same
in the model is developed and the direc- shrinkage strain. The volume change
tion of each crack is also calculated. strain is assumed to be positive if it
It should be noted, however, that since produces expansion and negative if it
a cracked element is assumed to carry produces contraction.
no stress, no two horizontally adjacent The steel stresses are limited by
elements can be cracked. This requires the assumption of perfect bond between
that the length of each element not the steel and concrete.
exceed one-half of the expected crack The method is not limited to con-
spacing. crete but can be used to evaluate the
stresses for any material.
4.3 APPLICATION OF THE METHOD AND
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
4.3.2 Boundary Conditions
4.3.1 Application of Method
Boundary conditions are limited
The method developed can be applied
only in the sense that the conditions
to any member with a shape that can be
are applied at the nodes. To represent
approximated by rectangular elements.
a roller, the vertical displacement at
The assumptions that were made in devel-
the node on the roller is set equal to
oping the method must also be reasonably
zero. To represent a pin connection,
valid, i.e., since it is assumed that
both the horizontal and vertical dis-
the stress-strain diagram for concrete
placements at the node are set equal to
is linear, the maximum compressive stress
zero. To represent a fixed end, the
in the concrete must remain below a
horizontal and vertical displacements
reasonable limit.
of all the nodes at that end are set
The loads are applied to the nodes
equal to zero. Other boundary conditions
and the directions of the loads are
may be applied similarly. Boundary
governed by the set of axes assumed for
conditions that partially limit the
the model, i.e., loads acting in the
movement of a node, such as a spring,
positive x- and y-directions are assumed
can be applied if modifications are
positive. If there are any applied dis-
made in the digital computer program.
placements, they follow the same sign
convention. Volume change strain is 4.3.3 Computer Program for Deterimination
applied to the elements and two values of Volume Change Stresses in
Plain and Reinforced Concrete
of volume change strain are specified,
Using Finite Element Analysis
one at the top side and one at the bot-
The computer program VCSC (Volume
tom side of the element. It is assumed
Change Stresses in Concrete), prepared
that there is a linear strain variation
in FORTRAN IV, and a User's Manual are
between the two values of volume change
contained in the Appendix.
strain for the element. It is further
V. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

5.1 EFFECT OF CONCRETE PARAMETERS ON The effective fracture toughness

FRACTURE TOUGHNESS
of concrete was found to be directly
The effective fracture toughness proportional to both coarse aggregate
was not significantly affected by the content and gradation of coarse aggre-
fine aggregate content (30.0 per cent gate. Thus, by increasing or decreasing
to 50.0 per cent, by weight), air con- the percentage of coarse aggregate, or
tent (4.0 per cent to 10.0 per cent), increasing or decreasing the maximum
and water-cement ratio (5.7 gal/sack to aggregate size, or a combination of
7.3 gal/sack). Since the range of the both, the fracture toughness can be ad-
parameters investigated was inclusive justed. However, if the fracture tough-
of most mix designs, they can be neglect- ness is to be increased by using a larg-
ed in designing for a mix of high or low er maximum size coarse aggregate, the
fracture toughness (material's resis- gradation of coarse aggregate must be
tance to propagation of an existing uniform to minimize segregation and its
flaw). Although only two types of detrimental effects. Limitations will
coarse aggregate were used in the inves- be placed on maximum aggregate size by
tigation, the results suggest that the design considerations, i.e., size and
effect of type of coarse aggregate on shape of the concrete members, amount
the fracture toughness was similar to and distribution of reinforcing steel,
the effect of type of coarse aggregate etc.
on the bond strength between coarse Since the major aim of crack con-
aggregate and cement paste or mortar.(16) trol is to minimize crack width by
Thus, high quality aggregates (homoge- increasing the number of cracks in
neous, low absorption, high modulus of hardened concrete, the design of a
elasticity relative to cement paste, concrete mix to maximize the high frac-
etc.) should be used to develop mixes ture toughness is not necessarily the
with high fracture toughness values answer. It also may be advisable to
(gradation requirements previously make a sacrifice in the desired fracture
stated would apply to all types of ag- toughness value so that small flaws can
gregate). The variables significantly form to act as stress relievers. These
affecting the fracture toughness of con- small flaws would prevent the buildup
crete can be limited to the coarse aggre- of stress values in the concrete that
gate content and gradation of coarse can lead to formation of large cracks
aggregate. which could allow the ingress of water
to cause corrosion of the reinforcement forced concrete member with the steel
which could then result in rapid deter- loaded in tension. Since the only
ioration of the concrete. However, in forces acting on the concrete are the
the design of all mixes the objectives bond forces which develop as the rein-
of required qualities of hardened con- forcement elongates, the stress inten-
crete, workability of fresh concrete, sity factor can be expressed in terms
and economy should be maintained even of either the bond forces or the crack
if it means a sacrifice in fracture opening displacement at the level of
toughness. the reinforcement. The total force
transmitted across the cracked section
5.2 CRACK MECHANISM FOR CONCRETE for equilibrium conditions for a given
STRUCTURES
crack length and different lengths of
In order to control the cracking unbonding can be calculated from the
of concrete structures due to varying specimen geometry and material proper-
load and environment, a systems-type ties for the cracked specimen.
analysis can be used to describe the Cracking in rigid pavements may
complex cracking mechanism for a rein- be analyzed by using a cracked beam on
forced concrete beam subjected to a con- an elastic foundation. The stress in-
stant moment, for a reinforced concrete tensity factor varies inversely with
member with the steel loaded in tension, crack length since an increase in the
and for a cracked beam on an elastic crack length transfers more load to the
foundation. structure in the region of the crack
A reinforced beam subjected to a and thus reduces the stresses on the
constant moment may be analyzed using cracked section. This crack growth
the approach developed. The resultant arrests additional cracking until the
stress intensity factor is the sum of load is increased. The limiting condi-
the individual stress intensity factors tion is reached when the crack has
for the concrete being subjected only propagated through the pavement depth
to a moment, for the concrete being sub- while the load is still transferred to
jected only to axial forces, and for the foundation (stable crack growth
the concrete being only subjected to condition). Also, this model finds
the resultant forces at the level of application to crack growth under re-
the reinforcement. Since expressions peated random loads in rigid concrete
for the individual stress intensity pavements, but quantitative results
factors are available in the litera- cannot be derived until data becomes
ll 12
ture ' ) the resultant stress inten- available on the change in crack length
sity factor can be determined. When as a function of stress intensity factor
the resultant stress intensity factor related to repeated loads.
becomes equal to or exceeds the critical
stress intensity factor the crack will 5.3 ANALYTICAL STUDY OF CRACK DEVELOP-
MENT ASSOCIATED WITH VOLUME CHANGE
propagate until it is arrested.
The cracking mechanism in beams The computer program VCSC (Volume
can be anproximated by using a rein- Change Stresses in Concrete) is prepared
 in FORTRAN IV for the solution of stres- and may lead to cracks if the rate of
ses caused by volume change in plain and drying is rapid enough. Under such
reinforced concrete. The program is conditions this method can be used to
capable of solving cases in which the predict cracking patterns and stress
model is subjected to external and/or distributions for various strengths of
internal displacements as well as volume concretes, amount of reinforcement, and
change strains. The program uses the thickness of concrete cover, when the
finite element method of analysis. The shrinkage stresses are dominant.
elements are rectangles of equal size. The boundary conditions used to
Nodal displacements, normal stresses, simulate a bridge deck or a highway
and shearing stress at each node of each pavement could be rollers on the bottom
element, normal stresses, shearing stress of the model with a corner node fixed
maximum principal stress, minimum prin- in both the x- and y- directions. The
cipal stress, and direction of maximum model should be long enough so the com-
principal stress at the center of the putation of stresses and displacements
same element, and steel stresses for would converge to their actual values
each element of steel result from the over a range of length which is suffi-
solution of each problem in the order ciently long for a crack pattern to
given. develop. In general it is suggested
In their early life, highway pave- that the stresses and deformations not
ments and bridge decks are subjected to be taken at points which are closer than
shrinkage stresses that may be the two columns of elements to a side bound-
primary stresses acting on the members ary.
VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

6.1 OBJECT AND SCOPE In the paste and mortar series

The objective of this study is to there was a decrease in effective frac-
gain an increased understanding of crack ture toughness with increasing water-
initiation and growth in concrete, which cement ratio, while in the concrete
is essential to improved control of series there was no apparent effect of
cracking of concrete structures, i.e., varying the water-cement ratio on effec-
to acquire a better understanding of tive fracture toughness for the range
the effect of concrete parameters on of water-cement ratios investigated.
crack development in concrete and to Increasing the air content de-
correlate crack development in concrete creased the effective fracture toughness
with various types of distress. for the paste, mortar, and concrete
The investigation was divided into series.
three major divisions: (1) experimental In the paste, mortar, and concrete
investigation of fracture toughness, series there was an increase in effec-
effect of concrete parameters on the tive fracture toughness with age. This
fracture toughness of pastes, mortars, increase was significant up to an age
and concretes; (2) crack mechanism for of 29 days, but for curing times of
concrete structures, systems-type analy- greater than 29 days the change in
sis description of complex cracking effective fracture toughness from the
mechanism that occurs in concrete struc- 29-day value was not significant.
tures; and (3) analytical study of crack There was an increase in effective
development associated with volume fracture toughness in the mortar series
change, approximate solution for problem with increasing sand-cement ratio, how-
of shrinkage stresses in plain and rein- ever, the change in effective fracture
forced concrete was developed. toughness with increasing sand-cement
ratio in the concrete series was not
6.2 RESULTS OF INVESTIGATION significant for the range of sand-
6.2.1 Effect of Concrete Parameters cement ratios investigated.
on Fracture Toughness
The effective fracture toughness
The effective fracture toughness of the concrete series increased with
K was based on the assumption that the an increase in the maximum size of
concrete was homogeneous and the flaw coarse aggregate and also with an
depth at failure was equal to the cast increased gravel-cement ratio. However,
flaw depth. there was a decrease in the effective
fracture toughness when a large amount act toward the crack thus causing crack
of maximum size aggregate was used in arrest, and positive when load forces
the mix. This was probably attributable act away from the crack to cause crack
to segregation. propagation). Crack propagation occurs
The effective fracture toughness when the resultant stress intensity
of the concrete series cast with a factor reaches the critical value.
river gravel coarse aggregate was lower A model was presented for inves-
than the effective fracture toughness tigating the cracking mechanism in
of the concrete series cast with a beams. The model was used for a quanti-
crushed limestone coarse aggregate for tative analysis of crack equilibrium.
ages of three days and six days; how- The only forces acting on the element
ever, at ages of 29 days and 92 days the are the bond forces, which can be
difference in their effective fracture examined by the opening displacement
toughness was not significant. at the level of the reinforcement and
are affected by unbonding. The stress
6.2.2 Crack Mechanism for Concrete intensity factor can be expressed in
Structures
terms of the displacement, or the bond
A fracture system of processes
forces. Applying the results of this
that respond to outside stimuli and
approach to the specimen geometry and
interact was developed to describe the
material properties of Reference (14)
complex cracking mechanism in concrete
yielded the following:
structures. The system was applied to
(a) The equilibrium crack length
the free body diagram of the concrete
increases with the total force trans-
portion of the structure, which is the
mitted across the cracked section by
structural element that contains the
the concrete and steel if the unbonded
crack that will propagate.
length is constant;
The cracking mechanism in a rein-
(b) The total force transmitted
forced concrete beam subjected to a
across the cracked section by the con-
constant moment was analyzed. A quali-
crete and steel decreases as the un-
tative analysis of the cracking indi-
bonded length increases;
cated that the resultant stress intensi- (c) An increased unbonded length
ty factor which describes the stress
is associated with an increased crack
field surrounding the crack in the beam
length during a virtual load increase.
was a function of the stress intensity The cracking in rigid pavements
factor due to the concrete being sub- can be analyzed using a cracked beam
jected only to a moment (causes crack The stress
on an elastic foundation.
extension), the stress intensity factor vary inversely
intensity factor would
due to the effect of an axial load an increase
with the crack length since
(negative for compressive forces and in the crack length transfers more load
thus tends to arrest crack propagation), to the elastic foundation in the region
and the stress intensity factor due to the stresses
of the crack and reduces
the resultant forces at the level of the
on the cracked section.
steel (negative when the bond forces
6.2.3 Analytical Study of Crack concrete structures due to various types
Development Associated with
of distress, i.e., distresses due to
Volume Change
environment or loading. The resistance
An analytical method for the eval- to propagation of the flaws inherent
uation of volume change stresses was in concrete can be adjusted by modifying
presented which can be used for both the mix design, i.e., varying the coarse
plain and reinforced concrete. The aggregate content or gradation of coarse
finite element method was utilized with aggregate, or type of coarse aggregate.
the aid of a digital computer program Since the experimental investigation
to construct an approximate solution to covered a range of concrete parameters
the problem. The method predicts crack- that would be inclusive of most mix de-
ing, crack patterns, and magnitude and signs, an approximate effective fracture
distribution of stresses in members in toughness value can be determined from
which shrinkage stresses are the primary this investigation for most designs used.
stresses. From the effective fracture tough-
The effects of various parameters ness value for the mix design chosen
on volume change stresses can be pre- and the stress intensity factors due
dicted. For example, the effect of to the type of load distress, the resul-
concrete strength, concrete cover, tant stress intensity factor can be
amount of reinforcement, etc., can be determined for a reinforced concrete
studied by using various parameters in beam subjected to a constant moment.
the computer program, thus saving consid- The resultant stress intensity factor
erable time over that required in an can then be used to describe the crack-
extensive experimental program. ing mechanism; i.e., crack propagation,
The method can also consider the which will occur when the resultant
effects of loads and displacements on stress intensity factor reaches the
the model. critical value.
The method will be more effective The model developed for investi-
as additional input data on shrinkage, gating the cracking mechanism in con-
particularly nonuniform shrinkage, crete beams under load can be used for
become available. If reliable infor- obtaining quantitative results. As an
mation on shrinkage strains at various example of its application, this approach
times becomes available, then time to was used in conjunction with the results
cracking can be predicted. of Reference (14) for studying the
The bond between steel and concrete equilibrium crack mechanism in reinforced
was assumed to be perfect. As a first concrete members.
aoproximation this is justifiable because Cracking in rigid pavements due to
volume change stresses are relatively external load can be studied using a
sma ll. . cracked beam on an elastic foundation.
This model can also be used for studying
6.3 CONCLUSIONS the crack mechanism of pavements due to
The results of this investigation random loading, but further data is
can be used to describe the cracking of required on the change in stress
intensity factor with loading cycles. stresses are the primary stresses. The
The computer program developed can effects of various parameters on volume
be used for evaluation of volume change change stresses, as well as the effects
stresses resulting from either environ- of concrete cover, concrete strength,
mental distress or load distress. The amount of reinforcement, etc., can be
method predicts cracking, crack patterns, studied by using various parameters in
and magnitude and distribution of the program.
stresses in members in which shrinkage
VII. SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

The effects of different environ- one or two surfaces sealed Data should
mental conditions and different loading be provided for free shrinkage versus
rates on the effective fracture tough- time for various drying, environmental,
ness of concrete should be investigated. and surface conditions. A load-slip
Application of the systems-type relationship could be incorporated into
fracture analysis requires: understand- the program to eliminate the assumption
ing the inelastic phenomenon of unbond- of perfect bond between the steel and
ing of cracked sections; theoretical or concrete, and thus bond stress can be
empirical knowledge of the actual con- part of the program output. The com-
crete stresses near cracks; development puter program could be modified to
of stress intensity factor expressions accept springs as part of the boundary
for various models such as the rigid conditions so that slip over the sub-
pavement; and a further look at fatigue grade of the highway pavement can be
crack growth in terms of the stress incorporated. Also, in order to inves-
intensity factor with loading cycles. tigate the effects of rate of drying on
Utilization of the analytic method the stresses produced by shrinkage, the
for solution of volume change stresses shape of the stress-strain curve could
requires data which is compatible with be varied, i.e., study the effect of
the computer program. One area in the stress-strain diagram on the effect
which there is insufficient data is of the maximum value of strain which
shrinkage strains in members of large occurs at the outermost fiber of the
cross section so that nonuniform shrink- member.
age data can be obtained with all but
VIII. REFERENCES
(1) "Fracture Toughness Testing and Its
Applications," ASTM STP No. 381,
American Society for Testing and
Materials (April, 1965).
(2) Irwin, G. R. Proceedings, 1960
Sagamore Research Conference on
Ordnance Materials. Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Office of Technical
Services.
(3) Kaplan, M. F., "Crack Propagation
and the Fracture of Concrete,"
Proceedings, American Concrete
Institute, 58 (1961), pp. 591-611.
(4) Glucklich, J., "Fracture of Plain
Concrete," Proceedings of the ASCE,
89:EM 6 (1963), pp. 127-138.
_ "Static and Fatigue
Fractures of Portland Cement
Mortars in Flexure," Proceedings,
First International Conference on
Fracture, Vol. 2, Sendai, Japan
(1965), pp. 1343-1382.
(6) Lott, J. L. and Kesler, C. E.,
"Crack Propagation in Plain Con-
crete," Symposium on Structure of
Portland Cement Paste and Concrete,
Highway Research Board Special
Report 90, Washington, D.C., (1966),
pp. 204-218.
(7) Naus, D. J. and Lott, J. L., "Frac-
ture Toughness of Portland Cement
Concretes," Theoretical and Applied
Mechanics Report No. 314, Univer-
sity of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
(1968), pp. 1-87.
(8) Brown, W. F. and Srawley, J. E.,
"Plane Strain Crack Toughness
Testing of High Strength Metallic
Materials," ASTM STP No. 410,
American Society for Testing and
Materials (1966), pp. 13-14.
(9) Powers, T. C. and Brownyard, T. L. ,
"Studies of the Physical Properties
of Hardened Portland Cement Paste,"
Proceedings, American Concrete
Institute, 41, (1946-7), pp. 101-
132, 249-503, 549-602, 669-712,
845-880, 992-993.
(10) Hahn, G. T. and Rosenfield, A. R.,
"A Systems-Type Approach to
Problems on Fracture" in Funda-
mental Phenomena in the Material
Sciences, Vol. 4. New York:
Plenum Press (1967), pp. 33-43.
(11) Srawley, J. E. and Gross, B.,
"Stress Intensity Factors for
Crack-line-Loaded Edge-Crack
Specimens," NASA TND - 3820 (1967),
pp. 1-19.
(12) Gross, B., Roberts, E., Jr., and
Srawley, J. E. , "Elastic Displace-
ments for Various Edge-Cracked
Plate Specimens," NASA TND-4232
(1967), pp. 1-12.
(13) Reis, E. E., Jr., Mozer, J.,
Bianchini, A. C., and Kesler,
C. E., "Causes and Control of
Cracking in Concrete Reinforced
with High Strength Steel Bars--
A Review of Research," University
of Illinois Engineering Experiment
Station Bulletin No. 479, Urbana,
Illinois (1965), pp. 1-61.
(14) Broms, B. B., "Stress Distribution,
Crack Patterns and Failure
Mechanisms of Reinforced Concrete
Members," Proceedings, American
Concrete Institute, 61 (October,
1964), pp. 1535-1557.
(15) Pzemieniecki, J. S. Theory of
Matrix Structural Analysis.
New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
(1968).
(16) Hsu, T. T. C. and Slate, F. 0.,
"Tensile Bond Strength Between
Aggregate and Cement Paste or
Mortar," Proceedings, ACI , Vol. 60
(April, 1963), pp. 465-486.
IX. APPENDIX I: USER'S GUIDE FOR COMPUTER PROGRAM IN FORTRAN IV

User's Guide and volume change strains.

The computer program VCSC (Volume The input cards for the program
Change Stresses in Concrete) is prepared are discussed below in the order that
in FORTRAN IV language for the solution they appear in the program:
of "Stresses Caused by Volume Change in READ 242, NPBLM;
Plain and Reinforced Concrete." The 242 FORMAT (15).
program is capable of solving cases in The value of NPBLM indicates the number
which the model is subjected to external of problems that are to be solved.
loads and/or external displacements as This will be discussed in more detail
well as volume change strains. The later.
program uses the finite element method 1000 READ 1, MX, NX, DX, DY, ANU,
of analysis. The elements are rectan- E, ES, AS, LFSN, LSN, KIND,
gles of equal size. The result of the NSTR
solution of each problem is the nodal 1 FORMAT (215, 3F5.2, 2F15.1,
displacements, the normal stresses, and F5.3, 415)
the shearing stress at each node of each where:
element; the normal stresses, the shear- MX = number of elements in each
ing stress, the maximum principal stress, row.

the minimum principal stress, and the NX = number of elements in each

column.
direction of maximum principal stress
DX = the length of an element.
at the center of the same element; and
DY = the height of an element.
steel stresses for each element of
ANU = Poisson's ratio for concrete.
steel, in that order.
E = modulus of elasticity of
The input for the program consists concrete.
of the following parameters: ES = modulus of elasticity of steel.
(a) The controlling information AS = the area of steel.
for the geometry and input LFSN = the first steel node.
and output of the results; LSN = the last steel node.
(b) description of material KIND = 0 is the problem is plane
properties; strain, = any non-zero number
up to five digits if the
(c) numerical values for external problem is plane stress.
loads, external displacements, NSTR = number of points in an element
 at which the stresses are to KZ2 = 1 if there is a constraint in
be evaluated. This is either the y-direction at node JK;
I or 5 for evaluating the 0 if there is no constraint
stresses at the center of the in the y-direction at node JK.
element or at the center and
PLOAD = the magnitude of the displace-
the four corners, respectively.
(2*JK) ment constraint in the y-
The value of NPBLM is equal to the direction, zero for supports.
number of cards that correspond to the READ 310, N
1000 READ 1 statement. 310 FORMAT (15)
READ 166, NANLYS, SIGCR, AINC Here, the number N represents the
166 FORMAT (15, 2FI0.5) total number of nodes at which loads
where: are applied.
NANLYS = the number of times a problem READ 312, JK, KZI , PPLOD(2*JK-1),
is to be repeated with the
KZ2, PPLOD(2*JK)
load or displacement incre-
mented each time, or with 312 FORMAT (215, F10.5, 15, F10.5)
shrinkage strains increased.
where:
SIGCR = limiting tensile stress for
JK = the number of the node at
concrete.
which a load is to be applied.
AINC = the increment by which the
KZI = 1 if there is a load component
loads or displacements are to
in the x-direction at node JK;
be increased, represented as
0 if there is no load component
a fraction of the original
in the x-direction at node JK.
loads or displacements.
PPLOD = magnitude of the load in the
READ 310, N
(2*JK-1) x-direction at node JK.
310 FORMAT (15)
KZ2 = I if there is a load component
The number N represents the total in the y-direction at node JK;
0 if there is no load in the
number of nodes at which a particular
y-direction at node JK.
displacement is to be defined such as
PPLOD = magnitude of the load in the
supports. For example, for a simply (2*JK) y-direction at node JK.
supported beam, the value of N would be READ 400, M
2 for the two nodes that are restrained 400 FORMAT (15)
in one or both directions, unless dis- The number M is the total of all
placements are also applied at other the rows of nodes at which volume change
nodes. strains are to be applied.
READ 303, JK, KZI, PLOAD (2*JK-1), READ 403, (SHRKG(I), I = 1, M)
KZ2, PLOAD(2*JK) 403 FORMAT (5Fl5.10)
303 FORMAT (215, F10.5, 15, Fl0.5) where:
where: SHRKG(l) = the value of volume change
strain at the rows of nodes I.
JK = the number of node at which
there is to be a displacement I = the number of the row for
constraint. which the strain is being
read; the top row of nodes
KZI = 1 if there exists a constraint
is number 1, the second row
in the x-direction at node JK;
number 2, and so on.
0 if there is no constraint
in the x-direction at node JK. This concludes the definition of
PLOAD = the magnitude of the displace- the READ statements.
(2*JK-1) ment constraint in the x-
The following is an explanation of
direction, zero for supports
the PRINT statements ir the computer this PRINT statement, the first con-
program except for those print state- straint is in the x-direction and the
ments that comprise the titles for the second constraint is in the y-direction.
printed output: This, for example, would happen for a
PRINT 69, MX, NX, DX, DY, ANU, node fixed in both directions for which
E, ES, AS, LFSN, LSN, KIND, the magnitudes would be zero in both
NSTR directions. The magnitude of the dis-
69 FORMAT (215, 3F5.2, 2F15.1 , placement will include the additional
F5.3, 415//) increments, if any.
PRINT 660, NANLYS, SIGCR, AINC PRINT 83, I, LCNT(I), NCR(I),
660 FORMAT (119, F17.5, F16.5//) ELD(121), ELD(122)
PRINT 661, JK, KZI, PLOAD 83 FORMAT (16, 114, 126, E24.4,
(2*JK-1 ) , KZ2, PLOAD(2*JK) E13.4)
661 F0RMAT (16, 113, F17.5, 113, where:
F16.5//) I = the number of node
PRINT 662, JK, KZI, PPLOD LCNT(I) = the total number of elements
connected to node I
(2*JK-1 ) , KZ2, PPLOD(2*JK)
NCR(I) = the total number of cracked
662 FORMAT (16, 16, F13.2, 16,
elements connected to node
F12.2//) I. Note that NCR(I) must
always be less than LCNT(1)
PRINT 663, (SHRKG (I), I = 1,
ELD(121), = the magnitude of displace-
M) ELD(122) ments at node I in the x-
663 FORMAT (5F15.10//) and y-directions, respec-
tively.
The parameters are already defined
PRINT 707, J, ((SIGMA (Kl ,I),
in the explanation of the READ state-
Kl = 1, 3), 1=2, NSTR)
ments. These PRINT statements merely
707 FORMAT (15, 6X, 12E10.3)
print out the input parameters for
where:
checking purposes.
J = the number of elements.
PRINT 314, K, EPOAD
SIGMA = the stresses in the elements.
314 FORMAT (16, E15.6//)
Here a set of stresses is
where : printed out for each node, 1,
2, 3, and 4, of the element.
K = number of node at which an Each set of stresses consists
external load is applied. of the stresses in the x- and
EPOAD = the load acting at node K. y-directions and the shear
This includes the increments stress.
to the loads if there are any. PRINT 18, J, ICR(J), (SIG(I, J),
PRINT 314, K, ELOAD(2*K-2+IJ)
1 = 1, 3), SIGPI, SIGP2, THETA -
314 FORMAT (16, E15.6) 18 FORMAT (215, 2X, 3E13.4, 2X,
whe re : 2E13.4, FlO.4/)
K = the number of node at which This is a PRINT statement for the
there exists a displace-
ment constraint. stresses at the center of the element
ELOAD = the magnitude of the dis- in which:
(2*K-2+1J) placement constraint at J = element number
node K. Zero for supports.
ICR(J) = 0 if the element is not cracked,
If a node number appears twice in
 >0 if the element is cracked PRINT 19, KCR, NCRT
SIG = a set of stresses at the cen- 19 FORMAT (114, 125)
ter of the element. The set where:
consists of stresses in the KCR = the number of elements cracked
in the immediately preceding
x- and y-directions and the
round.
shear stress
NCRT = the total number of elements
SIGP1 = maximum principal stress at cracked up to this point.
the center of the element PRINT 602, I, SIGST(1)
SIGP2 = minimum principal stress at 602 FORMAT (115, E13.4)
the center of the element where:
THETA = the angle that the maximum I = the number of steel element
principal stress makes with SIGST(1) = the steel stress for the
steel element I .
the positive direction of the
x-axis, in degrees.
X. APPENDIX II: COMPUTER PROGRAM IN FORTRAN IV FOR DETERMINATION
OF VOLUME CHANGE STRESSES IN PLAIN AND REINFORCED CONCRETE
USING FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

/*ID HASSAN M. REJALI

// FXFC WATFOO
//SYSTN nrn *
$nP KP926.TTME'300,PAGFS9100
nDITMENSTON X(200),Y(200) NNF(400,4) ,LCNT(200),NEN(200,4),AK(898)
1,STTF(P?,00 ),K7(700),KKH(1400),COFF(400? S),ELD(400),ELOAD(400)
?STG(3,400).f)ISP(R),CR(S,3,8),SHRKG(400),EPS(40092),SIGMA(3,5),
3SIGST(100),P[OA0)(400),ICR(400),PPL-O0 (400),KA(700),NCR(400)
T=1 .0
PT=3. 141~q?6535AR79
RFAD ?42.NPRLM
24P FORMAT(T9)
1000 RFAn 1,MXNX,DX,DY,ANUE,ES,ASLFSNLSNKINDNSTR
I FORMAT (?ITr3F5.?qFl5.lF5.3,415)
PPTNT 240
240 FnPMAT(1H1)
PPINT ?3?
P3? FnPMAT(4 INPUT DATA*)
PPINT69,MXNX.D)X*Y.ANllFEESASLFSNgLSNqKINDNSTR
69 FORMAT (?IS,3FS.?,2F15.1.F5.3,415//)
RFAD 166.NANLYSSIGCR*AINC
166 FORMAT (1.?F1O.5)
PRINT 69?
69? FORMAT(f NUMBRFP OF PRORLEMS, CRITICAL STRESS, LOAD INCREMENT*)
PRINT 660,NANLYS•SIGCRAINC
660 FORMAT(11 9F17.5,F16.5//)
C FOP THE PRIPOSE OF FVALUIATION OF STIFFNESSES REPLACE E BY 1.
MT=MX+1
NT=NX+
FF=1.0
STFR=( 1?.*FScAS*FE)/(F)X*F)
C STFP TS THE STEEL FACTOR COMPARARLE TO AK*S FOR THE CONCRETE
C CnFFFICIEMTS PFLATING OISPLACEMENTS TO FORCFS FOR A SINGLE ELEMENT
ANhIII= (1 .- ANI I)/ ((1 .+ANll)* (1.-2.*AN I ) )
ANII2=AMtI/( ((1 .+ANIU) * (I .- . *ANU))
IF(KIN).FO.0) GO TO 701
ANII =1 ./(] .- ANIJ*ANU)
ANII?=ANII/(1 .- ANIJ*AN!1)
70] ANI3=1 ./?2.*(1 .+ANU)
HFTA=FY/OX
AK(1 1)=4.*AJNUl]*RFTA+4.*ANU3/RETA
AK (1 .2) =3.* (ANUP+ANIJ3)
AK(?. 1)=3.*(fNI2?+ ANIi3)
AK( 1 3)=?. *ANIJI*LIFTTA-4.*ANll3/RETA
AK (3.1 ) =?.*ANIJ *RFTA-4.*ANI13/RETA
AK(1,4)=3.*(AN I3-ANI2?)
AK (4.1 ) =3.* ( ANII1-AN'I2)
AK ( 1 . ) =-2?.* (ANUtJ*HFTA+ ANIJ3/RFTA)
AK ( . 1) =-?.. *(AI'IIAI'.FTA+ANi1)/HFTA)
AK ( 1 .,) =--3. (ANIU?+ A'IIJ3)
 AK (6, 1 )=-3.*(ANtJ2+ANU3)
AK(1,7)=-4.*ANUI*RETA+2.*ANUJ3/BETA
AK(7,1)=-4.*ANUI*BETA+2.*AN tl3/BFTA
AK(1 9)=-3.*(ANU3-ANU2)
AK(8,1)=-3.*(ANU3-ANU2)
AK(2.2)=4.*ANUI/BETA+4.*ANU3*BETA
AK(2,3)=-3.*(ANU3-ANU2)
AK(32?)=-3.*(ANU3-ANU2)
AK(2.4)=-4.*ANUL/RETA+2.*ANU3*BETA
AK(4,2)=-4.*ANUil/BETA+2.*ANt)3*BETA
AK(2,5)=-3.*(ANU2+ANU3)
AK(5,2)=-3.*(AN()2+ANUJ3)
AK(2,6)=-?.*(ANUL/BETA+ANU3*PETA)
AK(6?2)=-?.*(ANU[/BETA+ANU3*BETA)
AK (27)=3.* (ANU3-ANL12)
AK(7?2)=3.*(ANU3-ANU2)
AK(2,8)=?.*ANU1/BFTA-4.*ANU3*RETA
AK(8,2)=2.*ANUI/BETA-4.*ANU3*BETA
AK(393)=4.*ANU*BEFTA+4.*ANU3/RETA
AK(3,4)=-3.*(ANU2+ANU3)
AK(4,3)=-3.*(ANIJ2+ANU3)
AK(3,5)=-4.*ANU1*BETA+2.*ANU3/BETA
AK(593)=-4.*ANU1*BETA+2.*ANU3/BETA
AK(396)=3.*(ANU3-ANI)2)
AK(6,3)=3.*(ANU3-ANU2)
AK(3,7)=-2.*ANUI*BETA-2.*ANU3/BETA
AK(7,3)=-2.*ANU1*BETA-2.*ANUI3/BETA
AK(3,A)=3.*(ANU2+ANIJ3)
AK (R,3) =3.* (ANU2+AN1l3)
AK(4,4)=4.*ANUl/BETA+4.*ANU3*BETA
AK(4,5)=-3.*(ANU3-ANIJ2)
AK (594)=-3.*(ANU3-ANU2)
AK(4,6)=2.*ANUl/BETA-4.*ANU3*RETA
AK(6,4)=2.*ANIJ1/RETA-4.*ANU3*RETA
AK(4,7)=3.*(ANIJ)+ANU3)
AK(794)=3.*(ANUJ2+ANUI3)
AK(4,8)=-2.*ANUlI/RETA-?.*ANI)3*BETA
AK(8,4)=-2.*ANU1/RETA-2.*ANtU3*BETA
AK(595)=4.*ANUI*RETA+4.*ANU3/BETA
AK(5.6)=3.*(ANU2+ANU3)
AK(6,5)=3.*(ANU2+ANU3)
AK(5,7)=2.*ANU1*BETA-4.*ANU3/BETA
AK(7,5)=2.*ANU1*BETA-4.*ANU3/BETA
AK(5,8)=3.*(ANU3-ANIJ2)
AK(8,5)=3.* (ANU3-ANU2)
AK(6,6)=4.*ANU1/BETA+4.*ANU3*RETA
AK (6,7) =-3.*(ANI3-ANU2)
AK(7,6)=-3.*(ANU3-ANU2)
AK(6,8)=-4.*ANilJ/RETA+2.*ANtU3*BETA
AK(8,6)=-4.*ANIJ/RETA+2.*ANIJ3*RETA
*B
AK(7,7)=4.*ANU1 FTA+4.*ANU3/BETA
AK(79R)=-3.*(ANIJ2+ANU3)
AK (A87)=-3.*(ANU2+ANU3)
AK(8.8)=4.*ANUl/RFTA+4.*ANU3*BETA
C DFTERMINATION OF THE COORDINATES OF THF NODAL POINTS
MTI=MT-1
NTI =NT-1
DO 20 M=1,MT
MI=M-1
AM = MI
DO 20 N=1,NT
NI=N-1
AN =N1
L=M] *NT+N
 X(I ) = AM*OX
Y(L) = ANtJDY
C DFTFPMINATION OF THE Nn. OF NODES FOR FACH ELEMENT AND NODE NUMBERS
115 IF(M-1) ?o.?20.0
10 IF(N-1) ?20.?20o.151
151 K 1 =(M-2? ) *NT 1 + (N-1)
NNF(KI .1)=L -NT-1
NNF(Kl.?)=L-INT
NNF (K] *,3) =1_
NKF(Kl.4)=L-1
?n CONT NIIF
L T=I
KT=K1
no?211 =1 LT
NCR(L )=0
21 ILCNT(L)=0
Do ?5 K=1.KT
n002 1=1.4
NT=NNF(K, I)
LtCrT (NT )=ICNT(NI) +1
LC1=LCNT(NT)
25 NFN(NTI.C1)=K
OrO L=1 LT
KA(L)=1
A K7(L)=1
READ 110,N
3]0 FORMAT(IS)
PRINT ?13
233 FORMAT(* NODE. CONSTRAINT, X-DISPLACEMFNT, CONSTRAINT, Y-DISP
ILACFMF NT*)
00 30? K=1.N
RFAr 303.IK,9K71*PLOAD(2*JK-1),K7Z2PLOAD(?*JK)
303 FORMAT(?T5.Fl0.5 IS5.F10.5)
PPINT661*.JK K71 PLOAD(?PJK-1) ,KZ2?PLOAD (2*JK)
661 FORMAT ( I6TI 3F17.5 113,F6.5//)
302 K7(JK)=1IK71+2*K7?
RFAD 310.N
IF(N.FO.0) GO TO 455
PPINT 234
234 FORMAT(* NOOE. X-LOAD, AMOUNT, Y-LOAD, AMOUNT#)
00 315 K=1,N
RFAn 3129,IKKZ71,PPLOD(2*JK-1),KZ2,PPLOD(?2*JK)
31? FORMAT (2T-Fl0O.5,5I.F10.5)
PRINT662?JKK71,PPLOD(2*JK-1),KZ2,PPLOD(2*JK)
66? FORMAT(T61I6.F1?.?, 6,Fl2.?//)
315 KA(JK)=1+K71l+2K72
455 NSFLT=(LSN-LFSN)/NT
= 1
00 401 L ]KT
ICR(L)=n
EPS(L 1 )=0.0
401 EPS(tL )=0.0
NCRT=0
00 4 NS=1,NAtLYS
ANS=NS
READ 4O«0.M
400 FORMAT (IS)
IF (M.FO.O) GO TO PP
PFAD403 (SHPKG(I1),I=1 M)
403 FORMAT (SFl5.10)
PRINT 235
231 FORMAT(i SHPINKAGE STRAIN FROM TOP TO ROTTOM ON ROWS OF NODES#)
PTINT i3, (SHPKG( I ) I= M)
((3 FORMAT (SFI5.n1//)
On). 4Q7 1=1 .',
 I.L=NT-I+*
IF(I.FQ.1) GO TO 405
00 404 J~J=1,MTI
J=LL+(J.-1])*NTI
404 EPS(J,2)=SHRKG(I)
405 IF(I.FO.NT) GO TO 407
LL=LL-1
DO 406 JJ=1,MTI
J=LL+(J.J-1)*NTI
406 EPS(J.l)=SHRKG(I)
407 CONTINUE
22 KCR=O
NSN=LFSN
00 300 K=1ILT
ELOAD(2*K-1)=0.
ELOAD(2*K)=0.
IF (KA(K).EO.l) GO TO 300
II=KA(K)/2
PRINT 236
236 FORMAT(# NODE FORCE*)
D0313 I=1II
IJ=KA(K)-II-(II-1)*(2-I)
ELOAD(2*K-2+IJ)=PPLOD(2*K-2+IJ)*(1.+(ANS-1.)*AINC)*12./E
EPOAD=ELOAD(2*K-2+IJ)*E/12.
313 PRINT 314,K,FPOAD
314 FORMAT(16,E15.6//)
300 CONTINUE
00 11 K=1,LT
KH=K
KL=K
LC1=LCNT(K)
DO 2 I=1,LC1
NE=NEN(K,I)
DO 2 L=1,4
IF(KL-NNE(NF,L)) 6,6,7
7 KL=NNE(NF,L)
6 IF(KH-NNE(NE,L)) 9,2,2
9 KH=NNE(NE,L)
2 CONTINUE
KH=2*KH
IF(K.EQ.I) GOT05
KKP=2*K-2
IF(KH.LT.(2*K-2+KKH(KK2))) KH=2*K-2+KKH(KK2)
5 KL=2*KL-1
K21=2*K-1
K22=2*K
KKH(K21 )=KH-2*K+1
KKH(K22)=KH-2*K
KHL=KH-KL*1
C THE FOLLOWING IS THE PROCEDURE RY WHICH THE STIF. MATRIX IS EVALUATED
C TWO EQUATIONS AT ATIME
0099 1=1,2
0099 J=1.KHL
99 STIF(I,J)=O.
IF(NCP(K).GE.LC1) 60 TO 555
NCR(K)=O
00 29 I=1.LCl
NE=NEN(K,I)
IF(ICP(NF).GT.O) GO TO 2A
00 3 L=1,4
IF(K-NNE(NE,IL)) 3,?3,3
CONTITIlE
JJ=I-
00 9 L= 1,4
 NN=INF (NF .L)
KM=2*NIN-KL
DO 92 N=],?
D[ 92 M=l,2
KMM=KM+M-1
JJ?=? *JJ+N-?
LM?=2?L+M-2
9? STIF(N,KMM)=STIF(N,KMM)+AK(JJ2,LM2)
Cl =T*DY*(ANIJA+ANiI2)/6.
C2?=T*DX*(ANI11+ANU2)/4.
AJI=1-?*(JJ/3)
AJ2=(JJ/2?)-2?(JJ/4)*+l
AJ3=1-?*((JJ/2)-2*(JJ/4))
ELOAr)D(?K-I)=ELOAD(2?*K-I)-Cll*AJle(EPS(NE,2)*(3.-AJ2)+EPS(NEl)*
IAJ?)*1?.
ELOAD(?*K)=ELOAD(2*K)-C?2*AJ3*(EPS(NE,1)+EPS(NE,2))*12.
GO TO 29
?A NCR(K)=NCR(K)+1
?9 CONTINUE
555 IF (K.NF.NSN.OR.NSN.GT.ILSN) GO TO 598
IF(NCR(K).GE.LCI) NCR(K)=NCR(K)+1
NSN=NSN+NT
STIF(192*K-KI_)=STIF(1,2*K-KL)+2*STFR
KSTI=2*K-Ki_-2*NT
KST2=2*K-KL+2*NT
IF (K.EQ.LFSN) KST1=2*K-KL
IF (K.FO.LSN) KST2=?*K-KL
STIF(1IKSTI)=STIF(1,KSTI)-STFR
STIF(1,KST2)=STIF(1,KST?)-STFR
C PONDARY CONDTTIONS
IF(NCR(K).EO.LC1) GO TO 11
598 IF(KZ(K).FQ.1) GO TO 76
IT=K7(K)/2
DO 87 I=1.11
IJ=K7(K)-II-(II-1)*(2-I)
IF(NCR(K).GT.LC1.AND.IJ.EQ.?) GO TO 556
DO AS JK=1,KHL
A8 STIF(IJJK) = 0.
ELOAD(?K-?+T,.J)=PLOAD(2*K-2+IJ)*(1.+(ANS-1.)*AINC)
PRINT 241
241 FORMAT(# NODE, DISPLACEMENTS)
PRINT 314,KELOAD(2*K-2+IJ)
87 STTF(IJ,2*K-KLI+J-1)=1.0
C ElIMINATION OF THE OFF DIAGONAL TERMS
556 IF(NCR(K).EO.LC1) GO TOll
76 00 100 I=1,2
IF(NCR(K).GT.LC1.ANO.I.EQ.2) GO TO 11
KI?=2?*K-2+I
KI?1=KI?-1
IF(K.FQ.l.AND.I.FQ.l) GO TO 64
DO 61 KK=KL*KI21
KHK=KKH(KK)
DO 62 JK=IKHK
KKLI=KK-KL+1
JKKL=KKL1JK
6? STTF(TJKKL) = STIF(I,JKKL)+STIF(IKKLI)*COEF(KKJK)
61 EI.OAD(KT?) = FLOAD(KI2)+STIF(T,KKL1)*ELD(KK)
64 K?L]=Kr?-KI *1
FID( KIP) = -ELOAO( KI2)/STIF(IK2?L1
KKK?=KKH(KT?)
IF(K.FO.LT.AND.I.FO.?) GOTO 100
DO 63 J J=1,KKK2
JPKt.=J J+KI?-KL+1
63 COFF(KI2T,j,J) = -STIF(IqJ2KL)/STIF(I 9 K?LI)
 100 CONTINUE
11 CONTINUF
C BACK SURSTITUTION AND EVALUATION OF THF DISPLACFMENTS CALLED -ELD-
LT2 = 2*LT
00 81 K2=2,LT2
NK=2*LT-K2+1
KKK?=KKH(NK)
DO 81 JJ=I,KKK2
NKJ=NK+JJ
81 ELD(NK) = FLD(NK)+CnEF(NK,JJ)*ELDO(NKJ)
PRINT 999
999 FORMAT (IHI)
PRINT 34
34 FORMAT(# NODE, NO. OF ELEMENTS CONNECTED. NO. OF ELEMENTS CRACK
lED, DISPLACEMENTS UIV•)
DO 900 1=19LT2
900 ELD(I)=-ELD(I)
DO 85 I=1,LT
I21 = 2*I-1
I22=2*I
PRINT 83,I,LCNT(I),NCR(I),ELD(I21),ELD(122)
83 FORMAT(16,114,126,E24.4,E13.4)
85 CONTINUE
C EVALUATION OF THE STRESSES FROM THE DISPLACEMENTS
PRINT 504
504 FORMAT (1HI)
DO 94 I=1,NSTR
PSI=I/4
ATA=I/3-I/5
IF(I.GT.1) GO TO 95
PSI=0.5
ATA=0.S
95 PSI1=1.-PSI
ATAI=1.-ATA
PSI=PSI*E
ATA=ATA*E
PSII=PSII*E
ATA1=ATA1*E
C COEFFICIENTS RELATING DISPLACEMENTS TO STRESSES FOR A SINGLE ELEMENT
CR(II,11)=-ANU1*ATAI/DX
CR (I1,2)=-ANU2*PSII/DY
CR (I,13)=-ANU1*ATA/DX
CB(I,1,4)=ANU2*PSI1/DY
CR(I.1,5)=ANU1*ATA/DX
CR (I1,6)=ANU2*PSI/DY
CR (I,17)=ANUI*ATAl/DX
CR(I1,18)=-ANU2*PSI/DY
CR(I2,?,1)=-ANU2*ATA1/DX
CR(I,2,2)=-ANUI*PSII/DY
CR (I2,3)=-ANU2*ATA/DX
CR(I,2,4)=ANUI*PSII/DY
CB(I,?,5)=ANU2*ATA/nX
CR(1,2,6)=ANIJ]*PSI/nY
CR(l,2,7)=ANIJ2*ATA1/DX
CR(I»2,8)=-ANUI*PSI/DY
CR(I,3.1)=-AN1I3*PSII/DY
CR(T,3.2)=-ANI3*ATA1/DX
CR(I,3,3)=ANI)3*PSIl/DY
CR(13,4)=-ANU3*ATA/DX
CR(I,3.5)=ANII3*PSI/nY
CR(I,3,6)=AKNlJ3*ATA/Ox
CR( 1,3,7)=-ANU3*PSI/DY
CR(I,3,R)=ANU3*ATAI/OX
94 CONTINUE
 PRTNT 237
237 FORMAT(# FLFMENT NO.. X,Y, AND SHEAR STERESSES AT FOUR CORNERS#)
PRINT 23A
238 FORMAT(# ELEMENT NO., CRACKING NO.* XY, SHEAR STRESSES, MAX.,
I MIN. PPIN. STRESS, DIRFCTION MAX. PRIN. STRESS AT CENTERS)
DO 101 J=1KT
00 98 JH = 1,3
SIG(JH,J)=0.0
DO 98 T=1,5
98 STGMA(JH,I)=0.0
DO 97 I=1,4
DISP(2*I-1)=FLD(2*NNE(JI)-I)
97 DISP(?*I)=ELD(2*NNE(J,I))
DO 103 I=1,NSTR
00 103 KI=1,3
DO 102 K2=1,8
102 SIGMA(Kl,I)=SIGMA(KlI)+CB(I,K1,K2)*DISP(K2)
II=-(I/3)*(I/5)+2
IF(K1.EQ.3) GO TO 104
IF(I.FQ.I) GO TO 972
SIGMA(KI)=SIGMA(KII)-EPS(JII)*(ANU1+ANU2)*E
GO TO 103
972 SIGMA(KlI)=SIGMA(Kl,I)-(EPS(J,1)/2.*EPS(J,2)/2.)*(ANU1+ANU2)*E
104 IF(I.NE.I) GO TO 103
SIG(KlJ)=SIGMA(Kl1I)
103 CONTINUE
IF (NSTR.EO.I) GO TO 905
PRINT 707,J,(( SIGMA(KlI),KI=1,3),I=2,NSTR)
707 FORMAT(I5,6X,12E10.3)
905 IF(ICR(J).EQ.O) GO TO 906
ICR(J)=ICR(J)+1
GO TO 101
906 PPl=(SIG(1»J)+SIG(2,J))/2.
PP2=(SIG(1,J)-SIG(2.J))/2.
PP3=SQRT(PP2*PP2+SIG(3,J)*SIG(3,J))
SIGPI=PPI+PP3
SIGP2=PPI-PP3
THETA=(ATAN?(SIG(3,J),PP2))*90./PI
IF(SIGPI-SIGCR) 15.16,16
16 ICR(J)=1
KCR=KCR+1
15 PRINT IA,J,ICR(J),(SIG(I,J),1=1,3),SIGP1,SIGP2,THETA
18 FORMAT(215.2X,3E13.4.2X,2E13.4,F10.4/)
101 CONTINUE
DO 201 T=1,NTI
J=l
211 NC=0
IJ=I+(J-1)*NTI
IF (ICR(IJ).NE.1) GO TO 212
IF(ICR(IJ-NTI).GT.1) GO TO 219
215 IN=IJ+NTI
IF(IN.GT.KT) GO TO 204
IF(ICR(IN).NE.1) GO TO 204
NC=NC+1
IJ=IN
GO TO 215
204 IF(NC.FQ.O) GO TO 216
NC1=NC
IF(ICP(TN).I.F.I) GO TO 231
ICP(IJ)=0
IJ=TJ-NTI
NCI=NC-1
231 IF(NC.EO.I) GO TO 217
PMAX=(SIG(1,IT )+÷ IG(2,IJ))/2.+SQRT ((SIG(19IJ)-SIG(2,IJ))*(SIG(I1
 1 TJ)-SIG(?. 1. 1)) /4.+SIG( I. I J)*STG(3, TJ))
IJr=TJ
ICR(IJ)=0
DO 210 NNl=.NCI
1J=TJ-NTI
ICR(IJ)=0
PPS =(STG(19IJ)+cTG(2,IJ))/?.*SORT ((SIG( 1, IJ)-SIG(2. IJ))*(SIG(1 ,
IIJ)-SIG(?,IJ)) /4.+SIG(3.IJ)*SICG(3,IJ))
IF(PMAX.GT.PRS) GO TO ?10
PMAX=PPS
IJC=IJ
210 CONTINUE
KCR=KCR-NC
ICR(IJC)=]
GO TO ?21
216 IF(ICR(IN).LE.1) GO TO 217
ICR(IJ)=0
KCR=KCR-1
217 KCR=KCR-NC
218 J=J+1+NC
GO TO 212
219 ICR(I J)=n
KCR=KCR-1
212 J=J+1
IF(J.LT.MTI) GO TO ?11
201 CONTINUE
NCRT=NCRT+KCR
PRINT 239
239 FORMAT(# ELEMENTS CRACKED THIS ROUND, TOTAL CRACKED*)
PRINTI9,KCR,NCRT
19 FORMAT(I14,I?5)
IF (NSELT.EO.O) GO TO 13
PRINT 603
603 FORMAT(lH1)
PRINT 601
601 FORMAT (* STEEL ELEMENT*g* STRESS*)
LST2=2*LFSN-1
00 600 I=1,NSFLT
LSTI=LST2
LST2=LST1I2*NT
SIGST(I)=(ELD(LST2)-ELD(LSTI))*ES/DX
PRINT 602?ISIGST(I)
602 FORMAT (I15,F13.4)
600 CONTINUE
13 IF(KCR.NE. 0) GO TO 22
4 CONTINUF
PRINT 777
777 FORMAT(* END OF PRORLEM#)
NPPLM=NPRlM-1
IF(NPRLM.NE.0) GO TO 1000
STOP
END
SENTRY

DATA DECK

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