Social Studies 10

First Quarter
Reviewer for Quarterly Exam

What is the etymology of the word 'philosophy'? The word 'philosophy' came from two Greek
words: philos (love) and sophia (wisdom). Therefore, philosophy is the love for wisdom.

What are the different definitions of philosophy?

Begins with wonder

o Philosophy always starts with a question.

Pursuit of wisdom

o If you love wisdom, then you also love knowledge.

o You love knowledge because it gives you wisdom.

o If you love knowledge, then you search for knowledge.

o You love knowledge because it leads you to the truth.

A dynamic process

o Philosophy is not stagnant; it does not go along one straight path.

o Philosophy starts with a question, and those questions lead to answers.

o Those answers lead to more questions and so on.

o The cycle continues until the Truth (with a capital T, for it is the ultimate truth) is
achieved.

What is the aim of philosophy?

o Philosophy aims to improve the quality of lives through the enlightenment of minds.

o Philosophy teaches us to step outside the box and to go against the standards.

o It also teaches us to become open-minded individuals by eliminating the biases and

prejudices in our minds.

What are the different branches of philosophy?

o Epistemology: knowledge (its sources and nature); truth, definitions, facts

 o Metaphysics: reality; existence

o Logic: argumentation; reasoning; identifying fallacies

o Ethics: morality; the goodness or badness of human actions

o Aesthetics: beauty; art

What is the ancient period of philosophy?

o It began in Ancient Greece; it is considered the Golden Age of Philosophy.

o Who were the first philosophers of the ancient period? It started with the pre-Socratics;
they were also called natural or scientific philosophers.

o Their philosophies revolved around the question: "Where did I come from?"

Why were the pre-Socratics called natural or scientific philosophers?

o They were called as such because they relied on nature and their environment for
answers.

o They used their reasoning and observations to explain the source of all things.

o The general term for the source of all things was called 'arche.'

o They did not use religion in their philosophies.

o Therefore, the pre-Socratics are considered as the world's first scientists.

Thales – "All is water"

Question: What is the source of all things? His answer: Water. Why?

Thales lived in Miletus (present-day Turkey) – an area surrounded by water.

Everything around him was water; therefore, he pointed to water as the source of everything.

Water produces and sustains life, and it can also end life.

Water is liquid; heat it and it becomes gas; freeze it and it becomes solid.

Anaximander – "All is infinite"

Question: What is the source of all things? His answer: The 'infinite' Why?
Water cannot be the arche, for it is tangible (can be touched) and finite.

The arche should be infinite and boundless; it should be uncuttable.

Therefore, the source of all things is the 'infinite' or the apeiron.

Anaximenes – "All is air”

Question: What is the source of all things? His answer: Air Why?

He said that Anaximander was right that the arche should be infinite.

However, arche should be tangible to humans.

Therefore, the ultimate stuff is air because it is everywhere and is felt by everything.

Heraclitus – "No man ever steps in the same river twice, for it is not the same
river, and he is not the same man"
Question: What is the source of all things? His answer: Fire Why?

Change happens everytime; it happens to everything, everywhere.

There is one element that makes change possible, and that element is fire.

Fire changes everything it touches; therefore, it is the source of all things.

BUT... even if change is constant, something is still retained.

Make yourself as an example.

You from 10 years ago is different from you in the present.

Many things in you have changed: your appearance, your preferences, your opinions, etc.

But you are still you; many things just changed.

Other ideas: the 'unity of opposites'

Everything we know, we know because of its opposite.

We know 'rich' because we know 'poor'; we know 'hot' because we know 'cold'

Therefore, nothing can exist without its opposite.

 Parmenides – "All is permanent"

Question: What is the source of all things? His answer: It does not exist. Why?

Nothing can come into existence; nothing can be destroyed.

Since it is nothing, it cannot be thought or spoken about.

If something comes into existence, where does it come from?; if something is destroyed, where
does it go?

It is completely impossible for something to come from nothing. Why?

Because how can nothing turn into something? It is impossible.

Therefore, all things cannot move, grow, and shrink; change is not real.

Time is also not real because it speaks of how things move and change.

In conclusion, everything that is, is and will always be. Forever unchanging and complete.

Pythagoras – "From numbers, the world is created"

Question: What is the source of all things? His answer: Numbers Why?

Numbers » points » lines » plane figures » solid figures » four elements » entire world

Other ideas: "Mathematics is the best purifier of the soul" ...because it is logical; it is the
truth.

Theory of the Soul

Make the Olympics in Ancient Greece an example.

There are the: (1) ticket sellers, (2) the athletes, and the (3) spectators.

The first ones have the worst type of soul; they only want to earn and make money.

The athletes are in the middle; they compete to gain fame and honor.

The spectators are the best; being spectators, they observe, reflect, and learn.

Leucippus and Democritus – "Everything is made of atoms"

Who were the Sophists?
 o The Sophists were paid teachers of ancient Greece.

o They taught upper class men about politics, mathematics, ethics, etc.

o They used spoken word through rhetoric (persuading someone through effective speech).

o They argued that opinion was as valid as the truth.

o If they could persuade someone about something, it is considered as true.

Protagoras – "Man is the measure of all things"

Ideas: The truth and reality is relative to the individual.

Everything is relative to one's experience, judgement, and interpretation.

Therefore, there is no universal truth.

Thrasymachus – "Might is right"

Ideas: Do what your heart desires; self-interest should be your ultimate priority.

Your behavior is justified if it fulfills your self-interests.

Putting your self-interests first is a sign of intelligence and strength.

Therefore, a strong and intelligent person is someone who puts him or herself above the rest.

Who made up the Great Triumvirate? Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.

What was the focus of their philosophy?

o From the question "Where did we come from?", the Great Triumvirate tackled the
question, "Why are we here?"

o They discussed about the purpose of humanity's existence, how to make the most out of
this existence, as well as politics, ethics, and metaphysics.

Socrates – "An unexamined life is not worth living"

Personal life: On Sophists

He despised Sophists. He called them pseudo-philosophers (fake philosophers). Why?

He disliked the fact that the Sophists would charge their students fees in exchange for
knowledge.
He did not believe that opinion was as valid as the truth; to know the truth, one needs to use his
or her reason.

On His Existence

Socrates never wrote any books or left any records that proved his existence.

All that is known about Socrates is written by his student, Plato.

On Speaking

Socrates loved talking; he would spend days in the agora (marketplace) chatting with the locals.

He would question people about their beliefs while asking them annoying questions.

Therefore, Socrates was known as the gadfly of Athens for continuously asking irritating and
humiliating questions.

On His Death

Socrates was killed under the death penalty for the following reasons:

o Corrupting the minds of the youth

o Promoting false gods and goddesses

o Committing treason

Socrates’ death can be associated to Plato’s Allegory of the Cave. How?

Socrates can be represented by the man who left the cave and saw what the real world truly
looked like.

Similar to the allegory, Socrates was killed for ‘disrupting the social order’ or ‘rebelling against
the standards.’

Ideas: Socratic Method – A Systematized Dialogue

Thesis (idea) + Antithesis (ideas that contradict the thesis) = Synthesis (new thesis) ...and it goes
on and on...

The Tripartite Soul – The Three Parts of the Soul

Rational (head): driven by logic

Spirited (heart): driven by emotions

Appetitive (body): driven by desires

"One thing only I know, and that is that I know nothing"

In ancient Greek society, the statesmen would say they are the wisest, for they know how to rule.

The writers would say the same, for they know how to write.

The same goes for the artisans, for they know how to create.

However, Socrates said he is the wisest of all, for he knows nothing.

He acknowledges the fact that he does not know everything and that his mind has a limit.

"A good life is a life full of knowledge"

In order to live a good life, we must undergo a self-examination.

We must examine and reflect on ourselves to reach the state of elenchus.

Elenchus is a state of knowledge free from any ignorance or false ideas.

Plato – "The world will not be right until kings become philosophers or
philosophers kings"
Ideas: Allegory of the Cave

A group of people have lived their entire lives in a cave.

The shadows of objects reflected by the fire inside the cave are what they perceive as real.

One day, one person discovers a way outside the cave.

His eyes get hurt by the light of the sun, for he is not used to such brightness.

He returns to the cave to inform the rest of the unknown world above them.

The ones left inside the cave do not believe the person who escaped.

They think he is stupid and is lying, so they kill him.

What does this all mean?

This metaphor represents Plato's perspective as a philosopher trying to educate the masses.
People choose to be ignorant to the truth, and they become infuriated when one points out their
ignorance.

It is the mission of the enlightened few to return to the cave and save the people who are trapped
in the darkness and in their own ignorance.

Plato also points to the sun as the arche, for it illuminates everything we see.

The World of Forms and Appearances

Each and everyone of us live in the World of Appearances.

In the World of Appearances, everything is a flawed, imperfect copy of the 'perfect form' found
in the World of Forms.

The World of Forms is an intangible place; it is where the perfect, ideal forms of everything is
found.

It is where the true essence or nature – the "-ness" of something, exists.

Justice

According to Plato, justice is having things that belong to you and doing things that are expected
from you.

For example, a thief is an unjust individual because he wants to have what is not his.

Another example is a doctor – a just doctor is one who takes care of and cures his patients; he is
just because he is doing his role and what is expected from him.

Moreover, a just state is a state that does its duty – clothe, feed, and shelter the masses.

Therefore, justice is fulfilling one's role or duty.

The Ideal Society

There are three classes in Plato's ideal society:

o Guardians (rational; government)

o Auxilliary (spirited; military)

o Producers (appetitive; farmers, craftsmen)

Each class has a specific duty to one another.

If everyone fulfills their respective duties, then a just, harmonious society is achieved.

Aristotle – "We are what we repeatedly do"

Ideas: There are 4 causes of all things:

o Formal: form, shape, structure

o Material: how the form was made

o Efficient: who or what made the form

o Final: why the form was made; its purpose or telos

Telos (Purpose)

Everything has two qualities: accidental and essential.

Accidental qualities are the physical, mental, and behaviorial characteristics of something;
qualities that change

Essential qualities are someone or something's gender, species, and origin; qualities that never
change

With these qualities, the essence of "-ness" of someone or something can be known.

Therefore, we should experience the essence of someone or something to discover its telos or
purpose.

Aristotle's Metaphysics (A book)

There are two forces that bring change in all things: potentiality and actuality.

Potentiality refers to the possibility of something to be truly something.

Actuality refers to the process of something actually being something; it is the act of a
potentiality becoming real.

For example, a seed has the potentiality of being a full-grown plant.

If it becomes a full-grown plant, the potentiality has become an actuality.

However, a seed cannot turn itself into a plant all by itself.

Therefore, there must be an unmoved mover that should serve as the ultimate cause of all things.
 Nicomachean Ethics (A book)

Everything is aimed at being good.

Good can be found in everything and everyone.

Something that is good and something that performs its telos well.

Therefore, a good pen is a pen that writes well – its distinctive telos.

What makes a good person?

An individual's soul is comprised of two things: the rational and the irrational.

The rational part consists of logic, reason, and critical thinking.

The irrational part consists of one's emotions and desires.

If one cannot control his or her irrationality (greed, lust, pride), he or she is not a good person.

Eudaimonia

It is the highest good; self-fulfillment; human flourishing

Happiness is not the same as eudaimonia.

It is a quality of a life well-lived.

Eudaimonia is the quality everyone should aim to achieve.

Arete (Virtue)

Arete is the excellence in one's function.

It is the mean (middle) between the two extremes: deficiency and excess.

A virtue should be in the 'golden mean' of the two extremes.

Virtue is caused by rationality and achieved through consistency.

What were the characteristics of the Medieval Period of philosophy?

o It was also referred to as the Middle or Dark Ages.

 o The philosophies shifted from the source and purpose of all things to the existence and
nature of a supreme being.

o The use of reason and rationality slowly disappeared; everything was pointed towards
God.

o The Church became the highest authority over the masses.

o It was considered a dark age for philosophy because the light of reason was lost.

St. Augustine – "My heart is restless until it rests in Thee"

Ideas: Theory of Divine Illumination (The Light of Eternal Reason)

From the day we are born, we all know God.

All we need is His divine illumination to light the faith inside of us.

Human Nature

St. Augustine's theory on human nature is heavily influenced by manicheanism.

Humans have two sides: good and evil.

Evil is defined as the lack of good in a person.

It is brought by the free will to choose that God gave humans.

Neoplatonism

St. Augustine's philosophy is greatly influenced by Plato.

There are two worlds: the City of God and the City of Man.

The City of God is perfect, eternal, and unchanging. (World of Forms; heaven)

The City of Man is unstable, flawed, and ever changing. (World of Appearances; earth)

Unlike Plato, St. Augustine said that humans can reach the City of God (World of Forms) by
following God's word.

Predestination

There are humans whose souls are destined to burn and be unsaved by God.
This idea was used to justify the literal burning to death of heretics (people who oppose Christian
belief).

St. Anselm – "God is the being that which nothing greater can be conceived"
Ideas: Monologion (A book)

Everything that exists, exists through something or nothing.

People seek to enjoy whatever they consider as good.

There are various degrees of beings.

Therefore, there is a being that is highest and most perfect which is God.

Proslogion (A book)

St. Anselm said that even the stupidest of idiots can conceive an idea of God.

He argued that an idea of God in mind proves His existence.

Ontological Argument (ontology – the study of beings)

God is perfect; therefore, He exists.

How did Gaunilon critique St. Anselm's philosophy? Gaunilon said that:

Something needs to exists before it is said to be perfect.

Saying that something exists because it is perfect is completely illogical.

St. Thomas – "To one who has faith, no explanation is necessary. To one
without faith, no explanation is possible"
Ideas: Faith Illuminates Reason

Theology begins with the knowledge divinely revealed by God; Divine Revelation

We can understand this knowledge that came from God through reasoning or philosophy.

Therefore, philosophy and theology are independent but connected disciplines; they do not need
to be in conflict.

Five Proofs of God's Existence (found in his book, Summa Theologica)

o Motion: God is the unmoved mover; He is the mover of all things

 o Efficient Cause: God is the cause of all things; He is the ultimate cause.

o Necessity: God's existence is necessary for the existence of everything else.

o Gradation of Beings: God is the highest of all beings.

o Grand Design: God is the creator of all things

What is the modern period of philosophy?

o This period saw the fall of religion and humanity’s return to reason.

o It was also known as the Renaissance which literally means ‘rebirth.’

o This return to reason is a result of Johannes Gutenberg’s invention of the printing press.

o The printing press made it possible to mass produce books and records – including the
works of the ancient Greek philosophers.

o The philosophy of Ancient Greece influenced this period’s philosophers to use their logic
and reason instead of faith in thinking.

o This period was heavily dominated by political thinkers.

What were the points discussed by these political thinkers?

o State of Nature: human condition before society; traits someone is born with

o Social Contract: an agreement between the people and the state; it contains laws about
how a state should function and how people should behave.

o Sovereign: the form of government or authority that rules over the state

Thomas Hobbes – “The condition of man is a condition of war of everyone

against everyone”

Question: What is the human’s state of nature? His answer: Evil; barbaric Why?

Everyone is born with the right to everything; there are no limits to a person’s liberty.

So, all people are equal in the sense that everyone has the capability to kill a person.

A person has two drives that determines his or her actions: love and hate.

We want to have the things we love while we want to kill the things we hate.
Therefore, a social contract must be established to prevent the possible chaos and destruction
brought by humanity’s state of nature.

Question: What should be found in the social contract? His answer:

The social contract is the ‘mutual transferring of rights and freedoms.’

We must surrender some of our natural rights (to kill, to steal) that prevent us from self-
preservation – simply living and reproducing.

The people should surrender their lives to the Leviathan in exchange for protection and
ultimately, self-preservation.

Question: Who should rule over the people? His answer: Leviathan

The Leviathan can be one person or a group of people; however, there must only be one ruling
authority over the masses.

Since the people surrendered their lives to the Leviathan, its obligation is to protect them.

Other ideas: Natural Laws – General Rules Known Through Reason

o Seek peace and follow it.

o Submit your rights to one another.

o Surrender your life to the Leviathan.

Jean Jacques Rosseau – “Man is born free, yet everywhere he is in chains”

Question: What is the human’s state of nature? His answer: Free, independent, happy Why?

Man by nature is good, but it is society that corrupts him.

It is in our nature to love and care for one another, yet the different institutions of society
(Church, education) corrupt us into being greedy, selfish, envious, vain, etc. (amour propre or
unhealthy self-love)

Therefore, we should return to our state of nature – being ‘noble savages’ wherein we are all
good and free from the corruption of society.

Question: What should be found in the social contract? His answer:

Since man by nature is independent and free, everyone has the natural liberty to do what they
wish.
Because of society, we have become prideful, jealous, and vain; our self-interests have become
our priority.

Therefore, we must eliminate our self-interests and live by the ‘general will’ or the ‘common
good’ – what is right and beneficial for everybody.

Question: Who should rule over the people? His answer: General will; common good

The general will of the sovereign aims at what is just and best for the masses.

This is the state’s top priority, and it must do everything to maintain it.

This is different from the ‘will of all’ which is what the people want and not what they need; the
will of all may be bad and can go against the general will.

John Locke – “All wealth is the product of labor”

Question: What is the human’s state of nature? His answer: Rational; blank slate

Humans are born rational; we know what is good and bad.

Everyone is born as a blank slate or ‘tabula rasa.’

It is our experiences and the environment we live in that determine our character.

Question: What should be found in the social contract? His answer:

The sovereign is put to power by the people; the people give the sovereign their consent to rule
over them.

So, it is the sovereign’s duty to preserve the three natural rights of man – right to life, liberty, and
property.

If the sovereign fails to do its duty, the people have the ‘ultimate right to revolution’ to
overthrow the sovereign and replace it with a more effective one.

Question: Who should rule over the people? His answer:

The sovereign is elected through the consent of the people – simply voting or democracy.

In the sovereign must be a separation of power; there must be an executive and legislative branch

The legislative branch makes laws while the executive implements them.

These laws must be for the people since the sovereign was elected by the people.