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    Andes Shortening

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    Sourav Datta
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    Andes Shortening

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    Andes Shortening

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    Sourav Datta
    Andes Shortening

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    GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH LETTERS, VOL. 27, NO. 18, PAGES 3005-3008, SEPTEMBER 15, 2000 Crustal shortening in the Andes: Why do GPS rates differ from geological rates? Mian Liu', Youging Yang’, Seth Stein’, Yuanging Zhu’ and Joe Engeln' Abstract. GPS data indicate 30-40 mun yr! present-day crustal shortening. across the Andes, whereas geological evidence shows crustal shortening concentrated in the sub-Andean thrust belt at a much lower rate (<15 mm yr"). We reconcile the discrepancy between the geodetic and the geological crustal shortening using geodynamic modeling that includes timescale-dependent crustal deformation The GPS veloci reflect the instantaneous deformation in the Andes that includes both permanent deformation and elastic deformation that will be recovered during future earthquakes, whereas the lower geological rates reflect only the permanent deformation. The three-dimensional viseoelestic model predicts nearly form short-term velocity gradients cross the Andes, similar tothe GPS results, and concentrated long-term crustal shortening in the sub-Andean thrust zone, consistent with geological observations. 1. Introduction One of the most satisfying validations for the theory of plate tectonies comes from GPS and other space geodetic methods. With precision to a few mm yr", these geodetic measurements show that many parts of the Earth's surface rove relative to each other very much as predicted by plate motion models derived from geological data spanning millions of years (Stein, 1993] However, in the Andes, the cristal shortening inferred from short-tem geodetic measurements differs significantly from that indicated by the geological record, suggesting that the crust _may deform ifferently on different timescales. Here we use a simple plastic-viseoelastic model to illustrate the telationship ‘between the instantaneous crustal shortening reflected in the GPS measurements and longterm crustal shortening indicated by geological observations We then present 2 Uhree-dimensional finite element model that incorporates digital topography and relevant model geometry and ‘boundary conditions of the Andean orogen. The model predicts @ nearly uniform shor-term velocity gradient across the Andes consistent with the GPS date, and long-term crustal shortening concentrated in the sub-Andean thrust belt consistent with geologice! evidence 2. ‘The Andean Crustal Shortening Although numerous factors, including magmatic addition ‘and mantle flow, may have contributed to the Andean Dept. of Gelogiea! Sei ge2it "Dept of Geological Scfenes, Norduester University, Evanston, IL, ont 1; Univerity f Misour, Columbia, MO, ‘Copytight 2000 by the American Geophysical Union. ‘Paper riumber 2000GL 008532. (0094-8276;00/2000GL 008532505 00 mountain building (Fubao ef al, 1989; Russo and Silver, 1996; Zondt e1 el, 1996; Pope and Willen, 1998}, most workers belive tha she Andes resulted largely fom erate Shortening in the past ~30 Myr as the consequence of convergance between the subducting Nazca plate and the overriding Souh American plate [Vsacks, 1988; Sheff, 1990; Dewey and Lamb, 1992) The present crustal shortening associated with the plow convergence is clearly shown in secent GPS results spanning the Central Andes (Ll et al, 1997; Norabuena etal, 1998} (Fig. 1). The GPS velocity of the Nazcx plate i 68-78 mm ye relative tothe stable interior ofthe South America pate (Vorcbuena et al, 1999), slightly less than the predictions of the NUVELA plate motion tmodel, which wes based on marine magactic anomalies averaged over the past 3 Myr (DeNts eal, 199]. About half af the plate convergence is locked at the plate boundary, causing 30-40 mm yr" eastward movement of the coastal area relative to stable South Americ (Fg. 1). The gradual decrease of GPS velocity across the Andes indicates crustal shortening in the entire mountain beke The geological evidence, however, shows crustal shortening concentrated within the sub-Andean fold-and-hrust belt (PTB) ata muck lower rate (8-13 mm yr") vaton | ne Ae Has a South Ameria Pate sib igure 1. (8) Topography and GPS site velocity field relative to stable South America (SA) [Leffler et al, 1997; Norabuena er al, 1998] of the central Andes. Rate scale is given by the [NUVEL-IA Vector. NZ, Nazca plate; WC, Westem Cordillera; EC, Eastem Cordillera; FTB, Sub-Andean Fold and Thrust bk, (b) Sketch of @ cross-section of the Andean orogenic system showing velocity distribution infered from GPS data 3005 3006 averaged over the past 25 Myr [Sheffels, 1990; Schmitz, 1994}. Modern seismicity also shows active crustal shortening concentrated within the sub-Andean FTB The shortening rate estimated from the seismic moments of ‘earthquakes is only 1-3 ram yr [Suares et al, 1983), which is ‘a minimum beeause aseismic deformation is not included in the calculations and the sampling period may hove missed infrequent very large earthquakes. The discrepancy between the geodetic and geologial rates and spatial distributions of crustal shortening can be reconciled by the timescale dependent behavior of the lithosphere, which behaves as an clastic body over a short period but as viscous flow over the geological timescale of millions of years, 3. Short-Term vs. Long-Term Crustal Shortening Rates ‘Transient stain accumulation and release associated with the seismic eyele at subduction zones have been wel studied {[Savage, 1983] Here we illustrate the relationships between the longcterm and short-term behavior of erustal shortening across both the subduction zone and the Andes in a simple plastic-viscoelastic model containing a dashpot, 2 spring, and 2 pair of fictional plates (Fig 2). The first two parts represent 2 viscoelastic body, and the frictional plates represents faults This system provides a firstorder approximation of the mechanical behavior of the Andean crust: mainly elastic over short periods, viscous over long geological time scales, and plastic (liding along faults) when tectonic stresses exceed the yield strength of the crust. When the system is ‘compressed at a constant rate V,, which is 30 - 40 mm yr at the leading edge of South Amtica, the stress. o(s) increases with time: (0) = 6 ~ (0g ~ay)expl-t! £), where of is the background stress, 1 is time, t=1/E is the Maxwell relaxation time, and of, =7¥, / W is the theoretical limit of stress in the system, where 1) is viscosity, is the Young's modulus, and W is the width of the deforming zone Fig. 2b shows the sttess evolution in this model. Whenever stress reaches the yield strnath, sliding (an earthquake) occurs between the fictional plates, sirst drops to oy, and the process then repeats. The resultant displacement evolution shows the relation between shor-term strain and long-term permanent shortening (Fig. 2). Correlating to the stress evolution, displacement accumulates atthe rate of V, except during earthquakes, when it drops by an amount Au. The tveraged long-term shortening rate at the compressional edge of the system, V., is elven by V, minus the average sip rate, as show by the envelope of the displacement sawtoath-curve (Fig 2c) This relationship explains why the GPS-meesured crustal shortening rates are higher than the geotogically- derived shortening rates The fong-term shortening rate ¥. ‘oan be simplified as V,=Wo,/n When the shortening is uniformly distibuted across the system, V, / Wis the strat rte: V,/W=2=0,17 In other words, the averaged long- term deformation of this plasticviscoclastic system is essentially that of a viscous fluid 4, Uniform Shortening vs. Concentrated Shortening To understand why the goodeticlly measured crustal shortening is essentially smoothly distributed across the LIVET AL: ANDEAN CRUSTAL SHORTENING Stick Slip e a a a N\\\ 7] ae i Q Displacement Time Figure 2. (a) Analog mode! for a plasticwiscoslastic crust ‘The fictional plates model the effects of earthquake cycle et the trench, the dashpot models viscous flow leading to permanent’ deformation, and the spring models clastic Geformation that will be recovered by earthquakes (sliding of the fictional plates). (b) Stress evolution forthe viscoelastic plastic system. Symbols are expluined in text (6) Displacement evolution showing the relationship between instantaneous velocity and long-term permanent velocity at the lef end of the viseoelastic-plastic system Displacement accumulates at the instantaneous rate V, except during sliding (earthquake) events, when arebound Au occurs. Hence GPS data would record & gradient starting at Vo fom the trench, ‘whereas the envelope of the displacement curve Vis the long term shortening rate reflected in geological records entire Andean mountain belt whereas the geological evidence indicates concentrated crustal shortening in the sub-Andean| FTB, we examine the Andean geodynamic system and its three-dimensional boundary conditions The major driving fore is tectonic compression associated with the continued plate convergence, which is largely balanced by the Bravitetional buoyancy force arising from the isostatically supported elevation of the mountain ranges [Dalmayrac ond ‘Molnar, 1981; Molnar and Lyon-Caen, 1988} The former acts to build the mountains, while the later tends to collapse the mountains. We simulate the Andean crustal deformation using three-dimensional finite element modeling (Fig. 3) The lateral boundary conditions are specified by velocity ‘boundary conditions consistent with the GPS measurements (Gee Fig 1): displacement boundary along the western edge ‘of the mode, a roller condition on the northern and southern boundaries to restrict displacement to the direction of plate ‘convergence, and a roller condition along the easter side reflecting no crustal shortening within stable South America The gravitational buoyancy force is calculated using the digital topography of the Andes, assuming a crustal density LIVET AL : ANDEAN CRUSTAL SHORTENING Figure 3. Finite element mesh ond boundary conditions. Dark areas are the Andean mountain bet. Digital topography of the Andes is used for csleulating the gravitational body force The model as six layers with variable viscosity approximating the typical strength profile of the lithosphere of 2800 kg m”. The elastic parameters use in the calculations include the Young's modulus (7x10! MPa) and the Poisson's ratio (025). Winkler springs are used to simulate the body forces induced by vertical displacement of density boundaries end the isostatic restoring force atthe base of the del crust {Wiliams and Richardson, 1991}. The model lithosphere is 100 km thik and hes six layers with variable elective viscosity to approximate the typical strength profile ‘of the continental lithosphere [Kirby and Kronenberg, 1987] For each tayer, the viscosity under the mountain belt is assumed 10 be one order of magnitude lower than that under the lowlands. ‘At a short time scale (<10* yr) crustal deformation is ‘expected to be neatelastic, which is approximated with high viscosity (1010 Pas) for the various crustal layers (Fig 43) A velocity boundary condition ranging ftom 32 -35 mm yr with respect to stable South America was imposed on the ester side ofthe model. The small variations of velocity on this boundary result from scaling with the model width, procedure used to avoid introducing artificial internal Aistortion because of the simplified model geometry The results show a neatly uniform decrease of velocity from the ‘west zcrss the entire mountin belt, consistent wih the GPS- based velocity field (ef Fig. 1) ‘Over long. geological time scales (>10* ye) the observed crusal deformation is similar to that predicted for a viscous fui (England ond MeKence, 1982] with an average effective Figure 4. (a) Predicted velocities across the Andes for short- term erustal deformation. Scale is shown in the upper right comer. Solid line (A~A") indicates the location of the velocity profile in (6). (b) Predicted velocities for long-term crustal eformation. The non-uniform velocity gradients across the Andes are caused by gravitational spreading superimposed on the deformation resulting from tectonic compression slong the westem boundaries Solid line (B-B') indicates the location of velocity profile in (©). (€) Comparison of the predicted short-term and long-term crusal deformation across the Andes with GPS velocity data (Vorabuena et al, 1998) ‘The pairs of arrows show EAW compressional (convergent) or extensional (Givergent) stress states infered from the velocity gradients for long-term deformation 3007 Short-Term Velocity Field foo = E & 2 8 = 8 8 2 2 a « IAA A ee Ly ae 5 Distance (x100 km) Long-Term Velocity Field Serres eee Bae racencventer tancae Distance (x100 km) Distance (x100 km) GaSe TTT eae at eeianacs Elevation (km) amet short-ienm velocity Sa f Sok Ea ge : 3 tong vetociy A So ’ early cee auc Cheeta | ‘A Foware Oise Cee Asee Or aOre MO aaeie Distance from trench (x100 km) viscosity between 10% and 10 Pa s [England and Houseman, 1986). To simulate the long-term crustal shortening in the ‘Andes, we lower the viscosity of erust layers to 10-10" Pa s inthe model (Fig. 4b). A velocity boundary condition of 10 12 mm ye" is applied to the West side of the model, as suggested by the geologically averaged shortening rates [Shefjels, 1990; Schmitz, 1954]. The resultant velocity Meld shows significantly non-uniform gradients across the Andes, jn contrast to short-term crustal deformation (Fig. 4c). This difference is caused by gravitational spreading of the ‘mountain bel, which is negligible for short-term (high effective viscosity) deformation but becomes important over the long geological time scales (low effective viscosity). While crustal shortening ssocieted with plate convergence pushes the crustal material eastward, gravitational spreading ‘moves the crustal material to both sides of the mountain belt (Over the Eastern Cordillera and part of the Altiplano, the ceasoward velocity due to compression atthe plete boundary is amplified by gravitational spreading in the same direction, ‘causing the velocity peak over this region (Fig. 4c). This is clearer in regions south of the bend at 22°S where the mountain ranges are higher and wider, enhancing the effects of gravitational spreading. The high velocity gradient across the sub-Andean zone indicates concentrated crustal shortening, consistent with geological and seismological observations The long-term velocity in the Western Cordillera is relatively low, because there gravitational spreading is i the direction opposite (westward) of the eastward tectonic compression. The prediced topography and long-term stress patterns in central Andes are also comparable to the observations [Liu er af , 1995] The model velocity field is largely controlled by the viscosity structure. We find the short-term shortening. across the Andes as reflected by the GPS data can be reasonably well fit when the viscosity of the model erust is >10™ Pa s. The boundary conditions and the force balance between tectonic compression and gravitational spreading are also important for the predicted velocity, the effects of other model simplifications are secondary. 5, Discussion ‘The uncertainties of present GPS data are large enough 10 allow alternative (nonuniform) interpretations of the velocity Field [Leffler et af , 1997; Norabuena et al, 1998). A longer interval of measurements would reduce the uncertainties sufficiently to resolve this issue. Nonetheless, the significant discrepancies between GPS. end geological rates and distribution of crustal shortening in the Andes would remain ‘and be consistent with the general model proposed here. The timescale-dependent mechanical behavior of continental crust may explain discrepancies between GPS and geolozical rates aa different tectonic setings. For example, within some iffusive deformation zones, the geological rates may include booth eseismie and seismic’ slips. Thus GPS retés measured within an earthquake cycle could be lower than geological rates averaged over a longer time interval [Larson et al, 1999). As increasingly more space geodetic data are being acquired and integrated with other data for plate boundary zones around the world, models like those presented here should be useful for understanding crustal deformation in other regions, Acknowledgments. We thank W. Holt and D. Argus fr constusive teview, andT Dixon and E Klosko for helpfa discussions. Tis work ws supported by NSF grant EAR-GH0S127 and NASA grant NAGS- bus References Dalmayrac, Band P. Molnar, Parallel ust and normal fuking in ‘Pert and canstins onthe sate of sues, Earth Pare Si Let, $5, 473-481, 1981 DeMets, C, RG. Gordon, DF. Argus, and $ Skin, Effect of recent revisions to the geomagnetic reversal tne sele on estimates of ‘erent late motion, Geaphys es Lett, 2, 2191-219, 1894 Dewey, JF, and SH. 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Will, Themalnechanial model for casal Thickening. i the central Andes diven by ablative subduction, Geology, 26, 511514, 1998, Russo, RM and PO, Silver, Cordilea formation, mantle dynamics, ‘and the Wilbon eee, Geafogy, 24, 511-5, 1996 Sevage,1iC, A dislocation mode of sain secumeaton ard release at ‘aubéelion zoe, Crepe Res, 88, 4984-996, 1983, Schmitz, M, A tlanced model of the southern’ Cental Andes, Tectonic, 13, 84-492, 1954 ‘Shetfls By Lower bound onthe smoost of crustal shortening bn the ‘cenral Bolivian Andes, Geology, 18, 812-813, 1990 Sisin S, Space eeodesy’ and plate mins, ia Space Geodesy and ‘Geodynamics, edied by DE Smithy and DL. Turcote, pp 5 “American Geophysiea! Union, Washington, D.C, 1993, sume, Gy P. Moliay, and BC. Burfi, Seismicity, fault plane solitons, depth of fauling, and acive tectonics of the Andes of Peru, Eeuador, and souhers Colombia, J Geopiys Res, 8, 10803 0426, 1983. Williams, CA, and RM. Richardson, A_rhoological Iayered the

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