RHEOLOGY AND THE EVOLUTION OF THE CENTRAL ANDES

Claudia B. PREZZI (1)

(1) CONICET – Universidad de Buenos Aires. INGEODAV, Dpto. de Cs. Geológicas, FCEyN, Universidad de
Buenos Aires, Ciudad Universitaria, Pabellón 2, 1418, Buenos Aires, Argentina. (prezzi@gl.fcen.uba.ar)

KEY WORDS: Central Andes, rheology, flexural compensation, geodynamic evolution.

INTRODUCTION:

Along the Argentine Puna two distinct phases of Cenozoic deformation are observed, a mio-pliocene phase
and a plio-quaternary one. Both deformation phases were not synchronous (Toth et al. 1996). Cladouhos et al.
(1994) determined that in the Northern Puna the oldest deformation ceased at about 10 Ma, while Marrett et al.
(1994) concluded that in the Southern Puna it continued to 4 Ma. Since Late Cenozoic the most intense
shortening took place in the Sierras Subandinas and the Santa Bárbara System. While the Sierras Subandinas are
a thin skinned fold and thrust belt, the Santa Bárbara System is a thick skinned thrust belt. Watts et al. (1995)
suggested that the existence of a more rigid lithosphere favoured the formation of thin skinned fold and thrust
belts in the central zone (18-19° S), while in the northern and southern ends, where the lithosphere is weaker, the
structures involve the basement (thick skinned). Several authors have proposed that the observed diachronism
could be due to lateral changes in the lithosphere structure and thickness (e.g.: Allmendinger et al. 1997).
The aim of this paper is to propose a very simplified flexural model trying to explain the observed
diachronism of Mio-Pliocene deformation along the Argentine Puna. Different authors (among others: Watts et
al. 1995, Toth et al. 1996) have previously proposed lithospheric flexural models for the Central Andes.

METHODOLOGY:
Vening-Meinesz (1939) regarded the lithosphere as an infinite elastic plate of density δi that floats
horizontally on the astenosphere of density δm. The plate bends under the load of a mountainous chain. Such bent
of the elastic plate depends on the load geometry, the load density, and the lithosphere effective elastic thickness
(Te). Several studies carried out in the Central Andes have considered broken elastic plates instead of infinite
ones (e.g. Lyon-Caen et al. 1985). During the implementation of this type of models the problem arises about the
localization of the elastic plate edge with respect to the topographic load. The deflection (w) of a two
dimensional semi-infinite (broken) elastic plate, not subjected to horizontal forces, under a line load Vo (N/m) is
given by: w = [Vo α3/4D] e-x/α cos (x/α); with α being the flexural parameter (m), D the flexural rigidity (Nm)
and x (m) the horizontal distance with x=0 in the plate edge.
In the model proposed here, the continental lithosphere under the Central Andes is regarded as a two
dimensional thin elastic broken plate with its western edge under the actual magmatic arc (68°W). This
localization of the plate fracture was chosen trying to avoid lateral variations of the plate flexural rigidity,

489
considering that under the magmatic arc very low values of electrical resistivity have been registered (2 to 50
Ohmm) (Schwarz and Krüger 1997). These low values suggest the existence of a partial melting zone. If we
consider that the thermal state of the lithosphere controls the plate flexural rigidity (Tassara and Yañez 1997), we
could expect lateral variations of rigidity under the magmatic arc. It is considered that the plate extends
continuously towards the east without lateral variations of the flexural rigidity. However, rigidity would increase
towards the east due to the presence of the Brazilian Shield (Watts et al. 1995). Nevertheless, taking into account
that this model is very simplified and that only the zone between the Argentine Puna and the Sierras Subandinas
– Santa Bárbara System will be considered, this oversimplification will be accepted. The possible forces applied
to the elastic plate due to the subduction of the Nazca plate under South America plate, and to the thrusting of
the Sierras Subandinas over the Brazilian Shield, will not either be considered (Isacks 1988). It is worthy to note
that Springer (1999) determined low values of shear strain (lower than 15 MPa) along the contact between the
Nazca and South America plates. Once the model constrains have been set, the deflection (w) of the elastic plate
10 Ma ago along two E-W profiles at approximately 22°S (Northern Puna) and 24°S (Southern Puna) will be
calculated.
A Poisson’s ratio of 0.25, a Young’s modulus of 1011 N/m2, a lithospheric density (δi) of 2930 kg/m3 and an
upper mantle density (δm) of 3320 kg/m3 were used in the calculations. Different values of elastic thickness (Te)
were considered for each modelled profile. Götze et al. (1994) determined a Te value of 25 km for the Andean
zone extending between 20-22°S and a Te value of 20 km for the zone extending between 22-26°S. Watts et al.
(1995) observed that Te values increase from nearly 0km in the northern and southern ends, up to approximately
50 km in the central zone. Tassara and Yañez (1997) determined Te values between 15 and 5 km for the Andean
segment extending between 12-24°S and Te values between 10 and 0 km for the Andean segment extending
between 24-28°S. In this paper, Te values of 25 km and of 15 km were used for the Northern Puna (22°S) and
the Southern Puna (24°S), respectively.
In order to calculate the deflection of the elastic plate at 10 Ma, the weight per unit length supported by the
plate must be estimated. Cladouhos et al. (1994) determined that the deformation that ceased at about 10 Ma,
produced 50 km of shortening and an elevation of 2 km for the Northern Puna. Kley et al. (1997) reported 75-
100 km of shortening across the Altiplano and the western edge of the Eastern Cordillera at 21°15´S; this
shortening took place between 25 and 10 Ma. Kley and Monaldi (1998) calculated 80-106 km of shortening
across the Altiplano and the Eastern Cordillera at 21°S. Here, a shortening value of 90 km was adopted.
Considering a local isostatic compensation for the Puna (Watts et al. 1995), the topographic area (At) elevated
over an altitude (h) can be estimated from the shortening (S) underwent by the studied zone, the initial crustal
thickness (Ho), the initial elevation (ho) and the height of the crustal root (r), (Isacks 1988). In this study, the
topographic area (At) elevated over 2 km (h) 10 Ma ago along 22°S was calculated from: S = 90 km, Ho = 35
km (Cladouhos et al. 1994), ho = 0 km and r = 15 km. A value of 370.6 km2 was obtained for At. The weight per
unit length (Vo) is given by: Vo= At g δt, with δt being the topography’s density (2670 kg/m3).
In the case of the profile modelled along 24°S, the shortening and the elevation occurred previous to 10 Ma
are unknown. So, the Vo value calculated for the profile extending along 22°S will be used. This value could be
somewhat excessive, as several authors (among others: Isacks 1988, Kley et al. 1997) have reported that
shortening diminishes from Arica elbow to the south.

490
OBTAINED RESULTS

The deflections (w) of the elastic plate at 22 and 24°S at 400 km from the edge of the plate were compared.
Such distance was chosen considering the shortening occurred later than 10 Ma. The foreland basins would be
localized at that distance 10 Ma ago. While, under the model constrains, the plate under the Andean foreland
belts at 22°S underwent an elevation of 538m, at 24°S it underwent a subsidence of 96m. These results indicate
that the foreland basins supported different strains in both zones of the Andean orogene 10 Ma ago. Therefore,
this flexural model could provide an explanation for the above mentioned diachronism.
The compressive deformation that continued to 4 Ma in the Southern Puna produced more shortening and an
increment of the topographic load so that, in a particular moment, the foreland basins at 24°S would also
undergo elevation. To test this hypothesis the deflection (w) of the plate with the same Te values along the same
profiles was calculated, but now considering the load exerted by the actual topography. The digital elevation
model produced by the EROS Data Center of the United States Geological Survey was used for the calculation
through integration of the corresponding At values. The deflections (w) of the elastic plate at 22 and 24°S at
64°30´W and at 65°15´W respectively were compared. These longitudes correspond to the actual localization of
the westernmost zones of the Sierras Subandinas and the Santa Bárbara System. At 22°S-64°30´W the elastic
plate underwent an elevation of 1997m. At 24°S-65°15´W the elastic plate underwent an elevation of 467m.
These values would indicate that both zones of the plate would suffer deformations giving way to peripheral
flexural bulges, subsidence being not registered. On the other hand, the plate shape predicted by the model
resembles that of the corresponding Bouguer anomalies (Götze et al. 1994) supporting the proposed hypothesis.
Oversimplifications could exist in the proposed model, which would restrict the validity of the obtained
results. Nevertheless, it provided a workable hypothesis to explain the observed diachronism in the eastward
shift of the deformation along the Argentine Puna. Such diachronism would be controlled by variations in the
effective elastic thickness of the lithosphere along the Central Andes.

CONCLUSIONS

It is evident that a great variety of processes has produced the present configuration of the Central Andes and
several questions remain unanswered: why did the plateau uplift, crustal thickening and increase in the width of
the mountain belt take place during the past 25 Ma?, which is the exact origin of the extraordinary over-
thickened crust?, which is the cause of the extreme low values of lithospheric rigidity observed in the high intra
mountainous basins?, why is the end of mio-pliocene compressive deformation diachronic along the Argentine
Puna?, which are the driving mechanisms leading to the Central Andes vertical axis rotation pattern?, etc.
(among others: Baumont et al. 1999, Götze and Schmidt 2000, Prezzi and Alonso 2002).
Trying to assay possible answers to these questions, and considering the results obtained in this very
simplified model the future course of action is to carry out a 3 D flexural modelling of the crust and mantle
rheology for different geological times (constrained by the available geologic and geophysical data) for the zone
of the Altiplano-Puna plateau. From such 3D rheology modelling several features of the Central Andes (different
styles, timing and rates of deformation, crustal thickening, orogenic shortening, backarc basins evolution, rates
of deposition and erosion, gravimetric and geoidal anomalies, pattern of heat-flow density, vertical axis rotation

491
pattern, volcanic activity, magmatic evolution, ore deposits setting, etc.) could be predicted and compared with
the real-world available data, giving a new insight of the orogen geodynamic evolution.

REFERENCES

Allmendinger, R., T. Jordan, S. Kay, and B. Isacks. 1997. The Evolution of the Altiplano-Puna Plateau of the Central
Andes. Earth Planet. Sci. Annual Review, 25, 139-174.
Baumont, D., A. Paul, H. Pedersen, G. Zandt, and S. Beck. 1999. Shear wave velocity in the lithosphere across
the Central Andes, paper presented at 4th. ISAG, Goettingen, Germany.
Cladouhos, T. , R. Allmendinger, B. Coira, and E. Farrar. 1994. Late Cenozoic deformation in the Central Andes:
fault kinematics from the northern Puna, northwestern Argentina and southwestern Bolivia. Journal of South
American Earth Sciences, 7, 209-228.
Götze, H., and S. Schmidt. 2000. Rigidity of the Central Andes and their isostatic state by density modelling, paper
presented at IX Congreso Geologico Chileno, Puerto Varas, Chile.
Götze, H., B. Lahmeyer, S. Schmidt, and S. Strunk. 1994. The Lithospheric Structure of the Central Andes (20°-
26°S) as inferred from Quantitative Interpretation of Regional Gravity, in Tectonics of the Southern Central
Andes, edited by Reutter, Scheuber, Wigger, pp. 7-21, Springer Verlag Heidelberg,.
Isacks, B. 1988. Uplift of the Central Andean Plateau and Bending of the Bolivian Orocline. Journal of
Geophysical Research, 93, 3211-3231.
Kley , J., and C. Monaldi. 1998. Tectonic shortening and crustal thickness in the Central Andes: How good is the
correlation?. Geology, 26(8), 723-726.
Kley, J., J. Müller, S. Tawackoli, V. Jacobshagen, and E. Manutsoglu. 1997. Pre-Andean and Andean-Age
deformation in The Eastern Cordillera of Southern Bolivia. Journal of South American Earth Sciences, 10(1), 1-19.
Lyon-Caen, H., P. Molnar and G. Suárez. 1985. Gravity Anomalies and flexure of the Brazilian shield beneath the
Bolivian Andes. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 75, 81-92.
Marrett, R., R. Allmendinguer, R. Alonso, and R. Drake. 1994. Late Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Puna Plateau
and adjacent foreland, northwestern Argentine Andes, Journal of South American Earth Sciences, 7(2), 179-207,.
Prezzi, C. and R. Alonso. 2002. New Paleomagnetic data from the Northern Argentine Puna: Central Andes
Rotation Pattern Reanalysed. Journal of Geophysical Research, 107(B2), 10.1029/2001JB000225.
Schwarz, G. and D. Krüger. 1997. Resistivity cross section through the southern Central Andes as inferred from
magnetotelluric and geomagnetic deep soundings. Journal of Geophysical Research, 102, 11957-11978.
Springer, M. 1999. Interpretation of heat-flow density in the Central Andes. Tectonophysics, 306, 377-395.
Tassara, A., and G. Yañez. 1997. Segmentación de los Andes (12-50° S): un punto de vista reológico aportado
por un análisis flexural, paper presented at VIII Congreso Geológico Chileno, Antofagasta, Chile.
Toth, J., N. Kusznir, and S. Flint. 1996. A flexural isostatic model of lithosphere shortening and foreland basin
formation: Application to the Eastern Cordillera and Subandean Belt of NW Argentina. Tectonics, 15(1), 213-223.
Vening Meinesz, F. 1939. Tables fondamentales pour la réduction isostatique régionale. Bulletin Geodinámique, 63.
Watts, A., S. Lamb, J. Fairhead, and J. Dewey. 1995. Lithospheric flexure and bending of the Central Andes. Earth
and Planetary Science Letters, 134, 9-21.

492