R o i Giorgi

Angels and Demons

in Art

Edited by Stefano Zuffi

Translated by Rosanna M. Giammanco Frongia

The J. Paul Getty Museum

Los Angeles
A Guide to Imagery

Italian edition 1 0 0 3 Mondadori Electa S.p.A., Milan

All rights reserved. www.electaweh.it. © Marc Chagall by SIAE 2003

Series Editor: Stefano Zuffi

Original Graphic Coordinator: Dario Tagliabue
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Third printing

English translation z o o s J. Paul Getty Trust

First published in the United States of America in zoos by

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Translation, copyediting, design, and typesetting coordinated by LibriSource Inc.

Quotations of scriptural texts from The New American Bible for Catholics
(Greenlawn Press, South Bend, Indiana, 1970, 1991).

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Giorgi, Rosa.
[Angeli c demoni. English)
Angels and demons in art I Rosa Giorgi ; edited by Stefano Zuffi ; translated by Rosanna M. Giammanco
Frongia.
p. cm. — (A guide to imagery)
Translation of: Angeli e demoni.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-o-89236-830-3 (pbk.)
1. Angels in art—Dictionaries. 2. Devil in art—Dictionaries. 3. Christian art and symbolism—Dictionaries.
4. Supernatural in art—Dictionaries. I. Zuffi, Stefano, 1961-- II. Title. III. Series.
N8090.05513 zoos
704.9'4864—dczz
2005009018

Printed in Hong Kong

On the opposite page: Piero della Francesca, Montefeltro Altarpiece (detail), 1 47 2-74. Milan, Brera.
 '
•
 Contents

8 Introduction

11 Creation and the Geography 121 T h e Path of Salvation

of the Next World

67 T h e Path of Evil 167 The Last Days: Judgment and Reality

231 T h e Infernal Cohorts 375 General Index and Index of Artists

279 T h e Angelic Cohorts

Introduction
Why do angels have wings? Why do devils
have horns? Why do we unhesitatingly
conjure up the former in Heaven and the
latter in the fires of Hell? These creatures
of the spirit, their nature and appearance,
their lives with respect to humankind, the
places they inhabit, and their complex jour-
neys through time are the subjects of the
images illustrated and discussed in this
book. The history of art has accompanied
the evolution of human thought, including
Christian ideas, giving visual form to that
which no one has ever seen, yet whose exis-
tence no one has ever doubted. To do this,
artists have revived motifs from classical
antiquity, updating traditional themes, and
perfected representational models, some of
which found so much favor that they have
survived almost intact, in clearly compre-
hensible form, to the present day.
This guide explores the iconography of
angels and demons by grouping them under
broad themes, both temporal (starting from
the Creation) and geographical, and follows
man's journey in search of closer contact
with the world of spiritual creatures, an
imaginary path that goes "from earth to
Heaven." The last chapter, which ideally
concludes this journey, is dedicated to the
angels, the heavenly cohorts. Divided into
six chapters, the book gradually shifts its
focus from humankind as a subject looking
at the Afterworld and its spiritual nature,
to the spiritual world itself. It investigates
human destiny as a meeting point of earthly
and spiritual realities.
The first chapter traces the idea of the
Afterworld, starting from the book of
Genesis, and elucidates the development
of this idea using scriptural, literary, and
philosophical sources. Chapters 2 and 3
focus on humanity and illustrate the two
paths—two different human attitudes and
choices with respect to the spirit—that
determine the individual's ultimate destiny.
Before turning to the chapters that look
expressly at demonic and angelic beings,
a transitional chapter on eschatological
beliefs explores, through images, the
reality suspended between life and death,
and between death and the Afterlife. The
chapter on the infernal cohorts explores
demons, more specifically, the devils or evil
spirits of the Judeo-Christian tradition that
inspired their iconography, along with their
actions, apparitions, and beliefs. (With
respect to terminology, these creatures are
often confused with daemons, demigods
that are not altogether evil or tied to the
Devil and that populate polytheistic reli-
gions.) Similarly, the chapter on the angelic
hostssurveys the images of these heavenly
creatures as they evolved through time,
with particular attention to their most
widespread variants.
The criterion that has guided the selec-
tion of the many subjects, figures, and
themes in this book is the iconographic
diffusion of theseimages in the history of
Western art. The focus is on Europe, and
images from the East and from other conti-
nents were not used, except in particularly
significant, though rare, cases. For each
theme, the images are presented in chrono-
logical order to better show the icono-
graphic development that took place. Given
the wide variety of places, times, characters,
and theological concepts, the information
given in the synopses in the margins
changesdepending on the subject matter.
9
 CREATION AND THE
GEOGRAPHY OF THE
NEXT WORLD
Creation
Earthly Paradise
Gate of Eden
The Garden and the Fountain of Grace
The Four Rivers of Paradise
Hell
Gates of the Netherworld
The City of Dis
Infernal Rivers and Swamps
Circles and Torments
Fires and Flames
Limbo
The Island of the Dead
Purgatory
Paradise
Bosom of Abraham
Heavenly Jerusalem
The Empyrean

Innbourg Brothers, The Creation,

Temptation, and Expulsion of Adam
and Eve from the Garden of Eden,
before 1416. Miniature from the
Tres riches heures du duc de Berry,
Chantilly, Musee Conde.

Creation
Name and Definition
Creation, the act of
begetting from nothing,
an act proper to God,
is the beginning and the
foundation of all of
God's works.
Time
At the beginning of human
history
Biblical Source
Genesis 1:1-3i
Characteristics
Often depicted sequentially,
this is the image of God,
Creator of all things,
following the order of
the biblical narrative.
Diffusion of the Image
Widely diffused in the
Middle Ages, with sublime
images in the Renaissance;
also present in later
centuries
▶Giovanni di Paolo, The
Creation of the World and
Expulsion from Eden tdetaili,
i455. New York, The MOM-
politan Museum of Art,
Robert Lehman Collection.
12
The protagonist of Creation is God the Father, who generates all
things by repeating the same act of calling things into being. The
original narrative of Creation was subdivided into vignettes.
According to the book of Genesis, God created the world in
six days. He made Heaven and earth—and light, which distin-
guishes day from night—on the first day, and on the second day,
separated the sky and the waters. On day three, God divided
dry land, which he called Earth, from the waters, which he
called Sea; then he caused the earth to bring forth seed-bearing
plants and fruit-bearing trees. On day four, God created the
lights of the sky: the stars and two great lights, one to govern
day and another to govern night. On day five, God made the
creatures that live in the sea and in the sky, and on day six, crea-
tures that live and crawl on earth. He also created Man—male
and female—in his image to rule over all other living beings.
Since the Middle Ages, the Creation has been represented
in sequential vignettes, although sometimes the six days are
grouped into one,
the cycle beginning
with the Creation of
Man. For the artist,
the most demanding
challenge was to
represent the act
of creation, accom-
plished through the
word (fiat ex verbo);
it is variously
depicted as a simple
gesture of the hand
or accompanied by
a throw of stars.

With the creation of
Heaven and earth, light
was also created. God
separates light, which
he calls day, from dark-
ness, which he calls
night, personified by
two distinct disks.
The frequent represen-
tation of the Creator
in the likeness of
Christ, the Word
Incarnate, derives
from the biblical text,
which says that God's
act of creation was
through the word.
It is very significant
that the gesture of
creating is not one
of command but
rather the liturgical
gesture of blessing.
♦Anonymous French illuminator,
TheCreation of the World,
late twelfth century. Miniature
horn the Bible de Sourigny.
Moulins, Bibliotheque Municipale.
Creation
The Creator's Word,
visualized as a sort of
rainbow, separates the
waters that are below the
sky from those above it.
Creation of the stars in
the sky: the Creator
holds the sun and the
moon in his hands:
these disks govern
day and night.
This anonymous artist
ends the sixth day with
the creation of the
animals of the earth,
deferring the creation of
man to the following
vignette.
This composition with
multiple vignettes
depicting the opening
passages of the book of
Genesisends with two
key moments in the
story: the creation of
woman (where that of
man is understood to
have already occurred)
and the entry of evil into
human history through
the original sin.
13

Earthly Paradise
Name
From the Old Persian
pairidaza, meaning
"enclosure" or "park"
Definition
The garden where God
placed Adam and Eve
after creating them
Place
In India at the source
of the Ganges River
or in Armenia at the
source of the Euphrates
and the Tigris; God made
it invisible after the Flood.
Tune
At the beginning of human
history
Biblical Source
Genesis 2.:8
Characteristics
An enclosed, luxuriant
garden inhabited by all
species of animals
Diffusion of the Image
Widespread especially from
the Early Christian to the
late Gothic period, with
interesting revivals after the
sixteenth century and in
the twentieth century
14
A luxuriant garden where our progenitors Adam and Eve lived
surrounded by all species of animals; sometimes God is included
in a sacred dialogue with the first man and the first woman.
The earthly Paradise, or Eden (from edinu, a word of Sumerian
origin meaning "countryside"), is also called "God's garden" in
the Bible. It is here that God placed Adam and Eve, to cultivate
the garden and care for it—not to toil—in partnership with
God by bringing visible creation to perfection, and to live near
God. It was man's chance to rule the world, as God had com-
manded him. This freedom was usually depicted by showing
our progenitors, naked in the Garden of Eden, strolling among
wild yet docile animals. In the oldest representations, the
earthly Paradise was clearly interpreted as a well-tended garden
encircled by high walls, a peaceful place where fresh waters
flowed. In areas that were especially exposed to Eastern influ-
ence, it was sometimes depicted as an oasis of palm trees rising
in the middle of the desert, while early Western iconography
developed a vision
of the earthly
Paradise as "God's
park," enclosed by
high crenellated
walls and blooming
with rosebushes.
In later centuries,
artists discarded
the idea of the wall,
preferring a wilder
landscape in which
the figures of Adam
and Eve became
gradually smaller.
 Earthly Paradise

Among the birds depicted in large numbers

both in flight and sitting on tree branches
is the bird of Paradise, with its distinctive,
gaily colored tail feathers.

In the background of this luxuriant

park teeming with all sorts of creatures,
the two small figures, the progenitors of
the human species, are portrayed at the
moment of the original sin.

This seventeenth-century painter In representations of earthly Paradise,

has included only one stream, it is common to find wild animals
rendering his interpretation far grazing together with their natural
from the description of the four Prey; the intent is to suggest an ideal
biblical rivers of Paradise. world where evil is unknown.

4 Giovanni Sons,The Creation of • Jan Snellink II, Paradise Landscape with

Adam, 1578—so.Parma, Galeria O r i g i n a l Sin, ca. t63o. Milan, Castello
Nazionale. S f o r z e s c o , Civiche Raixoltc d'Artc.

15
Earthly Paradise

Adam and Eve hide behind a bush: after

having eaten the forbidden fruit, they
realize that they are naked; hearing
God approach, they are afraid.

For the sin of disobey-

ing God, Adam and
Eve are banished from
the Garden of Eden.
Although it is God
who banishes them,
artists have tradition-
ally depicted are angel
armed with a sword
driving them out, a
reference to the armed
Cherubim stationed by
God to guard the gate
of Paradise.

With the same gesture used by God to

PiLucas Cranach, The Earthly Paradise, create man, God entrusts Adam and Eve
53o. Vienna, Kunsthistorisches with the care of the garden and dominion
Museum. over all living beings.

16
Creation of Eve: God fashions the first woman
from the rib of the sleeping Adam. The gesture
depicted here, very common in art, is one of
giving support to a creature who is still weak
and helping her to her feet.

The Tempter
snake, shown
with semihuman
features, offers the
fruit of the Tree of
Knowledge of
Good and Evil.

After creating all

living beings that
fly in the sky and
live in the water
and on earth, God
created man in his
image and likeness.

Gate of Eden
Name
Eden is derived from the
Sumerian edinu, which
means "countryside.'
Definition
The gate that shut behind
Adam and Eve when they
were banished from earthly
Paradise
Place
Garden of Eden
Biblical Source
The source does not specif-
ically mention a gate.
▶ Masaccin, Expulsion from
the Garden of Eden, 1424-2.7.
Fresco. Florence, Santa Maria
del Carmine, Brancacci
Chapel.
18
The image of the gate guarded by the Cherubim belongs to the
iconography of the Expulsion from Earthly Paradise; each
period has represented the gate differently.
The book of Genesis narrates that when Adam and Eve were
expelled from the Garden of Eden, God stationed Cherubim
and a fiery revolving sword at the east end of the garden to
guard access to the Tree of Life (Genesis 3:2.4). Since the birth
of Christianity, the artistic imagination has represented this as
apassage punctuated by a gate, later walled up by God's com-
mand and protected by
mighty guards. Because
there is no detailed descrip-
tion in the literary source,
the gate has been depicted
without a special effort to
make it a fortified entrance.
The focus in the earliest
centuries was on the pres-
ence of the angelic guard,
the Cherubim stationed by
God; in later epochs the gate
became primarily the stage
before which the tragic
expulsion from earthly
Paradise unfolded, and the
angel brandishing a sword
was no longer identifiable
as the Cherubim, whose dis-
tinctive iconographic traits
were lost.
 Gate of Eden

The gate of Eden is represented as a

tower: it is the image of a place that
is now inaccessible.

A messenger
angel sent
from God
has the task of
removing Adam Adam and Eve
and Eve from are wearing
the Garden clothes: accord-
of Eden. ing to the Gene-
sis narrative,
God himself
made them
garments of
skins, which
in this image
symbolize
their sin.

One of the fiery

red Cherubim
with three pairs
of wings is
stationed to
guard Paradise
(the sword is
not visible).

♦Expulsion from Paradise,

twelfth—thirteenth century. Mosaic.
Nlonrealc (Sicily), cathedral.

19

The Garden and
the Fountain of Grace
Definition
A specific interpretation
of earthly Paradise
Place
Inside or near the
earthly Paradise
Biblical Sources
Genesis 2:T o;
Song of Songs 4,12.-15;
Revelation zz
Characteristics
The water that springs
in Paradise is all eternal
and inexhaustible fount,
a symbol of eternal life.
Diffusion of the Image
Typical Early Christian
and medieval subject,
very widespread until
the late Gothic period
▶Hieronymus Bosch, The
Garden of Earthly Delights,
15 oo-151o. Left panel (open)
of the triptych. Madrid,
Museo del Prado.
20
A well-tended, enclosed garden with a fountain that has been
variously represented: in older works, it tends to be a spring or
a large basin; in later works, it becomes an elegant fountain.
The iconography of Paradise is derived directly from that of the
Garden of Eden. In the earliest Christian art, water, either a
fountain or a spring, was one of the first defining features of the
idea of Paradise. For both the earthly garden and the foreshad-
owing of heavenly Paradise, water is a fundamental presence: the
spring that gushes in the Garden of Eden symbolizes eternal life;
it is an inexhaustible fount and a symbol of rebirth. For this rea-
son, the image of Paradise has almost always included either a
spring from which the four rivers of Paradise are born or a large
basin containing the water of life
where animals, symbolizing the
faithful, quench their thirst.
With time, the image of a basin or
aspring gave way to that of a foun-
tain, depicted in the architectural
and decorative style of the time.
Thanks also to the popularity of the
biblical Song of Songs, the image of
the fountain in an enclosed,
secluded garden became pervasive
from the Middle Ages onward. The
popularity of the biblical text also
went hand in hand with the custom,
especially in convents, of commis-
sioning the construction of private
gardens designed according to spe-
c i f i c s y m b o l i c requirements.
 The Garden and the Fountain of Grace

With its human face and its snakelike body

coded around the trunk of the Tree of
Knowledge of Good and Evil, the Tempter
invites Eve to disobey.

An angel armed with a sword expels Life outside the earthly Paradise, as
Adam and Eve from the Garden of narrated in the Bible and in the apocryphal
Paradise. Apocalypse of Moses: men and women toil
to snake a living.

In the center of the The painful aging

Garden of Eden, a of the first parents
simple basin stands emphasizes the
for the fount of corruptibility of life,
• Boucicaut Master and workshop, eternal life. brought on by sin.
The.Story of Adam and Eve.
ea. 1415. Miniature from a manuscript
byBoccaccio. Los Angeles,
J.Paul Getty Museum.

21
The Garden and the Fountain of Grace

Many of the plants decorating this garden are
imbued with Christologic or Marian symbolism,
such as the rosebush that refers to the Virgin Mary.
In this sense, the medieval garden re-created a
terrestrial Eden, foreshadowing the heavenly one.
The image of the Virgin Mary in an enclosed
garden links the iconography of the Garden
of Eden to that of the hortus conclusus
(enclosed garden), the garden protected from
contamination and symbolic of Mary's purity.

The high crenellated

The gesture of the woman freely picking walls are typical of the
a fruit reminds the viewer of the act of fortifications protecting
disobedience that took place in the the enclosed garden.
Garden of Eden.

The fountain, source of life and of Grace,

is a requisite element of the garden, its The chained
symbolic value highlighted by the fact monkey sym-
that the water is being drawn with a bolizes the
golden ladle. Devil tamed.
The presence of an angel engaged
in conversation with men—a typi-
• Master of the Little Garden of cally pleasant, though earthly
Paradise,The Garden of Paradise, The baby Jesus pursuit—suggests the particular
ca. 141o. Frankfurt, plays safely in the state of Grace that the inhabitants
Stadelsches Kunstinstittit. Garden of Paradise. of this garden enjoy

22
 Christ in Majesty wears papal garments
and sits on a throne the arms of which
are carved with symbols of the Four
Evangelists and images of prophets.

The three figures in the uppermost tier,

the Virgin seated to the left, the
enthroned Christ in the center, and
Saint John to the right, compose a
decals, the central part of the
iconostasis in the Byzantine church.

Between the
human and
the divine, at
mid-level in the
composition, are
angels singing and
playing musical As in the earliest
instruments. Christian repre-
sentations, the
Mystic Lamb is
placed at the
spring of the
Christendom is Fountain of
represented by the Grace.
pope, who kneels
at the fountain,
and by those who
accompany him: a
cardinal, a bishop,
an abbot, an
emperor, a king,
and lay devotees.
The blindfolded
high priest
represents the
Synagogue that, in
opposition to the
A fountain in Late Gothic style collects the C h u r c h , has not
water flowing from under the throne of a c k n o w l e d g e d
Jesus into the garden: Jesus, fountainhead C h r i s t .
♦Janvan Eyck and assistants, The of life (John 4:14), is visually represented
Fountain of Grace, 142.i-19. Madrid, by the hosts of Holy Communion flowing
Ntusco dcl Prado. in the current.

23
 Four rivers spring from a hillock and flow in opposite directions;
starting in the Late Middle Ages, personified representations of
the rivers of Paradise gradually became more common.

The Four Rivers of Paradis

The book of Genesis describes a river that springs forth in the
Name Garden of Eden; within the Garden, it splits into four branches,
Phison IFlavius Josephus
identified it with the
each with unique attributes. The first river, the Phison, wound
Ganges River), through the entire land of Havilah, where one could find pure
Gihon IFlavius Josephus
identified it with the Nile), gold, fragrant resin, and onyx stone. The second, the Gihon (or
Tigris, and Euphrates
Geon), meandered through the land of Ethiopia. The third river
Place
Earthly Paradise was the Tigris, which flowed east of Assyria, and the fourth was
Biblical Sources
the Euphrates. The Bible adds nothing more. That the Nile is
Genesis silo; not mentioned suggests that the geography of Paradise probably
Revelation sz:
had its source in a Babylonian tradition (though some scholars
Characteristics
A river placed by God in believe that the Gihon is the Nile). Instead of following the
the Garden of Eden that
splits into four branches. scriptures, artists imagined the four rivers as flowing in the
The personified representa-
tions that became popular direction of the four cardinal points. Theologians attributed
in the late Middle Ages symbolic meanings to them which evolved over rime from the
were inspired by Greek
and Roman divinities. four cardinal virtues to the Four Evangelists to the Tetramorph.
Diffusion of the Image
From the Early Christian
era to the end of the
Middle Ages

is Christ Crowns a Martyr

Saint, sixth cenrory. Apse
mosaic. Ravenna, Basilica
of San Vitale.

24
 The Four Rivers of Paradise

In the sixth century, the image of Jesus was

interpreted transcendentally, under the influence
of the doctrines about his divine nature as set
forth by the Councils of Nicaea (3251 and
Constantinople (380.

The Mystic Lamb, its head surrounded
by a silvery halo, stands atop the sacred
mountain from which spring the four
rivers of Paradise, each flowing in a
different direction.
bvelve worshiping lambs without
halos are arrayed on each side of the
Mystic Limb; they symbolize the
apostles, the Lord's "little flock"
(Luke 12:32).

• The Glory of Christ, sixth century. None of the four water streams here
Apsemosaic. Rome, Basilica of Saints is clearly identifiable, but sometimes
Cosmasand Damian. they are explicitly labeled.

25
The Four Rivers of Paradise

Inscribed at the center of the vault is the

monogram of Christ consisting of the
Creek letters chi (X) and rho (P) with
alpha and omega, meaning that Christ is
the beginning and the end.

The earliest personifications of rivers

date to the High Middle Ages, reflecting
a revival of the classical practice
of representing river divinities
anthropomorphically.

The name of each river is inscribed under

the corresponding personification, there
being no other way to distinguish them by
specific visual attributes.

♦The Four Rivers of Paradise.

eleventh century. Fresco. Civate,
SanPietro al Monte.

26
 The four figures, each one denoting a
different age, are clearly differentiated
by their physical aspect and attributes,
all linked to water. In this detail, an old
man holds a fish by the tail.

The amphora from which water

flows is a common element in
early images of rivers.

In the four personifications of the

Trivulzio Candelabrum, waves
interlace with spirals.
♦Goldsmith from Meuse or Lorraine,
Trivulzio Candelabrum (details),
500-12 I o. Bronze. Milan, cathedral.

27
 A place imagined in the bowels of the earth, Hell is character-
ized in the Middle Ages by a funnel shape, subdivided into
circles and inhabited by demons that torment the damned.

The Christian world derived the conception of Hell from the

Name Greek idea of the Netherworld (Hades) and the Judaic Sheol,
Inferno is derived horn the
Latin and means "a place
infernal abodes where souls of the dead wandered. The
below." Christian Hell, seen as a place in the Next World reserved for
Definition the damned, was based on the idea of the Final Judgment and
The place in the Afterworld
where Satan rules a separation of the just from the wicked that had begun to
Biblical Sources spread in the second century B.C., thanks in part to Hebrew
Isaiah 14:9-29;
Faekiel 42:23;
prophetic texts. The latter would be taken up by Jesus and
Zechariah 5:1—I r; reported by Matthew and Luke, and by the book of Revela-
Malachi 4:1-3;
Matthew 5:11, 8;18; tion, where John, writing of Satan's abyss, describes Hell as
Luke 16:22-2.6;
Revelation sorio a pit of fire and sulfur.
Related Literature The depiction of Hell as a place of eternal damnation ruled
Book of Enoch (apoc-
ryphall; Vision from the by Lucifer first appeared in the tenth century in representations
Acts of Saint Paul (apoc-
ryphal); Saint Augustine,
of the Last Judgment and was elaborated in the two succeeding
De Donate Dee (City of centuries. Continuing theological clarifications, characteristic of
God); Dante Alighieri,
La Commedia (Divine the Middle Ages, produced a kind of geographic concept of the
Comedy)
Next World, with Hell as the place into which the souls damned
Characteristics
A place of torments, often for eternity were flung. The artistic imagination filled Hell with
engulfed in flames
all sorts of torments and tortures, which the demons inflicted on
Beliefs the evil souls, condemned to "eternal fire."
The cratcrlike shape of
Hell, popular in the Middle
Ages, was formed as the
earth pulled back when
Lucifer fell.

Diffusion of the Image

In depictions of the
Final Judgment from the
Middle Ages through the
Renaissance, though rarely
in later centuries

28
 Hell

Brandishing a pitchfork, a monstrous The souls of the damned are crammed

demon, with large ban wings and body between burning rocks: fire is the
combining goat and human traits, pushes principal characteristic of Hell.
back into the fire the small souls trying to
escape. The pitchfork and the hook are
demonic attributes that recall the instru-
ments of torture used in the Middle Ages.

Two demons
are needed
to squeeze the
powerful bellows
that feed the
eternal fire.

Satan, Lord of the Infernal Realm,

is depicted wearing a crown. lying
on a gridiron, he devours the souls
of the damned.

AGiotto, The Devil and the Damned ♦Limhourg Brothers, The Infernal
in Hell, 1303-6. Detail of the fresco Gridiron, before 1416. Miniature from
The last Judgment. Padua, theTres riches heures du due de Berry.
Scrovegni Chapel. Chantilly, Musee Conde.

29
Hell

The friar being hacked to pieces

with an ax is a heretic.

The wrathful
are devoured
by giant rats or
condemned to
devour their
own hands.

Among the tor-

ments meted out
to the misers, this
old man is force-
fed melted gold.

In the deepest pit of Hell the proud

▶Giovanni da Modena, Inferno, are punished by being devoured by the
1404. Fresco. Bologna,San PCITUfliO, dreadful, gigantic Satan, the root of ail
Bolognini Chapel. evil, who is pride personified.

30
Mahomet, considered a heretic and a
sower of discord, and here identified
by his name and a turban, is dragged
by the throat.

The lustfUl hare then backs torn

with huge pincers; among them
oneseesa crowned head and
aristocratic headdresses. A
sodomite is pierced with a skewer.

A bishop and a cardinal are recognizable

among the gluttons who suffer the pun-
ishment of Tantalus—they cannot eat the
appetizing food placed before them—or
are force-fed dung on long skewers.

31
Hell

This is Christ,
flanked by
Mary and Saint
John as in the
Byzantine dccsis.
On the Last
Day, he will sep-
arate the good
from the wicked.

The resurrection of
the bodies precedes
the final moment of
the Last Judgment•.
according to the
hook of Revelation,
"the seagave up the
dead in it" (2o:13).

Death, here
portrayed as a
giant skeleton,
The damned are wears a large
plunged into the mantle seemingly
chasm o Hell. made of bat's
wings, which
neatly separates
the scene into two
segments. On top
of Death stands
Saint Michael
with his sword
drawn, signifying
that one can
never come back
No Satan is depicted from Hell.
in this Hell, but the
multitude of demons
is rendered as
hideous animals
that pounce on the
damned to quarter
and devour them.

▶Jan van Eyck, The Last Judgment,

142.5-30. New York, The Metropolitan
Museum of Art.

32
Large gates torn and trampled by Christ when he descended into
the Netherworld; initially, the entrance to Hell was depicted as a
pair of gaping, dreadful maws that swallow up the damned.

Gates of the Netherworld

A handful of biblical sources mention the gates of the Nether-
world and God's power over death from which there is no Place
Next to Hell
return. One of these is in Matthew, when Jesus says to Peter:
"Upon this rock I will build my church, and the gates of the Biblical Sources
Wisdom 6 : t 3;
Netherworld shall not prevail against it." Only the resurrected Sirach 51:6;
Isaiah 38: to;
Christ, when he descended into Limbo, could go through those Matthew 16:18;
Revelation 9:i
gates, the insurmountable boundary of the kingdom of the dead,
Related literature
which by then already connoted a kingdom of eternal evil. Thus, Gospel of Nicodemus
many representations portray the gates as already torn and I apocryphal)

trampled by the resurrected Savior. Some artists, however, Diffusion of the Image
Linked to Byzantine
depart from the canonical texts: inspired by apocryphal tradi- representations of
Christ's descent imo the
tion, they personify Hell Netherworld and to
medieval representations
as a horrifying monster of Hell, this subject was
widespread throughout the
that devours souls and Middle Ages until the
render the entrance to the Mannerist period.

Netherworld as a fright-
ening pair of maws.
In some cases, such
as the miniature
illustrated here, the
influence of the
book of Revelation
is evident: the narra-
tive relates how the
fifth angel received the
4 Anonymous English
key to the entrance to the illuminator, An Angel Locks
the Gates of Hell, r r 5o.
bottomless pit; thus, the Miniature from the Winchester
Psalter London, British Library.
angel locks the monstrous
mouth with a key.

33
 The city is depicted as a tall-towered citadel surrounded by a
swamp, with diabolical beings posted to guard it. The damned
are punished inside.

The City of Dis

Name
From the Latin Dis, Dais,
an early Greek divinity
representing Hades (Pluto
to the Romans), the lord
of the Netherworld
Place
According to Dante,
it is a city in Hell.
Related Literature
Dante Alighieri, Divine
Comedy% Inferno,
canto VEIL 68
Diffusion of the Image
Limited to illustrations
of Dante's Inferno
By calling it "the city of Dis," Virgil, Dante's guide on his jour-
ney to the Afterworld, signified that he and his protégé were
about to enter the deepest circles of Hell. Dis is the archaic
name of the Greek Hades (Pluto in the Roman pantheon), god
of the pagan Infernal Realm. In Dante's geography of Hell, the
city of Lucifer rises beyond the Stygian swamp that surrounds
it and which must be crossed to enter into the lower depths of
Hell. The poet describes it as a fortified city whose walls, seem-
ingly made of iron, are punctuated by great red towers that
seem to be on fire. According to Virgil's explanation, the walls
are red and frightful precisely because the city's fires burn eter-
nally. Devils are posted at the gates and inside are three circles
where the heretic, the violent, and the fraudulent are punished.
In the popular depictions of Hell, the city of Dis has a secondary
place, usually appearing with illustrations of Dante's Inferno.

la• Master of the Vitae

Impercrtorum. City of Dis,
439. Miniature. Paris,
Bihliothique Nationale.

34
 The City of Dis

Hell is truly an incandescent city, but

the flames licking the buildings in the
distance do not destroy them; rather,
they enfold them, sharpening their
outline.

Asimian-shaped
demon bricklayer
is busy troweling
mortar as he The idea of
builds the walls of a tall tower
the infernal city: indefinitely
under construc-
tion calls to
mind the tower
of Babel.

Pursued and
tortured by
demons, the souls
are devoured by
beings that often
have monstrous
form: here the
naked soul of a
squanderer is
pursued by
a red bitch.

▶Hieronymus Bosch, Hell, t soo—t5oz.

Right panel (open) of the Haywain
triptych. Madrid, Musa., dcl Prado.

35
 These water streams look disturbingly muddy, bubbling, or icy,
never calm and inviting, the opposite of the regenerating spring
of the fountain of Paradise.

Infernal Rivers and Swamps

The iconography of the infernal rivers begins with Dante's
Names interpretation of classical sources. In his Inferno, only one
Derived from classical
mythology: Acheron, Styx,
river crosses Hell longitudinally; called the Acheron (named
Phlegethon, Cocytus for the son of Helios and Gaia) in the first part of its course, it
Place symbolizes the corruption of humankind. The Acheron is
Hell
crossed by Charon's boat as he ferries souls to Hell. Down-
Related Literature
Dante Alighieri, Divine stream the river becomes the Styx, named for another under-
Comedy
world deity. According to ancient myth, the Styx made nine
Characteristics turns around Hades; in the Inferno, the river is almost still
The river crosses the
length of Hell, changing and becomes a swamp. At its deepest stretch, the water turns
aspect during its course.
According to another fiery as it flows into the Phlegethon, which feeds the volcanoes
interpretation, the main
river is the Acheron and where patricides receive punishment. Finally, the Cocytus,
and the other three
are tributaries. whose waters are swollen with tears of the dead, forms an icy
Diffusion of the Image
lake at the bottom of Hell, where traitors are shackled.
Limited to illustrations
of Dante

▶Simon Marmion, Torments

of the Non-Believers and the
Heretics, 1475. Miniature from
The Visions of Tondal. Los
Angeles, I. Paul Getty Museum.

16
 Infernal Rivers and Swamps

Standing at the entrance to the deepest pit

of Hell (canto xxxrp, Dante is troubled
not only by what he sees, but also by the
difficulty of describing such hormrs.

The traitors are sunk up to their necks

A deep layer of ice covers the first area
of Cocytus, called Cain's Land; here the
waters of the infernal rivers are frozen by
the icy gales of Lucifer's beating wings.
in ice: among them, those who betrayed
their parents have their beads facing
down, while those who betrayed their
country or political party must hold then.
heads upright.

• Gustave Dore, Inferno,

Canto XXXII, 19, 1861-68. Print.

37
Infernal Rivers and Swamps

In the distance, Dante

glimpses the city of
Dis, identifiable by
its high walls and its
flame-engulfed towers.

Dante is frightened
by the Florentine
Filippo Argenti, one
of the damned, who
suddenly rises and
addresses Dante;
trying to capsize
Dante's boat, he is
promptly thwarted
by Virgil.

♦Eugene Delacroix, Dante's Boat,

1.8x2..Paris, Music du Louvre,

38
 Phlegyas, the steers-
man guiding the boat
on the River Styx, is a
mythological figure
transformed into a
demon by Dante; he is
known for his wrath,
a fitting trait for the
Styx watchman.

The wrathful are

immersed in the swampy
waters of the Styx
(Inferno, canto Viii); here
they angrily bite and strike
at each other; in the same
swamp, the slothful are
sunk bead down, and their
sighs cause the surface
waters to bubble.

39
 Starting in the fourteenth century, artists began to represent Hell
and the Final Judgment by dividing them into sections accord-
ing to the punishment that the demons inflict upon the damned.

Circles and Torments

Apocryphal texts, narratives of journeys to the Netherworld,
Place and didactic descriptions provided the basis for the medieval
Hell
subdivision of Hell into nine circles, corresponding to the nine
Biblical Sources angelic choirs. Artists drew on these sources for representa-
Matthew 6: i 1, 13:41-4z;
Luke rE: z x-2.6 tions of Hell, as did Dante. In the Inferno, sinners are cast into
Related Literature nine separate concentric circles that spiral down into a deep
Apocalypse of Peter (apoc-
ryphal); Vision in the Acts crater to the center of the earth, where the most abominable
of Saint Paul (apocryphal);
Honorius of Annul. Hurt-
sins are punished.
darium (Elucidations); Medieval theology popularized the doctrine of the contrap-
Uguccionc da Lodi, Libro
(Book); Bonvcsin dc la pass° (literally, retaliation} according to which the penalty
Riva, Libro de& tre scrit.
titre (Book of the Three inflicted mirrored the sin. In Limbo, souls are not subjected to
Suipturcs); Giacomino da
Verona, De Bandonia cwt. corporal punishment
tate irrfernali (Of Babylon,
Infernal City); Bono
because, since they
Giamhoni, Della miseria lived before Jesus,
dentomo (Of Human
Misery); Dante Alighieri, they could not receive
Divine Comedy
the Grace of salvation.
Characteristics
Hell is divided into nine Although they did not
circles, one for each type
of sin and for each penalty sin intentionally, their
meted our, which is in the
form of contrappasso.
torment lies in being
deprived of God. Each
Diffusion of the Image
Typical medieval subject, of the lower circles is
widespread until the
mid-fifteenth century divided into smaller
rounds that further
subdivide each class
of sin and its penalty.
▶Andrea di Buonaiuto, Hell
The worst sinners,
(detail), 1367-69. Fresco. who are confined to
Florence, Santa Maria Novella,
Chapel of the Spaniards. the bottom of Hell,
are the traitors.

40
 Circles and Torments

The first circle holds the cowardly,

forever condemned to run after
a weathercock.

The wrathful and the slothful

are submerged in the Styx swamp,
which the boat guided by Phlegy
as is crossing.

In the second
circle, Minos
tortures the
lustful, who are
forever being
swept away
by storms.
Third circle: the
gluttons.

The fourth and

fifth circles hold The high walls of
the misers and the city of Dis.
the spendthrifts.
The heretics are
confined to open
graves in a large
cemetery on fire.
The seventh
circle holds
the violent.

In the ninth circle, Lucifer devours

the traitors: here one of his mouths The eighth circle is subdivided
is biting the head of Judas. into ten pits.

♦Nardo di Cione, Inferno, 1350.-55.

Fresco. Florence, Santa Maria Novella,
Strozzi Chapel.

41
Circles and Torments

Sowers of discord: because they

caused splits and divisions when
alive, they are now quartered and
beheaded, hung by their feet or by
the head, and disemboweled.

As in Sodom and Gomorrah, an

incessant, all-enveloping rain of fire
falls all over Hell.

The gluttons
undergo the
The wrathful punishment
strike at each meted nut to
other and Tantalus:
devour their chained to a
own hands. sumptuously
law' table, they
cannot eat.

The miserly are

force-fed melted
gold.

♦FraAngelico, The Punishments of

the Damned in Hell, 43 a-33. Detail
of The Universal Judgment. Florence,
Masco di San Marco.

42
This fire, fed continuously by demons, burns eternally in most of
Hell. The damned suffer their eternal punishment engulfed in
flames, sometimes chained to gridirons or thrown into huge pots.

Fires and Flames

References to Hell fire, the most conspicuous feature in depic-
tions of the infernal abode, occur in the Gospels of Matthew, Place
tlell
Mark, and Luke. Jesus, speaking of an unquenchable fire in
which evildoers will burn, points to fiery Gehenna—Jerusalem's Biblical Sources
Matthew 3:1z, 51z.z, 7:19,
dumpsite in a nearby ravine where refuse was continually [3:40,18:9, 2541;
Mark 9:43;
burned—as the punishment for sinners. Punishment by fire, Luke 3:17;
Hebrews to:27;
however, appears much earlier, in the Old Testament: it is Revelation 10:10—I5
inflicted upon Sodom and Gomorrah (Genesis 19:2.4). Certainly, Related Literature
the image of fire originally meant to convey a sense of endless Vision of Saint Paul
apocryphal g
torment. It was revived in the first descriptions of Hell that Dante Alighieri, Divine
Corned)"
appeared in apocryphal texts, starting with the Apocalypse of
Characteristics
Peter; the latter was known in Europe only in the version of the Punishment is depicted
as an eternal fire,
Vision of Saint Paul, which inspired several images. Over the
course of the Middle Ages, these images became even richer in
details thanks to the reading of the various apocryphal texts
about revelations and to the florid imagination of preachers
who strongly admonished the faithful about the horrors of Hell.

4 Simon Mansion, The

Torment of the Proud, 1473.
Miniature from The Visions
of Tondal. Los Angeles,
J. Paul Getty Museum.

43
Fires and Flames

Fires rise from the battlements of A large frog—a diabolical animal linked
the infernal city, recalling Dante's to lust—sits on a bed occupied by a
description of the city of Dis. sinning couple, suggesting what kind
of sin is being punished.

Bodies waiting to
Torture on a grill is one of the earliest be tortured with
representations of punishments in Hell. fire are laid out
• JSMonogrammist, Hell (detail I, Here one of the damned has been atop burning
ca. tsso. Venice, Palazzo Ducale. hacked to pieces first. embers.

44
 An underground locale sometimes guarded by demons, Limbo
receives the righteous who died before Christ's coming. Jesus him-
self, bearing the standard of Resurrection, went to liberate them.

Limbo
The term Limbo was first used by Peter Lombard (twelfth cen-
Name tury), though the concept already existed of an abode in the
From the Latin Innbus,
meaning •farthest edge,"
Netherworld reserved for the righteous who died without the
"limit" Grace of God because they lived before the Redemption of
Definition Christ. For years, debate raged about whether Limbo was a
In the Netherworld, the
abode of those souls who physical place or a temporal dimension like the Afterworld,
died without God's Grace
which, given the soul's spiritual nature, was usually understood
Place
Intermediate between
asa temporal dimension after death. In Christian dogma, Limbo
I Id] and Paradise also received the souls of children who died before baptism; it is,
Biblical Source in fact, the same site that the early Church indicated as the
Peter 3,
After dying and before Netherworld visited by Christ after death to free those who had
his Resurrection, Jesus
"went and preached to led a life worthy of the Grace of God. The nature of Limbo,
the spirits in prison" in
the Netherworld. which acquired its name and specific connotation in the mid-
Related Literature
twelfth century, was
Gospel of Nicodernus a frequent subject of
(apocryphal h;
Jacobus de Voragine, discussion in Church
Legenda Aurea
(Golden Legend); documents; still pre-
Peter Lombard;
Dante Alighieri, Divine sent in Saint Pius X's
Comedy
complete Catechism
Characteristics ( x905), it is no longer
The abode that receives the
souls who died without the mentioned in the
Grace of God because they
lived prior to the coming of most recent Cate-
Jesus Christ
chism published by
Diffusion of the Image
This Byzantine motif
the Catholic Church
reached the West in the in 5992..
thirteenth century and was
prevalent throughout the
Middle Ages; it finally dis-
4 Lower Netherlands or
appeared with Mannerism.
Cologne Master, Descent into
the Netherworld, ca. 1460,
Polychronied wood sculpture.
Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum.

46

Dressed in a glorious red and blue robe
highlighted in gold (the colors denoting
both his humanity and his divinity),
Christ descends into the Netherworld.
Into the "Limbo of the Fathers." Though
theologians disagreed on the timing of
his descent (some situated it before the
Resurrection, others placed it after), for
representational purposes, artists placed
its occurrence after the Resurrection.
WhenJesus reached the gates of Limbo,
the portal, described in the apocryphal
text as a set of sturdy bronze doors,
collapsed, signifying Christ's victory
over death.
♦Duccio di Buoninscgna, Descent
into Limbo, 1310. Detail of the
Maestri altarpiece. Siena, Muses
dell'Opera del Duomo.
Limbo
Among the fathers and prophets, David is
recognizable by the crown and the book
of psalms he holds in his hand: his pres-
ence is "justified" by his Psalm 106
(i 0-16), which has been interpreted as a
prophecy of Christ's descent into limbo.
According to the apocryphal Gospel of
Nicodemus, Adam (who is believed to
have died at the age of 930) was the first
human being to be freed and led out of the
Netherworld; here he appears as an old
man with a long white beard.
47
Limbo

The cross is the instrument of Christ's

sacrifice and of the Good Thief, who was
assured salvation because he believed;
Diana, for that was his name, was sent
by Saint Michael to meet Christ in Limbo.

.4 demon,
perhaps the very
Devil. "be who
has the power
of death"
i Hebrews 2:14).

Although Adam is
represented as an
old man, he is
shown holding
the iconographic
attribute of the
fruit of sin; in
keeping with
Western art that
portrays him as
he was before
sinning, he is
naked• behind
him hides Eve,
as depicted in
somescenes of the
Expulsion from
Earthly Paradise.

Holding onto die standard of Resur-

Some of the souls that Christ finds in
Limbo are of children. This was initially
a reference to the infants killed in the
Slaughter of the Innocents and later to
babies who died before receiving baptism.
rection, Christ leans forward to pull
the righteous from Limbo and carry
them to Paradise. .411 around are fig-
ures of demons, whom Dirrer ridicules
by gunng them strange shapes.

♦Albrecht Diire; Christ in Limbo,

5;o. Engraving.

48
Showing the unmistakable signs of his
death on the cross and still wearing the
crown of thorns, the resurrected Christ
calls the souls of the just out of Limbo
with a gesture of blessing.

In the distance loom unfamiliar and

Imposing buildings that suggest a
grandiose entrance, replacing the
double bronze doors of earlier
representations of this story.

According to the Apocrypha, Adam

was the first soul saved by Jesus.
Here he is depicted with the attributes
he had before the Fall, although his
nakedness is decorously covered by
a leafy girdle.

The souls of the lust recognize the

Savior and invoke his help with the
unwersal gesture of prayer.

▶German school, Christ in Limbo,

ca. r 570. New York, The Metropolitan
Museum of Art.

49
 The island is configured by two towering rocks; between them
glides a boat rowed by Death, carrying a dead body covered in
a shroud.

The Island of the Dead

The isolated, though much-repeated motif of the Island of the
Place Dead, whose evocative power has strongly influenced the his-
In the middle of the ocean
tory of art, has its roots in the distant fable of Atlantis, a myth
Related Literature common to many great civilizations. The myth, named in Plato's
References to the myth of
Atlantis are found in the dialogues Timaeus and Critias, speaks of Atlantis, an island in
traditions and literature
of several civilizations the center of the Atlantic Ocean. The people who settled there
(Hindu, Iranian, Tibetan,
Chinese, Scandinavian, came from a fertile northern island where they had achieved a
Tokm, and Greek).
splendid civilization. Their forced relocation occurred because a
Characteristics sudden climatic upheaval had turned their homeland into a bar-
In mythological times,
an island peopled by a ren waste. After a migration lasting millennia, the nation settled
superior, semidivine race
that vanished after a in Atlantis and there tried to rebuild their former civilization.
tremendous catastrophe
turned the island into a After thousands of years, however, a catastrophe struck this
wasteland; it became
known as a place where island, too, sinking it forever into the ocean. Thus was born the
one could revert to the Island of the Dead, an abode where those wishing to reclaim
divine status of the first
inhabitants. the superior status reached by that now-lost civilization must
Specific Reliefs venture, in a sort of encounter with the Netherworld.
The Island of the Dead
appears in the journeys
and feats of mythological
characters such as
I lerculm and the hero
of the Gilgamesb epic.

Diffusion of the Image

A rare subject taken up
only in the nineteenth
century

Ito Arnold Rocklin, the Island

of the Dead, 114lio. Basel,
Kunsmwseum.

5
Represented as either a mountain or a luxuriant valley under a
clear sky, Purgatory is inhabited by souls who are on their way
to God or the Fountain of Grace.

Purgatory
The concept of Purgatory was defined around the close of the
twelfth century along with a new vision of the Afterlife. Its Name
A place of purification,
scriptural sources are in Matthew and the letters of Paul. The from the Latin
First Council of Lyon (1245) relied upon both when ruling that purgarorium

some punishments are meted out in this life, others in the next. Place
According to Saint
The Council of Trent (1563) reaffirmed the existence of Purga- Augustine, it is not a
place but a state of being
tory; and a modern document (r979) by the Congregation on of the souls; for Saint
Thomas Aquinas, it was
the Faith defined Purgatory as "the purification preliminary to definitely an underground
the vision of God, different from that of the damned." These burial chamber.

definitions from dogma did not, however, provide specific visual Time
After death, following
details. Thus, artists looked to those authors who wrote of Pur- the Particular Judgment
for the souls of the blessed
gatory as a specific place, for example, Saint Thomas Aquinas,
Biblical Sources
who described it as an underground burial chamber next to Hell Matthew 11:31-324
where the same fire burned, and C O r i l l I Ilia rIS 3 : t 3 - 1 5

popular texts such as Marie de Related Literature

Apocalypse of Saint
France's The Purgatory of Saint Paul (apocryphal);
Gregory the Great,
Patrick (later twelfth century), Dialogues; Marie de
France, The Purgatory
rather than to Saint Bonaven- of Saint Patrick; Dante
Alighieri, Divine Comedy
ture, who called it an "inde-
terminate place." Dante's Diffusion of the Image
Throughout the Middle
Purgatory was surely Ages, in Last Judgment
scenes; after the sixteenth
another important century, in images depicting
the intercession for souls
source on which
artists drew to
depict the sta-
tus of souls 4 Domenico di Michelin,
undergoing Apotheosis of Dante (detail),
1 0 5 . Fresco. Florence.
purification. Santa Maria del Fiore.

51
Purgatory

According to Dante's vision, the mount of

Purgatory consists of seven terraced cliffs
that correspond to the seven deadly sins; on
the summit is the earthly Paradise.

The angel at the

helm is a herald The gate to
of God: he Purgatory has
arrives at dawn, three steps of
sailing without different colors:
sails and moving on the highest,
only with the made of red
power of his PorPhYrY, sits a
wings (canto H). sentry angel, his
face bright, his
sword drawn
(canto IX).

• Anonymous Florentine miniaturist, Cato the Younger is the custodian of Dante's

Divine Comedy, Late Gothic. Purgatory: in reverence, Virgil invites Dante
Florence, Bihlioteca Nazionale Centrals. to kneel before him (canto 141.

52
 At the end of the purification period, the
soul may be lifted up to God: the angels
escort the little soul in an image drawn
from an older, Byzantine iconography
depicting the death of the righteous.

The extremely
high bridge that
the souls must
cross, under
Since the earliest which flow fire
days of Christian- and pitch, is a
ityc the presence motif that Dante
of fire m Purga- derived from
tory was a subject medieval texts,
of debate. It was including Marie
agreed that it was de France's The
a temporary fire, Purgatory of
different from Saint Patrick
Hell's eternal fire, (ca. 11'80.
though this did
nut prevent some
artists from
depicting souls
engulfed by
flames.

The state of the soul in Purgatory was visually

• Limhourg Brothers, Angels
Lifting Souls from Purgatory, hefore
1416. Miniature from the Tres riches
heures du duo de Berry. Chantilly,
Music Conde.
interpreted by artists also as one of constant
temptation from which purification was
necessary: the figure tormented by animals
such as the she-wolf and the leopard calls
to mind the temptations of earthly life.

53
 The idea of Paradise was initially linked to an earthly place;
several iconographic themes developed to describe the state of
eternal bliss and, later, the Heaven where the blessed dwell.

Paradise
As the concept of heavenly Paradise evolved, so did its repre-
Name sentation, structured along several themes that sought to
From the Old Persian
pairidaiza, meaning
depict symbolically that place and state of blessedness. The
"enclosure" or "park" earliest images of heavenly Paradise were fashioned closely
Definition after the concept of the earthly one, an ever-blooming garden
In the New Testament, the
place to which the just where the Tree of Life grows and the Fountain of Grace flows.
journey after death; also
called the Kingdom of It is the place of solace invoked for the deceased: on catacomb
Heaven
walls and on sarcophagi, Early Christian artists portrayed the
Biblical Sources chosen ones as doves or deer drinking at the fountain, and
Genesis z;
Revelation 7, 14, 21, 21 symbolized the garden by a single, fruit-laden tree. Following
Related Literature the eschatological text of the book of Revelation, the Mystic
Fourth Book of Ezra
(aPc'clYPha 1; Saint Lamb became a fundamental element of the garden, while the
Augustine, Confessions
and City of God image of the Heavenly Jerusalem continued to evolve. A typi-
Characteristics
cal Eastern concept that was to find favor in the West begin-
Sometimes depicted as a ning at the turn of the millennium was the bosom of
separate, different image
from the Final Judgment, Abraham. In the thirteenth century, Paradise, understood pri-
this subject changed over
the centuries, but it marily as a "state of being," was also represented by symbolic
remained linked to the idea
of a definitive judgment. figures of the beatitudes, the heavenly joys that the blessed are
Diffusion of the Image
to enjoy for eternity.
In the Middle Ages,
linked to representations
of the Last Judgment or
autonomous in church
domes; lateg in polyptychs,
and generally autonomous
in domes, vaults, or large
canvas paintings

54
 Paradise

The red Seraphim, equipped with three Christ is depicted in the central and highest
pairs of wings and clasping their hands in part of this particular image of Paradise.
a clear devotional gesture, are the angelic inside the rainbow circle; the circle surround-
order closest to God. ing him is gold, signifying his divinity.

In medieval representations of the heavenly

Paradise, an earthly hierarchy is reflected,
arranged according to a precise geometry:
after the angels who stand in the sight of
God come the saints, recognizable by their
iconographic attributes.
The Virgin Mary has a place of honor;
surrounded by musical angels, she wears
a crown because she is the Queen of Heaven.

4 Tintorerto (Jacopo Rohusti), painted

sketch for Paradise, ca. s 56os. Madrid, • Giusto de Menabuoi, Paradise,
Museo Thyssen-Bomemisza. 1375-76. Fresco. Padua, baptistry.

55
Paradise

The custodian angels welcome the The state of bliss is simplified in the
elect into Paradise by embracing them joyous gestures and embraces of the
as they kneel. blessed meeting each other.

36
The fruit-laden tree in images of Paradise is drawn With the figures of blessed adults are
from the memory of Eden, the garden where God also the souls of children who came to
placed the first man and woman, entrusting them Paradise from the children's Limbo.
with its care.

Characteristic of Paradise images from the

Late Gothic period is the,ever-blooming ♦Giovanni di Paolo, Paradise,
garden, signifying a timeless place ruled ca. 1445. Detail of The Lau Judgment.
by the will of God. Siena,Pinacoteca Nazionalc.

57
Paradise

The image of the

Heavenly Jerusalem
inspired artists to depict
the entrance to Paradise as
a large gate, here rendered
as the portal of a major
cathedral; on top of it,
musical angels are playing.

The angels assisting

Saint Peter distribute
washed robes to the
elect thronging to enter
Paradise, for only so
clothed shall they go
through the city gates,
according to the book
of Revelation (2204).

Standing on the first

steps of a crystal stair-
case, Saint Peter, the
custodian of Paradise,
welcomes the elect and
offers them his hand in
a gesture of greeting.

▶Hans Memling, The Gate to

Paradise, ca. 1472. Detail of The
Last Judgment altarpiece. Gdansk,
Museum Narndowe.

58
A seated old man: on his knees or in the folds of his mantle he
holds one or more children. In some instances, the children
cling to his legs in a very domestic gesture.

Bosom of Abraham
The locus of the bosom of Abraham changed through the ages
from just below Paradise (Tertullian, second to third century) Definition
One specific representation
to the upper part of Hell (Petrus Comestor, late twelfth cen- of Paradise
tury). Thomas Aquinas (thirteenth century) ultimately defined Biblical Sources
it as the place of supreme reward from which souls approach Matthew 8:11;
Luke 16:19-21
Paradise. The earliest representations came from the East near
Related Literature
the beginning of the tenth century, and before century's end, Maccabees 13:17
(apocryphal)
the subject had reached the West. It was portrayed in three
major ways: as part of the parable narrative of the poor man Diffusion of the Image
Of Eastern origin, it spread
Lazarus (Luke 16:19-2,1); linked to depictions of the Final to the West starting in the
tenth century and was
Judgment; or independently, devoid of eschatological context. present until the thirteenth
century.
Between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries, the bosom of
Abraham was one of the most popular visual expressions of the
Kingdom of Heaven; it was gradually absorbed into represen-
tations of the latter.
The widespread use
of this image,
showing souls
entering Paradise
through their
reunion with a
paternal figure,
is linked to
notions of
brotherhood
and equality 4 Lazarus in the Bosom of
before God that were Abraham, ca. t 105-40,
Column capital. Vizelay,
preached by the Sainte Madeleine.

medieval Church.

59
Bosom of Abraham

The personifications of the four rivers The souls of the elect undergo a transfor-
are added to complete the image of the mation: they become small, like children,
bosom of Abraham, as are the angels and are carried to the patriarch in the
around the frame. arms of the angels.

Geon P F I V R O M

The old patri-

arch Abraham
welcomes the
souls of the elect
into the folds of
his mantle,
as if they were
children.

Abraham sits on
the rainbow's
multicolored beam,
an ancient symbol
z of the covenant
LL
• „ between God and
humanity
40,

idaNt
e-- , • . N

• Souls Being Led to the Bosom of Acceptance into the bosom of Abraham signifies
Abraham, 1177-83. Miniature from the entrance of a soul into Paradise: this image
the Obituary of Obermiinster, is completed by iconographic reminders of the
Munich, Haupstaatsarchir. earthly Paradise.

60
A citadel guarded by angels, Heavenly Jerusalem is often
drawn as a square plan with twelve gates. The Mystic Lamb
and an angel holding a measuring rod are sometimes depicted.

Heavenly Jerusalem
The image of Heavenly Jerusalem is a particular representa-
tion of the foreshadowing of Paradise as a heavenly city that Definition
A particular representation
recalls the Jerusalem of the Old Testament. Even before the of Paradise
vision described in the book of Revelation, Saint Paul wrote Biblical Sources
three times in his letters about the city on top of the hill, Galatians 4...z.4-1.6
Hebrews 12.:11-2.44
Heavenly Jerusalem, the future city. But undoubtedly the pre- Revelation 0 - 1 4

cise description given by Saint John determined its visual Related Literature
Isidorei,f
form. This image enjoyed widespread diffusion and continued Origines (Etymologies);
to evolve from the third through fourteenth centuries and Saint Augustine,
City of God
even later, appearing not only in the traditional figurative arts
Diffusion of the Image
such as frescoes, illuminated manuscripts, and sculpture, but From the Early Christian
era to the Middle Ages
also in applied arts, especially goldsmithery, and in tapestries.
It also influenced architecture in defining the ground plans of
churches. The
image, which
occurs in many
cycles of illus-
trations of the
book of Revela-
tion, could also be
autonomous. Saint
John's description is
usually faithfully
reproduced, showing a
square citadel encircled
by crenellated walls and
towers, with twelve gates 4 I leaven!). Jerusalem, fifth
century. Mosaic. Rome,
set with precious stones. Santa Maria Maggiore.

tit
Heavenly Jerusalem

On each of the four sides of the city

walls are three gates without doors; at
each gate a custodian angel appears.
The names of the twelve tribes of
Israel and the Twelve Apostles are The walls are punctuated by eighteen slender
inscribed all around. towers, each topped by a pearl: inspired by
the vision in the book of Revelation.

According to medieval interpretation, The city is anchored by four corner

Christ replaces the angel of the
Apocalypse. Therefore, he is depicted
inside the city holding a rod for measur-
ing the walls with the Mystic Lamb at his
feet and the Fountain of Life springing
from the globe on which he sits.
towers, near which are inscribed the
names of the four cardinal virtues:
Prudence, Justice, Fortitude, and Temper-
ance. Although this detail is not in the
book of Revelation, it appears frequently
in early medieval commentaries.

• Heavenly Jerusalem, eleventh century.

Fresco. Civate, San Pietro al Monte.

62
The highest Heaven in Paradise where God sits with the angels
and the blessed is represented as a source of blazing light.
Medieval images are characterized by concentric circles.

The Empyrean
The idea of a Heaven located above the heavens of classical
cosmology took shape in the thirteenth century when it first Name
From the Greek empyrios,
became possible in western Europe to become directly meaning "in flames"
acquainted with the works of Aristotle and Ptolemy. For a long
Definition
time, Christian theologians had been developing the concept of In medieval philosophy, the
Empyrean is the infinite,
a motionless Heaven situated above all the heavens. Scholastic motionless space closest to
God, above the heavens
philosophy, particularly the works of Saint Thomas Aquinas, and ablaze with God's
light, where angels and the
was able to synthesize the ancient theories with Christian reli- blessed sit in his presence.
gion. To the classical model, Thomas added a tenth sphere, the Place
Empyrean, where God resides; the other spheres house angels Above the heavens

of ascending degrees as they approach the tenth Heaven. Writ- Related Literature
Saint Basil the Great;
ing after Saint Thomas, Dante, in the third cantica of the Isidore of Seville;
Venerable Bede;
Divine Comedy, Valafridus Strahus;
Robert Grosseteste and
called the John of Holywood;
Empyrean "a spot- Michael Scotus;
Albert the Great;
less rose." The Thomas Aquinas;
Dante Alighieri
Empyrean gradu-
Characteristics
ally took the form Conceived in an attempt
to link the Aristotelian and
of an extremely Ptolemaic cosmological
bright sky. Detailed visions to Christian
thought
representations of
concentric circles
where the different
categories of the
blessed and the
41Bruges school illuminators,
angels dwell Paradise, ca. t 5 I 5—zo.
appeared only in Miniature from the Grimani
Breviary. Venice, Biblioteca
the art of the Marciana.

Middle Ages.

63
The Empyrean

The strong source of light as the far

end of ashadow cone symbolizes the
Empyrean, the sign of the divine
presence inflamed with love.

The souls of the elect destined for

Paradise are escorted by the angels on
their journey to the uppermost I-leaven.

▶Hieronymus Bosch, Ascent to

the Empyrean, r 5oo-i 5o4. Venice,
Palazzo Ducale.

64
 Christ the Redeemer descends from the
Empyrean to meet his mother, who had
ascended to Heaven.

Angels play in the circles closest to the

highest Heaven and escort the Ascension
of Mary, who is pushed through the
clouds by putti.
• Correggio, TheAssumption of the
Virgin, 1520-23. Fresco,Parma, cathedral.
Supported by angels. Mary rises through
the circles and the nine heavens, abode of
the angels and the blessed; some saints are
identifiable. The Virgin, who is the new
Eve, is depicted next to Eve to symbolize
the Redemption.

65
 THE PATH OF EVIL
The Seven Deadly Sins
The Ship of Fools
The Devil as Tempter
Pact with the Devil
Diabolical Possession and Exorcism
The Inquisition
Diabolical Disguises and Deceptions
Demonic Animals
Dragons and Basilisks
Forbidden Fruits
Musical Enticements
Ghosts and Nightmares
Witches
The Sabbat
The Black Mass

Workshop of Domenico Ghirlandaio,

The Temptations of. aint Anthony,
ca. 1490. Great Britain, private collection.

The Seven Deadly Sins
Definition
Pride, greed, lust, anger,
gluttony, envy, sloth: these
seven sins are the root of
all other transgressions.
Biblical Sources
aJohn 2:16, referring lo
Genesis 3:6
Related Literature
Saint John Cassianus, Col-
brio (Collation) 5, Saint
Gregory the Great, Moraha
in lob (commentary on the
Book of Blessed Job). 3i.
45,87
Diffusion of the Image
1)urnig the Middle Ages,
the seven deadly sins were
punished in Hell; in the fif-
teenth and sixteenth cen-
turies, they began to he
depicted independently.
▶Hieronymus Bosch,
Gluttony, 1475-80.
Detail of The Seven
Deadly Sins. Madrid,
Muse° del Prado.
68
It is easier to look at the seven deadly sins as dispositions of
human nature; they are usually represented allegorically, either
in a group or individually.
The definition of the seven deadly sins took final form in the
Middle Ages, thanks primarily to John Cassianus, a monk active
in the late fourth and early fifth centuries, and to Gregory the
Great in the sixth century. The probable point of departure is in
the First Letter of John, who was probably mindful of the Gene-
sis narrative when he wrote "For all that is in the world, the lust
of the flesh and the lust of the eyes and the pride of life, is not of
the Father but is of the world" (King James Bible). "Lust" was
identified as a consequence of original sin, and the term signifies
an inordinate covetousness and love of self. Based on this doc-
trine, seven sins were singled out as being "deadly" or "capital,"
since they were considered the root of all the sins to which
humans could fall prey. From the coveting of the flesh come car-
nal lust and intemperance; from the coveting of the eyes, greed;
from the coveting of the spirit (which John called "the pride of
life") come conceit, sloth, envy, a n d anger. Over the
course of the Middle Ages, p r i d e came to be con-
sidered the worst of
these sins, followed
by the other six,
in their final
form: greed,
lust, anger,
gluttony,
envy, and
sloth.
 The Seven Deadly Sins

Flanked by two angels (Saint Michael,
recognizable by his sword, and Saint
Gabriel, carrying a flowering lily branch!,
Christ smites the Deadly Sins with arrows.
The Mother of Mercy (Madonna della
Misericordia) opens her mantle to shel-
ter the faithful, protecting them from
the arrows of divine wrath; her gesture
may be based on a vision narrated in
Jacobus de Voragine's Life of Saint
Dominic, where, however, Mary suc-
ceeds in stopping Christ from shooting.

An arrow has
struck Envy in Carnal Lust
the eyes, sym- is hit as he
bolizing the withdraws to
covetousness his alcove.
of the eyes.

Gluttony, struck
in the stomach,
is still holding a
Greed and Sloth plate in his
are hit by Jesus' hands.
arrows: Greed is
kneeling, while
Sloth seems to
beasleep, in a
posture of com-
plete idleness.

Anger, begetter
of violence, is
shown brandish-
ing a dagger.

Pride, the worst of the deadly sins, is shot in

the breast as she sits on a throne; her position
♦AnonymousAragonese master, is purposely diagonal to the image of Christ so
TheMadonna of Mercy, ca. 145o. as not to break the symmetrical pattern of the
Teruel, Bishop's Palace. other six allegories.

69
The Seven Deadly Sins

Gluttony: the sin of excessive

indulgence in food.

In this death scene, a

priest, a nun, and the
family gather at the
dying man's bedside, nlirtp
while an angel rests on az
the headboard, a demon
lies in ambush, and
Death waits behind
the door.

Greed is repre-
sented by a
corrupt judge
who, while
listening to one
party, accepts
money from the
opposing party.
Envy is here
compared to a
heavy burden
one carries on
one's shoulders.
The scene also
seems to allude
to the slander it
provokes.

The tondo with Hell

is typical of the artist's
style, with small
monsters and demons
attacking the damned.

AHieronymus Bosch, The Seven

Deadly Sins, I 475-Ro. Madrid, Wrath unleashes violence in an unusual
Musco del Prado. duel where every weapon seems acceptable.

70

The Ship of Fools
Related Literature
Sebastian Brandt, The Ship
of Fools 1 1494)
Characteristics
A satirical representation
of society's vices
Diffusion of the Image
After the publication of
Brandt's work, this theme
enjoyed expanding success
at the end of the fifteenth
century and into the six-
teenth, with rare revivals in
later centuries.
▶Albrecht Miter, illustration
from The Ship of Fools by
Sebastian Brandt, 1494.
Woodcut.
72
The ship seems to sail aimlessly, carrying an abnormal load of
bizarre, intemperate characters of different social classes who
are intent on feasting and singing.
The Ship of Fools theme comes directly from the satirical work
by the same name published in Strasbourg in 1494 by Sebastian
Brandt, a humanist of a pessimistic bent who lacked faith in
man's capacity for self-improvement. In 1 to poems (increased
to 112 in the second edition), the author paints an allegory of
the Vices drawn from myth, folklore, and proverbs derived
from the Bible, portraying humankind and its follies in such
a way that each person could recognize himself. Thus, there
is a moral purpose to the work, which proclaims that "Mad
is he who will not put his faith in the book of our salvation."
Brandt's violent satirical verses attack all kinds of follies, repre-
sented by one or another
of the many fools on
board. The ship, under
the command of Venus,
is directed to the Land
of Fools. This successful
work, written in Alsatian,
was translated into several
languages, including
Latin. Its popularity led to
the development of several
iconographic types that at
first were linked closely to
textual illustrations (the
first edition was illus-
trated by the young
Diirer) but later took
on a life of their own.
 The Ship of Fools

The seascape in the background is In his accurate analysis of the times,

bathed in the golden light or dawn, a
silent reminder of the eternal beauty of
a world not yet tainted by folly.
Brandt also mentioned the expansion of
Islam, alluded to by Bosch here and per-
haps intended to he understood as a new
power that will rule over those unwilling
to follow Christian religious precepts.

Among fools, the

"official" one, the
jester, is isolated. In
his position he could
speak the truth, and in
his folly he was some-
times believed to enjoy
a dark or forbidden
knowledge that
enabled him to see a
higher reality.
Sailing is at once a
symbol of isolation
and purification, a
prelude to commit-
ment to a mental
institution, and a
Brandt's satire did
mysterious ritual that
suggests ancient magic
not spare any part of
society His very strong
and occult practices
critique of the Church,
that in the Middle
still along medieval
Ages always attended
lines, was a prelude to
the image of the fool.
the Reformation.

♦Hieronymus Bosch, The Ship

of Foals, 149o—isoo. Paris,
Music du Louvre.

73
 A fiendish figure usually depicted in the act of tormenting a
saint, the Tempter sometimes appears in disguise, often as a
woman, or is represented by diabolical symbols.

The Devil as Tempter

The first cause of man's inclination to sin is the temptation of
Definition the Devil. This dogmatic and theological concept was already
The Devil that tempts
man to commit evil
clear in ancient times. The Christian interpretation of Genesis
recounts the Fall of man and his expulsion from the earthly
Biblical Sources
Genesis 3; Paradise as a first, direct consequence of original sin, commit-
Matthew
Luke +3-13 ted as a result of the Devil's deception and temptation of Eve.
Related literature During the Middle Ages, in an effort to make the Devil's con-
Jacobus de Voragitiv,
Golden Legend
stant presence in human life visible (remember that Christ, too,
had been tempted), painters and miniaturists, sculptors and
Diffusion of the Image
Widespread from the stonecutters created the most fantastic images ever imagined,
Middle Ages to the
sixteenth century all spontaneous creations of men who truly believed that they
were prey to such dangers. Thus, the decorations of portals,
lunettes, capitals, and corbels in this period often portray mon-
strous "diabolical" figures that represent the fury of the Devil
and his assistants. Gradually, the representations of temptation
came to be limited to specific episodes from the lives of a few
saints who were invoked precisely because
they had endured dreadful decep-
tions and temptations.

▶The Temptations of Saint

Benedict, ir2.5-40. Column
capital. V&zelay, Sainte
Madeleine.

'4
 The Devil as Tempter

In the background, a demon's eyes

seemingly supervise the efforts to
distract the saint from asceticism
and prayer.

Of all the diabolical

beings tempting
and torturing Saint
Anthony this demon Tins large, club-
with horns and bat's wielding bird is
u'ings comes closest not completely
to the popular the fruit of
imagination. Griinewald's
fancy; rather, it
is the painter's
reinal of images
from medieval
bestiaries.

The book of the

sacred scriptures is
the force that helps to
fight temptation: for
this reason, a demon
with the looks of an
ugly sprite is trying
to steal it from the
tempted saint.

The small monster biting the hermit's

• Matthias Grunwald, The
Temptations of Saint Anthony,
5is-I 6. Colmar, Music d'Unterlindea.
hand is a basilisk with a cock's body
and four legs but no snake's half-body.
By the sixteenth century; the image of this
fantastic animal had changed considerably
from that of the Middle Ages.

75
The Devil as Tempter

Surprised by the deceiving images of The temptation of the flesh is regularly

somany temptations. Saint Anthony personified by a scantily dressed, if not
looks upward and seeks refuge in naked. young woman.
divine inspiration.

The wily Devil does his

evil deeds secretly: he F o r every saint tempted by
appears behind the t h e Devil, the cross, an icon Wealth carries with it greed, vain-
victim accompanied o f the sacrifice of Christ the glory, and the desire for power:
by a snake, his most S a v i o r , and the scriptures sins linked to the covetousness
ancient disguise. a r e signs of his resistance. of the eyes and the spirit.

76

Pact with the Devil
Definition
Voluntary submission
to the Devil
Time
Sixteenth century
Related Literature
Johann Spies, Historic von
D. Johann Fausten dem
weitheschreyten Zauberer
and Schwartrkunstler
(History of Dr Faust, Well-
Known Wizard and Necro-
mancer) (1587);
Christopher Marlowe,
Tragical! History of the
Life and Death of
Doctor Faustus (first
printed 1604);
Johann Wolfgang von
Goethe, Faust 1(18o8)
and Faust II (183z)
Characteristics
Representation of events
in the life of Faust, who
sold his soul to the Devil
Diffusion of the Image
Rare, limited to Wawa-
dons of the Faust legend
la Etched frontispiece of
Christopher Pviarlove's The
Tragical! Historie of the Life
and Death of Doctor Faustus
(London, 1631).
78
Images of the pact as a "contract" between the Devil and man
are not widespread, being limited to illustrations of the story
of Faust.
The most celebrated historical figure to allegedly sell his soul to
the Devil was Georg (or Johann) Faust, later immortalized in
legend and in literature. Born about 1480 in Knittlingen, he
was a wandering teacher with no fixed residence. The facts
surrounding his life became the stuff of legend even before his
death, which occurred about r 540. It is not known how or
when he made his pact with the Devil; after being a teacher,
however, he became a magician, physician, and barber, and an
advisor at several courts. In his wandering, he performed magic
that was not always appreciated, and he was even driven out of
several towns on charges of pedophilia and sodomy. His shad-
owy notoriety forced him to resort to using aliases so that he
could revisit towns where horrible crimes had been linked to
his name. Shortly after his death, the first book was published
that told the story of a scientist who was so deeply dissatisfied
with the limits of human knowledge that he sold his soul to
the Devil in
exchange for
the highest
knowledge,
as well as for
love, youth,
and power
over all the
secrets of life.
But the Devil
had reserved a
terrible death
for him.
 Pact with the Devil

The figure of Faust is the image of the The disk of light suggests a momentous
scholar determined to push his research revelation whose full meaning remains
forward using all possible means to gain hidden in the illegible letters, except for
knowledge of life's secrets, even to the the four central ones, INRI, which signify
point of signing a pact with the Devil. the Passion of Christ.

Amysterious, luminous shape appears to

Faust that would be circular if it were seen
in perspective; it probably represents the
♦Rembrandt, Faust, 1651. Etching philosopher's stone of the alchemists,
with drypoint and engraving tool. which has similar properties.

79

Diabolical Possession
and Exorcism
Name
Exorcism is derived from
the Greek exorkismos,
meaning "administering
an oath."
'Definition
Exorcism is an act of
authority that frees the
victim from possession
by the Evil One.
Biblical Sources
Mark t:15 ff., 3:s3-, 6:7,
6:13, 16:17
Related Lircraturc
Exorcisms appear
frequently in the
Apocryphal Gospels
And the lives of the saints
front various sources.
Diffusion of the Image
These images appear
frequently in narratives
of the life of Jesus or
histories of saints.
▶Gentile da Fabriano and
Niccolii di Pietro, Saint
Benedict Exorcises a Monk,
rats—so. Florence,
Galleria degli
RD
The image has two central characters: one is shaken by convul-
sions; the other frees him from being possessed by blessing him
or sprinkling him with holy water.
The phenomenon of diabolical possession and the rite of
exorcism, which banishes the Devil and frees the victim, are
described in several passages of the Gospels, particularly in
Mark. Today, by "possession" we mean that a demon has
taken over the victim's body as a result of his own will, sor-
cery, or special consecrations to the Devil by the victim's
parents, who may belong to satanic sects. In the images of
exorcism through the centuries, only rarely are there hints that
might explain the state of possession. Instead, two elements of
the event are frequently highlighted: the distraught state of the
possessed and the authoritativeness of the exorcist who frees
him or her. The firmness and authority typical of Christ as he
practiced exorcisms and expelled demons became a character-
istic of all the saints who followed him. While Jesus used his
authority, the power of his word, and, presumably, an authori-
tative gesture as transmitted by iconographic tradition, the
saints also used
the aspersorium to
sprinkle the pos-
sessed with holy
water. In any case,
the image of the
demon leaving the
body of the pos-
sessed through his
or her mouth is a
recurring one.
 Diabolical Possession and Exorcism

The Devil leaving the body of the Saint Peter Martyr sprinkles holy
possessed woman is pictured as a small, water on the woman and blesses her,
harry monster with hats wings. horns, thus exorcising the Devil; a frightened
claws, and a long tail. brother assists by holding the pail of
holy water.

The possessed woman shows such an

exceptional. uncontrollable strength that
two stout youths can barely restrain her.
• Antonio Vivarini, Saint Peter
Martyr Exorcises a Woman A Dominican friar, Saint Peter Martyr
Possessedby the Devil, 1440-50. wears the white habit and, because he is
Art Institute of Chicago. outside the convent, a black cape.

81
 Representations of trials often held outdoors, with religious
men as judges; pyres or torture instruments sometimes appear
nearby.

The Inquisition
In reaction to heresies that destabilized the medieval religious,
Name political, and social orders, the Inquisition was established to
From inquisire, Latin
for "to search"
defeat heresy—mainly through preaching. Pope Lucius HI
ordered all bishops to visit their diocese twice a year to seek out
Definition
An ecclesiastical tribunal heretics. Innocent III invited the Cistercian friars to preach
established to discover
and punish heretics against heretics and debate them publicly. Finally, with the
Place papal document Excommunicamus (We excommunicate),
Europe
Gregory IX appointed the first permanent inquisitors (1133).
Time This phase ended in the fifteenth century. New heresies, includ-
The Middle Ages; revived
in the fifteenth and ing the Protestant Reformation, in the sixteenth century) led to
sixteenth centuries;
discontinued in the revival of the Inquisition. The tribunal was reorganized under
nineteenth century
Paul III, who established the Holy Office. The latter became the
Diffusion of the Image
Representations of the Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith under Paul
Inquisition arc found VI. The Spanish Inquisition, established by the Catholic rulers
throughout Europe in the
Middle Ages, and in Spain in 1481 to persecute the heretics of Seville, was intensely active
from the fifteenth to the
nineteenth century. in the next century but gradually declined in the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries, being permanently abolished in 1834.

la Francisco Goya, Inquisition

Tribunal, 5 - r q . Madrid,
Accademia dc San Fernando.

R2
 The Inquisition

Saint Dominic de Guzman, recognizable

by the white Dominican habit and black
cape, and the lily, symbol of virginity and
purity, was called to defeat the heretics at
Albi, in southern France.

The accused who

publicly recant
their heresy are
pardoned. Here,
a Dominican
friar holds
Raymond the
Albigensian
by the hand,
escorting him
before the judges
to recant.
The heretics
who refuse to
recant are sent
to the stake.

The heretics on trial must wear a tall

♦PedroBerruguete, Auto-da-ft Presided cone-shaped hat and a monk's habit,
over by Saint Dominic, ca. 3495 and carry a sign with their name. A noose
Madrid, Museodel Prado. around the neck identifies the adulterers.

83
The Inquisition

Among the punishments meted out by the

Inquisition tribunal were torture of the
heretics, and, occasionally, handing over the
condemned to the secular authorities (which
meant death).

A priest assists the remorseful defendants

as the auto-da-fi, the sentence of the
Inquisition tribunal, is read publicly.

• Eugenio Lucas y Velasquez, Nineteenth-century artists probably

Inquisition Scene (detail), 185 i. exaggerated the height of the pointed
Paris,Musee du Louvre. cone-shaped hat.

84
The Devil is portrayed either according to the traditional image
of a fiend or in disguise; his identity is usually betrayed by such
details as a tail, bat's wings, claws, or horns.

Diabolical Disguise
and Deception
The Devil's intrusions into human affairs, often translated into
didactic images, are usually depicted in episodes from the lives Definition
It points to the Devil's
of those saints who continually struggled against evil and the need to always disguise
himself.
Devil. The production of a vast body of literature dedicated
to describing the Devil's "tricks"—ruses and deceptions Related Literature
Jacobus de Voragine,
attempted against the saints—is a medieval phenomenon, Golden Legend

attributable to stories taken from the Golden Legend and Characteristic

The Devil's hidden
other sources. This literature was intended to warn people presence
about the Devil's wiles, even those that seemed harmless, lest Diffusion of the Image
Christians forget that the lord of evil is always lying in wait. Especially common
throughout the Middk
With this in mind, artists illustrated the most popular hagio- Ages and the Early
Renaissance
graphic tales, unmasking deceit. If at first sight, therefore, the
viewer thinks that he is seeing a young woman asking a monk
for hospitality, he will readily understand that this is a trick
of the Tempter, because paws with long claws protrude from
under the woman's skirt. The Devil is also a spiteful creature:
for example, he
breaks the bell
that a monk was
about to ring to
announce to Saint
Benedict in his
retreat that food
4 Taddeo Gaddi, An Angel
was being deliv- Commands a Monk to Bring
ered; this left the Food to Saint Benedict,
1333. Fresco. Florence,
saint without food Santa Croce, refectory.

for several days.

85
Diabolical Disguises and Deceptions

An apparition The Devil, disguised as a pilgrim—he

of Saint wears a hat, shoulder cape, and long robe
Nicholas is to hide his identity, and carries a pilgrim's
invoked by the staff—lays a trap for the child: when the
father of the pilgrim leaves after knocking at the door,
strangled child; the boy follows him to give him alms.
the saint's
intervention According to the narrative in the Golden
saves the child. Legend, the man celebrated the feast of
Saint Nicholas annually; in accordance
with his son's wishes; a solemn banquet
was held to honor the miracle that saved
his son.

The false pilgrim with bat's wings and paws

with long claws strangles the child that he
had tricked into leaving the house.
♦Arnbrugio Lorenzetti, Life of Saint
Nicholas: Saint Nicholas Resuscitates
a Child, early thirteenth century.
Flurence, Gallcria degli Uffizi.
In rapid succession, the artist has
painted the lifeless body of the child
lying in bed, then the same child, now
resurrected, turning his head to Saint
Nicholas, who performed the miracle.

86
 The monk, who leads an isolated life in
a cave, is deceived by the woman's
pleasant, kind appearance, not realizing
the diabolical temptation hiding under
that guise.

Disguised as a woman dressed in

pilgrim's clothes and with a staff,
the Devil asks hospitality from a
hermit monk.

The artist is warning the viewer that

looks can deceive by showing the long-
clawed paws of the tempting Devil under
the woman's dress.
♦Buonamico Buffalmacw, The
Tempting Devil Dressedasa Woman,
1340-5o. Fresco. Detail of The Thebaid.
Pisa, Camposanto.

87
Diabolical Disguises and Deceptions

Holding the consecrated host, Saint Peter

Martyr routs the Devil that had appeared to
a group of heretics, disguised as the Virgin
and Child: "If you are truly the Mother of
God, kneel before your Son and worship
hind"
The frightened bystander who flees upon
learning who was hiding under the guise
of the Madonna is perhaps a self-portrait The diabolical apparition has been
of the artist. unmasked: horns and a wicked expression
are now apparent, though the goatish legs
mentioned in the Legend of Saint Peter by
Tommaso Agni da Lentini (thirteenth
century) are nut evident.

The man biding

his face and
running away
could be the
necromancer
who had evoked
the diabolical
apparition for
the heretics.

The frightened, surprised man seen from

behind had perhaps invited Saint Peter
• Vincenzo Foppa, Stories of Saint Martyr to come to the prayer meeting
Peter Martyr: Saint Peter Unmasks held by the necromancer.
the False Madonna, 146268, Fresco.
Milan, Basilica di SaneEnstorgio,
Portinari Chapel.

88
Cats, frogs or toads, snakes, monkeys, flies, he-goats and scor-
pions, but also grasshoppers and silkworms, were included in
Christian allegorical representations of the Devil.

Demonic Animals
The use of animals to suggest evil or the Devil is a very old
technique in the history of art. While the Early Christian period Definition
Animals chosen as
yields no significant examples, the Middle Ages, taking inspira- symbolic or representative
tion from Saint Melito (second century), found numerous links of evil and the Devil

between the Devil and everyday animals as well as with crea- Biblical Sources
Ciencsis 3; Isaiah 35:9
tures from imaginary bestiaries. These associations were based
Related Literature
on renewed readings of the scriptures by Christian authors of Pliny the Elder;
Saint Melito of Sardis,
the first millennium such as Isidore of Seville, the Venerable Ciavis San lac Scripturae
Bede, Gregory the Great, and Maurus Rabanus, or by revisit- IKey to the Holy
Scripturesi [thought by
ing classical works such as Pliny the Elder's encyclopedic some scholars to be a
medieval work and,
Historia Naturalis (Natural History, first century A.D.). therefore, not written
by Saint Meliro];
The demonic animal could be a simple allusion to evil and Isidore of Seville;
Venerable Bede:
to man's inclination to sin, as was a monkey, which was com- Gregory the Great;
Main's Rabanus
pared to the Devil but not considered
an explicit symbol; a scorpion, Diffusion of the Image
Very widespread in the
meanwhile, was a demonic Middle Ages and the
Renaissance
symbol that could also refer
to temptation. Sometimes a
given animal would be the
incarnation of the Devil. In
early representations, bears,
wolves, and lions
also function
as images of
the Devil; these
later gave way to
the more common represen- Cornelis Anthonisz, .Saint
Crcospatth. ca. 155o.
tations of the cat, the frog, and Colored woodcut.

the snake.

89
Demonic Animals

Personified as an old man in the clouds,

God the Father is ready; with the
announcement of the Incarnation, to
plunge into the world, take on the body of
a man, and share Everyman's condition.

In the background.
The arrangement beyond a classiciz-
of this painting mg portal and an
differs from tradi- elegant parapet, an
tional Italian Italian-stele garden
Annunciation can be glimpsed. a
scenes; here Mary clear allusion to the
turns her back to "enclosed garden,"
the angel, and her symbol of Mary•
perturbed expres- and her virginity,
sion and gesture and of Paradise.
are manifest.

The angel Gabriel, sent by God, speaks

The cat, which hears the message of
the entering angel and jumps awayc
symbolizes evil fleeing front the
coming Redemption.
♦Lorenzo Lotto, Annunciation,
534-45. Recanati, Pinacoteca Civics..
with words and gestures: the hand
turned upward points to the One who
sent him; the kneeling position suggests
the deep respect he owes Mary; and the
flowering lily branch is an homage to
the Virgin and a symbol of her purity

90
 Jesus has announced that one of the
Twelve Apostles will betray him: with a
gesture, he seems to calm the resulting
discussion, pointing to Judas in reply to
John, who asks the traitor's name.
A lamb is recognizable in the platter in
front of Christ: it represents the Jewish
Passover dinner, a historically accurate note
that also prefigures the sacrifice of Jesus,
the lamb of God.
• Giuseppe Vermiglia, The Last
Supper Idetail), iuss. Milan,
Pinacoteca dell'Arcisescusado.
Christ's disciples are troubled as they
discuss the betrayal that Jesushas just
announced.
A cat is ready to fight with a dog: this is
an allusion to evil, since the artist placed
the animal behind Judas the traitor, recog-
nizable by his money pouch. The cat lays
traps to catch mice, just as the Devil does
with the souls of sinners.
91
Demonic Animals

A large frog (see Revelation 16:13), often
depicted as a toad, pulls the souls of the
damned down into the fires of Hell.
This frightful, fantastic animal is half
griffin and half basilisk: winged, with
a pointed heal; and a powerful tad
ending in an arrow tip, its body is
partially covered with scales. The
creature pecks the sinners and stings
them with its tail.

• Tadeo Ewalante, The Punishment

of Infernal Fire (detail), rlio2.. Painted Small but ferocious, this four-horned
on the wall of the church at Fluani, demon supervises the torture of four
environs of Cusco, Peru. souls strung on a cogwheel.

92
 The whip suggests Saint Ambrose's A little soul, reveren-
forceful struggle against the tially carried on the
heretics (he was bishop of Milan edge of the mantle so
from 374 to 397)• After his appari- as not to touch it with
tion at the battle of Parahiago bare hands, is being
(1339) where, armed with a whip, offered to baby Jesus.
he routed Visconti's troops, the
whip became one of his attributes. Two plates of a scale: symbol of the
weighing of souls that occurs at the Last
Judgment, under the direction of Saint
Michael, the archangel.

The defeated man lying on the ground

is Arius, initiator of the Arian heresy The toad, depicted belly-up, has
opposed by Saint Ambrose. Next to been defeated and killed; here it is a
him is the bishop's miter, another symbol of the Devil that Saint Michael
attribute of this saint. fought and chased back to Hell.

• Bramantino (Bartolomeo Suardi),

The Virgin of theTowers, ca. x
Milan, Pinacotcca Ambrosiana.

93
Demonic Animals

The fly, a firm irritating animal, has a negative, Following artistic convention, Mary is
fiendish connotation: here shown on the leg dressed in red, symbol of her humanity;
of the baby Jesus, it signifies the snare of evil. she wears a blue mantle, symbol of
According to Saint Melito (second century), divinity, for she is the Mother of God.
it was one symbol of the Devil.

According to Renaissance artistic

convention, the baby Jesus is portrayed
♦Anonymous Ecrrarese master, Madonna naked to highlight his human nature.
and Child, z4so—rsoo. Los Angeles, His left hand rests on a sphere, symbol
J. Paul (jetty Museum. of his power over creation.

94
 Crucified to the right of Jesus, on the 'hon-
orable" side, is the Good Thief; just before
dying on the cross, he professed his faith in
Christ, who in turn promised him Paradise.

The Virgin
In the background
Mary faints
can be glimpsed
Iron; sorrow
Jerusalem in its
and is supported typical medieval
by the other
rendition with
women includ-
crenellated walls
ing, according
with towers.
to the Gospel
tower-houses, and
tradition, Mary
anachronistic
Magdalene; of
churches.
the disciples,
only John
remains.

A scorpion is depicted on the armor, the

standards, and the shields as a symbol of
• Giovanni di Piermattco (Boccati), the Devil and anti-Jewish sentiment.
Crucifixion, eu. 445--47. Urbino,
Callcria Nazionale delle Marche.

95
Demonic Animals
John, the only disciple who stood by
the cross until his teacher's death,
supports the fainting Virgin.
• Master of the Virgo inter Virgins,
Crucifixion, 1495-15oo. Florence,
Galleria degli Uffizi.
96
Agroup of legal scholars is engaged in
a lively debate about the last words
spoken by Jesus in an attempt to bolster
the reasons for his death sentence.
According to Hugh of Saint Victor
(twelfth century), the monkey can be
compared to the Devil since, like the
latter, the animal resembles man but is
much uglier. Here the monkey holding a
skull—a symbol of Adam's death and the
consequence of original sin—witnesses
the Crucifixion.
 The pagan priest points to the The small statue of Mars, placed on top
statue of Mars, intending that of a slender column, is the pagan idol
Saint Philip should worship this that is worshiped in this temple.
deity and renounce fesus.

The apostle Philip, roughly pulled by

♦Git.t. de Menahuoi, Saint Philip
before the Idol, ca. n I85. Fresco.
Padua,Basilica del Santo.
the crowd, in turn points to the statue of
the idol that must be destroyed because
it is possessed by evil spirits. The roll he
holds in his left hand identifies him as
an apostle.
The long snake, sometimes rendered as
a dragon, coils around the two tribunes
it just killed; it personifies evil and the
Devil that is hidden in idols. Philip will
bring the tribunes back to life.

97
Demonic Animals

Are animal consecrated in antiquity to The naked youth riding the he-goat
the god Pan of classical mythology, the is now a symbol of lust, according to
male goat is now seenas an incarnation Philo (first century A.D,): "Billy goats
of Satan. In the Old Testament (Leviticus are lascivious in their sexual relations
1-6) this animal was laden with all the where they display frenzied ardor."
iniquities of the people of Israel and
driven into the wilderness on the Day of
Atonement. In his Sermon on the Song
of Songs, Saint Bernard (twelfth century)
saw in the male goat "the senses of the
confused, lustful body that cause sin to
enter the soul."

▶Puigccrda Master, The Dream of

♦Lust, mid-fourteenth century. Saint John the Evangelist on the Island
Column capital. Auxerre, cathedral. of Patmos kletaill, ca. 145o. Barcelona,
Museu d'Art dc Cataluna.

9S
Monstrous composite animals: the dragon was sometimes
depicted with bat's wings and horns; the basilisk's body was
half cock and half snake.

Dragons and Basilisks

Fantastic animals such as dragons and basilisks became major
figures in the history of art thanks to their being mentioned
Name
in canonical sources and legends, and treated in detail in "Basilisk" ultimately
comes from the Greek
medieval encyclopedias in which exhaustive descriptions basileus, which means
"king," probably because
of each creature were provided. The symbolic links between it resembled an extremely
poisonous crowned snake
hideous and imaginary animals and the Devil and evil are that was known by the
diminutive basdiskus or
rooted in the Old Testament. The dragon, however, is (Latin) regulus (little king/.
described in the book of Revelation; it is also present in other
Biblical sources
contexts, as, for example, the Tempter that saints George or Psalm 9tir 3;
Revelation Is
Margaret must fight and conquer. For the basilisk, artists
Related literature
drew inspiration from Psalm 91 (13) where the term "basilisk" Pliny the Elder,
Saint Meliro of Sardis, Key
appeared at one time, though the translation later became to the Holy Scriptures;
"asp" or "adder." The Roman author Pliny the Elder wrote Isidore of Seville;
Venerable Bede;
that the basilisk could kill with a mere look or breath, and Albert the Great;
Maurus Rabanus
its blood had the power to answer invocations. This fabled
Characteristics
creature, which, according Usually a very large
animal, the dragon is
to Albert the Great, portrayed with four legs
was half cock and and is sometimes covered
with scales. The image of
half snake, was the basilisk started to
change in the Renaissance,
considered when it was often confused
with the griffin.
the king of
Diffusion of the Image
snakes by The image of the dragon
the ninth- is very widespread
throughout the history of
century art, while that of the
basilisk is typically
theologian medieval.

Maurus
Rabanus.

99
Dragons and Basilisks

According to hagio-
graphic legend, the
saintly knight in this
battle only subdued
the dragon; he will
defeat it in yet another
battle, after converting
the oppressed popula-
tion that had been
forced to offer victims
to the beast.

The horse,
an identifying
attribute of the
knight, is white, a
probable allusion
to Saint George's
irreproachable
virtues.

About to be
overcome by
Saint George,
the dragon has
been thrown on
its back. It is
depicted with a
large head, elon-
gated neck, small
wings like those
of prehistoric
animals, and a
long tail.

▶COMMOTura, Saint George and

the Dragon, c.469. Ferrara, Mu.sen
dells Cartrdralc, formerly Chicsa di
San Romano.

100
 Here the youth confronts the
basilisk, shielding himself with a sort
of vase. Legend had it that the only
safe protection from this monster was
a mirror or a crystal bell.

'This large grasshopper with a

human face, allegorically oversized,
could have evil connotations or
personify the Devil.

A symbol of the Devil, this basilisk

with the body of a cock, a large
cockscomb, and a long tail, is a
perfect embodiment of the medieval
idea of this fantastic animal.

• The Basilisk, ca. r12.5-40. Column

capital. Vezclay, Sainte Madeleine.

101
Dragons and Basilisks

Carpaccio's basilisk has shed its

medieval features of half cock and
half snake; now it resembles a griffin,
though the dreadful snarl of its beastly
snout still recalls the belief that this
beast could kill with a mere look
or with its poisonous vapors.

The Roman emperor Gordian

Young Saint Triphon is still a boy when {mid-third century) had turned to
he perfcmns a miracle of exorcism. His Triphon, who had the reputation of
praying gesture tames the Devil, here a healer and exorcist, for help in
represented as a basilisk. freeing his daughter from the Devil.

• Vittore Carpaccio, Saint Triphon

Tamesthe Basilisk, rSo7. Venice, Scuola
di San Giorgio degli Schiavoni.

102
In the oldest depictions, the forbidden fruit is a fig, an orange,
or an apple. In the Middle Ages, it is usually an apple; from the
sixteenth century on, other fruits could symbolize temptation.

Forbidden Fruits
The forbidden fruit par excellence in Christian iconography is
the apple, though this choice is based on a dubious linguistic Definition
Originally; it was the fruit
connection: in Latin, malum means "apple," "fruit," and "evil." of the Tree of Knowledge
During the Middle Ages, this triple meaning led artists who illus- of Good and Evil which
God had forbidden Adam
trated the act of original sin to standardize the visual represen- and Eve to eat.

tation of the fruit, which finally became the apple. Because the Biblical Source
Genesis 3
Bible does not mention a specific kind of fruit, artists had some
Characteristics
latitude and they generally chose the fruit most common in their According to the
region. Thus, the orange and the fig were depicted more fre- 'Fempter. eating the fruit
is mild have given man
quently in art from the Mediterranean. The possibility that the perteci knowledge;
instead, it led him to
Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil might have been a fig is sin and expulsion
from Eden.
supported by the biblical description of Adam and Eve: after eat-
Diffusion of the linage
ing the fruit and realizing that they were naked, they used leaves Extremely widespread
from the fig, the plant in representations of
original sin; since the
at hand, to cover their sixteenth century, also
used as a symbol of
nudity. In rare cases, temptation

as in twelfth-century
frescoes in central
France, the tree of the
forbidden fruit is rep-
resented as a "mush-
room tree," perhaps
laden with esoteric
meanings. In time, the
forbidden fruit became
A . Warn and Eve and the Tree of
a symbol not only of knowledge of Good and Evil.
man's disobedience to 994. Miniature from the Codex
Aemilianensis. El Escorial, Real
God, but also of sin, Biblioteca de San Lorenzo.
401.1,111131AINAli1102 a n Rau
specifically lust.

103
Forbidden Fruits

In the Garden of Delights one sees a
representation of the innocent and
sublime "art of loving" (ars amandi)
of ihe Adamite sect; hence, the
fruits being exchanged symbolize
sensual pleasure.
The wanton pleasure of eating the
fruit is highlighted by the size of
the blackberries and raspberries
that the young nudists are
greedily consuming.

In ancient interpretations of
dreams, fruits such as the cherry
were treated as symbols of sensual
pleasure; here the depravation of the
man-animal exchange is underscored.

• Hieronymus Bosch, The Garden

of Earthly Delights (derail of central
panel of the triptych), ca. 15oo.
Madrid, Museo del Prado.

104
 The elegantly dressed young ladies In the background, Saint Anthony
appearing to the sabot personify the tries to flee the apparitions that tempt
temptations of the flesh: an apple is him with the pleasures of the flesh.
offered as the object of their temptation.

The monke), pulling Anthony's

scapular denotes the tempting Devil.

♦Joachim Patinir and Quentin Metsys,

TheTemptations of Saint Anthony,
15u5. Madrid, Musco del Prado.

105

Musical Enticements
Definition
Music as the representation
of evil; the presence of evil
in disharmony
Biblical Sources
Ezekiel .2_6: r 3;
Isaiah 14:11-12.
Related Literature
Writings by Hunorius
of Autun
Diffusion of the Image
Examples in the Middle
Ages and in the sixteenth
century
▶ Arnold Rocklin, Self-Portrait
with Death Playing the Violin,
187x, Berlin, Gernaldcgalerie.
106
Images of music as symbols of evil through the improper use
of musical instruments; these are sometimes played by demons
or beings linked to sin or to evil, such as death.
From interpretations of passages in Ezekiel and Isaiah that
prophesied the death of kings, music became, as a symbol of
vanity, an instrument of subtle enticement by the Devil. Even
classical antiquity had its share of stories in which music pro-
pelled the soul's wickedness to the surface. In the myth of
Apollo, the lyre-playing god, and Marsyas, the satyr who
invented the flute, the god surpasses the satyr in a musical
contest and, as victor, flays Marsyas alive. The goatish Pan was
believed to spread terror—hence the word panic—by blowing
on a shell trumpet. These ancient myths provided precedents
for Christian imagery: for example, some representations of the
Devil are derived from those of Pan. To better understand the
relationship between music and evil, it should be noted that in
the Middle Ages, court minstrels, who were deprived of civil
rights because of
their wanderings,
were harshly
judged by the
Church; this
attitude can be
deduced from
the writings of
Honorius of
Autun (twelfth
century), who
called them
"ministers of
Satan through
and through."
 Musical Enticements

In Hell, the harp

becomes an With as deep tones,
instrument of the born ha rdon
torture. It has been completes the
variously interpreted harmony created
asa sexual symbol, by the music of the
as punishment for harp-lute and the
sins of the flesh, as ghironda. According
a biblical instrument to the musical theories
of praise that was of John Scotus
refused by sinners Eriugena (ninth
when they were century), sin is the
living, and as an dissonance within
ancient echo of the the harmony.
harmony of Paradise.

A ghironda is played
by a beggar who
A figure wearing a turns the crank.
rich robe and with In the chord formed
the snout of a toad, by the three instru-
symbol of lust, leads ments. the ghironda,
a choir by reading here depicted with
the music printed exceptional realism,
on the buttocks of has the highest
a sinner. register

▶Hieronymus Bosch, Musical Inferno,

ca. 15oo. Right panel (open) of The
Garden of Earthly Delights triptych.
Madrid, Musco del Prado.

107
 A sleeping figure around which hover images that are some-
times monstrous and sometimes symbolic, often bearing
negative connotations.

Ghosts and Nightmares

The recurring iconography of the revelatory dream could
Definition suggest a positive revelation or, conversely, a nightmare. The
Frightful and
disturbing, and
total state of relaxation induced by sleep, when one loses
sometimes premonitory, self-control and enters into a diminished state of attention or
dream apparitions
alertness, could prove dangerous. In some cases, especially in
Diffusion of the Image
This iconography visual representations, it carries suggestions of evil as if the
appears regularly from
the sixteenth through Devil, taking advantage of the situation, were laying snares
the nineteenth century
for the dreamer. Depending on context and historical period,
sleep, and dreams in particular, have carried positive signs of
revelation: the biblical dreams of Jacob and Joseph are cases
in point, or the legendary dream of Emperor Constantine.
But dreams have also been predictors of misfortune, such
as those of Daniel or of
Pontius Pilate's wife.
Especially in allegorical
representations, a double
positive/negative outcome
is presented, and the need
to make a choice. The
positive version usually
reveals a divine appari-
tion, while in nightmares,
dreams disturbed by
unsettling images, the
presence of evil is felt and
given explicit visual form.
lot. Francisco Goya, The
Dream of Reason Produces
Monsters, 1797-99. Print.

108
 Ghosts and Nightmares

According to a well-known passage Sleepcauses the woman to become

from the Thebaid o i l 12-13), a
first-century epic poem by Statius, the
faraway, fiery rivers meander around
Sleep, together with many dreams.
drowsy by sprinkling her with water
from the River Lethe; the allegorical
figure of Sleep is attended by the owl
(a night bird) and the cock, which
Lucian believed was a sacred animal
of the Island of Dreams.

The different aspects of these animal-like

and anthropomorphic figures are
explained by the manifold nature of
dreams according to the second-century
Roman satirist Lucian in his True History
(2:34); or by the deceiving shape of
dreams in Ovid's Metamorphoses
(11:633) (A.D. 8).

• Battista Dnssi, Night lor Dream),

1544.Dresden, Gemdiciegalerie.

109
Ghosts and Nightmares

The muzzle nj a white horse

eniers the woman's dreams,
ascene reminiscent of Franco-
German folklore. Mar, the
Devil's mare, rises directly
from the depths of Hell.

'The female figure lying in a

contorted pose on the bed is
presented as a creature tortured
by nocturnal visions.

• Henry Fuseli, Nightmare, 1781.

The Detroit Institute of Arts.

110
An old, disheveled-looking woman with a sullen expression, or a
young, sometimes naked one; either may be surrounded by strange
objects, books, or animals. Depictions of male witches are rarer.

Witches
Witchcraft has always been thought to be closely linked to dia-
bolical practices and the world of Satan. For centuries, it was Name
The Italian word for
believed that the powers of women who had been tried and "witch" (strega) derives
found guilty of witchcraft resulted from a pact with the Devil. from the Latin stria, a
nocturnal bird of prey;
In Europe, the persecution of witches, who were generally the modem English word
comes from the Middle
women already on the margins of society, erupted at the end of English wieche.

the fifteenth century and continued into the seventeenth, when Definition
Women or men (witches,
it spread to the Americas, and especially to New England. sorcerers, warlocks) with
Female witches were believed to have the capacity to enthrall special powers derived
from their close proximity
men, sending them to Hell; to cast spells on people and things to the Devil

alike; and to cause natural disasters, sudden illness, death, and Mace
Europe and the Americas
even the much-feared sexual impotence. Male witches (war-
Time
locks) were also believed to exist, but since women were con- from the fifteenth to the
se, emeenth century
sidered inferior, explanations were concocted about how they
were driven to sorcery precisely because of their inferiority. Diffusion of the Image
From the sixteenth to the
Women were supposedly more gullible eighteenth century

and inexperienced than men;

females reputedly had a more
inquisitive, impressionable,
and meaner nature; and
they were
thought to be
more inclined
to revenge,
more talka-
tive, and more
easily prone 4 trans Hals. Malle Babbe.
the Haarlem Witch, f 62.9-3o.
to despair. Berlin, Gemaldegalerie.

Ill
Witches

The young witch's naked,

attractive body alludes to
the seductive powers of evil.

The she-goat and the he•goat

were linked to the witches'
♦Hans Bahiung Grien, Mercuric sabbat rites; since antiquity,
Witches,152.3. Frankfurt, 5tadelsches these animals have personified
Kunstintitut. lewdness and lust.

112
The vine-leaf garland on the head of
the old, white-haired witch suggests
a link between medieval and modern
witchcraft and the Dionystac rituals
of the ancient pagan world.
• Salvator Rosa,The Witch, ca. 1646.
Rome,Pinacoteca Capitolina.
A witch is poring over a hook of
alchemical signs; she is in a cave,
a favorite meeting place of witches
because of its suggestiveness of the
female sex.
Under her bare feet is a sheet of paper
where a circle has been traced; all around
are candles. The artist is Inte,p,ehag
witchcraft through motifs derived from
northern European art and alchemy.
113
Witches

Flight, considered a superhuman The dark background situates

power granted by the Devil, is a the scene at night. Having
recurring motif in witchcraft. made a pact with the Devil,
witches and warlocks have
become creatures of darkness.

♦Francisco Goya, The Witches' The donkey was one means of

Flight, 1797-98. Madrid, Ministcrio transportation that witches and
dc la Gobcrnacion. warlocks used to travel to the sabbat.

114
Groups of witches or warlocks meeting in woods or isolated
locales, usually at night. They are often depicted flying on
brooms.

The Sabbat
Belief in the sabbat, the great gathering of witches—and the
concomitant spread of its iconography—grew tremendously in Name
Derived from Old French
the Middle Ages, particularly in northern and central Europe sabbat, in turn derived
but also in northern Italy, and was probably linked to the from the Latin sabbatum,
as n was believed that
revival of pagan Dionysiac motifs, with undertones of fertility. these rituals took place
on the Sabbath day
Grottoes or large forest trees were sites, and one traveled there
Definition
on foot or by cart, horse, or donkey. It was said, however, that the sabbat was the great
gathering of witches.
witches and warlocks could fly owing to the powers they had It was also called by
gained by making a pact with the Devil, and so they did. They other names: synagogue
kirdorto (little barrel),
flew disguised as animals or riding benches or work tools, stongbez2o, or boron
gioco (good game).
including brooms or sticks, after preparing them by spreading
Place
specially prepared ointments on the contact parts (including Europe
the soles of their feet). The ritual often began with kind of lime
From the fifteenth to
reverse baptism and involved strong emotional participation, the seventeenth century
ending in an orgiastic feast that lasted until the cock crowed.
Diffusion of the Image
From the sixteenth century
to the eighteenth century

.1 Giuseppe Pietro Bagerti, The

I.Valnut Tree of Benevento, ca.
tSzH. Turin, private collection.

115
The Sabbat

Flying witches and warlocks are

recognizable as demonic beings by
their horns and by the pitchfork.
one of their typical attributes.

Half-naked
witches are borne
through the air by
animal monsters
that recall the
dragon of the
Apocalypse.

The lady and

her maidservant
reach the sabbat
not on font, in a
cart, or on a
flying broom-
stick, hut riding
grotesque
animals and
surrounded by
a similar
menagerie.

• Antoine-Francuis Saint-Aubert,
Arrival at the Sabbat and Homage
to the Devil, eighteenth century.
Cumbrai, Museedes Beaux-Arts.

116
 Child abuse was one of the crimes
that the witches were suspected of
committing during their sabbats.
• FranciscoGoya,Sabbat, 1797-98.
Madrid, Museo Lamm Galdiano.
Flocks of bats fly in T h e he•goat, with its heavy demonic and
the night toward the l a s c i v i o u s connotations, leads the sabbat
sabbat. a n d rules over it: the garland of vine leaves
atop its horns recalls the ancient orgiastic
rituals in honor of the pagan god Dionysos.
The old witch offering a skeletal child
to the Devil disguised as a be-goat is
the archet>pal witch image that has
survived in the modern imagination.
117
 A rare theme, only exceptionally portrayed as an independent
motif. Some elements of the Catholic Mass are recognizable,
though twisted and desecrated.

The Black Mass

The black Mass, linked to the cult of Satan, is a ritual that
Definition seems to have first surfaced about i 600 in Paris witch circles.
A sacrilmious Mass
exalting the worship
It was rumored to be practiced by some well-known witches
of Satan during the later seventeenth century, in particular by a female
Characteristics witch known as Voisin, who was close to the court of Louis
Distortion of nature
and of the liturgy of XIV and burned at the stake in 168r. It was probably then that
the Catholic Mass
this satanic ritual was defined, and it has remained essentially
Diffusion of the Image
A rare theme with
unchanged. The ceremony, which some chronicles were report-
no known detailed ing as early as the late sixteenth century, was conducted as an
portrayals of the black
Mass ritual, considered orgy and involved the perversion of the Catholic Mass. The
the urban equivalent of
the more ancient sahhat. body of a virgin served as an altar, religious signs and symbols
Representations of
sacrilegious Masses were desecrated, and the name of Christ was cursed, while that
do exist, hut the intent
is a strong criticism of
of Satan was praised. In the reading of biblical passages, care
the Church, rather than was taken to replace occurrence of the word "good" with the
she worship of Satan.
word "evil."

▶Hieronymus Bosch, The

Temptations of Saint Anthony
idetail 1, 1505-6. Lisbon,
Muscu Nacional de Attc
Amiga.

11 8
 The Black Mass

A musician with a hog's head A black woman— Christ appears in a small chapel
advances to receive the sacrilegious another symbol of inside a ruined building; he points
communion. The little owl On his heresy—advances to the Crucifix, the true sacrifice,
head symbolizes heresy. bearing a tray with that the profane Mass nearby is
a toad, symbol of desecrating.
witchcraft and lust;
the reptile, in turn,
The necromancer standing holds an egg,
to the side and wearing a suggesting the
cylindrical hat seemingly sacrilegious host.
orchestrates all the visions.

Saint Anthony kneels;

looking outward, he
makes the sign of bene-
• Hieronymus Busch, The Temptations diction with one hand
of Saint Anthony, T5o5-6. Central while pointing with the
panel of a triptych. Lisbon, Museu other to the chapel
Nacional de Arte Antiga. where Christ appears.
Through the image of the
officiating priest with the hog's
head dressed in a torn chasuble
from which his bowels are spilling
out, the artist is denouncing the
Church's corruption and decay.

119
 THE PATH OF SALVATION

Classical Antecedents (Hercules at the Crossroads)

Psychomachy
Overcoming Temptation
Works of Mercy
Jacob's Ladder
The Ladder of Virtues
The Trials of Job
Prayer and Ecstasy
Saints Who Battled the Devil

Raphacl, Saint George and

the Dragon (derail), 15os.
Paris, Music du Louvre.
 Hercules, recognizable by his attributes of the lion skin and the
club, stands between two women who point to two different
roads: one is rocky and difficult, the other flat and shady.

Classical Antecedents
(Hercules at the Crossroads
The author of the tale of Hercules at the crossroads is the
Definition G r e e k Sophist Prodicus of Ceos (fifth to fourth century B.C.).
Anallegorical T h e story has been preserved, probably as part of the collection
representation of
thechoicebetween H o r a i (The Hours), through Xenophon, who appreciated its
Good and I'vil
moralizing aspect, and later through Cicero's rereading of the
Related Literature
ProdicusofCeos; t a l e . Hercules is at a crossroads when he meets two women
Xenophon, Memorabilia
(MemoirsofSocrates), p e r s o n i f y i n g Virtue and Vice; they counsel the young hero
Cicero, De officio (On
to follow them along the path that each will suggest. Virtue,
Obligations),1.35.118 u s u a l l y represented as a dignified, soberly dressed woman,
DiffusionoftheImage p o i n t s to a mostly rocky and uphill road. Ultimately, this
Prevalent in classical
antiquityandrevived p a t h will yield a reward since nothing can be achieved without
especially in Renaissance
andBaroqueart e f f o r t , a choice that may also be seen to signify self-control and
discipline. Vice, personified as a
scantily clad woman—often she
is shown naked, sometimes
elegantly dressed—
points instead to
an easy, level path
strewn with all
sorts of pleasures.
Then the two
women disappear,
and the invincible
hero chooses the
▶Benvenuto di Giovanni,
Hercules at the Crossroads, p a t h indicated by
uoa. Matrimonial disk.
Venice, Ca' d'Oro. V i r t u e .

122
 Classical Antecedents (Hercules at the Crossroads)

Virtue directs Hercules to a road that

climbs up an arid mountain dotted with
broken tree trunks and dead branches;
its top, however, is green and level, and
Pegasus, the winged horse, can be
glimpsed in the meadow.

The figure personifying Vice is seen

In keeping with the fable, Hercules
is depicted as a young man who
must make a choice. The hero's
attribute is the club: according to
the myth, he fashioned it out of an
olive tree that he uprooted with
his own hands.
from behind. She has also been identified
with Venus, just as Virtue is sometimes
personified by Minerva. She points the
youth to a pleasant road she is strewing
with flowers, on which are visible
symbols of the arts that men cherish:
poetry, theater, and music.

• Annibak Carracci, Hercules

at the Crossroads, 1595. Naples,
Capoclimontc.

123
Classical Antecedents(Hercules at the Crossroads)

The old man with the snake
biting its tail—symbol
of eternity; continuity
of life, and totality of the
universe- 4 a positive
personification of Time.
Pegasus, the horse that is to carry Hercules to
Heaven, stands atop the mountain peak reachable
by climbing the steep, difficult road that Virtue has
suggested; it becomes a symbol of fame that is
within the hero's grasp.
The winged figure with two trumpets
is Fame: the two trumpets are for
proclaiming both good and ill fame.

Time holding a
scythe in one
The letter Y.
hand and a child
known as the
by the other is a
Icttera Pythago
negative personi-
rae (letter of
Pythagoras), fication. He sits
in Heaven above
symbol of the
the allegory of
crossroads in
Vice, an elegantly
each person's
dressed hut par-
life, is engraved
tially exposed
on a rock above
the head of the woman whose
young Hercules, image recalls
that of Lust
who is clad in a
lion skin and and Pride.
carries a club.

Demurely
dressed in a
plain robe and
with her head
covered, Virtue
points to a
steep, uneven
path rising
through rocks.

♦Unknown artist, Hercules at the

Crossroads (Portrait of Maximilian I
of Bavaria Dressedas Hercules),
ca. 1595. Engraving.

124
Two female figures, each pulling at the soul, which is in the
middle; in some representations, the two women face each
other as if in a triumph, each with her own retinue.

Psychomachy
The theme of psychomachy—the struggle of the Christian
soul—was already present in Early Christian art, as artists
Name
borrowed classical pagan themes into which one could read From the Greek;
it means "struggle
new meanings in light of Christianity. The model was the illus- of the soul.'

tration of the fable of Hercules at the crossroads by Prodicus Definition

An allegorical
of Ceos, known in antiquity as a metaphor for the crossroads representation of
of life and the need to choose. This and other representations the choice between
Good and Evil
from the Labors of Hercules became part of the iconography
Related literature
that acquired Christian allegorical meaning. Psychomachia is Prudentius, Psychomachia
(Contest of the Soul)
a fifth-century poem by the Christian author Prudentius, who
Characteristics
conceived of man's struggle between vice and virtue as a funda- In this syrrunetrical
composition, the
mental moment for his salvation. The popularity enjoyed by Christian soul is at
this work during the Middle Ages helped to consolidate its the center, with the
MO allegorical figures
iconography, clear opposition to
each other
including sculp-
Diffusion of the Image
tural decoration It is more prevalent in
the Middle Ages and
on church capi- the Renaissance than
tals. The subject the Baroque period.

was revived during

the Renaissance, and
after seemingly fading
away, the theme of the
soul's struggle returned
in the Baroque era as
part of the allegorical
Master Robert, The
imagery promoted by the Struggle between Vices and
Virtues. Column capital,
Counter-Reformation. mid-twelfth century.
Clermont-Ferrand, Notre
Dame du Port.

125
Psychomachy

The figure of amaiden shooting an

arrow underscores the antagonism and
incompatibility of Virtue and Vice, who
triumphantly confront each other, each
with her own retinue.

Vice sits on a canopied throne atop

an elegant cart pulled by large griffins,
a compositim that recalls the rich
Renaissance representations of
triumphal processions.

♦Francesco di Giorgio Martini,

Psychomachy, ca. 1470-71.
Casson panel. Florence,
Museo Stibbert.

126
The fruit-laden, leafy tree rising at
the center of the composition replaces
the traditional presence of the soul or
a Christian standing at the crossroads
in order to choose: it may suggest the
Tree of Life, coveted reward of those
who choose Virtue.
The personification of Virtue rides on
a richly decorated cart. The symbolism
of this theme is contaminated by that of
the triumphs, which began to appear in
the fourteenth century and which, during
the Renaissance, became a popular way
of exalting distinguished individuals.
Psychomachy

Vice is represented in the guise of a child
angel, probably inspired by figures of
pagan crotcs; he strews flowers on his
path and attracts the soul with riches.
The Christian soul is depicted as a child
poised between Vice and Virtue. The
composition is derived directly from the
classical iconography of Hercules at the
crossroads, and like I lercules, who will
choose Virtue, the soul moves toward
that path.

Christian virtue is reached by passing

through the "narrow gate" described
by the evangelists (Matthew 7:13;
Luke 13:24) and here suggested by
the instruments of the Passion of Christ
that Virtue (her head circled by a halo)
carries in a basket.
♦JoseAntolinez, The Christian Soul
between Virtue and Vice, ca. zoo.
Murcia, Musco dc la Murcia.

128
The representation of Jesus or a saint who succeeds in
repelling the Devil or an image symbolizing the Devil,
or the allegory of a sin.

Overcoming Temptation
Recognizing that the Devil exists and will try to separate men
from God and turn them toward himself implies recognizing Definition
the possibility of being exposed to temptation. Even Jesus sub- Man fights against
the Devil's deceptions
mitted was tempted, three times, but he forced back the Devil and conquers them.

and silenced his provocations with the power of the Word and Biblical Sources
Matthew 4:5-11;
of the scriptures. The moment of trial is a recurring theme in Mark 1:11;
Luke 4:1-13
the lives of many saints. Presented as Satan's snare, it is an
attempt to weaken or break the faith and the willpower of Related literature
Jacobus tie Voragine,
those who choose the path of salvation. There are edifying Golden Legend:
lives of the saints
accounts of how hermit saints like Anthony, or redeemed
Characteristics
sinners like Mary Magdalene, or youths "crazy" for God like Except for Christ,
Francis of Assisi or Thomas Aquinas, overcame the tempta- who appears calm and
self-assured, the victim is
tions of the flesh, of wealth, or of an indolent life. The saints' depicted as exhausted;
symbols such as the cross
weapons are exemplified in the signs artists employed to trans- or a book represent the
Christian's weapons
form these moralizing against temptation.
tales into iconographic
Diffusion of the Image
themes: the power of Very widespread
geographically and
the Word of God is chronologically.

symbolized by the book;

mortification, by the
thorn bush; and the
tie binding man to
God, by the
sign of the
cross.

4 Giambattista Tiepolo, The

Temptations of Saint Anthony
Abbot, Ca. I 72.0-55.
Brera.

129
Overcoming Temptation
The tempting Devil is here depicted
according to the earliest model that
became popular in the Middle Ages:
he is dark-skinned, wears a short skirt,
and has animal traits, such as horns,
tail, and webbed feet; instead of the
pitchfork, he carries a hook, a frequent
instrument of torture in the Middle Ages.
♦Unknown artist, The First Temptation
of Chnst, ca. 112.2.. Miniature from an
illuminated psalter. Copenhagen,
Der Kongelige Bibliotek.
130
The book Jesus holds reverently in his
hands in a ritual gesture (touching the
book with the edge of his mantle and not
with his hands) suggests that it contains
the Word of God, the nourishment that
man needs to drive back the temptations
of the flesh, in accordance with the
answer that Jesus himself gave to the
Tempter: "Man shall not live by bread
alone, but by every word that proceeds
from the mouth of God" (Matthew 4;4).
The Devil points to three large stones:
tempting Jesus, he asks him to turn
them into loaves of bread.
 For the third time, the Devil tempts Christ,
this time with power. He offers him all the
kingdoms of the earth, if he will fall down
and worship him. Here pictured as a dark,
winged figure, the Devil is the angel that
rebelled against God out of pride, thereby
forever losing his beauty.
After Jesus refuses to worship the
Devil, angels come and minister to
him, signifying Christ's power and
his victory over the Tempter.

Jesus forcefully repels the Devil and

• Duccio di Buoninscgna, The his temptations by quoting a line from
Temptation on the Mount, 1308—it. the scriptures: "You shall worship
Predella panel from the Maestri altar- your God and have no other Gods
piece. New York, Frick Collection. but him" (Exodus ao).

131
Overcoming Temptation

Kneeling on the steps of the Lateran

Palace, Saint Francis and his friars
receive the confirmation of their rule
from Pope Innocent III.

Deep in the woods of Mount Alvernia, Saint

Francis receives on his body the stigmata,
proof of arises love; they are the same
wounds that Jesus suffered on the cross.

According to a late testimony transmitted

by Michele Bernardi, Saint Francis threw
himself into a nearby rosebush to escape
the temptation; he hurt himself but from
the blood of his wounds sprang roses, The demonic Tempter, here in semihuman
and the bush lost its thorns. form but with horns, bat's wings, and
claws on feet and hands, has conjured up
the image of a seemingly naked woman
hiding in the bushes, thus assailing the
• ll Fiamtnenghino tithe Fleming] Giovanni saint with the temptation of the flesh.
Mauro della Rovere), The Temptations of
Saint Francis of Assisi, co. r 6o5-15.
Boffalora, Parish Church (offsite storage
rooms of the firera).
 According to the little Flowers of Saint
Francis (XXIV), a woman with a lovely
body but 'a filthy soul" tempted Saint
Francis during his journey to visit the
sultan of Egypt.

A figure appears in the dour, perhaps

suggesting another passage from
Franciscan sources (Second Life R.2:1 t7).
in which a friar witnesses the saint's
struggle against temptation.

Feigning acceptance of the woman's sinful

offer, the saint undresses and leaps into a
fire, inviting the woman to follow him.
He survives, miraculously unscathed;
having overcome the temptation, he
leads the woman to conversion.
This rendering of Saint Francis does
not resemble at all the description in his
biographies: the muscular youth depicted
here recalls the soldier and knight that
Francis had dreamed of becoming, as if
he had overcome temptation through
sheer strength and determination.

• Simon Votket, Vie Temptations

of SaintFrancis, 1653. Rome, San
Lorenzo in Lucina.

133
Overcoming Temptation

Defeated, the Devil There are many The small jar is one
can no longer depictions of saints of Mary Magdalene's
approach Mary who fight temptation iconographic attributes:
Magdalene, who has with the help of angels. she carried the ointment
decided to no longer This angel is almost jar to the sepulchre
listen to his voice. naked, like a wrestler, where she was the
and chases the Devil first to receive the
with a club. announcement of
the Resurrection.

The sumptuous garments and jewels—

signs of earthly riches scattered on the
floor—show how the saint has rejected Guido Cagnacci, Conversion of
a dissolute, sinful life and escaped the the Magdalene, i 66a-6i. Pasadena
clutches of temptation. {California), Norton Simon Museum.

134
 Hoping to thwart his vocation, the family Recognizing that the woman was a
of Saint Thomas Aquinas confined him to temptation by the Devil, Thomas
the Roccasecca family castle and sent a drove her away by drawing the sign of
woman to tempt him. the cross on the wall with a firebrand.

Young Thomas has single-handedly

defeated temptation; almost as a reward
for overcoming such a difficult trial, the
angels who have come to comfort him
also brought a chastity belt.

♦Diego Velazquez, The Temptations of
SaintThomasAquinas, ca. 1631. Ori-
huela, Munro Diocesan° deArm Sacro.
Wearing the white habit and black cape The books lying on
of the order of Saint Dominic, the the floor next to a
young Thomas has fallen on his knees, stool holding an
exhausted from his victorious struggle inkpot are attributes
to resist and drive away the temptation. of the scholarly saint.

135

Works of Mercy
Definition
According to the Gospel,
the seven acts of charity
leading to salvation
Biblical Source
Matthew 25:34-36
Diffusion of the Image
Not very frequent;
even rarer are the
representations of the
spiritual works of mercy.
▶Master of Alkmaar, The Seven
Works of Merry Feeding the
Hungry, I sop. Amsterdam,
136
The most common image is that of seven separate or sequential
panels depicting the Seven Acts of Mercy. The watchful image
of Christ or the Virgin may also be included.
Inspired by chapter z5 of the Gospel of Matthew, where the
words of Jesus with respect to Judgment Day are reported—"I
was hungry and you gave me food, I was thirsty and you gave
me drink, I was a stranger and you welcomed me, I was naked
and you clothed me, I was sick and you visited me, I was in
prison and you came to me"— the early Church fathers identi-
fied Seven Acts of Mercy, the works by which faith comes
alive according to Catholic Christian doctrine. This subject
was limited to a few cycles created north of the Italian Alps
and to cycles commissioned by charitable institutions, such as
hospitals or convents of religious orders dedicated to works
of mercy. The painting that Caravaggio created for the No
Monte della Misericordia of Naples (see p. 138) is unique in
conception and execution because it places all Seven Acts,
based on the biblical and hagio-
graphic references, within a
single illusionistic space that at
first glance appears to describe
ascene from everyday life.
 Works of Mercy

Above B e l o w
♦Master of Alkmaar, The Seven G i v i n g Drink to the Thirsty W e l c o m i n g the Pilgrims
Works of Mercy, iso4. Amsterdam, C l o t h i n g the Naked V i s i t i n g the Sick
Rijksmuscum. B u r y i n g the Deid V i s i t i n g the Prisoners

137
Works of Mercy

Two circling angels escort the Virgin with

a child, symbol of the Catholic Church
and the means to salvation, while acts of
mercy are being performed.

Caravaggio is the
only painter who
illustrated the acts of
Feeding the Hungry
and Visiting the
Prisoners by drawing
on caritas roman
(Roman charity), an
episode about a man
sentenced to die in jail
Giving drink of starvation. He was
to the thirsty: visited by his young
Samson drinks daughter who bad
from the rust given birth;
jawbones of prohibited from
a donkey. bringing food into
the iad, she gave her
father her01171 breast
milk. an act that
moved the judges
to mercy.

Welcoming the
strangers: a host
directs pilgrims Burying the dead: the
to lodging. artist has depicted a
corpse whose feet are
visible, carried by a
man who seems to be
lost in prayer.

ACaravaggio,SevenWorks of Mercy, Clothing the naked:

1607.Naples.. Pinacoteca del Pio Saint Martin of Tours
Monte della Misericordia. gives his cloak to a beggar.

138
A man sleeping on the ground; next to him is a ladder on
which angels ascend and descend; on top of the ladder the•
image of God or of heavenly Paradise may appear.

Jacob's Ladder
The iconography of Jacob's dream is rooted in the Genesis
narrative. At dusk, the patriarch stopped to sleep at a place Definition
called Luz; he dreamed of a ladder that reached from earth to Aparticular vision of
the ascent to God
Heaven, with angels ascending and descending its steps. In the
Biblical Sourer
dream, God promised Jacob the land on which he was lying, Genesis z8:
innumerable descendants, and divine protection for them and Diffusion of the Image
Mostly in cycles
himself. Upon rising in the morning, Jacob recognized that illustrating the Bible
place as a house of God and a door to Heaven. He set up as a
pillar the stone on which he had slept, and called the spot Beth-
El, "house of God." The representation of Jacob's ladder, of
the vision of God and his kingdom, was chosen because the
ladder could be an
image of the path to
Heaven through strict
self-discipline. Start-
ing with Honorius of
Autun (twelfth cen-
tury) and followed by
the Abbess Herrade
of Landsberg, the fif-
teen steps of Jacob's
ladder in the "Garden
of Delights" came to
symbolize the Virtues,
with the ascending
saSalaam Master, Peres
angels symbolizing Ladder, 1395—L400.
Miniature from the Bible
the active life and the of King Wenceslas IV
Vienna, osterreichische
descending ones the Nationa
contemplative one.

139
Jacob's Ladder

By the eighteenth centurx the

medieval conception of the ladder with
fifteen steps symbolic of the Virtues, as
dreamed by Jacob, had been lost, but
the angels descending it still represented
the contemplative life.
The figures of the ascending angels recall
the medieval commentaries which,
starting with Honorius of Autun, saw in
them a representation of the active

Jacob sleeping on a rock prefigures

• William Blake, Saint John the Evangelist sleeping on
Jacobi Ladder, ca. 1790. Jesus' shoulder at the Last Supper and
London, British Library. seeing the secrets of Heaven.

140
A ladder placed between Heaven and earth, with people
climbing it or getting ready to climb; in some cases, the
image of Christ is at the top.

The Ladder of Virtues

The Church fathers readily accepted the image of Jacob's
ladder as an exercise in virtue that elevates the soul to God, Definition
and they wrote extensively about it. Gregory of Nyssa Derived from Jacob's
laddey a symbolic element
(fourth century), commenting on the Gospel of the Beati- of the union between
Heaven and earth
tudes, reordered the Beatitudes sequentially, explaining them
Biblical Source
through the image of the Ladder of Virtues. Saint Augustine Genesis tS: i z
described a ladder leading to God on which the four cardinal Related literature
virtues (Justice, Prudence, Temperance, and Fortitude) escort Gregory of Nyssa,
Homilies on the Beatitudes;
the soul on its path of ascesis toward bliss: the first five Saint Augustine, The
Ladder of Virtues;
steps—fear of God, piety, knowledge, fortitude, and pru- John Climacus, .Scala
paradisi The Ladder
dence—are gifts of the Holy Spirit; the last two, purification of Paradise):
Saint Bernard, De
of the heart and wisdom, enable the soul to prepare for gradibus humilitatis et
communion with God and final perfection. Also significant superbiae (Of Degrees
of Humility and Pride/
are the writings of John Climacus (late sixth to early seventh
Diffusion of the Image
century), who received Frequent in medieval
allegorical representations:
his name from his also present during the
Renaissance
work entitled The
Ladder of Paradise
(climax in Greek
means ladder), where
the image of the
Ladder of Virtues
expresses one path of
ascent to God. There,
Christ as mediator
between God and man
4 Allegorical Ladder of Saint
is depicted as the very John Climacus, late twelfth
century. Icon. Sinai,
ladder that joins Monastery of Saint Catherine.
Heaven and earth.

141
The Ladder of Virtues

Crates throws his riches into the sea: gold

and jewels have become useless and do
not represent true wealth fur those who
have climbed the path of Virtue.

The path of Virtue, though narrow, climbing, and

difficult, leads the virtuous man to salvation and
wisdom. For this reason, he is here welcomed by
the ancient Greek philosophers Crates and
Socrates and by the allegory of Knowledge.
♦Pinrurieehio, La Via della Virhi, x5os.
Pavementmosaic. Siena, cathedral.
Fortune is precariously poised with one
foot resting on a sphere on dry land and
the other on a boat that is already sailing.
The woman holds a slender horn of
plenty with her right hand and a raised
sail with her left, since the boat's mast is
broken. According to Cesare Ripa's
Iconologia (Moral Emblems), broken
instruments signify bad luck or an
unhappy outcome.

142
 Surrounded by angels, God the Father
welcomes the faithful who have climbed
the Ladder of Virtues to Heaven; the chairs
on either side of him are inscribed Sublimity
and Delectation.

The ladder The collabora-

leading to tion of Grace
Heaven stands and free Will
on the mount brings about
of the Virtues good and meri-
on top of a torious acts.
cross-shaped
platform, sym-
bol of Faith.
According to
Saint Bernard Pride, depicted
of Clairvaux, asa woman
the steps of the riding a peacock,
ladder are invites the soul
degrees of to climb down
Monility and the ladder of
lead to Charity, Hell and into the
to the encounter valley of Vice.
with God.

According to Byzantine iconography;

Satan, jaws agape, waits in the pit of
Hell to devour the damned.

♦Unknown artist, The Ladder of

Heaven and Hell according to the
Teachings of Saint Bernard, I 58z. Print.

143

The Trials of Job
Biblical Source
Book of Job
Related literature
Testament of Job
lapocryphal)
Characteristics
A proverbial example
of patience
Diffusion of the linage
Generally present in
cycles representing biblical
stories; rarely shown alone,
but more prevalent starting
in the fifteenth century
▶Albrecht Darer, Job
and His Wife, ca. r so4.
Frankfurt. Stadelsches
Kunstinstitut.
144
Depicted as an old man stripped of his robe and covered with
sores, job is the protagonist of several narratives; three friends
and his wife are often shown tormenting him.
A biblical character who became known as a model of holiness
and patience, Job lived in Uz, a land identified as the region
between Idumea (biblical Edom) and Arabia. Job was an
extremely pious man and very wealthy, with many children,
animals, and slaves. At the apex of wealth and happiness, he
was suddenly struck by a long series of afflictions that robbed
him of all his possessions and of his children. Even after an ill-
ness covered him with sores, he never lost heart or complained
to God, not even when his wife derided him. Banished from
his own home, he was forced to spend
his days in a dungpit. There, he
received the visit of three
friends who had come
to comfort him. Trying
to understand the
reasons for his woes,
they concluded that
Job must have sinned
to warrant these trou-
bles. But the voice of
God, who had allowed
Satan to test Job's
faith, proclaimed his
innocence and restored
Job to his original
condition, heaping
on him twice as much
wealth as he had
previously enjoyed.
 The Trials of Job

A court of six angels escorts the mandorla

(an almond-shaped aureole), painted in the
colors of the rainbow, symbol of God's
covenant with man: the angels are rendered
generically without specific attributes.
God the Father, who has visibly manifested himself
through Ins Son's incarnation, is represented
according to Christological iconography

Flying, the 1)evil approaches God:

the colloquy leads to the pact that
will allow fob, a just man, to he
tested in his faith in God through
many trials (fob r:8-12).

♦Bartok, di Fredi, The Murder of

lob's Servants (detail), 1367. Fresco.
SanGimignano, cathedral.

14S
The Trials of Job

According to the prologue to the book

of Job, "when the days of the feast had
run their course," Job would send for his
seven sons and three daughters and offer
purification rituals (Job r:3-).

God's pact with

the Devil is at
the root of all of
Job's trials. Here
one of the demons The three
is portrayed as a camels and
dark-skinned the many other
hideous creature animals suggest
conversing with a Job's wealth.
Christlike figure.

After losing his

children and his
assets, Job falls
gravely ill. His
wife urges him to
renounce good-
ness, curse God
far this last trial,
and put all of it
The agony of
behind by letting
Job's illness himself die.
suggests the
Devil's ultimate
power over this
man. Depicted
asa monster
with a dreadful
face and mouths
all over his body
the Devil and
his monstrous
retinue rage
against Job.

The musicians called to soothe Job's

suffering are not in the Bible, but they
are in the apocryphal Legend of Job.

• Master of the Legend of Saint

Catherine and Master of the Legend
of Saint Barbara,Scenes from the
Life of fob, tilfto—go. Cologne,
Wallraf-Richartz-Museum.

146
 Job's wife questions his readiness to
accept God's will: she urges him to curse
God for this last trial and to become free
by letting himself die.

Job's body is
thin and worn
out, but there
are no traces of
sores to suggest
the leprosy that
"afflicted Job
with loathsome
sores from the
sole of his foot to
the crown of his
head" (Job 2:7).

The only visible object in this minimal

composition is a broken bowl: according
to the biblical text, Job took a piece of
crockery to scratch his sores.

• Georges de La Tour, Job and His

Wife, 1631-3s. Epinal, Muscle Departc-
mental d'Art Ancicn ct Contemporain.

147

Prayer and Ecstasy
Definition
A dialog.. with God
containing knowledge,
joy, thanksgiving, praise,
and supplication
Biblical Source
Ephesians t 3—I El
Related Literature
Jacobus de Voragine,
Golden Legend;
Lives of the saints
Characteristics
Prayer expresses the
personal bond between
the believer and God;
public prayer is represented
less frequently.
Diffusion of the Image
The representation of
saints, the blessed, or
the faithful in the act
of praying or in ecstasy
reached its apex after the
Council of Trent, when
edifying art was sought
to elevate the spirit as
much as possible.
▶ Gian Lorenzo &mini, The
Ecstasy ofSarnt Theresa,
1644—f c. Rome, Santa Maria
della Vittoria.
1411
Praying saints, sometimes shown kneeling or with clasped bands;
when represented in ecstasy, they express pure rapture, mental
transport toward God, and indifference to surrounding reality.
Prayer, which may be praise, thanksgiving, or supplication,
offers the individual the possibility of maintaining constant
contact with God. Since the period of the Old Testament,
prayer has been offered by the people of God as a special plea
within the broader quest for salvation. Jesus himself prayed
abundantly and taught his disciples how to pray, stressing the
quality of the prayer more than the quantity (Matthew 7:21).
Saint Paul, in his Letter to the Ephesians, invites them to con-
stant prayer after exhorting them to dress in God's armor so
that they might be able to remain standing after overcoming
all trials. "He who prays has nothing to fear" is the message
cultivated by the
exemplary figures of
saints who, through
deep, constant, and
passionate prayer,
reached the mystical
experience of ecstasy.
The power of such a
sublime experience of
the spirit, particularly
because it takes place
in the depths of the
soul, has brought
about extraordinary
visions and elevations
of the body that
otherwise cannot
be unexplained.

The stole worn by one of the angels
suggests the function of a deacon,
that is, one serving God.
• Nicolas Poussin, Saint Paul in Ecstasy,
165o.Paris.,Muscle du louvre.
Prayer and Ecstasy
With one hand the angel points to
Heaven, true center of the saint's vision:
through Saint Paul's deep prayer, his body
as well as his soul rises to Heaven.
The saint opens his arms in a gesture
of wonder and acceptance of the total
experience of elevation from a deep,
ecstasy -producing prayer.
The book is the main attribute of the
apostle. It suggests, in addition to the
scriptures, the marry• letters that he wrote
to the first Christian communities. The
sword, too, is his attribute, since it was
the instrument of his execution.
149
Prayer and Ecstasy

As reported in the account of her Recognizable by the small ointment jar

martyrdom, Saint Cecilia enjoys a she carries, Mary Magdalene, in sacred
vision of a choir of angels in Heaven conversation (mystical colloquy) with
during a moment of ecstasy. Saint Cecilia, participates in her ecstasy.

A pensive Saint
Paul stares at
the musical
instruments;
in his hand he
holds a folded
parchment, a
reference to
the letters he
wrote to the
first Christian
communities,
and the sword
that made him
a martyr.
The still life
with musical
instruments (here
broken because
they are symbols
of vanity) is one
of Saint Cecilia's
attributes, for it
is said that on
the day of her
wedding to a
pagan, when she
devoted herself to
Christ in her
heart, she heard
music playing.

The eagle resting on a book is an

attribute of Saint John the Evangelist;
standing in the background, he is
• Raphael, The Ecstasy of Saint Cecilia, exchanging a look with the bishop
114. Bologna, Pinacoteca Nazionale. Saint Augustine.

ISO
The saint is about to strike his breast in the desert, Saint Jerome wears the
with a stone to feel physical pain for the habit of the penitent, which identifies
sin he has committed and to disparage him as a hermit; actually, he is rarely
the body for the sake of the soul. depicted in a desert landscape.

Books often
appear next to
Saint Jerome
in his retreat,
suggesting a
life of study
that, among
other things,
produced the
Vulgate, the
unified version
of the Bible
translated from
Greek into
Latin.

A tame lion is often pictured alongside

the saint. It recalls an event in the saint's
life, as reported in the Golden Legend:
he healed a lion suffering from a thorn
in its paw and the animal became his
loyal friend.
Beads strung in a circle were already
usedas a prayer aid by Eastern
anchorites in the fourth century.

♦Piero della Francesca, Saint Jerome,

145o. Berlin, Getnaldegaleric.

151
Prayer and Ecstasy

Saint Gregory realized that one of his
monks doubted the real presence of
Christ in the consecrated bread and
asked the Lord to send him a sign.
Christ appeared to them removed from
the cross and standing in the tomb; he
is shown as the Man of Sorrows, but
his hands are raised and his blood is
pouring into a chalice.

During the consecration, Saint Gregory

removes his tiara, the papal headdress in
the shape of three superimposed crowns
that symbolize the father of kings and
princes, the ruler of the world, and the
vicar of Christ.

♦Adrien lsenbrandt, The Mass of

Saint Gregory, i 5 to. Los Angeles,
J. Paul Getty Museum.

152
A child angel carries the miter which
Saint Bernard refused to wear: it
signifies the saint's refusal to be a
bishop because he believed himself
unworthy of the office.
In distinctive post-Tridentine Council
iconography, Christ on the cross
embraces Saint Bernard and offers
him the blood that pours from the
wound in his side.

• II Grechetto (Giovanni The Devil in Wearing the The angels

Benedetto Castiglione), Christ chains, symbol white habit of a surrounding God
on the Cross Embraces Saint of victory over Cistercian monk, are frequently
Bernard, after1642.Genoa. temptation, is part a kneeling Saint included in
Sampierdarena, Santa Maria of the iconography Bernard embraces representations
della Cella e San Martino, of Saint Bernard. Christ on the cross. of ecstasy.

153
 Achild angel carries the miter which
Saint Bernard refused to wear: it
signifies the saint's refusal to be a
bishopbecause he believed himself
unworthy of the office.
In distinctive post-Tridentine Council
iconography, Christ on the cross
embraces Saint Bernard and offers
him the blood that pours from the
wound in his side.

♦II Grechetto (Giovanni The Devil in Wearing the The angels

BenedettoCastiglione), Christ chains, symbol white habit of a surrounding God
onthe CrossEmbraces Saint of victory over Cistercian monk, are frequently,
Bernard, after r642. Genoa, temptation, is part a kneeling Saint included in
Sampierdarena,Santa Maria of the iconography Bernard embraces representations
della Cella eSan Martino. of Saint Bernard. Christ on the cross. of ecstasy.

153
Prayer and Ecstasy
The poverty of the saint from Assisi is
caught realistically in the quick brush-
strokes that outline the patched habit.
♦Francesco Cairo, Saint Francis in
Ecstasy, x6x6-2o. Milan, Castello
Sforcesco, Civiche Raccolte d'Arte.
154
The sunken face, enhanced by high
cheekbones, closed eyes, and half-closed
mouth, expresses the strong tension of
passionate prayer.
The saint's hands are clasped, the
fingers intertwined, a sign of a tor-
mented, sorrowful prayer. A blade of
light illuminates the saint's slightly long
nails, signifying that the care of the soul
has priority over that of the body.
Saint Joseph of Cupertino, a seven-
teenth-century Franciscan friar, experi-
enced levitation during ecstasy with
such frequency that it attracted the
attention of the Inquisition. Found
innocent, Saint Joseph steered many
in God's direction.
The apparition of the Virgin of the
Immaculate Conception standing among
the clouds, surrounded by putti, and with
her feet resting on the moon, causes the
saint to be ecstatically transported.

The Lutheran
duke of
Brunswick
converted to
Catholicism
after twice
witnessing the
levitating
ecstasies of
Saint Joseph
of Cupertino.

♦Pietro Costanzi, Saint Joseph of

Cupertino in Ecstasy, eighteenth
century. Amelia, cathedral.

Fc;
 The image of a saint with a dragon (representing the Devil
and evil temptations), with whom the saint battles or which
he or she tames, usually through a blessing.

Saints Who
Battled the Devil
Definition Hagiographic sources often dwell on the challenges encoun-
The struggle against
evil, traditionally
tered by the saints who succeeded in overcoming the Devil's
represented by the traps. These early laudatory biographies describe how the
Devil.
Devil, often disguised as a dragon, laid snares, frightening
Biblical Source
Revelation entire pagan populations which, upon the defeat of the beast,
Related Literature converted to Christianity. The apostles Philip and Matthew
Acts of the Apostles;
Jacobus do Voraginc.
confronted wild and poisonous dragons, as did many of the
Golden Legend; first martyrs and saints. Among them, the most celebrated is
Lives of the saints
George, a historical figure; the account of the dragon is a liter-
Characteristics
The Devil battles and ary device, as it was for Pope Sylvester. Saints Martha (sister
assaults the saints,
usually under the of Lazarus), Margaret of Antioch, and Mary Magdalene also
guise of a dragon.
defeated dragons, the latter by bless-
Particular beliefs ing it and sprinkling it with
The dragon can kill, not
only with its strength hut holy water. Other saints,
also with its poisonous
breath including the Archangel
Diffusion of the Image Michael, confronted the
Widespread during the
Middle Ages and the cunning and spiteful pres-
Renaissance; in later
centuries it is limited to
ence of the Devil and are
the revival of particular depicted with him, a clear
iconographic attributes.
symbol of their power to
defeat temptation. Accord-
ing to Revelation, Saint
▶Lieven van Lathem, Saint Michael will defeat the
Margaret, 1469. Miniature
from the Prayer Book of monstrous beast.
Charles the Bold. Los Angeles,
J. Paul Getty Museum.

156
 Saints Who Battled the Devil

The ancient Romans considered the wolf The apparition of

and the woodpecker (here at the feet of Christ with the cross
the statue) animals sacred to Mars, god supports and blesses
of war, who is depicted in armor. Philip's work: after
defeating the dragon,
the saint restored to
life those who had
Atop the large niche of the statue of Mars been felled by the
are two winged Victories defeating the poisonous breath of
false gods. The inscription at the feet of the demonic animal.
the one on the left reads "EX•tt•TRI" while
the one on the right reads "o•M•vlCT";
victory over the idols is in the hands of
the triune God.

The Golden legend

Poisonous vapors exhaled narrates how the
by the dragon killed many Apostle Philip was
of those present. captured in Scythia The small hideous The Devil's first
by a band of pagans. dragon, symbol of victim was the
They brought him to the Devil, appeared son of the priest
the temple of Mars suddenly from the who was
• Filippo Lippi, Philip the Apostle and tried to force him base of the statue of preparing a
in the Temple of Mars, 1487-15os. to make sacrifices to Mars and killed many sacrifice near
Fresco. Florence, Santa Maria Novella. the statue of the god. with its lethal breath. the altar.

157
Saints Who Battled the Devil

Two sorcerers,
Zaroen and Arfaxat,
challenged Saint
According to the Matthew: each one
apocryphal Apostolic brought him a dragon
Memoirs of Abdias, that spurted fire from
Saint Matthew the mouth and
traveled to Ethiopia exhaled lethal,
to preach. After sulfurous vapors.
performing several
miracles and many
conversions and
baptisms, he con-
fronted tu.o dragons
and defeated them by
reciting the profession
of the faith.

Brought to Saint
Matthew's feet, the
dragons fell asleep
and only the apostle
could awaken them.
Tamed, the beasts
left the country
innocuously The
saint explained to the
local people that they
must free themselves
from the true dragon,
which is the Devil.

• Gabriel Maelesslcirchcr, Miracle

of Saint Matthew Taming the
Dragons, 1478. Madrid, Musa"
Thyssen-Bomcmisza.

158
Beseeched by the
population, Martha
approaches the
dragon and tames
it by sprinkling it
with holy water and
showing it the cross.

In the Golden Legend, Jacobus de

Voragine described in detail the dragon
that Martha had tamed and brought to
the local population so that they might
kill it with stones. The beast, called
Tarascus, was the offspring of the
dreadful serpents Leviathan and
Onachus, and had come from the dis-
tant Sea of Galilee. Half snake and half
mammal, bigger than an ox and longer
than a horse, with coils and sharp
swordlike teeth, the beast hid in the
river from where it sank passing boats
and killed the passengers.

• Jacobello del Fiore, Saint Martha,

first half of the fifteenth century.
Venice,San Giovanni in Rragora.

159
Saints Who Battled the Devil

The feats of Saint George, a knight The walls represent the town that
from Cappadocia, are the product lived in terror of the ravenous beast,
of medieval legends. Here he rides a which demanded victims in exchange
horse to defeat an insatiable dragon. for sparing the townspeople.

Before the dragon could devour its

victim, Saint George attacked the
creature and tamed it by threatening it
with the sword. He tied the beast to a
leash attached to the princess's waist
and took it to the town, where he
killed it. As a result, the king and all
the townspeople were converted.
• Tinrorctto (Jacopo Robusti), Saint
George and the Dragon, ca. I 5 6o.
St. Petersburg, Hermitage.
The king's daughter had been
selected to be the dragon's next
victim. According to the legend,
when Saint George arrived, the
princess was waiting for the
dragon by the shores of a lake
(which is usually not represented).

160
 After suffering extensive torture in
jail, the young woman prayed to
God that he might show her the
enemy that she was fighting.

The prefect Olybrius had thrown the ravishing

Margaret in jail. He was in love with her but
could not bear that she was a Christian; he tried
to force her to abjure her faith.

In jail, Margaret was visited by a

many-headed dragon; according to According to the Golden Legend, the
Jacobus de Voragine, she overpowered Devil appeared to Margaret twice, the
it with the sign of the cross. second time in human guise, but she
unmasked him, confronted him, threw
him to the floor, and forced him to reveal
why he tormented the Christians.

• Altar frontal of Saint Margaret

of Vilaseca idetaili, i i6o—yo. Vic,
Musco Episcopal.

161
Saints Who Battled the Devil

Upon the conversion of Emperor

Constantine, a dragon appeared in
a very deep pit (there were 15o steps
to the bottom) and began to kill many
people with its vapors.

Counseled by Saint Peter, who had

appeared to him, Saint Sylvester tied the
dragon's snout and sealed it with a ring
decorated with a cross as he pronounced
the following formula: "Jesus Christ,
born of a Virgin, crucified and buried,
was born again and sits at the right of
the Father; he will come one day to fudge
the living and the dead. You, Satan, shall
wait for his coming in this pirr
Two wizards, who had followed
Sylvester to see whether he had the
boldness to confront the dragon, lay on
the ground, asphyxiated by the beast's
pestilential breath. The pope took them
outside and resuscitated them, Causing
them to convert.

• Maso di Banco, Saint Sylvester

Tames the Dragon, 1337. Fresco.
Florence, Basilica di Santa Croce,
Cappella di San Silvestro.

162
The handsome crosier,
painted in perspective,
reminds the viewer
Qf the many years
when Bernard, here
depicted wearing the
Carthusian habit, was
abbot of the abbey of
Clairvaux.

The book represents

the many mystical
writings of the saint.

The chained demon, crushed under

Bernard's feet, refers to the saint's
• Marcell° Venusti, Saint Bernard power to overcome all demonic
Crushes the Devil, 1563-64. Vatican temptations in his ongoing struggle
Can.. Pinacoteca. against evil.

163
Saints Who Battled the Devil

The imaginative artist has drawn the

Saint Augustine is portrayed in his
bishop's attire; the crosier identifies
him as a shepherd of souls.
Devil with anthropomorphic features
(the slim arms and part of his chest)
and bestial ones, such as the goatish
hooves, tail, and deer's antlers. These
and other traits, especially the dragon's
wings and amphibian scales, are typical
of medieval iconography. The small
flames shooting out of his large ears and
a second face on his lower cheeks add
further fiendish details.

According to The Devil is

the Golden enraged because
Legend, the Saint Augustine,
book that the who had prayed
Devil shows to for forgiveness
Saint Augustine of his sin of
contained all omission, has
the vices and caused his page
failures of men: to be erased
on the saint's from the Book
page was written of Sins.
his failure to
recite the corn-
pline prayer.

• Michael Pacher, The Devil Holds the

Missal for Saint Augustine, ca. 1480.
Detail of the Fathers of the Church
altarpiece. Munich, Mte Pinakothek.

164
 To subjugate the Devil, Saint Commander of the heavenly cohorts, the
Michael uses as his weapon the archangel is here depicted wearing a full
cross, symbol of the Redemption. suit of armor; it is his most popular image,
derived from the book of Revelation.

The Evil One,

depicted with
claws, small and
spiny dragon's
wings, horns,
and pointed
ears, appears
in the irreverent
act of breaking
wind, as he coils
his long serpen-
tine tail around
Michael's leg.

♦Francesco Pagano, Archangel

Michael Defeating the Devil, second
half of the fifteenth century. Panel
from a Saint Michael polyptych.
Naples, Congrega dci Santi Michele
e Omohono.
The Apocalypse dragon has turned into
the Devil: this image, with its semihuman
traits, underscores his wickedness.

165
1
 THE LAST DAYS:
JUDGMENT AND REALITY
Ars moriendi
Death
The Meeting of the Three Living and the Three Dead
Macabre Dance
The Triumph of Death
Vanity of Vanities
Man Is a Bubble
The Particular Judgment
The Horsemen of the Apocalypse
The Resurrection of the Flesh
The Universal Judgment
The Mystical Harvest
Psychostasis
The Damned
Souls in Purgatory
The Righteous

.11Nlichelangelo, Christ the Judge and

the Madonna, t 537-41. Detail of The
last Judgment. Fresco. Vatican City,
Sistine Chapel.

Ars moriendi
Name
From the Latin, meaning
"the art of dying"
Related Literature
Manuals for priests and
ministers on the art of
dying
Characteristics
Represents the moment
of passing away
Diffusion of the Image
Especially widespread in
the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries; in later centuries
it was more prevalent in
popular prints than in
paintings.
▶Death of the Rich Man.
1 * 2 5 - 4 0 . C011.111111
Vezelay, Sainte Madeleine.
168
The moment of death with the dying person surrounded by
priest and family; often an allegory of death is included, with
an angel and a demon fighting for the soul.
The art of dying, ars moriendi, is an iconographic theme
linked to the Christian vision of death as it developed at the
close of the Middle Ages. Its most important moment was the
final assessment: is the soul worthy of salvation or fated to
eternal damnation? The "art of dying" was once the province
of special texts written for the priests who assisted the dying;
these texts paid particular attention to the five temptations of
the last hour: doubt about one's faith, despair for one's sins,
attachment to earthly possessions, despair for one's suffering,
and pride in one's virtues. By the fourteenth century, these texts
were no longer reserved for the exclusive use of the clergy and
began to be complemented by woodcut illustrations. During
the Renaissance, renowned preachers like Girolamo
Savonarola and
scholars like
Erasmus of
Rotterdam
expanded this
theme, and the
focus gradually
shifted from the
moment of
passing to a
consideration of
a life spent well
or badly.
 Ars moriendi

Celebration of the sacrament Flying angels devoutly assist at

of ordination. the administration of the sacraments.

The candle is present

because the last rites
were often followed by
the viaticum (the last
Holy Communion); it
also recalls the sacra-
ment of baptism (Christ
Celebration of , 5 -1 being the light) and is
the sacrament I t , . generally a sacred sign
of marriage. iiik, for a sacred ritual.

11);.v For anointing

the moribund
with holy oil,
Awoman reads the priest may
devotional prayers: have used a sty-
this was not a require- lus so as not to
ment because the grease his
priest pronounced hands. The
the proper formulas anointing was in
during each act of the form of the
anointing. cross, and the
oil was cleaned
with tow.

It was customary for only one priest to

• Roger van der Weyden, Anointing
the Sick, t445-50. Detail of the Seven
Sacramentsaltarpiece. Antwerp, Konin-
klijk Museum root- Schone Kunsten.
administer the last rites, but in the pres-
ence of other priests, in keeping with the
exhortation in the letter of James: "Is
any among you sick? Let him call for
the elders of the church" (5:14).

169
Ars moriendi

The crucifix from which issues a beam The Devil lays

of light expresses the possibility of his last ambush
salvation for aman even on the point from the canopy
of death; the miser does look at it, of the miser's
though his gestures are still all focused bed, ready to
ore his wealth. snatch the soul
that rejects
salvation.

Death is drawn as a skeleton shabbily

covered with a sheet: holding an arrow,
shepeeks from behind the door, poised
to strike her victim.
The guardian
angel does all he
can to plead on
behalf of the
dying num,
In a last, unrepentant gesture, the miser trying to bring
stretches his hands to grasp a bag of his soul to
money offered by a devil. Christ, but the
man's refusal is
explicit as he
turns his back
on the angel.

The image of the

miser mirrors the
life he led until
his last day;
always bent on
accumulating
wealth, advised
by diabolical
characters. He
conceals his
money while only
perfunctorily
hating a rosary
in his hand.

AHieronymus Bosch, Death of the

Miser, ca. 149o. Washington, D.C.,
National Gallery of Art.

170
 Several demonic monsters (the first in
Goya's art) hover around the unrepentant
dying man's bed; they personify the evil
that he seemingly will not renounce.

From a large window, light pours into

the shadowy room and illuminates the
side of the room where the saint stands,
suggesting the light of divine salvation.

The crucifix is the promise of salvation Saint Francis Borgia is here

and Redemption: the blood that depicted wearing the Jesuit
seemingly flows out of Jesus' wounds habit; he entered the order
underscores the power of his sacrifice. in 1550.

♦Francisco Goya, Saint Francis Borgia

Attends an Unrepentant Dying Man,
'788. Valencia, cathedral.

171

Death
Definition
The endpoint of life; for
believers, the passing on
to eternal life
Characteristics
The destiny of all living
beings, with no possibility
of returning to life on
earth
Diffusion of the Image
This motif, consolidated
in the early fourteenth
century, gradually spread
to all of Europe and was
popular until the
eighteenth century.
▶Hans Memling, Death,
1485 or later. Detail of the
Earthly Vanity arid Divine
Salvation triptych. Stras-
bourg, Musee des Beaux-Arts.
172
A decaying body or a skeleton, sometimes draped in a shroud
or crowned; it might hold a scythe or a bow and arrows; some-
times the body is shown carrying a coffin.
The first depictions of the personification of Death are from
the thirteenth century. Previously, this motif had been confined
to funerary art, but during the Middle Ages the image of death
took hold throughout Europe. In the earliest representations,
the personification of Death appears quite natural; totally
absent was a sense of the macabre as we understand it today.
For most people, awareness of death was coupled with belief in
immortality. Before Death became an autonomous image, a
clear memento mori (a reminder to man of the inescapable
moment in which his life on earth will end), it was present in
scenes of ars moriendi—and not necessarily as a completely
negative presence. Death later appears in narratives of the leg-
end of the Meeting of the Three Living and the Three Dead;
and still later, as an
autonomous motif, in
allegorical and devo-
tional works of art. In
such instances, however,
Death does not appear
as a terrifying reality;
rather, it serves as a
symbol of the
ineluctability of time
and of the end.
 Death

Saint Michael, aided by two angels Michael is the warrior angel: armed
armed with spears, struggles with the with a sword, he attacks the Devil and
Devil, trying to recover the little soul seizes him by the snout in an attempt to
that the Devil has just snatched. save the captured soul.

The imposing
image of God the
Father carrying a
long sword and
the globe, symbols
of power, is sur-
rounded by an
array of angels. He
replies (in French):
"Thou shalt do
penance for thy
sins, but shalt be
with me on the
Judgment Day"

Death is drawn as the body of a thin,

emaciated man lying on rich garments
and surrounded by macabre symbols in
Late Gothic style, such as skulls and
bones. A scroll bears the following
invocation (in Latin): "Into your hands,
0 Lord, I commend my spirit."
♦Master of the Rohan Hours, Death
before God, 1418-z5. Miniature from
the Rohan Hours. Paris, Rihliotheque
Nationale.

173
Death

Pictured as a knight whose body is
decomposing, Death wears a wreath of
small snakes and shows the hourglass, a
symbol of time that flows inexorably
The city, perhaps The knight is probably the miles
Heavenly Jerusalem, is christianus, the Christian soldier who
the probable destination advances victoriously armed with his
of the knight. faith. The concept of the miles chris-
tianus was inspired by a work of
Erasmus of Rotterdam (1 sot).

The oak
branches that
decorate the
horse's head
symbolize the
Christian sol-
dier's victory.

In keeping with prevailing medieval icono-

A skull, engraved near the tablet signed graphic motifs, the Devil is depicted armed
by the artist, seems to draw the attention with a pike; his horns, goat's hooves, long
of the nag that Death is riding. pointed ears, wild boar's snout, and limp bat's
wings do not seem to frighten the knight.

• Albrecht Darer, A Knight, Death, The dog personifies faith, which is the
and the Devil, 1513. Engraving. Christian's major weapon.

174
 Following a tradition that originated
in the Middle Ages, this composition
shows angels flying around the cross,
mourning the death of Jesus.

Depicted as a
skeleton holding
an hourglass,
*mho/ of its
power over
time, Death
is chained,
together with
Sin, to the cross
on which Christ
died, to signify
its defeat by
dint of his
redeeming
sacrifice.

The snake, a
symbol of the
tempting Devil,
here becomes
an allegorical
attribute of sin,
drawn naked and
dark-skinned to
suggest that sin
strips the said of
Grace and of The Virgin
Virtue's purity mourns the dead
Christ: at the foot
of the cross, Mary
weeps over the
dead body of Jesus
that has just been
taken down.

• Jacopo Ligoni, Allegory of

Human Redemption, ca. 1585.
Courtesy of Sotheby's.

175
Death
With a gesture of its skeletal hand, Death
puts out the candle, symbol of life. The
Latin words "in ictu ocub" (in the twinkling
of an eye) are a reminder that it takes only
an instant for Death to overpower us.
Among the objects that Death tramples
are several books: on one open page,
an architectural monument. Even art,
with all its beauty, never allows man to
escape death.
♦Juan de Vald6 Leal, Allegory of
Death, 167o-72.. Seville, Hospital
dela Sancta Caridad.
176
Death advances in its most common
guise: a skeleton holding a scythe and
carrying a coffin under its arm.
The terraqueous globe expresses Death's
power over the world; strewn about are
musical instruments, weapons, and pieces
of armor, all mementos of the vanity of
worldly pleasures and glory.
The complex still life of Vanity!,
dominated by the "hieroglyphic of last
things," consists of symbols of power
from the crown to the scepter to the
Golden Fleece. as well as the papal
tiara and the bishop's miter.
 The artist has created a terrifying image
by painting the gates of Hell, rendered as
a portcullis. behind Death, whose expres-
sion is fierce and malevolent, and whose
ribs and joints burst with tongues of fire.

Arare image of the Devil in armor is a

reminder that he was the leader of the
angels who rebelled against God. The
painter has drawn this image from
Milton's Paradise Lost (16651.
• William Hogarth, Satan. Sin, and
Death, 1735-40. London, Tate Gallery.
According to John Milton (who adapted
Cesare Ripa's description), the personifica-
tion of Sin is a creature with the upper
body of a woman, the lower body of a
snake, and hellish monsters attached to
her waist.

177
Death

Death, standing apart from man, her
antagonist, is portrayed as a skeleton
with only the skull and bones of the hand
visible. The cross-covered shroud is an
unusual departure from tradition.
In the tangle of human beings that
expresses the passing of life's seasons,
the image of mother and child suggests
life and hope.

The old woman with her head bent

suggests resignation to death.

The embracing couple symbolizes love

asa possible refuge from death and a
source of comfort.

• Gustav Klimt, Life and Death,

1908-I z. Vienna, private collection.

178
Three knights riding, or just alit from their horses, meet three
dead men represented as skeletons in their tombs; sometimes a
monk is present to explain the meaning of the encounter.

The Meeting of the Three

Living and the Three Dead
The iconography of the meeting between three living and three
dead men first appears in church frescoes, in the late fourteenth Definition
A narrative with
century, but without the aura of sacredness that informed tradi- an allegorical, moralizing
theme
tional church decorations. The scene usually depicts three knights
hunting when they experience a macabre encounter with three Related Literature
Romance of Bariaant
dead men. In accompanying captions, the dead men explain to and low/that;
Cum apertam sepultstram
the knights their future destiny: "We were once what you are, and IThe Open Grave};
Legend of the
you will be what we are." The dead may be depicted as decaying Three Living and
the Three Dead
corpses in open sepulchres, or a monk may explain the meaning
of the encounter to the knights. This iconography, probably the Characteristics
Generally intended for the
first presence of the macabre in art, may have originated at the knightly society

court of Frederick II of Swabia as a description of the clash Diffusion of the Image

kknvecn the fourteenth
between body and soul, or, alternatively, in a clerical environment and the fifteenth century;
particularly widespread in
where it would have signified strong opposition by the mendicant iumil the end of the
fourteenth century)
orders to the luxurious life of the emperor's court; in the latter and in France
case, the intent would have been to highlight the inevitable fate
of those who participated in such worldly pleasures.

4 Montiglio Master R/, The

Meeting of the Three firing and
the Three Dead, mid-fourteenth
century. Fresco. Albugnano,
Santa Maria di Vezzolano.

I79
The Meeting of the Three Living and the Three Dead

The long arrow is a frequent attribute of Not yet a skeleton, a disturbingly

Death and replaces the scythe when the decomposing corpse covers itself with a
allegorical scene is one of action. draped sheet, possibly a burial shroud.

Frightened at the sight of the dead,

the young knight flees.

♦The Meeting of the Three Living and

the Three Dead, ca. r49o. Miniature
from The Office of Death in a French
book of hours. Private collection.

18o
 In this version, a monk stops the three The three young knights are happily
knights and points to the three corpses, hunting with their retinue of dogs
a reminder of what awaits them at the and hunters when they run into this
end of earthly life. terrifying trio,

The three dead lying in the

sepulchre are in a state of
decomposition.

♦Unknown artist, Encounter between

the Three Living and the Three Dead,
firs half of the fifteenth century, Fresco.
Cremona, San Luca sacristy.

181
 A dancing cortege or circle in which the living and the dead
dance together; the former are identified by their social status,
the latter are shown as skeletons, dancing arm in arm.

Macabre Dance
Danse macabre images first enjoyed great popularity in northern
Definition Europe and in France, and then expanded into northern Italy and
A dance with Death as
the leading dancer
Spain. The first documented image of the subject was painted in
the Cemetery of the Holy Innocents in Paris (1414; lost in 1669).
Related Literature
Dances macabres (Macabre The theme may have been known in fourteenth-century France
Dances)
and coalesced only later, becoming separate from the Meeting of
auracteristics
Dancing figures of death the Three Living and the Three Dead. Its driving motif is the fatal-
that pull in the living,
engaging them without
ity of death: inescapable and universal, death should be played out
intent to strike serenely as the natural endpoint for all humans. Depictions are
Diffusion of the Image suffused with irony: often the dead carry attributes, such as pick-
In France starting in the
fifteenth century, then axes, arrows, or coffins, but they do not strike the living, much
mainly in northern Italy
and Spain until the less surprise them; instead, they pull them into a dance, where the
eighteenth century
encounter becomes almost personal. In this sense, the macabre
dance, which has its literary origin in the danses macabres, serves
to overcome the psychological impact of the end of human life.

▶Unknown artist,
Macabre Dance, seventeenth
century. Milan, Pinacoteca
dell'Arcivescovado.

182
The personification of Death rides triumphantly before a group
of people of all social stations, shooting arrows at noblemen
and clergy and ignoring the pleas of the poor.

The Triumph of Death

From its first appearance in Italy in the mid-fourteenth
century, this motif appeared side by side with Last Judgment Name
Derived from
scenes and soon replaced them as the new Trecento sensibility fourteenth-century
(probably also influenced by a northern vision) seemed to find "triumphal" literature

a certain degree of macabre gratification in portrayals of phys- Definition

Death vanquishm all
ical decay. The personification of Death—initially a partially human beings, without
considering status or
decomposed woman's body, sometimes dressed in a torn robe good works.
and with long hair, later a skeleton stripped of all flesh—is Related Literature
depicted almost as a triumphant divinity that bursts riding into Boccaccio, Decameron,
Folocolo, Ninfale Fiesolano;
the quiet of courtly life and strikes powerfully, often with an Petrarch, Triumphs

arrow, those who happen to cross her path. The first victims Characteristics
A strong, clear warning
are men and women of elite society. Attempts to corrupt her to the faithful not to lead
a life based only on
with money are useless, as are the pleas of the poor and the worldly pleasures, and a
wretched, for Death takes everyone. The theme warns against stimulus to prepare for
death after a life of
and criticizes a courtly life that has become too engrossed in penance

worldly pleasures. In a fourteenth-century book illustrating Diffusion of the Image

Primarily in Italy and
Petrarch's writings, Death advances on an ox-pulled cart that France from the mid-
fourteenth to the early
crushes men and women. sixteenth century; very tare
in northern European art

41Giovanni di Paolo, The

Triumph of Death, fifteenth
century. Miniature from
an antiphonary. Siena,
Riblioteca Comunale.

183
The Triumph of Death

Death is a skeleton riding and

shooting arrows. The scythe she
carries tied to the waist is drawn from
the apocalyptic harvest theme; Death
no a horse recalls the fourth horseman
of the Apocalypse.

The frightened, recoiling dog is an

iconographic link to the theme of the
Meeting of the Three Living and the
Three Dead, now surviving only in this
single reminder.

A crowd of wretched, sick, luckless

people pleads for Death to turn to them,
but she does not even glance at them.

A bishop is struck in the back,

signifying a sudden death.

Death, which stands above all

hierarchies, strikes a pope in the throat,
possibly an allusion to punishment for
the sin of gluttony.

♦Guillaume Spiere (Palazzo Sclafani

Master), The Triumph of Death,
ca. 1440. fresco, Palermo, Palauo
Ahatellis.

184
 The fountain symbolizes the Garden
of Delights, a place of pleasures where
Death bursts m, unexpected and terrible.

Among worldly pleasures, music occupies

an important place: here a young musi-
cian tunes his instrument, though he is
already filled with deep sadness.

Death will strike anyone: not even culture,

which elevates the human spirit and con-
ferred honor and privileges in medieval
society, can save an individual from death.

185
The Triumph of Death

Two skeletons have spread a wide net into

which men and women who were trying to
escape the cavalcade of Death have fallen.

Next to a ruined
building reminiscent
oj achurch, same
skeletons stand behind
a balustrade; covered
with white shrouds,
they blow their
trumpets, a reference
to the trumpets of the
Last Judgment.

A king in armor,
wearing the crown
and an ermine cape
and holding the
scepter, has fallen to
the ground: behind
him, Death is showing
him the hourglass.

• Pieter Bruegel the Elder, The

Triumph of Death, is6x. Madrid,
Musco dcl Prado.

186
Riding a nag and carrying a long scythe,
Death chases the crowd into a giant
coffin. Around it, skeletons holding tall
white coffins like shields line up in
guard-of-honor style.

In the background,
armies of skeletons
advance sowing
destruction and death
in a landscape filled
with gallows, torture
wheels with decaying
corpses strung on them,
and burning ships.

Distracted by the
nuisic, two lovers are
oblivious to all, though
just behind them a
skeleton is playing—a
gruesome omen.

A few soldiers try to

face Death by fighting,
to no avail.

187
The Triumph of Death

In these four scrolls, Death recites the

following: "Death the equalizer has come
for you: I want you, not your wealth, and
more than any Lordship I am worthy of
wearing the crown"; "I am Death, called by
my name, and I strike those whose fate has
come; no man is so strong that he can save
himself"; "Men and women die and leave Depicted in an unusual pose, Death wears
this world, but bitterly if they have offended a crown and an elegant mantle and is
God"; and "He who has lived justly with- flanked by two assistants. The macabre
out disrespecting God . . does not meet figure stands on a tomb inside which two
death, for he proceeds to eternity" corpses lie, eaten by worms.

At the macabre dance to which all are

invited c o you who goodheartedly serve
God, fear not, come dance with us, since
all who are born are destined to die"), the
skeletons dance as if in a procession, arm
in arm with the vain woman admiring Some potentates on their knees are trying
herself in the mirror, the Flagellant, the to buy off Death, some with money
worker, the pilgrim, the innkeeper, etc. others with jewels or crowns.

♦Attributed to Jacopo Borlone,

Triumph of Death and Dame Macabre,
x485. Fresco. Clusonc, Chiesa dei

188
A still life consisting of a number of objects that recall worldly
pleasures and their transience, in particular, the skull, the prin-
cipal symbol of memento mori, and the hourglass.

Vanity of Vanities
When the still life became an independently defined art genre
in the seventeenth century, Europe was in the throes of the Name
From the Latin Vanitas
Thirty Years' War, an economic crisis, a plague epidemic, and nanitatum, ultimately from
famine; it was beset by religious and social problems, after- chapter 1 of Ecclesiastes
Thc original Hebrew
effects of the Protestant Reformation and backlash of the expression is a superlative.

Council of Trent and the Counter-Reformation. The Vanitas Definition

More easily abbreviated to
vanitatum theme developed in this context, taking its place in just the first term, Vanitas,
it refers to still lifts that
the broader still-life genre. A renewed reading of Ecclesiastes express symbolically the
inspired artists to fill compositions with objects that not only transience of earthly
affairs.
would show off the artist's excellent mimetic skills or suggest
Biblical Source
the art's original cultural milieu, but also would elicit medita- Ecclesiastes

tions on the transience of life, and of worldly pleasures in Characteristics

llsciie compositions
particular. Among the recurring objects in Vanitas works are suggest the greatness of
the skull, the hourglass or the clock, the candle burning out or man but also at times a
sense of death.
extinguished—all
1/illusion of the Image
symbols of the pass- From the second half of
the seventeenth century in
ing of time and the all of Europe, particularly
in the Netherlands
wearing out of
life—to which were
added symbols of
earthly fame,
wealth, war, or of
the arts, such as
musical instruments
and books.

Sebastiaen Bonneeroy,
Still Life with Skull, x668.
St. Petersburg, Hermitage.

189
Vanity of Vanities

Askull crowned by a laurel wreath: a
quintessential memento moat (reminder
of death), it represents vainglory because '
the wreath, symbol of earthly fame, now
adorns a lifeless skull.
The badges of earthly power: the miter,
the papal tiara, and the bishop's crosier
stand for spiritual power; the crown,
ermine cape, bejeweled turban, and
terraqueous globe, for temporal power.

The setting for this painting is a

decaying building whose statues in
niches recall a pagan temple

Scattered on the flour are symbols of the

The inscription on the sarcophagus, arts and of human endeavors: weapons,
Thrown to one "Vanitati Stacrificiurn)," Vanity's sculptures, and palettes are thrown con-
side are musical Sacrifice, underscores the artist's fusedly together, including a lovely plate
instruments. intended meaning. embossed with mythological scenes.

♦PierreBoel, V.mitas, 166;.

Lille, Moserdes Beaux-Arts.

190
 Next to two skulls is a mirror, the The burned-out candle
preeminent symbol of vanity in which is a traditional symbol
the skull that rolled over next to the in Vanitas scenes.
breastplate is ref▶ected. suggesting the quick
wasting away of life.

An angel appears and delivers this

judgment written on a scroll: Aeteme
pungit / Ciro volat et occidit (It teases
eternally / Then suddenly fades and dies).

An elegantly attired young man is

asleep; his dream is a reference to a A mask suggests the difficulty of
contemporary literary work. La vida appearing different from one's essential
essueno (Life is a dream) by (.:Akron being, too often a problem of those
de la Barca. who are slaves to the ephemeral.

The clock has a complex meaning in

• Antonio de Pereda, Man Dreaming, Spanish Baroque iconography, ranging
ca. 1670. Madrid, RealAccademia de from temperance and justice to princely
BeRasArtes deSan Fernando. power and generosity.

191
Vanity of Vanities

Perhaps the painter here refers to himself

by including a palette with brushes and a
canvas, representing his art.

The stack of books symbolizes culture

and the human sciences.

The skull, an ever-present reminder of

♦Pablo Picasso, Still Life with Skull, death, reappears in twentieth-century
1908. St. Petersburg, Hermitage. Vanitas paintings.

192
A small boy, naked until the seventeenth century, afterward
dressed elegantly, blows soap bubbles from a shell. The usual sym-
bols of Vanitas still lifes, the skull in particular, may be present.

Man Is a Bubble
(Homo bulla)
The image of Homo bulla, represented as a child blowing soap
bubbles, is a specific instance of the Vanitas theme; it is not a Name
from the Latin
still life since the human figure is central to it, even if the scene homo bulla

is allegorical. The source of this iconography of the fragility of Definition

A particular type of
man—and of human activity in general—lies in Roman litera- Vartitas in which man's
ture: Marcus Terentius Varro (second to first century B.c.) fragility is compared to
soap bubblcs
compares man's short life to that of a soap bubble. The straw
Related Literature
and the soap bubbles, already present in several still lifes, soon Varro, De re rustica
(On Agriculturel
became a successful independent theme. By the second half of
Characteristics
the eighteenth century, the little boy, no longer naked, is dressed, A child is always the
preferably in elegant clothes, and the shell has been replaced by central figure of this
theme.
aglass or avase. In this new composition, the well-known
Vanitas symbols appear less frequently (though they were essen-
tial elements of earlier works), as if to hide the allegorical motif
behind a genre scene.

4 Jr:In-Baptism-Simeon
Chat-din, Soap Bubbles,
ca. 1745. New York, The
Metropolitan Museum of Art.

191
Man Is a Bubble

The soap bubble suggests the fragility

of human life: the artist underscores
this concept by inscribing each
bubble With letters that form the
word nihil (nothing).

The skull, an effective memento mori

symbol, is a necessary element in Vanitas
compositions; here it serves as the
macabre seat for Homo hulla.

A recurring
theme of Vanitas
is the brazier,
here depicted as
a smoking vase;
placed symmetri-
cally opposite
the flower vase,
it suggests how
quickly man's
days burn out.

Lus f ; u ,wei V e r o i f Lozprq, & s o o n I.e.*,

• Cirri w • w r o f E t r a tyselor rgamibiti'larriso
. • O f f u nviro.rim-er,lierre l o w " , 5 ' 4 4 A -friar r i p w a r m i k y 4 , 1 w I L

• Giuseppe Rosati, Quis evadet (He A vase filled with field flowers that are
WhoEvades), end of the sixteenth lovely when first in bloom but fade and
century. Engraving. die quickly is a symbol of Vanitas.

194
Once more, the
large soap bubble
(now made from a
small jar, not a shell),
suggests the fragility
of human life.
In the eighteenth century, the young boy
playing with the soap bubbles is drawn as
an elegantly dressed young gentleman.

The young girl spreads her apron,

perhaps to catch the soap bubble,
a vain attempt to stop the inexorable
passing of time that destroys everything.

♦Charles-Amedec-Philippe van too,

soap Bubbles, 1764. Washington, D.C.,
National Gallery of Art.

195
 The soul is led away by an angel or a devil; we find this image
in ars moriendi scenes and in some Crucifixions. Only rarely
do the dead reveal what judgment was meted out to them.

The Particular Judgment

The Particular Judgment is definitive and eternal: the soul is
Definition presented to Christ, then immediately proceeds to heavenly
God's judgment, which the
soul receives after death
bliss or spends a period of purification in Purgatory or is sent
to eternal damnation. Its imagery, rendered in anticipation of
Time
Right after death the Final Judgment at the end of time, remained limited and
Related literature never became independent. Several details are borrowed from
Saint John of the Cross,
Words of Light and LINT, the ars moriendi, such as the soul being flown to Heaven by
057
an angel or removed by a demon. Likewise—especially in the
Characteristic Middle Ages—both angel and demon appear at the Crucifix-
This is a personal, not a
universal, judgment, which ion, one waiting next to the cross of the good thief as he dies,
assigns the soul to eternal
bliss or damnation, or to the other waiting next to the unrepentant thief. In rare cases,
purification while waiting
for the Last Judgment. such as in the Resurrection of Raimondo Diocres, the con-
Diffusion of the Image demned soul miraculously returns into the body to testify to
Rather rare, and hardly
ever autonomous
its sentence of damnation.

▶Daniela Crespi, Resurrec-

tion of Raimondo Diocris,
1618. Fresco. Milan, Certosa
di Garegnano.

196
Four mounted knights advance on horses of different colors,
each carrying a different attribute: a how, a sword, a scale,
and a scythe.
The Horsemen of
the Apocalypse
The image of four horsemen sowing death and destruction
comes from Revelation, where Saint John describes the opening
of the first four seals. Early renderings showed the four horse-
men depicted separately; later artists preferred a more dramatic
narrative, making eight verses of Revelation visible all at once.
They probably based their interpretations on the last verse: "And
they were given power over a fourth of the earth, to kill with
sword and with famine and with pestilence and by wild beasts of
the earth." Each horseman is assigned a terrible task, represented
by his weapon and his horse's color. The first, on a white horse,
perhaps a symbol of di-
vine power, is armed
with a bow and repre-
sents military power.
The second carries a
sword and rides a red
horse, symbolizing
bloodshed. The third,
bearing a scale, advances
on a black horse, sym-
bolizing death and
hunger. The fourth is
Death itself, wielding a Horsemen of the Apocalypse.
1091-i log. Miniature from
sword and riding a horse
the color of a lifeless
body. A personification
of Hell follows Death.
Name
I hr Fur exterminating
horsemen cited in the
hook of Revelation
Definition
he horsemen called by
to xi at the breaking of the
first tour seals; their task
is to sow destruction.
'Time
Retort- the Last Judgment
Biblical source
Revelation 6:1-g
Characteristics
I 'le appear in succession,
on horseback.
Diffusion of the Image
Initially linked to cycles of
the Apocalypse, starting in
the \ fiddle Ages this motif
spread across Europe; it
practically disappeared
atter the sixteenth century,
except for the fourth
knight, who came to
represent the Triumph
of Death.
4 Anonymous Spanish
ifiuminatog The Four
the Commentary to the
Apocalypse by the Blessed
One of Liebana. Santo
Domingo de Silos iSpaint.
19'
The Horsemen of the Apocalypse

According to the book of Revelation,

the horseman called to break the fourth
seal is Death, whose image is that of a
scythe-wielding skeleton; Revelation
mentions a sword, which the dreadful
rider here holds fastened at the waist.

The horse that Death rides has the

pale green color of alifeless body. Heil, depicted as
gaping underground
maws, follows the
arrival of Death, the
fourth rider.

• The Fourth Rider of the Apocalypse, The task of the fourth rider is to sow
1419-36. Fresco. Galatina, Santa death and destruction, here exemplified
Caterina cl'Alcssandria. by women falling to the ground.

198
The third horseman is given a scale, The second horseman is given the power
which symbolizes advancing misery: to take away peace from the earth, and
he will starve mankind to death. he is also given a large sword.

The first
horseman, on
a white horse,
is given a bow
and a crown,
to signify that
he will return
a winner.

According to
Saint John's
Hell is here depicted apocalyptic
as the gigantic mouth book, the
of a monster, open human race is
among the flames and The fourth horseman is called Death: t h e fourth of
devouring the men and this is a skeletal male figure advancing on t h e earth over
women who have been a similarly skeletal horse; he grips a pitch- w h i c h the
knocked down by the fork rather than the more common scythe h o r s e m e n
four horsemen. or the sword mentioned in Revelation. h a v e power.

• Albrscht Diircr, The Horsemen

of theApocalypse, 1498. Woodcut.

199
The Horsemen of the Apocalypse

Death, the fourth horseman, should ride

a green horse, but to give it a central,
dominant position, the artist has
depicted Death riding the third horse
and holding a pole, perhaps a reminder
of the scythe's pole, and wrapped in a
billowing red cape that swells and bides
the second horseman.

Dragged along in the whirlwind

of the ride, this horse, also with
a female rider, is almost thrown
to the ground.

Use of the divisionist technique makes it

difficult to differentiate the horses' colors:
ACarlo Carta, The Riders according to Revelation, the second is red
of theApocalypse, 1908. to symbolize the shedding of blood; the
Art Institute of Chicago. third, black to signify hunger and famine.

200
 This twentieth-century artist has appar-
ently adapted the iconographic tradition
to his own sensibility he shows three
riders, two of them women who, instead
of riding aggressively seem dragged along
by the horses' gallop.

There remains almost nothing of the

Apocalypse tradition in the depiction of
the fourth horsentan; the figure is riding a
white (instead of agreen) horse and is a
woman with none of the attributes of
destruction.

201

The Resurrection of the Flesh
Definition
The resurrection of
the body
Time
At the Second Corning
of Christ
Biblical Sources
Ezekiel 37:1-14;
Daniel 12:1 ff.;
John 5:28—.2.9;
Thessalonians 4,16-17
Related literature
Saint Augustine,
City of God;
Honorius of Autun,
Speculum Ecclesiae
(Mirror of the Church)
Characteristics
The common destiny
of humankind
Special Beliefs
In the late Middle Ages,
there was a belief that
human Misfits would be
resurrected in their prime
(around the age of thirty),
approximately the age of
Jesus when he was cruci-
fied.
Diffusion of the Image
Part of Last Judgment
cycles
▶Jean Belk-gambe, Final
Judgment, ca. 152.5. Berlin,
Gem kicgalcric.
202
In a flat, desolate plain, naked human bodies rise from the
ground or from open sepulchres, sometimes assisted by angels,
while angelic figures blow on long trumpets.
According to Christian belief, the resurrection of the flesh will
come to pass after the Parousia, the Second Coming of Christ.
The idea of bodily resurrection, present in the Old Testament,
was passed on in the Gospels and became the central focus of the
letters of Saint Paul. Resurrection of the human body, promised
to both the blessed and the damned, would be an extension of
Christ's Resurrection, Saint Paul's "first fruits of the dead," a con-
firmation of the close relationship between the paschal event of the
Resurrection and the final universal resurrection. The body must
he reborn because without it, the soul is incomplete and could not
enjoy the full glory of God in eternal salvation, just as it could not
receive eternal punishment. The scriptures do not specify what
the appearance of the bodies will be after
the resurrection of the flesh, but it is
supposed that the bodies of the
saved will be assimilated
into God, and those of
the damned into the
Devil. The iconogra-
phy drew inspiration
from Ezekiel's
prophecy where he
speaks of vast plains
with sepulchres and
bodies leaving them,
and the book of Reve-
lation, where angels
play the trumpets of
the Last Judgment.
 The Resurrection of the Flesh

The standard is a symbol

of Resurrection, of victory
over death.

The resurrected
Christ bears the
marks of his
Passion: the nail
wounds in his
hands and feet
and the spear
wound in his
side are thsible
The sleeping soldiers on his newly
who had been sta- transfigured
tioned at the tomb to hody.
ensure that the body
of Christ would not
be spirited away are
unaware of what is
happening, but the
landscape and the fiery
sky emphasize the Angels are
extraordinary nature present at the
of the event. joyous moment
of Resurrection.

'typical of the northern tradition is

♦Albrecht Altdorfer, The the representatirm of Christ standing
Resurrection of Christ, 1.5i8. on the closed tomb as a sign of a
Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum. supernatural event.

203
The Resurrection of the Flesh

The affectionately embracing figures

signify that we shall find in the after-
life the people we loved during our
earthly life.

According to Saint Paul, the first to be

resurrected will be the elect, those who
died in Christ's Grace: here depicted
with their hands raised to Heaven, they
express their strong desire for God.

Some bodies, already formed, come

out of the ground with effort: they are
vigorous, perfect bodies, possibly reflect-
ing the age of Christ at the time of his
execution, a sign of the perfection of the
resurrected and transfigured body.

♦Luca Signorelli, The Resurrection

of the Flesh, 499. Fresco, Orvieto,
cathedral, San Brizio Chapel.

204
Heaven is painted with a gold background: by
restoring this medieval symbolism, the artist is denot-
ing the presence of God and his imminent encounter
with saved humanity in the glory of Heaven.

Tim trumpet-
playing angels
(411 everyone
to the Last Judg-
ment. The trum-
pets bear the
standard of the
resurrected
Christ: this is the
day of the Lord.

Some human beings come out of the

ground with imperfect bodies and
wait for them to be reconstructed for
their new existence.

205
 Christ separates the righteous from the damned; in very early
works, there is a horizontal division with separate vignettes; start-
ing in the sixteenth century, the scenes are simplified and unified.

The Universal Judgment

According to what may be inferred from the sacred scriptures, the
Name Universal or Last Judgment will occur at the Second Coming of
Divine judgment, also
known as "universal,"
Christ and after the resurrection of the body. All human beings
"final," or "last" participate with their own bodies in the Particular Judgment
Definition meted out to the soul right after death. The Last Judgment,
It is "universal" because
it is the destiny of all prophesied in the book of Revelation, decrees the final victory of
humankind; "final" or
"last" because it will Good over Evil, a subject that spread from the Byzantine world to
come at the end of history.
all of western Europe. The selected aspects emphasized by Euro-
Time pean artists remained essentially unchanged until the innovations
At the Secxmd Coming
of Christ introduced by Michelangelo in his Sistine Chapel fresco. Com-
Biblical Sources posed in horizontal registers derived from the imperial art of
Daniel 7tr3;
Matthew 2.4:30-32., Byzantium and Rome, Byzantine depictions
2.5t3t —46
usually included several scenes: Res-
Related Literature urrection of the Flesh, Weighing
Vision of Saint Ephrem
of Syria of Souls, Christ the Judge, the
Characteristics Chosen, the Damned, Par-
A decisive event that shall
expose down to the final adise, and Hell. Often eastern
consequences the evil or
the good that each person
iconography also includes the
did while living on earth Descent into Limbo and the
Diffusion of the Image Etimasia (the empty throne
Very widespread in the
East and then in the West, of Jesus, with the book and
from the twelfth to the
fifteenth century; it slowly the cross on it). In the Sistine
decreased, with many
variations, after the six-
fresco, the composition is
teenth century. In Italy, it
was depicted most often
unified and Christ the Judge,
in mosaics and frescoes: no longer depicted as
in France, in sculptural
groups over cathedral described in Revelation, is
portals.
portrayed standing, showing
his wounds, the sign of
Redemption.

206
 The Universal Judgment

Christ the Judge, in the earliest icono- To the right and left of Jesus, two
graphic model of the Last Judgment, is angels attend him on the day of the
beardless and wears the halo marked by Last Judgment.
the cross typical of Early Christian art,
With his outstretched right arm he wel-
comes the sheep, symbol of the elect.

The three sheep on the right are separated The three goats to the left of Jesus
from the goats, in keeping with the personify the damned: barred from
symbolism of the Last Judgment found eternal life, they will he forever
in the Gospel of Matthew 45:32-33). banished to Hell.

Prtcr Paul Rubens, The Last • The Separation of theSheep from the
Judgment, ca. i 62.o. Munich, Goats, sixth century. Mosaic. Ravenna,
Alte Pinakothek. Sant'Apollinare Nuovn.

207
The Universal Judgment

This Last Judgment scene is divided into
horizontal segments the uppermost of which
represents Christ's descent into Limbo.
Christ the Judge is depicted seated on two
rainbows inside a mandorla: the Virgin and
Saint John flank him as intercessors. Under
the mandorla springs the river of fire that
feeds into Hell.

The personification
of Earth is rendered
by wild beasts who
return the bodies of A seated woman hold-
the devoured dead. ing a horn of plenty
The Twelve Apostles personifies the sea; she
are present at the is surrounded by mon-
Judgment of Christ. sters that spit out the
bodies of the drowned.

The Etimasia, or the

True Chair of Christ,
is the throne readied
for him since the day In this representation
of the Ascension: on it of Hell (which is not
are the cross and the i v y frightening), the
book. The Archangels Devil is shown holding
Michael and Gabriel the small figure of the
stand guard, while Antichrist in his arms.
Adam and Eve adore
the cross.

The gate of Paradise is

The elect are arrayed
in hierarchical groups.
• The Universal Judgment, eleventh to
twelfth century. Mosaic. Venice, Island
of Tureen°, Santa Maria Assunta.
guarded by one of the
Cherubim: approaching
are the repentant thief
carrying his cross (the
sign of Jesus' promise Psychostasis is the
to raise him to Heaven), weighing of the souls
Saint Peter, the Virgin, preparatory to the judg-
and Abraham with the ment of whether they
souls of the elect. will be saved or damned.

208
 Christ is seated on a beam of light; his
feet rest on a sphere, symbolizing his
power over creation. To his right is the
cross, and to his left, the scourging pillar,
reminders of the Passion he endured to
redrein the human race.

The elect, among

whom several
saints are recog-
nizable, are
arrayed in orderly
fashion in Heaven
within sight of
Christ the Judge.
The battle in
which Saint
Michael defeats
the Devil, taken
from the book of
Revelation,
becomes part of
Last Judgment
compositions.

In the plain
extending from
the Netherworld
to Heaven, the Death, the
resurrection of unequivocal sign
the flesh takes of eternal death,
place with naked shields with its
bodies rising skeleton the bodies
from the surface
of the damned.
of the earth.

The gaping maws in the pit of the

• Penes Chrisrus. the Last Judgment, Netherworld are a personification
1452.. Berlin, Generldegalerie, of Hell ready to devour the damned.

209
The Universal Judgment

Christ the fudge arrives on a throne

of clouds escorted by angels: two of
them announce the Judgment by
blowing their king trumpets.

Following a Byzantine iconographic

tradition, the Virgin Mary sits at the
right hand of Jesus.

The city walls in the distance suggest

Heavenly Jerusalem, the holy city that
foreshadows Paradise, according to
Saint Paul and Revelation.

The angels
dance in a circle
in the heavenly
garden, signify-
ing the eternal
Joy of the
blessed.

An angel displays the cross of

• Fra Angelico, The Universal Christ, visible sign of the price
Judgment, ca. 1431-35. Florence, the Son of God paid to save
Museo di San Marco. the human race.

210
 Saint John the Baptist sits at the left hand
of Christ, completing the deesis motif that
Western Romanesque art drew from Byzantine
culture and that became a frequent theme in
Universal Judgment scenes.

The holy men of the Old Testament,

the apostles, the martyr saints, and the
confessors sit on shining seats and share
in God's glory

To the left of
Christ, the
damned are
pushed back and
dragged into
Hell: the demons
torture men and
women of all
stations indis-
criminately, the
poor as well as
the powerful,
monks and
soldiers, bishops
and cardinals.

The open tombs indicate that bodily In the deepest circle of Hell, Satan
resurrection has just taken place, in sits in a fire pit and greedily devours
preparation for the Last Judgment. the damned.

211
The Universal Judgment

Standing at the gate of Paradise (here Hying angels carry the instruments of
rendered as a portal), Saint Peter welcomes the Passion—the sponge moistened with
the crowd of the elect, who are escorted vinegar, the nail, the spear, the cross, the
by angels. The portal, decorated with a crown of thorns—all signs of the price
tall pediment and spires, is typical of the that Jesus paid to secure the Redemption
architecture of Gothic cathedrals. of the human race.
Christ the Judge sits Opposite Heavenly
on two rainbows, Jerusalem is the city
symbolizing the of Dis, scene of the
covenant between last battle between
God and man. angels and demons.

The resurrection of the flesh is Kneeling Virgin

represented by naked human figures
that rise from the earth and pleadingly
turn their eyes toward Heaven.
Mary pleads for
the salvation of
Monstrous figures personify the Devil
the human race.
engulfed in flames, ready to devour the
damned who are still resisting.

• Stephan Loch= The Last Judgment, A demon pulls the fat body of one of the
ca. 1435. Cologne, Wallraf-Richartz- damned, who is still holding in his hands a
Museum. hag of coins that scatter on the ground.

212
 Two angels blow the G o d the Father is in Christ the Judge sits on the rainbow,
mighty trumpets that t h e highest realm of ancient sign of the covenant between
announce the Final H e a v e n ; below him God and man.
Judgment. i s the dove of the
Holy Spirit.

The livelve
Apostles are
already among
the saved and
in the sight of
God's Glory;
from their seats The sword is mentioned in the
on the clouds, apocalyptic narrative of the book of
they observe Revelation ("From his mouth issues a
the events of sharp sword with which to smite the
the Last Days, nations" 1.19:15)), while the lily was
introduced by Gothic art to signify
the double judgment.

A dog-faced
devil with
hat's wings
and a long
tad pushes
the bodies
❑f the men
and women
sentenced
to eternal
punishment
toward Hell.

On a vast plain, echo of Ezekiel's vision,

• Lucas van Leyden, The Last the recomposed, newly vigorous bodies
Judgment, syz6. Central panel of rise from the earth, either to be led away
triptych. Leyden, Stedelijk Museum. by angels or seized by demons.

213

The Mystical Harvest
Name
The adjective "mystical"
is joined to the earthly
noun "harvest" to indicate
its allegorical meaning,
Definition
The grape harvest or the
symbolic harvesting of
the fruits of man's labors
Tune
With reference to the
Last Judgment
Biblical Sources
Revelation 4 : 4-T 8;
Matthew 311o, xxit
Characteristics
This is the theme of the
apocalyptic vintage and
harvest, not to he confused
with the mystical press,
which represents Jesus as
the Eucharistic sacrifice.
Diffusion of the Image
Particularly widespread
during the Middle Ages
▶Roger Wagncy The
Angels' Harvest at the End
of the World, 1957. Private
collection.
214
Angels busily picking grapes or harvesting wheat with a scythe.
Some representations also show the grapes being treaded and
collected in a press.
Based on Revelation and subsidiary images of Last Judgment
compositions, the theme of the mystical grape harvest was favored
during the Middle Ages; representation of the wheat harvest
sometimes included a group led by angels. Artists' decision to
complement the Last Judgment narrative with the mystical har-
vest scene reveals a faithful adherence to the sources as regards the
sequence of events. Yet artists did not represent "One like the Son
of man ... who sat on a white cloud ... and swung his sickle on
the earth" so that the wheat may be reaped and the grapes har-
vested. The most common image shows angels leaving the temple,
some ordering that "the hour to reap has come, for the harvest of
the earth is fully ripe," others reaping the wheat and harvesting
the grapes. The first depiction of an angel throwing grapes "into
the great winepress of the wrath of God" may be on a Vezelay
church capital,
which looks like a
scene from everyday
life. In later art, the
subject was sepa-
rated from events of
the Last Judgment
and interpreted
Christologically as
the sacrifice of Jesus;
as such, it had wide-
spread diffusion and
independent devel-
opment starting in
the fifteenth century.
 The Mystical Harvest

The tong, sharp sickle is mentioned in the An angel in a white robe emphatically
book of Revelation; the one depicted here gestures to the other angel, exhorting
was in use during the Middle Ages. The him to gather the grapes (according to
angel holding it wears a deacon's dalmatic the text, he did so "with a loud voice").
as a sign of his office. Facing him is an altar covered with a
linen and with an open book on it,
probably signifying the heavenly temple
An elegant ciborium, complete with from which he came (Revelation 74:r7).
a golden dome, tympana, spires, and
marble decorations, exemplifies the
heavenly temple.

♦JacobelloAlberegno, The Apocalyptic The earthly vineyard is luxuriant and

Grape Harvest, 1380-9.0. Venice, heavy with bunches of grapes, "for its
Galleric dell'Accademia. grapes are ripe" (Revelation 14:18).

215
The Mystical Harvest

Aman, not an angel, throws the

grapes from the earthly vineyard
into the winepress.

Starting in the fifteenth century, the

apocalyptic meaning of the mystical
winepress fades; it eventually acquires
meaning as a symbol of the Eucharist.

The winepress in this sculpture was the

type in use at the time the column capital
was carved.

♦The .Mystical Winepress, ca. ri z5.

Column capital. Vezelay, Sainte
Madeleine.

216
Psychostasis is represented by an angel, sometimes wearing
armor, who weighs the souls on a scale; the souls are usually
rendered as children or diminutive men and women.

Psychostasi
The iconography of psychostasis, or "weighing of souls," has
roots in the ancient Egyptian world, about a thousand years Name
From the Greek, meaning
before the birth of Christ. According to the Egyptian Book of "weighing of the souls"
the Dead, the deceased was subjected to a judgment that con-
Definition
sisted of weighing his heart, with a symbol of the goddess of Symbolic weighing of the
soul to ascertain fitness to
justice, Maat, used as counterweight. This funerary art theme enter Paradise

was transmitted to the West through Coptic and Cappadocian Time

During the Last Judgment
frescoes, and the function of supervising the weighing, origi-
nally a task of Horus and Anubis, passed to the Archangel Characteristics
The Archangel Michael
Michael. In rare cases, Saint Michael is replaced by the hand is shown in the act of
weighing a soul on the
of God appearing through a cloud. The static weighing compo- scales; sometimes he is
obstructed by the Devil.
sition becomes dramatic when the Devil appears next to Saint
Diffusion of the Image
Michael and tries to snatch the soul being weighed. This weigh- Mostly present in composi-
tions of the Last judgment
ing scene, initially part of Last Judgment cycles, became and the Archangel Michael.
autonomous and one of the most popular images of Saint
Michael. Faith and devotion added variants such as the chalice
or the lamb as counterweights on the plate of the scale, both
symbols of Christ's sacrifice for Redemption, or a rosary
attached to the rod, a symbol of faith in the intercession of the
Virgin Mary.

41Scene with Psychostasis.

Ancient Egyptian. Painted
sarcophagus of Khonsu-mes.
Turin, Muses Egizio.

217
Psychostasis

The Archangel Michael, shown here Armed with a hook, a medieval tool
with large outspread wings and of torture, the Devil approaches
wearing a long tunic, is the weigher Saint Michael to snatch a soul.
of the souls subjected to judgment.

On the scales, the souls are rendered

symbolically and in a simplified manner: A soul, represented as a child set
a face is either smiling or upset, depend- to be weighed, is removed from
ing on the outcome of the weighing. the Devil's clutches.

♦The Weighing of Souls, 125o.

Detail of The Last Judgment.
Bourges, Cathkirale de Saint-Etienne

21K
 The commander of the heavenly
armies, Saint Michael is portrayed
wearing armor.

Assisting Saint Michael

is an angel standing A dog-faced, scaly demon with
• Juandc la Abadia, Archangel Saint next to a kneeling soul dragon's wings tries to snatch from
Michael, ca. 490. Barcelona, Muscu already wearing the garb the scales a soul, which turns
d'Art de Cataluzia. of the elect. pleadingly to Saint Michael.

219
 Men and women—often depicted naked, suffering and
despairing—are thrown into Hell, where they undergo torture
and torments of all kinds.

The Damned
After the Final Judgment the damned will be excluded, body
Name
and soul, from God's eternal love. Because the human race
From the Latin damnare was created to love God, the torment that the damned
(to condemn)
undergo in Hell is the eternal lack of God. Over the centuries,
Definition
Those fated to eternal the images of the damned writhing in the flames of Hell have
damnation
been inspired by Jesus' few but explicit words reported in the
Place
Hell Gospels (weeping and gnashing of teeth, the fire of Gehenna),
Time
by the highly visual, didactic admonishments of preachers,
Eternity and by the literature of the Afterworld, in particular, Dante's
Biblical Sources immortal poem. As a result, the damned are usually depicted
Luke t6:2.1;
Matthew t3i4r-45, with recognizable human features, contorted in unseemly
Related literature positions, grimacing, and wearing hideous expressions, as
Apocalypse of Peter
(apocryphal);
the demons relentlessly inflict all kinds of torture on them:
Vision of Saint Paul beating, scourging, disembowelment, being devoured by the
(apocryphal);
lionorius of Anton, Devil, or lying in fiery rivers or icy ponds. A common feature
Elucidations;
Uguccione da Lodi, Book; of the many images of the damned in Hell is their futile
Bonvesin dr la Kiva, Book
of the Three Scriptures; attempt to escape eternal punishment.
Giacomino da Verona,
Of Babylon, Infernal City;
Bonn Giamboni, Of
Human Misery;
Dante Alighieri, Divine
Comedy

Characteristics
Final sentence with no
possibility of appeal

Diffusion of the Image

Part of last Judgment
scenes

220
 The Damned

The artist imagines the damned physically

plunging into Hell, pulled down by mon-
strous animals.

Burning in the
eternal fires of
Hell is a frequent A dreadful,
punishment of hirsute devil
the damned. with many eyes
and mouths
strikes one of
the damned
with a hook.

This image
repeats the
earliest icono-
graphic motif of
Hell: the Devil
sitting in the
deepest pit of
the Netherworld
and devouring
the damned.
After the Last Judgment, the entire
human race will be resurrected. A
condemned woman weeps about her
destiny; next to her is a snake, a reminder,
perhaps, of the deception by which the
Devil ensnared the first couple.

4 Hell, eleventh to twelfth century.

Detail of amosaic of The Universal ♦Dirck Bouts, Hell, i4to. Detail of
Judgment. Venice, Island of Torcello, the doors of a triptych with The Last
Santa Maria Assunta. Judgment. Lille, Museedes Beaux-Arts.

221
The Damned

A flying demon with bat's wings tears

the ear of adamned with his teeth.

Demons are plunging into Hell togetl,,

with the damned.

Signor& seems to have painted a self-portrait

in the unique-looking demon with one horn
and grayish body lifting a condemned woman
who appears not to resist.

The place of eternal damnation does not lack

fire where some of the damned are burning.

The demons are distinguished from

man mainly by their muscular build,
• Luca Signorelli, The Last Judgment: unnatural color, and horns: this demon
TheDamned, 1499-1502. Fresco. wears a primitive skirt, an echo of some
Onicto, cathedral, San Brizio Chapel. of the earliest images of demons.

222
Saint Michael, leader of the angelic
cohorts, chases the Devil and his
demon angels back into Hell together
with the damned.

'livo armed angels,

almost unmov-
able, witness the
outcome of the
battle against the
Devil and sheathe
their swords.

A sturdily built demon with horns and

wings carries a woman un his back: in a
break from tradition, the woman no
longer looks beseechingly to Heaven
but has a sour, mean expression.

A green, visibly muscular demon raises

a scourge against a condemned man
trying to flee, while at his back a
winged demon bites a young man's ear.

Perhaps reviving classical representations,

the artist has included a goat-horned
demon blowing a large horn.

223
 During the Middle Ages, souls undergoing purification are
depicted in Purgatory; later, as praying figures who are lifted
from earth by angels who escort them to Heaven.

Souls in Purgatory
Although they are not condemned in the Particular Judgment,
Definition these souls must spend time in Purgatory to become pure before
Souls waiting to enter
Paradise
entering Paradise. The souls in Purgatory have no special icono-
graphic attributes except that they are placed in a locale midway
Place
Purgators between Heaven and Hell. Nevertheless, the transitory position of
Tune these souls eventually made possible the development of a specific
After death and before
the Last Judgment iconography in which they were rendered as protagonists. This
Biblical Sources
occurred with the passing of the Middle Ages and with it, the
Matthew t V31-31,, r depiction of the Judgment and the Afterworld in superimposed
Corinthians
registers. This occurs as early as the fifteenth century in some
Related literature
Apocalypse of Saint Paul images that refer to hagiographic episodes of saints who had
(apocryphal);
Gregory the Great, strongly supported praying for souls in Purgatory. This subject
Dialogues;
Marie de France, The
was quite popular from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century.
Purgatory of Saint Patrick;
Dante Alighicri, Divine
Comedy

Characteristics
Souls that are at once glad
and tormented: they arc
readying for Paradise hut
suffer from the lack of
God.

Special Devotions
For the souls in Purgatory,
prayer shortens the period
of purification.

Diffusion of the Image

Originally found in Last
Judgment scenes, it later
became an autonomous
theme of prayer for the
souls in Purgatory.

224
 Souls in Purgatory

Saint Gregory the Great is depicted at
the altar as he celebrates with other
priests the Eucharistic sacrifice for
the souls in Purgatory
An unrolling scroll points to the path
to Heaven, which is bathed in strong
light. Inscribed on the scroll is the inter-
cessory prayer that Saint Gregory said
at the Mass.

These angels
escort the souls
from Purgatory
to Paradise.

Some of the
damned are
enduring the
eternal punish-
ment of the
infernal fire.

GiambattistaTicpolo, TheMadonna del ♦GiovanniBattistaCrespi(11 Ccranol,

Carmelo with Carmelite Saints and Souls in TheMass of Saint Gregory, 161 5-17.
Purgatory(detail), 711-27. Milan, Beers. Varese,San Vittore.

225
 Figures of men and women whose garments and other visual
attributes identify them as saints who have already reached
Paradise.

The Righteous
The righteous arrive purified at the Final Judgment and are
Definition welcomed by God to eternal bliss. The iconography of the
Those who enjoy the
delights of Paradise in
images of the just evolved through the centuries owing to the
body and soul initial difficulty of choosing a uniform representation of Par-
Place adise. Early Christian depictions in Ravenna, the processions
Paradise
of virgins and martyrs appear clothed in white, wearing laurel
Time
Eternity crowns and carrying palm fronds of martyrdom. Medieval
Biblical Sources
artists began to represent the righteous in the act of entering
Cienesis 2; Heaven, naked and escorted by angels, who in some cases
Revelation 7, 14, i t , 2.2
deliver the white garment to the souls. In the same period, the
Related Literature
fourth Bmik of Ezra righteous were also portrayed as small souls, as children wel-
laPocrYPhaik
Saint Augustine, Confes- comed by Abraham under his mantle. Starting in the fifteenth
sions and City of God
century, the righteous in Paradise are dressed in a way that
Characteristics identifies them as celebrated saints; often they wear flower
A state of total bliss
garlands or halos, embrace one another, and dance in circles
Diffusion of the Image
Generally linked to expressing joy and serenity or ecstatic contemplation.
Last Judgment scenes,
it continued to he wide-
spread even after the Last
Judgment theme had faded
into scenes of ecstatic
visions where the righteous
appear with Christ the
Redeemer.

▶Anonymous
The Banquet of the
Righteous, thirteenth
century. Miniature from
a Bible. Milan, Biblioto.:a
Ambrosia..

226
 The Righteous

An angel welcomes the righteous,

those who were saved because they
walked the 'Tammy path.

A bridge so narrow at the center that a

The last trial before entering Paradise was dubbed "the hair-width bridge": only
is the weighing of the souls, supervised the nimble, light souls of the righteous,
from a throne by Saint Michael. unencumbered by sin, could cross if.

• Master of Loreto Aprutino, The

Universal Judgment (detail), early
fifteenth century. Loreto Aprutino,
Santa Maria in Piano.

227
The Righteous

Some of the angels worshiping around the

altar carry instruments of the Passion, such
as the cross, the spear, the crown of thorns,
the nails, and the scourging pillar. Others
simply kneel in adoration; still others
sprinkle incense with the censer.

The group of martyrs and holy

confessors, some of whom hold
palm fronds, is compact in size
and partially hidden by the
blooming vegetation of Paradise.

The great patriarchs are in the

crowded group of the blessed
from the Old Testament that
worship the Lamb.

• Hubert and Jan van Eyck, Adoration

of the Mystic Lamb. 1425-59. Central
panel of the Ghent Altarpiece. Ghent, The kneeling figures holding open books
Cathedral of Saint Hayti. in their hands are probably prophets.

228
 The women gathered in Paradise are
virgin martyrs: they wear garlands of
flowers, crowns of glory, and they carry
palms of martyrdom. Some have attrib-
utes that identify them as being among
the fourteen auxiliary saints.
Blood flows from the breast of the
Lamb on the altar and is collected
in a chalice. The cross-shaped halo
reveals that this is the Mystic Lamb
of the apocalyptic vision.

Behind the apostles

are representations
of the Church
hierarchy: popes.
bishops, deacons,
and other clerics.

The Fountain of
Grace is one of the
elements that identify The first who kneel to adore the
this locale as Paradise. Lamb at his left are the apostles.

229
 THE INFERNAL
COHORTS
Classical Antecedents
Rebel Angels
The Tempter Snake
Lucifer, Satan, Beelzebub
The Antichrist
The Leviathan
Cerberus and Charon
The Beast of the Apocalypse
Judas
Simon Magus

41Peter Paul Ruhens, The Fall of the

Rebel Angels (detail), r6ao. Munich,
Alte Pinakothek.

Classical Antecedents
Biblical Source
Leviticus 17:7
Related Literature
Saint Jerome
Characteristics
Divine or semidivine
mythological figures
Diffusion of the Image
Widespread in the pre-
Christian era and until
the second century B.C.
In Group sixth Par: and
Olympus, version of an
original dating to the second
half of the second century
B.C. Naples. National
Archaeological Museum.
232
Classical mythology depicted satyrs with a human torso and
head, and the horns, pointed ears, legs, tail, and split hooves of
a goat. The Egyptian god Bes was a fat, bearded dwarf.
Throughout the Early Christian era there were no representations
of the Devil, nor could artists refer to a literary tradition that
might supply useful hints for an iconographic model. Neverthe-
less, since Early Christian artists had drawn other images from
the figurative sources already present in the classical world, they
did likewise for the specific image of the Devil and his demons.
When the problem arose in the Early Middle Ages, artists auto-
matically turned to ancient art, in particular to images of satyrs
and fauns. Although in Greco-Roman mythology, these creatures
were not wholly negative and had, in fact, certain poetic aspects,
their lascivious habits usually triumphed over their wisdom.
The choice to represent the Devil and
his cohorts in the guise of satyrs and
fauns was supported by biblical
I r e f e r e n c e s and by Saint Jerome's
k b e l i e f that they were indeed
symbols of the Devil.
Although artists borrowed
their attributes to form visual
representations of the Devil, Pan
should be considered not the
prototype but rather the
inspiration for such images.
In fact, some images of the
Devil recall the features of
the Egyptian god Bes—a
deformed dwarf with a big
head, beard, and disheveled
hair—more than those of Pan.
 Classical Antecedents

Curiously, the many wings of the god Bes

also influenced positive images, such as
the Cherubim, the many-winged angels.

The hearded
face, disheveled
hair, and frontal
nudity of BO
influenced
the first
representations
of the Devil,

Although Bes was a protective, benevolent

divinity to the populations that worshiped
him in antiquity, his grotesque, deformed
• Relief with the Egyptian Deity Bes, features led Christians to see him as an
.O5-31B.C.Rome,M11500 Barracco. image of the Devil.

233
Classical Antecedents

The small winged figure is Eros, the

child god of love. His presence beside
an actor on the couch next to Dionysos
and Ariadne emphasizes their love.

Dionysos and Ariadne embrace on a The actor impersonating Hercules is

Mine (couch or bed) placed at the identified assuch by the dub, the lion
center of an elaborately staged scene. skin, and the mask he is carrying of the
hero he is about to play,

The dancing actor rehearsing his steps is

wearing a satyr mask; the furry costume
he is wearing will be one of the earliest
attributes of the Devil.

♦PronomosKrater withstaging of a
theatrical play, late fifth century 8,c.
Ceramicvase.Naples, National
Archaeological Museum.

234
 The image of the demon tormenting Job
with a hook is derived from representa-
tions of satyrs; the skirt worn by the
demon recalls the furry loincloth, but
unlike the satyr, he has taloned feet.

According to the biblical narrative, Job's

three friends tried to justify his misfortunes
by seeking evidence of his having sinned.

• Anonymous French illuminator, Job

and the Comforters, late twelfth century.
Miniature from the Bible de Souvigny, Marked by leprous sures, Job listens help-
initial from the Book of Joh. Moulins, lessly to his friends' accusations as they
Bihliotheque Municipalc. try to explain his predicament.

235

Rebel Angels
Definition
Creatures of God who
rebelled against him out of
pride; led by Lucile; they
became God's enemies.
Time
After the Creation
Place
Hell
Biblical Sources
Isaiah 4:12-15;
Revelation 12:7-9
Related Literature
Book of Enoch
(apocryphal) to;
Lateran Council EV
(A.D. 1 2 1 5 )
Characteristics
They aid Satan in
fostering evil.
Diffusion of the Image
From the ninth to the
middle of the sixteenth
century
▶Giambattista liepolo, The
Expiilsion of the Rebel
Angels (detail), 1716.
Palauo Arcivescovile.
236
Demonic-looking beings that fall from Heaven, having been
banished by Saint Michael and the angels. Sometimes the rebel-
lious angels change their appearance as they fall.
Generally called rebel angels, these angels joined Lucifer in
his revolt against God. According to scriptures and Christian
tradition, they were originally good angels who willfully
became irreversibly evil, turning against God; out of pure
wickedness, they lead man to sin. Church fathers wrote that
the rebellion took place at the time of Creation, when the
angelic hosts divided into two opposing factions, with the
rebels following Lucifer and the rest of the angels following
the lead of Saint Michael. The iconography of the rebel
angels, foot soldiers in the army of Lucifer and therefore
demons like him, evolved with that of the Devil, changing
over time. Generally, they were pictured in semihuman form
with hideous deformations, such as bats' wings, horns, tail,
talons, hairy body—in sum, frighteningly negative versions
of the angels. The depiction of the Fall of the Rebel Angels, a
popular theme present
in illuminated manu-
scripts as early as the
ninth century, was
strongly influenced by
the passage in Revela-
tion that describes
the struggle of the
angelic hosts
with the
dragon, which
symbolizes Satan.
 Rebel Angels

God the Father, enthroned inside the
holy mandorla and wearing the triple
crown, the headdress of the highest
ecclesiastical office, witnesses the rebel
angels falling from Heaven,
Some angels are depicted as sitting, mute
spectators of the event; this arrangement
reflects the earliest images of rows of angels,
at this time no longer clearly defined.

A group of
angels armed
with swords
witnesses the
headlong fall
of the creatures
that dared to
challenge God,

The original
beauty of the
angels is still
visible as they
plunge headfirst
and almost
burst into
flames as they
approach Hell.

• Limbourg Brothers, The Fall of

Lucifer and the RebelAngels, before
r416. Miniature from the Tres riches Lucifer is the first of the rebel angels
bellies du due de Berry. Chantilly, and the first to sink into the flames
Musee Conde. of Hell, dragging the others along.

237
Rebel Angels

Archangel Michael is a warrior angel,

described as the commander of the
angelic cohorts.

Saint Michael's
strength and that
of his angels repel The muscular
the dragon, the body with still
apocalyptic beast recognizable
that symbolizes semihuman
the Devil. forms, but
disfigured by a
head comprised
of snakes, is a
clear sign that
the angels who
rebelled against
God chose evil.

The artist uses traditional animal features

to illustrate the angels' transformation into
fiendish creatures: the snake's tail, the spines Distant flames are visible in
growing from the backbone, and small the background: it is Hell,
butterfly wings serving as a loincloth, one where the Devil and his
last reminder of their past as angels of God. demons are cast forever.

• Frans Folris, The Fall of the Angels,

1544.Antwerp, Koninklijk Museum
voor Schone Kunsten.

238
 Behind Saint Michael, who is busy
striking blows and defending himself
with a shining shield, is a strong light,
the divine light of Heaven, which seems
to be darkened by the mighty battle.
Saint Michael, chief of the heavenly
armies, valiantly fights the 'ancient
serpent" that had been defeated and
routed from Heaven.

The fall of the

angels behind
the dragon
causes an
endless chain
of men and
A greenish women to be
winged figure dragged down
falls from the path of evil
Heaven: its and plunged
wings are a into Hell.
reminder that
this was an
angel who
rebelled and is
now an angel
of the Devil, a
devil himself.

The dragon, defeated and forced to

the bottom of Hell. eats the damned.

• Peter Paul Ruhens, The Fall of

the RebelAngels, 16so. Munich,
Akc Pinaknthek.

239
Rebel Angels
Faithful to the first book of Paradise
Lost, the artist has portrayed Satan
with the heroic features of a Greek
god: raising his arms in the depths
of Hell, he speaks to his angels with
the power of a leader.
AWilliam Blake, Satan Instigating
the RebelAngels, .18o8. Preparatory
watercolor for an engraving of Milton's
Paradise Lost. London, Victoria and
Albert Museum.
240
Hell is forever marked by the flames
of eternal fire; it is here that the arrays
of rebel angels who have forever
chosen evil have fallen.
Like Satan, the rebel angels are depicted
in human form; their rebellion caused
them to be cast into Hell, where they lie
about crushed and dismayed.
The image of thesnake is linked to the Temptation of Adam and Eve.
Sometimes the snake is a symbolic element: the creature, depicted with
ahuman head or asa monster, talks to Eve or offers her the apple.

The Tempter Snake

The Bible could not be clearer on this point: it was a snake that led
Eve to sin; she, in turn, dragged Adam into sin and with him all of Definition
The deceit by which
humankind. The choice of the serpent came out of contemporary Satan led Eve to commit
Judaic thought, which saw in this image not only an animal but the original sin

also an ancient cult associated with and according to which magic- Place
Earthly Paradise
induced knowledge and sexuality were divine attributes. Snake
Time
worship was practiced until the intervention by King Hezekiah After the Creation
(716-687 B.c.); undoubtedly, one of the intentions of the editor of Biblical Sources
the book of Genesis was to strongly denounce this ancient ritual in Genesis 3:1.;
z Kings 8:4i
an effort to wipe it out since it Corinthians r r..3;
Revelation 12:9,
included strong elements of evil 12:14-15, 10:2

and sin. But the image of the Diffusion of the Image

snake survived, if not in the Four Ver). widespread sin"' the
Early Christian era
Gospels, in the letters of Saint
Paul and in Revelation. As time
passed, the original Judaic signifi-
cance of the snake was lost but
not the connection to Satan and
to evil, and so different explana-
tions were given for identifying
the Tempter as a snake, which
sometimes influenced the iconog-
raphy. For Clement of Alexan-
dria (second to third century
A.D.) and Vincent of Beauvais
4 Masolino da Panicale,
(1494), it was a woman-headed Temptation of Adam and
snake that tempted Eve, because Eve, ca. 413. Fresco.
Florence, Santa Maria del
in Syriac the female snake is Carmine, Brancacci Chapel.

called "heva."

241
The Tempter Snake

Having eaten the fruit that the

snake offered her from its mouth,
Eve gives it to Adam.

In the final act of this scene,

Adam eats the fruit of the Tree of
Knowledge of Good and Evil.

The Tempter is not depicted as a true

snake: in addition to his serpentine tad, he
has the snout of aweasel and catlike paws.

• Anonymous French miniaturist, The

Temptation of Adam and Lie, thirteenth
century. Miniature. Florence, Biblioteca
Metliceo-Lautenziana.

242
This portrayal of Eve
with the long, blond
tresses recalls a north- This splendidly
ern beauty, though her rendered snake
proportions betray is the result of
Diirer's knowledge painstaking
of the "golden ratio," observation of
which he studied in nature and mas-
the works of Euclid terly painting
and Luca Pacioli. skills.

The artist has

inscribed his name
and the date of the
painting on an elegant
card that hangs from
a small branch of the
Tree of Knowledge of
Good and Evil.

▶Albrecht Durer, Eve, rso7.

Madrid, Museo del Prado.

243
 Depicted with a semihuman, sometimes hairy body, the Devil was
on occasion pictured with goat's horns, tail, claws on hands and
feet, and split hooves. His attributes are a hook and a pitchfork.

Lucifer, Satan, Beelzebub

There is no real iconographic distinction between Lucifer,
Name Satan, and Beelzebub. The name Lucifer occurs only once in
Lucifer, the hearer of light,
refers to the fairest of the
the Bible, in Isaiah, yet from this passage was derived not only
angels who rebelled against the proper name of the Devil, but also the story of his origin:
God; Satan (from the
Hebrew) means "accuser"; an exceedingly handsome angel who sinned intentionally by
Beelzebub, from Baalzcbul,
Beezehul, or Baalzehuh, setting himself against God, thus falling from his position of
"lord of the flies," was a
Syrian divinity. heavenly creature to become the Prince of Evil. Representations
Definition of the Devil, however, rarely took into account the splendor of
The Prince of Evil
his original beauty. He is mentioned much more frequently
Place (almost fifty times in the Hebrew and Christian scriptures)
Hell
than Satan. This is the earliest
Biblical Sources
Isaiah 14i12. K i n g definition, which in Hebrew
James Version);
1Chronicles st: t; meant "the accuser";
Joh s, 2;
Z e c h a r i a h 3 : r—z:
through translations and
Gospels; revisions in Greek and later
Acts 5, in;
1 Romans in Latin, it became the
z Corinthians;
and z Thessalonians; proper name of the Devil.
Timothy;
Revelation The world "devil" itself is of
Related Literature
more recent coinage, being
Gospel of Nicodemus derived from the Latin dia-
{apocryphal);
Dante Alighieri, Divirer bolus, Greek didbolos, liter-
Comedy
ally "the slanderer."
Characteristics
Out of hatred for God, Baalzebub, "the lord of the
the Devil tempts man to
do evil. flies," is mentioned in the
Diffusion of the Image
Gospels of Matthew, Mark,
Present nt all Christian and Luke: he was a Syrian
iconography, starting in
the early Middle Ages divinity, identified as Satan
in the apocryphal Gospel of
Nicodemus.

244
 Lucifer, Satan, Beelzebub

One of Satan's servant demons—here The notches simulate a crown, legitimate

shown naked, covered only with the attribute of a king, but more probably
ancient-style loincloth—approaches represent a flaming mane.
irreverently and makes an offensive
grimace as he bows.

According to an iconographic model that

was common from the ninth century to
the Renaissance, the Lord of Hell sits on
a throne and crushes a sinner under his
feet, while snakes coil around his legs.

• Attributed to Bonifacio Bembo,

The Devil, ca. 1441-47. Tarot card
of Visconti di Modrone. New Haven, A Satan, Ca. 1130. The last Judgment
Yak University, The Beinecke Rare (dctaill. Sculpted relief. Saint Foy,
Book and Manuscript library. Conques, Aveyron.

245
Lucifer, Satan, Beelzebub

The hairy; taloned, winged little monster

instigating Pilate is an indication of the
varied iconography of the Devil during
the Middle Ages, when it oscillated
between representations of the monstrous
lord of the Netherworld and depictions of Often the medieval artist was more
a cunning, spiteful creature. comfortable depicting the wicked action
provoked by the Devil than showing
the Devil himself.

Christ is tied to the scourging pillar.

His condition of innocent victim is
underscored by the blindfold and by
• Winchester miniaturist, The the look of impotence on his face, in
Scourging of Christ, it 5o. clear contrast to the jailer's grimaces.
Miniature from the S. Swnithun
or E. de Blois psaltey Winchester.
London, British Library.

246
 According to the apocryphal Transitus
Mariae (Dormition of Mary) (post-fifth
century), the apostles found the Virgin's
tomb without the body but filled with
flowers and a heavenly scent.
♦Dosso Dossi and Battista Luteri,
Saint Michael with the Devil and the
Assumption of Mary with Angels, t 534•
Parma, Galleria Nazionale.
Mary is lifted Saint Michael has
up to Heaven hung the scales for the
on a cloud. weighing of the souls
back on his belt.
Since at least the beginning of the
fifteenthcenturycentur35the Devil has been
represented with human traits corrupted
by ugly faunlike features and webbed feet
(and hands); the wings are perhaps the
last residue of Satan's angelic past.
247
Lucifer, Satan, Beelzebub
In this scene, monsters and frightful
animals surround Saint Michael's
battle with the Devil: in the dark
background, the bright eyes of a
birdlike demon stand out.
A fortified city lit by fires may suggest
the infernal city of Dis.
• Raphael, Saint Michael and the
Dragon, 15o5. Paris, Muses du Louvre.
248
An enormous insect that resembles a fly
makes its appearance to assist the
nonetheless defeated Devil.
Figures of condemned
men and women are
grasped and held by
coiling snakes.
The Devil is shown as a dog-faced,
horned dragon with large, partially
feathered wings. Starting in the six-
teenth century, some Italian artists
seemed to prefer the monster image
to the anthropomorphic one.
 Wielding his long sword, Saint Michael
drives out the Devil. The flying pose is
an innovation on the traditional arrange-
ment that shows the angel standing
triumphant over the Devil.

Surprisingly; Lucifer here has the

♦Lorenzo Lotto, Saint Michael Drives
out Lucifer, 155o. Loreto, Musco della
SantaCasa dcl Palazzo Apumlico.
sernihuman traits of an angel but is
stripped of his clothes (therefore, he is
shamefully naked) as he falls from Heaven.
His face resembles Michael's, as if Lucifer
were Michael's opposite (dark) side.

249
Lucifer, Satan, Beelzebub

With an elegant gesture, the Archangel

Michael moves the scales away from the
Devil's paws. On the two plates of the scale,
two small figures representing souls look to
Michael fur their salvation.

With his clawed foot

the Devil tries to hit
the large wings of
the archangel.

♦Perino del Vaga, Saint Michael Goatlike horns and beard, faun's ears, and
Pierces the Devil, I54o. Celle Ligurc, frightening eyes popping out of his head
Parroechiale di San Michele. complete the Devil's semihuman face.

250
 The head with goatlike horns, large
pointed ears, and sharp teeth define
the image of Satan as a satyr type.

TWo large bat's

wings seem to
protect the
seemingly
impotent Devil.

The clawed feet complete the bestial

• Jean-Jacques Fuechirc, Satan, 1834. image, but the figure lacks any unsettling
LosAngeles, County Museum of Am or frightening characteristics.

251
 Represented as the beast of the Apocalypse, the Antichrist has
also been portrayed as a child sitting on Satan's lap, or simply
as a man.

The Antichrist
Name
From the Latin
antichrishmt, in
turn front the Greek
anrichristos, opposed
to Christ
Definition
The Antichrist will claim
to he God before the end
of time, to seduce and
lead men to evil,
Time
Before the end of the world
Biblical Sources
John 1:18, rat, 4:5;
aJohn 7;
Revelation zo
Characteristics
A wicked, mendacious
being
Diffusion of the Image
Rather limited, mostly
in depictions of the
Apocalypse
The Antichrist is the false Messiah, who before the end of
the world will seduce men with false miracles and menda-
cious preaching, persecuting those who dare to resist his
powers of seduction. He is mentioned explicitly only in the
book of Revelation, where John narrates the last deeds of
this false prophet and describes him as a hideous animal.
Because this was the first description of the Antichrist, he
was still portrayed at times in the Early Middle Ages as
the beast of the Apocalypse. A new iconography began to
emerge after Saint Jerome wrote that the Antichrist would
be a man conceived by the Devil, and Saints Ambrose and
Augustine agreed that he would be simply a man; the new
conception was of a child held by a fatherly Satan on his
lap. This was followed by another image—
more common in the narrative of events
prophesied by Jesus ("for false Christs and false
prophets will arise and show great signs and
wonders, so as to lead astray, if possible,
even the elect" [Matthew 14:14D—that of a
man, even one very
much like Jesus.

▶Unknown artist, The

Antichrist, ca. fifteenth
century. Miniature.
Florence, Bibliateca
Medicco-Laurenziana.

252
 The Antichrist

Satan is drawn with human features, but

nothing about him is terribly frightening,
even though the artist intentionally made
him black, bearded, and with long finger-
and toenails.

Small demons, here depicted as black,

naked, disheveled angels, torture the
damned engulfed by flames.

The throne on
which Satan sits
is a two•beaded
serpent that
devours the
damned.

♦Satan Holding the Infant Antichrist,

eleventh to twelfth century. Mowie. Because the Antichrist is called the
Detail of The Universal Judgment. "son of the Devil," he is represented
Venice, Island of Torcello, Santa Maria as a child, here caught with a somber
Assunta. expression, sitting on the knees of Satan.

253
The Antichrist

The lord sends the Archangel Michael

precisely when the false Messiah has
risen from earth to launch the
definitive attack on God.

Defeated, the
Antichrist plunges
headfirst and falls
on his followers.

The traits of
Antichrist, the
deceiver, are very
similar to those
shown in the tradi-
tional images of
Christ, but the demon
that holds him tight
while suggesting the
words of the sermon
is a telltale sign of
the deception.

In this corner, the

artist, visibly pleased
with his completed
masterpiece, has
painted his self-
portrait. The monk
next to him has been
identified as the
painter Pea Angelico.

▶Luca Signorelli, Preaching and

Acts of theAntichrist, 1499—i fox.
Fresco. Orvieto, cathedral, San
Brizio Chapel.

254
The Antichrist

Saint Michael, dressed in rich armor,

pierces the Antichrist with his spear. The
false Messiah is about to crash onto the
same podium from which he had been
pronouncing false prophecies.

A grotesque demon with long horns Once definitively beaten by Saint Michael
and long ears, a hairy body a tail, and his cohorts, the Antichrist will be
and webbed feet tries to flee from thrown into the fiery pit.
the battle scene.

Kings, aristo-
crats, and reli-
gious men are
in the crowd
that witnesses
the defeat of
the Antichrist.

A long scepter,
symbol of the
power of the
Antichrist, now
lies broken on
the ground.

A triple crown, the papal headdress

which the Antichrist had earned from the
• Asguis Master, Saint Michael's Victory people by making them believe through
over the Antichrist,CS.1440. Madrid, his falsehoods that he was the Messiah,
Musee del Prado. lies on the ground.

256
A large sea creature usually depicted with a gaping mouth that
devours human bodies; in this guise it is assimilated into the per-
sonification of Hell. It can also assume traits of other animals.

The Leviathan
Derived from Phoenician mythology, the Leviathan was a monster
from the primordial chaos that lived in the sea, having been Name
From the Hebrew
defeated by Yahweh. It was believed that this was the same mysteri- frwyacin, "twisting"
ous monster that ate the moon (a mythological explanation of Definition
eclipses). The book of Job speaks of it as a mighty enemy that Asea monster mentioned
in the Bible
obstructs the dialogue with God in a manner similar to the Devil.
Biblical Sources
For this reason, placing this and the reference in the Psalms in their Job 3:8, 40:25;
Psalms 74:14, 104:26;
proper context, we might infer that "Leviathan" was one name Isaiah 2.7:i
used to indicate Satan, though always with the memory of the Characteristics
mythological sea monster in the background. Called "ferocious A frightful monster that
inhabits the bottom of
Leviathan," it represents a dreadful force that lives in the sea, and the sea

like the sea is dangerous, frightful, and lethal. Like the sea, it evokes Diffusion of the Image
Related to illustrations of
in man feelings of vulnerability and insecurity. The book of Job the Bible and of Hell
describes this monster as a crocodile, although this did not particu-
larly affect artists' representations of Satan. In art, the Leviathan
hasbeen rendered most often as a gigantic fish with a huge mouth,
which swallows up the damned; usually it lies at the bottom of
Hell. In somecases, it has the features of a wolf or a bear.

4 The Three Primitive

Animals, thirteenth century.
Miniature from a Bible. Milan,
Biblioteca Ambrosiana.

257
The Leviathan

The bodies of the damned have fallen The original hideousness of the sea
inside the maws of the monster and monster can he further modified: in
are about to be swallowed. this case, with horns and wolf's ears.

Tongues of fire recall that the Leviathan

is a symbol of Satan and that it devours
its victims in the pit of Hell.

• Late Gothic French sculptor, The

Mouth of Hell, early fifteenth century. ▶Padua illuminator, illustration front Dante's
Bourgcs, Musee du Berry. Divine Comedy, early fifteenth century.

25S
Cerberus is represented as a ferocious dog with two or more
heads; Charon is an old man with burning eyes: he strikes the
damned with his oar.

Cerberus and Charon

In Dante's Divine Comedy, Cerberus and Charon are two
pagan demons stationed by Satan to guard the gates of Hell. Name
From the Latin Cerberus
With them, in Dante's universe, we also find Minos, Geryon, and Charon
Pluto, and Phlegyas. In taking these figures from classical Place
mythology, the poet revived the tradition found in Virgil's Next to the NetherworId

Aeneid—thus exemplifying how Christian thought assimi- Related literature

I lesiod, Theogony, 3r I;
lated classical culture. Charon, son of Erebus (Primordial Apillodorus,
114.: a;
Darkness) and Nyx (Night), had the task of ferrying the souls Virgil. Aeneid, VI,
of the dead to the Netherworld (they had to pay a special fee z918-394. 396, 419;
Ovid, Metamorphoses,
for the passage, the obolus or coin that was placed in their 450-51;
Dante Alighieri, Divine
mouth before burial). Cerberus, sired by Typhon and Comedy, Inferno, canto
Ill and canto VI
Echidna, was the guardian of Hades, kingdom of the dead.
Characteristics
Dante placed him as the guardian of the third circle of Hell. Figures from classical
mythology that appear in
Charon is represented as a sulky old man Dante's Inferno as demons
with burning eyes who strikes the
Beliefs
damned with his oar; and Cerberus, as a Cerberus prevented the
damned from leaving
two- or three-headed dog, though Hades; Charon ferried
the damned for a fee of
according to mythology, this creature one otiolus.
could have up to fifty heads. Diffusion of the Image
In antiquity they appeared
in illustrations of the
Aeneid and of the Labors
of Hercules; subsequently
in illustrations of the
Divine Comedy or in
Last Judgment scenes with
strong Dantesque influence.

259
Cerberus and Charon

The fires visible behind the high walls

of the city of Dis indicate that Hell's
landscape is the opposite of that of the
kingdom of the elect with its vast
horizons and never-ending views.

Angelic figures stroll in a lush landrape

painted with cool hues. A crystal edifice
rises in the distance. These are the
Elysian Fields of classical antiquity.

At the center of the composition, in the

middle of the River Styx, Charon ferries a
soul on his boat: he is headed not only to
the pagan Netherworld, but also to Hell A monstrous, three-
where, according to Christian belief, the headed dog guards
damned are punished. Hell: it is Cerberus.

• Joachim Patinir, Landscape with

Charon's Boat in the River Styx,
5so. Madrid, Museo del Prado.
 Charon's image here is faithful to Dante's
description:

"And to! towards us coming in a boat An old

man, hoary with the hair of eld, .Charon the
demon, with the eyes of glede, . Beats with
his oar whoever lags behind." (Dante, Inferno,
canto Ill, Henry W. Longfellow translation)

The crowd of sinners is pushed

and pulled out of the boat by
C.haron's assistant demons.

♦Michelangelo, The Damned,

537-4r. Detail of The Last Judgment.
Fresco. Vatican City, Sistine Chapel.

261
Cerberus and Charon

The fire of Hell In his eleventh labor Hercules must

represents the confront and capture the three-hezuled
Netherworld, dog that guards the mouth of the River
guarded by the Acheron. Forbidden from using weaponi,
monster Cerberus. he can only threaten it with a club.

With his left hand the hem firmly grasps

the chain with which he will tie up and
overwhelm the monster.

The image of Cerherus, the insatiable

monster, is that of amany-headed dog
• Francisco dc Zurbarin. Hercules (it can have as many as fifty), though it is
andCerberus,1634. Madrid, usually depicted with two or three heads;
Musco dcl Prado. sometimes, it has a serpent's tail.

262
 The gluttons are punished by a
storm of mud, water, and hail.

At the close of the fifth canto, Dante faints

after learning about the sad fate to which
Paolo and Francesca were sentenced; their
punishment was to be buffeted and flung
about by relentless storms.

Cerberus is the hideous three-headed

dog that deafens the damned and
prevents anyone from escaping. The
artist, differing from Dante's description,
shows Cerberus without a beard and with
legs ending in claws that scratch, flail,
and quarter the damned.
One of the sinners lying prone on the
ground rises as hesees Dante and Virgil
pass by is Ciacco, who was punished
"for the pernicious sin of gluttony"
(Dante, Inferno, canto VI, Henry W.
Longfellow translation).

AFederico Zuccaro, Inferno: Canto VI.

The Gluttons; Cerberus, 1586-88.
Florence, Biblioteca Nationale.

263

The Beast of the Apocalypse
Definition
A representation of
Satan from the book
of Revelation
The Biblical Source
Revelation xi., 17
Characteristics
Battles constantly to defeat
the good hut is defeated by
God's angels
Diffusion of the Image
Initially found in illustra-
tions of the Apocalypse,
the dragon, as described in
chapter xi., also appears in
scenes of the Immaculate
Conception
P. Anonymous Spanish
illuminator, Harlot on the
Beast, third quarter of the
clefaith century. Miniature
from the Apocalypse of Saint
Sever. Paris, Bibliotheque
Nationale.
2n4
A seven-headed, long-tailed dragon sometimes ridden by a
woman holding a cup. In scenes of the Immaculate Conception,
the dragon is sometimes subjugated by the Virgin and Child.
This beast appears in two different visions of the book of Revela-
tion. In the vision reported in chapter 12, this frightening, pow-
erful, ferocious, bellicose monster has seven heads with horns
and diadems. In chapter 17, the author focuses on the need to
explain the appearance of the beast and its totally unexpected
return. The beast makes its first appearance after the portentous
dream of the woman clothed with the sun and undergoing the
pangs of childbirth; the dragon appears ready to devour the child
that she will bring forth. Its appearance is terrifying: red, with
seven heads crowned by seven diadems, ten horns and a tail that
sweeps down a third of the stars of Heaven. As the child is born,
atremendous battle ensues between the angels of Heaven and
the dragon and its angels. Defeated, the great beast is
flung down to earth where it goes off to
make war on the followers of
God and gives its power to
another beast; other
beasts then appear
with the power of
seducing humankind.
In a later vision, the
seven-headed
dragon reap-
pears; this time
it is ridden by a
woman, a harlot, symbol
of perdition and of
those who have
rejected God.
 The Beast of the Apocalypse

The Archangel At the center of the apocalyptic scene, right

Michael, the only
angel depicted in
armor, strikes the beast
on its fire-spitting
snout with his spear.
above the battle, is a manclorla with Christ
enthroned in Glory This scene, painted as it
was on the interior wall over the entrance,
was meant to be imposing and reassuring to
the faithful as they left the church.

The male child just

delivered by the
woman in the left
corner is immediately
rescued from the
dragon, who wants to
devour it, and carried
to God's throne,
The dragon's tail is so
long and frightening
that it sweeps down a
The enormous red third of the stars of
dragon has seven Heaven, and, in fact,
heads, one much the artist has painted
larger than the others. them below the tail.

• The Great Sign, eleventh

century. Civate, Basilica di
SanPietro al Monte.

265
The Beast of the Apocalypse
The woman "clothed with the sun,"
a vision from the book of Revelation,
has just been attacked by the dragon.
She is surrounded by a halo of light;
under her feet is the moon.
At the center of the
composition is the
Tree of Knowledge
AGiorgio Vasari, Immaculate of Good and Evil,
Conception, r 54 r. Florenix, Galleria around which the
degli Uffizi. beast is coiling its tails.
266
The beast has been explicitly rendered
as Satan: with a semihuman body but
horned head, bat's wings, and a long tail.
With his arms tied behind his back, Satan
seems already defeated.
In a clear departure from the narrative
of Revelation, but still with allegorical
intent, Adam and Eve, the first human
beings to he seduced and deceived by
the beast, are tied at the foot of the
tree. With them are Old Testament
figures; they will all be set free at the
Resurrection of Christ.
 The final segment of the dragon's long Upon the Lord's command, an angel The woman holds
tail shakes as it sweeps the stars down affixes two wings of agreat eagle on the her newborn son aloft;
from Heaven—according to the biblical Virgin's shoulders (Revelation 12:74) that an angel approaches
text, one-third of all the stars. she might flee to the midge that has been from the right to rescue
prepared for her. hint and take him to
God's throne.

Saint Michael uses

sparkling thunderbolts
as his sword.

Very popular in the

Counter-Reformation
era is the depiction
The beast dragging its demon angels of the star-crowned
down is heavily built: its long tail coils woman, identified
around the angels in combat as the beast with the Virgin, who
♦Peter Paul Rubens, The Virgin of twists its seven necks and seven howling has the moon under
theApocalypse. ca. 1623. Ion Angeles, heads in a last effort to defeat Saint her feet and crushes
J. Paul Getty Museum. Michael's decisive attack. the serpent.

267
The Beast of the Apocalypse
Though rendered in static medieval style,
the attacking posture of the three armed
and stern-looking angels presages their
victory against the dragon.
♦The Battle of theAngels and the
Dragon, fourteenth century. Illustration
from the book of Revelation. Toulouse,
Museedes Augustins.
268
The traditionally frightening traits of the
three devils riding the dragon—the hairy
body, the split hooves, and the horns—are
almost farcical here; the three creatures
seem totally defeated, even harmless.
Strangely; the beast, the seven-headed
horned dragon wearing a sort of crown
that suggests the diadem of the apocalyp-
tic text. is depicted with only two legs and
a tail that winds around itself

An angel carries Saint John in spirit
to the desert; there, he has a dreadful
vision that pains him so much that he
is depicted holding his own hand, a
gesture suggesting that he is deeply
disturbed about a hopeless situation.
The woman riding the beast is arrayed
in purple and gold and holds in her hand
a golden cup "full of abominations and
the impurities of her fornication...
Mlle is drunk . . . with the blood of the
martyrs (Revelation 17:4-5)." The
woman stands for Babylon, that is, the
Roman Empire, a place of perdition
and idolatrous paganism.

The beast that frightens and astonishes John

• The Woman Riding the Beast,
fourteenth century. Illustration from
the book of Revelation. Toulouse,
Museedes Augustins.
"was and no longer is. but will come again."
The seven heads suggest seven kings, just like
the ten horns on the heads suggest forms of
power that will last for different periods of
time and are fated to struggle with the
Lamb, but the Lamb shall prevail.

269
 Like the other apostles, Judas is portrayed wearing a tunic and
cloak or pallium; his iconographic attribute is the pouch with coins,
his payment for having sold Christ. He is often shown frowning.

Judas
The apostle Judas Iscariot, who betrayed Jesus, exemplifies the
Name
Devil's action of undermining man's freedom and leading him
From the Aramaic
jebesda, zealot of God
to wicked deeds. The Gospels unanimously affirm that the
Devil entered into Judas when he decided to deliver Jesus to
Time
Lived in the first the Sanhedrin. Judas always appears in scenes from the
century A.D.
Gospels, where he is recognizable by his iconographic
Biblical Sources
Matthew 10:4, 26:14, attribute—the small bag of coins—since he was the treasurer
2.6:15, 2.6:47, 12:3;
Mark 3:19, 4: to, 1443;
for the apostles, but also, and especially, because he sold the
Luke 6:16, 2.u3, 2247-48; Savior for thirty pieces of silver. He is the protagonist in scenes
John 6:7o, 124, 13:2.,
18:1-.5; of the capture of Jesus, where he points out Christ to the
Acts 1:16-18
guards by greeting him with a kiss; images of Judas repenting
Characteristics
One of the Twelve Apos- and hanging himself are rarer. From the end of the Middle
tles, he is the one who
betrays Jesus. Dante places
Ages to the Renaissance, his halo was sometimes black or he
him at the very bottom of had none, while in the Middle Ages he was often portrayed
Hell, with the traitors.
with dark skin and harsh features. In late-fifteenth-century
Diffusion of the Image
Judas usually appears in renderings of the Last Supper, Judas was assigned a table seat
the cycles illustrating the
life of Jesus and his Passion on the opposite side from
ithe Last Supper and the
Kiss of Judas). Especially where the group of
in the Middle Ages, there Christ and the other
were representations,
though limited, of his apostles sat, thus mak-
suicide by hanging.
ing him readily identifi-
able to the viewer. In
some cases, the artist
aided identification
by placing a
▶Francesco Cairo, The Kiss
demon standing
of Judas, mid-seventeenth like a prompter
century. Milan, Pinacoteca
dell'Arcivescovado. behind his
back.

270

Behind the traitor is the unequivocal
figure of the Devil, who supports and
counsels him. Hairy, winged, with shin
faunlike legs and claws, this image faintly
suggests a caricature of Judas's profile.
• Giotto, Judas's Betrayal, 13o6. Detail
of the fresco Stories of the Passion.
Padua,Scrovescrii Chapel.
Judas
Gestures of agreement By painting this architectural motif of
and warnings to art altar canopyt Giotto suggests the
arrange for the capture entrance to the Sanhedrin building
of Christ, who has just where the secret meeting between
been sold. Judas and the priests was held.
Judas grips the bag containing his
compensation for betraying Jesus:
thirty silver coins.
271
Judas

On the wall of the hall of the Last Sup-
per, or seenas if through the windows
beyond it, appear the episodes that
unfold soon thereafter, starting with the
Prayer in the Garden of Gethsemane
and ending with the Crucifixiim.
Jesus' anguished prayer is comforted
by an angel, who nevertheless shows
him the chalice, sign of the forth-
coming Passion.

Peter has a violent

reaction and attacks
Malcus, a servant of
the high priest, cutting
off his ear.

The garden of
Gethsemane was a
private garden, there-
fore it was fenced.
A Cosimo Rossetti, The Last Supper,
I481. Fresco. Vatican City, Sistine
Chapel.

272
Judas identifies Jesus The city of Jerusalem, Christ is crucified
to the guards by not far from Mount between two thieves.
greeting him with Golgotha, where the
a kiss. events of the Passion
take place.

According to the Gospel, the Devil entered

Judas and persuaded him to betray Jesus.
Acat, symbol of the Devil, often
Although Judas is depicted with a halo appears next to Judas in scenes of the
around his head like the other apostles, his
Last Supper painted in the fifteenth
halo is dark. He is also identifiable by his
and sixteenth centuries. Here the cat
lone position across the table from the others
is fighting with a dog.
and by the small devil on his shoulder.

273
Judas

Realizing the enormity of his deed, Judas

tried to undo is by returning the money so
as to ransom Jesus, but the money was
not accepted. Believing that he would
never be forgiven, he hanged himself.

The artist underscores the presence

of the Devil in the actions of Judas
by imagining that two devils prepared
the gallows and hanged him after
undressing him.

• Judas Hanging, twelfth century.

Column capital. Amin, Music dc
Saint L.azarc.

274
A flying figure sustained in flight by demons or plunging head-
first from the sky with Saints Peter and Paul kneeling on the
earth below.

Simon Magus
The life of Simon Magus, banished by Dante to the third pit of
Hell with the aptly named simoniacs, is treated briefly in the Definition
A magician and impostor,
Acts of the Apostles, which narrate that a man in Samaria by the as reported in the Acts of
the Apostles
name of Simon had gained a large following with his magic.
When the Apostle Philip came to preach the good news, Simon Place
Samaria
lost many of his followers; he then asked to be baptized and
Time
would follow Philip around, amazed at the miracles that the holy First century s.P.
man performed. When Peter and John came to Samaria to lay Biblical Source
Acts
their hands on the newly baptized so that they might receive the
Holy Spirit, Simon offered them money: he wanted to buy that Related Literature
Acts of Peter {apocryphal);
power, but Peter cursed him and dismissed him. Only the apoc- Acts of Peter, Paul, and
the Pseudo-Marcellus
ryphal texts and their later revival in the Golden Legend relate (apocryphal);
Apostolic Memoirs of
the continuation and end of the story. Simon Magus moved to Abdias (apocryphal);
Jacobus de Voragine,
Rome, where he continued to deceive with his tricks; even Golden Legend
Emperor Nero came to believe that he was the Son of God. After Actions and characteristics
many confrontations, Peter and Paul He offered money to
purchase the apostolic
finally demonstrated that all power of the laying on
of hands to impart the
his powers came from Holy Spirit.
the Devil. They Beliefs
unmasked his fly- The apocryphal texts
indicate that the fall of
ing trick, which Simon Magus caused the
arrest and martyrdom of
cost Simon his Saints Peter and Paul,
ordered by Nero,
life, according
to most sources.
Anonymous master from
But Simon's Hildesheirn, The Fall of
Simon Magus, Ca. I r7o.
death greatly dis- Miniature from the
tressed Nero, who Stammheim
Los Angeles, f. Paul
then ordered the mar- Getty Museum.

tyrdom of Peter and Paul.

275
Simon Magus

The wings that Simon had attached to his

shoulders to make believe that he could
fly fail with him to earth. According to
popular legend, his body was ripped into
four parts, though according to a differ-
ent version, he survived with a triple leg
fracture, as Peter had asked in his prayer.
Saint Peter, who has just implored God
to unmask the sorcerer, and Saint Paul,
who also prayed, witness the fall of the
impostor Simon of Samaria.

The Devil has been revealed: with a

perfunctory sneer and downcast wings,
he stops supporting Simon's flight.

♦The Fall of Simon Magus,

twelfth =miry. Column capital.
Autun, Saint lazare.

276
 Following Saint Peter's beseeching
Prayer, the Devil's angels, who had
been supporting the sorcerer's
miraculous flight, let him fall.

According to the Acts of Pseudo- Among the throng seduced by Simon

Marcellus, Simon the sorcerer had was Nero; grieving deeply for Simon's
called the crowd to gather at the Campus debacle and death, he ordered that Peter
Martius, where he had prepared a tall and Paul be seized and executed.
tower from which he was going to fly,

Peter and Paul kneel in prayer: the

apocryphal texts report that a tearful
♦Jac:obeli° del Fiore, The Fall of Peter implored the Lord to unmask
Simon Magus, fourteenth century. the diabolical trick by which Simon
Denver, Art Museum. was able to IN

277
 THE ANGELIC COHORTS
Classical Antecedents
Angels
Age and Sex of Angels
Angelic Hierarchies
Seraphim
Cherubim
The Tetramorph
The Elders of the Apocalypse
Heavenly Battles
Musical Angels
Warrior Angels
Adoring Angels
Angels in Action
The Guardian Angel
The Archangel Gabriel
The Archangel Michael
The Archangel Raphael
The Archangel Uriel

Leonardo da Bcsozzo, Coronation

of the Virgin, ca. 1450. Fresco. Naples,
San Giovanni a Carbonara, Caracciolo
Chapel.

Classical Antecedents
Characteristics
Semidivine creatures
Diffusion of the Image
Widespread in Assyria and
the pm-Christian world
▶So-called Monument of
Rocco, King of Mauretania,
from the Campidoglin,
first century B.C. Carved stone
relief. Rome, Musei Capi-
tolini, Centrale
Montemartini.
280
Winged figures of men, women, youths, and children in flight,
kneeling, or standing next to mythological figures or imperial
insignia.
The image of the angel is very ancient, in all likelihood pre-
biblical, as Hebrew culture and religion were influenced by
contacts with the Egyptian and Babylonian worlds during the
Israelites' years of captivity. Already present in Zoroastrian
religion, the idea of the angel became infused with the clear
spiritual connotations of mediator or revealer, in addition to
the more earthly one of messenger; in the evolution of histori-
cal expectations of waiting for an envoy, it was also accepted
into Hebrew thought. Parallel to this development, contacts
among various populations transmitted images that gradually
acquired distinctive forms, each with its own characteristics.
Christian artists drew inspiration from Assyrian images of
winged genies, the daimons, divinities tied to the ancestors, the
deceased, and protectors of the dead. Erotes, winged putti that
go back to representations of Eros and enjoyed great popular-
ity during the Renaissance, furnished another model. Finally,
Christian artists found a source for angelic poses and attitudes
in ancient images of the winged Victory, though with decidedly
different attributes of sex and clothing.
 Classical Antecedents

These wings may have inspired the imagi-

nation of the prophet who, during his
exile in Babylon, wrote of his visions of
winged Cherubim.

The object held in the hand and the pose

indicate a ritualistic action of aspersion.
This figure was probably placed (in a
symmetrical position with another) as a
• Winged Genie, 883-859 B.C.
Assyrian stone relief. Rome, guardian of the "Tree of Life."
Museo Barracco.

281

Angels
Name
From the Greek angelos,
which means "messenger"
Definition
A spiritual, incorporeal
creature
Biblical Sources
Psalm to3:2o;
Marrhew t o
Related Literature
Saint Augustine, Enarratio
in Psalmos (Exposition of
the Psalms) 103, 1, 15
Characteristics
Personal creatures having
a spiritual and an incorpo-
real nature; messengers
and attendants of God
Diffusion of the Image
Present in Fatly Christian
art, this subject developed
extensively and became
diffuse during the Middle
Ages.
▶Pietro Cavallini, Angels, 1293.
Detail of The Last Judgment,
Fresco. Rome, Santa Cecilia
in Trastevere.
282
The earliest images depict angels simply as men; later, they are
human figures with wings and of different genders and ages.
Decidedly distinct from pagan images, the oldest depictions of
angels date back to the earliest Christian centuries. These Christ-
ian images are not direct transpositions of classical pagan forms,
which were used as models only after the Edict of Constantine
(3T3) granted the new religion freedom from persecution. In the
first known image of the Annunciation, found in the Catacombs
of Priscilla (second to third centuries), the angel has no wings.
Other early images of divine envoys probably had similar traits to
distinguish them from the pagan repertory and to be faithful to
the Bible, which speaks of angels who resemble men. The angels
wear Christian garments, with the pallium over a tunic. To differ-
entiate them from pagan figures, they do not wear the chiton of
the winged Victories, nor are they naked. In later centuries, they
may wear the attire of court dignitaries or liturgical vestments,
such as stoles or dal-
matics. At a certain
point in the history
of art, angels with
wings made their
appearance, implying
the concept of God's
heralds and flying
creatures. In the
Renaissance, they
were also pictured as
erotes—no longer at
risk of being confused
with pagan beings.
 Angels

In the oldest depiction of the

Annunciation, the angel Gabriel
is portrayed without wings.

The Virgin Mary, sitting on a

throne of sorts, receives the
angel's announcement; it is the
iconography of Mary as a queen.

♦Annunciation, second to third

centuries. Fresco. Rome, Catacombs
of Priscilla.

283
Owing to Byzantine
influence, the shape
of the tomb is that
of the burial chapel
in the Basilica of the
Resurrection in The women had gone
Jerusalem. to the tomb early
in the morning to
prepare the body of
The angel who Jesus for burial.
announces the
Resurrection to the
women is portrayed
asa youth sitting on
the lid of the tomb:
he has no wings and
wears a tunic and a
paihuM. His head is
circled by a halo
different from that of
Jesus in the following
scenes, as it has no Jesus appears to
sign of the cross. the women: the
iconographic motif
of the apparition is
drawn front the
Gospel of Matthew
z8:9—to ?.

Jesus, resurrected,
meets the eleven
disciples on Mount
Galilee; the women
had brought the
apostles the message
regarding this ren-
dezvous (Matthew
18:76-171.

♦The Resurrection, ninth century.

Oneside of an ivory diptych, the Christ shows his side wound to the
other side of which depicts The incredulous apostles as proof of his
Passion. Milan, Museo del Duomo. Passion anal Resurrection.

285
Angels

The artist depicts human expressions of

pain felt by the angels, who nevertheless
move about Heaven.

The angels' human traits appear to

dissolve into the air, enhancing their
spiritual nature.

Despite their wings With wings spread in mid-flight and

and halos, all the
angels express their
profound sorrow and
take part in mourning
the death of Christ.
arms outstretched. the angels share in
An angel covers his the pain and sorrow of Jesus' death.
face with his dress and
uses it to wipe away
his tears of grief.

♦Giotto, Crying Angels, 13o5-13,

Detail of The Lamentation of Christ.
Fresco.Padua, Scrovcgni Chapel.

286
 Twelve angels carrying Inscribed on the scrolls are not only glory
olive branches dance hymns, but also quotes from a treatise by
in a circle in the sky. Savonarola that had a profound influence
on llotticelli's spirituality

The Nativity,
according to An angel
customary pointing out the
Renaissance birth of Christ
iconography to men crowns
portrays the them with olive
Virgin kneeling branches, a
M adoration of symbol of the
the child while new covenant
Saint Joseph of peace offered
sleeps nearby by God.

Defeated, a small demon

with human features The embrace between
and small wings is men and angels shows
chased back into the the nets bond between
ground. Heaven and earth. In the lower part of the painting are
five demons, symbol of Evil defeated,
not only In the birth of the Redeemer
but also, in a parallel interpretation, by
the battle between the woman "clothed
• Sandro Botncelli, Mystical Nativity, with the sun" and the dragon from
i5oi. London, National Gallery. book 12 of Revelation.

287
Angels

An angel announces Youthful figures repre-

to the shepherds the sent the worshiping
great joy of the birth angels.
of the Redeemer:

Some angels—
the Cherubnn—
are represented
in Late Renais-
sance paintings
only as winged
heads of infants.

• Philippe de Champaigne, The

Nativity, i643. Lille, Music des
Beaux-Arts.

288
Figures depicted as young men characterized by manly build
and attire or as young women wearing precious robes and
headdresses; sometimes rendered as child angels.

Age and Sex of Angels

From an iconographic point of view, the angel was born male:
biblical passages describe angels as men, and the apocryphal Definition
An attempt to define the
Enoch relates that angels fell in love with the daughters of men. possible age and sex of
The choice of gender was probably dictated by contemporary spiritual creatures

culture, which preferred a divine messenger to be a man rather Biblical Sources

Genesis 18:2., 19:1,
than a woman. Some early catacomb paintings depict angels 31:2.5-30

with beards, an attribute that returns, surprisingly, in fifteenth- Related Literature

Book of Enoch
century scenes of angels of the Apocalypse, at a time when iapocryphali
angels with clearly feminine traits and hairdos also occur.
Diffusion of the Image
Nevertheless, although these heavenly creatures were portrayed hi earlier representations,
the male adult angel is
with human shapes and equipped with wings, they were to be more common; male child
angels first appear in the
understood as having no sex and no age. Artists thus twelfth century but become
prevalent only much later
had great latitude to portray angels in different ways, depend- the Renaissancek while
ing on the context: the angels of biblical apparitions and the the female angel appears
from the late fifteenth
warrior ones of the century on,

Apocalypse are more

mature and male,
while the adoring
angels of Renaissance
Nativity scenes are
more feminine. And,
in a time of full redis-
covery of the classical
world, the child angel
was invented, reviv- 4 Giovan Antonio
Pordenone, God the
ing the image of Eros, Farber and Angels, t 530.
or Cupid, now Fresco. Corternaggiore, San
Francesco, Pallavicino
absorbed into Christ- Chapel.

ian iconography.

289
Age and Sex of Angels

The child faces of cherubic angels The tower, a traditional attribute of

take shape amid the heavenly clouds. Saint Barbara, is placed in the back-
ground, almost hidden by the curtain.

Two young angels, the same

ageas the child Jesus whom the
The tiara is the pope's Virgin presents to the faithful,
headdress and as such are shown naked, with wind-
serves as an attribute tussled hair and a pair of small, • Raphael, The Sistine Madonna,
of Saint Sixtus. multicolored birds' wings. '525-16. Dresden, GernAldcgalerie.

290
 Young angels without wings are dressed
as elegant pages but with longer tunics.
They form a crown around the Virgin
and Child.

The two groups are singing, possibly Two delicate hands descending from the
psalms, in alternating choruses. They heavens place the crown of Mary the
read them out of a small, gem-encrusted Queen upon the head of the Virgin.
hook of prayers.

Asa symbol of Mary's purity, the

eight angels bear branches of
blossoming white lilies.
• Sandro Botticelli, Madonna with
Child and Fight Angels, ca. 1478.
Berlin, Gcmaldegalerie.

291
Age and Sex of Angels

Despite their delicate hairstyles and
jeweled diadems, the four angels of the
Apocalypse have large wings and halos,
as well as the traits of adult bearded men
who are armed and determined.
The angel rising from the east orders the
four angels stationed at the four corners
of the earth not to wreak destruction
until Cod has placed his seal upon the
forehead of all his servants (Revelation

Saint Michael fights the strenuous

battle with the dragon with the aid of
the celestial ranks.

♦Puglicse school, Four Angels,

ca. 141s/3410-3o. Detail of The Deferment
of Vengeance.Fresco. Galatina, Santa Caterina
crAlessandria.

292
 Together with the halo, the wings
are unmistakable angelic attributes.
• Masolino da Panicale, Angels,
1435. Detail of The Baptism of
Christ. Fresco. Castiglione Olona,
Chiesa della Collegiata.
A profile of a pretty feminine face
combined with hair gathered in the back
makes this angel resemble a woman. But
the angel close by. with short curly hair,
looks more like a young man.
The angels assisting in the baptism of
Jesus are responsible for holding the
garments. The number of angels, three,
is probably meant to emphasize that the
Trinity was manifest at this event: the
voice of the Father, the dove of the Holy
Spirit, and the presence of the Son.
293
 Angels are arrayed hierarchically around God in scenes of Par-
adise. They may have more than one set of wings and different
iconographic attributes, such as spheres, sticks, or lances.

Angelic Hierarchies
The Bible does not contain a precise typology of angels, though it
Definition does mention angels with different functions. The Syrian Church
Hierarchical classification
of angelic creatures accord-
Fathers subdivided the angelic cohorts into three orders of three
ing to their different roles choirs each, also known as hierarchies, but a clearly structured
Place theory of angels emerged only in the late fourth century. Set down
Heaven
by Pseudo-Dionysios the Aeropagite at the beginning of the sixth
Biblical Sources
Isaiah 6,2; century, it described a broader conception that included, for the
Ezekiel m4-14, roia-zz;
Colossians r:r6;
first time, the hierarchical order of the entire Christian universe, a
Ephesians 1:11 harmonious linking of humankind to the heavenly creatures. The
Related literature Aeropagite defined nine orders subdivided into three triads, whose
Pseudo-Dionysios the
Acropagitc, De cnefesti level is determined by the degree of intellectual participation in the
hierarchia (On Heavenly
Hierarchies); divine mysteries. In the uppermost hierarchy and closest to God
Gregory the Great, Homil-
iae in Erangelia (Homilies are Seraphim, followed by Cherubim and Thrones; then come
on the Gospel);
Dante Alighieri, Parceliso,
Dominions, Virtues, and Powers; and finally Principalities,
canto XXVIII, 97-13y Archangels, and Angels. Gregory the Great revived this theory,
Characteristics which was widely accepted throughout the Middle Ages. Starting
Their mle is one of purifi-
cation, enlightenment, and in the fifteenth century, humanists began to question such theo-
contemplation, helping to
lead 'nail hack to God. ries, and consequently, this particular iconography began to fade.
Diffusion of the linage
Limited to the Middle Ages

▶Michele Giamhono,
Coronation of the Virgin,
ca. 1448. Venice, Gallerie
dell'Accademia.

294

The Virtues are in the
second angelic order;
according to the
Pseudo-Dionysios,
they receive God's
light and transmit it
to the human soul.
• School of Coppo di
Marcovaldo, Christ and
theAngelic Hierarchies,
thirteenth century. Mosaic.
Florence, dome of the
baptistry.
Angelic Hierarchies
The Principalities in the third order TheArchangels are in the middle of
have a leadership and guidance role the third order. They hold a scroll
similar to that of God. inscribed "Animadvertes," signifying
their protective, guardian role.
TheAngels are found in the lowest choir
of the third order. They are depicted in
simple clothing and with a scroll in hand,
befitting their role as messengers.
According to the Pseudo-Dionysios
and Gregory the Great, the Thrones The Dominions are in
mentioned by Saint Paul are in the first the second angelic
angelic order. Dante reports a teaching order. According to the The Powers,
of Saint Thomas Aquinas: the Thmnes Pseudo-Aeropagite, spiritual creatures
are Mirrors or Amors upon which the they are free of all ties of the second
judgment of God is reflected. Perhaps to earthly things and order, raise the
the light blue mandorla that they hold are entirely devoted to soul toward
refers to the reflective purpose of mirrors. the Sovereign God. things divine.
295
Angelic Hierarchies

The Principalities' role as leaders and

commanders is clearly shown by their
depiction as armed angels. They turn
toward God as a superior principle to
which they direct inferior beings.

♦Guariento di Arpo, Principalities,

1354. Padua, Mused Civico. This and
the next four paintings once decorated
the private chapel in the palace of the
Carrara rulers of Padua.

296
 The rainbow-colored wings symbolize
the alliance between God and men.

The demon tied to a chain and trampled

upon by this angel exemplifies the
thought of Gregory the Great, who
• Guariento di Arpo, One of the likened to the Powers those men capable
Powers, 13 54. Padua, Musco Civico. of banishing evil spirits by way of prayer.

297
Angelic Hierarchies

The lily branch is chosen by the

artist as an attribute that indicates
purity; ire fact, the Thrones are
above earthly gratifications and are
not contaminated by them.

These angels are seated

upon concentric circles
of rainbows.

♦Guariento di Arpo, Thrones,

T354. Padua, Musco

298
 With a scepter in one hand and a globe
in the other, the crowned angel repre-
sents perfect control, detached from
base elements and directed toward
the supreme power of God.

414114* ,-'44111111114"..mvx

The throne signifies the ability to control:

according to Gregory the Great, those
♦Guariento di Arpo, One of believers who can control within them-
the Dominions. 1354. Padua, selves all possible evil impulses can
Mused Civico. approach the choir of the Dominions.

299
Angelic Hierarchies

The image of the angelic Virtues is drawn

from the quality of virtue, which is why
the angels of this choir are often depicted
in the act of assisting humans. Gregory
the Great wrote that those who act in a
worthy manner may rise to the level of
the Virtues.

Kneeling, a pilgrim
and a beggar ask
for help and
assistance.

▶Gentile da Fabriano, Coronation of

♦Guariento di Arpo, One of the the Virgin, xiioy. Detail of the Romita
Virtues, 1354. Padua, Musco Valley polyptych. Milan, Brera.

300
Often painted red, the color of burning love, Seraphim have three
pairs of wings; they appear standing close to God, in prophetic
visions, or in depictions of Saint Francis receiving the stigmata.

Seraphim
According to a collation of the various references from apoc-
ryphal and canonical sources, the Seraphim were believed to Name
-Fire brings,' from the
be the angels who stand in the sight of God. The only passage Hebrew seraph, which
in the Bible that mentions the Seraphim is in Isaiah, where the means "to burn,"
-to scorch"
prophet recounts the vision of his being called to the temple of
Definition
Jerusalem (Isaiah 6:z). From this passage, Pseudo-Dionysios Angels of the first
angelic choir
the Aeropagite identified the Seraphim as the first of the
Place
angelic choirs, linking their nature of ardent, burning love to Next to God; for Dante, in
light and purity. It was difficult to draw out from this defini- the Crystalline Heaven

tion a precise visual image, which seems to have its roots in The Biblical Source
Isaiah rita
preexisting types of spiritual creatures that were part of
Related Literature
Syrian myth dating to the Book of Enoch
(apocryphal)
first millennium B.C., or Apocalypse of Moses
in Assyrian-Babylonian (apocryphal)
Pseudo-Dionysios the
iconography from which Aeropagite, De coeksti
hierarchia (Heavenly
in all likelihood the first Hierarchies)
Gregory the Great,
representations of angels Honnhae in Evangeiia
(Homilies on the Gospel);
migrated to the Judeo- Dante Alighieri, Paradisa,
canto XXVIII;
Christian world. The Thomas of Celano,
Seraphim were portrayed Vita di San Fratteescn
(Life of Saint Francis)
preferably with six red-
Characteristics
colored wings, though over Angels who stand in the
sight of God
time their image was con-
Diffusion of the Image
fused with that of the Found in scenes of Paradise
Cherubim. After the And angelic choirs; starting
in the fifteenth century, a
Middle Ages, the complex dear differentiation begins
to disappear
iconographic distinction of
the angelic choirs was lost.

101
Seraphim

Without the specific Seraphim attributes

of the six wings and the red color, the
place of this being in the angelic hierarchy
must be inscribed on top of the light-
emanating rod, which signifies that this
angel is on fire.

By the thirteenth century, a kind of

iconographic laziness had set in, and
artists felt free to depict the Seraphim
with only one pair of large wings.

♦Seraph, detail4-if the dome,

thirteenth century. Mosaic. Venice,
Basilica di San Marco.

302
 In this composition, a beardless Christ in the
guise of aSeraph appears to Saint Francis.
According to Thomas of (.elan, the wings
of the Seraphim are loaded with symbolism:
the pair pointing upward signifies the com-
mitment to do God's will; the pair stretched
out horizontally, the flight to bring material
and spiritual aid to one's neighbor; the pair
that covers the body vertically, that the body
has been cleansed of sin and clothed in inno-
cence through contrition and confession.

Theeves painted on
the Seraph's wings
indicate confusion on
the part of the artist,
since a is the Cheru-
bim's wings that are
The cord that dotted with eyes like
ties the saint's a peacock's feathers.
cowl has three
knots, signifying
the three vows
of poverty;
chastity, and
obedience.

• Saint Francis Receiving the Stigmata,

mid-thirteenth century. Miniature in a The hands of Saint Francis exhibit the
hook of hours. Carpentras, Ribliotheque bleeding wounds of the stigmata received
Inguibertim. from the Seraph Christ.

303
Seraphim

The Seraph who illuminates the composi-

tion by bringing divine light revives an
ancient iconography but he is depicted
with only two pair of wings.

Joyful-looking acrobatic angels are

gracefully circling about thejadder
that the patriarch saw in a dream.

Contrary to traditional representations,

Jacob is represented not sleeping on the
ground, but standing, withdrawn into
himself.

• Marc Chagall, Jacob's Dream, 1966. ▶Niccolo di Giovanni, Cherub, ca.

Nice, Music National Message Biblique logo, Detail of The Last Judgment.
Marc Chagall. Vatican City, Pinacoteca.

304
Six-winged angels, Cherubim usually have two wings pointing
upward, two spread out horizontally, and two folded in front;
their wings are often strewn with peacock feathers' eyes.
Cherubim
Although references to the Cherubim are found in the early
books of the Bible, description of these angels is not easy
because it differs considerably from the later vision of Ezekiel.
In fact, in Exodus, the statues of the Cherubim that the
Israelites build for the ark recall the images of griffinlike
guardian animals from Mesopotamia. Yet we do not find simi-
lar a description of the Cherub in the Expulsion from Paradise
or in the later vision of Ezekiel, who saw humanlike figures
with four wings and four faces and even glimpsed an arm
under their wings and a sparkling wheel next to each one.
Other hints may be gathered from
Revelation and from a passage in
Saint Paul's Letter to the Hebrews
that recalled the Old Testament
tradition, accepting what would
become the predominant image of
the Cherubim. Once the clear dis-
tinction in the angelic hier-
archy faded (and with it,
the placement of the
Cherubim in the second
choir after the
Seraphim), the two
types of images merged
and were transformed
during the Renaissance
into winged heads of
small children.
Name
From the Hebrew kerub,
derived from the Akkadian
karibu, "praying"
Definition
Angels of the first angelic
choir after the Seraphim
Place
Next to God; for Dante,
in the Starry Heaven
Biblical Sources
Genesis 3:14; Exodus
15:19, 37:8; z Samuel
2.1:14 r Kings 6:25-16;
z Chronicles 3:11-11.;
Psalms 7:11, 69:2., 98:1;
Sirach 49:8; Isaiah 37:16;
Ezekiel 9:3, io:2-14.
28:14-16, 41:18;
Daniel 33:55; Hebrews 9,5
Related Literature
Book of Enoch lapoc-
rmshali; Apocalypse of
Moses (apocryphal);
Pseudo-Dionysios the
Aenmagite, De cuelesti
hierarchal (Heavenly
Hierarchies); Gregory the
Great, Homiliae in Evan-
gelia (Homilies on the
Gospel); Dante Mighieri,
Paradiso, canto XXVIII
Characteristics
Angels who stand in the
sight of God
Diffusion of the Image
Found in scenes of Paradise
and angelic hierarchies; a
clear differentiation is
already starting to vanish
in the fifteenth txntury.
.305
Cherubim

This image of awinged being with This four-headed figure of a man with
four heads—man, lion, ox. and eagle— one pair of wings is a departure from
corresponds somewhat to F:zekiel's v&cion. Ezekiel's description of his vision.
The miniaturist has transformed the
prophet's reference to what appeared to
be a man's hand into a full human body.

A: the center of the vision is the image of

God seated on a throne, enclosed in a
polychrome frame.
♦Unknown artist, The Vision of
Ezekiel, ninth century. Miniature from
the Bible of Charles the Bald. Borne,
SanPaolo fuori Ic Mora.

306
The young child's head with a collar of
clouds and a pair of wings bears only a
distant resemblance to the Cherubim of
earlier iconographies, which by this time
had been largely forgotten.

Baby Jesus stands, his arms clasping

Mary's neck. He seems to be listening
to the singing of the angels that
surround him like a crown.

The artist's novel way of painting

angels' wings, which take form from
the clouds, simulates flight, one of
• Andrea Mantegna, Madonna the characteristic iconographic traits
and Child, 1481. Milan, Brcra, of an angel.

307
 Each of the four winged figures—a man, an ox, a lion, and an
eagle—holds a book. In some older depictions, a wheel may
appear instead of feet and paws.

The Tetramorph
In classical pagan culture, the term "tetramorph" generally
Name referred to a being composed of four different natures, such as
From the Greek, meaning
"four forms"
the Sphinx. The same term in a biblical context designated liv-
ing beings with a quadruple nature—with the heads of a man,
Definition
A living being with four an eagle, a lion, and an ox—who appeared to the prophet
natures: ox, lion, min,
and eagle Ezekiel and to Saint John in Revelation, where he described the
Biblical Sources four animals placed around the throne. According to Saint
Ezekiel 14-9;
Isaiah 6;
Irenaeus's interpretation of these visions (second century), the
Revelation 4:7-S four animals stood as symbols of the Four Evangelists, while
Related literature for Saint Gregory (seventh century), they might refer to the four
Saint frenaeus
crucial moments in the life of Christ: birth, death, Resurrection,
Characteristics
After the original represen- and Ascension. The interpretation of Irenaeus was to find more
tation of a four-natured
being, the image was split
favor, which led believers to see in the tetramorph the same
into four separate winged revelation of salvation that the evangelists proclaimed to the
beings.
world. For this reason,
Diffusion of the image
Initially linked to when the very complex
illifst-rations of the Bible,
it became autonomous representations of the
starting in the tenth and
eleventh centuries, and visions of Ezekiel, Isaiah,
developed into a very and the Apocalypse dis-
popular iconography of
the symbols of the Four appeared, the emerging
Evangelists.
iconography of Christ
Enthroned (between the
tenth and the eleventh
century) showed Christ
▶Antonio de Lohny, God
Enthroned Surrounded by surrounded by the
the Symbols of the Evange- tetramorph, that is,
lists, 1 465 -66. Illuminated
page from the Missal of by what had by then
Jean des Martins. Park,
Ribliorheque Nationale. become the symbols of
the Four Evangelists.

108
 The Tetramorph

An early Christian text, The Discourses

of Job, describes an apparition of two
Cherubim that bears partial similarities
to the descriptions in Isaiah (6:1-.3) and
in Revelation (4:7-8): confusing these
angels with the Seraphim, the text
declares that each angel is equipped
with six wings; it also speaks of their Two six-winged Seraphim
proclaiming a glorious song to God. flank God.

The figure of God

Enthroned has been
influenced by an
admixture of the
biblical visions of This miniature
Isaiah, Ezekiel, and seems to show the
John's vision of the tetramorph as a
Apocalypse. being with the
features of four
creatures: a winged
man/angel, a lion,
an eagle, and an
ox. They symbolize
the Four Evange-
lists: each one is
depicted holding a
Gospel in his
hands.

In a faithful reproduction of the biblical

description of Ezekiel's vision, the artist
• Florencio, Majesty, 945. Illuminated has depicted wheels instead of feet or
page from The Discourses of Joh. paws; they looked like topaz, were full
Madrid, Ribliotcca Nacional. of eyes, and were called "turbines."

309
The Tetramorph
In this painting, the tetramorph is
disguised. The Four Evangelists appear
as fully human figures. Three of their
animal symbols (eagle, lion, and ox) are
portrayed naturalistically within the
composition, and the fourth, the man,
symbol of Saint Matthew, is portrayed
as the illuminating angel.
The ox became a symbol of Luke
the Evangelist because his Gospel
opens with the sacrifice of Zechariah,
and the sacrificed animal was an nx.
310
The eagle is the symbol of Saint John,
the most spiritual of the evangelists. His
Gospel opens with: "In the beginning
was the Word, and the Word was with
God," a text that takes the reader
metaphorically into the heavens,
where the eagle soars.
The lion became a symbol of Mark
the Evangelist because his Gospel
opens with Saint John the Baptist
preaching in the desert.
♦Peter Paul Rubens, The Four
Evangelists. ca. 161 4. Potsdam,
SchlossSanssouci Bildgalerie.
Elders wearing crowns and white garments are shown render-
ing homage to God. In the Middle Ages they were depicted
holding various musical instruments.

The Elders of the Apocalyps

The twenty-four elders are among the heavenly cohorts that
Saint John, rapt in ecstasy, sees standing next to the throne of Definition
The elders described in
God in the long description of his vision (Revelation 4). Saint Saint John's vision
John speaks of the homage paid by the elders to God who sits Time
on a throne. In a very meaningful gesture, casting their crowns The end of time

before God's feet, the elders signified that all power must sub- Biblical Source
Revelation 4: 10-11
mit to God's supreme authority—the opposite of the beast that
Characteristics
fights him. Saint John narrates that each of the elders carried a They prostrate themselves
harp and a bowl full of incense, which is the prayer of the to worship the Lord.

saints, and that prostrating themselves, they sang a new song. Diffusion of the linage
Linked to illustrations of
As this image evolved over time, the elders or sages of the the Apocalypse, in Early
Christian art they also
Apocalypse were included only in scenes illustrating the appear in representations
of Paradise as the Heavenly
prophetic book, though some passages from the book led to Jerusalem.
their being interpreted as angels; one such was the memory
John has of the mul-
titudes of angels
who either sang or
stood by the throne.
It is also likely that
from the images of
the elders holding
harps or other musi-
cal instruments,
which appear fre-
quently on the por-
The riders Present
tals of Gothic Crowns to the Lamb of
cathedrals, grew the Apocalypse, 8 t 7-824
Mosaic. Rome, Santa
later iconography of Prasscdc.

musical angels.

311
The Elders of the Apocalypse

The multitude of angels—"myriads According to John's description, the

of myriads" and "thousands of throne was enclosed in a rainbow
thousands"—who sang around the resembling an emerald; here the
throne (Revelation pr r) are here rainbow appears as a mandorla.
represented by six angels occupying
all the available space in the upper
part of the composition.
The twenty-four elders fall to their
knees and offer their crowns, a sign that
their power depends upon that of God.

Seized by an ecstatic rapture, Saint John

watches the homage being rendered to
God. The anonymous miniaturist has
painted him outside the frame, as if he is
looking through a window, a timorous,
discreet witness to the scene.
Each elder held a harp, here depicted in a
thirteenth-century version of the instrument,
with which he sang a new song.

♦Anonymous English miniaturist,

The Twenty-Four Elders Pay Homage
to God's Throne, Is5 5-6o. Miniature
from the Dyson Perrins Apocalypse.
LosAngeles, J. Paul Getty Museum.

312
Battles raging in Heaven between warrior angels and a dragon
attended by figures such as black angels, monsters, and devils
with horns, tails, and bats' wings.

Heavenly Battles
The heavenly battle fought by Saint Michael and his angels
against the seven-headed dragon shows the decisive struggle
between God's angels and Satan. Under Michael's command— Place
Heaven
made explicit in Revelation—God's angels attack the dragon
("the ancient serpent"), which is hurled hack to earth and Tune
Ar the end of rime
captured later, to be forever confined to Hell, whose gates are
Biblical Source
sealed for eternity. From this one literary source are derived all Revelation t i

the representations of heavenly battles between the two armies. Characteristics

Combat between the angels
The angelic cohorts are always superior in number: often they led by Saint Michael and
the demon armies
are fully equipped, winged soldiers; at other times the only
armored figure is Saint Diffusion of the Image
Very widespread starting in
Michael, their leader. the Middle Ages

The enemy army, com-

posed of Satan's rebel
angels, the demons, usu-
ally displays clear marks
of evil that is about to
be defeated. In the Late
Middle Ages, many
scenes included small
monsters or black angels
escorting the dragon;
later, human fighting
.11Anonymous German
figures were depicted— miniaturist from Hildesheim,
Saint Michael, ca. 117o.
perhaps with a tail and Miniature from the
bat's wings—engaged in Stammhetin Missal.
Los Angeles, J. Paul
one last battle or falling Getty Museum.

from Heaven.

313
Heavenly Battles

The angels with six red wings are
the Seraphim who stand next to
God, depicted inside a tondo.
Saint Michael, fully armed, is the leader
of the heavenly armies that will defeat
the ancient snake, the beast, the
dragon—in short, Satan.
In this symbolic composition of
heaven—the stage for the battle
between the seven-headed dragon
and the heavenly armies—the
buildings visible at the right are
those of Heavenly Jerusalem.

APacino di Bonaguida, Apparition

of Saint Michael *mill, ca. 134o. Satan's army is composed
Miniature. London, British Library. of his angels, the demons,

314
 Saint Michael leads the battle against the
dragon, symbol of the Devil. He inflicts
the final blow that will send Satan into
HeIt forever. The artist has chosen to
portray Michael without armor; his
only weapon is a long spear.
The curly-haired angel armed with bow
and arrow wears no armor as he assists
Michael; he is dressed in a tunic with the
stoles crossed in front.

The final engagement described in the hook

• Albrecht Muter, Saint Michael Defeats of Revelation unfolds in Heaven, though
Satan and His Angels, 1498. From The Difier has placed it in a recognizable sky
Apocalypse. Woodcut. above a familiar view of a small town.

315
Heavenly Battles

At the center of the entangled warriors

is a long reptilian tail: it belongs to the
dragon of the Apocalypse, Satan, the first
of the angels who rebelled against God
Angels wearing and became his great adversary.
dalmatics and blow-
ing trumpets: they
are the last Judgment
trumpets announcing
the final battle. A Z : \

A large reptile, the orig-

inal form that inspired
the iconography of the
apocalyptic dragon,
appears from under
the sword wielded
by a fighting angel.

The being that rebelled against God

and followed Satan, falling from
▶Meter Bruegel the Elder, The Fall Heaven, is no longer recognizable, but
of the RebelAngels, x 562. Brussels, perhaps the butterfly wings suggest his
Musecs Ruyaux des Beaux-Arts. original benevolent nature.

316
Saint Michael is the only fighting angel to
wear resplendent armor which, along with
his cape, identifies him as the leader of the
heavenly armies: his slender figure suggests
that his strength comes from God.

In representing
diabolical beings as
monsters, the artist's
imagination was
inspired by the earlier
work of Bosch.

Even among the infer-

nal cohorts there is a
certain order: here a
partially human crea-
ture blows mightily
on a trumpet to incite
the demons to battle.

As he falls, the rebel angel's appearance

changes: his original nature, which he denied,
has disappeared except for the garment that
no longer fits his new fishlike features.

317

Musical Angels
Definition
Angels playing different
musical instruments, cho-
sen according to a symbolic
hierarchy of the harmony
of God and creation
Biblical Source
Psalm iso
characteristics
Music takes on the same
function as that of an
angel—being God's herald.
The choice of instruments
is dictated by a strong need
for symbolism only until
the mid-sixteenth century;
after this, aesthetic and
decorative tastes tend to
be the deciding factors.
Diffusion of the lmagc
Starting from the end of
the Middle Ages
▶ Hubert and Jan van Eyck,
Singing Angels (detail), 1431.
Exterior panel from the
Ghent Altarpiece, Ghent,
St. & I V O .
318
Angelic figures with musical instruments often accompany
singing angels; they are found in representations of Paradise
and in biblical or hagiographic scenes.
The first images of musical angels appear in fourteenth-century
Italian and French illuminated manuscripts. The image of the
angelic singer is derived from the concept of musical and singing
angels as mediators between the divine harmony and that of
Creation, a concept that the Middle Ages inherited from
Pythagorean and Platonic thought and would transmit to
Humanism and the Renaissance. Although for a very long time
instrumental music was deemed a lesser art than song (the latter
derived its importance from the primacy of the word), angelic
music has been depicted in a multitude of variants, though pre-
dominantly instrumental. In these compositions, the instrument
plays a key role in a metaphor which, starting from the richness
of the sound, exemplifies concord, the ultimate symbol of the
divine harmony of the
cosmos. Among the
instruments depicted,
the trumpet signifies
the power of God
(including destructive
power, as in the case
of the Last Judgment
trumpets); the string
instruments, the
Divinity manifesting
itself; and percussion
instruments, profane
music, which makes
them essentially deco-
rative elements.
 Musical Angels

Recent studies have deciphered the
music sheet that Saint Joseph holds
in his hands: it appears to be a Franco-
Flemish motet composed by Noel
Rauldewjin, who put several verses
of the Song of Songs to music.
The image of the sleeping Virgin,
portrayed with auburn hair, is to be
read with reference to the key text
of the painting, the verses from the
Song of Songs in which the bride is
described as a maiden with red hair.

The violin-playing angel is a double

The violin depicted here is a modern representation, being at once an appari-
instrument perfected only at the tion to Joseph and a symbol of the
close of the sixteenth century redemptive power of heavenly music.

• Caravaggio, The Rest during the

Flight into Egypt, Ca. 599. Rome,
Galleria Doria Pamphilj.

319
Musical Angels
A young classical-looking angel with
large widespread wings instructs Saint
Cecilia. His instrument is a double bass
with six strings. In the Middle Ages, the
number of strings in musical instru-
ments referred to the days of Creation:
though this symbolism has been lost, the
notion of music as a mirror of divine
harmony persists.
♦Guy Francois, Saint Cecilia,
ca. 1613. Rome, Palazzo Corsini.
320
Saint Cecilia is playing a chitarrone, an
early stringed instrument of the lute
family The musical instrument as an
attribute of this saint originated in the
fourteenth century, when the liturgy
celebrated on her feast day began to
include, incorrectly, "organ music"
repeated three times.
Several instruments lie at Cecilia's
feet, from the ancient harp to the
flute and the modern violin.
 The episode of the musical angel
appearing to Saint Francis is recorded
in the Fioretti (Little Flowers of Saint
Francis). Other biographies, including
Thomas of Celano's Second Life,
mention an angel playing the lyre.
An angel appears on a cloud, a
vision brought on by the ecstasy
of the saint: with his music, he is
to seek divine harmony.

Saint Francis, who had an eye ailment, seems

troubled by the strong light surrounding the
♦Guertin, The Ecstasy of Saint apparition of the angel. The saint, who was
Francis, 162o. Warsaw, Muzeum deep in prayer, as suggested by the open
Narodowe. book, experienced a moment of ecstasy.

321
Musical Angels

The trumpet marine, also called "angers
trumpet." is a stringed instrument; it
has a long, narrow body, trapezoidal
in shape, and it is played with a small,
bent bow. It apparently originated in
Northern Europe to reproduce the male
voice in female-only choirs of nuns.
The two groups of three
angels each represent a
voice classification
(bass, lyric tenor, and
tenor) that was already
obsolete when this
painting was made, but
the artist chose them
precisely to re-create a
sense of antiquity.

The psaltery is an ancient instrument

with a long iconographic tradition. It is
an attribute of the biblical King David,
who is traditionally considered to be the
author of many psalms.

• Hans Memling, Christ Salvator

.Afiendiamong Musical and Singing
Angels, ca. 1487-9o. Antwerp, Kunin-
kink Museum your Schone Kunsten.

322
Musical Angels

Music and song accompany the Psalm z 0:f proclaims, "Praise him
prayer of praise, as is clear from with sounding cymbals; praise him
this rendering of a praying angel. with loud clashing cymbals!" In the
Middle Ages and the Renaissance, per-
cussion instruments were considered
profane. Introduced into pictorial
compositions, they were used more
decoratively than symbolically.

Singing angels
follow the written
text of the hymn.

Two angels are

playing the flute;
one of them seems
to be listening to the
choir above him.

Two angels are

playing a zither,
an instrument men-
tioned with the harp
in Psalm 150 that
invites the faithful
to praise God by
dancing and making
music with eight
different instruments.

♦Gaudenzio Ferrari, Musical Angels, Adance step seems to move the gar-
1531. Detail of the dome fresco. ment folds of the angel holding a lute,
Saronno, Santuario della Beata an echo of Psalm t so:4, "Praise him
Vergine dei Miracoli. with timbre, and dance."

324
 In the foreground, the angers
harmonious gesture accompanies
the melodious sound he is creating.

A small organ fed by

bellows: of all the
musical instruments,
the organ was the
first to be used offi-
cially in sacred music.

An unusual detail: an angel plays

the lyre by holding it in his arms
and plucking it.

325
Musical Angels

Completing the The figure surrounded by a halo of

concert scene are light has been difficult to interpret:
winged heads of she could be the Virgin Mary after
angels flitting about. the Annunciation or an unidentified
female saint.

An angel with more From the highest heavens, God bestows

than a single pair the power of the Holy Spirit on Mary
of wings is most and the child Jesus.
unusual since by
this time, the need
to differentiate
between choirs
of angels had
disappeared.

A primitive viola da gamba is played

kneeling; the incorrect position of the
bow is perhaps explained by the
compositional arrangement.

The tub used for the Child's bath

♦Mathias Gnincwald, Angel Concert brings this Nativity composition,
at the Nativity, 1512.-16. Colmar, with its high allegorical content,
Musk d'Unterlioden. back to everyday life.

326
Figures of angels wear armor or carry weapons, both usually
reflecting the fashions of the artist's own time.

Warrior Angels
The first warrior angels mentioned in the sacred scriptures are
the Cherubim who were stationed at the eastern end of the Definition
Angels who have been
Garden of Eden to guard it after the Expulsion of Adam and assigned the task of
Eve. Genesis gives a very scant description, but the text does guardian or defender

speak of "a flaming sword which turned every way," undoubt- Biblical Sources
Genesis 5:14;
edly a weapon. Weapons are not the principal visual attributes Joshua 5:14;
Kings 2.1:19;
of angelic creatures, but the definition of God's army, which is I Chronicles 18:78;
Nehemiah 9:6;
a recurring one, led artists, among others, to interpret them Joel r a t ;
according to a hierarchy that is also military and to represent Matthew 1.6:55;
Luke
them as armed. In the subdivision Revelation 11; 19:19

of the nine angelic choirs, the Diffusion of the Image

The iconography is con-
Dominions in the second level nected to specific biblical
episodes, and diffusion
carry either a spear or a scepter follows that of the repre-
and may wear a helmet or a sentation of each episode.

crown; in the third level, the

angels with the roles of comman-
ders and guides—the Principali-
ties—are usually depicted
armed instead of wearing
deacons' habits. After the
Principalities, the archangels
battling the Devil (as in the
book of Revelation) may also
be represented as soldiers;
Saint Michael is explicitly called
commander of the heavenly army. 4 Hans Mauling, Angel
with Sword, r479-80.
London, Wallace
Collection.

327
Warrior Angels

The hoe Adam is Eve carries a spindle: she too is fated

carrying symbolizes to work in order to earn her bread.
the fate that awaits The progenitors of the human race
him: "to till the are dressed in garments of animal
ground from which skins, which the Lord made for
he had been taken" them and with which he clothed
(Genesis 3:23). them (Genesis 3:27).
The sword raised by the angel to banish
Adam and Eve from the Garden of Eden is
the only clear element from the Bible about
the appearance and role of the Cherubim.

The guardian angel is dressed in a

complete suit of armor of the type used
in the fourteenth century; as is true in
most paintings, however, he does not
wear a helmet,

♦Giusto de' Menabuoi, Expulsion

of Adam and Eve from Earthly
Paradise, 1376-78. Fresco. Padua,
Cathedral baptistry.

328
As described in the book
of Revelation, God is
shown sitting on a throne
surrounded by the
Seraphim—red angels
with three pairs of wings.
A group of fully
armed warrior angels
carrying shields and
long swords assists at
the heavenly battle
between Michael with
his angels and the
rebel angels.

In this heavenly
battle, God's angels
The rebel angels are armed with
are depicted as swords and spears.
demons with
hairy, dark bodies,
horned heads,
claws on their
feet, and angular
bats' wings.

♦Master of the Rebel Angels,

Fall of the RebelAngels, fourteenth
century. Paris, Miss& du Louvre.

329
 Angelic figures kneel next to the Virgin and Child, arranged
around the figure of the enthroned God or of God the Father,
or shown at moments of epiphany.

Adoring Angels
The act of adoration is an homage owed to God by his
Definition creatures; and the angels, who are his creatures, adore him
Angels worshiping and
contemplating God, the
incessantly. This is the business of Heaven, according to the
Trinity, and the Madonna exhortation of Psalm 148: "Praise the Lord! ... Praise him, all
and Child
his angels, praise him, all his host!" The image of the adoring
Biblical Source
Psalm 145 angel occurs at moments of epiphany, such as scenes of Paradise
Characteristics with the manifestation of Christ in Glory, God the Father, or the
Personal creatures with
a spiritual, incorporeal
Trinity, or in scenes of festive events, such as the Coronation of
nature dedicated to the the Virgin. In these cases, the angels, especially the red
worship and service of God
Seraphim, are arranged like a garland around the divine persons,
Diffusion of the lmagc
Widely diffused throughout sometimes forming an almond-shaped aureole, or mandorla,
the history of art, this
theme starts to lose popu- around them. In medieval images of the Virgin enthroned or the
larity in the nineteenth
century. Madonna and Child, multitudes of angels are depicted in the act
of silent adoration. In
the Sacred Conversation
compositions of the
Renaissance, adoring
angels were retained in
altarpieces or included
as simple worshiping
figures with different
tasks, such as swinging
the censer, opening a
curtain, or inviting the
▶Anonymous English faithful to worship.
master Angels Adoring
the Madonna and Child,
And in Nativity scenes,
,397-99. Detail of the the angels join the
Wilton House diptych.
London, National Gallery. Virgin and shepherds
in adoring the Child.

330
 Adoring Angels

In the background, two angels with Following the example

pale blue hooded habits and blue of the Virgin and the
wings are kneeling. They vaguely recall angels, the shepherds
the older images of Cherubim in the kneel to worship the
hierarchies of the angelic choirs. infant.

Mary, dressed in a blue robe and kneeling,

following a pictorial model that became
diffused starting in the late fourteenth
century, worships the Son of Cod.

Two white-robed angels (the one in

the foreground is wearing a clerical
stole) kneel facing the Child.
Several angels in the foreground are
wearing crowns and rich copes; the
♦Hugo van dcr Goes, Nativity, i 475. angels behind them wear the dalmatics
Detail of the Portinari triptych. of deacons. This is another attempt to
Florence, Galkria degli Uffizi. portray the various ranks of angels.

331

Angels in Action
Definition
Messengers and executors
of God's commands
Place
The Earth
Time
At all times in history
Biblical Sources
Genesis 1 8 , 2 . 1 , 2 2 , 32,
Kings iy;
Luke; Acts t it;
Revelation
Related Literature
Apocryphal Gospels;
Jacobus de Voragine,
Golden Legend;
Lives of the saints
Characteristics
In addition to conveying
God's message, the angels'
tasks in the lives of men
also include sustaining
them in times of tempta-
tions or while in ecstasy,
consoling them, and
helping them in the
most mundane everyday
circumstances.
Diffusion of the Image
Vastly diffused throughout
the history of art, but tends
to diminish during the
nineteenth century
332
Angels appear as protagonists in human affairs in scenes from
the Old and New Testaments and in narratives of the lives of
the saints.
The presence of angels in human history is attest since the Old
Testament. These heralds and messengers of God appear in
many stories in which they often wear human guise and are not
readily recognizable until they are revealed to be divine crea-
tures. Solicitous and attentive, they are described as messengers
who bring aid and sustenance, but also God's chastisement, as
did the angels who sought lodging with Lot before the destruc-
tion of Sodom and Gomorrah. The New Testament describes
the actions of angels throughout the events of Christ's life on
earth, at joyous moments, such as his birth, and in hours of
agony, such as the flight into Egypt or the prayer in the garden
of Gethsemane. Angels are also present in the biographies of
saintly men and women who, as followers of Christ, could
count on the support of angelic creatures in times of tempta-
tions or during ecstasy, for whom angels were comforters
and even aides in everyday
chores (see, for example,
the hagiographic narratives
of the lives of Saint James
and Saint Isidore}—
evidence of the
widespread
belief that
Heaven helps
the faithful
even in the
most mundane
circumstances.
 Angels in Action

With his left hand, the angel points
to the road Lot must take to leave
the city. The two "men," called angels
only at the beginning of this chapter
of Genesis (19:r-2), do not escort
Lot and his family, but stay behind
in Sodom to punish the city
The angel who is saving Lot takes him
by the arm with his right hand and
urges him to hurry because Sodom's
ruin is fast approaching.
Behind the elderly Lot, the second angel
urges him to take his daughters with him.

Lot's family leaves in a hurry, taking

4 Lorenzo Lotto, Madonna and Child
with Saints (detail), r 617-2.8. Vienna,
Kunsthistoriches Museum.
♦Peter Paul Rubens, Lots Family
FleesSodom, ca. t 6r4. Sarasota
(Florida), John and Mable Ringling
Museum of Art.
with them as much as they can carry,
including (in this picture) golden vessels.
His daughters and his wife leave with
him, but the future sons-in-law remain
in the city because they do not believe
in the imminent danger. Lot's wife was
soon to be turned into a pillar of salt
(shown behind her) for not heeding the
warning not to look back at the city.

333
Angels in Action

The three men who visit Abraham are Sarah, Abraham's wife, is in the tent,
portrayed as angels (Genesis z 8), and here rendered as a masonry building.
he recognizes them as his Lord. They Her gesture is one of disbelief at the
are interpreted as being an apparition angels' prophecy: they are announcing
of the Trinity. to Abraham that he and Sarah, who is
already old, will have a son. Sarah's
gesture is the same as that of the
Abraham offers the three visitors bread Virgin in Annunciation iconography.
that he asked Sarah to prepare: he does
not touch it with his hands because in
the textual exegesis of this event, the
gesture takes on a sacred quality.

The table is set with a cup, a large bowl

with a lamb (though the text mentions
• Abraham Attends to the Three a calf), and the bread that Abraham is
Angels, twelfth to thirteenth century. carrying: a clear foreshadowing of the
Mosaic. Monreale (Sicily), cathedral. Eucharistic sacrifice.

334
 The artist has rendered Sarah's
biblical tent as a hovel.

Sarah kneels reveren-

tially, afraid of the
angel, who has just
predicted that she
will bear a sun. Her
expression betrays a
smile, for being old,
she does nut believe
the prophecy.

A handsome, stern, and authoritarian

angel scolds Sarah. He firmly reiterates
• Giambattista Ticpolo, The Angel that in a year's time she shall hear a son
Appears to Sarah, r72.6-29. Fresco. and reprimands her for laughing in dis-
Udine. Palazzo Arcivcscovile. belief at God's omnipotence.

335
Angels in Action
A young angel appears to Hagar and
points to a well from which to refill
her goatskin and quench the thirst of
the little Ishmael. The angel speaks as
God's messenger: "Fear not; for God
has heard the voice of the lad"
( G e n e s i s 2. : 1 7 ) .
♦Giambattista Tiepolo, Hagar and
Ishmael, i n z. Venice, Scuola Grande
di San Rocco.
336
Hagar was Abraham's Egyptian slave
with whom the patriarch had fathered
his first son, but he had cast them out
after Isaac's birth. Lost in the desert and
with no more water to drink, Hagar had
broken down weeping and despaired
until the angel came to her rescue.
Ishmael is dehydrated. According to the
Bible. Hagar left him at the distance of
a bowshot because she did not want to
see him die. For compositional reasons,
however, the artist has arranged them
next to each other. The pose of mother
and child suggests that of the Pica
 The artist has dressed the angel in Hearing the angers
contemporary clothes: vest with wide gentle coming and his
sleeves, a shirt, and, probably hidden words, Abraham slowly
by the shadows, pants. loosens his grip on
Isaac's head; the boy, in
turn, listens in disbelief
to the angers message.
This painting was made without a
preliminary sketch; this is discernible
by the lack of alignment of the angel's
eyes, a detail that adds softness to his
glance as he stares into Abraham's eyes.

The Bible mentions only the angel's voice,

not his appearance, and notes that as
Abraham heard the voice, he noticed a
ram caught in the thicket by its horns.
The more popular iconography of this
scene shows the angel coming to stop the A splendid detail is the burning firebrand
patriarch's hand. Here, the angel is also gleaming in the darkness, a sign of the
holding the ram for the sacrifice. sacrifice that was about to be carried out.

♦Caravaggio, The Sacrifice of Isaac,

ca. 1599. Princeton, Barbara Piasecka
Johnson Collection.

337
Angels in Action

.4 light in the distance breaks up the The vision, who does not reveal his name
night's darkness: the episode of b:cab's to the patriarch, is interpreted as an angel
vision and strenuous battle with it takes and therefore rendered as a winged
place before dawn (Genesis 32:24-29). youth. One of the wings is spread out in
the excitement of the struggle.

The angel's curly hair, as beautiful as

gold and lit by a beam of light, appears
disheveled by the struggle.

41.11114

The angel does 4 r . 1 0 f W \

not reveal his
name to Jacob
becauseman is
not permitted
to know the
intimate
essence of
the Divine.

• II Morazzone (Pia Francesco The bent leg suggests the dislocated hip
Ntazztuxhellil, Jacob Struggles caused by the angel's simple movement:
with the Angel, ca. 1609-1o. only then does Jacob understand that his
Milan, Museo Diocesano. rival is a superior being.

338
 After eating the food brought by
the angel, Elijah became so strong
that he walked forty days and forty
nights to reach Mount Horeb, the
mountain of God.

The angel touches Elijah and awakens

him twice, telling him to rise and eat
the food he has placed by his head
(a Kings 19:6-8).

The angel prepared

for Elijah a cup. a jar
of water, and a loaf
of bread cooked on
hot stones, so that he
could eat and resume
his journey instead of
giving up and dying
in the desert.

• Dirck Bouts, The Prophet Elijah

in the Desert, 1464-68, Louvain,
Saint-Pierre.

119
Angels in Action

Three little angels are busy arranging An obliging angel arranges a pillow on
the straw covering on the roof of the the Virgin's pallet, already covered with a
Nativity hut. rich carpet. Behind her, the ox and the
donkey are visible at the manger.

The naked baby

Jesus, walking
hesitantly and
pulling his swad-
dling clothes,
waves to his
mother as he
goes to play
with Joseph.

The tradition that a choir of angels was

always ready to provide for the Holy
Family's necessities derives from apoc-
Three singing angels gladden ryphal sources and popular religion. Here
this portrait of family life. two angels busy themselves with cooking.

A water-carrying angel has drawn

• Lower Rhine school, Sacred water from an elegant fountain, very
Family with Angels, ca. x4.15. similar to the Fountain of Grace, placed
Berlin, Clemiildegalerie, just outside the hut.

340
 Still sleeping, this shepherd has his
back turned to the vision and has
not noticed the angel.
The angel bearing the news of the
Savior's birth is surrounded by divine
light. The rendering of the angelic figure,
whose legs are not visible, underscores
his spiritual nature.

The shepherd
who was asleep
is struck by the
angel's light and
by his message.

The yelping
dog cannot
comprehend the
supernatural
event and is
frightened by it.

• Taddeo Gaddi, The Announcement

to the Shepherds, ca. i 3z8. Fresco.
Florence, Santa Croce, Baroncelli
Chapel.

341
Angels in Action
Saint Joseph, in a marginal role, follows
the small caravan and gags ; the donkeys
• Attributed to Benedetto Briosco,
Flight into Egypt, ca. s 4yo.
Sculptural relief. Acquanegra
nil Chiese, San Tommasu.
342
According to the Apocryphal Gospels,
a young angel escorts the Holy Family
during its flight into Egypt, leading the
donkey and pointing the way.
Sitting on the donkey with the baby in her
lap and a book in her hand, Mazy looks
detached from the events surrounding her.
Her pose is a revival of the Virgin and
Child iconography in which the book is
Mary's attribute as the Seat of Wisdom.
 Ton putti hold a large crown
over the Virgin's head.

In the workroom, Saint Joseph is

assisted by a putto who sweeps up
the wood shavings.

L_

A putto sweeps
the floor.
A putto pours
water on the
floor to wash it.

While the Virgin worships the Child, an

angel attends to him by shooing away the
flies that could annoy him, a suggestion • Albrecht Darer, Madonna and Child,
that the fly is also a symbol of the Devil. Ca.1496. Dresden, Gemildegalerie.

343
Angels in Action

Mary has fallen asleep

while rocking the baby
and does not sense the
angers arrival in their
grotto in Bethlehem.

An angel in a radiant robe, his wings still

outspread, puts his hand on Joseph's
shoulder and speaks softly to him.

According to the Gospel, the angel

appeared to Joseph in a dream: thus
he is pictured sleeping.

• Rembrandt, Saint Joseph's Dream,

1645. Berlin, Gcmaldegalcrie.

344
 A young wingless angel is a faithful repre- The angel's hand points upward to the
sentation of biblical narratives that speak place from which comes the announce-
o f visions of angels with human traits but ment he bears.
spiritual bodies that cast no shadow,

The pages open on old Joseph's knees

could signify the need to understand the
events based on the holy scriptures.
Saint Joseph is in a deep sleep: he receives
♦Georges de La Tour, Saint Joseph's the angel's announcement in a dream.
Dream, ca. 1640. Nantes, Mtn& des
Beaux-Arts.

345
Angels in Action
Saint John the Baptist is depicted wearing
a tunic made of animal skins, in accor-
dance with the Gospel's description.
♦Giovanni Baronzio, Baptism of
Christ, ca. 1330-40. Washington,
D.C., National Gallery of Art.
Wanting to make visible the words that
were heard asJesus was baptized, the
artist has represented God the Father
appearing in Heaven inside a star-
studded rainbow.
During the baptism, the dove of the
Holy Ghost alights on Jesus, who is
immersed up to the hips in the waters
of the Jordan River.
Two angels wearing precious robes wait
on the shore, holding Jesus' garments.
 According to the Gospels of Mark
and Matthew, after Jesus overcame the
Devil's temptations, angels came and
ministered to him.

Two child angels decorate this

composition in a style that became
popular during the Renaissance.

After Jesus refused the Tempter's request

Someangels approach Jesus in adoration to turn stones into loaves of bread, young
after he has overcome the temptation of the angels approach him bearing food as well
Devil, who warned Jesus to worship him. as flowers to worship him.

• Jacques Stella, Christ Attended by

Angels, ca. 165o. Florence, Galleria
degli Uffizi.

347
Angels in Action

Five young angels appear so Jesus

carrying the instruments of his imminent
Passion: the scourging pillar, the cross,
the reed with the sponge full of vinegar,
and the spear that would pierce his side.

Jesus leaves his disciples to offer his

anguished prayer to God the Father.

Peter, James, and John (the youngest,

asleep with his mouth open) have fallen
into a deep sleep and are thus unable to
keep vigil with Jesus.
Judas leads the squad
of soldiers preceded
♦Andrea Mantegna, The Agony in by members of the
the Olive Garden, ca. I.459. London, Sanhedrin: they have
National Gallery. come to arrest Jesus.

348
In the most typical
iconography of this
theme, the angel offers
a chalice to Jesus, a
reference to the words
Jesus spoke when he
asked "to let this cup
pass" from him.
Asleep next to James
and Peter, John is the
youngest of the three
disciples whom Jesus
wanted with him as
he went to pray in
the garden of
Gethsemane,
• El Greco, The Prayer in the Garden,
16os-so. Ancidjar, Santa Maria.
The angel sent to sustain Jesus during
such a sorrowful, anguished prayer—his
agony before the Passion—is clothed in
luminous white garments, a sign that he
is the herald of God.
Kneeling in prayer, in the anguish
of his Passion, Jesus sweats blood.
In the far
distance, led
by Judas, the
guards approach
to capture Jesus.
The ivy is a symbol of faithfulness: it is painted next to
Peter, who will deereJesus three times but who will repent
and become the Church's founder and its witness, until
martyrdom. The rock against which the ivy is growing
alludes to Jesus' words, "Thou art Peter and upon this
rock 1 will build my church" (Matthew 76:181.
349
Angels in Action

An angel with a large chalice collects An angel collects into a howl the blood
the blood oozing fmm the side wound, streaming from the hand wound of Jesus.
inflicted to verify Jesus' death (John
19:34). This motif, linked to the liturgy
of consecration, became widespread in
the Middle Ages; the great popularity
of the Holy Grail legend was also a
factor in its diffusion.

The Virgin Mary stays at the foot At the foot of the cross, John is the
of the cross until the end; Jesus will grieving witness of the death of Jesus,
entrust her to John. about which he will write in his Gospel.

• Attributed to Matteo Giovannetti,

Crucifixion, second half of the
fourteenth century. Fresco.
Viterbo, Santa Maria Nuova.

350
The crown of thorns has been lifted, and The angel's hand clasps the hand of
all signs of agony have been removed Jesus' dead body in a merciful gesture
from Christ's body. of mourning, the last adoration of his
body before the burial.

Jesus' legs are still one on top of the

other, as if the lifeless body maintained
♦Paolo Veronese, Pieta, x576-8z. the position it had taken when the feet
St. Petersburg, Hermitage. were nailed to the cross.

351
Angels in Action
The women are frightened by the sight
of the empty tomb and the apparition
of the angel.
The light of dawn suggests the time when
the women went to Jesus' tomb: it was
early in the morning (Mark 16:2).
• Annibale Carracci, The Women at
the Tomb, ca. t s 9o. St. Petersburg,
Hermitage.
352
The woman holding the jar of ointments
is Mary Magdalene because she not only
brought ointment jars along with the .
other women to prepare Jesus' body for
burial, but also, in other episodes of the
Gospel, had used perfume to anoint the
head and feet of Jesus.
An angel dressed in white appears at
the tomb, announcing to the women
that Christ who had been crucified
has risen: for this reason, he points
to the empty tomb.
 According to the sources, Peter woke up
when the angel arrived because the angel
touched him on the side, but the painter
suggests that the light and the voice of the
divine herald roused Peter in prison.

The angel appears and a light shines in

the cell: the light painted behind the angel
follows the movement of his arm and
touches Peter's face.

The chains that bound Peter in jail are

already unfastened here, but they fall
off his hands when the angel appears
and urges him to rise (Acts 12:71.

♦Gent van Honthorst, Liberation

of Saint Peter, ca. x 6x8. Berlin,
Gon.ildegalene.

353
Angels in Action

The trumpet used by the angel of the
Apocalypse to announce the Judgment
stimulates reflection about death, when
the soul rejoins God: this motif was
particularly widespread during the
Counter-Reformation.
The angel plays the seventh trumpet.
This angel has no specific description
in the book of Revelation: thus he is
generically depicted as a winged
youth. The spiritual creature arrives
on a cloud, and no complete human
body is visible.

According to the
Golden Legend, a
lion whose paw had
been wounded by a
thorn was healed by
Saint Jerome in the
Bethlehem monastery
and after that the
creature never left his The skull is one
side. This episode is of Saint Jerome's
interpreted to signify attributes. symbol
that mercy conquers of Vanitas and of
brute force. meditation on death.

The cardinal's scarlet

mantle, in some cases
complemented by the
hat, is another ele-
ment that identifies
Jerome, though it is
based on the mistaken
belief, current in the
Middle Ages, that he
was a cardinal.

The hook and the written parchment

• Juscpc de Ribera, Saint Jerome
and the Judgment Angel, t6z6.
Naples, Capoditnontc,
scroll are iconographic attributes of the
scholar. In the case of Saint Jerome,
they refer both to his many works of
exegesis and to his translation of the Among the attributes of the penitent
Bible into Latin—the Vulgate. The hermit is the hourglass, used to mea-
Hebrew characters recognizable on the sure time, which calls us to meditate
scroll recall his work as a translator. on the transience of earthly things.

354
 An angel is vigorously thrashing the devil
that torments Romualdo; he presents
himself as the defender of spiritual life
and of the saint's ascesis,
Temptation is rendered as a
diabolical image: a dark-skinned
being with claws, following very
ancient beliefs that represented
demons as Natl.

The white Benedictine habit indicates

♦Guertin, Saint Romualdo, ca. that the saint followed the rule of
164o. Ravenna, Pinacoteca Comunale. Saint Benedict,

355
Angels in Action

While praying, San Diego of Akald is

lifted in a moment of ecstasy. It was his
task at the convent to prepare supper for
the friars, and when he was carried to
Heaven, it is said that the angels took
over his kitchen duties.

Two young, extremely graceful

angels supervise and organize
work in the kitchen.

• Bartolome Esteban Murillo, The

Angels' Kitchen, 1646. Paris, Music
du Louvre.

356
 A friar has come into the kitchen
and is astonished to seea team of
angels busy with chores.

Areangel near
the oven.

An angel diligently
sets the table: note
the upper shelf for
second-course plates,
at one time custom-
ary in convents.

A splendid still life of vegetables and

kitchen utensils, worthy of an artist
from the Spanish golden age.

Two child angels—also known as

hummingbird angels because of
their diminutive size—are busy doing
chores in the large convent kitchen.

357
Angels in Action

In eighteenth-century compositions with depic-

tions of the open skies, in addition to the angels
artists often added small child angels—or putti
of the air—that vaguely recalled the Renaissance
models, except they are a bit more roguish.

Although the presence

of the angel comfort- Saint Francis is here
ing Saint Francis in portrayed with his tra-
ecstasy originates in ditional iconographic
Franciscan sources, attributes of the stig-
it became a regular mata and the friar's
iconographic detail cowl and cord. but
thanks to post- the artist also added
Tridentine devotion. the heads used to
recite the rosary, a
devotional prayer
that was introduced
only after 1470.

Brother Leo is pre-

sent in scenes of
the ecstasy of Saint
Francis, as well as
in depictions of
the stigmata.

In portraits of Saint Francis doing

penance or meditation painted after
• Gian Bartista Piarzerta, Saint Francis the Council of Trent, the skull, a
in Ecstasy, 1759. Vicenza, Palazzo general attribute of the hermit,
Chiericati, Pinacoteca Civics. becomes a Vanitas symbol.

358
An angel holding a child by the hand: he may be depicted as
he teaches the child to pray, points to Heaven, or protects him
from evil with his shield.

The Guardian Angel

Belief in the existence of a guardian angel to whom each person
is entrusted from birth to death derives from several biblical Name
The protecting angel
passages: for example, the book of Job; the events of Tobit's
Definition
life when the angel explains to him and his son Tobias that he The angel that every
has always been with them; and the words of Jesus as set down human being has at his or
her side, from infancy to
in the Gospel of Matthew. In the fourth century, Saint Basil the death

Great, of Caesarea, affirmed that every human being has an Biblical Sources
Job 33:23-14;
angel at his side, a protector and shepherd who guides him Tobit (apocryphal)
II:12-15;
through life. The iconography of the guardian angel is derived Matthew 18:10
in part from that of the Archangels Raphael and Michael: the
Related Literature
first in the act of escorting the young Tobias, the second in the Saint Basil the Great,
AdversusF.UYIUM iUM
act of defeating the Devil: It was extremely popular from the (Against Eunomius) 3:1;
Bartolomeo da Salmi
seventeenth century onward, following the publication of texts
Characteristics
about devotion to the guardian angel and the addition to the The guardian angers tasks
Catholic calendar, accord- are 10 protect, advise, and
intercede.
ing to the wishes of
Diffusion of the Image
Pope Paul V, of a Starting in the seventeenth
cetigury
feast day
reserved
for him.
The iconography
of the guardian angel
was defined by the
image of a child whom
the angel protects from
evil, sometimes with a 4 Domcnichino (Domenico
great shield, and escorts La mpieri T h e Guardian
Angel, x615. Naples,
down the path of good. Capodimonte.

359

The Archangel Gabriel
Name
Gabriel is derived from the
Hebrew and means "Gisd
is strong" or "man of
God."
Actions and Characteristics
Ile brought God's message
to mankind at various
moments Ill biblical history.
Protector
Patron saint of communi-
cations workers, post office
workers, radio operators,
ambassadors, newspaper
vendors, messengers, stamp
collectors, television and
telecommunications
workers
link to Other Saints
Archangels Michael and
Raphael
Worship
The cult had a late
beginning, around the
year moo.
Feast Day
September 2.9, together
with Michael and Raphael
IssJan van Eyck, The
Annunciation, Ca.
z 5-5o. Washington,
D.C., National Gallery
of Art.
360
The depiction of Gabriel as a young, winged, androgynous figure
conforms to the standard angel image-type; one of his attributes
is the lily that he holds at the Annunciation to the Virgin.
Gabriel is God's messenger. In the Old Testament he appears
twice to the prophet Daniel, to help him interpret the meaning
of a vision and to foretell the coming of the Messiah. In the
New Testament he announces two important births: he appears
to Zechariah to announce the birth of his son John the Baptist,
and in what is considered his most important mission, he
announces to the Virgin Mary
the birth of Christ. The Israelites
attributed other interventions in
human history to Gabriel, such
as the burial of Moses and the
destruction of the Assyrian
army. In the Apocryphal
Gospels, Gabriel becomes an
archangel, but without any par-
ticular change in iconography;
he is recognized from the
episodes in which he figures
rather than from his outward
attributes. For this reason, he is
not always portrayed wearing
the attire of a court dignitary,
the white dalmatic tunic covered
by a chlamys, but he is always
shown carrying the long, thin
rod of the ostiaries, an attribute
of both angels and archangels,
which is sometimes replaced by
the lily he offers to the Virgin.

The archangel Gabriel appears in a beam The faithful who wait
of light, bearing the news of the birth of for Zechariah in the
John the Baptist: with one hand, he temple are frightened
points to the elderly priest and with the by the angelic appari-
other he bears a scroll tion; according to the
Gospel of Luke, how-
ever, only Zechariah
saw the angel.
Kneeling in the temple and offering
incense, the priest Zechariah seems
troubled by the angel's apparition and
does not believe his announcement.
• Lorenzo Salimbcni, Jacopo
Salimbeni, and Antonio Alberti,
TheAnnouncement to Zechariah,
ca. 1416. Fresco. Urbino, San
Giovanni Battista oratory.
The Archangel Gabriel
Elizabeth, Zechariah's wife, is the
first to utter the name John for the
child, and Zechariah confirms it.
Note their halos, which have been
rendered as square, possibly to `
differentiate the holiness that
preceded the coming of Christ.
Punished by Gabriel for his disbelief,
Zechariah has become mute and is forced
to write down the name he intends to give
his baby; but at that very• moment, his
tongue is loosened and he recovers the
power of speech.
361
The Archangel Gabriel

The dove of the Holy Spirit that "shall Mary's disquiet is expressed by her
lay his shadow" on the Virgin is present fixed stare into the void and her
at the angel's announcement, in keeping drawing back against the wall.
with the iconographic tradition.

Gabriel carries a
flowering lily
branch. symbol of
Marys virginity;
which has become
his attribute in rep-
resentations of the
Annunciation of
the birth of Jesus.

In a change from a long artistic tradition,

♦Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Ecce Ancilla Gabriel is here depicted without wings, but
Domini!, 185o. London, Tate Gallery. his feet are engulfed in a supernatural fire.

362
 The image of Gabriel recalls that of the Cherub
with many blue wings. The feminine face
emanates a strong divine light, and the hands
are raised in the greeting that accompanies the
announcement. Shorn of his traditional attributes,
the angel is recognizable simply by the context.

Mary does not raise her eyes to the

vision, almost as if the apparition
were occurring to her in a dream.

♦James Tissot, The Annunciation,

1886-96. New York, The Brooklyn
Museum of Art.

363
 Michael is depicted with wings, wearing armor, and holding a
sword or a spear with which he defeats the Devil; sometimes he
holds the scale that he uses to weigh souls.

The Archangel Michael

Name
Derived from the Hebrew.
Michael means "Who l is)
like God r'
Actions and Characteristics
!host of an archangel
Protector
Patron saint of shopkeep-
ers, stuntmen, policemen,
haberdashers, grocers, scale
manufacturers, swordsmen
Special Devotions
He is invoked for a good
death.
Link to Other Saints
Archangels Gabriel and
Raphael
Worship
Initially his worship was
confined to the eastern
Mediterranean, but after
his apparition in Apulia
(southern Italy) at the close
of the fifth century, his cult
quickly spread throughout
Europe,
Feast Day
September z9, together
with Gabriel and Raphael
Michael is mentioned in the book of Daniel as the first prince
and custodian of the people of Israel. In the New Testament,
he is identified as an archangel in the Letter of Jude, while in
the book of Revelation he leads the other angels in the battle
with the dragon, which represents the Devil, and defeats him.
The image of this archangel—whether because of the devoted
cult that rapidly became attached to him or because of his
iconography—is taken directly from the passages in Revela-
tion. Based on this text, encomiums were written dedicated
to Michael that hailed him as
a majestic being with the
power of weighing the
souls just before the
Judgment. Byzantine
art preferred to por-
tray Michael as a
court dignitary
rather than as a
warrior battling the
Devil or as a weigher
of souls, both of
which became popu-
lar in the West.

▶Denys Ca!yarn, Saint

Michael Archangel. 158 z.
Bologna, San Petronio.

164
 The Archangel Michael

In his right hand Michael holds the long Wings, the first attribute of angels,
rod of the ostiaries, those who were are derived from classical rept4sen-
charged with guarding sacred places. tations of winged Victories and the
even earlier images of the winged
genies of Assyrian culture,

As a member of
the heavenly
army, here
Michael wears a
loron, a typical
item of clothing
worn by nobles
at the court of
Byzantium.

♦Anonymous, The Archangel In the Byzantine world, Michael was

Michael, ca. 1299. Icon. Moscow, customarily represented in the attire of
Tretyacov Gallery. a court dignitary rather than in armor.

36S
The Archangel Michael

Michael's shield bears the image of In the background the heavenly army
the cross; like the standard of is battling the rebel angels—the Devil's
Christ's Resurrection, it is a sign of angels—and casting them to the ground.
victory of Good over Evil.

The weapon that Saint Michael uses

in his battle to defeat the Devil is are
astylar cross--a rare but meaningful
iconographic detail.

AGerard David, Saint Michael Defeats

theSeven Deadly Sins, ca. 1510. Detail Several monsters representing the Devil
of the Saint Michael Triptych. Vienna, and the evil he brings into the world are
Kunsthistorisches Museum. crushed under the archangels feet.

366
 Imaginary walls of The Golden Legend narrates an
the city of Rome at episode in the life of Saint Gregory
the time of Pope that took place during a major plague.
Gregor); sixth to At the end of a penitential procession
seventh century. around the city of Rome during which
litanies instituted by the pope had been
sung, Gregory saw an apparition atop
The miter surrounded by the mausoleum of Hadrian (since then
the halo identifies the pope renamed Castel Sant'Angelo): it was
who takes part in the pro- Saint Michael sheathing his sword,
cession headed by a cleric. signifying that their prayers would be
answered and the terrible epidemic
would cease.

Men, women, and clergymen kneel

during the procession, indicating the
participation of the entire population.

♦Agnolo Gaddi, Apparition of the

Archangel Saint Michael on Castel
Sant'Angelo, ca. 1470. Vatican City,
Pinacoteca,

367
 An angel with large wings, he is distinguishable from the other
angelic figures because he escorts a teenage boy who is holding
a fish. In medieval representations, he is dressed as a pilgrim.

The Archangel Raphael

Name
Derived from the Hebrew,
it means "God healed me."
Actions and Characteristics
The angel who escorts
Tobias
Protector
Patron saint of adolescents,
travelers, and the blind
Special Devotions
He has always been
worshiped as a healer.
Link to Other Saints
Archangels Gabriel and
Michael
Presence of Worship
Vast, especially in the
eastern Mediterranean
Feast Day
September iv, together
with Gabriel and Michael
In the Old Testament, Raphael is one of the seven angels
always ready to enter into the presence of the Lord's Majesty;
only in the apocryphal texts is he referred to as an archangel.
In the book of Tobit he is the messenger sent by God to answer
the prayer of Tobit, a righteous old man who has become
blind. The angel escorts the man's son Tobias on a voyage to
collect a twenty-year-old debt of ten silver talents. During the
trip from Assyria to Rages in Media (Persia), Raphael, who
reveals his identity only at the end of the tale, guides Tobias to
safety and saves him from many dangers, even helping him
catch a large fish that was trying to eat his foot as he was
bathing in the Tigris River. Raphael is also instrumental in
Tobias's marriage to Sarah, daughter of Raguel. The angel
teaches Tobias how to free her from a demon that was killing
all her husbands on the wedding night (seven had already
died). After the debt is collected, Raphael safely brings the cou-
ple home, and Tobias cures his father's blindness by following
the angel's instructions.

• Domenichino (Domenk-o
Zampicri), Landscape with
Tobias and the Angel, ca.
r6ro—rz. London, National
Gallery.

365
 The Archangel Raphael

The old woman Raphael is customarily depicted with

helping Tobias to wings, although he will reveal his true
cure his father's nature only at the end of his mission.
eyes is Anna,
mother of Tobias
and wife of Tobit.
76bias, who is normally rendered as a
young boy or a teenager, heals his father's
blindness with the gall he saved from the
fish, as Raphael had instructed him.

The dog is not the fruit of the artist's

imagination but appears in the biblical The large fish that was going to devour
text, where it is written that even the dog Tobias is one of Raphael's attributes. Its
followed Tobias. liver and gall were used for two healings.

• Bernardo Strozzi, The Healing

of Tobit, ca. 1635. St. Petersburg,
Hermitage.

369
The Archangel Raphael

Raphael refuses the compensation offered
to him by Tobias and Tobit and reveals
His true nature as one of the seven angels
who stand in the presence of God.
Among the women shown in the
background tme must be Sarah, wife
of Tobias, and another, Anna, wife of
Tobit. They stand bath as the two
men, who are called aside by
Raphael, discuss the payment.
Together with his
son, Tobit is ready to
offer a large reward to
Raphael for the service
hehas rendered them.

♦Giovanni Bilivert, The Parting of Tobias is kneeling: according to the

Raphael and Tobias, last quarter of the biblical text, when Raphael revealed
seventeenth century. St. Petersburg, his identity; Tobias "was alarmed and
Hermitage. fell on his face" (12:161.

370
 Sometimes angels have wings made of The Archangel
peacock feathers, a symbol of immortality. Gabriel, who brought
the announcement
of Jesus' birth, is
represented with his
iconographic attribute,
the flowering lily
Saint Michael is depicted as the branch, an allusion
commanderdn•chief of the heavenly to Mary's virginity.
armies; his sword is drawn and he
wears full armor.

The Archangel Raphael, to whom this

♦Francesco Botticini, The Three
Archangels and Tobias, ca. 147o.
Florence, Galleria degli
painting is primarily dedicated, is depicted
with all his iconographic attributes: the
young Tobias whom he holds by the hand,
the small dog following them, the fish which
the boy carries, and the remedies extracted
from the fish's gall and liver.

371
 Represented as a man with wings, Uriel may be armed or
surrounded by planets as iconographic attributes. He escorts
young Saint John the Baptist.

The Archangel Uriel

Name
Of Hebrew origin, from
'FL meaning "God
is my light."
Actions and Characteristics
According to the apoc-
ryphal literature, he was
the fifth angel to he cre-
ated; he brought alchemy
to earth and was sent by
God to announce the Last
Judgment.
Protector
Custodian of time and the
stars
Special Devotions
He is highly respected in
modern angeMlogy.
Worship
The Council of Aachen
(789) excluded this angel
from worship.
The Archangel Uriel was widely worshiped at the time of Saint
Ambrose, but over time he has been forgotten, primarily because
he is mentioned only in apocryphal sources. For this reason, fol-
lowing the Council of Aachen (789), the Church excluded him
from the list of bona fide angels. The protagonist of the apoc-
ryphal book of the Ethiopian Enoch, he is mentioned in the fourth
book of Ezra, which narrates how God sent him to announce the
Last Judgment. The apocryphal Gospel of Bartholomew narrates
that Uriel was the fifth angel to be created. Although he is remem-
bered in modern angel typology especially for alchemy—he is
credited with bringing it to earth—cabala, and knowledge of the
stars, his iconography did not evolve, probably because art has
been largely linked to the official Church, which did not encour-
age his worship. He is readily recognizable, however, in stories
about John the Baptist because, according to tradition, he was the
angel who led the young John into the desert to be educated.

▶Andrea di Nerio, Saint

John the Baptist Led to
the Desert by the Archangel
UrteL ca. 13 5o. Bern,
Kunstmuseum.

372

Multicolored wings for the archangel
who is leading the child precursor of
Jesus by the hand.
♦Painter active in Genoa, Stories
of Saint John the Baptist: The Angel
Guides Saint John the Baptist to the
Desert, ca. a592.. Genoa, Museo di
Sant'Agostino.
The Archangel Uriel
The gesture of the escorting angel as he
penetrates into an impervious desert is
one of care and attention.
As a child, John the Baptist was entrusted
to Gud's tutelage. According to apoc-
ryphal texts, Uriel, one of the seven
archangels mentioned in the book of
Enoch, escorted him to the desert.
373
 INDEXES
General Index
Index of Artists

Fra Angelico,The Last Judgment

(detail), ca. 1431-35. Florence, Musty
di San Marco.
General Index
Abraham, 2.o8, zz6, 334, 336,
337
and Hagar, 336
and Isaac, 336, 337
and Sarah, 334, 335
bosom of, see Bosom of
Abraham
Adam and Eve, r I, 14, 16-19,
21, 103, 2 0 8 , 1 4 1 , 242, 266,
327,328
Afterlife, 8, 5r, 204
Angels, 2.82-373
adoring, 330-31, 347
in action, 332-58
age and sex of, 289-93
Cherubim, 17, 18, 19, 208,
133, 281, 288, 294, 301, 303,
305-7, 308, 327,32.8, 331
child, 12.8, 153, 155, 289, 343,
347,357,358
choirs of, 40, 150, 2.94-300
classical antecedents for,
28o-81
guardian, 170, 328, 359
hierarchies of, 294-300
musical,55,58,311,3,8 -26
putti, see child angels
rebel, 2.31, 236-40, 313, 317,
329, 366
Seraphim, 55, 294, 301-4,
305, 309,314, 319, 330
warrior, 313-17, 32.7-29
Animals, demonic, 89-98, 157
Anna, wife of Tobit, 370
Anthony, Saint, 45, 67, 75, 76,
77, 105, 118, 119
Anthony Abbot, Saint, 12.9
Antichrist, 208, 252-56
Apocalypse, 152, 189, 308, 309,
313,315,317,354
angel of the, 62, 354
376
beast (dragon) of the, 93, 165,
2.51., 262,264-69
book of the, see Revelation
Elders of the, 3 xI-T 2
horsemen of the, 185,
197-201
Virgin of the, 167
Apollo and Marsyas, myth of,
106
Archangels, 360-73
Gabriel, 69, 90, 208, 283, 284,
36o-63
Michael, 31, 48, 71, 93, 156,
t 65, 173, 208, 209, 217, 218,
219, 223, 227, 236, 238,2.39,
248, 249, 250, 155, 156, 265,
167, 2922317, 319, 359, 360,
364-67, 368, 371
Raphael, 359, 360,364,
368-71
Uric!, 372-73
Ars moriendi (art of dying),
1168:2.5712
Augustine, Saint, 51, 141, 150,
6 4
Basilisks, 75, 92, 99
Beast of the Apocalypse, 2.62.,
264-66
Beelzebub, /44-51
Bernard, Saint, 98, 143, 153, 163
Black Mass, 118-19
Borgia, Saint Francis 171
Bosom of Abraham, 54, 59-6o
Cecilia, Saint, Iso, 282, 320
Cerberus and Charon, 259-63
Cherubim, 17, 18, 19, 2.08, 233,
281, 2.88, 294, 301, 303,
305-7, 308, 32.7, 318, 331
Christ
Ascension of, 208, 308
birth of, 2.87, z88, 308, 332,
341,360, 362, 371
Chair of, see Etimasia
crucifixion of, 95, 96, 196,
273, 350
disciples of, 91, 95, 96, 148,
/85, 348, 349
in the Garden, 2.72, 273, 348,
349
Last Supper of, 9r, 14o, 270,
273
Resurrection of, 46, 47, 48,
1 3 4 , 2 0 1 , 2 0 3 , 2 6 6 , 2.85
Second Coming of, 202, 2.06
Classical precedents, 63, 232-35,
280-8I
Constantine, Emperor, 108, 161,
282
Creation, 1z-13
Damned, the, 28, 19, 33, 34, 42,
44, 51, 71, 92, 143, 202,2.06,
2 0 7 , 1 0 9 , 211, 212, 2 2 0 - 2 5 ,
239, 253, 257-63
Dance, macabre, 18z, 188
Dante, 37, 38, 39, 40, 44, 51, 52,
53, 63, 220, 258, 159,2.61,
263, 270,1.75, 295
David, King, 47, 322, 323
Death, 32, 35, 50, 71, 1o6, 170,
172-78,18o, 182, 198, 199,
200, 209
triumph of, 183-88, 197
Deesis, 23, 32, I I I
Devil
as Tempter, 17, 21, 74-77,85,
99, 103, 130, /31, 132,
241-43,347
as fallen angel (Lucifer), 2.8,
34, 37, 41, 236, 237, 244,
245-51
disguises and deceptions,
85-88
pact with the, 78-79, I I I ,
114,115,145,146
 exorcism of the, 80-81, 102
Dis, city of, 34-35, 38, 41, 44,
212, 248, 260
Dragons, 97, 99, 100-1oz, 116,
121, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160,
1 6 1 , 1 6 2 , 1 6 5 , 2.19, 2.36, 2 3 8 ,
239> 2 4 8 1 2 6 4 - 2 6 9
Ecstasy, 148-55, 311, 321, 332,
357, 358
Elizabeth, Saint, 361
Ezekiel (prophet), ,o6, 202, 213,
305, 306, 308, 309
Empyrean, 63-65
End o f Time, see Last Days
Etimasia, z06, 208
Expulsion from the Garden of
Eden (or Earthly Paradise), 11,
2, r8, 19, 48, 74, 103, 305,
32'7,328
Fall, the
of man, 49, 74
of the Rebel Angels, 231,
236-40
Forbidden fruits, 17, 22, 48, 57,
103-5,142
Francis, Saint, 130, 132, 133,
1 5 4 , 3 0 1 , 3 0 3 , 3 2 1 , 3 11 , 3 5 8
Gabriel (archangel, 69, 90, 2.08,
283, 284, 360-63
Garden
of Eden, 11, 14, 17, 19, 22,
23-26,57,103,317,328
and Fountain of Grace, 20-13,
51,54,229,340
Paradise, earthly, 14-17, 18,
20, 21, 24, 48, 52, 60, 74, 241,
328
George, Saint, t o o , 1 5 6 , r h o
Ghosts, 108-10
Grace
see Fountain of
state of, 2 2 , 4 0 , 4 6 1 1 4 3 1 1 7 5 ,
205
Gregory, Saint, 1 52, 225, 308,
367
Harvest, Mystical, 214-16
Heaven, 13, 54, 63, 65, 71, 124,
139, 141, 143, 150, 196,105,
zo9, 223, 224, 247, 265, 287,
313, 341, 346
battles in, 313-17
Bosom o f Abraham, 54, 59-6o
Crystalline, 301
Empyrean, 63-65
see Angels; Archangels
Heavenly battles, see Heaven,
battles in
Heavenly Jerusalem, 54, 58,
6 1 - 6 2 , 174, 211, 212, 311,
314
Hell, 28-53, 59, 68, 71, 92,93,
107, 1 to, I I I , 143, 177, 197,
198, 199, 206, 245, 257, 258,
259, 260, 262, 270, 275, 313,
315
circles and torments in, 40-42
Dante and Virgil in, 37, 38-39
fires and flames, 43-45
gates of, 33, 177, 259
infernal rivers and swamps,
36-39
Island of the Dead, 5o
Limbo, 46-49
Purgatory, 51-53, : 2 4 - 2 5
See Angels, rebel; Damned,
the; Dis, City of; Judgment,
Universal
Hercules, 50, 234, 259, 262
at the Crossroads, 122-24,
125,128
Homo tuella, see " M a n Is a
Bubble"
Horsemen of the Apocalypse,
185,197-201
Inquisition, 82-84, 155
Isaiah (prophet), 28, 106, 244,
301, 308, 309
Jacob, 108, 139, 140, 141, 304
Jacobus de Voragine, 69, 159,
161
Jerome, Saint, 151, 232, 252, 354
Jesus, see Christ
Job, 144-47, 235, 257,359
John/Saint/Apostle, 95, 96, 348,
349
John, Saint/Evangelist, 23, 28, 32,
61, 68, 98, 91, 14o, 150, 197,
208, 252, 269, 175, 308,
309-12,350
John, Saint, the Baptist, 210, 310,
346, 360, 361, 372, 373
Joseph (biblical), t 0 8
Joseph, Saint, 287, 319, 340, 342,
343, 344, 345
Joseph of Cupertino, Saint, 155
Judas, 41, 91, 270-74
Judgment, Particular, 196
Judgment, Universal (Last), : 8 ,
29, 32-, 51, 54, 57, 58, 71, 93,
167, 183, 187, 196, 202, 205,
206-13, 214, 217, 2 1 8 , : 2 1 ,
223, 224, 226, 245, 159, 261,
282,304,317,318,372,375
Ladder of Virtues, 141-43
Last Days, see Judgment,
Universal
Limbo, 46-49
Leviathan, 159, 257-58
Lucifer, see Devil
Luke/Saint/Evangelist, 25, 28, 43,
59, 244, 284, 310, 361
" M a n Is a Bubble," 193-95
Mark/Saint/Evangelist, 43, 8o,
244, 310, 347, 351
377
Margaret, Saint, 99,
156,161
Martha, Saint, 156, 159
Mary Magdalene, Saint,
95, 129, 134, 150.
156,352
Mary, Virgin, 2.2., 23,
55, 65, 88, 90, 93,
95,96, 138, 155,
1 7 5 , 2 0 8 , 2 11 , 2 1 2 ,
2 1 7 , 2 4 7 , 164s 2 6 7 ,
279, 283, 284, 287,
290, 291, 294, 300,
319, 326, 330, 331,
334, 340, 342, 343,
35o, 36o, 362, 371
Matthew, Saint/Apostle,
28,43,51,236,248,
156, 158,207, 244,
252, 285, 310, 347,
349,359
Meeting of the Three
Living and the Three
Dead, The, 179-81
Michael (archangel),
32, 48, 71, 93, 156,
165, 173, 2.08, 209,
217, 218, 219, 223,
227, 136, 238, 239,
248, 249, 150, 255,
256, 265, 267, 292,
327, 3 1 9 0 5 9 0 6 0 ,
364-67,368,371;
see Heaven, battles
in; Psychostasis
Mercy, Seven Works of,
136-38
Mystical Harvest, see
Harvest, Mystical
Mystic Lamb, 23, 25,
54, 61, 62, 229
378
Netherworld, gates of
the, see Hell, gates of
Nightmares, 0 8 - i o
Paradise, 54-58; see
Bosom of Abraham;
Empyrean; Heavenly
Jerusalem
Paradise, earthly,
1 4 - 1 7 , 18, 20, 21,
24.48, 52, 6o, 74,
241, 328
Paradise, gates of,
18-19
Parousia, sec Second
Coming of Christ
Peter, Saint/Apostle, 33,
43,58,71,162,208,
212, 273, 275, 276,
177,348,349,353
Peter Martyr, 8,, 88
Pieta, 336, 351
Philip, Saint/Apostle,
97,156,157,275
Prayer, 148-55
Psychomachy, 125-2.8
Psychostasis, 227-18
Purgatory, 51-53,
224-25
Raphael (archangel),
359, 360, 364,
368-72
Resurrection
of Christ, 46, 47, 48,
134, 2 0 2 , 2 0 3 , 1 6 6 ,
285
of the Flesh, 2.02-5
weighing of souls,
217-19
see Judgment,
Universal (Last)
Revelation, book of, 28,
32, 33, 54, 61, 62,
92, 99, 156, 165,
197, 198, 199, 201,
2.06, 2 0 9 , 2 1 1 ,
213, 214, 215, 241,
252, 264, 266,267,
2.68,2.69, 287, 2.92,
305, 308, 309, 311,
312,313,315,317,
329, 354, 364
Righteous, the, 46, 48,
53, 2.06, 2z4, 2.2.6-2.9
Sabbat, 112,1 14,
115-17
Saints
battling the Devil,
156-65
Anthony, 45, 67, 75,
76,77,105,118,119
Anthony Abbot, 129
Augustine, 51, 141,
t 50, 164, 251
Bernard, 98, 143,
153, 163
Cecilia, 150,2.82.,
320
Francis, 13o, 132,
133, 1 5 4 , 3 0 1 0 0 3 ,
322, 3 2 2 , 3 5 8
Francis Borgia, 171
George, 100, 121,
156, t 6o
Gregory, 152., 225,
308, 367
Jerome, 151, 2.32,
152,354
Joseph, 287,3,9,
340, 342, 343, 344,
345
Joseph of Cupertino,
155
Luke, 25, 2.8, 43, 59,
244, 184, 310, 361
Margaret, 99, 156,
161
Mark, 43, 80,2-44,
310, 347, 352
Martha, 156, 159
Mary Magdalene,
95, 1/9, 134, 150,
156,352
Matthew, 28, 43, 51,
136, 148, .156, 158,
207, 144, 151, 285,
310, 347, 349, 359
Peter, 33, 43, 58, 71,
162, 208, 212, 273,
275, 2769277, 348,
349, 353
Peter Martyr, 81, 88
Philip, 97, 156, 157,
175
Sylvester, 156, 162
Sarah, wife of
Abraham, 334, 335
Sarah, wife of Tobias,
370
Satan, see Devil
Second Coming of
Christ, 201„ 206
Seraphim, 55,294,
301-4, 305, 309,
314,319,330
Serpent, the Tempter,
241-43; see Devil
Ship of Fools, 72-73
Simon Magus, 2.31,
275-78
Sins
Seven Deadly, 5z,
68-71, 366
enticements, musical,
106-7
Souls
 in Hell, 220-23; see
Hell
in Heaven, see
Heaven
in Purgatory, 114-15
Souvigny Bible, 13, 135
Sylvester, Saint 156,
16z
Tetramorph, 14,
308-10
Trials of Job, see Job
Uriel (archangel),
371-73
Vanitas, 193,194,354,
358
Vanity of Vanities,
189-91
Virgin Mary, see Mary,
Virgin
Virtues, Ladder of,
141-43
Witches, 111—I4,
115-19
Zechariah, father of
John the Baptist,
360,361
Zechariah, prophet, 28

379
Index of Artists
Ahadia, Juan de la, 219
Alberegno, Jacobello, 2.15
Alberti, Antonio, 361
Alkmaar, Master of, 136, 137
Altdorfer, Albrecht, 203
Andrea di Buonaiuto, 41
Andrea di Nerio, 37:
Angelico, Fra, 42, zro
Anthonisz, Cornelis, 89
Antolinez, Jose, tz8
Antonio de Lohny, 308
Arguis Master, z56
Bagetti, Giuseppe Pietro, II5
Balaam Master, 139
Baldung Grien, Hans, 112
Baronzio, Giovanni, 346
Bartolo di Fredi, 145
Bellegambe, Jean, 2o2
Bembo, Bonifacio, 145
Benvenuto di Giovanni, 122
Bcrnini, Gian Lorenzo, 148
Berruguete, Pedro, 83
Bilivert, Giovanni, 370
Blake, William, 140, 240
Boccati, Il (Giovanni di
Piermatteo), 95
Bocklin, Arnold, 5o, rob
Boel, Pietre, 190
Bonnecroy, Sebastiaen, 189
Borlone, Jacopo, 188
Bosch, Hieronymus, 20, 35, 64,
68, 7o, 73, tog, 107, 118,
119, 170
Botticelli, Sandro, 287, :91
Botticini, Francesco, 372
Boucicaut Master, 21
Bouts, Dirck, 221, 339
Bramantino, II (Bartolomeo
Suardi), 93
Briosco, Benedetto, 342
Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder, 186,
316
380
Buffalmacco, Buonamico, 87
Cagnacci, Guido, 134
Cairo, Francesco, 155, 270
Calvaert, Denys, 364
Caravaggio, 138, 319, 337
Carpaccio, Vittore, toz
Carra, Carlo, 200
Carracci, Annibale, 123, 352
Castiglione, Giovanni Benedetto
(11 Grechetto), 153
Cavallini, Pietro, 282
Chagall, Marc, 304
Champaigne, Philippe de, 288
Chardin, Jean•Baptiste-Simeon,
193
Christus, Petrus, 209
Coppo di Marcovaldo, School of,
295
Correggio, 65
Costanzi, Pietro, 155
Cranach, Lucas, 16
Crespi, Daniela, 196
Crespi, Giovanni Battista
(II Cerano), 225
David, Gerard, 366
Delacroix, Eugene, 38
Domenichino (Domenico
Zampieri), 359, 368
Domenico di Michelino, 51
Dore, Gustave, 37
Dossi, Battista, 109
Dossi, Dosso (Giovanni Luteri),
247
Duccio di Buoninsegna, 47, 131
Diirer, Albrecht, 48, 72, 144,
174, 199, 243, 315, 343
Escalante, Tadeo, 92.
Ferrarese master, anonymous, 94
Ferrari, Gaudcnzio, 324
Fiammenghino, II (Giovanni
Mauro della Rovere), 132
Florencio, 309
Florentine master, anonymous, 52
Floris, Frans, 238
Foppa, Vincenzo, 88
Francois, Guy, 3zo
Fuechere, Jean-Jacques, 251
Fuseli, Henry, 1 to
Gaddi, Agnolo, 367
Gaddi, Taddeo, 85, 341
Gentile da Fabriano, 8o, 300
Ghirlandaio, Domenico, 67
Giambono, Michele, 294
Giotto, 29, 271, :86
Giovannetti, Matteo, 350
Giovanni da Modena, 3o
Giovanni di Paolo, 12, 57, 183
Giovanni di Piermatteo (II
Boccati), 95
Giusto de' Menabuoi, 55, 97,
328
Goya, Francisco, 82, 108, 114,
117, 171
Grechetto, II (Giovanni Benedetto
Castiglione)
Greco, El (Domenico
Theotokopulos), 349
Grimewald, Mathias, 75, 326
Guariento di Arpo, 296, 297,
298,299,300
Guercino, 321, 355
Hals, Frans, I
Hildesheim Master, anonymous,
275
Hogarth, William, 177
lsenbrandt, Adrien, 152
Jacobello del Fiore, 159, 277
JS Monogrammist, 44
Klimt, Gustav, 178
La Tour, Georges de, 147, 345
Leonardo da Besozzo, 279
Ligozzi, Jacopo, 175
Limbourg Brothers, 11, 29, 53,
237
Lippi, Filippino, 157
Liss, Johann, 77
Lochner, Stephan, 212
Lorenzetti, Ambrogio, 86
Lotto, Lorenzo, 90, 249, 333
Lucas y Velasquez, Eugenio, 84
Luteri, Battista, 247
Maelesskircher, Gabriel, 158
Mandyn, Jan, 45
Mantegna, Andrea, 307, 348
Marcovaldo, Coppi di, School of
Marmion, Simon, 36, 43
Martini, Francesco di Giorgio,
126
Masaccio, 18
Maso di Banco, 162
Masolino da Panicale, 241, 293
Master of Cologne, 47
Master of Loreto Aprutino, 227
Master of the Legend of Saint
Barbara, 146
Master of the Legend of Saint
Catherine, 146
Master of the Little Garden of
Eden, 22
Master of the Low Countries, 47
Master of the Rebel Angels, 329
Master of the Rohan Hours, 173
Master of the Virgo inter
Virgines, 96
Master of the Vitae imperatorum,
34
Master Robert, 125
Mauro della Rovere, Giovanni
(Il Fiammenghino), 132
Mazzucchelli, Pier Francesco
(II Morazzone), 338
Memling, Hans, 58, 172, 322,
327
Metsys, Quentin, 1o5
Michelangelo, 167, 261
Montiglio Master, 179
Murillo, Bartolome Esteban, 356 Stella, Jacques, 347
Nardo di Cione, 41 Strozzi, Bernardo, 369
Niccolo di Giovanni, 304 Suardi, Bartolomeo (II
Niccolo di Pietro, 8o Bramantino), 93
Pacher, Michael, 164 Tiepolo, Giambattista, 12.9, 1.15,
Parini-) di Buonaguida, 314 2 3 6 , 3 3 5 , 3 3 6
Padua Miniaturist, 2.58 Tintoretto, II (Jacopo Rohusti),
Pagano, Francesco, 165 55, 16o
Palazzo Sclafani Master Tissot, James, 363
(Guillaume Spicre), 184 Tura, Cosimo, too
Patinir, Joachim, 105, 2.6o Valdes Leal, Juan de, 176
Pereda, Antonio de, 191 Van der Goes, Hugo, 331
Perino del Vaga, 25o Van der Weyden, Rogier, 169
Piazzetta, Gian Battista, 358 Van Eyck, Hubert, 318
Picasso, Pablo, 192. Van Eyck, Jan, 2.3, 32, 228, 318,
Piero della Francesca, 151 360
Pinturicchio, 142. Van Honthorst, Gerrit, 353
Pordenone, 11 (Giovan Antonio van Lathem, Lieven, 156
de Sacchis), 2.89 van Leyden, Lucas, 2.13
Poussin, Nicolas, 149 van Loo, Charles-Amedee-
Puigcerda Master, 98 Philippe, 195
R a p h a e l , 1 2 1 , 1 5 0 , 2.48, 2 9 1 Vasari, Giorgio, 2.66
Rembrandt, 79, 344 Velazquez, Diego, 135
Ribera, Juscpe de, 354 Venusti, Marcello, 163
Rosa, Salvator, 113 Vermiglio, Giuseppe, 91
Rosati, Giuseppe, 194 Veronese, Paolo, 351
Rosselli, Cosimo, 272 Vivarini, Antonio, 81
Rossetti, Dante Gabriel, 362 Vouet, Simon, 133
Rubens, Peter Paul, 2.07, 231, Wagner, Roger, 214
239, 267, 310, 333 Winchester Miniaturist, 2.46
Ryckaert, David, III, 77 Zuccaro, Federico, 263
Sacchis, Giovan Antonio de Zurbaran, Francisco de, 262.
(II Pordenone), 2.89
Saint-Aubert, Antoine-Francois,
116
Salimbeni, Jacopo, 361
Salimbeni, Lorenzo, 361
Signorelli, Luca, 204, 2.12, 254
Snellink, Jan, II, 15
Sons, Giovanni, 15
Spicre, Guillaume (Palazzo
Sclafani Master), 184
381
Photographic Credits
Archivi Alinari, Florence
Archivio Comune di Roma, Sovrintendenza ai Beni
Culturali, Rome
Archivio Fotografico Oronoz, Madrid
Archivio Mondadori Electa, Milan
Archivio Musei Civici, Venice
0 Archivio Scala Group, Antella (Florence)
Artothek / Blauel, Weilheim
Centre regional de documentation pedagogique
d'Auvergne / Alain Jean-Baptiste, Clermond-Ferrand
Antonello Idini Studio fotografico, Rome
The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles
Office de Tourisme de la Ville d'Autun
Paolo Manusardi, Milan
0 Photo RMN / M. Beck-Coppola, Paris
Antonio Quattrone, Florence

By permission of the Ministero per i Beni e le Attivita

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Soprintendenza speciale per it Polo Museale Veneziano,
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382
 The J. Paul Getty Museum

t h e GUIDE TO IMAGERY series

introduces readers to the
important visual vocabulary of Western art.
!1St o f esse1111,11 M t , o r M a l n A brief description at the
appears M t h r just nage' Mati,nn beginning of an entry SHIMM1-
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of the :mined. the ilevelopment Mid treat-
F M 1, c h a p t e r t 5 M e n t f l i n t ment of the theme in tb
itmnIC nthige i n t h e history r If art, with full-
Upper lift-hand ci,riter. page reproductions.

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Rebel Angels
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[ ' V e r y 4 1 e S C r I p t n . r. p i l , ; ; , In the works of art for
IMILAIns an IllitSttLIMM discussion and analysis.
The introductory text hir o f t h e the1111
each theme is coneiselv
presented on a single page. The brlllb appendixes
inlage captions identify include a general index an
each work -s creator, title, an index of artists for easy
present location. cross-referencmg.

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