Q.7 Define criteria for checking effect of entry length in case of internal flow.

Explain
variation of local Nusselt number for laminar internal flow, including entry length, for
constant heat flux as well as constant surface temperature BC. Present correlations for various
combinations of developing hydrodynamic and thermal BL conditions.

Answer The entrance length for pipe flow is a function of Reynolds number for both
turbulent and laminar flow. For turbulent flow will occur in a pipe or duct if the Reynolds
Number (Re) is greater than 4000. Most pipe flow of gases and liquids with a viscosity similar
to water is turbulent flow. For turbulent flow the entrance length, Le, can be estimated from
the equation Le/D = 4.4Re1/6.

Laminar flow in pipes and ducts takes place for Reynolds Number less than 2100. Laminar
flow in pipes will occur only for very viscous fluids or very slow flows. For Laminar Flow, the
entrance length, Le, can be estimated from the equation: Le/D = 0.06 Re.
The Nusselt numbers and thus the convection heat transfer coefficients are much higher in the
entrance region. The Nusselt number reaches a constant value at a distance of less than 10
diameters, and thus the flow can be assumed to be fully developed for x > 10D. The Nusselt
numbers for the uniform surface temperature and uniform surface heat flux conditions are
identical in the fully developed regions, and nearly identical in the entrance regions. Therefore,
Nusselt number is insensitive to the type of thermal boundary condition, and the turbulent
flow correlations can be used for either type of boundary condition.
Correlations for various combination of developing hydrodynamic and thermal boundary
layer conditions
4
𝑁𝑢 = 0.023𝑅𝑒5 𝑃𝑟𝑛
n = 0.4 Fluid is cold and pipe is heated
n = 0.5 Fluid is heated and pipe is cold
Nusselt numbers for the constant wall temperature
𝑁𝑢 = 3.66
Nusselt numbers for the constant heat flux
𝑁𝑢 = 4.36
𝑃𝑟 = ∛(𝛿ℎ /𝛿𝑡ℎ )
The Nusselt number relations above are fairly simple, but they may give errors as large as 25
percent. This error can be reduced considerably to less than 10 percent by using more complex
but accurate relations such as the second Petukhov equation expressed as
𝑓
[( )𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟 ]
𝑁𝑢 = { 8
2 } (0.5 ≤ 𝑃𝑟 ≤ 2000)
𝑓 0.5
[1.07+12.7( )
8
(𝑃𝑟3 −1)]

( 104 ≤ 𝑅𝑒 ≤ 5 𝑋 106 )

The accuracy of this relation at lower Reynolds numbers is improved by modifying it as

𝑓
[( )(𝑅𝑒 −1000)𝑃𝑟 ]
𝑁𝑢 = { 8
2 } (0.5 ≤ 𝑃𝑟 ≤ 2000)
𝑓 0.5
[1+12.7( )
8
(𝑃𝑟3 −1)]

( 3 𝑋 104 ≤ 𝑅𝑒 ≤ 5 𝑋 106 )
where the friction factor f can be determined from an appropriate relation such as the first
Petukhov equation. Gnielinski’s equation should be preferred in calculations. Again properties
should be evaluated at the bulk mean fluid temperature. The relations above are not very
sensitive to the thermal conditions at the tube surfaces and can be used for both 𝑇𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
and 𝑞𝑠 = constant cases. Despite their simplicity, the correlations already presented give
sufficiently accurate results for most engineering purposes. They can also be used to obtain
rough estimates of the friction factor and the heat transfer coefficients in the transition region
2300 ≤ 𝑅𝑒 ≤ 10000, especially when the Reynolds number is closer to 10,000 than it is to
2300. The relations given so far do not apply to liquid metals because of their very low Prandtl
numbers. For liquid metals ( 0.004 ≤ 𝑃𝑟 ≤ 0.01 ), the following relations are recommended by
Sleicher and Rouse for 104 < 𝑅𝑒 < 106

𝑇𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑁𝑢 = 4.8 + 0.0156 𝑅𝑒0.85 𝑃𝑟0.93

𝑞̇ 𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑁𝑢 = 6.3 + 0.0167 𝑅𝑒0.85 𝑃𝑟0.93

where the subscript s indicates that the Prandtl number is to be evaluated at the surface
temperature.
Q.8 Write short notes: Internal flow through non-circular geometries, heat transfer
enhancement and micro-scale heat transfer.
Answer The friction factor f and the Nusselt number relations are given in Table for fully
developed laminar flow in tubes of various cross sections. The Reynolds and Nusselt numbers
for flow in these tubes are based on the hydraulic diameter 𝐷ℎ = 4Ac /p, where Ac is the cross
sectional area of the tube and p is its perimeter. Once the Nusselt number is available, the
convection heat transfer coefficient is determined from h= kNu/𝐷ℎ
Nusselt number and friction factor for fully developed laminar flow in tubes of various cross
sections:

There are several available options for enhancing heat transfer. The enhancement can be
achieved by increasing the surface area the convection coefficient. For example surface roughness
can be used to increase h in order to enhance turbulence. This can be achieved through machining
or other kinds of insertions like coil-spring wire. The insert provides a helical roughness in contact
with the surface. The convection coefficient may also be increased by an insert of a twisted tape
that consists in a periodical twist through 360 degrees. Tangential inserts optimize the velocity of
the flow near the tube wall, while providing a bigger heat transfer area. While, increased area and
convection coefficient can be achieved by applying spiral fin or ribs inserts. Other aspects such
pressure drop must be taken into consideration in order to meet the fan or pump power constraints.
Heat conduction at the microscale can be dramatically different than at the macroscale. The
differences become clear by comparing the thermal conductivity of a “bulk” material (that is,
a large sample that is by definition free of microscale effects) to the effective thermal
conductivity of a microscopic sample of the same material. The values of thermal conductivity
that are readily available in textbooks and standard reference books (so-called “handbook
values”) apply to bulk samples, but must be used with great caution for microscale samples.
As one example, according to a standard reference , the thermal conductivity k of pure silicon
at room temperature is 148W/m. This value is appropriate for silicon samples with
characteristic lengths ranging from meters to millimeters to microns. However, a silicon
nanowire of diameter 56 nm has thermal conductivity of only 26W/m, a reduction by more
than a factor of five compared to the bulk value. The reductions are even more dramatic at low
temperature: at 20 K the values are 4940 W/m for bulk Si, and 0.72W/m for the Si nanowire,
a difference of more than a factor of 6000! By the end of this chapter, readers should
understand the physical reasons for this tremendous reduction, and be able to evaluate it
numerically with approximate calculations. Although the great majority of microsystems
follow this same pattern of having thermal conductivity less than their bulk counterparts, there
are also certain materials that exhibit nanoscale thermal conductivity greater than

their bulk forms. Carbon is the most prominent example. At 300 K the thermal conductivity
of bulk diamond is 2310 W/m, and the value for graphite (in-plane) is 2000 W/m, whereas
single-walled carbon nanotubes have been measured with thermal conductivity of 3500 W/m.
These dramatic variations in the thermal conductivity between macro- and micro-systems are
of great importance for many modern applications. The feature sizes in microelectronics
(transistors and memory) and some optoelectronics (certain solid-state lasers) are now in the
range of 100 nm or less, and the corresponding reduction in the thermal conductivity of the
constituent materials presents a serious obstacle to dissipating heat away from the device
regions. Of course, there are also applications where reduced thermal conductivity is desirable,
for example, in thermoelectric energy converters and thermal barrier coatings.