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IB Math: Algebra Notes
IB Math: Algebra Notes
LECTURE NOTES
MATHEMATICS SL/HL
Dr Christos Nikolaidis
TOPIC 1
ALGEBRA
Only for HL
August 2017
TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
♦ SEQUENCE
2, 5, 13, 5, -4, …
↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
term term term term term
2,4,8,16,32,… (powers of 2)
We use the notation un to describe the n-th term. Thus, the terms
of the sequence are denoted by
u1 , u 2 , u3 , u 4 , u5 , …
♦ SERIES
We say that S∞ is an infinite series, while the finite sums S1, S2, S3,…
are called partial sums.
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 1
Also,
S1 =1,
S 2 =1+3=4,
S3 =1+3+5=9,
S 4 =1+3+5+7=16
Finally,
k
♦ SIGMA NOTATION ( ∑ )
n =1
Instead of writing
u1 + u 2 + u3 + u 4 + u5 + u6 + u7 + u8 + u9
we may write
9
∑u
n =1
n
∑u
n =1
n
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 2
3
• ∑2
n =1
n
= 2 1 + 2 2 + 2 3 = 2+4+8 = 14
4
1 1 1 1 12 + 6 + 4 + 3 25
• ∑n
n =1
=1 + + + =
2 3 4 12
=
12
3
1 1 1 1 4+2+1 7
• ∑2
k =1
k
= + + =
2 4 8 8
=
8
6
• ∑ (2n + 1)
n =3
= 7+9+11+13 = 22
20
x 3 4 5 20
• ∑x+2
x =3
= + + +L+
5 6 7 22
= … whatever that is, I don’t mind!!!
♦ NOTICE
A) by a GENERAL FORMULA
EXAMPLE 3
un = n 2 is the sequence 12 , 2 2 , 32 , 4 2 , 5 2 , …
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
un +1 in terms of un
For example,
u1 = 10
u n +1 = u n + 2
EXAMPLE 4
u1 = 3 u n +1 = 2 u n + 5
EXAMPLE 5
Sometimes, we give the first two terms u1 , u 2 and then a recursive
formula for un +1 in terms of un and un −1 .
The most famous sequence of this form is the Fibonacci sequence
u1 = 1, u 2 = 1
un +1 = un + un −1
In other words,
we add u1 , u 2 in order to obtain u3 ,
we add u 2 , u3 in order to obtain u 4 , and so on.
It is the sequence
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, …
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
♦ THE DEFINITION
Let’s start with an example! I give you the first term of a sequence,
say u1 =5, and I always ask you to add a fixed value, say d=3, in
order to find the next term. The following sequence is generated
We only need
EXAMPLE 1
u n = u1 + (n − 1)d
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
d d d d
Hence, u5 = u1 + 4d
Similarly, u10 = u1 + 9d
u50 = u1 + 49d
In general, u n = u1 + (n − 1)d
EXAMPLE 2
Solution
(a) 3, 8, 13, 18
EXAMPLE 3
Solution
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 4
Solution
= 42 − 9 ⋅ 5
= −3
Since we know u1 = −3 and d = 5 we are able to find any term we
like! Thus,
u100 = u1 + 99d = -3 + 99 ⋅ 5 = 492
It is directly given by
n
Sn = (u1 + u n ) (1)
2
or otherwise by
n
Sn = [2u1 + (n − 1)d] (2)
2
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 5
Solution
(check though that the two formulas for S3 give the same result!)
EXAMPLE 6
Find 10 + 20 + 30 + … + 200
EXAMPLE 7
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 8
The 3rd term of an A.S. is zero while the sum of the first 15 terms
is -300. Find the first term and the sum of the first ten terms.
Solution
u3 = u1 + 2d ⇔ 0 = u1 + 2d
15
S15 = (2u 1 + 14d) ⇔ - 300 = 15u 1 + 105d
2
We solve the system
u1 + 2d = 0
15u 1 + 105d = -300
Finally,
10
S10 = (2u 1 + 9d) = 5(16- 36) = -100
2
Let
a, x, b
x – a = b– x
a+b
Hence, 2x=a+b, that is x = (x is the mean of a and b)
2
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 9
Solution
Clearly x-5 = 19-x = y-19
Hence,
x-5 = 19-x ⇔ 2x = 24 ⇔ x= 12
x-5 = y-19 ⇔ 7 = y-19 ⇔ y = 26
EXAMPLE 10
Solution
Clearly 10-a = b-10 = (a+b)-b
that is 10-a = b-10 = a
Hence,
10-a = a ⇔ 2a = 10 ⇔ a = 5
b-10 = a ⇔ b-10 = 5 ⇔ b = 15
EXAMPLE 11
Solution
Notice that 100,b,200 is also an arithmetic sequence.
Thus b is the mean of 100 and 200, that is b=150
Now
a is the mean of 100 and 150, that is a = 125
c is the mean of 150 and 200, that is c = 175
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
♦ THE DEFINITION
I give you the first term of a sequence, say u1 =5 and this time I
ask you to multiply by a fixed number, say r =2, in order to find
the next term. The following sequence is generated
We only need
EXAMPLE 1
NOTICE:
• The common ratio r may also be negative! In this case the signs
alternate (+, -, +, -, …) [see (c) and (e) above].
• The common ratio r may be between -1 and 1, that is |r|<1. In
such a sequence the terms approach 0 [see (d) and (e) above].
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
u n = u 1 r n −1
r r r r
Hence, u 5 = u 1r 4
Similarly, u10 = u1r 9 , u50 = u1r 49
In general, u n = u1r n −1
EXAMPLE 2
Solution
(a) 3, 6, 12, 24
EXAMPLE 3
Solution
Therefore, u3 = u1r 2 = 10 ⋅ 3 2 = 90
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 4
Solution
u5 u7
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
It is directly given by
u1 (r n − 1)
Sn =
r- 1
where r ≠ 1 .
EXAMPLE 5
u1 (r 10 − 1) 2(2 10 − 1)
S10 = = =2046
r-1 2- 1
EXAMPLE 6
1 1 1 1
Consider the sum 1+ + + + L + 10
2 4 8 2
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 7
S 2 = u1 + u 2 ⇔ -15 = u1 -30 ⇔ u1 = 15
u 2 - 30
Since u1 = 15 and u 2 =-30, we obtain r = = =-2
u1 15
Let
a, x, b
be consecutive terms of a geometric sequence (we don’t mind if
these are the first three terms or some other three consecutive
terms). The common ratio is equal to
x b
=
a x
u1
S∞ =
1 −r
In this case we say that the series converges.
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
u1 (r n − 1)
Sn =
r- 1
u1 (0 − 1) u1
Sn → =
r-1 1−r
S ∞ = u 1 + u 1r + u 1 r 2 + u 1 r 3 + L (1)
r ⋅ S ∞ = u 1r + u 1 r 2 + u 1 r 3 + L (2)
S ∞ - r ⋅ S ∞ = u1
] ⇒ (1 − r) S ∞ = u1
and finally,
u1
S∞ =
1- r
S ∞ = u 1 + u 1r + u 1 r 2 + u 1 r 3 + L
= u 1 + r ( u 1 + u 1r + u 1 r 2 + u 1 r 3 + L )
= u1 + r S ∞
S ∞ = u1 + r S ∞
⇒ S ∞ - r ⋅ S ∞ = u1
⇒ (1 − r) S ∞ = u1
and finally,
u1
S∞ =
1- r
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 8
1 1 1 1
Show that + + + +L = 1 (*)
2 4 8 16
Solution
1 1
This is an infinite G.S. with u1 = and r = .
2 2
Since |r|<1 we obtain
1 1
u 2
S∞ = 1 = =2 = 1
1 −r 1 1
1−
2 2
EXAMPLE 9
1 1 1 1
Show that 1+ + + + + L =2
2 4 8 16
Solution
u1 1 1
S∞ = = = =2
1 −r 1 1
1−
2 2
EXAMPLE 10
1
We will show that 0.3333… =
3
We can write
u1 0.3 0.3 3 1
0.3333… = = = = =
1−r 1 − 0.1 0.9 9 3
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 11
Indeed,
u1 0.9 0.9
0.9999… = 0.9+0.09+0.009 + L = = = = 1
1−r 1 − 0.1 0.9
If you are not persuaded, look at two alternative proofs:
• We know that
1
0.3333… =
3
If we multiply both sides by 3 then
3
0.9999… = = 1
3
• Let x=0.9999… (1)
Then 10x=9.9999… (2)
We subtract (2)-(1)
10x-x = 9
9x = 9
x = 1 (3)
In problems with
Interest rate a%
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
Initial amount = A
a
Rate = A*
100
a a
New amount = A + A* = A(1+ )
100 100
That is,
a
if an amount A increases by, then A is multiplied by r =1+
100
a
Similarly, if the amount A decreases by a% the ratio is r =1-
100
Then Then
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 12
Solution
Solution
Therefore, n = 12
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
log 2.5
n>
log 1.08
n > 11.92
x 1 2 5 8 10 20 100
logx 0 0.301 0.699 0.903 1 1.301 2
log xn = n log x
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
Monthly 1000(1+
0.12 )12n
12
Daily 1000(1+
0.12 )365n
365
In general 0.12 )kn
1000(1+
in k time periods k
It is interesting to see the final amount after 5 years, for the initial
amount of 1000 euros, if the interest is compounded:
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
♦ THE SYMBOL n!
n! = 1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3L n
For example
1!= 1
2!= 1 ⋅ 2 = 2
3! = 1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 = 6
4! = 1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 4 = 24
5! = 1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 5 = 120
n
♦ THE SYMBOL nCr OR
r
n n!
=
r r!⋅(n − r)!
For example,
5 5!
“5 choose 2” or 5C2 is = =10
2 2!⋅3!
10 10!
“10 choose 3” or 10C3 is = =120
3 3!⋅7!
For example, for 5C2, press 5, then nCr, then 2. The result is 10
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
NOTICE:
5
In fact is the number of ways to choose 2 items out of 5:
2
Consider 5 items
A, B, C, D, E.
A,B A,C A,D A,E B,C B,D B,E C,D C,D D,E
(a + b) 2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2
(a + b) 3 = a 3 + 3a 2 b + 3ab 2 + b 3
(a + b) 4 = a 4 + 4a 3b + 6a 2 b 2 + 4ab 3 + b 4
(a + b) 5 = 1 a 5 b 0 +5 a 4 b 1 +10 a 3b 2 +10 a 2 b 3 +5 a 1b 4 +1 a 0 b 5
that is
(a + b) 5 = a 5 +5 a 4 b +10 a 3b 2 +10 a 2 b 3 +5 ab 4 + b 5
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
1
1 1 coefficients of (a + b) 1
1 2 1 coefficients of (a + b) 2
1 3 3 1 coefficients of (a + b)3
1 4 6 4 1 coefficients of (a + b) 4
1 5 10 10 5 1 coefficients of (a + b) 5
etc
[Start with 1
1 1
For the next line: the outboard numbers are 1;
Under the pair of numbers 1 1 write down their sum
1
1 1
1 2 1
Carry on; the outboard numbers are 1; under each pair write down their sum]
n
Another way to obtain the coefficients is by using the symbol
r
5 5 5 5 5 5
For (a + b) 5 :
0 1 2 3 4 5
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
1 5 10 10 5 1
In general,
n n n n
(a + b) n = a n b 0 + a n-1 b 1 + a n- 2 b 2 + L + a 0 b n
0 1 2 n
n n-r r
a b
r
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 1
Find the expansions of (2x + 3) 3 and (2x − 3) 3
Solution
= 8x3 +36x2+54x+27
(a − b) 3 = a 3 -3 a 2 b +3 ab 2 - b 3
Similarly
(a − b) 4 = a 4 − 4a 3b + 6a 2 b 2 − 4ab 3 + b 4
(a − b) 5 = a 5 -5 a 4 b +10 a 3b 2 -10 a 2 b 3 +5 ab 4 - b 5
EXAMPLE 2
Expand (2x − 3) 4
Solution
We apply the formula for (a − b) 4
Thus
(2x − 3) 4 = (2x) 4 - 4 (2x) 3 (3) + 6 (2x) 2 (3) 2 - 4 (2x)(3)3 + 3 4
= 16x 4 - 96x 3 + 216x 2 - 216x+ 81
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 3
In the expansion of (2x − 3) 4 find the term of x3
Solution
The term is
4
(2x) 3 ( −3) 1
1
n
STEP 3: Attach the coefficient
r
4
(n=4 and r=1 is the exponent of b) (2x) 3 ( −3) 1
1
4
(2x) 3 ( −3) 1 = 4(8x3)(-3) = -96x3
1
EXAMPLE 4
Find the term of x5 in the expansion of (2x − 3)7
Solution
The term is
7
(2x)5 ( −3) 2
2
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 5
In the expansion of (2x 2 + 1)8 find the coefficient of x10
Solution
The term is
8
(2x 2 ) 5 (1) 3
3
[Remember
2
Step 1: the terms: (2x )(1)
2 5 3
Step 2: split 8 appropriately in order to obtain x10: (2x ) (1)
n 8
: (2x ) (1) ]
2 5 3
Step 3: the coefficient
r 3
EXAMPLE 6
1 6
In the expansion of (2x + ) find
x
(a) the coefficient of x2 (b) the constant term
Solution
6 1 x3
(2x)3 ( ) 3 = 20(23) 3 = 160
3 x x
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 7
3 12
Find the constant term in the expansion of (2x 2 − )
x
Solution
3
Step 1 (2x 2 )(- )
x
3
Step 2 (2x 2 ) 4 (- )8 [in order to eliminate x’s]
x
12 3
Step 3 (2x 2 ) 4 (- )8
8 x
x8
495(24)(-3)8 = 51963120
x8
EXAMPLE 8
Find the term of x5 in the expansion of (2x + 3) (4x + 1)7
Solution
We respectively find
7
(4x) 4 (1) 3 = 35(44)x4 = 8960x4
3
7
(4x) 5 (1) 2 = 21(45)x5 = 21504x5
2
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
Solution
(a) Easy
(b) In fact, we need for the coefficient of x2 in the expansion of
(2x+1)5(x-2)5
5
(1+2x)5 = 15 + 5(1)4(2x) + (1)3(2x)2 + L = 1+10x+40x2+ L
2
5
(-2+x)5= (-2)5 + 5(-2)4x + (-2)3x2 + L =-32+80x-80x2+ L
2
Therefore
The term of x2 is
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
ONLY FOR
HL
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
♦ DISCUSSION
n(n + 1)
1+2+3 + L + n =
2
There are several ways to prove this relation (for example, this is
the sum S n for the arithmetic sequence with u1 =1 and d=1).
However, this is a good example to explain induction.
1(1 + 1)
For n=1, LHS = 1 RHS= =1, the result is true!
2
2(2 + 1)
For n=2, LHS = 1+2=3 RHS= =3, the result is true!
2
3(3 + 1)
For n=3, LHS = 1+2+3=6 RHS= =6, the result is true!
2
4(5 + 1)
For n=4, LHS = 10 RHS= =10, the result is true!
2
But this is not a proof. It is just an indication that the statement is
true for any n.
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
Induction:
1. We show that the statement is true for n=1
2. We assume that the statement is true for n=k (some k)
3. We claim that the statement is true for n=k+1
and prove it, based on the assumption of step 2
NOTICE
k k+1
which uses the outcome for k, to prove the next outcome for k+1.
Step 1 is necessary to switch on the mechanism!
EXAMPLE 1
n(n + 1)
1+2+3 + L + n = for any n ≥ 1
2
Proof
1(1+ 1)
LHS =1, RHS = =1
2
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
k(k + 1)
1+2+3 + L + k =
2
• We claim that the statement is true for n=k+1, that is
(k + 1)(k + 2)
1+2+3 + L + k+(k+1) =
2
Indeed,
k(k + 1)
= + (k+1) [by assumption]
2
k(k + 1) 2(k + 1)
= +
2 2
(k + 1)(k + 2)
= QED
2
Therefore, by mathematical induction, the statement is true for
any n ≥ 1.
EXAMPLE 2
61 − 1 = 5 is divisible by 5.
6k − 1 is divisible by 5;
Say 6k − 1 =5m
*
The main task in step 3 is to embed the assumption inside the proof.
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
6k+1 − 1 is divisible by 5.
Indeed,
6k+1 − 1 = 6 ⋅ 6k − 1
= 6 ⋅ (5m+ 1) -1 [by assumption]
= 30m+5
= 5(6m+1) which is divisible by 5 (QED).
EXAMPLE 3
[we may easily verify that the result is not true for n=1,2,3]
Proof
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 4
Solution
0, 2, 6, 14, 30, 62
un = 2n-2
un = 2n -2
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
Indeed,
u k +1 = 2 uk +2 [by definition]
= 2(2k-2)+2 [by assumption]
= 2k+1- 4+2
= 2k+1 -2 QED
NOTICE
Induction:
1. We show that the statement is true for n=1 and n=2
2. We assume that the statement is true for n=k-1 and n=k
3. We claim that the statement is true for n=k+1
and prove it, based on the assumption of step 2.
EXAMPLE 5
• We assume that the statement is true for n=k-1 and n=k, i.e.
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
NOTICE
in order to embed the assumption into the proof. We may use the
following table as a guide:
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
a1x+b1y=c1 a1x+b1y+c1z=d1
a2x+b2y=c2 a2x+b2y+c2z=d2
a3x+b3y+c3z=d3
For example,
5x+11y-21z =-22
2x+3y=9
x +2y -4z =-4
4x+7y=19
3x -2y +3z =11
♦ DETERMINANTS
a b
=ad-bc
c d
EXAMPLE 1
5 2 2 -4
= 5 ⋅ 4 − 2 ⋅ 3 =14 = − 12 + 12 =0
3 4 3 -6
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
a1 b1 c1
b c2 a2 c2 a b2
a2 b2 c 2 =a1 2 - b1 + c1 2
b3 c3 a3 c3 a3 b3
a3 b3 c3
a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2
a b3 c3
3
Similarly for b1 and c1.
EXAMPLE 2
2 3 4
6 7 5 7 5 6
5 6 7 = 2 -3 +4 = 2.34-3.33+4.4 =-15
2 8 1 8 1 2
1 2 8
a1x+b1y=c1 a1x+b1y+c1z=d1
a2x+b2y=c2 a2x+b2y+c2z=d2
a3x+b3y+c3z=d3
a1 b1 c1
a b1
D= 1 D= a 2 b2 c2
a2 b2
a3 b3 c3
respectively.
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
D≠ 0 • UNIQUE SOLUTION
• NO SOLUTION, or
D=0
• ∞ SOLUTIONS (infinitely many)
b
a≠ 0 • Unique solution x= .
a
• No solution (e.g. 0x=5 has no solution)
a=0
• ∞ solutions (e.g. 0x=0, true for any xєR)
The equations 2x=4, 0x=0 are consistent. The equations 0x=5 is not
♦ 2x2 SYSTEMS
Let us see an example for each case.
EXAMPLE 3
1 2
• For both systems (b) and (c) the determinant is D= =0,
2 4
thus we have either no solution or an ∞ number of solutions.
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♦ 3x3 SYSTEMS
EXAMPLE 4
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
The menu EQUA in our GDC provides the solution of a system only
if there is a unique solution! Otherwise it gives mathematical error!
An alternative way in the GDC provides the answer for each case.
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
1 0 a
which implies the unique solution x=a, y=b
0 1 b
1 * *
which implies no solution (as 0x+0y=1)
0 0 1
1 * *
which implies ∞ many solutions
0 0 0
1 2 1 1 2 1
2 4 10 2 4 2
respectively.
The Rref method gives the equivalent matrices
1 2 0 1 2 1
(i) (ii)
0 0 1 0 0 0
For system (ii) there are ∞ many solutions. In fact, we have only
one equation
x+2y=1
(the 2nd one is just a multiple of the 1st). We answer like this:
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 5
Consider the systems
(a) 5x+11y-21z=-22 (b) 2x+3y+3z= 3 (c) 2x+3y+3z= 3
x +2y -4z = -4 x+ y-2z= 4 x+ y-2z= 4
3x -2y +3z = 11 5x+7y+4z= 5 5x+7y+4z=10
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
♦ GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION
We interchange the first two equations (the fact that the first
leading coefficient is 1 helps)
x +2y -4z = -4
5x+11y-21z = -22
3x -2y +3z = 11
x + 2y - 4z = -4
y- z = -2
7z = 7 [Equ3 + 8 x Equ2]
In fact, the unknowns x,y,z do not play any role during this
process! We can work only with the coefficients of the system
placed in an augmented matrix as follows:
1 2 −4 -4 R1 (row 1)
5 11 - 21 - 22 R2 (row 2)
3 - 2 3 11 R3 (row 3)
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
1 2 −4 -4 R1
5 11 - 21 - 22 R2
3 - 2 3 11 R3
1 2 − 4 - 4 R1
~ 0 1 - 1 - 2 R 2 - 5R 1
0 - 8 15 23 R 3 - 3R 1
1 2 − 4 - 4 R1
~ 0 1 - 1 - 2 R2
0 0 7 7 R 3 + 8R 2
NOTICE
• If the last row was (0 0 0 |7), this corresponds to the equation
0x + 0y + 0z = 7 which is impossible (there is no solution)
• If the last row was (0 0 0 |0), this corresponds to the equation
0x + 0y + 0z = 0. This equation can be eliminated and the first
two equations provide ∞-ly many solutions.
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
* * * *
0 * * * by using row R1 to clear out 1st column
0 * * *
* * * *
then 0 * * * by using row R2 to clear out 2nd column
0 0 * *
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
REMARK
Ideally, in step 2 we attempt to have matrices of the form
1 * * * 1 * * *
0 * * * and 0 1 * *
0 * * * 0 0 * *
where the leading coefficient of the selected row is 1.
EXAMPLE 6
Consider the system
2x +3y +3z = 3
x + y -2z = 4
5x +7y +4z = 5
2 3 3 3 1 1 − 2 4 R2 1 1 − 2 4 R1
1 1 - 2 4~ 2 3 3 3 R1 ~ 0 1 7 -5 R 2 - 2R 1
5 7 4 5 5 7 4 5 0 2 14 - 15 R 3 - 5R 1
1 1 − 2 4 R1
~ 0 1 7 - 5 R2
0 0 0 - 5 R 3 - 2R 2
EXAMPLE 7
Consider the system
2x +3y +3z = 3
x + y -2z = 4
5x +7y +4z = 10
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2 3 3 3 1 1 − 2 4 R2 1 1 − 2 4 R1
1 1 - 2 4 ~ 2 3 3 3 R 1 ~ 0 1 7 - 5 R 2 - 2R 1
5 7 4 10 5 7 4 10 0 2 14 - 10 R - 5R
3 1
1 1 − 2 4 R1
~ 0 1 7 - 5 R2
0 0 0 0 R 3 - 2R 2
Analogous interpretations apply here but let us wait until Topic 4!!!
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EXAMPLE 8
1 2 3 4
0 1 5 6
0 0 a b
• If a≠
≠0 there is a unique solution.
b
az=b ⇒ z=
a
b
y+5z=6 ⇒ y=6-5z ⇒ y=6-5
a
b b b
x+2y+3z=4 ⇒ x=4-2y-3z ⇒ x=4-2(6-5 )-3 ⇒ x =-8+7
a a a
• If a=0 and b≠
≠0 there is no solution.
• If a=0 and b=0 there are infinitely many solutions. The system
becomes
x+2y+3z=4
y+5z=6
y=6-5z=6-5λ
x=4-2y-3z=4-2(6-5λ)-3λ = -8 +7λ
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−1 −4 , −9 , −5
i = −1
i2 = -1
− 9 =3 − 1 =3i
−5 = 5 −1 = 5 i
x 2 − 4x + 13 = 0
4 ± ∆ 4 ± 6i
x= = = 2 ± 3i
2 2
This gives rise to the following definition.
♦ THE DEFINITION
z = x + yi
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We also define,
♦ THE CONJUGATE z
EXAMPLE 1
Similarly
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Notice
z x+yi
z x-yi
-z -x-yi
-z -x+yi
3 2 + 4 2 = 25 = 5
Finally, observe that |5|=5 and |-5|=5. That is, the modulus
generalizes the notion of the absolute value for real numbers.
♦ EQUALITY: z1 = z2
Two complex numbers are equal if they have equal real parts and
equal imaginary parts: Let z1=x1+y1i and z2=x2+y2i
x 1 = x 2
z1 = z2 ⇔
y 1 = y 2
EXAMPLE 2
3 = a a = 3
z1 = z2 ⇔ ⇔
4 = 3b − 2 b = 2
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♦ ADDITION-SUBTRACTION-MULTIPLICATION-DIVISION
The four operations for complex numbers follow the usual laws of
algebra. We only have in mind that i2=-1.
EXAMPLE 3
z 7 + 4i
=
w 2 + 3i
is also a complex number!
7 + 4i 7 + 4i 2 − 3i 14 − 21i + 8i + 12 26 − 13i
= = = =2-i
2 + 3i 2 + 3i 2 − 3i 13 13
In other words
(7+4i):(2+3i) = 2-i
♦ IMPORTANT PROPERTY
|z|2 = z. z
|z|2 = x2+y2
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EXAMPLE 4
Get used to the multiplication by a conjugate:
(3+4i)(3-4i)=9+16=25
(1+i)(1-i)=1+1=2
(2-i)(2+i)=4+1=5
The result is always a real number (the square of the modulus).
EXAMPLE 5
Let us estimate the powers of i:
EXAMPLE 6
Calculate
a) z=(2+i)3
(2 + i) 3
b) z =
1−i
c) z if z(1-i) = 2+11i
Solution
= 2+11i
or
= 2+11i
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⇔ x-xi+yi-yi2 = 2+11i
⇔ (x+y)+(y-x)i = 2+11i
x + y = 2
⇔
y − x = 11
2 + 11i
z(1-i) = 2+11i ⇔ z =
1−i
= …
− 9 13
= + i [look at b)]
2 2
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NOTICE
f(x)=(x-r1)q(x)
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4 ± ∆ 4 ± 6i
x= = = 2 ± 3i
2 2
Thus, a quadratic with ∆<0 has always two complex roots which
are conjugate to each other! This is not accidental. For any
polynomial of any degree,
Lemma
For the conjugates of complex numbers we can easily verify that
z1 + z 2 = z1 + z 2
z1 z2 = z1 z2
zn = zn
Proof of (*)
Consider the polynomial
p(x)= a n x n + L + a 2 x 2 + a1 x + a 0
z is a root ⇒ a n z n + L + a 2 z 2 + a1 z + a 0 = 0
⇒ a n z n + L + a 2 z 2 + a1 z + a 0 = 0
⇒ a n z n + L + a 2 z 2 + a1 z + a 0 = 0
⇒ a n z n + L + a 2 z 2 + a1 z + a 0 = 0
⇒ a n z n + L + a 2 z 2 + a1 z + a 0 = 0
⇒ z is a root
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NOTICE:
Usually, when we consider complex roots a polynomial is written as
p(z)= a n z n + L + a 2 z 2 + a1 z + a 0
Then
(z-a-bi)(z-a+bi)=(z-a)2-(bi)2=(z-a)2+b2=z2-2az+(a2+b2)
p(z)=an(z-r1)(z-r2)…(z-rn)
where r1,r2,…,rn∈C (the n complex roots of the polynomial)
NOTICE:
A cubic function may have one of the following factorizations in R
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EXAMPLE 1
Solution
2+i, 2-i
Solution
z-1
f(z)=(z-1)(z-2+i)(z-2-i)
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Solution
Notice
f(1) = 0
f(2+i)=0
NOTICE:
In an analogue way, a polynomial of degree 4 may have
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y z = x+yi
O x
EXAMPLE 1
4 3+4i
0+4i 3
2
1
-5 O 1 2 3
-2
3+0i
-5-2i
Notice
†
We may also think of z as a vector from the origin to the point (x,y). Compare
x
with vectors in paragraph 5.2
y
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NOTICE
We already know that the sets
N = natural numbers
Z = integers
Q = rational numbers
R = real numbers
can be represented on the real axis. We extend this representation
here to the complex plane (considering an imaginary y-axis).
It also holds
N ⊂Z ⊂Q ⊂R ⊂C
EXAMPLE 2
It is interesting to see the representations of z, z ,-z,- z . For
example,
z=3+4i z =3-4i z=-3+4i - z =-3-4i
- z =-3+4i z=3+4i
-z=-3-4i z =3-4i
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y z = x+yi
r
θ
O x
Notice:
x y y
cosθ = , sinθ = , tanθ = (*)
r r x
REMARK
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The form
z = r (cosθ+isinθ)
• r = |z| = x 2 + y2
y
• tanθ = , having in mind the quadrant of z, i.e. of (x,y)
x
EXAMPLE 3
• For z = 1+ 3 i :
r = 1 + 3 =2,
3 π
tanθ = = 3 , hence θ = (z is in the 1st quadrant)
1 3
π π
Therefore, z = 2 (cos +isin )
3 3
• For z = 1- 3 i :
r = 1 + 3 =2,
− 3 π
tanθ = =- 3 , hence θ=- ( z is in the 4th quadrant)
1 3
π π
Therefore, z = 2 [cos(- )+isin(- )]
3 3
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• For w = 1+i :
r = 1+1= 2 ,
1 π
tanθ = =1, hence θ = (w is in the 1st quadrant)
1 4
π π
Therefore, w = 2 (cos +isin )
4 4
• For -w = -1-i :
r = 1+1= 2 ,
-1 5π
tanθ = =1, hence θ = (-w is in the 3rd quadrant)
-1 4
5π 5π
Therefore, -w = 2 (cos +isin )
4 4
• For u =3+4i :
r = 9 + 16 =5,
4
tanθ = =1.33,
3
hence θ = 0.926 (by GDC) (u is in the 1st quadrant)
Therefore, u = 5 [cos(0.926)+isin(0.926)]
EXAMPLE 4
π π
The Cartesian form of the complex number z = 2 (cos +isin )
3 3
π π 1 3
is 2 (cos +isin ) = 2( +i ) = 1+ 3 i
3 3 2 2
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NOTICE
• Remember that the polar form gives directly the modulus, e.g.
Hence z = r [cos(-θ)+isin(-θ)]
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We define‡
eiθ=cosθ+isinθ
π
π π i
For example, z =2(cos +isin ) = 2 e 3 .
3 3
Similarly
π π π
i i -i
1+i= 2 e 4
, 5=5 e i0 , -5=5 e iπ , 5i = 5 e 2
, -5i= 5 e 2
‡ This is not accidental! It can be shown that eiθ follows all known exponential properties
(we will verify that later on)
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♦ PROPOSITION 1
Proof.
♦ PROPOSITION 2
Then
z1 z2 = r1r2[cos(θ1+θ2)+isin(θ1+θ2)]
Proof.
z1 z2 = r1(cosθ1+isinθ1) r2(cosθ2+i sinθ2)
= r1r2[cosθ1cosθ2-sinθ1sinθ2+i(sinθ1cosθ2+sinθ2cosθ1)]
= r1r2[cos(θ1+θ2)+isin(θ1+θ2)]
♦ PROPOSITION 3
Let z1 = r1(cosθ1+isinθ1) and z2 = r2(cosθ2+isinθ2)
z1 r
Then = 1 [cos(θ1-θ2)+isin(θ1-θ2)]
z2 r2
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Proof.
z1
= z1z2-1
z2
= r1(cosθ1+isinθ1)r2-1[cos(-θ2)+i sin(-θ2)] [by Proposition1]
r1
= [cos(θ1-θ2)+isin(θ1-θ2)]
r2
NOTICE:
z1 r z1 r
By Proposition 3, the modulus of is 1 : | |= 1
z2 r2 z2 r2
In other words,
z1 z1
|z1z2| = |z1||z2| =
z2 z2
Furthermore,
z1 z1
By Proposition 3, the argument of is θ1-θ2: arg( )= θ1-θ2
z2 z2
In other words,
z1
arg(z1z2)=arg(z1)+arg(z2) arg( )=arg(z1)-arg(z2)
z2
In simple words,
the modulus |z| preserves the operations
the argument arg(z) behaves like log(z)
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EXAMPLE 1
π π π π
Let z1=2(cos +isin ) and z2=cos +isin
6 6 3 3
1 3
(In fact, z1= 3 +i and z2= + i)
2 2
Then
π π π π 3π 3π
• z1z2=2.1[cos( + )+isin( + )]=2[cos( )+isin( )]
6 3 6 3 6 6
π π
=2[cos( )+isin( )]=2(0+i)=2i
2 2
z1 2 π π π π π π
• = [cos( - )+isin( - )]=2[cos(- )+isin(- )]
z2 1 6 3 6 3 6 6
3 1
=2( - i)= 3 -i
2 2
π π π π π π
• z12=z1z1=2.2[cos( + )+isin( + )]=4(cos +isin )
6 6 6 6 3 3
1 3
=4( + i)=2+2 3 i
2 2
2
z1 z z 2⋅2 π π π π π π
• = 1 1= [cos( + - )+isin( + - )]
z2 z2 1 6 6 3 6 6 3
=4(cos0+isin0)=4
1 1 π π 1 3 1 3 1
• = [cos(- )+isin(- )]= ( - i)= - i
z1 2 6 6 2 2 2 4 4
1 π π 1 3
• =[cos(- )+isin(- )]= - i
z2 3 3 2 2
z2 = z z= r r [cos(θ+θ)+isin(θ+θ)]= r2 [cos(2θ)+isin(2θ)]
z3 = z2 z= r2 r [cos(2θ+θ)+isin(2θ+θ)]= r3 [cos(3θ)+isin(3θ)]
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♦ DE MOIVRE’S THEOREM
Let z = r(cosθ+isinθ).
zn = r n[cos(nθ)+isin(nθ)]
zk=rk[cos(kθ+isin(kθ)]
zk+1=rk+1[cos(k+1)θ+isin(k+1)θ]
Indeed,
= rk+1[cos(k+1)θ+isin(k+1)θ] Q.E.D.
NOTICE:
• z0 = r0[cos(0θ)+isin(0θ)]=1(1+0θ)=1 as expected!
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TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 2
π π
Let z=2(cos +isin ). This is in fact the number z= 3 +i.
6 6
Then
2π 2π π π
z2=22(cos +isin )=4(cos +isin )=2+2 3 i
6 6 3 3
π π 1 π π 3 1
z-1=2-1[(cos(- )+isin(- )]= (cos -isin )= - i
6 6 2 6 6 4 4
6π 6π
z6=26(cos +isin )=64(cosπ+isinπ)=-64
6 6
Notice that z6=( 3 +i)6 may also be found by using the binomial
theorem but De Moivre’s Theorem gives directly the same result!
EXAMPLE 3
Find (1+i)10
Then
π π
(1+i)10=32[cos +isin ]=32i
2 2
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NOTICE:
EXAMPLE 4
Let z=cosθ+isinθ. We estimate z3 in two different ways:
• De Moivre’s theorem gives
z3=cos3θ+isin3θ
• Binomial theorem gives
z3 =(cosθ+isinθ)3
=cos3θ+3cos2θ(isinθ)+3cosθ(isinθ)2+(isinθ)3
=cos3θ+3icos2θsinθ-3cosθsin2θ-isin3θ
=(cos3θ-3cosθsin2θ) +i(3cos2θsinθ-sin3θ)
Remark: Working with z4, z5, etc we obtain similar results for
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EXAMPLE 5
Let z=cosθ+isinθ. Then, by De Moivre’s theorem
(z+z-1)3 = z3+3z+3z-1+z-3
= (z3+z-3)+3(z+z-1)
= 2cos3θ+6cosθ [ (*) for n=3 and n=1]
8cos3θ =2cos3θ+6cosθ
and finally
1 3
cos3θ = cos3θ+ cosθ
4 4
Remarks
• The expansions of (z+z-1)4, (z+z-1)5, etc
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♦ n-th ROOTS OF 1
zn=1
zn=1 ⇔ r n [cos(nθ)+isin(nθ)] = 1
Therefore,
2kπ
• nθ is an argument of 1, thus nθ=2kπ, thus θ= (k∈Z).
n
2kπ 2kπ
zk=cos +isin
n n
EXAMPLE 1
The 3rd roots of 1, that is the solutions of z3=1, are the following
2kπ 2kπ
zk=cos +isin , for k=0,1,2
3 3
Namely,
2π 2π 4π 4π
z0=1, z1= cos +isin , z2= cos +isin
3 3 3 3
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Geometric interpretation:
The modulus of each root is 1, thus the three roots lie on the unit
2π 4π
circle. Since their arguments are 0, , , they divide the unit
3 3
circle in three equal arcs.
EXAMPLE 2
The 4th roots of 1, that is the solutions of z4=1, are the following
2kπ 2kπ
zk=cos +isin , for k=0,1,2,3
4 4
Namely,
z0=1,
2π 2π
z1= cos +isin = i,
4 4
4π 4π
z2= cos +isin = -1
4 4
6π 6π
z3= cos +isin = -i
4 4
Geometric interpretation:
Again, the four solutions 1,i,-1,-i divide the unit circle in 4 equal
arcs
In general,
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NOTICE:
• Let us denote by w the first non-real root z1, that is.
2π 2π
w = cos +isin = z1
n n
We observe then that
4π 4π
w2 = cos +isin = z2
n n
6π 6π
w3 = cos +isin = z3
n n
…
2(n - 1)π 2(n - 1)π
wn-1 = cos +isin = zn-1
n n
In other words, the n-th roots of 1 can be expressed as
1, w, w2, …, wn-1
Indeed§,
z0 + z1 + z2 + … + zn-1 = 1 + w + w2 + … + wn-1 [G.S.]
n
w −1
= = 0 (since wn=1)
w −1
EXAMPLE 3
The 3rd roots of 1 are 1, ω and ω2, where
2π 2π 1 3
ω = cos +isin = − + i ,
3 3 2 2
4π 4π 1 3
ω2 = cos +isin = − - i
3 3 2 2
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EXAMPLE 4
(a) Write down the 5th roots of 1.
(b) Factorize z5-1
2π 4π 1
(c) Use the sum of the roots to show that cos + =−
3 3 2
Solution
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If n is odd
If n is even
• By using the 6th roots of 1 (there are two real roots: ±1) we get
2π 4π
z6-1 = (z-1)(z+1)(z2-2zcos +1) (z2-2zcos +1)
6 6
π 2π
= (z-1)(z+1)(z2-2zcos +1) (z2-2zcos +1)
3 3
= (z-1)(z+1)(z2-z+1) (z2+z+1)
Remark for the sum of the n-th roots (only when n is odd)
Working as in EXAMPLE 4, (c) above
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zn =rn[cos(nθ)+isin(nθ)]
We also write the complex number a in polar form
a=|a|(cosφ+isinφ).
Then zn=a implies
φ + 2kπ
• nθ=φ+2kπ, so that θ= (k∈Z).
n
φ + 2kπ φ + 2kπ
zk= n | a | [cos +isin ]
n n
EXAMPLE 5
Solution
z3=r3[cos(3θ)+isin(3θ)]
r3 = 8 ⇒ r = 2,
π π + 4kπ
3θ= +2κπ ⇒ θ = , for k=0,1,2.
2 6
π + 4kπ π + 4kπ
zk=2 [cos +isin ] where k=0,1,2.
6 6
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Namely,
π π
for k=0, z0=2(cos +isin )
6 6
5π 5π
for k=1, z1=2(cos +isin )
6 6
9π 9π
for k=2, z2=2(cos +isin )
6 6
Geometric interpretation:
The modulus of each root is 2, thus the three roots lie on the circle
π 5π 9π
of radius 2. Since their arguments are , , they divide the
6 6 6
π
circle in three equal arcs but now, the first root is at θ= .
6
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