Practical Manual

FT-7002
Safety Engg. & Its Industrial
Application

Name of Student:

Enrollment No: Section:

IPS ACADEMY
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & SCIENCE
FIRE TECH. & SAFETY ENGG. DEPT.
 IPS ACADEMY
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & SCIENCE
Department of Fire Technology & Safety Engineering
VISION

To generate, develop and sustain a voluntary movement on Fire & Safety Engineering at the
National Level aimed at educating and influencing society to adopt appropriate policies, practices
and procedures that prevent and mitigate human suffering and economic loss arising from all types
of accidents.

MISSION

1. To create and sustain a community of learning in which students acquire knowledge in fire, safety
and hazard management and learn to apply it professionally with due consideration for ethical,
human life & property safety issues.
2. To pursue research and development in fire safety engineering, hazard management and disseminate
its findings.
3. To meet the challenges of today and tomorrow in the most effective, efficient and contemporary
educational manner.
4. To help in building national capabilities in fire safety engineering, disaster management, hazard
management, industrial safety education through practical training to ensure a fire safe nation.

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)

Engineering Graduates will be able to:
PEO-1 To prepare students for job profile of Fire/Safety Officer with professional advancement in fire
technology and safety engineering field through global education.
PEO-2 To provide students with basic foundation in mathematical, scientific and engineering
fundamentals for solving complex problem in fire technology and safety engineering and to pursue
higher studies.
PEO-3 To train students with good scientific, engineering and life safety breadth so as to comprehend
analyzes, design and create novel products and solutions for the real life problem.
PEO-4 To provide student with an academic environment aware of excellence, outstanding leadership,
written, ethical codes and guidelines with moral values, and the life-long learning needed for a
successful professional career.
PEO-5 To inculcate in students professional and ethical attitude, effective communication skills, team
work skills, multidisciplinary approach and ability to relate fire and safety engineering issues to
broader and social context.
 IPS ACADEMY
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & SCIENCE
Department of Fire Technology & Safety Engineering
PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)
Engineering Graduates will be able to:
1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex Fire Technology and
Safety Engineering problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, research literature, and analyze complex Fire Technology
and Safety engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and design
system components or processes in Fire Technology and Safety Engineering that meet the specified
needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and
environmental considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research
methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the
information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities with
an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the
professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions
in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable
development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms
of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in
diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering
community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports
and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering
and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team,
to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)

1. Ability to design solution for the complex major hazardous industries in terms of fixed fire fighting
installations and fire prevention that meet the specified needs.
2. Ability to describe the impact of safety engineering solutions related to fire prevention, Industrial risk
assessment and accident prevention in environmental, economic and societal context.
 CONTENT
Exp. Page Date of Date of
Aim of Experiments Remarks
No. No Experiment Submission

To visualize and demonstrate the

function of mechanical limit switches in
1 1
EOT crane with the help of sample
working model

To plan the requirement and design the

2 safe guards for a sample working model 5
of bucket elevator.

To define and demonstrate trip wire

3 function for emergency lock inside the 11
sample working model of conveyor belt

To schematize the safe operating

procedure for confined space entry and
4 demonstrate confined space entry 17
operation within the sample model of
confined space entry

To Perform the hydraulic pressure test

5 of Fire Extinguishers with the help of 26
hand operated hydraulic pump

To recognize and relate the rated load

capacity of a sample working model of
6 EOT cranes and interrupted it with safe 29
load capacity

To schematize the safe operating

procedure for prevention of chlorine
7 leakage and demonstrate the chlorine 36
leakage and its control with the help of
emergency kit and neutralization
process
To measure the efficiency of exhaust fan
for removal of toxic fumes through
8 45
exhaust duct in a given sample of “acid
spread” model
 EXPERIMENT NO. 1

AIM OF EXPERIMENT:

To visualize and demonstrate the function of mechanical limit switches in EOT crane with the help of sample
working model

APPARATUS & MATERIAL REQUIRED:

EOT Crane sample working model

THEORY:

An E.O.T. crane stands for Electric Overhead Travelling crane. This is used for handling & moving a
maximum specified weight of the components called capacity of the crane within a specified area.
The crane can be operated manually or by electric power. Electrically operated crane can be divided
into different sections as follows:-
(a) Bridge girders,
(b) End carriages,
(c) Hoisting trolley also known as crab,
(d) Long travel machinery,
(e) Driver’s cabin/Floor operation.

MECHANICAL LIMIT SWITCH: A limit switch is a critical component of overhead crane safety.
Limit switches are electromechanical devices that regulate everything from household appliances to
industrial machinery. And for an overhead crane, they provide solid, established points of reference
for maintaining efficiency, reliability and safety standards.

ERECTION OF CRANE:-
The crane should be erected on an un-occupied floor where no industrial or construction work is to be
carried out during erection. The size of the floor must ensure free & convenient handling of the crane
during the erection period i.e. setting the crane in erecting position on the floor, turning the suspended
crane etc. the most convenient place for erecting the crane is the space between the columns provided
there are no horizontal bracings connecting the roof trusses. The roof trusses used for lifting the crane
should be checked for stresses during erection with a dynamic factor of 1.2. Besides testing the rope
& trusses for strength, they should be tested for stability under horizontal forces acting at right angle
to the truss plane. The winches employed for lifting the crane should be equipped with retched stops.
The wire rope employed for erection must have tags indicating wire breaking forces & should be free
of defects, fractures, kinks etc. The minimum safer factor should be three. When hoisting the crane or
its parts the following conditions should be kept in mind. (a) The angle of inclination of the slings
should not be less than 45º. (b) To prevent rupture of the rope due to sharp edges of lifted materials,
wooden or metal lining should be used. (c) The number of clamps to be used for fastening the rope
should be sufficient. We should also ensure that the axes of the winch drum should be exactly at right
angle to rope direction.

1
LIFTING THE CRANE:-
Depending on the weight of the crane, the strength of the rope, trusses, the crane can be lifted by one
winch or two or four winches. If the weight of the crane is not very high the crane structure can be
assembled at the floor & the complete crane can be lifted. In case the crane is very heavy we may lift
different portions of the crane in sequence as follows:-
1. End carriages complete with L.T. wheels fitted in position.
2. Main girders.
3. Hoisting trolley or crab.
4. Driver’s cabin & other electrical components.

To simplify the positioning of the different components, the crane should be match marked at every
joint. Every joint should be bolted only by means of machine bolts. For the safety of the people
engaged in erection work, the following safety rules should be observed:-
1. When lifting the crane structure the dangerous zone of assembly must be protected with flags
barriers etc. & no un-authorized person should be admitted in the area.
2. Do not lift the crane if the erection area is badly illuminated.
3. Although the lifted structures should not be allowed to suspend for a long time but in case of
exception we must see that:-
(a) The safety factors of the ropes & cross girders should be twice than the normal working.
(b) The last line of rope running off the blocked should be clamped near the block.
(c) In case the load is lifted by means of hand winch, remove the handles, apply & secure the
brakes.
(d) Post workers to ensure security.
4. It is strictly forbidden to stand or walk under the crane when the crane is being lifted.
5. The scaffolds must comply with the safety rules. the fitter working on top, must handle the parts &
tools carefully so as to prevent them to fall down. The erection supervisor must ensure that all the
components are assembled in accordance to the sub assembly drawings. After the crane has been fully
erected, we must do the electrical connection exactly as per its wiring diagram. Before we actually do
the load test we must run all the motions in idle condition. During idle running of different motions
we should particularly observe the following:-
(a) Eccentric running of moving parts.
(b) Alignment of shafts.
(c) Failing of moving components.
(d) Any un-usual noise.
(e) Presence of lubricant at desired surfaces.

After the idle running of different motions & satisfactory performance of motors, limit switches,
brakes & controllers we may go ahead with load testing of the crane in accordance to relevant Indian
standards. If the contract for erection & commissioning of the crane is not given to the manufacturer
of the crane, it will be desirable to seek their supervision during Erection & commissioning. This will
ascertain the alignments of components & thus longer life of the crane.

2
OPERATION:-

MECHANICAL:-
Before operation, check all parts are lubricated properly as per lubricating chart. Electrical wiring is
to be completed as per wiring diagram. During initial test it should be checked that bridge, crab &
other components mounted on crab are clear of roof beam & walls. All motors are connected properly
& that the limit switches cut off the supply to motors in proper direction. In case the limit switches
don’t cutoff the supply in the proper direction make the necessary changes in wiring. The crane
should be run light for a little while before loading the same & it should be checked that all the limit
switches work satisfactorily. Commence lifting the load in stages, starting with not more than 5% of
the safe working load & then increasing this gradually in succeeding trails, till you have reached the
full load. During this we must ensure that any part of the crane does not show any sign of giving way
while going through all motions of hoisting, traverse & travel. Finally, test the crane with 25%
overload before the same is put into operation.
ELECTRICAL: -
Before pressing ‘ON’ Push button of main contractor, see that all drum controllers or master
controllers are in off position. there are 4, 6, 8 steps in drum controller depending on HP. of motor.
On the 1st step full resistance of resistance box is inserted & smoothly all resistance is cut off by the
controller. Whenever motor gets supply, brake is released, thus allowing motor to accelerate
smoothly. Whenever motor supply is cut off, thruster brake applies brake & brings the motor to

3
stand-still. whenever load reaches extreme position, limit switch cuts off the supply to that motor in
that particular direction & load can’t be moved further in that direction. The operator can move the
load in backward direction by moving the drum controller in reverse direction, or pressing the related
push button.

OPERATION SAFETY FEATURES:-

1. In individual motion panels, provision is made for protecting motors against short circuit. This is
achieved either by providing H R C fuses or MCB or MCCB.
2. Every motor is protected against O/L relays by providing thermal or magnetic O/L relays.
3. Single phase preventers are provided in selective cases where supply conditions & operational
safety demands for.
4. Under voltage protection. Main incoming circuit breaker/contactor is provided with under voltage
protection.
5. Limit switches are provided for excess movement in respective direction. This avoids toppling,
hitting, damage to other machineries.
6. Selection of motors, brake, clutches & other switch gear & control gear equipments done carefully
taking into account repeated reversals. Higher inertia loads & frequent starting & stopping suitable
safety factors are considered for selection.

RESULT & DISCUSION:-

Q.1 What are the function of Mechanical Limit Switch in EOT Crane?

Q.2 Which type of Mechanical Limit switch use in EOT Crane?

Q.3 Write Hazards in EOT Crane operation and their preventive Measures?

4
 EXPERIMENT NO. 2

AIM OF EXPERIMENT:

To plan the requirement and design the safe guards for a sample working model of bucket elevator.

APPARATUS & MATERIAL REQUIRED:

1. Sample working model of Bucket elevator

2. Safe Guards

THEORY:
FOUNDATION
Because most bucket elevators are self-supporting for vertical loads, the foundation must be designed
to take the total weight of the elevator and the material that is to be lifted by the bucket elevator. The
foundation must be level to provide the proper support for the elevator and the casing must be braced
for wind loads at intervals shown on the drawings.

CASING COUNSTRUCTION
Bucket elevators are furnished with three types of construction. Please refer to your general
arrangement drawing for the type of construction used on your elevator. The following is the list of
types of construction and how the filed connection joints must be made for each type.

1. STANDARD CONSTRUCTION – 2” on 20” centers welds for inside casing joints, outside of
casing sheets will be skip welded 2” on 12” centers to angles. No gaskets or caulking will be provided
for any joints.

2. DUST TIGHT CONSTRUCTION – 2” on 20” centers welds for casing inside joints, outside
casing sheets will be skip welded 2” on 12” centers to angles. Inside joints will be caulked with
compound between welds to seal joints. Gaskets will be provided at all bolted joints.

3.WEATHER TIGHT CONSTRUCTION – All inside casing joints will be welded continuously,
outside of casing sheets will be skip welded 2” on 12” centers to angles. Gaskets will be provided at
all bolted joints.

INSTALLATION OF BUCKET ELEVATORS ASSEMBLING CASING

1. A bucket elevator is actually a belt and pulley transmission enclosed within a casing.

5
2. For proper operation care must be taken to maintain belt and shaft alignment.
3. Although alignment is checked by the manufacturer prior to shipment, correct and proper care must
be maintained during erection to assure a straight and plumb casing from head to boot section, as a
twist or leaning casing would prevent proper tracking of belt on pulleys.
4. Bucket elevators are comprised of three main assemblies: head terminal, boot terminal, and
intermediate assemblies and components. All terminals are factory assembled and shipped assembled.
All intermediate casings are shipped in individual pieces.
5. Assemble casing first by setting boot section and ten to twenty feet of intermediate leg casing. Use
a plumb line from top to bottom to check vertical and level setting of boot on base, using shims if
necessary near anchor bolt holes (not at corners). Grout under boot after elevator is completely
assembled.
6. Assemble remaining intermediate leg sections respectively as marked by the manufacturer.
Usually the boot will be marked ‘A’, then the first leg section ‘B’, second, ‘C’, etc. These markings
will be located in the lower right corner of each section and after assembly can be readily checked by
sight from bottom to top.

TAKE-UPS
Take-ups, a mechanical device for adjusting shaft center distances should be provided for all
elevators to compensate for elongation as wear occurs and to provide temporary slack for installation
or maintenance work. Wherever possible, take-ups on elevators should be mounted at the foot end.
This eliminates the troublesome adjustment of the drives as would be the case if the take-up were
mounted on the head end. For elevators, caution must be used when adjusting take-ups to prevent
statically overstressing belt and terminal equipment. A proper amount of slack should be allowed to
obtain smooth belt travel motion. On all belt elevators the adjustment should be made while the
elevator is in operation to insure the adjustment which will meet the above conditions.

SHAFT AND PULLEY ALIGNMENT

Proper alignment of the pulley and shaft greatly lengthens belt life. To assure correct alignment, the
following steps are necessary:
1. Carefully level the shafts. Use a machinist’s level directly on the shaft.
2. Align the shaft for parallelism, using a line for long centers. Recheck the level adjustment. Tighten
all securing bolts and nuts to assure maintenance of shaft alignment.
3. Align the pulley axially on the shafts. A plumb bob should be used to check the alignments to head
and foot pulleys and shafting after leveling shafts.

6
INSTALLING BELT
In the installation of elevator belts, certain general practices should be followed. The first is to be sure
you select the best type of belt for the service to be performed. Consult your belt catalog or call your
nearest belt distributor to check your selection. Install the elevator belt with foot take-ups positioned
at upper end of travel, and head end take-ups at lower end of travel to provide maximum adjustment.
1. Where it is possible to lower belt from the top of the elevator casing, the following method can be
applied: Make lifting hitch off center, to make one leg long enough to go around the foot pulley and
up to the inspection door. Lower belt into casing from top. When belt is positioned, snub the head
shaft. Connect at inspection door using a come-along or chain fall to draw belt end together. Adjust
take-ups.
2. If belt cannot be lowered from the top of the elevator casing, assemble and feed the belt around the
bottom of the foot pulley and forward to the top of the head pulley. Next, drop line down near side of
casing. Hitch line 3 or 4 feet from the end of the elevator belt, leaving the end free to make the final
connection at the inspection door. Before making the final connection, be sure that the take-up is set
properly. Cut belt length for splice and achieve the proper take-up setting. The method of installation
is dependent to a large extent on the height of the elevator and the available hoisting equipment. After
the belt is assembled, mount the buckets. After the unit has been run-in the units should be re-
tightened, and the bolt threads should be prick-punched to prevent loosening of the nuts.

BELT SPLICING AND BUCKET MOUNTING BELT SPLICING

Method of belt splicing is determined by the number of plies and the severity of service required. For
most elevators, plate type fasteners can be used. For belt thickness up through six ply, the belt ends
are lapped for a minimum of three buckets. These buckets are bolted though both thicknesses of the
belt lap. For belt thicknesses of seven ply or more, a butt strap joint is more satisfactory than the lap
type splice because severe stresses are set up in the outer plies as the belt passes around the head and
boot pulleys. These stresses are minimized when the two ends of the belt are butted together and a
layer of strong and flexible nylon fabric belting is placed over the joint, extending under a minimum
of two buckets in each direction. These buckets are bolted though both layers of belting

OPERATION:-
For a bulk material handling conveyor or elevator, flow of material should always be regulated at a
rate within elevator capacity. Where surging and overloading are inevitable, a surge hopper of
adequate size should be provided from which material can be withdrawn by a suitable feeder.

7
Overload protection can also be provided by the installation of shear pin hubs. Backstops or a
handbrake can be provided to prevent back run of a loaded elevator in the event of a power failure.

STARTING AND STOPPING

To assure long life, wherever possible the elevator should be empty when starting and should be
stopped only when again empty. Starting under load not only places extra strain on the equipment,
but also frequently contributes directly to breakdowns. This is particularly true when handling bulk
material that tends to set or freeze, since a very great pull may be required to break the load loose.
Elevators, unless empty, will run backwards. A backstop can be provided to prevent this. Elevators
should be operated at regular intervals during any extended down period to avoid freeze-ups (at least
once a week, and preferably turned over once each day when sticky materials are handled).

MAINTENANCE
1. On large elevators, provide suitable walkways and, where necessary, platforms with stairs or
permanent ladders for access.
2. Provide proper protection against the elements: extreme cold, rain, or snow and sleet.
3. Provide pipe extension for difficult to reach grease fitting or an automatic greasing system.
4. Provide adequate cleanup of dribble and spillage.
5. Set up a specific lubrication program and fix definite responsibilities for carrying out procedure.
One successful method for accomplishing this is to prepare master lubrication check sheet or card for
each important conveyor or elevator.
6. Establish a definite program of inspection.
7. Elevator belts should be checked for wear, stretch, edge wear (indication misalignment or material
build up on pulleys).
8. Pulleys should be examined for alignment and positioning.
9. Bucket should be examined for looseness or damage.
10. All belts should be checked for proper tension (enough slack to flex slightly) and if too much
slack is present, take-ups should be adjusted to take up excess slack.

BUCKETS - The elevator should be checked to be sure all buckets are attached to the chain or belt
and that all bolts are tight. Many times a foreign object will get into the elevator and tear off buckets.
This can cause additional buckets to be torn off causing improper operation of the elevator. CHAIN -
The chain should be checked for wear at the barrels, pins, and/or bushings. The best indication of
excessive chain wear is when the chain pitch and sprocket become more and more out of phase and

8
 the chain barrels or bushings ride higher and higher on the sprocket teeth. Another indication of
excessive chain wear is when a continual adjustment of the take-up is required.

BELTS - Belts will continue to stretch throughout their service life, but the greatest increase in length
will occur during the first part of operation. Be sure to check the boot shaft at frequent intervals to be
sure that it is turning. This will indicate the tail pulley is engaged and helping train the belt. A general
purpose inspection should be made periodically on all parts of the elevator to insure proper operation
of the unit. Be certain to keep the rubber lip located at the discharge chute adjusted as close to the
bucket lips as possible. This will help prevent back-legging of material into the boot.

REDUCERS –
Reducers are shipped without oil and should be lubricated per the reducer manufacturer’s name tag
instructions or the instructions attached to the reducer.

MOTORS - Motors should be lubricated per motor manufacturer’s instructions.

BEARINGS - Bearings are factory lubricated and should be relubricated about every 250 hours of
operation. The head and tail shaft bearings should be lubricated while the unit is running, adding
grease slowly until a slight bleeding of lubricant appears at the seals.

Discussion:

Q.1 What are the different types of construction of Bucket Elevators?

Q.2 Name the safe guards used in bucket elevators.

9
Q.3 Narrate the Safe Operating Procedure for using bucket elevators.

10
 EXPERIMENT NO. 3

AIM OF EXPERIMENT:

To define and demonstrate trip wire function for emergency lock inside the sample working model of
conveyor belt.

APPARATUS & MATERIAL REQUIRED

1. Sample working model of conveyor belt

2. Trip wire

3. Emergency lock

THEORY:

One of the basic tools in material handling industry, belt conveyors are most commonly used in
transportation of bulk materials (grain, salt, coal, ore, sand, etc.).
Belt conveyor systems consist of two or more pulleys (a.k.a. drums). An endless loop of carrying
medium—the conveyor belt— rotates about them. To move the belt and the material it carries
forward, one or both pulleys are powered. The powered pulley is called “drive pulley,” the
unpowered one is known as “idler pulley.” Belt conveyors in general material handling such as those
moving boxes along inside a facility form a different class of belt conveyors from those that are used
to transport large volumes of resources and agricultural materials.
Based on the proposed use, conveyor belts are manufactured using either PVC or rubber.
The belt consists of one or more layers of material. Most belts in general material handling consist of
two layers. Carcass is the name of the under layer that provides linear strength and shape, while cover
is the name of the over layer. Polyester, nylon and cotton are used most often to create the carcass,
while a variety of rubber or plastic compounds specified by use of the belt are used to create the
cover.
Belts with regularly spaced partitions are known as elevator belts. They are used to transport loose
materials up steep inclines. Belt conveyors are also used in self-unloading bulk freighters and in live-
bottom trucks.

Trip Wires
When faults, accidents or blockages occur, it is necessary to bring the conveyor to an immediate halt.
If pulled, a continuous ‘tripwire’ stretching the whole length of the conveyor shall be set to actuate
the conveyor’s stop switch. This is an effective and essential safety device. With such a

11
facility available, the operator will be less tempted to try to rectify faults while the conveyor is
running. The tripwire must, however, extend to the full length of the conveyor, even as far as the
inside of the guarded sections. If the belt conveyor is installed in such a way that people can walk
along the conveyor avoiding the wire, then a tripwire must be installed on both sides of the conveyor.
It is also recommended that a ‘lock out’ facility be provided on this trip wire arrangement.
Trip wires are there to insure that the conveyor belt can be stopped from anywhere along the
conveyor belt This can be satisfied by ensuring that the trip wire is as tight as possible (without
causing unnecessary trips) and that the trip wire extends to the extreme ends and on both sides of the
conveyor.

Installation/ Set up

Whereas narrow and short belts can be pulled in with a cable tensioner, longer, heavier belts require
motor-operated cable winches. Before pulling in the belt make sure that the bottom of the belt is
facing the support idlers of the carrying run. The beginning of the belt needs to be prepared in the
following way before being drawn in:

- If the belt is heavy, a drawbar is attached to the beginning of the belt to allow it to be joined to the
traction cable. This drawbar consists of two metal plates or flat iron bars with a number of holes. The
belt end is provided with matching holes, and it is clamped between the two parts of the drawbar with
sufficiently large machine bolts

- The two belt corners of the front end are cut back at an angle or elevated so that they do not hit the
trough idlers when pulled in If the cable cannot be pulled in the direction of the conveyor run, the
cable can be pulled from the side via hinged idlers or deflection idlers. These idlers are attached so
that the conveyor frame cannot get twisted or otherwise damaged

Operation of Belt Systems

Loading Point Considerations: The loading point of any conveyor is nearly always the critical, life
determining point of the belt. This is the point that the belt receives its major abrasion, and practically
all of its impact. The “ideal condition” is to have the material pass from chute to belt at the same
speed as the belt, in the same direction of travel as the belt with no impact. Off center loading of the
product on the belt will cause the belt to move sideways after loading as the center of the load seeks

12
the lowest point in the troughing idlers. This can usually corrected by proper chute arrangement
provided, of course, that the belt is centered as it enters the loading point.

Belt Scrapers and Cleaners: Poor adjustment of these elements can lead to:

- insufficient belt cleaning and therefore tracking problems due to material build up accelerated idler
wear

- Directly damage of the covers these elements play a substantial role in the protection of the belt.
Regularly they should be inspected and adjusted accordingly.

Inspection of Belting: Regular inspections of conveyor belting will ensure belt’s life by identifying
problems and damages, which might require immediate action. Establish a scheduled inspection
program and follow it to ensure that your keep you belt under control and make sure that it will keep
serving you for many years.

SAFETY DEVICES:

To prevent unnecessary accidents, damage to machinery and down time, all conveyor belts are
equipped with the following

(1) Interlocking devices.

(2) Tripping devices.

(3) Warning bells or sirens.

(4) Lock-out system.

Interlocking Devices

If a conveyor stops for any reason, provision must be made for automatically stopping the feed
coming onto such conveyor, otherwise the continuous flow of ore will bury the feed point, resulting
in considerable down time while the conveyor is lashed free.

A direct interlock between the motor of the receiving conveyor and the motor of the unit feeding can
be installed. In this case the receiving conveyor must be switched on before it is possible to start the
unit feeding it. The main disadvantage of this system is that if the receiving conveyor drive slips or
the belt or coupling breaks, the motor continues to run although the belt itself does not move. To

13
overcome this problem, a belt slip tripping device can be installed. The belt slip tripping device
normally consists of a small wheel running on the belt surface and a tripping device connected so as
to trip the supply power when the tripping device wheel comes to a standstill. The Mines and Works
Act and Regulations No, 11.4.4 states: "Where two or more belt conveyors ore used in Series,
sequence interlocking shall be provided which automatically will

(a) stop all other conveyors feeding a conveyor that has stopped, and

(b) prevent a conveyor starting until the conveyor onto which it feeds is moving."

Tripping Devices

Overload tripping devices are used to trip the belt automatically when belt load becomes too high.
This tripping device also protects the motor and couplings in the event where seizing of one or more
of the components may occur.

A tripping wire is also installed along the entire length of the belt and connected to a trip-switch at the
drive end of the conveyor. This tripping wire enables the Operator to stop the belt from any point
along the length of the belt if an emergency occurs. The tripping wire must be installed on both sides
of the belt. This is covered by the Mines and Works Act and Regulations No. 11.4.3 which states:
"Every belt conveyor shall be equipped with effective means for immediately stopping the conveyor,
or for signaling to the attendant at the driving head, from readily accessible points along the
conveyor.

Warning Bells and Sirens

For safety purposes conveyor belts are normally equipped with sirens or warning bells situated so as
to warn persons of the subsequent starting-up. These sirens or warning bells ore connected to operate
for a set period immediately prior to the belt start-up.

Lock-out system

The locking-out system on conveyor belts is of most importance whenever work is to be done on any
part of the conveyor.

14
This system consists of a mechanical locking device on the start button or lever. Always make sure
that the starting switch is locked in the "off" position and a "do not switch on" sign is placed so that it
can be seen by any person who might want to re-start the unit. The key to the lock must be kept by
the person working on such machinery.

The Mines and Works Act and Regulations No. 20.9.3.1 states:
"When any work or repairs are undertaken on any machinery the person in immediate charge of such
work or repairs shall ensure that the power supply to such machinery is switched off or disconnected
and remains switched off or disconnected until the work or repairs have been completed".

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

BEFORE STARTING MAINTENANCE:

1. Maintenance functions are to be performed while the conveyor is off. The main power switch to
the conveyor should be locked in the off position. This will prevent anyone from applying power to
the system while maintenance personnel are at work.

2. Never work on a conveyor while it is running, unless maintenance procedure requires operation.
When a conveyor must be operating to perform the maintenance; allow only properly trained
maintenance personnel to work on the conveyor.

DURING MAINTENANCE:

1. Do not wear loose clothing while performing maintenance on operating equipment.

2. Be aware of hazardous conditions, such as sharp edges and protruding parts.

3. When using hoists, cables or other mechanical equipment to perform maintenance, use care to not
damage conveyor components. Misaligned parts are dangerous as conveyor is started after
maintenance is completed.

4. Keep area clean. Clean up lubricants and other materials before starting conveyor.

AFTER MAINTENANCE: 1. Before starting any conveyor after maintenance is completed, walk
around the equipment and make certain all safety devices and guards are in place, pick up tools,
maintenance equipment and clear any foreign objects from equipment

15
2. Make certain all personnel are clear of the conveyor and made aware that the conveyor is about to
be started.

3. Only authorized personnel should be permitted to start any conveyor following maintenance or
emergency shut-off.

Discussion :

Q.1 Explain the function of Tripwire in conveyor belt and its position.

Q.2 Enlist different parts of Conveyor belt and their associated hazards.

Q.3 What are the different types of conveyor belts?

16
 EXPERIMENT NO. 4

AIM OF EXPERIMENT:

To schematize the safe operating procedure for confined space entry and demonstrate confined space
entry operation within the sample model of confined space entry.

APPARATUS & MATERIAL REQUIRED:

1. Sample model of confined space entry

2. Air Blower

3. Fences, Traffic Cones, Sign Boards

4. Communication Device

5. Tripod, Winch

6. Breathing Apparatus, Full Body Harness, Lifeline, Head Lamp/Torch

7. Resuscitator, Oxygen Cylinder, First-aid Box, Stretcher

THEORY:

Confined Space: Confined Space refers to any place, including any vessel, tank, container, pit, bund,
chamber, cellar or any other similar space which, by virtue of its enclosed nature, creates conditions
that give rise to a likelihood of an accident, harm or injury of such a nature as to require emergency
action due to

 the presence or reasonable foreseeable presence of:

- flammable or explosive atmospheres
- harmful gas, fume or vapour
- free flowing solid or an increasing level of liquid
- excess of oxygen
- excessively high temperature
 the lack or reasonably foreseeable lack of oxygen

The key characteristics of a confined space are:

 the space must be substantially enclosed

 there must be a risk of at least one of the hazards listed above occurring within the space
 the risk of serious injury from the hazard must be created by virtue of the enclosed nature of
the space
 the potential injury must be serious and be such as to require emergency action to rescue the
person involved.

The hazards associated confined spaces include:

17
Toxic Atmosphere: A toxic atmosphere may cause various acute effects, including impairment of
judgement, unconsciousness and death. A toxic atmosphere may occur due to the presence or ingress
of hazardous substances. These substances may be present in the Confined Space for various reasons
such as:

- remaining from previous processing or storage

- arising from the disturbance of sludge and other deposits
- the presence of a fire or flames within the space
- seepage from improperly isolated adjoining plant
- formation during the work processes carried out in the space
- being released from under scale and in brickwork as a result of the work process

Oxygen Deficiency :Oxygen can be lacking a confined space for the following reasons:
- displacement of air by another gas
- various biological processes or chemical reactions (such as rotting of organic matter, rusting of
metals, burning, etc)
- absorption of air onto steel surfaces, especially where these are damp

Oxygen Enrichment: An excess of oxygen, in the presence of combustible materials, results in an

increased risk of fire and explosion. Some materials, which do not burn in air, may burn vigorously or
even spontaneously in an enriched oxygen atmosphere.

Flammable or Explosive Atmospheres: A flammable atmosphere presents a risk of fire or

explosion. Such an atmosphere can arise from the presence in the confined space of flammable
liquids or gases or of a suspension of combustible dust in air. If a flammable atmosphere inside a
confined space ignites, an explosion may occur, resulting in the expulsion of hot gases and the
disintegration of the structure.

Flowing Liquid or Free Flowing Solids: Liquids or solids can flow into the confined space causing
drowning, suffocation, burns and other injuries. Solids in powder form may also be disturbed in a
confined space resulting in an asphyxiating atmosphere.

Excessive Heat: The enclosed nature of a confined space can increase the risk of heat stroke or
collapse from heat stress, if conditions are excessively hot. The risk may be exacerbated by the
wearing of personal protective equipment or by lack of ventilation

Entry into a Confined Space

Entry into a confined space is defined as the action by which a person passes through a limited
opening into a restricted or potentially hazardous work area. Entry is considered to occur as soon as
any part of the entrant’s body breaks the plane of the entry point into the confined space.

Confined Space “Safe Entry Tag”

The “Safe Entry Tag”, is Confined Space Entry Permit and this tag is used to ensure that the existing
hazards of a confined space have been properly identified, assessed (evaluated) and that necessary
preventive and protective measures and procedures are put into place for the safety and health of
workers involved in confined space work.

18
Worker and any other Personnel entering the Confined Space

 The worker prior to entering the confined space will ensure that all necessary precautions and
procedures are in place to their satisfaction and then sign the Confined Space “Safe Entry Tag”.

 Will wear all Personal Protective Equipment assigned to them, to ensure their safety and health
according to the hazards of the confined space job.

 Will inspect and use equipment and tools required to do the jobs inside the confined space,
according to safe work practices and procedures.

 Will monitor conditions inside the confined space and if conditions should change inside that are
not accounted for on the “Safe Entry Tag” they will discontinue the work and exit the confined space
until the new hazards have been addressed.

Safety Watch

 The qualified Safety Watch will ensure that all conditions on the “Safe Entry Tag” are complied
with, prior to allowing anyone into the confined space.

 Ensure all of the names of workers who will enter the confined space are on the “Safe Entry Tag”.

 Will establish the communication system to be used with those workers who will enter the confined
space.

 Will know the location of the Confined Space Entry Rescue equipment.

 Will sound the emergency alarm should workers inside the tank need to be rescued.

 Safety Watch personnel will never enter the confined space for any reason.

Rescue Personnel

 Only workers properly trained and equipped for confined space rescue shall attempt a rescue by
entering a confined space.

 A gas test of the confined space atmosphere must be done prior to any rescue personnel entering a
confined space.

 When workers in a confined space are wearing a safety harness and lanyard, Rescue Personnel can
work from the outside, without having to enter the confined space.

 Rescue Personnel must be physically capable of carrying out a rescue, and must be trained in First
Aid/CPR.

 Communications must be available at the worksite to emergency response organizations i.e.; Fire
Department, Ambulance.

19
PROCEDURE FOR CONFINED SPACE ENTRY

1. Identifying the work area as a confined space.

2. Conduct a hazard assessment of the confined space.

3. Classify the confined space as an A, B, or C confined space.

4. Post the confined space classification at/near the confined space.

5. Train the workers in confined space entry procedures and review the hazard assessment for the
confined space.

6. Prepare the confined space for entry by purging or ventilating the tank if there are hazardous
atmosphere toxins, lack of oxygen or oxygen enriched environment. Note; Oxygen content must be
between 19.5% and 21.4%.

7. Complete a “Safe Entry Tag” that will put into action Gas tests, Safety Procedures, Equipment to
be used i.e. (ventilation, electrical with (GFI), tools), Personnel Protective Equipment, Potential
hazards, Location of vessel/tank, Description of work, Lockout required, Safety watch required,
Communication system to be used, Rescue equipment and personnel in-place, Duration of confined
work, Date and time of entry, Names of all workers entering the confined space, Signature of
qualified “Safe Entry Tag” issuer, Safety watch and the signature of a qualified worker accepting the
“Safe Entry Tag”.

8. Once all criteria on the “Safe Entry Tag” has been completed, the worker(s) can enter the confined
space.

9. Once the confined space work has been completed, the “Safe Entry Tag” issuer will inspect the
confined space to ensure all workers, tools and equipment have been removed.

10.The “Safe Entry Tag” issuer will then sign-off on the tag, that this confined space work has been
completed.

11. All completed “Safe Entry Tags” will be filed and kept by month and year

Confined Space Entry Checklist

This Checklist can be used to assess the hazards of a confined space during the planning, to develop
entry procedures or as part of the development of a confined space code of practice.

1. A Code of Practice is intended to make sure that all reasonable precautions are taken to ensure the
health and safety of personnel entering a confined space. Reference: OH&S Act Section 2 & 33,
OH&S Regulation Section 13, and OH&S Code Section 44.

 This is a general guide based on minimum requirements set by legislation.

 Based on the product, the location and the degree of hazard, the employer must also include in the
code of practice the specific job requirements for each “entry’ situation.

20
 A permit system must be established for all confined space work.

2. Confined/Restricted Space Identification (Reference OH&S Part 5) The code of practice must
identify all existing and potential confined space at the worksite.

Confined space Identification

Location: Date:
Person(s) performing the check list:

Confined space:
Level : 1 2 3
Comments:

Hazard Assessment

Atmospheric Testing Yes No N/A

 Oxygen deficiency/excess
 Explosive dust, Flammable liquids or gasses
 Toxic vapors, fumes, particulates
Associated Hazards
 Corrosive , hazardous chemicals
 Electrical hazards including static
 Thermal hazards, hot/cold (scalding, burning, heat stress)
 Stored, pressurized or otherwise hazardous equipment or energy
 Access and egress hazards (barriers, trays, cramped quarters)
 Falling Hazards (ladders, scaffolds)
 Radiation hazards
 Reactive chemical hazards (products of oxidization or rusting)
 Off gasses from trapped products from heating, scaling, etc.
 Drowning or engulfment
 Noise
 Traffic
 Slippery surfaces
 Falling objects
 Difficulty in providing first aid, rescue or evacuation
 Entanglement hazards ( lose or hanging wires, etc)
Task Competencies

The qualifications and training required for workers who may enter or work in a confined
space. OH&S Code, Part 5 Section 46
Competencies Yes No N/A
 Is each worker entering the confined space competent?
 Adequately trained and experienced or directly supervised by a
competent worker?
Training
 Recognition of hazards associated with confined space work

21
  Performance of duties in a safe manner
 The procedures appropriate to the confined space
 The use of testing equipment
 Standby and emergency response
 Safe work permit usage
 Respiratory protection equipment
 Personal protective equipment
 First aid and CPR with AED
 WHMIS – hazard labels and MSDS
 MDSD for controlled products
 Are records and training dates kept

(a) Hazard Control

The means, if any, of isolating the confined space from stored energy or possible
uncontrolled release.
Controls Yes No N/A
 A permit must be signed and readily available or posted by entrance(s)
 Blanking or blinding
 Double block and bleed
 Piping disconnected and caped
 Electrical lock out system to ensure moving parts inoperative
 Area around confined space barricade - off and signs posted
 Do workers have their own individual locks to use for lock out
procedures
 Are all blanks and blinds identified to show where they have to be
installed
(b) Purging, Cleaning and Inserting
What will be done to remove or eliminate hazardous substances?

Purging, Cleaning and Inserting Yes No N/A

 Is the purging method appropriate for the substance in the space
 Have the hazards associated with chemical purging,
neutralization or cleaning been assessed and controlled
 Has the venting of purged products been assessed to where they will
go
 If the space has been purged with an inert gas, has it subsequently
been ventilated with fresh air
 If explosive vapors cannot be purged or ventilated, has an inert
atmosphere been established in the space
 Can the inert atmosphere be maintained throughout the entry
 Are workers protected with appropriate respiratory protection (
SCBA, escape air, cartridge face piece)
(c) Ventilation
The means, if any, of ventilating the confined space (reference OH&S Code Part 5 Section 53,
OH&S), Ventilation is required to remove harmful gasses, vapors, fumes, excessive heat or other
airborne contaminates, and to maintain an O2 content of 19.5% - 23 % by volume.

22
 Ventilation Yes No N/A
 Has ventilation been used to eliminate or reduce toxic or
flammable products below the lower explosive limit (LEL) or
occupational limit (OEL)
 Is the whole space vented to remove contaminates from pockets or
corners
 If an air blower is used, is it positioned to prevent the
recirculation of contaminated air
 If the space has been purged with an inert gas, has it been
subsequently ventilated with fresh air
 Is there a system in place to warn workers if ventilation equipment
fails
 Are workers trained and equipped to react appropriately if
ventilation equipment fails

(d) Atmospheric Testing

The tests or measurements that will be taken to verify oxygen content and identify toxic, flammable
or explosive substances and air temperatures that may be hazards of the space. If the space must be
entered to perform test, then the person entering the space to perform the test must have appropriate
respiratory and personal protective equipment.

Atmospheric Testing Yes No N/A

 Has the testing equipment been calibrated and tested in accordance
with manufacturer’s instructions and /or relevant NIOSH methods
 Is the user competent to operate and read the test equipment
 Is there excessive or insufficient oxygen
 Are there explosive gasses or vapors ( maximum 20% LEL)
 Are there toxic or hazardous vapors
 Does the space generate or have the potential for extreme
temperatures
 Are test records kept
 Are testing intervals and requirements identified on the permit
 Do workers have the ability to have continuous testing if the
atmosphere cannot be guaranteed

(e) Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Workers may be exposed to a variety of hazards while working in confined spaces and the employer
must ensure the availability of all appropriate equipment for the worker to perform an activity
safely. The employer must first try to eliminate, remove or reduce the hazard by utilizing
engineered or administrative controls.

PPE Yes No N/A

 Are workers wearing the appropriate PPE required to protect the
head, eyes, ears, feet or skin
 Is specialized equipment required
 Harness and life line
 Tripod winch
 Fire resistant clothing
 Barrier suit or slash suit
 Have workers received training on the use, care, limitations and
inspection of the PPE that they will use

23
(f) Respiratory Protection Equipment

Respiratory Protection Yes No N/A

 Respiratory protection equipment (see Code of practice)
 Have workers been trained in the use, care, limitations,
inspection and cleaning of equipment
 Have workers been fit tested with the respiratory protection they use
 Has self contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) style equipment
been tested and records kept to ensure worker safety

1. Planning

Identification of other hazards that may be present in the confined spaces and may compromise the
health safety of workers. Reference; OH&S Code Part 5 Section 45

Planning Yes No N/A

 Could a leak of a toxic or flammable substance from an adjacent area
enter the space
 If hot work is taking place, have procedures and testing been
implemented to ensure the work is performed safely to prevent fires
or explosions
 Have personnel who have to enter the confined space or wear PPE
been checked for claustrophobia
 Have other areas that may be affected by the confined space entry
been notified of any hazards that may affect them
2. Tending Worker
A competent worker must be in communication with workers in a confined space. Reference; OH&S
Code Part 5 Section 56 (1)

Tending Worker Yes No N/A

 Is a worker in communication with workers in the space
 Is a system in place to summon assistance in the event of an
emergency or incident
 Is a tending worker required at the space entrance
 Is the tending worker competent and trained in emergency
procedures for the space
 Are additional tending workers required to monitor breathing air
 Are additional tending workers required for multiple entrances
 Are additional tending workers required for communication with
workers in the space
 Is a copy of the permit available and located at the entrance(s)
 Is signage required to be posted at the entrance(s)

3. Rescue
Emergency procedures must be developed that reflect the potential emergencies of the site, the
equipment and personnel available, and the training they have received. Reference; OH&S Code
Part 7

24
 Rescue Yes No N/A
 Is the rescue team or person protected by appropriate PPE
 Is the rescue team or person in communication with another
worker stationed at or near the entrance
 Are there procedures in place to enable workers in the space to be
rescued
Rescue Yes No N/A
 Is rescue equipment, capable of affecting a rescue, available for
immediate use
 Is there means of communication immediately available to
summon assistance in an emergency
 Is there means of transporting a patient to medical help
 Has rescue teams or persons practiced rescue procedures

Rescue equipment may include: first aid kit, resuscitator, splints, basket stretcher, alarm system,
tripod, winch, rope, body harness, intrinsically safety lights, fire extinguishers, respiratory
protection appropriate for the space, body isolation, etc.

Discussion:

Q.1 Define Confined Space, and hazards associated with it.

Q.2 Enlist the Safe Entry Procedure of Confined Space.

Q.3 Name the Personal Protective Equipment used for entering into a confined space.

25
 EXPERIMENT NO. 5

AIM OF EXPERIMENT:

To Perform the hydraulic pressure test of Fire Extinguishers with the help of hand operated hydraulic
pump

APPARATUS & MATERIAL REQUIRED:

1. Hydraulic Pressure testing Pump

2. Fire Extinguishers
3. Water
THEORY:
Hydraulic Pressure Testing shall be performed by persons trained in pressure testing procedures and
safeguards who have suitable testing equipment, facilities, and appropriate servicing manual(s)
available. A hydrostatic test shall always include both an internal and external visual examination of
the cylinder. Hydrostatic testing shall be conducted using water or some other non-compressible fluid
as the test medium. Air or other gases shall not be used as the sole medium for pressure testing. All
air shall be vented prior to hydrostatic testing to prevent violent and dangerous failure of the cylinder.

Schedule for Hydraulic Pressure Testing Of Fire Extinguishers:

E-1 Every extinguisher installed in premises shall be hydraulically pressure tested as per the schedule
given below. There shall not be any leakage or visible distortion. Extinguisher which fails in this
requirement shall be replaced.

E-2 The carbon dioxide type and clean agent type fire extinguishers shall be pressure tested every
time when the cylinders are sent for recharging ( after periodic discharge test or otherwise ) to the
pressure specified in the relevant Indian Standard specifications.

Test Test Pressure

Sl. No. Type of Extinguisher Interval in Pressure Maintaine
Year in kg/cm2 d for min
1 Water type (gas cartridge) (IS 940) 3 35 2.5
2 Water type (stored pressure) (IS 6234) 3 35 2.5
3 Water type (gas cartridge) (IS 13385) 3 35 2.5
4 Mechanical foam type (gas cartridge) (IS 10204) 3 35 2.5
5 Mechanical foam type (stored pressure) (IS 15397) 3 35 2.5
6 Mechanical foam type (gas cartridge) (IS 13386) 3 35 2.5
7 Mechanical foam type (gas cartridge) 135 litre (IS 14951) 3 35 2.5
8 Dry powder ( stored pressure ) ( IS 13849) 3 35 2.5
9 Carbon dioxide IS 2878 5 250 2.5
10 Clean agent (IS 15683) 3 35 2.5
11 Dry powder (gas cartridge ) ( IS 2171, IS 10658) 3 35 2.5

26
PROCEDURE
Step 1: Visually Inspect the Extinguisher:
A hydrostatic test always includes both an internal and an external visual examination of the cylinder
including under the nameplate or name band assembly if they are removable. The purpose of the
visual inspection is to find anything that may compromise the integrity of the cylinder. This is
important because hydrostatic testing is performed by putting the extinguisher under pressure, and
testing a damaged cylinder can result in injury.
Step 2: Discharge the Extinguisher:
Next, we discharge the extinguisher fully prior to testing so that no traces of the extinguishing agent
remains.
Step 3: Take the Hose Off:
Remove the hose from the extinguisher and replace it with a hydrotest/recharge adapter.

Hand operated hydro test pump

Step 4: Remove the Valve
Once the extinguisher is fully discharged, we can safely remove the valve to inspect the interior of the
cylinder. Before inspecting, we blow out any remaining traces of extinguishing agent with an air
hose. When inspecting the interior of the cylinder, we are looking primarily for any pitting that could
compromise the cylinder. If pitting is found, the extinguisher cannot be tested but instead removed
from service.
Step 5 : Running the pressure test
 Start injecting the water or oil with which the hydrotest is to be performed slowly by the help
of the lever.
 Create a pressure according to the relevant standard (IS:2190) for the required duration of
time. For ABC fire extinguisher the required pressure is 35 bar maintained for a duration of
2.5 minutes.
 Observe and carefully inspect for any deformation in the outer and inner body structure of the

27
 extinguisher. If any such deformation is observed then the extinguisher shall be pulled out of
service otherwise it can be used for further service.
 Remove the hydro pump adapter from the extinguisher and proceed further for refilling the
fire extinguisher.
 Place the extinguisher valve and hose.
Step 6: Post Test Activity
Paste the label on the extinguisher stating the next due date of hydrostatic test and its current service
condition.
Results:
Test Pressure: _______ Test Duration: ________
Any noticeable deformation or leakage: YES/NO
Discussion:
Q.1 What are the concerned standards for hydro testing of fire extinguisher?

Q.2 What is the Safe Operating Procedure of hydro testing of fire extinguisher?

Q.3 State the need of hydrostatic pressure testing of fire extinguishers.

28
 EXPERIMENT NO 6

AIM : To recognize and relate the rated load capacity of a sample working model of EOT cranes and
interrupted it with safe load capacity

INTRODUCTION
A crane is a machine that is capable of raising and lowering heavy objects and moving the objects
from one place to other
An overhead crane usually consists of three separate motions:
1. The first motion is the hoist, which raises and lowers the material.
2. The second is the trolley (cross travel), which allows the hoist to be positioned directly above the
material for placement.
3. The third is the gantry or bridge motion (long travel), which allows the entire crane to be moved
along the working area.
Cranes are distinguished from hoists, which can lift objects but cannot move them sideways.
The design of overhead cranes vary widely according to their major operational specifications such
as: type of motion of the crane structure, weight and type of the load, location of the crane, geometric
features, operating regimes and environmental conditions.

TYPES OF ELECTRIC OVERHEAD CRANES

ELECTRIC OVERHEAD TRAVELING CRANE - An electrically operated machine for lifting,

lowering, and transporting loads, consisting of a movable bridge carrying a fixed or movable hoisting
mechanism and traveling on an overhead runway structure.
There are various types of overhead cranes with many being highly specialized, but the great majority
of installations fall into one of fou categories:
1. Single Girder Cranes-The crane consists of a single bridge girder supported on two end trucks. It
has a trolley hoist mechanism that runs on the bottom flange of the bridge girder.
2. Double Girder Bridge Cranes--The crane consists of two bridge girders supported on two end
trucks. The trolley runs on rails on thetop of the bridge girders.
3. Gantry Cranes - -These cranes are essentially the same as the regular overhead cranes except that
the bridge for carrying the trolley or trolleys is rigidly supported on two or more legs running on
fixed rails or other runways . These “legs” eliminate the supporting runway and column system and
run on a rail either embedded in, or laid on top of the floor.
4. Monorail - For some applications such as production assembly line or service line, only a trolley
hoist is required. This type of crane is designed using I- beams like those found in ceiling structures

29
of many factories. The trolleys run along the flat surface on the bottom horizontal bars of the beam.
The hoisting mechanism is similar to a single girder crane with the difference that the crane doesn’t
have a movable bridge and the hoisting trolley runs on a fixed girder.
CRANE DUTY GROUPS
Crane duty groups are a set of service classifications defined based on the frequency of use and
percentage of the lifts at or near rated capacity. Two cranes with the same rated capacity and span
may differ in their “average load intensity” and/or “expected loading cycles”; hence they will
likely differ in their design.

Various standards exist to rate the “service class” of a crane and/or hoist. The Crane
Manufacturers Association of America (CMAA) classifies the bridge cranes according to average
load intensities and number of cycles. On the other hand, the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO), the European Federation Standard (FEM) and the Hoist Manufactures
Institute (HMI) all classify hoists according to more rigorous requirements, which include the
number of starts and the maximum running time per hour. The following is a short description.

CMAA SERVICE CLASSIFICATION

There are six different classifications of cranes by CMAA based on the duty cycle of crane.

Class A (Stand-by or Infrequent Service) - This crane is the lightest crane as far as the duty
cycle is concerned. This service class covers cranes where precise handlings of equipment at slow
speed with long idle periods between lifts are required. Capacity loads may be handled for initial
installation of equipment and for infrequent maintenance. Examples of the use of Class A cranes
include a transformer station, power houses, turbine halls, motor rooms, public utilities, etc.
Class B (Light Service) - This service class covers cranes where service requirements are light
and speed is slow. Loads may vary from no load occasional full rated loads with 2 to 5 lifts per
hour, averaging 10 feet (3 meters) per lift. Examples of class B cranes include service buildings,
light assembly operations, repair and maintenance shops, light ware housing,etc.

30
Class C (Moderate Service) - Class C cranes are those cranes whose service requirements
are deemed moderate. These cranes handle loads averaging 50 percent of the rated capacity,
with 5 to 10 lifts per hour averaging 15 feet (4.6 meters), with a maximum of 50 percent of
the lifts at rated capacity. Examples of class C cranes are the cranes usually used in paper
mill machine rooms, machine shops, etc.
Class D (Heavy Service) - In class D crane service, loads approaching 50 percent of the
rated capacity is handled constantly during the work period. High speeds are desirable for
this type of service with 10 to 20 lifts per hour averaging 15 feet, with not more than 65
percent of the lifts at rated capacity. Typical examples of cranes with heavy service are steel
warehouses, foundries, fabricating shops, heavy machine shops container yards, lumber
mills, etc. Cranes may be with standard duty bucket or magnet operations where heavy duty
production is required.
Class E (Severe Service) - Cranes with class E service are capable of handling loads
approaching the rated capacity throughout their lives, with 20 or more lifts per hour at or near
the rated capacity. Application of cranes with class E include magnet, bucket, or
magnet/bucket combination cranes on fertilizer plants, cement plants, scrap yards, lumber
mills, container handling, etc.
Class F (Continuous Severe Service) - Cranes with class F service are capable of handling
loads approaching rated capacity continuously under severe service conditions throughout
their lives. Typical examples of such cranes include custom designed specialty cranes
essential for performing the critical work tasks affecting the total production facilities. This
type of crane must provide the highest reliability with special attention to ease of
maintenance feature In many cases, the classification can easily be determined; however, the
code also provides a table that can be used to determine the classification based on more
detailed information such as load classes and load cycles.

The four (4) load classes per the code are:

L1 – hoist normally lifts with very light loads and very rarely the rated load.
L2 – hoist normally lifts loads at 1/3 the rated load and rarely the rated load.
L3 – hoist normally lifts loads 1/3 to 2/3 the rated load and lifts the rated load
fairly frequently.
L4 – hoist regularly lifts close to the rated load.

31
 The four (4) load cycles per the code are:

N1 – 20,000 to 100,000 cycles - irregular use followed by long idle periods.

N2 – 100,000 to 500,000 cycles - regular use in intermittent operations.
N3 – 500,000 to 2,000,000 cycles - regular use in continuous operations.
N4 – over 2,000,000 cycles - regular use in severe continuous operations.
Based on the load classes and load cycles, the chart below (an excerpt from CMAA) helps
determine a Class of Crane:

Load Classes Load Cycles

N
N1 2 N3 N4

L1 A B C D

L2 B C D E

L3 C D E F

L4 D E F F

CRANE LOADS

Successful design of the crane runway and associated supporting structure relies on the
interactions between the moving crane and the stationary runway. Three principal types of
loads (forces) induce a complex pattern of stresses in the upper part of the girder and the
structural framing of the building. We will discuss the various loads (forces) below.

Vertical Loads - Vertical crane loads are termed as wheel loads. The maximum wheel load
(MWL) is the sum of:

32
 The weight of the trolley (carriage) and lifted load,

The weight of the crane bridge,

The self-weight of the crane girder and rails.

MWL occurs when the crane is lifting its rated capacity load, and the trolley is positioned at
the extreme end of the bridge directly adjacent to the girder. In addition to the shear and
bending stresses in the girder cross-section, the wheel loads result in localized stresses
under the wheel.

Lateral Loads (side thrust) - Lateral crane loads are oriented perpendicular to the crane
runway and are applied at the top of the rails. Lateral loads are caused by:

Acceleration and deceleration of the trolley and loads

Non-vertical lifting

Unbalanced drive mechanisms

Oblique or skewed travel of the bridge

The magnitude of the lateral load due to trolley movement and non-vertical lifting is limited
by the coefficient of friction between the end truck wheels and rails.

33
Longitudinal Forces (traction load and bumper impact loads) - Longitudinal crane forces
are due to either acceleration or deceleration of the bridge crane or the crane impacting the
bumper.

Tractive forces - are limited by the coefficient of friction of the steel wheel on the rails.
Impact load - is the longitudinal force exerted on the crane runway by a moving crane
striking the end stop. The impact force is a function of the length of the stroke of the bumper
and the velocity of the crane upon impact with the crane stop.

The longitudinal forces are normally provided by the crane manufacturer. If this information
is not available, the AISE Guide (1996) provides equations that can be used for determining
the bumper forces. If the number of driven wheels is unknown, take the tractive force as 10%
of the total wheel loads.

The figure below indicates the longitudinal impact forces and the relation of these forces to
the deformation of the buffers.

Force configuration during buffer impact

CRANE ELECTRIFICATION & POWER SUPPLY

There are two circuits in most hoist electrification systems: power and control.

Power Circuit - The power circuit provides the energy to lift loads and run other motors that
perform work. Since bridges, trolleys and hoists move during operation, there must be
powered by appropriate means.

34
Control Circuit - The control circuit is another secondary low voltage electrical circuit that
supplies power to the control functions. The crane or hoist is normally operated by some type
of push-button arrangement held in the operator’s hand. The benefit of reducing shock
hazard by reducing the voltage and current are obvious.

Discussion:

Q.1 Give a brief classification of EOT cranes.

Q.2 Define Rated Capacity and Safe Loading Capacity of EOT Crane.

35
 EXPERIMENT NO. 7

AIM: To schematize the safe operating procedure for prevention of chlorine leakage and
demonstrate the chlorine leakage and its control with the help of emergency kit and
neutralization process.

APPARATUS & MATERIAL REQUIRED:

1. Main frame
2. Big hood with vent valve
3. Rubber Gasket
4. Tree handle
5. Socket
6. Spring
7. Pin
8. Toggle Clamp
9. “J” Bolt
10. Chain
11. “C” Clamp for small hood
12. Small Hood
13. Gasket for small hood
14. Handle
15. “C” Clamp
16. Square Hood
17. Gasket for square hood
18. PVC Apron
19. Mask
20. Canister

THEORY:
The element chlorine (Cl) is one of the 92 natural elements found on our planet. The diatomic
molecule Cl2 is formed when two chlorine atoms combine chemically at room temperature
(standard temperature and pressure). Chlorine gas consists of Cl2 molecules. The bonding

36
 between the two chlorine atoms in the Cl2 molecule is relatively weak which makes the molecule
highly reactive.

The gas has a greenish-yellow colour and has a characteristic pungent odour – the smell of
bleach. The name chlorine is derived from “chloros”, meaning green, referring to the colour of
the gas. Figure 1 illustrates the typical green-yellow colour of chlorine gas.

Chlorine gas has a number of uses. It is used:

 as a powerful oxidant in bleaching and disinfectants

 as an essential reagent in the chemical sector
 in making plastics, solvents for dry cleaning and metal degreasing, textiles, agrochemicals and
pharmaceuticals, insecticides, dyestuffs and household cleaning products

PROPERTIES OF CHLORINE

It is important that the manufacturers and users of chlorine are aware of the properties and
characteristics of this chemical. The physical and chemical properties of the chemical should be
considered during risk assessment to assist with the identification and implementation of risk
mitigation measures.

Physical Properties

Under ambient conditions, chlorine is a non-flammable greenish-yellow gas and is about 2,5
times heavier than air. The gas will settle and accumulate in low-lying areas unless there is
sufficient wind for dispersal.

Chlorine has a vapour pressure of 4 800 mm Hg, freezes at - 102 ̊C and boils at - 34 ̊C. The gas
is slightly soluble in water, soluble in alkalis, alcohols and chlorides. Liquid chlorine is amber
in colour.

37
 Chemical Properties
Chlorine gas is a stable but very reactive chemical and will react violently with many other
chemicals creating heat due to the exothermic nature of the reactions. Care should be taken to
avoid contact of the gas with (amongst others):

 Hydrogen
 Acetylene gas
 Organic solvents e.g. ether
 Ammonia
 Metals
 Sulphur dioxide
Caution should be given where the gas comes into contact with water droplets as chlorine could
create a highly corrosive and dangerous acid mist.

In its liquid form it is a powerful oxidizing agent. Although chlorine is a non-combustible gas, it
will support combustion and the products of combustion are often toxic.

HAZARDS OF CHLORINE

Safety in the production, handling and storage of chlorine gas is of paramount importance.
Despite its hazards, chlorine gas does not have to be a serious risk to those that handle the
chemical or to the environment if appropriate safety practices are effectively implemented

Health
Chlorine is corrosive. It can burn moist body surfaces such as the eyes, nose, throat, lungs, and
wet skin because it forms harmful acids when it reacts with moisture.

Fire
Chlorine will not burn by itself, but will support combustion.

Chemical action
Chlorine, in both gas and liquid forms, reacts with almost all chemicals, usually with a release
of heat. At high temperatures, chlorine reacts vigorously with most metals. For instance, a
chlorine reaction can cause Stainless steel to catch fire or melt. Some water treatment facilities
use Chloramination, a process in which chlorine and ammonia are mixed in a water solution.

38
Chloramination is safe because chlorine and ammonia mixed in a water solution do not present
a serious risk.

Chlorine leaks are usually confirmed using a standard ammonia test. This test is safe because it
uses ammonium hydroxide (ammonia dissolved in water or moist air) rather than pure
ammonia. Chlorine reacts readily with ammonium hydroxide to form
Ammonium chloride, a relatively harmless compound. This reaction forms a white cloud,
indicating a chlorine leak. The continuous monitors now required indicate chlorine leaks
automatically, but the ammonia test is still useful for pinpointing the exact location of a leak.

Corrosive action
Chlorine reacts with water or moisture in the air to form highly corrosive acids. Every
precaution must be taken to keep chlorine and chlorine equipment moisture-free. Never use
water on a chlorine leak.

Chlorine Leak Detection

When a chlorine leak occurs, authorised, trained personnel equipped with respiratory and
appropriate other PPE should investigate and take the necessary action. Persons not wearing
protective equipment and fully-encapsulating, vapour-protective clothing should be restricted
from the contaminated areas until clean-up has been completed.

It is recommended that chlorine leak detection and monitoring systems (with sound and visual
warnings) be installed to warn personnel about a possible chlorine leakage in production,
storage or loading/unloading areas in order to enable them to take appropriate action. Alarms
should be loud enough for all personnel working in noisy areas to hear.

A monitoring system can also be used for the automatic closing of valves to isolate chlorine-
containing equipment in the case of a release or leak. This unit should be calibrated and tested at
regular intervals and documented.

Most leaks will occur in piping, valves, connections, and the pressurized portions of chlorine
equipment. These leaks will usually be eliminated by tightening packing, replacing gaskets, or

39
 repairing the equipment. Replace flexible connections annually or sooner if there is evidence of
deterioration

Procedure for chlorine leakage control with the help of emergency kit And Neutralization
Process:

Emergency kit:

To cater for emergencies that result from chlorine releases due to equipment failure or leaks, the
following emergency equipment should be available at all facilities that handle or store
chlorine:

 Coloured vests
 Flash lights
 Life lines
 Safety helmets

EMERGENCY RESPONSE EQUIPMENT: Includes cylinder repair kits (A kit for 150 lb
cylinders), replacement valves, spare chlorinators, lead washers, tubing, portable chlorine and
oxygen monitor with operators manual and calibration kit, air purifying respirators, aprons and
gloves rated for use in chlorine atmospheres. This equipment must be available and stored by
PF at a designated, remote location so that equipment can be retrieved without entering
contaminated areas. It may be useful to have the relevant Chlorine Institute kit A or B on site or
at the Hazmat/fire fighting station (the relevant training for appropriate use of the kits would
have to be done).

PROCEDURES:

Through its odour and irritant effects chlorine can easily be detected. It is treated as a chemical
with good warning properties when emergencies arise.

The measures in the event of chorine emergencies or accidents should be carefully prepared and
should be regularly tested and updated. All workers should be familiar with emergency

40
 procedures, the location and proper use of emergency equipment and the various methods of
protecting themselves during rescue operations it is important that a list of all relevant
emergency contact phone numbers be available at a number of locations in the plant or office.
The list should include the

 Local fire department

 Police department
 Local Department of Health

Local police and fire departments should be informed of the possible hazards associated with
chlorine stored or handled on a facility so that they can be prepared in the case of an
emergency.
Emergency Action Plans:

It is important to ensure that fire fighting, first aid and Haz Mat personnel are trained in
chlorine emergency procedures. A written emergency control plan should be developed and
unscheduled drills of emergency situations where the plan is executed should be conducted at
least annually. The plan should include:

 Escape/evacuation plans from areas where chlorine leaks could occur

 Allocation of responsibilities during emergency incidents
 An alarm plan for events without off-site consequences
 An alert plan for incidents with potential off-site consequences outside of the plants limits. This
plan has to be developed in co-operation with the local authorities, fire and other emergency
services

Neutralization Process:
The neutralization is usually accomplished by causing the chlorine to react with sodium
hydroxide solution or, in certain situations, with another alkaline compound. Neutralization can
take place in an appropriately designed tank or in a scrubber. The sodium hydroxide
concentration should be less than 20% to prevent precipitation of sodium chloride crystals
(salting-out) and excessive heat of reaction

41
 Neutralization support provided works as safety device that assists in reducing risk of
spreading of chlorine gas into atmosphere. The system works by automatically
absorbing/controlling heavy leaks from 100 kg/from 900 kg ton containers and absorb in caustic
solution that allows creation of hypo chlorine which can be reused/used as cleaning agent. If a
chlorine consuming process involves the discharge of a waste containing chlorine, special
processes may be required. All governmental regulations regarding health and safety or the
pollution of natural resources must be followed. A system should be provided to neutralize any
chlorine vented for maintenance preparation or process upset, such as a sudden failure of the
chlorine compressor, trouble during the start-up of a circuit, or a breakdown of the tail gas
handling system.

• What to do if a leak is indicated after a cylinder change

If the ammonia test indicates a leak after a cylinder change, use this procedure. This
procedure assumes that the worker is already wearing the respirator required for the
cylinder change. If not, the worker must first put on appropriate PPE, including the
respirator.

Follow these steps:

1. Make sure you’re carrying a portable or handheld chlorine monitor.

2. Immediately close the main cylinder valve.

3. If the monitor reads less than 3 ppm, you may repeat the cylinder hookup
procedure.
Note: Ten ppm is immediately dangerous to life or health. Even workers using air
purifying respirators with chlorine cartridges or canisters must leave the enclosure
before chlorine levels reach 10 ppm.
4. Open and close the main cylinder valve, and repeat the ammonia test.
Note: If chlorine is in the area because of the leak, it may be difficult to identify the
source. You may need to let the air clear before repeating the ammonia test.
5. If a leak is still indicated, make a third and final attempt to get a good seal, using a
new lead washer.
6. If you can’t correct the leak after three attempts, remove the cylinder from service
and contact the supplier. Ensure that there is no leak from this cylinder with the main

42
 valve closed. You must connect a different cylinder to the chlorination system.
7. Leave the chlorine enclosure. Stay nearby to restrict access to the enclosure or to
provide other help, as directed, until the chlorine alarm has automatically shut off.

Make sure your assistant is diligently watching the exposure level on the monitor in order
to alert you if levels begin to rise. If your personal monitor approaches 10 ppm while
you’re attempting
to repair the leak, immediately leave the enclosure. Activate full emergency procedures
and ensure that everyone evacuates the area. Wait upwind of the building for help to
arrive.

Never apply water to a chlorine leak. Moist chlorine is more corrosive than dry chlorine, and
the leak will worsen rapidly if water is applied to it. The water and chlorine mixture will
enlarge the release point by corroding the metal, allowing more chlorine to escape.

Discussion:

Q.1 Narrate the Physical and Chemical properties of Chlorine and briefly describe its
hazards.

Q.2 Enlist the equipment used in rectifying the leakage of Chlorine from chlorine toner.

43
Q.3 Briefly describe the emergency preparedness plan for chlorine leakage.

44
 EXPERIMENT NO 8

AIM: To measure the efficiency of exhaust fan for removal of toxic fumes through exhaust duct
in a given sample of “acid spread” model.

Introduction

Ventilation is the mechanical system in a building that brings in "fresh" outdoor air and removes
the "contaminated" indoor air.

In a workplace, ventilation is used to control exposure to airborne contaminants. It is commonly

used to remove contaminants such as fumes, dusts, and vapours, in order to provide a healthy
and safe working environment. Ventilation can be accomplished by natural means (e.g., opening
a window) or mechanical means (e.g., fans or blowers).

Industrial systems are designed to move out (exhaust) and bring in (intake) a specific amount of
air at a specific speed (velocity), which results in the removal of undesirable contaminants.
While all ventilation systems follow the same basic principles, each system is designed
specifically to match to the type of work and the rate of contaminant release at that workplace.

An industrial ventilation system has two main parts: a fresh air supply system and an exhaust
system.

In general, the supply system is a heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning system (HVAC) and
consists of:

 air inlet,
 air filtering equipment,
 heating/cooling equipment,
 fan,
 ducts,
 air distribution registers.

The exhaust system consists of:

 an "air intake" area,

 ducts to move air from one area to another,

45
  air cleaning device(s),
 fan(s) to bring in outside air and exhaust the indoor contaminated air, and
 discharge stacks.

There are two types of mechanical ventilation systems used in industrial settings:
General industrial ventilation reduces the concentration of the air contaminants, or controls the
amount of heat that accumulates in hot industrial environments, by mixing (diluting) the
contaminated air with fresh, clean, uncontaminated air. This ventilation system is also known as
dilution ventilation.

Local exhaust ventilation captures contaminants at, or very near, the source and exhausts them
outside.

Dilution ventilation supplies and exhausts large amounts of air to and from an area or building. It
usually involves large exhaust fans placed in the walls or roof of a building.

Dilution ventilation controls pollutants generated at a worksite by ventilating the entire

workplace. The use of general ventilation distributes pollutants, to some degree, throughout the
entire worksite and could therefore affect persons who are far from the source of contamination.

Dilution ventilation can be made more effective if the exhaust fan is located close to exposed
workers and the makeup air is located behind the worker so that the contaminated air is drawn
away from the worker's breathing zone. See Figures 1 to 4 for examples of better ventilation
system layouts, and Figure 5 for poor dilution ventilation design.

When used to control chemical pollutants, dilution must be limited to only situations where:
 the amounts of pollutants generated are not very high,
 their toxicity is relatively moderate,
 workers do not carry out their tasks in the immediate vicinity of the source of
contamination, and
 the emission rate of contaminants is relatively uniform.

46
It is therefore unusual to recommend the use of dilution ventilation for the control of chemical
substances except in the case of solvents which have admissible exposure concentrations of more
than 100 parts per million.

47
 Figures 1 to 4: Examples of recommended dilution ventilation layouts

Local exhaust system is used to control air contaminants by trapping them at or near the source,
in contrast to dilution ventilation which lets the contaminant spread throughout the workplace.
Local exhaust is generally a far more effective way of controlling highly toxic contaminants
before they reach the workers' breathing zones. This type of system is usually the preferred
control method if:

 Air contaminants pose serious health risk.

 Large amounts of dusts or fumes are generated.
 Increased heating costs from ventilation in cold weather are a concern.
 Emission sources are few in number.
 Emission sources are near the workers' breathing zones.

48
In a general way, a local exhaust system operates similar to a household vacuum cleaner with the
hose as close as possible to the place where dirt would be created.

A local exhaust system has five basic elements (see Figure 5):

 The "hood" or opening that captures the contaminant at the source.

 Ducts that transport the airborne chemicals through the system (exhaust air) and the air
that is recirculated.
 An air cleaning device that removes the contaminant from the moving air in the system
(not always required).
 Fans that move the air through the system and discharges the exhaust air outdoors.
 An exhaust stack through which the contaminated air is discharged

Components of a Local Exhaust Ventilation System

Ducted System Design

Designing a ducted system is more complex. Allowances have to be made for the pressure losses
due to the resistance of the duct itself and the added resistance to air flow of bends and elbows. It
is necessary to decide on the preferred size and type of duct to be used, and the duct route, so that

49
pressure losses throughout the system can be calculated, and a fan selected with the correct
performance criteria. The elements that need to be decided on are as follows:

 Required air movement.

 Preferred duct size.
 Preferred duct type (usually either smooth bore plastic or metal pipe, or flexible
aluminium).
 Preferred duct route (length and the number of bends and elbows).
 Although it may seem complex at first, it is a reasonably straight-forward procedure.

Duct systems should be designed to have air flow through the ducts with as little friction or
resistance as possible. The amount of air that flows through a duct depends on the cross section
area (duct opening area) of the duct and the air speed. Air moving too slowly will allow
contaminants such as dusts to settle and accumulate. These particles will eventually clog the
duct. Air moving too fast wastes power, can create noise problems, and may cause excessive
abrasion, especially in branches and elbows, due to increased friction between the air
transporting dust particles and the duct. Recommended speed ("duct velocity") for different types
of contaminants can be found in reference books on ventilation.

Duct systems typically require large amounts of air to move relatively small amounts of
contaminants. The required volume of airflow depends of the acceptable concentration of air
contaminants in the inside workspace. A carefully designed system can achieve the required air
concentration while using the least amount of power. Other design considerations include initial
capital costs, reliability, maintenance, and durability of air handling equipment.

 The table below illustrates some basic duct design principles.

50
Duct Design Principles

Design for less resistance Avoid design that causes

Principle
for air flow more resistance to air flow

Streamline the system as

much as possible to minimize
air turbulence and resistance.

Round ducts provide less

resistance than square ducts
(less surface area).

Smooth, rigid ducts provide

less resistance than flexible,
rough ducts.

Short runs of ducts provide

less resistance than long runs.

Straight runs offer less

resistance than runs with
elbows and bends.

Duct branches should enter at

an angle of 30° (or less) to
45° rather than right angles,
and at a location where the
duct expands gradually.

Elbows with gradual bends

provide less resistance than
sharp bends.

Large diameter ducts provide

less resistance than small
diameter ducts.

51
The main types of duct systems for local ventilation

There are two main types of duct systems: a tapered main system and plenum.

 The main duct of a tapered system gets larger as branches are added and flows are
merged together. This tapering allows the air speed to remain almost constant throughout
the duct. Due to this characteristic, the tapered duct system is the main system used in
local ventilation. (Figure 1)

Tapered duct system

 In the plenum system, the main duct stays the same size throughout the system. The
speed of the air is lower than in the tapered ducts, and sometimes lower than the
minimum speed that is required to transport contaminants. For this reason the plenum
system is mainly used only when the separation of particulate matter (large particles or
liquid droplets) is intended. Explosive dusts, however, must not be exhausted through a
plenum duct system.
 One advantage of a plenum system is that new branches can be added anywhere, and the
addition is limited only by the total airflow and pressure available at the fan.

52
 Plenum system

Highly toxic and toxic compressed gases—any quantity.

Ventilation exhaust shall be provided for highly toxic and toxic compressed gases in any quantity

Gas cabinets containing highly toxic or toxic compressed gases in any quantity shall comply with
and the following requirements:

1. The average ventilation velocity at the face of gas cabinet access ports or windows shall be not
less than 200 feet per minute (1.02 m/s) with a minimum velocity of 150 feet per minute (0.76
m/s) at any point at the access port or window.
2. Gas cabinets shall be connected to an exhaust system.
3. Gas cabinets shall not be used as the sole means of exhaust for any room or area.
Exhausted enclosures containing highly toxic or toxic compressed gases in any quantity shall
comply with and the following requirements:

1. The average ventilation velocity at the face of the enclosure shall be not less than 200 feet per
minute (1.02 m/s) with a minimum velocity of 150 feet per minute (0.76 m/s).
2. Exhausted enclosures shall be connected to an exhaust system.
3. Exhausted enclosures shall not be used as the sole means of exhaust for any room or area

53
Evaluation of efficiency of exhaust fan for removal of toxic fumes through exhaust duct
Systems

The evaluation methods could be Direct e.g., measuring a containment index, or indirect, e.g.
measuring pressure loss or velocity distribution.

Indirect methods are used to determine regulatory compliance. For example, specified minimum
and maximum face velocities for laboratory fume hoods and static pressure (negative) inside
enclosed hoods. Monitoring instruments can be connected to alarms.

Capture efficiency is the fraction of generated contaminant that is directly captured by the hood.
This means measuring concentration of process-generated contaminant or a tracer material.
Using contaminant requires instruments suited to each specific contaminant and its conditions. It
is easier to use a tracer.

Simple evaluations by checking the air flow rates into the opening, presuming that many
parameters have not changed since the detailed evaluation was done.

Static pressure loss for a duct can be used to monitor the flow rate into the hood. If the flow rate
and the pressure loss were measured at the same time as the efficiency, the pressure loss can be
used for monitoring hood performance.

Another simple way is to use smoke to visualize the air streamlines. It is sometimes possible to
see how far an exhaust reaches by observing smoke movement.
Discussion:

Q.1 Briefly describe the working of ventilation system for removing out the acid fumes.

54
Q.2 Describe the design criteria of exhaust fan for an area.

55