CHALLENGE QUESTIONS

1. Define or otherwise identify the following:

a. Solvent
A solvent is a liquid into which various solids and powders can be dissolved.

b. Sensitivity center
Physical imperfections in the lattice of the emulsion layer that occur during the
film manufacturing process.

c. Latent image
Unobservable image stored in the silver halide emulsion; it is made manifest
by processing.

d. Archival quality
Attribute that refers to the fact that the image does not deteriorate with age
but remains in its original state.

e. Orthochromatic film
Referring to blue- or green-sensitive film; usually exposed with rare Earth
screen.

f. Intensification factor
Ratio of exposure without screens to that with screens to produce the same
optical density.

g. Spectral matching
Implies using a film emulision that has the same absorption properties as the
color of light emitted by radiographic intensifying screen.

h. Luminescence
Emission of visible light.

i. Isotropic
Equal intensity in all directions; having the same properties in all directions.

j. Synergism
Synergism occurs when the action of two agents working together is greater
than the sum of the action of each agent working independently.
2. Diagram the cross-sectional view of a radiographic film designed for use with a pair of
radiographic intensifying screens.

3. What does the term dimensional stability mean when applied to radiographic film? Which part of
the film is responsible for this characteristic?

The base of radiographic film maintains its size and shape during use and processing so that it does
not contribute to image distortion. This property of the base is known as dimensional stability. The base is
of uniform lucency and is nearly transparent to light.

4. Identify the steps involved in the automatic processing of a radiograph and the time required for
each step when a 90-second processor is used.

Another significant breakthrough was Eastman Kodak’s introduction of 90-second rapid processing
in 1965. Rapid processing was possible because of the development of new chemistry and emulsions, as
well as the faster drying permitted by a polyester film base. With this processor, the dry-to-drop time is 90
seconds. This type of automatic film processing system remains the standard. The first step in the processing
sequence involves wetting the film to swell the emulsion, so that subsequent chemical baths can reach all
parts of the emulsion uniformly. In automatic processing, this step is omitted, and the wetting agent is
incorporated into the second step, developing. The developing stage is very short and highly critical. After
developing, the film is rinsed in an acid solution designed to stop the developing process and remove excess
developer chemicals from the emulsion. Photographers call this step the stop bath. In adiographic
processing, the stop bath is included in the next step, fixing. The gelatin portion of the emulsion is hardened
at the same time to increase its structural soundness. Fixing is followed by vigorous washing of the film to
remove any remaining chemicals from the previous processing steps. Finally, the film is dried to remove
the water used to wash it and to make the film acceptable for handling and viewing. Developing, fixing,
and washing are important steps in the processing of radiographic film. The precise chemical reactions
involved in these steps are not completely understood. However, a review of the general action is in order
because of the importance of processing in a high-quality radiograph.

5. Discuss the two types of luminescence and how they are associated with radiographic intensifying
screens and fluoroscopic screens.

Two types of luminescence have been identified. If visible light is emitted only while the phosphor
is stimulated, the process is called fluorescence. If, on the other hand, the phosphor continues to emit light
after stimulation, the process is called phosphorescence. Because screens are used to reduce patient dose,
one characteristic is the magnitude of dose reduction. This property is called the intensification factor (IF)
and is a measure of the speed of the screen.

6. Describe the process whereby a latent image is created in one crystal of the film emulsion.
It is here that visible quantities of silver form during processing to create the radiographic image
are developed into black grains Crystals that have not been irradiated remain crystalline and inactive. The
unobservable information contained in radiation-activated and -inactivated silver halide crystals constitutes
the latent image.

7. Why are gloves and goggles recommended for persons who mix or handle developer solutions?

When one is mixing solutions, cleaning a processor, or participating in any activity with or near
processing solutions, these steps should be followed:
• Wear a proper mask that reduces inhalation of fumes—not the standard surgical mask that only
guards against particles and bugs.
• Wear nitrile gloves. Do not use surgical gloves; they only protect against biologic matter.
Remember that photographic chemicals are designed to penetrate, and thin rubber gloves provide no
guarantee of safety.
• Wear protective glasses. Chemical splashes in the eyes are painful.

8. What determines proper darkroom safelight selection?

Green-sensitive film creates problems in the darkroom. Safelight filters that are satisfactory for
regular x-ray film fog film manufactured for use with rare earth screens. Rare earth screen-film requires the
use of safelights that are colored even more toward the red portion of the spectrum.

9. Describe a technique designed to test for good screen-film contact.

Screen-film contact can be checked by radiographing a wire mesh (Figure 12-24, A). If darker areas
of blurring are seen, as in Figure 12-24, B, then screen-film contact is poor and should be corrected, or the
cassette should be replaced.
To be fully effective, rare earth radiographic intensifying screens must be used only in conjunction with
film emulsions whose light absorption characteristics are matched to the light emission of the screen. This
is called spectrum matching. Calcium tungstate screens emit light in a rather broad continuous spectrum
centered in the violet-to-blue region, with a maximum intensity at approximately 430 nm (Figure 12-22).
The spectral emission of rare Earth phosphors is more discrete, as indicated by the many peaks in the
spectrum (see Figure 12-22). The spectral emission is centered in the green region of the visible spectrum
at approximately 540 mm. Terbium activation is responsible for the shape and intensity of this emission
spectrum. The emission spectrum can be altered somewhat by various concentrations of terbium atoms in
the phosphor, by the addition of activators, and by the use of light-absorbing dyes. Phosphors are available
that emit ultraviolet, blue, green, and red light. Conventional x-ray film is sensitive to blue and blueviolet
light and is rather insensitive to light of longer wavelengths. Such blue-sensitive films are used with calcium
tungstate screens because their absorption spectrum matches the emission spectrum of calcium tungstate.
Specially designed green-sensitive film must be used with rare earth screens (Figure 12-23). If a green-
emitting screen were used with blue-sensitive film, the strong emission in the green region would go
undetected, and system speed would be sharply reduced. To obtain maximum advantage and speed from
rare Earth screens, the film must be sensitized for emission of the screen.

10. What precautions are necessary when radiographic film is used and stored?
Storage:
 Temperature no greater than 68 to 70 degrees Fahrenheit.
 Humidity from 40-60%
 Protected from the following to prevent increased density and fog.
a) radiation
b) fumes
c) outdating
d) light
Boxes stored on end, never flat; storing the boxes flat causes pressure mark artifacts (areas of increased
density caused by excessive pressure applied to the film)
Handling:
 Pressure marks
 Static
a) caused by static electricity discharged on film
b) buildup on loading tray
c) buildup loading bench
d) rapidly pulling film from cassette as rubs against intersifying screens.
e) Low humidity in film-handling area.
Cringkle or half-moon marks
a) bending film over fingernail during handling
b) other rough handling

Radiographic film is a sensitive radiation detector and must be handled accordingly. Improper handling and
storage result in poor radiographs with artifacts that interfere with diagnosis. For this reason, it is essential
that anyone who handles radiographic film should be careful not to bend, crease, or otherwise subject it to
rough handling. Clean hands are a must, and hand lotions should be avoided. Improper handling or
processing can cause artifacts, the marks or spurious images that sometimes appear on processed
radiographs. Radiographic film is pressure sensitive, so rough handling or the imprint of any sharp object,
such as a fingernail, is reproduced as an artefact on the processed radiograph.

11. If a film is damp or wet when it drops into the receiving bin, what are the problem and probable
cause?
A wet or damp finished radiograph easily picks up dust particles that can result in artifacts.
Furthermore, a wet or damp film is difficult to handle in a viewbox. When stored, it can become sticky and
may be destroyed. The dryer system consists of a blower, ventilation ducts, drying tubes, and an exhaust
system. The dryer system extracts all residual moisture from the processed radiograph, so it drops into the
receiving bin dry.The blower is a fan that sucks in room air and blows it across heating coils through
ductwork to the drying tubes. Therefore, room air should be low in humidity and free of dust. Sometimes
as many as three heating coils of approximately 2500 W capacity are used. The temperature of the air
entering the drying chamber is thermostatically regulated. When damp films drop into the receiving bin,
the radiologic technologist should immediately suspect a malfunction of the dryer system, although
developer and fixer replenishment also should be checked. Underreplenishment reduces the concentration
of hardener and is a common cause of damp films.

12. Write the silver halide crystal reaction. What does the arrow pointing down represent?
Latent Image
The concentration of electrons at the sensitivity center produces a region of negative electrification. As
halide atoms are removed from the crystal, the positive silver ions are electrostatically attracted to the
sensitivity center. After migrating to the sensitivity center, the silver ions are neutralized by electrons and
are converted to metallic silver.aIn an optimally exposed film, most developable silver halide crystals have
collected 4 to 10 silver atoms at a sensitivity center (Figure 12-9, D). Conse-quently, this silver deposition
is not observable, even microscopically.This group of silver atoms is called a latent image center. It is here
that visible quantities of silver form during processing to create the radiographic image(Figure 12-9,
E).Crystals with silver deposited at the sensitivity center are developed into black grains (Figure 12-9, F).
Crystals that have not been irradiated remain crystalline and inactive. The unobservable information
contained in radiation-activated and -inactivated silver halide crystals constitutes the latent image.
The silver halide crystal is the active ingredient of the radiographic emulsion. In the typical emulsion, 98%
of the silver halide is silver bromide; the remainder is usually silver iodide. These atoms have relatively
high atomic numbers (ZBr = 35; ZAg = 47; ZI = 53) compared with the gelatin and the base (for both, Z ≈
7). The interaction of x-ray and light photons with these high-Z atoms ultimately results in the formation
of a latent image on the radiograph.Depending on the intended imaging application, silver halide crystals
may have tabular, cubic, octahedral, polyhedral, or irregular shapes. Tabular grains are used in most
radiographic films.Tabular silver halide crystals are flat and typically 0.1 µm thick, with a triangular,
hexagonal, or higher-order polygonal cross section. The crystals are approximately 1 µm in diameter. The
arrangement of atoms in a crystal is cubic, as shown in Figure 12-2.The crystals are made by dissolving
metallic silver (Ag) in nitric acid (HNO3) to form silver nitrate (AgNO3). Light-sensitive silver bromide
(AgBr) crystals are formed by mixing silver nitrate with potassium bromide (KBr) in the following
reaction:Silver Halide Crystal Formation AgNO3 + KBr → AgBr ↓ + KNO3The arrow ↓ indicates that the
silver bromide is precipitated while the potassium nitrate, which is soluble, is washed away.The entire
process takes place in the presence of gelatin and with precise control of temperature, pressure, and the rate
at which ingredients are mixed.The shape and lattice structure of silver halide crystals are not perfect, and
some of the imperfections result in the imaging property of the crystals. The type of imperfection thought
to be responsible is a chemical contaminant, usually silver sulfide, which is introduced by chemical
sensitization into the crystal lattice, usually at or near the surface.This contaminant has been given the name
sensitivity center. During exposure, photoelectrons and silver ions are attracted to these sensitivity centers,
where they combine to form a latent image center of metallic silver.Differences in speed, contrast, and
spatial resolution among various radiographic films are determined by the process by which silver halide
crystals are manufactured and by the mixture of these crystals into the gelatin. The number of sensitivity
centers per crystal, the concentration of crystals in the emulsion, and the size and distribution of the crystals
affect the performance characteristics of radiographic film.Direct-exposure film contains a thicker emulsion
with more silver halide crystals than screen film. The size and concentration of silver halide crystals
primarily affect film speed. The composition of the radiographic emulsion is a proprietary secret that is
closely guarded by each manufacturer.Radiographic film is manufactured in total darkness. From the
moment the emulsion ingredients are brought together until final packaging, no light is present
13. What determines the speed of radiographic film?
Intensification factor (IF)

14. Define or describe DQE and CE.

Rare Earth radiographic intensifying screens have increased speed because of two important
characteristics, both of which are higher compared with other types of screens. The percentage of x-rays
absorbed by the screen is higher. This is detective quantum efficiency (DQE). The amount of light emitted
for each x-ray absorbed also is higher. This is conversion efficiency (CE).

15. Explain the Gurney-Mott theory of latent image formation.

The concept of the latent image was a crucial factor in the progression of silver halide imaging
systems since their first successful demonstration by Daguerre in 1839, but it was not until 1938 that the
first practical theory of latent image formation was proposed by R. W. Gurney & N. F Mott
The emulsion of a radiographic film comprises of microscopically small grains of silver bromide
(AgBr – approx. 98%) and silver iodide (AgI – approx. 2%) suspended in a gelatine matrix. These grains
exhibit an individual response to actinic radiation, and the subsequent reaction with a chemical developer.
 The definition of the latent image may, thus, be described as: “A radiation induced change in a
silver halide grain, which renders that grain more susceptible to the chemical reaction of a chemical
developer.”
The physical nature of the latent image was fairly well known, but, due to the extremely small
changes in the silver halide grains (involving a few atoms in a single grain), direct investigation of the
mechanism of formation was difficult.
It can be demonstrated, for example, that given a brief development, and subject fixation, an
exposed film will exhibit formation of metallic silver at discrete sites on the exposed grain. These
sites became known as sensitivity specks.
According to the Gurney – Mott theory of latent image formation, “imperfections” in the regular
lattice arrays of a silver bromide grain permit, or, promote, the formation of these “sensitivity specks”.
These imperfections include:
Silver ions which do not occupy the “lattice position” – these are known as interstitial silver ions
Physical imperfections in the crystalline structure
Impurities in the grain structure – foreign molecules – the most significant of which is silver
sulphide; Ag2S. Small amounts of silver sulphide were already known to increase the sensitivity of silver
halide emulsions

Silver bromide is a compound, formed by the “bonding” of a silver atom with a bromine atom.
“Bonding” in compounds is achieved by the “sharing” or “transference” of what are known as valence
electrons between atoms in a compound.
Effectively, when silver bromide is formed, a silver atom transfers its valence electron to a bromine
atom. Hence, the silver atom now lacks a single negative charge, becoming positive in nature, and so is
known as a positive silver ion (Ag+).
Conversely, the bromine atom now “possesses” an extra single negative charge, and, as such, can
be described as a negative bromide ion (Br-).
(To be strictly chemically accurate, the above describes an ionic bond, where the Ag-Br bond is, more
correctly, described as a polar covalent bond, but has a strong ionic character, permitting the use of this,
more simple, model.)
Silver bromide is a compound, formed by the “bonding” of a silver atom with a bromine atom.
“Bonding” in compounds is achieved by the “sharing” or “transference” of what are known as valence
electrons between atoms in a compound.
Effectively, when silver bromide is formed, a silver atom transfers its valence electron to a bromine
atom. Hence, the silver atom now lacks a single negative charge, becoming positive in nature, and so is
known as a positive silver ion (Ag+).
Conversely, the bromine atom now “possesses” an extra single negative charge, and, as such, can
be described as a negative bromide ion (Br-).
(To be strictly chemically accurate, the above describes an ionic bond, where the Ag-Br bond is, more
correctly, described as a polar covalent bond, but has a strong ionic character, permitting the use of this,
more simple, model.)
When silver bromide (AgBr) molecules are exposed to “actinic” radiation, which may be light
below a certain wavelength (direct radiographic films are sensitive to light at the “blue” end of the spectrum,
permitting red lighting to be used during processing), or electrons produced by Compton or
photoelectric absorption events, they become ionised.
This is the beginning of latent image formation.
 The process of development is one of the major advantages of the silver halide imaging system.
Development is a chemical process by which silver halides are converted to metallic silver.
However, the developer is selected such that the reaction is limited solely to the grains which exhibit latent
image formation.
In other words, developer chemical selection is confined to those chemicals in which the reaction
is catalysed (“speeded up”) by the presence of the photolytic silver of the latent image.
In the most sensitive of emulsions, the number of silver atoms, at the latent image site, required to
trigger this reaction, may be fewer than 10.
As the number of silver atoms in each silver halide grain is in the order of billions, this results in a
chemical amplification of around x109.
This chemical amplification is one of the major advantages of radiographic film as an imaging
system, as it results in high contrast radiographic images.

16. What is the importance of spectral matching in selection of screen-film combinations?

 One reason why calcium tungstate is a useful screen phosphor is that it emits light in the violet-to-
blue region. The sensitivity of conventional radiographic film is highest in the violet-to-blue region of the
spectrum. Consequently, the light emitted by calcium tungstate screens is readily absorbed in radiographic
film (Figure 12-18). If the screen phosphor emitted green or red light, its IF would be greatly reduced
because it would require a greater number of light photons to produce a latent image. The light of the screen
emission would be mismatched to the light ensitivity of the film.

17. Why do radiographers need to be aware of reciprocity law failure?

When exposed to the light of radiographic intensifying screens, radiographic film speed is less if
the exposure time is very short or very long. Film should be handled carefully and stored at specific
temperatures and humidities to reduce artifacts. Artifacts on radiographic film can also be caused by rough
handling. Reciprocity law failure is important when exposure times are long (as in mammography) or short
(as in interventional radiography). The result of long or short exposures is reduced speed. An increase in
radiographic technique may be required.

18. An amber filter on a safelight is used under what conditions? A red filter on a safelight is used
under what conditions?
With blue-sensitive film, an amber filter is used. The amber filter transmits light that has
wavelengths longer than approximately 550 nm, which is above the spectral response of blue-sensitive film.
The use of an amber filter would fog green-sensitive film; therefore, a red filter, which transmits only light
above approximately 600 nm, must be used in this case. A red filter is suitable for both green- and blue-
sensitive film characteristics for amber and red safelight filters.

19. Discuss the difference between regular screen film and mammography screen film.
Direct-Exposure Film
The use of radiographic intensifying screens with film allows reduced technique and therefore reduced
patient radiation dose. However, the image is more blurred than it would be after exposure without screens.
In the past, certain films were manufactured for use without screens; they were used to image thin body
parts, such as hands and feet, that have high subject contrast and present a low radiation risk. Most extremity
examinations now use fine-grain,high-detail screens and double-emulsion film as the IR. The emulsion of
a direct-exposure film is thicker than that of screen film, and it contains higher concentrations of silver
halide crystals to improve direct x-ray interaction.
Mammography Film
Mammography was originally performed with an The radiation doses associated with such a technique were
much too high; consequently, specialty films were developed. Mammography film is single-emulsion film
that is designed to be exposed with a single radiographic intensifying screen. All currently available
mammography screen-film systems use green-emitting terbium-doped gadolinium oxysulfide screens with
green-sensitive film. The surface of the base opposite the screen is coated with a special light-absorbing
dye to reduce reflection of screen light, which is transmitted through the emulsion and base. This effect is
called halation, and the absorbing dye is an antihalation coating. Such an antihalation coating is used on all
single-emulsion screen film, not just mammography film. The coating is removed during processing for
better viewing. industrial-grade, double-emulsion, direct-exposure film.

20. What is quantum mottle?

Radiographic noise produced by the random interaction of x-rays with an intensifying screen. This effect
is more noticeable when very high rare Earth systems are used at a high kVp.