Study Skills & Research Course Edition 2018 B

UNIVERSITY OF LAY ADVENTISTS OF KIGALI
FACULTY OF ECONOMIC SCIENCES & MANAGEMENT

Level One 2017/2018
STUDY AND RESEARCH SKILLS
By
Revised edition by
Telesphore RUDATEBWA
2017
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................................................................................... 2
COURSE SYLLABUS ............................................................................................ 4
COURSE OBJECTIVES ......................................................................................... 4
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 6
1.1. Major problems for students who study ......................................................... 6
1.2. Solutions to the problems .............................................................................. 7
II. LEARNING STRATEGIES & THE PROCESS OF STUDY SKILLS ................ 8
2.1. Learning Strategies for different learning styles ............................................. 8
2.2. Ways of studying and reading effectively .................................................... 11
2.3. Studying ...................................................................................................... 12
2.4. Taking examinations ................................................................................... 17
III. LISTENING: THE FOUNDATION OF ALL COMMUNICATION ................ 19
3.1. Basic communication skills ......................................................................... 19
3.2. Listening skills ............................................................................................ 20
3.3. Barriers to effective Listening ..................................................................... 20
3.4. Improving listening skills ............................................................................ 22
IV. READING SKILLS /EFFECTIVE READING AND NOTE MAKING ........... 23
4.1. Introduction................................................................................................. 23
4. 2. Different ways of reading ........................................................................ 24
4.3. How to approach your reading sessions ....................................................... 25
4.4. How to read more effectively ...................................................................... 25
4.5. Taking notes from your reading ................................................................... 26
4.6. Improving your reading speed ..................................................................... 28
V. SPEAKING SKILLS/PUBLIC SPEAKING ................................................... 30
5.1. Introduction................................................................................................. 30
5.2. Types of speaking ....................................................................................... 31
5.3. Characteristics of an effective speaker ......................................................... 32
5.4. Preparing a speech: Stages........................................................................... 32
5.5. Presentation skills tips ................................................................................. 35
5.6. Important factors to consider ....................................................................... 35
5.7. Presentation Skills Practice Tips .................................................................. 38
VI.WRITING SKILLS........................................................................................... 40
6.1. Introduction ............................................................................................. 40
6.2. Essay writing ............................................................................................... 41
6.3. Writing process ........................................................................................... 41
6.4. Report writing ............................................................................................. 43
VII. RESEARCH BASICS .................................................................................... 45
7.1. Where does research occur? ........................................................................ 46
7.2. Research Types ........................................................................................... 46
7.3. Key Concept: Variables ............................................................................... 48
7.4. Identifying and Formulating a Research Problem ........................................ 49
7.5. Research Tools for Data Collection ............................................................. 49
7.6. Dissertation Structure .................................................................................. 50
VIII. Literature review as sources of information ................................................... 51
8.1. Why review literature? ............................................................................... 52
8.2. Sources of literature review ...................................................................... 52
Study and Research Skills UNILAK 2017

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8.3. Managing the literature.............................................................................. 53

8.4. Writing a Literature Review ........................................................................ 54
IX. LIBRARY & RESEARCH SKILLS ................................................................ 57
9.1. Introduction................................................................................................. 57
9.2. The role of a library in learning ................................................................... 57
9.3. Navigating in the library .............................................................................. 58
9.4. Concept of Electronic Library ..................................................................... 59
9.5. Searching Strategies and Techniques ........................................................... 62
X.Referencing techniques ...................................................................................... 67
10.1. What is plagiarism? ................................................................................... 67
10.2 . APA referencing style .............................................................................. 68
10. 3. Basic rules for APA referencing Style ...................................................... 69
10.4. Structure.................................................................................................... 70
10.5. Minimum standards for referencing electronic resources .......................... 73

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COURSE SYLLABUS
COURSE OBJECTIVES
This course is designed for first year university students and aims at helping students to
think about and plan the way they should study and where necessary to improve their
listening, reading, speaking, writing, studying, revision and examination techniques.
Students are also introduced to the concepts research.
1. ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION
The assessment pattern of this course content comprises 60% of total marks allotted to
CATs, assignments or course works and 40% for the final examinations.
2. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES
- Baran S.J and Davis D.K (2003). Mass Communication Theory. Belmont,
Wadsworth.
- Cary W.C (1989). Communication as Culture: Essays on Media and Society.
Belmont, Wadsworth.
- Corner, J and Hawthorn J eds. (1993) Communication Studies: an Introductory
Reader. Belmont, Wadsworth.
- De Boer J.J. (1977). Basic Language: Messages and Meanings. New York,
Harper and Row.
- DeFluer, M.L and Dennis, E.E (2002). Understanding Mass Communication: A
Liberal Arts Perspective. Boston, Houghton Mafflin.
- Fiske, J. (1990). Introduction to Communication Studies. New York, Harper and
Row.
- Stewart, Marie et Al. (1972). Business English and Communication, (fourth
edition) McGraw. Hill Book Company.

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INTRODUCTION
Reading has often been thought to be the same as studying; because of this wrong
thinking, studying as a skill has often been overlooked. It is sometimes seen as a
preparation for examinations rather than a skill to help the student improve learning.
Since reading might be discussed in another course or unit of a module, this course
will especially deal with techniques for understanding the content of the subjects for
which you have enrolled.
Most of college success is due to motivation and time management. Anyone who
tells you that they can get through college without studying, or that they make great
grades without studying is pulling your leg. Success in college takes effort.
This means that if you want to do well you must be willing to set aside time to
study. You may have to sacrifice at times. However, effective time management
will allow adequate time for school as well as a social life or free time to do the
activities that you most enjoy. However, motivation is the key to success in school.
Although we can provide you with some helpful hints to enhance motivation, we
cannot motivate students. You are responsible for your study habits, for seeking
resources and assistance, and for managing your time. You must want to do well
enough to put forth the effort.
1.1. Major problems for students who study

 Not studying enough
 Wasting time when studying (Have you ever read 2 or 3 pages of material only to
discover that you cannot remember any of the material that you have just read?)
 Having trouble getting ready to study ("Before I study my laundry must be done,
the bathroom must be clean, I need to have all of my errands run, etc.")
 Finding a good place for studying.
 Using a good learning strategy

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1.2. Solutions to the problems
 Set up a schedule. Allocate more time for the most difficult classes. Make sure
that you allot time for recreation and social activities. (You need to reward
yourself for your hard work!) And follow your schedule.
 Start studying for 10-15 minutes at a time and then build up to longer
periods of time. Most study skills programs suggest reading for 10-15-minute
increments your freshman year, 20 minutes your sophomore year, 25 minutes
your junior year, 30 minutes your senior year and 45 minutes to an hour in
graduate school. So, work towards reading for longer periods of time. Just
remember to be realistic. If you can no longer concentrate or remember what you
have read, stop. There's no sense in wasting your valuable time.
 Take breaks. Take breaks when studying. The average attention span for one
task is approximately 20 minutes. Do not attempt to cram! Study small portions
of material, take a break and then study some more. We retain a great deal more
if we learn in small manageable portions, than when we attempt to learn a great
deal of information at once. Make these breaks mandatory. Even if you are
enjoying your reading or studying, take some breaks. You do not want to get
burned out.
 Reward yourself. Reward yourself for studying, learning a difficult concept, or
completing a project. Go to a movie, spend time with your friends, or do the
things you put off to study. This reinforces your behavior. You are more likely to
study again and concentrate if you know there is a reward at the end of
completing a task.
 Find a good location. Where you study can influence your concentration and
your study habits as well. Make sure you are comfortable, but not too
comfortable. Sitting at a desk is preferable to lying in bed.
 Use the same place for studying. This will help you associate that location with
studying and will facilitate concentration.
 Make sure it is a quiet place. Seeking a quiet well-lit study area is equally
important. A radio blaring in the background, a stereo blaring next door, and the
sounds of an interesting conversation are but a few of the factors that can disturb
a study area.
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 Eliminate the obvious distractions. Some of the more common distractions are
telephone calls or friends and family stopping by to chat. Put up the newspapers,
magazines, and unfinished projects. Even the sight of a textbook from another
class can serve as a reminder of how far behind you are in another class, causing
you to waste time worrying. Once you become aware of these simple
distractions, you can eliminate them and improve your study skills.
 Remember that memory is "context dependent." Studying in a physical
situation like the one in which you will be tested increases your chances to recall
information. (This is another reason why studying in bed does not work!) Make
your studying situation as similar as possible to the testing situation. When
possible, go review your materials in the classroom.
 Memory is also "state dependent." Studying in an emotional mood like the one
you experience during tests increases your chances to recall studied information.
When studying, keep the same focus and enhanced attention you have in your
tests. Being too relaxed during your study time would not match the level of
activation you reach during your tests. You need to increase your concentration
and activation levels while studying to increase your chances to recall the studied
material when tested. The reverse is applicable to tests. If you get too psyched-up
or tensed-up during your tests, you will not be able to recall your material
because your test mood state will not match your studying mood. This is the
reason why it is so important to calm down in a testing situation.
II. LEARNING STRATEGIES & THE PROCESS OF STUDY SKILLS
2.1. Learning Strategies for different learning styles
At University, you will be expected to be an independent learner. Therefore, it is

advisable to think carefully about your learning style (eg: auditory, visual,
Kinesthetic) and how best you can use your learning strengths to support your
academic studies.
Auditory
If you are an auditory learner, it means you will learn best by hearing information.
Consider making use of sound in the following ways:
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• Talk or read aloud to yourself as you learn information;

• Talk through and/or review information with friends;
• Record information on to tape or disc to enable you to listen back over information;
• Ask a friend to read text or lecture notes aloud to you;
• Have music playing in the background while you read or write;
• Work in a silent room.
Visual
Visual learners often learn best from seeing information presented in diagrams,
charts or pictures. Try using some of the following visual techniques:
• Plan work using spider diagrams, lists or tables, pictograms and mind maps;
• Write down all information;
• Use colored pens to highlight important information when reading and to link
similar ideas and arguments as you identify them (But only if you are using your
own text);
• Use colored paper for different modules or subjects;
• Use large wall charts or planners to organize your work;
• Try to visualize information and ideas in your mind;
• Vary the environment or position in which you work as this may create a link
between your visual setting with your subject area.
Kinesthetic
A kinesthetic learner will learn best by touching, doing or moving. Try to think
physically by:
• Discussing ideas with friends;
• Putting different arguments and ideas on separate pieces of paper when planning
essays, allows you to physically organize your answer;
• Going over information in your mind while walking, jogging or swimming;
• Using color or draw pictures and diagrams alongside written notes;
• Moving around your environment during independent study time.
Multi-sensory Learning

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It doesn’t matter how you learn if you use the methods which suit you. However, a
combination of the use of all the senses is the best way to learn. It appears that on
average you will remember:
• 20% of what you read;
• 30% of what you hear;
• 40% of what you see;
• 50% of what you say;
• 60% of what you do.
But you will remember 90% of what you say, hear, see and do.
Multi-sensory learning can help anyone to enhance the experience of learning and
improve recall of important information. Information is received by the brain
through the sensory channels. These channels are:
• Visual (seeing information)
• Auditory (hearing information)
• Kinesthetic (touching, moving or doing)
• Olfactory (smelling and making associations related to smell)
• Taste (what we experience from the mouth and tongue)
Consider how strongly a smell, taste or hearing a piece of music can remind you of a
previous situation or event. This is because all your sensory channels have worked
simultaneously to link into your emotions to create that experience. Multi-sensory
learning involves activating as many of the senses as possible at the same time to aid
understanding and recall.
Other study tips for effective learning

• Remember to take regular breaks.
• Create or choose an environment which suits your learning needs: limit noise and
distraction; room temperature is not too hot or too cold; comfortable seating
arrangement; good lighting.
• Break large tasks into smaller manageable chunks.
• Eat regularly and drink plenty of water.
• Use technology to help you: Personal Computer; digital or minidisk recorders;
assistive software, etc.

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2.2. Ways of studying and reading effectively
The following are two effective methods for reading text material. Choose the one
that is best for you.
a) SQ4R Method:
Survey: Briefly survey the chapter. Read the authors' headings. Your aim here is not
to go into detail but to develop a general idea of the structure. This will prepare you
for what you are going to read and grasp a general understanding of the chapter.
Read any summary. This will remind you of what is important throughout the
chapter. This step helps you to get acquainted with the chapter.
Question: Think about the material as you are reading. Ask yourself questions about
it. These questions will serve to keep you more involved with what you are reading.
This will keep you focused on the more important material without becoming
overwhelmed by details. Try formulating questions as if you were the professor
making up the test. This accomplishes 2 tasks; one, it facilitates concentration and
two, it helps you prepare for the test.
Read: Read carefully and try to answer questions you have asked yourself.
Remember you read a text differently than you read a novel. A novel is read
passively. Textbook reading requires more concentration and retention. Read
actively with involvement. This increases your understanding of the material. If you
become tired or distracted, stop reading. Remember, your job here is not to cover a
number of pages, but to "dig in". During this step, avoid reading aloud to yourself.
Instead, read silently as this is much faster.
Write/Relate: After you have answered a question, write the answer down. Sum up
information in your own words. Restructure the information so that it makes the
most sense to you.
Recite: Recite to yourself what you have read. Recall main headings and ideas. Be
sure to put ideas in your own words as this will improve your ability to retain the
material. Answer questions aloud and listen to your responses to see if they are
complete and correct. If they are not correct, re-read the material and answer the

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question again. This form of rehearsal increases the likelihood that you will retain
the material.
Review: Reviewing is the key to figuring out what you know and what you need to
concentrate on. The best times to review are right after reading while the material is
still fresh on your mind and again before the test. Try to summarize major points in
the chapter. And answer questions you posed to yourself while reading.
b) PQ4R METHOD
PREVIEW: Survey the chapter to determine the general topics being discussed.
Identify the sections to be read as units. Apply the next four steps to each section.
QUESTIONS: Make up questions about the section. Often, simply transforming
section headings results in adequate questions.
READ: Read the section carefully trying to answer the questions you have made up
about it.
REFLECT: Reflect on the text as you are reading, try to understand it, to think of
examples, and to relate the material to prior knowledge.
RECITE: After finishing a section try to recall the information contained in it. Try
answering the questions you made up for the section. If you cannot recall enough
read the portions that you had trouble remembering.
REVIEW: After you have finished the chapter go through it mentally recalling its
main points Try again to answer the, questions you made up.
2.3. Studying
Studying has many definitions but our aim is to understand what it involves. It can
be said to be the process that is used to understand, remember and recall information.
When studying, one should select information that he/she wants to learn from the
reading. This information should be organized so that it can be learned efficiently
and easily. This information should then be committed to memory so that it can be
recalled when it is needed.

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From what has been said about studying, it obvious that it requires the use of one’s
mind which means that one must apply some mental effort. It is therefore important
to acquire skills that will enable a student to study effectively.
In the following section, certain items that are important in assisting the student to
study will be mentioned.
Requirements for one’s study (tools of trade)
It is very important to acquire what is needed for the student’s various subjects that
he/she will be studying. It is like being a farmer who knows what he/she needs
before setting off to the farms. Equipment like a hoe, a machete and a slasher are
very important to him/her for preparing the land before he/she sows the seed. Unlike
the farmer, the student’s equipment will be very different. His/her tools are what will
be needed for effective learning.
Budgeting: Just like the other shopping that you do, you should budget for your
writing paper, textbooks and so on and buy the correct amount.
Keeping of written notes: Note keeping is certainly not a new thing to you. By now
you must have realized that to learn your notes effectively, you must ensure that they
are well organized for easy access. Two options for keeping notes are available to
you as student.
Use of files: If you choose to use foolscap paper for writing your notes, you will
need files. There are many types of files in the market that you can choose from.
Box, spring, clip, and pocket files are available in many bookshops or from an
ordinary retail shop in your area. Your intended use and the amount of money will
dictate what type of files you will buy. There are two ways in which you can use
files.
 You can choose to have a file for each subject that you are studying.
 You can file three or more modules in one file like a box file since it is very big.

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Use of exercise books: Notes can also be written in exercise books. It is practical
to choose large size exercise books with many pages. You also need to file some
photocopied materials.
You are free to choose the most convenient way of keeping your notes from the ways
that have been described above.
Planning a study schedule
It is your responsibility to develop your mind and to plan for all the work you will be
doing during your studying. You have your academic studies, may be a family, a
farm or some other business to take care of. You will therefore need a lot of
discipline to study. Your 24-hour day will seem to be insufficient when all you have
on your hands is considered.
If you don’t plan your time, you are likely to:

 Use much time on one task leaving out no time or very little time for the other
tasks.
 Work less efficiently because of lack of commitment.
 Do easy tasks first postponing difficult ones.
A study time-table: After making the commitment to work hard, it becomes

necessary to make studying part of your daily routine. When drawing the study time-
table, the following should be considered:
1. The number of hours for reading the units in each module. You should note that
these could be hours that you would spend sitting in a lecture hall before a
lecturer.
2. Self-study hours.
3. Discussion hours. This is possible if you know of someone with whom you are
doing the same module(s) and who live near your area.
4. Time for break like walking around and meal times.
5. Leisure/recreation hours. These hours should be used in any light activity that
you feel is relaxing. They can be used to attend light duties at home or in the

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work place. You may think of reading a newspaper, playing a game or watching
television.
The time for private study should be assigned different tasks depending on the work
to be done. For example, do not write on your time-table, geography essay, 8 hours.
Break down the essay into various tasks like,
- Looking for books and other sources
- Reading and making notes
- Reviewing notes
- Discussing with a colleague (if possible)
- Writing drafts
- Writing a final copy.
A place of study: Apart from pens and books, you will need a table, a chair and
good lighting at night. Other factors like the following also have to be considered:
- A quiet place with enough air and light
- A table that is clear of distractions like newspapers, a radio or your children’s
exercise books. You may be tempted to check how they are doing in their
schools.
- Do not sit on a sofa set or bed. You could easily go to sleep.
- If you decide to read in the sitting room, face the wall and not the people.
- Avoid sitting near a window since you can see what is happening outside and get
distracted.
Method of study: For effective studying, you should carry out the following
activities:
- Read and make notes. You can summarize your module notes or notes from
books. Charts or other aids can be used to help you remember what you learned
quickly.
- Think as you study and do not just read. Try to recall and remember information.
- You should try to understand and not memorize all that you learn. However
certain information must be memorized like names, dates and formulae. These
cannot be worked out by a process of association or elimination.
- Read widely. Read as many sources as possible on the same subject.

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- Draw relationships between the content that you read. For example, some content
that you learn in physics can also be made use of in mathematics like formulae.
Drawing from background information is also helpful since it will be in your
long-term memory.
- Discuss with fellow students or with your academic advisors.
- You should make yourself think all the time by asking questions and so on.
Studying is a silent activity but an active one.
Study or discussion groups: They are very useful when it comes to studying. It
should be possible for you to find from your center two or more students enrolled in
the same module(s) as yourself with whom you can form a study group.
Preparing for and taking examinations
Examinations are one way of effectively measuring how well you have studied a
certain subject or course. Success or failure in your work is determined almost
entirely by your ability to perform well in your examinations. Examinations do cause
anxiety. A little anxiety is good because it makes you read but a lot of anxiety is bad
since it can incapacitate you. You will be surprised to know that though we do not
like examinations, they have some benefits:
- You are forced to revise previous work.
- You work in larger units than you normally do.
- You take wider views and perceive the relationships of the parts to the whole.
You need to develop a method of revising to avoid the loss of information from your
store of memory. This is like developing good habits of revision, a flexible approach
to revising your notes and interpreting examination questions.
Steps in revising for an examination
- Be aware of what is expected of you by the examiner. You will need to get the
course outlines of your modules. It is important that you cover 100% of the
content. Do not go into an examination room with gaps in your knowledge or
understanding.
- Look for past examination papers of the past three to four years to see what
grounds are covered and find out the following:
 The number of papers that you are expected to sit for.
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 The number of questions you are expected to answer.

 How long the paper will be
 The choice of questions to be answered. For example, if they
are equally weighed or not.
- Make revision aids from your notes for quick reading.
What do you review?

- Lecture notes
- Study notes
- Main ideas and important details that you may have underlined or highlighted in
your textbooks.
- Relevant past examination paper.
How do you review?
- Use short periods to review the content like two hours and take a break when
necessary.
- Re-read to a minimum. Going through your notes six times over will not be very
useful.
- Plan an answer to a question by writing down the main points to a question or
more.
- Test yourself by answering some past paper questions in the time that is required
by the examiner.
A revision time-table is very essential and when making it, you should have the
following factors in mind:
- The subject’s length and difficulty.
- The total number of examinations.
- Your own strengths and weaknesses in the subjects that you are studying. You
will then assign more time to revising the difficult subjects.
2.4. Taking examinations

On receiving the question paper, do the following before you start answering the
questions:

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- Check to find out that you have received the correct question paper. There could
be a mixed-up when packing. Do inform your invigilator if it is not the correct
question paper.
- Write your registration number on the answer booklet, the module code and title.
- Read the instructions very carefully. These will inform you on how the questions
are to be answered and where, like on separate graph papers.
- Read through all the questions.
- Select the questions you wish to answer. As you do, note the directive verbs like
analyze, discuss, compare and so on.
- Allocate your time to the following:
1. Planning your answer
2. Writing the answer
3. Checking the answer for grammatical correctness or any
omitted ideas.
You should do the following if you want to do well in examinations:
- Answer any compulsory questions. They usually deal with the core of the course
and failure to answer them could mean failure in your examinations.
- Answer the right number of questions, not more than you are asked to or fewer.
- Answer each question as fully as you can within the available time for each
question.
FURTHER READINGS
- Donders, Joseph C. How to study. Nairobi. Uzima press, 1984.

- Locke, Edwin A. A guide to effective study. New York: Springer Publishing
Company, 1975.
- Maddox, Harry. How to study. Devon Great Britain: David and Charles, 1963.
- Montegomery, Michael. Study Skills for colleges and universities for African.
Longman, 1982.
- Muchiri, Mary N. Communication skills – a self-study course for universities
and colleges, Nairobi: Longman, 1993.
- Pirozzi, Richard C. College textbook reading and study skills. Chicago: Holt,
Rinchart and Winston Inc., 1982.

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III. LISTENING: THE FOUNDATION OF ALL COMMUNICATION
3.1. Basic communication skills

As defined, communication is essentially the transfer of ideas, messages or
information from one person to another. It is effective when it gets the desired action
or response. Basic communication skills are essential for continued success whether
personal or professional. At the very base, one needs to understand the
communication process. To maintain a healthy communication, both the sender and
the receiver must go through this process without bringing in other elements of
intellectual thoughts and judgments as they tend to harm the harmonious process of
passing and receiving messages. Thus, there are requirements that the sender and the
receiver must observe:
From the perspective of the sender, one needs to have the following essential skills:
a. Skills to compose the message
b. Skills to send the message
From the perspective of the receiver, one needs to have the following essential skills:
a. Skills of receiving the message without assumptions
b. Placing all personal and group biases aside
c. Listening actively
Sample revision questions
1. “Social interaction through messages” (Garbner1966) Discuss the efficacy of the

above quotation.
2. Examine the barriers to effective communication and suggest some remedies you
will employ to ensure that you communicate effectively.
3. With your personal educational and management example, discuss the value of
communication to a teacher or an administrator in an educational institution.
4. With relevant examples explain why written communication is a preferred mode
of communication in an educational institution?
5. “You say it better when you say nothing” Savage Gardens 2002. Discuss the
relevancy of the above quotation paying close attention to non-verbal forms of
communication.

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3.2. Listening skills

Unlike listening, hearing is a passive, automatic process. It is simply the act of
perceiving sounds. Listening is more than just part of spoken communication. It
involves both verbal and non-verbal messages. Listening skills are very important to
the success of all human interactions. It will require that you spend sufficient time in
practicing the skills because that is the way to acquire any skill.
Listening can be defined as follows:
a. Listening is the active process of receiving aural stimuli (De Vito, 1987: 26)
b. Listening is a voluntary process that goes beyond simply reacting to sounds. It
includes understanding, analyzing, evaluating and responding.
c. Listening is an active, deliberate, selective process by which a message is
received, critically interpreted and acted upon by a purposeful listener.
Listening is very vital to every human interaction; may it be in academic or social

settings. Effective listening takes time and efforts. It is at times very difficult, but the
returns mostly justify the efforts. Good listening in professions, for example, leads to
provision of better services. Poor listening, on the other hand, can be disastrous and
costly. Skillful listening will improve the chances for personal and professional
success.
3.3. Barriers to effective Listening

You may find that your listening is hampered by both internal and external factors.
The following are some examples of barriers to effective listening and their possible
solutions.
Barriers Possible solutions
One way of dealing with this is to do discussion prior
preparation for the listening activity. In a classroom
1. Unfamiliarity with the subject situation, for example, you can read ahead of the
under discussion lecture so that you are familiar with the material. This
will help you to formulate questions, which you
expect the lecturer to answer during the lecture.
Communication researchers have found out that an

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unprepared listener can recall only 50% of a 10-

minute lecture if tested immediately after.
2. Prejudices and bias (this may
be based on culture, gender, Separate the message from the speaker and
religion, ethnic background, etc. concentrate on the message.
Make a conscious decision to fight against all the

3. Inattention opportunities to lose attention. Deliberately postpone
any personal or other problem until after the lecture
or presentation.
Note that these are not the only barriers to effective listening one can meet. You
can experience many others such as:
1. Interrupting the speaker.

2. Not maintaining eye contact with the speaker.
3. Rushing the speaker to complete what he/she has to say.
4. Making the speaker feel as though he/she is wasting the listener's time.
5. Being distracted by something that is not part of the ongoing communication.
6. Getting ahead of the speaker and completing his/her thoughts.
7. Ignoring the speaker's requests.
8. Topping the speaker's story with one's own set of examples.
9. Forgetting what is being discussed.
10. Asking too many questions, for the sake of probing.
Faulty listening may be a result of how one was brought up in his or her childhood.
We can say that although listening may be difficult by false critics as environmental
interference, the major listening problem lie within the receiver. They originate from
the receiver’s attitude, motivations, emotional reactions, personality, age etc.
Fortunately, all this can be changed especially when the source is identified.

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3.4. Improving listening skills

If you want to improve your listening skills, try to apply the strategies below:
1. Maintain eye contact with the instructor. Of course, you will need to look at
your notebook to write your notes, but eye contact keeps you focused on the job
at hand and keeps you involved in the lecture.
2. Focus on content, not delivery. Have you ever counted the number of times a
teacher clears his/her throat in a fifteen-minute period? If so, you weren't
focusing on content.
3. Avoid emotional involvement. When you are too emotionally involved in
listening, you tend to hear what you want to hear—not what is being said. Try to
remain objective and open-minded.
4. Avoid distractions. Don’t let your mind wander or be distracted by the person
shuffling papers near you. If the classroom is too hot or too cold, try to remedy
that situation if you can. The solution may require that you dress more
appropriately to the room temperature.
5. Treat listening as a challenging mental task. Listening to an academic lecture
is not a passive act—at least it shouldn’t be. You need to concentrate on what is
said so that you can process the information into your notes.
6. Stay active by asking mental questions. Active listening keeps you on your
toes. Here are some questions you can ask yourself as you listen. What key point
is the professor making? How does this fit with what I know from previous
lectures? How is this lecture organized?
7. Use the gap between the rate of speech and your rate of thought. You can
think faster than the lecturer can talk. That's one reason your mind may tend to
wander. All the above suggestions will help you keep your mind occupied and
focused on what being said. You can begin to anticipate what the professor is
going to say to keep your mind from straying. Your mind does have the capacity
to listen, think, write and ponder at the same time, but it does take practice.

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IV. READING SKILLS /EFFECTIVE READING AND NOTE

MAKING
4.1. Introduction
Much of your time at university will be spent reading. You will be directed in your
reading by your module leader or lecturers and given 'Reading Lists'.
You will need to 'absorb' and remember the facts, concepts, arguments, principles
and information within the texts. How you do this is an important skill to develop
and learn. It is worth remembering that it can be daunting when confronted by
reading lists and students often worry about how they are going to get through them.
Whilst we are all able to read, many people do not read in a very effective manner.
This unit will help you approach your reading with more confidence and suggest
ways you can get the most out of it so your time spent reading has a clear purpose.
It also offers advice on taking notes during reading.
Importance of the reading list:
If you work through this unit you will be better able to:
 list the range of materials you will be expected to read from at university
 explain why you are given 'reading lists'
 list the different ways of reading (skimming, scanning etc)
 approach your reading more effectively
 apply a 5-step approach to your reading
 make notes from your reading
 explain what to check after you have finished reading
 read faster.
What will I have to read at university?
The answer is not 'As little as possible'! Depending on your course of study you are
likely to have to read from the following sources:

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 books
 articles
 handouts (from lecturers)
 academic journals
 scientific reports
 reference materials
 specialized literature.
Increasingly, it is quite likely that you will also be reading from electronic sources
such as the Internet and World Wide Web.
Reading lists
What are 'Reading Lists' and what are they for? To help you understand the subject/s
you are studying, you will be given a 'reading list' by your subject lecturer. Such a
list has 'Recommended Texts' and 'Further Texts/Reading' on it. The 'Recommended
Texts' are books which your lecturer considers to be of particular importance for you
to help you understand your subject. The Further Texts/Reading are additional
reading to give you a broader picture of the subject.
4. 2. Different ways of reading
When you are at university you will be expected to read from a wide variety of
sources. As you will be spending a lot of time reading it's best to learn how to read
well.
Avoid thinking you have to 'plough through' a book from cover to cover. This is the
least efficient way of reading. Below is a summary of some important techniques in
reading.
 Flip through a book to get a quick idea if it's worth reading.

 Scan contents pages, indexes, introductions, summaries to quickly locate the
specific information you are looking for (compare walking down a library
aisle to locate a subject).
 Skim quickly through the text to get an overview and find 'signposts'.
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 Concentrate on detailed reading of identified specific chapters, sections or

points.
It is important you learn which technique to use and when. By doing so, getting
through the reading list will be an enjoyment and not something to keep putting off
or getting worked up about.
4.3. How to approach your reading sessions
Fix a time for reading and keep to it. You are advised to keep to 40-50 minute 'slots'
with a 10-minute break in between. You are likely to lose concentration if you read
for longer. If you're finding a text difficult for whatever reasons put it down and have
a break. It's often forgotten that our subconscious mind can help an awful lot. Sleep
on it if need be.
Activity
Before you start to read, write down 2 or 3 questions that you want answered from
your reading. This will help focus your mind and prevent wandering off the subject.
4.4. How to read more effectively

A good formula for reading more efficiently is known as SQ3R (short for Survey,
Question, Read, Recall, Review).
The five stages in this approach are:
1. Survey the material first to get a general view of what you will study in detail
(scan the table of contents, the introduction, headings, emphasized sections,
exercises, summaries and final paragraphs).
2. Think up Questions that relate to the purpose of your study and allow you to
read with anticipation (e.g. why does the author divide up his material this
way?).
3. Read the material (preferably two or three times, quite fast rather than once
slowly). During this stage:

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o Look for the author's framework of ideas, the plan upon which s/he
constructed the material. (This is often revealed by the headings s/he uses,
showing you which ideas belong with which).
o Pick out the main idea in each paragraph - usually contained in the first or
last sentences.
o Look for important details, e.g. proofs, examples, support for the main
idea.
o Don't ignore the author's diagrams and illustrations, they may make
things clear where the text does not.
o Think up your own examples - look for applications in your own
experience.
o Be skeptical. Don't take the author's word on trust. Look for him/her to
justify every statement s/he makes (if s/he doesn't, and the point is an
important one, check with another book, or if possible a tutor).
o Work out what the results would be if theories alternative to the ones you
are reading about were true.
o Don't be afraid to skip paragraphs and whole sections if you see that they
are not relevant to your purpose. (There's no law that says you've got to
read every page of a book).
o If, after considering the material for some time, you still find a section
difficult to understand, take a break. Try to discuss the difficulty with
other students, or a tutor, or find another author's treatment of the topic
and then come back and read it again.
o Make sure anything you quote is correct and correctly referenced. It's
difficult once you've given back a library book!
4. Stop after each section of material to Recall what you have read (and make
notes of the main ideas and important details).
5. Review what you have read (and test the accuracy of your notes) by running
quickly through the four previous stages again.
4.5. Taking notes from your reading
1. Make notes during your reading at the Recall stage because:

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o It keeps you active and concentrating (so you learn and remember better);
o They provide a written record for revision.
2. Some general advice about note taking includes:
o Record the source of your notes exactly (author, title, date, publisher and
page numbers) and the date on which you wrote them.
o Write clearly or type on loose-leaf paper of A4 size.
o Use a logical and memorable layout on the page, e.g. a new page for each set
of notes - label clearly; leave plenty of space and wide margins; use colour,
diagrams, capitals, underlining, etc.
o Work out a set of useful abbreviations for commonly occurring words in your
subjects.
o Make use of standard abbreviations such as:
e.g. - for example
i.e. - that is
c.f. - compare, remember in this context
N.B. - note well, important
= - equals, is the same as
=/= - does not equal, is different from
< - is less than
> - greater than
... - therefore
..
. - because
o Content should include:
1. author's main ideas and any important details
2. the logical structure of his/her argument (in a diagram where possible)
3. any important references s/he mentions.
o Use your own words - don't just copy down undigested chunks of textbook or
speech. Use a skeleton outline (bullet points) rather than continuous,
paragraphed prose. Notes should not simply be a shorthand copy of the
original. They should be the 'bones' of the text.

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o Notes should not be too lengthy (or you might as well re-read the original).
Warning - Reading in depth and taking detailed notes can seriously damage
your morale.
o After you have finished taking notes read them through and write a summary
(notes on notes). NB Only underline or highlight a passage in a text if it is
yours to keep.
Store your notes in a loose-leaf folder. This gives you maximum

flexibility to re-write sections of your notes and re-arrange them into
more useful groupings as your understanding of a subject develops.
Always file notes together by topic, rather than in the order in which they
happen to be written.
After your reading
 Check to see you have answered the questions you wrote down at the
beginning.
 What points have arisen during your reading which you think are important
but which you weren't aware of? Write these down.
 Check if your notes reflect all the important pieces of information from the
reading.
 Check accuracy of any quotes you wrote down. Accurately reference them.
4.6. Improving your reading speed
Just think of the time that you could save if you read faster. The truth is that most
people could read at least as half as fast again and still understand just as well. Slow
readers tend to read one word at a time, often mouthing the words. Some read so
slowly that by the time they have reached the end of the paragraph, or even a
sentence, they might have forgotten how it began.
Here are five ways you can start helping yourself to read faster.
1. Have your eyes tested- many people turn out to need reading glasses for
continuous study.
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2. Make sure you don't mouth words or say things aloud as you read.
3. Try to read in "thought units" (two or three words at a time) so that your eyes
only stop three or four times in a line of print instead of every word.
4. Build up your vocabulary by:
o Reading widely.
o Using a dictionary whenever new words crop up in your reading,
noting their meaning.
o (c) Making glossaries of words commonly used in your subjects.
5. Practice reading faster (force yourself) by:
o Timing your reading of magazine articles of known length and test
your recall of the content.
o Reading all your study materials faster, even if you have to read them
more than once.
The aim is to vary the speed of reading according to the complexity of the material
and the purpose for which you are reading it.
If you are simply trying to get the gist of a piece of narrative type writing, you
should be able to read two or three times faster than when you are trying to unravel
the detailed development of a complex argument. Mostly you will benefit from
skimming and/or scanning the material quickly before you read it more intensively.
Don't expect every text to be fully understood the first time of reading. You may
have to go through it several times. Several rapid readings will probably give you a
clearer understanding than a single painstaking perusal where you try to assimilate
all the points made.
Summary
If you have worked through this unit you should now have a much clearer idea about
what you will be expected to read during your course and how to approach your
reading - with a specific purpose in mind. You should also now feel very confident
to start tackling reading, even the most difficult texts, with a SQR3 approach. Be
aware of the importance of making notes during the recall stage of this.

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What Should I Do Now?
This unit is only a start. It won't help you much with your reading. You now need to
take the ideas from it and start applying them to your reading.
Practice the SQ3R approach to reading.
Each time you have something to read, work out a little routine. Ask yourself:
 How long am I going to read for?

 What do I want to find out from my reading?
V. SPEAKING SKILLS/PUBLIC SPEAKING
5.1. Introduction
Mastering public speaking is not easy. If you search in Google for the term public
speaking confidence you get over 406 million website replies (2017). That appears to
be a lot, but when you are the one standing in front of the audience there is not
enough information in the world that might get you over that fear and build your
confidence. So how does one improve his/her public speaking confidence?
One word: Practice
Nothing can make you feel more scared or concerned than not being prepared for
your public speaking engagement. Doesn’t your nervousness and anxiety spring from
the proven fact that you may look foolish in front of the audience?
Recent studies show that speaking in front of a group is by far the greatest fear of
most people. It ranks ahead of the fear of dying, riding in an airplane, or the failure
of one’s personal life. “Half the world is composed of people who have something to
say but can’t. The other half has nothing to say but keep saying it.” Making a public
speech is a skill that can develop with time. Majority of people normally fear to
make a public speech mainly because they think that they may make mistakes.

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Others fear that they may be asked difficult questions which may make them look
like fools of they fail to answer them.
Unless you are highly unusual, at some time in your life you have talked to a group
of people and your knees began shaking, your voice quivering, your head ached, or
your shook like a leaf. And then it happened: Your memory, on its own and for no
apparent reason, left you. At this point you promised yourself that you would never
get yourself in this situation again. You got so mixed that you wondered whether to
run out of the room or keep standing motionless. This can be a challenging
experience.
To make a selling oral presentation, you must speak clearly and adapt your style of
presentation to suit your purpose, subject, audience and situation.
Unlike dialogues and conversations, public speaking is formal and aims at

convincing.
5.2. Types of speaking
A speech generally has one of three basic purposes: to inform, to persuade, or to

entertain.
An informative speech is a narration concerning a specific but does not involve a

sustainable effort to teach. Speeches to students at the open day and presentation of
the guild council officials are examples of speeches which are informative.
A persuasive speech is designed to move an audience to belief or action on some

topic, product, or other matter.
An entertainment speech gives enjoyment to the audience. The speaker often relies
on humor and vivid language as a primary means of entertaining the listeners.
There are several types of speaking:
Briefing:
The major purpose is to inform-tell about a mission, operation, or concept. At times,

they also direct- enable listeners to perform a procedure or carry out instructions. At

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other times, they advocate or persuade- support a certain solution and lead listeners
to accept that solution.
Teaching/ lecture
This is common in institutions of higher learning of higher learning and in churches.

Much speaking in the schools and churches is directed toward teaching.
5.3. Characteristics of an effective speaker
1. Have insight, i.e know their strengths and weaknesses

2. Know the audience
3. Know what they are speaking and what they hope to achieve
4. Always practice or do a dry run of their speeches.
5. Take the speech as if it was a performance. They know they have to work
hard to keep their listeners interested in what they have to say.
6. Make a post-speech evaluation or critique their presentation. They believe
this will feed into the next speech and lead a better performance.
Personal qualities:
1. Clarity, clear: when you speak, you must clarify your pronunciation,
enunciation and vocabulary. Use simple language and utter words distinctly.
2. Accuracy, accurate: the word that is used must mean what you want to say.
Make sure that your diction is accurate.
3. Empathy: you put yourself in the place of the listener when you are talking.
You should always try to be courteous and friendly.
4. Sincerity, sincere: you should be natural, do not try to sound like someone
else.
5. Relaxation, relax: you must relax your mind and your vocal cords.
6. Eye contact: you must look at the audience when you are talking.
7. Appearance: avoid casual wear (jeans, T-shirt, sandal, etc.); avoid
overdressing. You be modest.
8. Posture: how you stand, take the central position in front of the audience.
5.4. Preparing a speech: Stages
Consider the following stages for preparing a good speech:
1. Topic selection (sometimes the topic is prescribed. Even then it is important)

2. To consider whether it is specific and narrow enough to be handled in the
time available
3. Topic development
4. Presentation
5. Post-presentation
When preparing a presentation, remember to consider all the steps for every
presentation because occasions, audiences, topics, time, etc will be different.
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Researching the audience:
As Iacocca says, “there is no way around it-you have to do your homework. A

speaker may be very well informed, but if he hasn’t thought out exactly what he
wants to say today, to this audience [emphasis added] he has no business taking up
people’s valuable time.” (Gamble and Gamble, 1993:304)
There are many ways of obtaining information about your prospective audience:
1. You can ask to the program coordinator to give you relevant information.
2. If you are to address members of a certain organization you may get material
from their public relations officer or read their literature such as newsletters,
news releases, etc.
3. Do original research- Discuss with members of the potential audience.
Note: Audience demographics (Information about an audience) need to be

considered before planning the speech. You can prepare a checklist such as the
following to help you as you prepare.
Audience demographics:
a. Average age of the audience………………………

b. Sex ………………………
c. Marital status ………………………
d. Religious affiliations ………………………
e. Cultural background ………………………
f. Education ………………………
g. Occupation ………………………
h. Additional relevant information…………………...
Speaking to familiar audience:
Most of the times you will be addressing familiar audiences, such as:
a. A class of students
b. Colleagues or workmate
c. Group members, etc
Here, too, you will be required to do an analysis of your audience to establish “any
identifiable goals, fears, frustrations, loves or hates” that could help you shape your
speech, be tied in your preparation. Your relationship with them will be of interest
here: are you just a member or a leader, the head of a section or just one of them.
The speech occasion:
Analyzing the occasion will help in preparing your speech in various ways. For
example, knowing the length of the preparation can help you so that you will not run
over or under the speech limit. The former is a more problem among many speakers.
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Speech occasion checklist:
a. Date of the presentation ……………………………….

b. Length of the presentation ………………………………..
c. Venue/location ………………………………..
d. Nature of the occasion ………………………………..
e. Size of the audience ………………………………..
f. Any other relevant detail ………………………………..
Choosing the topic:
Always see every subject through the eyes of your listeners. As seen earlier, it is
important to tailor every topic to suit your audience. This should be reflected in the
topic wording, among other things. Use the following criteria:
a. Apparent worth: Is it important to you and to your audience.

b. Appropriateness: To your personal interests, the audience and the occasion.
c. Availability of material: Do not embark on the topic if researching the
content will be a problem no matter how interesting it is to you.
Narrowing the topic
Begin with a general topic then divide it up into smaller units:
The topic ladder:
1. Poverty eradication………………………………. This is broader

2. Poverty eradication in third world countries……. This is middle level
3. Poverty eradication in Rwanda…………………...This is narrower
Formulate a purpose statement & objectives:
Note: The purpose statement is stated as an infinitive.
Example:
Purpose statement: To inform the audience about the economic steps government is
taking in eradicating poverty.
Dissertation: The government has instituted various economic measures as a way of

eradicating poverty.
Organizing your ideas:
Why organize? It will keep confusion to a minimum and facilitate communication

between you and your audience. Try to build in an amount of repetition because the
audience has no way rewinding the message the way they do it in reading.

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Every good speech has three main sections: the introduction, the body and the
conclusion. The first and the last together occupy appropriately 10 to 15% of the
total speech. In other words, as the cliché goes: ‘Tell them what you are going to tell
them, then tell them, and finally tell them what you have told them.’ Begin by
preparing the body because it is the core part of the presentation, then the
introduction, and finally the conclusion.
5.5. Presentation skills tips
Content
 Should be relevant to the audience,

 Main points should be expressed with emphasis or repeated 3 times (if time
allows),
 Mastery of the topic - Present what you know,
Audience
 Be aware of the size of your audience

 Experience (What experience does the audience have with the topic)
 Interest in the topic, needs
 Gender balance (content and delivery may change in a mixed gender audience)
 Age range
Delivery
 Eye contact (make frequent eye contact with the audience – pick two or three
people seated in different places and look at them)
 Timing (time of day/time in relation to other topics/timing of specific remarks -
silence can be powerful)
 KISS (Keep It Short and Simple)
 Voice (volume, tone modulation)
 Language (avoid jargon)
 Gestures.
Visual Aids
 KISS [Keep It Short and Simple]

 Should support and not detract from the presentation
5.6. Important factors to consider
Oral Communication is different from Written Communication

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Listeners have one chance to hear your talk and can't "re-read" when they get
confused. Being clear is particularly important if the audience can't ask questions
during the talk. There are two well-known ways to communicate your points
effectively. Focus on getting one to three key points across. Think about how much
you remember from a talk last week. Second, repeat key insights: tell them what
you're going to tell them [Forecast], tell them, and tell them what you told them.
Think about your Audience -- Most audiences should be addressed in layers: some
are experts in your sub-area, some are experts in the general area, and others know
little or nothing. Who is most important to you? Can you still leave others with
something?
Think about your Rhetorical Goals: Your presentation should not replace your paper,
but rather whet the audience appetite for it. Thus, it is commonly useful to allude to
information in the paper that can't be covered adequately in the presentation.
Preparation
Prepare the structure of your talk carefully and logically, just as you would for a
written report. Think about:
 the objectives of the talk

 the main points you want to make
Rehearse your presentation - to yourself at first and then in front of some colleagues.
The initial rehearsal should consider how the words and the sequence of visual aids
go together. How will you make effective use of your visual aids?
Making the Presentation
Greet the audience and tell them who you are and then follow this formula:
 tell the audience what you are going to tell them;

 then tell them; and
 at the end tell them what you have told them.
Keep to the time allowed. If you can, keep it short. It's better to under-run than over-
run.

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Stick to the plan for the presentation, don't be tempted to digress - you will eat up
time and could end up in a dead-end with no escape!
At the end of your presentation ask if there are any questions - avoid being terse
when you do this as the audience may find it intimidating
Delivery
 Speak clearly. Don't shout or whisper.

 Don't rush, or talk deliberately slowly. Be natural - although not
conversational.
 Deliberately pause at key points - this has the effect of emphasising the
importance of a point you are making.
 Avoid jokes - always disastrous unless you are a natural expert.
 To make the presentation interesting, change your delivery: speed,
pitch of voice.
 Use your hands to emphasise points but don't indulge in too much
hand waving. People can over time, develop irritating habits.
 Look at the audience as much as possible, but don't fix on one
individual - it can be intimidating.
Avoid moving about too much. Pacing up and down can unnerve the audience,
although some animation is desirable.
Keep an eye on the audience's body language. Know when to stop and when to cut
out a piece of the presentation.
Visual Aids
Visual aids significantly improve the interest of a presentation. However, they must
be relevant to what you want to say.
Finally, ... Enjoy yourself. The audience will be on your side and want to hear what
you must say!

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5.7. Presentation Skills Practice Tips
Practising these exercises will make your next presentation more natural.
Posture
Practise standing in the correct posture [feet, knees, hips, shoulders all in a straight
line with your arms at your sides] while standing on lifts, standing in queues, waiting
at the cash machine, on a coffee break, etc.
Gestures
Start practising the use of gestures for description and/or emphasis by first becoming
more aware of your own natural gestures. Do you gesture while on the telephone?
Do you gesture while talking to a friend, colleague, or family member? By
increasing your awareness of what you do with your arms and hands in every day
conversations, you will then be able to transfer these gestures into all speaking
situations.
Facial Animation
Appropriate facial expressions usually coincide with gestures. If you tend to look
overly serious during presentations, using more gestures will help things up.
For Volume and Variety: adapt your voice depending on the size of the audience and
room in which you are presenting.
Pause and Pace and eye Contact: These elements are also very crucial.
Mastering public speaking involves having public speaking confidence and

delivering information to folk who are, in 1 way or another, waiting to get some
information. This is a key reason why you must prepare and be prepared as you tool
up to make your speech and as you plan to meet your audience.

39
Some people are naturals at public chatting and engaging audiences. However, the
fact of the case is that most people are not good at making speeches and many people
are scared of delivering a talk. But this shouldn’t stop you in any way.
If you are at the point that you are going to publicly talk, you’ve got to be confident
in what you are about to say. You have got to understand that the majority in the
audience are anticipating what you are about to say. They want to benefit from what
you are about to speak about.
Tips for effective communication
Use active listening: Demonstrate that you are listening by nothing, making eye
contact and confirming what they have said. E.g.: ‘understand that you are frustrated
and can see your point of view’.
Empathize: Put yourself in the other person’s position. Imagine how they feel and
show that you respect their feelings and point of view.
Use “I” statements: Eg: “I feel frustrated.” Rather than “you make me frustrated”.
“I” statements allow you to take responsibility for how you feel and what you want.
Stay aware: Be thoughtful of what you say and avoid affecting people. Do not talk
over people or dominate conversation.
Use appropriate language: Be aware of the company you are in and use language
that is acceptable to those people.
Be humble: see yourself as you really are, with both strengths and weaknesses. Don’t
talk to people as if you are better than they are. Good communication skills
The way one communicates does not only have an impact on their professional and
personal relations, but also an effect on others. Those who do not have appropriate
communication skills are usually ignored or simply kept at bay, whereas those with
good communication skills are looked upon and well respected. After all, a good
listener and a good orator are popular in their groups-professional and personal.
Below are some important tips to good communication skills.

Maintain eye contacts with the audience
This is vital as it keeps all those present involved in the conversation. It keeps them
interested and on the alert during the conversation.
Body awareness

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One needs to be aware of all that their body is conveying to them as well as to others.
For instance, if there is anxiety rising during the conversation, then one feels thirsty
and there may be a slight body tremor. At that point, one needs to pause and let some
else speak. A few deep breaths and some water works as a magic portion at this
point.
Gestures and expressions
One needs to know of how to effectively use hand gestures and the way they need to
posture their body to convey their messages effectively. Sometimes, it may happen
that they verbally convey something but their gestures and facial expressions have
another story to tell.
Convey one’s thoughts
It is important for one to courageously convey what they think. This is because
when things are left unsaid, then what is being spoken is not as convincing as it
should be. Then a lack of confidence develops.
Practice effective communication skills
One should practice speaking and listening skills as often as possible. In order to
practice effective speaking skills, one can read passages from a book aloud in front
of a mirror or simply perform a free speech in front of the mirror. And where
listening is concerned one can try transcribing from the radio or television. This
helps in acquiring sharper listening skills.
VI.WRITING SKILLS
6.1. Introduction
The purpose of this lecture is to introduce you to the key concepts that define the
kind of essays you are required to write as a university student pursuing
undergraduate studies. Writing is a very practical skill. Although we may tell you
something entailed to be known about writing, for you to know how to write well,
you must put to practice whatever new ideas this unit tells you about. Your quality as
a student will be measured mainly through the type of writing you produce. Writing
will be used to assess you because it can tell your tutors if you have been thought
well enough while preparing your essay task. You must therefore train yourself to
write well for it is only through the way you write that others will know whether you

41
are a clear or poor thinker. This is because writing at university; essay is

fundamentally a thinking process. For example, it involves stages as interpreting a
topic, discriminating between relevant and irrelevant ideas differentiating key ideas
from less important ones, evaluating the views of other writers, arguing logically,
selecting relevant evidence, drawing valid conclusions from given data as well as
summarizing and paraphrasing others. Remember also that your writing is a mirror
of your reading habits. People who write well are usually people who also read well
for a variety of purposes. In assessing your writing, therefore, your reading skills are
also being assessed.
6.2. Essay writing
An essay has three main parts:
1. Introduction: The introduction should be one paragraph. It should introduce the

topic and main idea and preview the rest of your essay. The introduction will also
include your thesis statement.
2. Body: The body is generally made up of three paragraphs. Each paragraph

supports and develops (adds detail to) your main idea. To guide your reader, each
body paragraph should begin with a clear topic sentence.
3. Conclusion: The conclusion is one paragraph. It summarizes the body paragraphs

and concludes the essay.
6.3. Writing process
The writing process can be described as a process of discovering ideas, developing

and organizing them. The process is not simple, and neither does it take place in a
linear manner. Good writing takes a lot of time and practice.
No two people write in the same way. Some outline ideas before writing about them,
some do not. Some write their introduction first, while others at the end.

42
In your essay writing use your own words, no matter how poor you believe your
written skills to be;
• Avoid using too many quotations;
• Accurately reference your sources;
• Do not copy down information word for word;
• Use a different colored pen to copy quotes or when writing any other information
down word for word. It will help you to identify the extent to which you are copying;
• Write your notes in your own words. Read a passage and then cover the page and
summarize out loud in your own words, then make your own notes;
• If you omit words from a direct quote indicate this by using three dots inside
parentheses (…).ssay as they go along; some do it at a later point. Not all writers
follow the same methods, and different writers use different methods in writing for
different purposes. As a student writer, you must discover the approach that works
best on any occasion. Still, most experienced writers have reported that to produce a
good piece of writing, you should pass through certain stages while writing an essay.
These are:
a) Exploring and planning: discovering a topic, focusing, finding support details
and organizing ideas;
b) Drafting: getting ideas and supporting details down on paper in rough form;
c) Revising: rethinking and rewriting drafts to improve content, focus and
structure;
d) Editing and proof reading: checking for effective word choice and sentence
structure, correct grammar, spelling, punctuation and mechanics.
NOTE: To produce good academic writing, you are expected to go through these
same stages that all good writers go through.
Further readings
- Kenyatta University Institute of Open Learning, (2002) Communication skills.

Nairobi, Institute of Open Learning-Kenyatta University.
- Leslie A. Olsen and Thomas N. Huckin (1991) Technical Writing and
Professional Communication (2nd Edition), McGraw-Hill.

43
- Okoth, O. (1990) A student’s guide to writing and study skills. Nairobi: Nairobi
University Press.
- Gardner, P.S. (1996) New Directions: An integrated Approach to Reading,
Writing and Critical Thinking. New York. St Martin’s Press
- Parkes, Malcolm Beckwith (1993). Pause and Effect: An Introduction to
the History of Punctuation in the West. University of California Press.
6.4. Report writing
A report is a formal piece of written work and presented in a different style from an
essay. Reports are usually written for a clear and specific purpose and are likely to be
aimed at a person or group of people. A report may need to make recommendations
for action. The structure of a report is more detailed than an essay with the use of
headings and sub-headings to introduce pieces of information. You may find it
helpful to consider the following areas when report writing: Planning, Research,
Structure, Writing and Language.
1. Report writing, planning
Answering these questions will help you in planning your report and organizing your
work:
Who • Who has requested you produce the report?

• Who is it aimed at/will be reading it?
• Who might be required to follow up any suggestions or recommended
actions in the report?
Why • Why is the report being produced?
• Think about the purpose of the report and possible outcomes.
What What are the terms of reference or aims of the report?
• The terms of reference or aims will identify what the report should be
about, the range of what it should cover.
• It is likely that the terms of reference or aims may be defined by
whoever is requesting the report eg. Supervisor or tutor.
• What are the objectives of the report? What might be expected as a
result? It may be a conclusion, recommendations and/or suggested
action
When • Timescale – keep in mind your deadlines
• Identify a realistic timetable.
• Schedule deadlines for obtaining information from external sources eg.
interviews, data provided by others, as well as from your own research.
How • The structure of your report may be governed by your subject.
Scientific, medical, laboratory, engineering, management, business and
placement reports (and others!) may require different formats and are
44
likely to require different types of information.

• Your report will need to follow a logical sequence with clearly
identified sections for different subject areas/parts of the report.
• You will need to use headings and sub-headings and possibly a
numbering system. An example is given below:
1 Introduction
1.1 The problem
1.2 The purpose of the Research
1.3 Objectives
• You do not need to write each section in the order of the planned
structure of the report. Write different sections as you have the
appropriate information, you can order it later.
• Be aware that the format of your completed report may change from
your original planned format.
Report structure
The report structure may contain the following:

• Title Page
• Acknowledgements
• Contents Page
• List tables and illustrations
• Abstract - briefly outline your report with the conclusions
• Introduction - outline research in this area and its significance within the content of
your report.
• Literature Review - discuss the most important/relevant and up-to-date research
linked to your research and introduces arguments supporting or opposing research
opinion.
• Methodology - a description of the research methods you used
• Results - state the main findings
• Analysis of results - discuss the main findings, analysing results against the
research covered in your literature review. Do the findings agree or disagree
with those findings?
• Conclusions
• Recommendations
• Appendices

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• References - a list of authors or sources cited directly in your text.

• Bibliography - a list of the general reading material you have used.
• Glossary.
VII. RESEARCH BASICS
Research in our universities has become an indispensable component of eligibility

for a degree. The education programmes in the universities in social sciences and
natural sciences may vary, but practically in all such programs there is a requirement
of research.
Research is a very general term for an activity that involves finding out, in a
systematic way, things you did not know. A more academic interpretation is that
research involves finding out about things that no-one else knew either. It is about
advancing the frontiers of knowledge. Research methods are the techniques you use
to do research. They represent the tools of the trade, and provide you with ways to
collect, sort and analyze information so that you can come to some conclusions.
In this section, you are first introduced to the concept of research along with
definitions of, the reasons for conducting research, where it is conducted, how it is
done, and by whom. It is followed by an important question 'why research' and
finally it addresses the attributes of quality research. Furthermore, you will have
an overview of the kinds of research under the qualitative and quantitative
paradigm. Additionally, the research process should adhere to some ethics that you
should keep in mind If you use the right sort of methods for your research, then you
should be able to convince other people that your conclusions have some validity,
and that the new knowledge you have created is soundly based.
You cannot undertake research until you have read and reviewed literature. A
thorough reading of related literature helps you select a research problem. Based on
the literature, you formulate your research question/problem for building your
logical framework. Here you are also briefed as to how to access resources and use
them for your research with proper citations and references. The research outcomes

46
should be measured for which you need reliable and valid tools for collecting data
from your sample selected from the population. After your data collection you are
ready for its analysis using either descriptive or inferential statistics with or
without the statistical package of SPSS.
During data collection, you will need to write various letters for which we give you
exposure to forms of academic writing. Putting everything together is the final
activity of research where you learn to prepare the research report/manuscript.
7.1. Where does research occur?
Research is conducted in many settings: educational institutes, laboratories,

Classrooms, libraries, the city streets, foreign cultures, etc. Some research is of short
duration. Other research is spread over a long period of time. Research is usually
done at universities at graduate or undergraduate levels as a required course. It can
be done in various formats which fall under the categories of qualitative and
quantitative research. Research is done by researchers, who are professors from
education, natural sciences or social sciences, experts, and students of graduate or
undergraduate programmes from related and multiple disciplines.
7.2. Research Types
When carrying out research, our purposes are different. Therefore, research types
will vary according to our purposes. The major research types will fall under
application, objectives, inquiry mode, and sometimes we may use mixed method
research.
Application (Pure and applied research)
Applied research is "hands-on", which means that the researcher is working with the
topic/subjects while conducting the research. Generally, applied research focuses on
"practical problems" such as climate change to come up with solutions to better or
improve an existing condition.

47
Basic research is often considered researching for the sake of increasing knowledge
as opposed to applied where the research truly is intended to solve a problem. Basic
Research is often called "pure" research and is considered the foundation for applied
research.
Objectives (Descriptive, Co-relational, Exploratory and Explanatory)
Descriptive research is also called statistical research. The main goal of this type of
research is to describe the data and characteristics about what is being studied. The
idea behind this type of research is to study frequencies, averages, and other
statistical calculations. Although this research is highly accurate, it does not gather
the causes behind a situation.
Correlation research measures the relationship between two or more variables or
gives an indication of how one variable may predict another.
Exploratory research is a type of research conducted because a problem has not
been clearly defined. Exploratory research helps determine the best research design,
data collection methods, and selection of subjects. Given that it is fundamental in
nature; exploratory research often concludes that a perceived problem does not
actually exist.
Explanatory research explores "why," and attempts to explain as the purposes of
explanatory research. It builds on exploratory and descriptive research and further
identifies the reasons for something that occurs. It looks for causes and reasons.
Inquiry mode (qualitative and quantitative)
The inquiry mode of research can be categorized as qualitative and quantitative:

Qualitative research is research undertaken to gain insights concerning attitudes,
beliefs, motivations and behaviors of individuals, to explore a social or human
problem.
Qualitative research methods include focus groups, in-depth interviews, observation
research, and case studies. You can use qualitative research to study past events or
current events. When you use it for past events, it is specifically called historical
research. The salient features of qualitative research are:

48
Conducted to have an insight and better understanding of not only about the
current situation but also why it is so.
More open and responsive to the research participants.
Uses a variety of methods and data collection strategies,
Offers opportunities for descriptive and exploratory studies.
Quantitative research is research concerned with the measurement of attitudes,
behaviors and perceptions. It includes interviewing methods such as telephone,
intercept, and door-to-door interviews, as well as self-completion methods such as
mail outs and online surveys.
Quantitative research:
Means the data is analyzed in terms of numbers.
Involves the collection of numerical data.
Predicts and explains data in the form of statistical analysis.
Uses the numerical method to analysis and interpret the results.
Finds out the relationship among quantifiable variables and the results are
inferred.
7.3. Key Concept: Variables
A variable is a characteristic that takes on different values or conditions for different

individuals. Variables are of different types:
Dependent variables are the variables that we measure to determine if the
independent variable has an effect, such as science achievement. The dependent
variable is what is affected by the independent variable.
Independent variables often simply are classifying variables, classifying the
individuals of the research study. For example, if we are looking at the student’s
achievements in science using some new teaching methods, then the teaching
method would be an independent variable and the achievement of the student is a
dependent variable.
Controlled variables are independent variables. They are controlled variables only
if their effects are determined, i.e., controlled. In the example of science
49
achievement, the learning style of the students is an organismic variable, as it would

probably appear as an intervening variable. For example: a treatment of program or
cause.
Extraneous variable is related to the dependent or independent variable, but is not
part of the experiment.
Moderator variable is related to the independent and dependent variable and has an
impact on dependent variable. In such a situation, it becomes an interacting variable
also.
7.4. Identifying and Formulating a Research Problem
Define a Research Problem
This is a fact that research starts from some problem. The research journey starts
from the identification of the problem. To work on that specific problem only the
identification is not sufficient. It is necessary for the researcher to define that
problem in more practical terms. Literature review helps the researcher in defining
the research problem so that it can be measured in its true sense.
7.5. Writing a Statement of Research Problem
A good research statement makes clear to the reader what issue the research is
dealing with.
Ideally a research statement should be presented in one sentence.
A research problem statement is to the point, focused, and measurable; it is not
ambiguous and abstract. Now you can select a research topic and try to write the
research problem.
7.5. Research Tools for Data Collection
Tools of research are basically used for data collection. These tools vary from one
research type to another. Qualitative and quantitative researchers use different tools
of measurement according to the purposes. Before proceeding further, let us look at
the term “data” and understand its application in research.
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Data include:
Facts and principles used in finding the answers.
Characteristics of people i.e. ages and income etc.
Scores in tests and anecdotal records of the students.
Answers to questions whether in questionnaires or in interviews etc.
Measures of scales and statements of the beliefs and opinions.
Laws and descriptions of the social set-up in which the research is being
conducted etc.
The following are the most commonly used tools for the collection of data:
Questionnaires
Interviews
Observations
Tests (achievement, aptitude, personality, vocational and personality etc.)
Scales (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio)
Producing a piece of written work for a science-based subject usually requires a style
and use of language. The aim is to be factual and report observations and conclusions
based on a logical evaluation of research. Avoid using descriptive or potentially
ambiguous language.
7.6. Dissertation Structure
The main structure of a dissertation is made of the components below:

• Title Page
• Abstract - briefly outline the content of your dissertation and the main conclusions
• Acknowledgements
• Introduction - outline the aim of your dissertation, the main research in this area
and its significance which supports your reasons for investigating the subject.
• Literature Review - discuss the most important/relevant and up-to-date research
linked to your research and introduce arguments supporting or opposing
research opinion.
• Methodology - a description of the research methods you used
• Results - state the main findings

51
• Discussion - discuss the main findings, analyzing results against the research
covered in your literature review. Do the findings agree or disagree with those
findings?
• Conclusions
• References - a list of authors or sources cited directly in your text.
• Bibliography - a list of the general reading material you have used during your
research of this topic.
• Appendices.
N.B: Sufficient details can be found for example in the “GUIDELINES FOR
WRITING BACHELOR’S DISSERTATION, UNILAK, sd”
VIII. Literature review as sources of information
Any research, no matter at what scale, requires reading about what other people have
done in your interest, how they have done it, and what are the gaps in the research in
that area. Any new production of knowledge is necessarily based on previous and
existing knowledge. You need information to support or refute your arguments and
write about your findings. You need to provide evidence that you are aware of the
current trends and issues in your area of interest and are cognizant of the current state
of knowledge on the subject.
Ideally this reading should form the basis for choosing your research methodology.
However, this is usually not possible in practice. After some preliminary reading, the
research topic is finalized. Reading continues and spills over into the stage of data
collection and analysis. Some reading is naturally required at the stage of
interpretation of the qualitative or quantitative data to embed your research in its
milieu. Moreover, every new article/book you read will have a cumulative effect on
the existing body of knowledge in your mind, pushing to you reinterpret or rethink
some of your previous assumptions or ideas. But there is a limit to the changes you
can make in your literature review. The best way is to prepare a first draft and then
polish it at the stage of data interpretation when you will be reading your literature
review again to present your analysis in a coherent manner with cross-references
related to your literature review.

52
8.1. Why review literature?
Some reasons for including a literature review in your research paper/thesis are:
1. The basic reason for literature review is to contextualize your research. Every
academic research project is related to an area and is a link in a chain of similar
research taking place in the area. This contextualization shows your awareness of the
work going on in your field and identifies the niche you wish to occupy.
2. It gives you, ideas about how to classify and present your data. When you read
critically, you can see how writers explore the relationships between facts and how
facts and relationships are explained. Methods used by other writers may not be
suitable for your purposes, but they may give you, ideas about how you might
categorize your data.
3. Literature review helps you to distinguish what has been done from what needs
to be done and how it should be done. Readings in an area reveal gaps in the
literature and this fine tune your research question and subsequent research methods.
4. Literature review assists you to synthesize your ideas and gain perspectives to
look at your research problem with different lens. Other researchers may have looked
at a similar issue but from different angles. This knowledge can fortify you to find
your own angle.
8.2. Sources of literature review
One important question that new researchers always ask is “Where do we find the
material for doing a literature review?” The following are the primary and secondary
sources for finding the material that you need to read:
Articles in Journals
Books
Internet
Research Reports
Government Documents
Abstracts
Reviews

53
Unpublished Theses
Electronic Research Information Center/Social Sciences Citation
Index/Dissertation Abstracts Index
Reference Resources: Sources of information are mainly in form of a reference
book. A reference book is a specific kind of publication that is particularly consulted
for items of information rather than reading it throughout. For example, dictionaries
for certain vocabularies and directories for specific addresses and telephone
numbers. Reference Books fall into two categories:
General reference books: Generally, references deal with knowledge or topics of
general interests. They are often consulted for specific information. The process is
like browsing for specific information in a computer. Such books are used in the
library, not for borrowing. E.g. Atlas, encyclopedia.
Special reference books: Publications in this category are devoted to a specific
subject area such us English, History, Biology, etc. They are useful for students
studying specific area. E.g. English dictionary, Encyclopedia of science and
technology.
Most of these materials are now available on the Internet. Libraries in established
higher education institutions are another rich resource for locating the required
materials (case of UNILAK Library Services).
8.3. Managing the literature
The bibliography at the end of a recent article or book can provide you with an
adequate reading list of most of the relevant material related to that topic. Once the
relevant literature has been located and found through the sources suggested, the next
step is to manage it. This requires efficient and selective reading. Once you try
locating the relevant literature, you will discover that it is available in vast quantities.
Now the primary task is to pick out the material that is related and relevant to your
research area. This requires you to be a proficient reader who can get the gist of
things quickly as you will have to go through a lot of reading. In an article published
in a journal, the first thing to do is look at the abstract or summary of the article. This
54
will give you an idea whether it is relevant for you. In the case of a book you should
look at the list of contents, the blurb, the summaries usually given at the end of the
chapters and the introduction. This will tell you quickly if any part is pertinent for
you.
The next step is to follow a clear system of keeping track of your reading references.
You need to create a management system that will incorporate your sources with all
relevant details including a note about where you found that article or book. This
means that you put down that the article/book was on the shelf of your supervisor or
in the library. This will save a lot of hassle and futile finger biting at the end when
you desperately need a page number for a quote and cannot remember where you
had found the material. Today, many computer programs like Endnote, Procite, or
Reference Manager Mendeley, are available to keep track of your references. These
programs can automatically format references in any number of styles once the basic
details have been entered.
8.4. Writing a Literature Review
A literature review should be: analytical, critical, important, evaluative and relevant
to your area of study. A literature review should cover:
• Recent or relevant research in your area of study;
• Identify contrasting views;
• Describe research methods used in previous studies.
Make sure that you:
• Critically evaluate previous research;
• Determine the strengths and weaknesses of previous research;
• Decide whether previous research results are valid;
• Discuss the relevance of previous research to your area of study.
Skills required may include:
• Knowledge of how to search using computer data bases;

55
• Knowledge of data collection methods;

• An understanding of the research methods used in your area of study;
• To be able to identify comparisons and list them;
• To organize the arguments;
• Awareness of plagiarism;
• Accurate referencing.
Try to avoid
• Adding too much details;
• Writing long, rambling sentences which may confuse the reader;
• Making it too vague;
• Including irrelevant information.
A Critical Approach to Writing
At University, you will be expected to critically evaluate existing research

knowledge. To show you understand how different arguments are constructed you
should:
• Look at the date of the publication. This may help you decide if the literature is up-
to-date and relevant to your area of study;
• Look for the main argument;
• Look at the reasoning behind the argument;
• Does the argument support the author’s conclusions?
• Look at the type of evidence the author has used to support their argument;
• Is the evidence strong or weak?
• You should state why the evidence is strong or weak;
• Compare and contrast the different arguments;
• Compare the conclusions. Do different authors agree or disagree?
• Be prepared to state why different authors have reached different conclusions.
To help detect hidden bias in texts you should be aware when you are reading that
opinions can be communicated by:
• Strong visual imagery;
• Reference to leading authority;

56
• Use of convincing language.

You should:
• Make sure your own opinion is supported by reliable evidence and/or
authority. It is important that you develop your own arguments and
conclusions.

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IX. LIBRARY & RESEARCH SKILLS
9.1. Introduction
Researching information can seem an impossible task. Therefore, knowing how and
where to find relevant information are the key steps to acquiring good research skills.
Where to find relevant information

This include course reading lists; Internet; Journals and periodicals; Special text
collections from the library.
A library is a collection of sources, resources, and services, and the structure in

which it is housed; it is organized for use and maintained by a public body, an
institution, or a private individual. In the more traditional sense, a library is a
collection of books. It can mean the collection, the building or room that houses such
a collection, or both.
A library is an information center that facilitates the use and access to information in
form of books, non-book material and computerized databases. It is therefore a place
where information is acquired, systematically organized and disseminated to users.
The library also considers various sources of information including computerized
databases, video recordings, books, journals whereas the old usage only emphasized
on the printed books.
9.2. The role of a library in learning
In a university, the role of library is to support teaching, learning and research by

providing information resources and services. The teaching approach at the
university is student-centered. Students will, therefore be expected to independently
seek information. Libraries are the major sources of information and students will
heavily rely on them for academic information.

58
9.3. Navigating in the library

Although there are many classification schemes such as the Library of congress
Classification (LCC), the Universal Decimal Classification (UDC) and the Dewey
Decimal Classification (DDC), as most of the University libraries in Rwanda, at
UNILAK most of textbooks, books in the library are shelf referenced using the
Dewey system. Use the available computerized catalogue system to find the shelf
references (also known as a call number) for the book you need. Once you know the
shelf reference for your book you can easily locate the book you need; but if you
cannot find the shelf location for books you need, don’t be afraid to ask a member of
the library staff to take you there.
 Arrangement of library materials
Library materials are physically arranged according to a classification scheme by
using call numbers. The arrangement is from left to right and top to bottom of each
section of the shelf. Materials with the same class number are further sub-arranged
by author’s surnames in alphabetical order. The call number is therefore used for the
arrangement and retrieval of library materials on and out of the shelves.
 Dewey Decimal Classification Scheme (DDC)
The Dewey Classification Scheme devised by Melvil Dewey is the oldest and the
most widely used in the world. It was first published in 1876. The scheme arranges
library materials into ten main classes, using Arabic numerals in the range 000-900.
The main general classes are summarized below:
 Dewey decimal classification Main Classes
000: Generalities
100: Philosophy and related disciplines
200: Religion
300: Social Sciences
400: Languages
500: Pure Sciences
600: Technology (Applied Sciences)

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700: The arts

800: Literature
900: General geography and history and their auxiliaries
These general classes are made more specific by dividing them into ten subclasses.
Examples of such classes for pure sciences are as follows:
500: Pure sciences 550: Earth Sciences

510: Mathematics 560: Paleontology, Paleozology
520: Astronomy and allied sciences 570: Life science
530: Physics 580: Botanical sciences
540: Chemistry 590: Zoological science
For practical purposes, each subclass is further divided into smaller divisions.
An example of some of the divisions in physics (530) is as follows
530: Physics
539: Modern physics
539.7: Atomic and nuclear physics
539.72: Particle physics
539. 722: ionizing radiations
539.7222: X and Gamma rays
From the above, it is easy to see how the precision of each material is reached by
division of the classes, subclasses and divisions. It is through such divisions that one
can appropriately use library to gain access to relevant information sources.
9.4. Concept of Electronic Library

60
The library resources refer also to the electronic resources which are defined as
online information or electronic library. Electronic Library can be: any library or
information resources that can be accessed electronically, e.g.
– electronic journals
– scholarly databases
– electronic books
– Internet gateways and search engines
– Free or paid-based access databases.
9.4.1. Types of electronic resources
They can be categorised into academic and non-academic resources

1. Academic resources (eg. Refereed journals, Review journals, Pre-
prints, Bulletins).
Academic journals
 Refereed journal
It is used to disseminate research findings find out about research being carried out
by others in your field, identify methodologies that might be relevant to your own
work. Example: African Crop Science Journal. It can be accessed through
https://www.ajol.info/index.php/acsj
 Review journals: Used to give an overview of the current literature in a
specific research area or discipline, eg. Educational Research Review
https://www.journals.elsevier.com/educational-research-review/
 Bulletins. They are used for making announcements to a specific audience,
up-to-date information in a very specific area. Example: Africa Research
Bulletin accessible from http://www.africa-research-bulletin.com/
2. Non-academic (eg: Professional/trade journals, Magazines,

Newspapers). These are professional/Trade journals. They are written by
staff writers and experts in the field, aimed at members of a trade or
industry, contain advertising, articles do not usually cite sources.

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They have good standard maintained by editorial board, ephemeral

nature of the information. Example: The Architects Journal eg.
http://www.ajplus.co.uk/
9.4.2. Types of scholarly databases
Scholarly databases are categorized under various groups including the following:
• Bibliographic: this is an organized digital collection of references to
published literature, including journal and newspaper articles,
conference proceedings, reports, government and legal
publications, patents, books.
• Numeric: containing for e.g. statistical tables like: Data collections from
World Bank Africa Development indicators.
• Full text: a full text database or a complete text database is a database that
contains the complete text
of books, dissertations, journals, magazines, newspapers or other kinds of
textual documents—complete publications.
• Audio such as a collection of music.
• Image such a collection of slides
• Multimedia for audio-visual, animation.
Other e-resources include E-books: e.g. the Directory of Open Access Books (DOAB
http://www.doabooks.org/) and Internet search engines such as
https://www.google.rw/.
At UNILAK the list of available resources can be found on the UNILAK Library
website http://library.unilak.ac.rw/ (paid databases & free databases). Apart from
those which are open or freely accessed, some E-resources such as Hinari (for
Medicine and Health Sciences), OARE (for environmental sciences) and ARDI (for
Development and Innovation) are accessed by username and password. However,
most of others are campus accessible by IP address for the institution (e.g: EBSCO,
JSTOR, etc).

62
9.5. Searching Strategies and Techniques
Effective searching can allow us to:
• find the materials we want amongst the enormous number of online resources
available. For instance, Google claims searching billions of web pages. The
worldwidewebsize reported on 28 March 2017 to retrieve at least 4.5 billion
pages of the Indexed Web documents. Now more than thousands of full
text journals are online, newspapers, databases, books, company web pages,
dictionaries, encyclopaedias, individual home pages, etc, are also online.
• make efficient use of limited access to PCs and bandwidth
• save time and money
9.5.1. Planning a search strategy
• Define your information need,

• Decide which sources to use,
• Find out how they function,
• Run your search,
• Review and refine you search,
This process can be started away from the computer.
9.5.2. Define your information need
• What sort of information are you looking for?

Specific information: e.g. a fact or date. In this case you may use for example a
reference source such as a data book, encyclopaedia, dictionary, the Web or even a
textbook are usually best.
General information: e.g. research areas. This may require more thought, including
how much information is needed and at what depth
Careful choice of search term(s) is vital
• What key words do you think will appear on the site/article you want?
• What key concepts is it a part of or related to?
• Are there any synonyms for these keywords or concepts?
• Are there any alternative spellings for your keywords/concepts
63
Are plurals or capitalisation involved?
Example: I want to find information about the health implications of water pollution
Keywords–’water’ ‘pollution’ ‘health’

Concepts– ‘environmental degradation’ or ‘agricultural management’ or ‘health’
Synonyms
– rivers, lakes, sea, coastal, ’domestic water’, etc
– ‘oil spills’, chemical, biological, etc
Alternative spellings: none
Plurals: river(s), lake(s), disease(s)
Capitals: maybe the name of a specific lake, disease, region
9.5.3. Decide which sources to use
What sources are appropriate for your information need?

• Individuals’ and organisations’ home pages
• Newspapers and magazines
• Subject gateways, databases, catalogues
• Journals—titles, abstracts or full text
• Reference resources, e.g., encyclopaedias, dictionaries
• Books
• Grey literature, e.g. government publications
• Print or electronic resources
Basic characteristics for electronic search tools
They help you sift through the vast range of information available, use keywords to
browse or perform simple or advanced searches, they all function slightly differently.
Electronic search tools may interpret your search terms using: Boolean operators;
Phrase and proximity searching; Truncation or wildcard functions; Case sensitivity;
Fields; Stop words; Relevance sorting.
9.5.4. Boolean searching

64
Before you dive into your research, it’s useful to make a list of keywords that you
will use as search terms. This can help you define your focus, and it will be a useful
tool once you start searching, especially if your first search attempts don’t find much
that’s useful.
Pull out key concepts
Once you have your topic, write it out as a short sentence or question and look at the
different components that make up your statement. For example, the research
statement "Is memory loss related to aging?" has two main concepts:
1. memory loss
2. aging
Start compiling a list of the key words that you will use as you search for your topic.
List the words in groups by category. For example, the topic "Is memory loss related
to aging?" might have key words that fall into two general categories:
1. memory loss or amnesia or Alzheimer's

2. aging or aged or elderly, seniors
Booleans commands uses commands (operators) such as AND, OR, NOT. Different
search tools may use different symbols
AND +
NOT –
Different search tools may use OR or AND as a default setting. Sometimes Boolean
operators must be entered in capital letters.

65
Other words might relate to multiple aspects of your topic, or the topic as a whole.
Expand your list by thinking of related terms
Keep in mind that the way terms are used in some fields can be very different from
standard everyday usage, and that popular sources such as newspapers or magazines
may use different terms than scholarly writing. Reference sources (such thesaurus,
66
dictionaries, etc) are one good way to start generating lists of these terms for your
topic.
As you progress through your research project, keep adding new terms to your list as
you find them. Subject headings and article abstracts are particularly good places to
look.
9.5.5. Phrase and proximity searching
Using quotation marks can allow you to search for an exact phrase, e.g. “information
literacy”
Using NEAR can allow you to specify how close to each other the terms you are
searching for should be
9.5.6. Truncation or wildcard searches
 Truncation: place a symbol at the end of the word so you search for variant
endings of that word: E.g. litera$ would look for literature, literacy, literal.
 Wildcards: place a symbol within a word to find variations on it: E.g.
analy*e would find analyse or analyze
 Different symbols— including $ * # ! : —are used by different search tools.
9.5.7. Other variations in search tools
• Case sensitivity: use of upper or lower case in search terms

• Fields: searches in fields such as the title, URL or links
• Stop words: searches may ignore common words such as ‘and’, ‘if’, ‘an’,
‘the’
• Relevance sorting: relevance is measured in different ways depending on
the search tools in use.
• Brackets may be used to order the search, e.g. (literacy AND education) NOT
secondary.
9.5.8. Run the search
• Take the terms/keywords you have decided on

• Find the sources you are going to search
67
• Read the ‘Help’ page to find out how that particular source uses Boolean
commands, wildcards, etc
• Run the search
• Be prepared to review and revise your search scope and strategy
• Try new sources of information (familiarity is sometimes too easy)
• Start again near the beginning of this process if you need to
• Evaluate the information to ensure it is relevant, accurate, of high enough
quality, etc
• Collect it via the information support.
• Ensure you keep a complete record of the source of the information for citing
later.
Summary
• The use of effective searching strategies is essential.
• The use of a search strategy checklist should be encouraged.
• Understanding and using advanced searching should be encouraged.
• Boolean searches are powerful and should be well used.
• Learn the search routines for all packages and electronic information sources.
X.Referencing techniques
The technique of referring to sources is called “reference technique”. It is important

to acknowledge the inclusion of ideas and quotations from other people to avoid
charges of plagiarism. Including references allows the reader to locate and verify the
original sources and to further their own research.
10.1. What is plagiarism?

Plagiarism refers to stealing or passing off as one's own (the idea or words of
another). It may also be defined as using a created production without crediting the
source. In other words, plagiarism means to commit literary theft; present as new and
original an idea or product derived from an existing source.
Generally, plagiarism is not allowed. Therefore, referring to sources proves worth.

However, doing this requires acquiring some skills and techniques on how to do it.
68
You might be accused of plagiarism if you:
• Do not correctly reference your sources;

• Copy the work of others word for word;
• Use other people’s ideas without acknowledgement;
• Copying another student’s work;
• Using words or sentences from other people’s work. Even if you have changed the
order it will still be plagiarism;
• Submit work you have asked someone else to write for you.
Tips to help you avoid plagiarism:
• Use your own words, no matter how poor you believe your written skills to be;
• Avoid using too many quotations;
• Accurately reference your sources;
• Do not copy down information word for word;
• Use a different colored pen to copy quotes or when writing any other information
down word for word. It will help you to identify the extent to which you are copying;
• Write your notes in your own words. Read a passage and then cover the page and
summarise out loud in your own words, then make your own notes;
• If you omit words from a direct quote indicate this by using three dots inside
parentheses (…).
10.2 . APA referencing style
1. In-text citation:
In-text citations refer to reference citations within the text.
2. APA (American Psychology Association) Citation Basics
When using APA format, follow the author-date method of in-text citation. This
means that the author's last name and the year of publication for the source should

69
appear in the text, for example, (Jones, 19 98), and a complete reference should
appear in the reference list at the end of the paper.
If you are referring to an idea from another work but NOT directly quoting the
material, or making reference to an entire book, article or other work, you only have
to make reference to the author and year of publication and not the page number in
your in-text reference. All sources that are cited in the text must appear in the
reference list at the end of the paper.
10. 3. Basic rules for APA referencing Style
a. The reference list is arranged in alphabetical order of the authors’ last names.
b. If there is more than one work by the same author, order them by publication
date – oldest to newest (therefore a 2004 publication would appear before a 2008
publication).
c. If there is no author the title moves to that position and the entry is alphabetised
by the first significant word, excluding words such as “A” or “The”. If the title is
long, it may be shortened when citing in text.
d. Use “&” instead of “and” when listing multiple authors of a source.
f. The first line of the reference list entry is left-hand justified, while all subsequent
lines are consistently indented.
f. Capitalize only the first word of the title and of the subtitle, if there is one, plus
any proper names – i. e. only those words that would normally be capitalized.
g. Italicize the title of the book, the title of the journal/serial and the title of the web
document.
h. Do not create separate lists for each type of information source. Books, articles,
web documents, brochures, etc. are all arranged alphabetically in one list.

70
N.B. When creating the reference list entry for an information source you need to
identify and record specific details. It might be useful to remember these Ws!
Who – wrote /edited it – author or editor.
When was it written – date What is it – title of book, title of the article &
serial/journal, title of the web document.
Where was it published (Books) – publisher’s name and place of publication–

usually city & country.
Where was the article located (Serial/journal) - volume number, issue number and
page numbers of the article Where you located it (Internet sources) - URL – web
address.
The following are the details for common types of references. The information is
usually found on the title page and the back of the title page of a book. For
serials/journals, you will find the information included on the article plus the front
cover or inside pages of a print serial. Webpages can take a bit of detective work.
You may need to scroll to the bottom of the webpage to find a date and an author.
10.4. Structure
a. Author/s or Editor/s last name (surname) appears first, followed by initials

(Bloggs, J.).
b. Year of publication in brackets (2010).
c. Full title of the book. Capitalize only the first word of the title and the subtitle,
if any, and proper names. Italicize the title. Use a colon (:) between the title and
subtitle.
d. Include the edition number, if applicable, in brackets after the title or subtitle (3rd
ed.) or (Rev. ed.). Note: No full stop, after the title, if there is an edition.
f. Place of publication (Always include the city). If there are two or more places
71
included in the source, then use the first one listed.
f. Publisher’s name. Provide this as briefly as possible. Do not use terms such as
Publishers, Co., or Inc. but include the words Books & Press. When the author and
the publisher are the same, use the word Author as the name of the publisher.
Author (surname) their initials, year of publication (in brackets); full stop; title (in
italics); full stop; city; colon; publishers.
1.Book – one author
E.g.
Chitnis, K.N. (2006). Research methodology in history. New Delhi: Atlantic
Collier, A. (2008). The world of tourism and travel. Rosedale, New Zealand: Pearson
Education New Zealand.
2. Book – editor
Wepa, D. (Ed.). (2005). Cultural safety in Aotearoa New Zealand. Auckland, New
Zealand: Pearson Education New Zealand.
3. Book – editors & edition
Collins, C., & Jackson, S. (Eds.). (2007). Sport in Aotearoa/New Zealand society
(2nd ed.). South Melbourne, Australia: Thomson.
4. Chapter in an edited book
Dear, J., & Underwood, M. (2007). What is the role of exercise in the prevention of
back pain? In D. MacAuley & T. Best (Eds.), Evidence-based sports medicine (2nd
ed., pp. 257-280). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
5. Serial/journal articles
1. Author/s last name (surname) first, followed by initials.

72
2. Year of publication in brackets. (2012).
3. Title of article. Capitalize only the first word of the title and the subtitle, if any,
and proper names. Use a colon (:) between the title and subtitle.
4. Title of the serial/journal in full in italics.
5. Volume number, in italics. Do not use “Vol.” before the number.
6. Issue number. This is bracketed immediately after the volume number but not
italicized.
7. Month, season or other designation of publication if there is no volume or issue

number.
8. Include all page numbers.
9. Include any Digital Object Identifiers [DOI].
6. Serial / journal article – more than one author (print)
Gabbett, T., Jenkins, D., & Abernethy, B. (2010). Physical collisions and injury
during professional rugby league skills training. Journal of Science and Medicine in
Sport, 13(6), 578-583.
7.Serial / journal article (online from a database – e.g. EBSCO
Marshall, M., Carter, B., Rose, K., & Brotherton, A. (2009). Living with type 1
diabetes: Perceptions of children and their parents. Journal of Clinical Nursing,
18(12), 1703-1710. Retrieved from http://www.wiley.com/bw/journal.asp?ref=0962-
1067.
8.Internet – Organization / Corporate author
Ministry of Health. (2008). Drug policy in New Zealand. Retrieved from

http://www.moh.govt.nz/moh.nsf/wpg_index/About-drugs

73
10.5. Minimum standards for referencing electronic resources
• At a minimum, a reference of an Internet source should provide

– a document title or description
– a date (either the date of publication or update or the date of retrieval)
– an address (in Internet terms, a uniform resource locator, or URL)
– whenever possible, identify the authors of a document as well
• Example;
– Article Author, A. A., & Article Author, B. B. (Year). Title of
article. Title of Journal, volume number (issue number), inclusive
page or paragraph numbers. Retrieved from Database name.
– Sillick, T. J., & Schutte, N. S. (2006). Emotional intelligence and self-
esteem mediate between perceived early parental love and adult
happiness. E-Journal of Applied Psychology, 2(2), 38–48. Retrieved
from http://ojs.lib.swin.edu.au/index.php/ejap/article/view/71/100
You must also remember to:
 Always start with the author’s surname (last name);
 Use a recommended style by your university. Do not mix styles.
 Put references in alphabetical order;
 Note the order of information;
 Note the use of punctuation;
 Note the type face and style;
 Group together referencing sources in your list, e.g. all books then journals,
etc.
9. Further readings
- Bristol University (2001). Nonesuch. Bristol: Bristol University.
- Gamble, T.K. and Gamble, M. Communication Works, (4th ed). New York:
McGraw-Hill
- Stephen E. Lucas, (2002): The Art of Public Speaking, 7th Ed., New York, Mc
Graw Hill.

74
- SET. (2015). Beginners Guide to APA referencing -6th edition (6th ed.). UCOL.
Retrieved from http://www.ukm.my/permatapintar/wp-
content/uploads/2016/05/APA-Style-Format-6th-Edition.pdf
- SET. (2015). Beginners Guide to APA referencing -6th edition (6th ed.). UCOL.
Retrieved from http://www.ukm.my/permatapintar/wp-
content/uploads/2016/05/APA-Style-Format-6th-Edition.pdf
- Watson, R., McKenna, H., Cowman, S., & Keady, K. (Eds.). (2008). Nursing
research: Designs and methods. Edinburgh, Scotland: Churchill Livingstone
Elsevier

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UNIVERSITY OF LAY ADVENTISTS OF KIGALI

FACULTY OF ECONOMIC SCIENCES & MANAGEMENT

STUDY AND RESEARCH SKILLS

Study and Research Skills UNILAK 2017

8.3. Managing the literature.............................................................................. 53

Study and Research Skills UNILAK 2017

Study and Research Skills UNILAK 2017

Study and Research Skills UNILAK 2017

1.1. Major problems for students who study

Study and Research Skills UNILAK 2017

1.2. Solutions to the problems

II. LEARNING STRATEGIES & THE PROCESS OF STUDY SKILLS

2.1. Learning Strategies for different learning styles

At University, you will be expected to be an independent learner. Therefore, it is

• Talk or read aloud to yourself as you learn information;

Study and Research Skills UNILAK 2017

Other study tips for effective learning

Study and Research Skills UNILAK 2017

2.2. Ways of studying and reading effectively

Study and Research Skills UNILAK 2017

Study and Research Skills UNILAK 2017

Study and Research Skills UNILAK 2017

If you don’t plan your time, you are likely to:

A study time-table: After making the commitment to work hard, it becomes

Study and Research Skills UNILAK 2017

Study and Research Skills UNILAK 2017

 The number of questions you are expected to answer.

What do you review?

2.4. Taking examinations

Study and Research Skills UNILAK 2017

- Donders, Joseph C. How to study. Nairobi. Uzima press, 1984.

Study and Research Skills UNILAK 2017

III. LISTENING: THE FOUNDATION OF ALL COMMUNICATION

3.1. Basic communication skills

1. “Social interaction through messages” (Garbner1966) Discuss the efficacy of the

Study and Research Skills UNILAK 2017

3.2. Listening skills

Listening is very vital to every human interaction; may it be in academic or social

3.3. Barriers to effective Listening

Study and Research Skills UNILAK 2017

unprepared listener can recall only 50% of a 10-

Make a conscious decision to fight against all the

1. Interrupting the speaker.

Study and Research Skills UNILAK 2017

3.4. Improving listening skills

Study and Research Skills UNILAK 2017

IV. READING SKILLS /EFFECTIVE READING AND NOTE

It also offers advice on taking notes during reading.

Importance of the reading list:

What will I have to read at university?

Study and Research Skills UNILAK 2017

4. 2. Different ways of reading

 Flip through a book to get a quick idea if it's worth reading.

 Concentrate on detailed reading of identified specific chapters, sections or

4.3. How to approach your reading sessions

4.4. How to read more effectively

The five stages in this approach are:

Study and Research Skills UNILAK 2017

4.5. Taking notes from your reading

1. Make notes during your reading at the Recall stage because:

Study and Research Skills UNILAK 2017

Store your notes in a loose-leaf folder. This gives you maximum