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The Application of DICTION to Content Analysis Research in Strategic

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Article  in  Organizational Research Methods · November 2007

DOI: 10.1177/1094428107304534

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 Organizational
Research Methods
Volume 11 Number 4
October 2008 727-752
The Application of DICTION  2008 Sage Publications
10.1177/1094428107304534

to Content Analysis Research http://orm.sagepub.com

hosted at

in Strategic Management http://online.sagepub.com

Jeremy C. Short
Texas Tech University
Timothy B. Palmer
Western Michigan University

DICTION is a computer-aided content analysis program grounded in a number of theoretical

bases in linguistic research. DICTION has a number of attractive features that could be used
to analyze unique elements of language in narrative texts germane to strategic management
research. The authors apply the DICTION software to a sample of mission statements from
408 Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business colleges of business with a focus
on gaining insights concerning how DICTION can be used in strategic management research
utilizing content analysis. They find significant differences in word usage in mission state-
ments based on organizational characteristics, including business school performance. They
conclude with suggestions for future research.

Keywords: narrative; content; semiotic analysis

S trategic management scholars frequently rely on content analysis to collect difficult to

obtain data in a wide range of research streams. The use of content analysis is appeal-
ing to researchers in strategic management because examination of narrative texts such as
press releases, annual report text, mission statements, interview transcripts, or other archi-
val texts allow for the unobtrusive study of a number of statements, beliefs, and cognitions
from top-level executives that are generally difficult to otherwise obtain (Morris, 1994).
Despite its widespread appeal, content analysis is arduous and researchers must go to great
lengths to insure reliability in data coding and subsequent analyses. To ameliorate these
concerns, researchers have advocated the use of computer-aided content analysis for the
coding of organizationally produced texts such as annual reports and mission statements
(Morris, 1994).
In this article, we introduce an advanced computer-aided content analysis program
that could benefit a variety of research streams in strategic management. Specifically,
DICTION (Hart, 2000) was developed to analyze political speech and rhetoric (e.g., Hart
& Jarvis, 1997). Behavioral researchers have noted its potential for the study of leadership
(Bligh, Kohles, & Meindl, 2004a, 2004b), and accounting researchers have begun to apply
DICTION to aid in the study of image management (Rogers, Dillard, & Yuthas, 2005)
and communicative action (Yuthas, Rogers, & Dillard, 2002). Researchers in other fields
are utilizing DICTION to conduct content analysis using data sources commonly used by

Authors’ Note: The authors would like to thank Hans Hansen for his valuable comments on an earlier version
of this article.
727

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728 Organizational Research Methods

strategy researchers (such as annual report texts); these scholars are also using DICTION
to aid in examining theoretical concepts of interest to strategic management researchers
(such as organizational image and identity). We therefore believe DICTION could be
quite useful in strategic management research by providing a valuable tool for researchers
attempting to examine language usage in organizations, and examine possible linkages
between management’s narratives and organizational performance.
We briefly review the application of content analysis in strategic management and
demonstrate how DICTION could be used to analyze unique elements of language in texts
commonly relied on by strategic management researchers. We then use the DICTION
software to analyze a sample of mission statements from 408 Association to Advance Col-
legiate Schools of Business (AACSB) colleges of business and examine linkages between
DICTION content found in mission statements and organizational characteristics, includ-
ing performance. We also illustrate how DICTION can be used in concert with other con-
tent analysis techniques such as human coding schemes. We conclude by highlighting the
potential for DICTION to answer future research questions utilizing content analysis to
capture important theoretical constructs of interest to strategic management scholars.

Content Analysis in Strategic Management

Content analysis is a qualitative research method that uses a set of procedures to clas-
sify or otherwise categorize communications (Weber, 1990). Typically relying on archival
data to extract criteria of interest to strategic management scholars, content analysis
has aided in analyzing corporate strategies (Bowman, 1978), organizational boundaries
(Fiol, 1989) new product development (Simon & Houghton, 2003), organizational
resources (Mishina, Pollock, & Porac, 2004), strategic groups (Osborne, Stubbart, &
Ramaprasad, 2001), and joint ventures (Merchant, 2004). Content analysis has also been
used to explore elements of cognition such as risk-return relations (Bowman, 1984;
Ramanujam, 2003), causal reasoning (Axelrod, 1976; Bettman & Weitz, 1983), and man-
agerial attributions (Barr, Stimpert, & Huff, 1992; Clapham & Schwenk, 1991).
Any source of communication such as shareholder letters, interview narratives,
speeches, or transcripts from recorded meetings could be used by a strategy researcher as
an effective data source for content analysis so long as it provides a good match theoreti-
cally between the information being assessed (how information is being content analyzed)
and the context from which it is drawn (does the type of text being used as a source of
content analysis data fit the research question?). On balance, however, content analysis in
strategic management has primarily drawn from textual communications of managers,
particularly CEO shareholder letters and annual report texts (Duriau, Reger, & Pfarrer,
2007).
Content analysis of texts offers a number of potential benefits. Content analysis can be
used to identify individual differences among communicators (Weber, 1990), and com-
pared with other techniques such as interviews, content analysis is recognized as a less
obtrusive technique for capturing managerial cognitions (Phillips, 1994). In addition, con-
tent analysis tends to avoid recall biases (Barr et al., 1992) and is a highly utilized means
of obtaining otherwise unavailable information (e.g., Kabanoff, Waldersee, & Cohen,

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 Short, Palmer / Content Analysis Research 729

1995). Finally, gathering data through content analysis of organizationally produced texts
such as shareholder letters has been encouraged because it allows for greater reliability
and replicability (Finkelstein & Hambrick, 1996).
Content analysis of text is especially useful for the study of managerial cognition
(Duriau et al., 2007). One reason is that access to CEOs is fairly limited, resulting in the
need for proxies to assess executives’ mental models. Relying on text to study cognition
assumes that insights about the authors’ mental models can be detected through the pre-
sence of, absence of, and frequency with which certain concepts are used in text (Carley,
1997). Even when authorship of the text is uncertain (e.g., a shareholder letter), there is
widespread agreement that executives are heavily involved in their preparation (Barr
et al., 1992). D’Aveni and MacMillan (1990) assert, ‘‘Content analysis of written commu-
nications is useful for reconstructing perceptions and beliefs of their authors’’ (p. 639).
Therefore, content analysis of text offers considerable potential to gain key insights into
the thinking of top managers and, in following, the choices they make. Examples of strate-
gic management research using content analysis to investigate cognition include Bettman
and Weitz (1983) who relied on annual report text to assess attributions about corporate
performance. Other studies have conducted more elaborate tests of organizational cogni-
tions by using such communications to extract representations of managerial mental
models (using content analysis) and then applying this data to further analytic study
through causal mapping and other analytical techniques for mapping strategic thought
(Huff, 1990).

Conducting Content Analysis

A complete review of content analysis is beyond the scope of this article. However, a
number of excellent sources are available for those seeking greater detail about content
analysis mechanics. These include texts concerning content analysis in general (Krippen-
dorf, 2004; Neuendorf, 2002; Weber, 1990), texts that specifically address computer-aided
techniques (Alexa & Zuell, 1999; Kelle, 1995), and a number of published articles outlin-
ing content analysis procedures, comparing techniques and/or different software packages
for content analysis and/or text analysis (Bashor, 2004; Duriau & Reger, 2004; Hart,
1984a; Insch & Moore, 1997; Lowe, 2003; Weitzman, 1998), and a recent review of con-
tent analysis in organization studies (Duriau et al., 2007).
Generally, three broad types of content methodologies exist (Deffner, 1986; Morris,
1994): Human-scored schema, individual word count systems, and computerized systems
using artificial intelligence. Human scored systems involve training of coders to classify
text according to specific classification categories. In this system, the first step is a deter-
mination of what aspect of text will serve as the unit of analysis (word, phrase, sentence,
paragraph, full text). Then, categories are developed for classification and coding rules are
developed for each category. Coders are then trained to classify text and reliability is
assessed. For example, Short and Palmer (2003) content analyzed CEOs’ letters to share-
holders by sentence clause to code different organizational performance referents such as
use of internal comparators (e.g., previous year’s sales) or external comparators (e.g.,
competitor performance).

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730 Organizational Research Methods

In contrast to human-scored schemas, individual work count systems classify text into a
number of semantically equivalent categories and then use frequency counts to determine
the relative importance of each category in a text (Weber, 1990). For example, Osborne
and colleagues (2001) used word count software to count themes in shareholder letters.
Finally, artificial intelligence systems incorporate features that consider the syntax and
lexicon of words (Rosenberg, Schnurr, & Oxman, 1990). Thus, there is a mechanism to
resolve words with more than a single meaning. Artificial intelligence systems have been
the least prevalent technique in management research (Morris, 1994).
The DICTION software, described below, is useful for the application of individual-
word-count systems and artificial intelligence systems. Although word count systems can
be performed by human coders, computerized systems such as DICTION are advanta-
geous because of their near perfect reliability, speed, and cost effectiveness (Morris, 1994;
Rosenberg et al., 1990). In the following sections, we describe the DICTION software and
illustrate potential applications of DICTION to strategic management research.

The DICTION Software

There are many choices available for conducting computer-aided content analysis. Most
programs largely rely on word frequency counts (Morris, 1994). To highlight the unique
contribution of DICTION, Table 1 provides a sampling of content analysis techniques and
software programs used in previous management research. In contrast to other techniques,
DICTION was designed by a communications researcher and focuses on the subtle power
of word choice and verbal tone (Hart, 1984b). DICTION also relies on word counts, but
the software package differs from others in a number of ways that may be attractive for
strategic management research. First, the software relies on word counts based on linguis-
tic theory culled from a number of social thinkers. Second, DICTION also utilizes ele-
ments of artificial intelligence that have been underutilized in the management literature.
While providing these unique benefits, DICTION allows the flexibility of other software
programs where users can specify their own ‘‘custom’’ dictionaries. These custom diction-
aries can then be used in conjunction with, or independently of, the predefined diction-
aries. In the following sections, we provide greater detail on DICTION’s many facets.

DICTION Dictionaries
The DICTION software package (Hart, 2000) contains 31 predefined dictionaries, con-
taining more than 10,000 search words that can be used to analyze any given text. Based
in linguistic theory (Bligh et al., 2004b) the dictionaries were developed based on a num-
ber of different types of narrative texts including business texts such as annual reports,
mission statements, and CEO speeches. The dictionaries search for language that tap into
the following characteristics: tenacity, leveling, collectives, numerical terms, ambiva-
lence, self-reference, praise, satisfaction, inspiration, blame, hardship, denial, aggression,
accomplishment, communication, motion, cognitive terms, passivity, familiarity, spatial
awareness, temporal awareness, present concern, human interest, concreteness, past
concern, centrality, cooperation, rapport, diversity, exclusion, and liberation. These 31

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 Table 1
A Comparison of DICTION and Other Content Analysis Techniques Used in Management Research
Technique Advantages of Each Technique
DICTION software Content analysis software that uses 31
package dictionaries based on lexical theory in
conjunction with calculated variables
based on unique characteristics of text
Textpack 4 Allows user to tag certain keywords in
context to highlight specific sentences
for later use or analysis
NUD∗ IST software Software is useful for examining linkages
(now Nvivo7) in the data
Atlas.ti Software is useful for examining linkages
in the data
Manual coding Can be adapted to specifically address
any theoretical research question,
coding can be broken down to
any unit (clause, sentence, document)
T.A.C.T. Software Text retrieval and analysis program
designed to allow users to ask
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questions about words and patterns
in a given text
Causal mapping This article compares two direct forms
of causal mapping techniques in
strategy research–freehand mapping
and pairwise comparisons mapping
731
Key Limitations
Limited ability to detect
homographs
User must specify search words
User must specify search words
User must specify search words
Time consuming and somewhat
subjective; validity checks
among coders recommended
User must specify content
of interest
Pairwise comparison technique
results in more complex maps
involving more and stronger
causal relationships
Example Using This Technique
Bligh, Kohles, and Meindl
(2004a, 2004b), Journal of
Applied Psychology,
Leadership Quarterly
Kabanoff, Waldersee, and
Cohen (1995), Academy of
Management Journal
Schnatterly (2003), Strategic
Management Journal
Barringer, Jones, and Neubaum
(2005), Journal of Business
Venturing
Boyd, Gove, and Hitt (2005),
Strategic Management
Journal
Gephart (1993), Academy of
Management Journal
Hodgkinson, Maule, and Bown
(2004), Organizational
Research Methods
732 Organizational Research Methods

dictionaries, containing no duplication, have been selected to identify frequently encoun-

tered words used in public discourse. For example, the dictionary for ambivalence exam-
ines and codes, ‘‘words expressing hesitation or uncertainty, implying a speaker’s
inability or unwillingness to commit to the verbalization being made’’ (Hart, 2000, p. 33).

DICTION Master Variables

DICTION’s dictionaries are subsequently used for lexical analysis—that is, to study
vocabulary and word choice. This is done through the use of five ‘‘master’’ variables.
DICTION’s master variables were created with the rationale that ‘‘if only five questions
could be asked of a given passage, these five would provide the most robust understand-
ing’’ (Hart, 2001, p. 45). Hart notes that each of the master variables was chosen intention-
ally, and was stimulated by theoretical work of a number of social thinkers. The first
master variable, Certainty, derives from Wendell Johnson’s (1946) work on general
semantics, and the study of how language becomes rigid and what can happen as a result.
The Certainty variable involves language that indicates resoluteness, inflexibility, comple-
teness, and a tendency to speak with authority. Using a sample of Fortune 500 companies,
previous research has found significant differences in Certainty among company’s oral
statements compared to statements found in corporate annual reports (Ober, Zhao, Davis,
& Alexander, 1999). Optimism involves language endorsing some person, group, concept,
or event and this variable was motivated by James David Barber’s (1992) work Presiden-
tial Character, who noted optimism was a key dimension for understanding political per-
sonality. This variable may be useful to strategy scholars who have noted that optimism is
associated with overconfidence and hubris for CEOs (Hayward, Rindova, & Pollock,
2004). Activity is based on the work of Charles Osgood and his colleagues (Osgood, Suci,
& Tannenbaum, 1957), The Measurement of Meaning, and examines language featuring
movement, change, and implementation of ideas and the avoidance of inertia. Elements of
activity and inertia have been germane to a host of strategy concepts related to strategic
behavior (Ansoff, 1987). Realism was developed as an attempt to tap into John Dewey’s
(1954) pragmatism found in the Western experience and examines language describing tan-
gible, immediate, recognizable matters. This variable may be useful to analyze aspects of
pragmatism that have been argued to be an important element of open systems thinking in
certain strategic contexts (Hinthorne, 1996). Commonality, the fifth master variable, is an
approximation of the communitarian concepts found in the work of Etzioni (1993) and
others (e.g., Bellah, Madison, Sullivan, Swindler, & Tipton, 1991). This variable examines
language that highlights agreed-on values of a group and rejects idiosyncratic modes of
engagement. This variable may be useful to validate the assertions of strategy scholars who
have suggested that communitarian characterizations will become increasingly popular in
the strategic discourses of organizations such as joint ventures (Barry & Elmes, 1997).
Assigning scores for the five master variables begins with DICTION comparing word
usage in the analyzed text to words contained in the 31 unique dictionaries. This process
is similar to many other computer-aided content analytic devices that conduct word
searches with the exception of the vastness and predefined theoretical basis of DICTION’s
dictionaries. Results from the word search are used in formulas to assign scores for the
five master variables. It should be noted that any of the unique, specific dictionaries might

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 Short, Palmer / Content Analysis Research 733

also be of use to strategy researchers. For example, denial has been deemed to be an
important element in defining narcissism (Brown, 1997). DICTION’s ability to capture
denial could be used to empirically study relationships associated with elements related to
narcissism such as hubris and CEO celebrity (Hayward et al., 2004).

DICTION Calculated Variables

A second category of variables used by DICTION are calculated variables. More than
word counts, the four calculated variables, based on unique theoretical underpinnings, are
assigned scores based on specific patterns in text detected by the software. DICTION’s
output provides scores for these variables, and also uses them in three of the five master
variable formulas. The first calculated variable is Insistence (use of repeated words),
which is a measure of code restriction and semantic ‘‘contentedness.’’ The assumption is
that repetition of key terms indicates a preference for a limited, ordered world. When cal-
culating the insistence score, DICTION is unique in that it has a self-learning capacity; all
words used three or more times are isolated and the user decides if such words (those that
are not already within the DICTION database) should be used to calculate the insistence
score. These prior decisions are stored in the program’s Elephant (a utility that ‘‘remem-
bers’’ exempts and eligible words), and the Elephant is updated each time the user makes
a new decision (Hart, 2001). The insistence score is subsequently used in the formula for
the master variable certainty. A second calculated variable used to derive certainty is Vari-
ety. Variety conforms to Johnson’s (1946) Type-Token Ratio that divides the number of
different words in a passage by the passage’s total words. A high score indicates a speak-
er’s avoidance of overstatement and a preference for precise statements. The third calcu-
lated variable, used in the calculation for activity, is Embellishment. Embellishment is the
ratio of adjectives to verbs and is based on David Boder’s (1940) conception that heavy
modification ‘‘slows down’’ a verbal passage by de-emphasizing human and material
action. Last, Complexity is a measure of the average number of characters-per-word in a
given input file. The logic for Hart’s (2000) inclusion of complexity is based on Rudolph
Flesch’s (1951) notion that convoluted phrasings make a text’s ideas abstract and its
implications unclear.

Additional Features of DICTION

Beyond the dictionaries, and master and calculated variables, there are a variety of other
noteworthy features associated with DICTION. One that was previously discussed is the
researcher’s ability to create user-defined dictionaries. Second, DICTION is an advanced
lexical approach in that it makes a modest statistical accommodation for confounding
homographs (words spelled the same but having different meanings such as lead the metal
versus lead subordinates). Confounding homographs (approximately 10% of DICTION’s
search words) are weighed differentially based on Easton’s (1940) work. Benign homo-
graphs that imply different ideas but belong to the same domain of meaning are ignored
(e.g., the word judge denotes two distinct legal terms, the act of adjudication and a court
official). This feature of DICTION is an important one because the use of artificial intelli-
gence systems has been limited in management research (Morris, 1994).

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734 Organizational Research Methods

A third additional feature of DICTION is that it allows researchers to create composite

variables based on DICTION’s dictionaries in conjunction with DICTION’s calculated
variables. For example, Bligh et al. (2004a) create eight composite variables based on
Shamir, Arthur, and House’s (1994) work on the rhetoric of charismatic leadership. For
example, scholars have suggested that charismatic leaders will make more references to
intangible future goals and fewer references to concrete outcomes (Conger, 1991; Shamir
et al., 1994). Thus, the construct of tangibility was created by the inclusion of DICTION’s
dictionary for concreteness (words denoting tangibility and materiality) plus the calculated
variable for insistence (a measure of repetition of key terms in a given text) minus the cal-
culated variable for variety (a ratio of different words divided by total words). The inter-
pretation of this measure is that high scores on this construct would be associated with
lower levels of charisma (Bligh et al., 2004a).

DICTION Summary
The use of 10,000 words in 31 dictionaries to create master and calculated variables is
a testament to the power and complexity of DICTION. Although grounded in consider-
able linguistics and communications theory, DICTION was originally created considering
a number of types of texts including business texts such as annual reports, corporate pub-
lic relations statements, mission statements, CEO speeches, financial news, legal docu-
ments, and magazine and TV advertisements. Published research using DICTION has
continued to examine a number of organizationally produced texts with relevance to stra-
tegic management research such as CEO letters to shareholders, management discussion
and analysis sections from annual reports, and press releases. In addition, research using
DICTION has been published in a number of management-oriented journals such as
Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of Business Ethics, and Leadership Quarterly.
Finally, DICTION research has been used to examine conceptual ideas in management
such as charismatic leadership, organizational image, and organizational identity. Thus,
DICTION holds promise as a content analysis technique that is well suited to issues ger-
mane to strategic management research. Table 2 provides a review of previous research
using DICTION to examine texts and or conceptual theories common to management
research.
The robustness of DICTION allows it to be applied to a number of research efforts
spanning the public, private, nonprofit, and government sectors of the economy. Research-
ers have detected a high level of agreement between human coders and DICTION
results, and assert that this technique would be useful for research involving the language
of leadership (Bligh et al., 2004a). Toward that end, we highlight one common organiza-
tionally produced text, organizational mission statements, to illustrate the software’s cap-
abilities. In particular, we use DICTION to examine a sample of AACSB business school
mission statements to showcase how DICTION can be applied in strategic management
research. We utilize a two-study approach. The first study highlights the DICTION soft-
ware and how it can be applied to archival texts germane to strategic management
research. The second study illustrates how DICTION can be used in conjunction with a
human coding framework used in previous strategy research on organizational mission
statements.

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Narrative Document Analyzed
Press releases, e-mails, speeches
of officers, testimonies, and
published articles
Speeches, radio addresses and
articles from U.S. newspapers
Speeches, radio addresses and
articles from U.S. newspapers
Written statements from the
United Church of God such as
belief statements, letters from
its president and chairman,
and magazine articles
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Press releases from 81 firms
describing their information
technology related
investments
735
Table 2
Examples of Previous Research Using DICTION
Research Question,
Topic, or Goal
Examines image
management of the
American Institute of
Certified Public
Accountants (AICPA)
Examination of President
Bush’s rhetoric and the
media coverage before and
after the 9/11 crisis
Examination of elements of
charismatic leadership
evident in President Bush’s
rhetorical language and in
the media before and after
the 9/11 crisis
Examines communicated
values as indicators of
organizational identity
Examines effects of
information technology
investment press releases
on firm performance
Use of DICTION Publication Citation
DICTION was used to compare statements from Rogers, Dillard, and Yuthas
the AICPA during time periods using (2005), Journal of
DICTION measures of denial, activity, Business Ethics
optimism, realism, and commonality
DICTION measures of optimism, collectives, Bligh, Kohles, and Meindl
faith, patriotism, ambivalence, and aggression (2004a), Journal of
were compared to human coding and applied Applied Psychology
to presidential speeches
Authors created eight composite variables based Bligh, Kohles, and Meindl
on DICTION dictionaries to assess elements of (2004b), Leadership
charismatic leadership based on a framework Quarterly
developed by Shamir, Arthur, and House
(1994)
The author used DICTION to develop 36 custom Aust (2004), Communication
dictionaries to examine different values as Studies
indicators of organizational identity
DICTION dictionaries were used to assess Hunter (2003), Journal of
differences in spatial awareness, ambivalence, Information Technology
rapport, diversity, hardship, blame, exclusion, Theory and Application
aggression, past concern, and inspiration in
press releases based on articulation of IT
investments
(continued)
 736
Narrative Document Analyzed
Management’s discussion and
analysis sections from corp-
orate annual reports
Chairman’s letters and
management and discussion
sections of annual reports
CEO letters to shareholders
Management discussion and
analysis sections of 10-K
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reports and recorded public
discourses
Table 2 (continued)
Research Question,
Topic, or Goal
Use of communicative action
in corporate annual reports
Applies DICTION and a
transitivity index to
accounting research
Examines the link between
corporate culture and
public journalism
Examination of the use of
certainty in public business
discourse
Use of DICTION Publication Citation
Authors compared three groups of firms (those Yuthas, Rogers, and Dillard
that performed above and below analysts’ (2002), Journal of
earnings expectations and ‘‘average’’ firms) Business Ethics
using DICTION master variables
‘‘Good’’ and ‘‘poor’’ performers are compared Sydserff and Weetman
using DICTION master variables (certainty, (2002), Accounting,
optimism, activity, realism, communality) Auditing and
Accountability Journal
The authors used DICTION to develop two Loomis and Meyer (2000),
custom dictionaries: one for words denoting International Journal of
concern with profitability and one for words Public Opinion Research
expressing social concern
Authors used DICTION to find differences in the Ober, Zhao, Davis, and
use of certainty (a DICTION master variable) Alexander (1999), Journal
between oral and written communications of Business
Communication
 Short, Palmer / Content Analysis Research 737

Applying DICTION to Organizational Mission Statements

Mission statements are important narrative documents that allow organizations to define
their overarching purpose or reason for existence. Scholars have argued that identification
of the mission is the starting point in strategic planning (Ireland & Hitt, 1992). The mission
is seen as an enduring statement of purpose and the ‘‘cultural glue’’ that allows internal and
external stakeholders to function as one. Missions encourage stakeholders to embrace com-
pany goals as their own (Ireland & Hitt, 1992) and can provide a basis for a psychological
contract between an organization and its employees (Thompson & Bunderson, 2003).
Furthermore, mission statements allow organizations to provide insights into their philoso-
phies and strategies that constitute their organizational identity (Leuthesser & Kohli, 1997).
Mission statements are highly salient to academic institutions such as universities and
schools of business. The articulation of, and adherence to, a mission is central to business
school accreditation, regardless of the accrediting body. Thus, schools cannot be cavalier
when crafting their mission, but rather must consider their core competencies, stakeholder
groups, and long-term goals in devising their mission. What is included in the mission,
therefore, is not a matter of happenstance but instead is the result of deliberate choices
intended to communicate to, and motivate, key constituents. Top administrators, deans,
and other associated stakeholders would therefore put considerable thought into the lan-
guage content and tone of their mission statements. For this reason, computer-aided soft-
ware such as DICTION can be an important analytical tool to investigate the content of
mission statements.

Method
Our sample was drawn from AACSB-accredited schools of business in the United
States in 2005. At the time of our data collection, 429 U.S. schools of business were accre-
dited by the AACSB. We were able to collect mission statements for 408 schools from the
AACSB Web site, allowing us a sample constituting 95.1% of the U.S. schools of business
accredited by the AACSB at the time of our data collection.
Mission statements were analyzed using the DICTION 5.0 software package (Hart,
2000). For our illustrative analysis, we chose to contrast the missions of public and private
institutions. Previous research has found significant differences in the articulation of key
business school objectives between private and public schools in terms of the ethical con-
tent of mission statements (Buff & Yonkers, 2004). Thus, we had reason to suspect that
DICTION would be able to identify points of distinction.
To measure performance, we relied on graduate and undergraduate performance rank-
ings from U.S. News & World Report. Although the use of rankings is often controversial,
such measures represent an important goal for business schools with considerable institu-
tional norms that make these reputation measures salient for most, if not all, schools or
colleges of business (Gioia & Corley, 2002); Such measures have been noted to be espe-
cially salient to administrators and deans (Gumbus, 2005). Because U.S. News & World
Report notes the first step in their rankings methodology is categorizing schools by mis-
sion (Morse & Flanigan, 2006), we believe these measures are especially attractive for our
illustration of DICTION.

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738 Organizational Research Methods

We conducted two data analysis procedures to assess the ability of DICTION to detect
(a) differences in mission content between public and private schools, and (b) relation-
ships between mission content and business school performance. We used ANOVA, and
OLS Regression, respectively, to perform each of these analyses.

Results
Correlations for DICTION master and calculated variables are displayed in Table 3. As
shown in Table 4, our analysis revealed significant differences between private and public
schools for one master variable (i.e., optimism) and two calculated variables (embellish-
ment and complexity). In the following paragraphs, we provide mission statement exem-
plars from our sample that provide insight into DICTION’s content analysis capabilities.
With regard to optimism, we found that the language of private business schools was
more likely to include positive entailments or endorsements of specific persons, groups,
concepts, or events associated with the school. For example, the private school scoring
highest on this dimension was Seattle University. Their mission states it is ‘‘inspired by
the Jesuit traditions of academic excellence, education for justice, and service to others.’’
The strong endorsement to positive Jesuit values resulted in the high optimism score.
Second, the missions of private schools could be characterized as incorporating more
embellishment in that they tended to rely more on adjectives than verbs when articulating
their mission. For example, New York University’s mission notes the school is committed
to ‘‘deliver the highest quality management education to the brightest business students in
a dynamic environment of mutual learning, teamwork, and support.’’ Furthermore, their
mission is to foster ‘‘creative, cutting-edge research’’ (italics added).
Last, the mission statements of public schools were considerably more complex in that
they, on average, tended to rely on more complex word usage (i.e., larger average word
size) than mission statements of private business schools. For example, the mission at Cali-
fornia State University, Chico notes it is a ‘‘student-centered, residential learning commu-
nity that fosters innovative, high quality business education emphasizing applied learning,
integration of technology, and understanding of diversity.’’ In contrast, private Rollins
College scored very low in complexity as their mission is to ‘‘prepare students to be both
managers and leaders who will add value to their organizations and communities.’’
As shown in Table 5, one master variable (activity) and two calculated variables (embel-
lishment and complexity) were associated with our performance measures. Across under-
graduate and graduate rankings, activity and embellishment were positively associated with
higher rankings, whereas complexity was negatively associated with higher rankings. An
example of a ranked school with high activity (language featuring movement and change) in
their mission is Texas Christian University. Their mission is ‘‘developing ethical leaders with
a global perspective who help shape the business environment of a rapidly changing future.’’
Arizona State University provides an example of a ranked school with a high score on embel-
lishment (greater use of adjectives than verbs). The mission notes, ‘‘We strive to nurture stu-
dent success through innovation and value-added personalized programs. The following core
competencies are emphasized within our program: knowledge, skills, ethical behavior, posi-
tive attitude, and creativity.’’ There was a negative correlation between complexity (i.e.,
word size) and rankings measures. An example of a ranked school whose mission scored low

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 Short, Palmer / Content Analysis Research 739

Table 3
Correlations Between DICTION Master and Calculated
Variables in U.S. Colleges of Business
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Master variables
1. Certainty 1
2. Optimism –.12∗ 1
3. Activity .14∗∗ –.24∗∗ 1
4. Realism .04 –.17∗∗ .16∗∗ 1
5. Commonality .05 –.11∗ –.03 –.10∗ 1
Calculated variables
6. Insistence .79∗∗ –.09 .14∗∗ –.10∗ .05 1
7. Embellishment –.18∗∗ .28∗∗ –.93∗∗ –.14∗∗ –.00 –.17∗∗ 1
8. Variety –.86∗∗ .14∗∗ –.19∗∗ –.04 –.05 –.73∗∗ .23∗∗ 1
9. Complexity –.25∗∗ .06 –.08 –.66∗∗ .05 –.03 .05 .28∗∗ 1
∗
p < .05. ∗ p < .01.
Table 4
ANOVA Differences Between Public and Private
Schools Mission Statement Content
DICTION Scores Public Schools Private Schools F

Master variables
Certainty 44.64 44.64 0.00
Optimism 55.49 56.82 10.29∗∗
Activity 44.72 42.33 3.54
Realism 43.36 43.54 0.19
Commonality 51.71 52.02 0.34
Calculated variables
Insistence 64.73 64.83 0.00
Embellishment 2.10 3.48 5.30∗
Variety 0.69 0.69 0.03
Complexity 6.10 5.96 9.17∗∗
∗
p < .05. ∗∗ p < .01.

on complexity is The University of California at Berkeley. Their mission states, ‘‘Our goal is
to graduate students with the skills to make the most of the economic opportunities available
in our country and our world–and the values to share what they create.’’ Overall, there were
several consistent findings in the use of language between business school mission statements
and organizational characteristics, including performance.

Integrating DICTION With Human-Scored Content Analysis

The value of DICTION can be illustrated further by demonstrating how DICTION ana-
lyses can be used in conjunction with human- scored content analysis. To provide a theo-
retical lens, we relied on a typology developed by Pearce and David (1987). Although

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740 Organizational Research Methods

Table 5
Regression Relationships Between Mission Statement Content and Performance
U.S. News & World Report U.S. News & World Report
DICTION Scores Undergraduate Rankings Graduate Rankings

Master variables
Certainty –.10 –.17
Optimism –.04 –.02
Activity .30∗ .29∗
Realism –.05 –.12
Commonality –.03 .02
Calculated variables
Insistence .12 .10
Embellishment .33∗ .29∗
Variety .05 –.02
Complexity –.21∗∗ –.30∗∗
F 2.24∗ 3.12∗∗
Adjusted R2 .03 .05

Note: Standardized regression coefficients are shown.

∗
p < .05. ∗∗ p < .01.

there is no profile for the ‘‘ideal’’ mission statement, Pearce and David were the first to
systematically explore mission statement characteristics and their implications for business,
including performance. An important outcome of their research was a typology of eight mis-
sion statement components. Motivated by their work among Fortune 500 firms, more recent
studies have used Pearce and David’s framework to illustrate uses of computer-aided con-
tent analysis (e.g., Morris, 1994), and Pearce and David’s scheme continues to be an estab-
lished framework to analyze the content of organizational missions (e.g., O’Gorman &
Doran, 1999).

Method
Mission statements were analyzed using Pearce and David’s (1987) eight-item typol-
ogy. Table 6 displays the mission elements, coding definitions, and examples from busi-
ness school mission statements.
Both authors independently coded all mission statements. A coding of 1 was assigned
to the statement for each component if it was judged as being present in the mission state-
ment and a coding of 0 was assigned if the component was judged as not present. Initial
intercoder reliability was 95%. After the first round of ratings, mission statements of
schools both coders agreed on were retained. Schools with coding differences were inde-
pendently reevaluated by each author. Subsequent evaluations were discussed until agree-
ment was achieved.

Results
As shown in Table 6, content analysis revealed considerable variance in the presence
of Pearce and David’s (1987) mission statement elements. The specification of target

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 Table 6
Manual Coding Scheme for Mission Statements of Schools of Business
Mission Element Coding Definition
The specification of Who are the school’s customers (e.g.,
target customers and graduate students, undergraduate
markets students, students defined by
religious orientation, or working
professionals)
The identification of What are the school’s primary products
principal products or services? (e.g., broad-based
or services definitions of educating, teaching, or
focused definitions such as online
and executive programs)
The specification of Where does the school compete? (e.g.,
geographic domain statements that define a geographic
scope such as a local community,
city, state, or region)
The identification of Is the use of technology in program
core technologies delivery specified? (e.g., lecture,
distance learning, or wireless. This
component does not address the
content of curricula but the delivery
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of programs)
The expression of Is the school committed to performance
commitment to objectives? (e.g., statements that
survival, growth, express specific growth, ranking, or
and profitability enrollment goals or more general
goals about continuous
improvement)
741
Schools Articulating
Mission Statement Example Mission Component
n %
‘‘To provide a quality, professional 200 48.9
business education for the people of
the State of Alabama’’ (Auburn
University)
‘‘Dedicated to providing a nationally 385 94.1
accredited professional education’’
(Indiana State University)
‘‘We are Boston’s public business 206 50.4
school’’ (University of
Massachusetts Boston)
‘‘Bringing new technologies, new 42 10.3
methods of learning and teaching
and new ways of thinking’’
(University of Michigan)
‘‘Is committed to continuous 134 32.8
improvement of its historic teaching
and service tradition’’ (Clark Atlanta
University)
(continued)
 742
Table 6 (continued)
Mission Element Coding Definition
The specification of What are the basic beliefs, values, and
key elements in the priorities? (e.g., statements that
school’s philosophy express philosophical ideals, and the
importance of training for social
responsibility)
The identification of What is the organization’s distinctive
the school’s self- competence or competitive
concept advantage? (e.g., specific mention of
strengths, keys to success, or unique
quality)
The identification of Is the school responsive to social, com-
the school’s desired munity, and environmental
public image concerns? (e.g., express concern or
outreach toward to the greater
community, state, region, or ethical
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duties to the community at large
including ‘‘partnerships’’ and
training)
Schools Articulating
Mission Statement Example Mission Component
‘‘Through a broad based liberal 151 36.9
education in the Catholic tradition’’
(King’s College)
‘‘Distinguished by their excellence and 295 72.1
their emphasis on the management
of technology’’ (North Carolina
State University)
‘‘Engaging in intellectual contributions 252 61.6
and conveying the results of such
efforts to the wider academic and
business community’’ (Southwest
Missouri State University)
 Short, Palmer / Content Analysis Research 743

customers and markets was evident in 200 (49%) of the missions analyzed in our sample.
The identification of principal products and/or services was articulated in 385 (94%) of
the missions analyzed in our sample. The identification of geographic domain where the
school competes was presented in 206 (50%) of the missions analyzed in our sample. The
identification of use of technology was articulated in 42 (10%) of the missions analyzed in
our sample. The expression of commitments to growth, survival, and profitability was
noted in 134 (33%) of the missions in our sample. The specification of key elements of
the school philosophy was discussed in 151 (37%) of the missions in our sample. The
identification of the school self-concept was mentioned in 295 (72%) of the missions in
our sample. The identification of the school’s desired public image was highlighted in 252
(62%) of the missions in our sample.
To illustrate the use of human coding in conjunction with DICTION we followed a pro-
cedure used by Hunter (2003). In his study of the influences of IT investments on stock
market performance, he first classified IT investments as exploratory or exploitive based
on human coding of press releases. DICTION was used in an exploratory manner to exam-
ine textual differences between exploratory and exploitive documents (by comparing the
means of each group). To follow this procedure, we first coded for mission elements based
on Pearce and David’s (1987) framework of eight mission elements. Next, we used DIC-
TION master and calculated variables to examine differences in language use in mission
statements that either did or did not articulate each element. Our results for DICTION
master variables are displayed in Table 7 and our results for DICTION calculated vari-
ables are displayed in Table 8.
In regard to DICTION’s master variables, missions that articulated several of Pearce
and David’s mission elements tended to be significantly higher in regard to certainty (lan-
guage that indicates resoluteness, inflexibility, completeness, and a tendency to speak with
authority); significant differences in the means of certainty were evident in six of the eight
Pearce and David elements. However, missions that relied on such elements were gener-
ally lower in terms of realism (language describing tangible, immediate, recognizable
matters). In regard to DICTION’s calculated variables based on the unique characteristics
of mission text, missions that included Pearce and David’s elements were often higher in
terms of insistence (use of repeated words), but they were lower in terms of variety (based
on DICTION’s calculation of a Type-Token Ratio that divides the number of different
words in a passage by the passage’s total words).
Because strategic management researchers are often concerned with examining the
determinants of organization performance, we conducted an additional illustrative analysis
with hierarchical regression; specifically, we examined the influence of mission elements
on business school rankings above any effects captured by the Pearce and David elements.
Our results are displayed in Table 9. The influence of DICTION elements provided
approximately the same change in R2 as the Pearce and David elements. Both the human
scored content analysis (based on the Pearce and David framework) and DICTION analy-
sis significantly increased R2 . Overall, insights from the Pearce and David framework
highlight that the highest performing colleges expressed commitment to growth, survival,
and profitability and eschewed the identification of geographic area where they operate;
In terms of the insights of DICTION, the highest ranked schools exhibited mission

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 744
Table 7
ANOVA Differences in Articulation of Mission Components and DICTION Master Variables
Certainty Optimism Activity Realism Commonality

Mission Component
Articulated Yes No F Yes No F Yes No F Yes No F Yes No F

The specification of 44.60 42.83 14.83 ∗∗

55.12 55.89 3.39 43.29 41.74 1.47 43.11 44.21 6.75 ∗
51.87 52.28 0.58
target customers and
markets
The identification of 45.11 42.32 9.03∗∗ 55.98 55.03 1.29 44.52 40.51 2.43 43.08 44.24 1.86 51.66 52.49 0.58
principal products
and/or services
The identification of 44.15 43.28 3.22 55.15 55.86 2.67 41.34 43.68 3.10 44.16 43.15 5.24∗ 51.70 52.45 1.80
geographic domain
where the school
competes
The identification of 44.05 43.38 0.88 55.32 55.69 0.35 42.97 42.06 0.22 43.27 44.04 1.40 52.51 51.64 1.11
use of technology
The expression of 44.76 42.67 19.26∗∗ 55.42 55.59 0.15 43.49 41.54 2.19 44.03 43.28 2.95 51.93 52.21 0.25
commitments to
growth, survival,
and profitability
The specification of 44.46 42.97 10.91∗∗ 56.32 54.69 16.01∗∗ 40.91 44.12 6.57∗ 43.05 44.27 8.58∗ 52.03 52.11 0.02

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key elements of the
school philosophy
The identification of 44.24 43.19 4.26∗ 55.58 55.43 0.12 41.76 43.27 1.17 43.39 43.92 1.30 52.48 51.67 1.91
the school
self-concept
The identification of 45.05 42.38 31.79∗∗ 55.40 55.61 0.24 43.86 41.17 4.20∗ 43.80 43.52 0.43 52.93 51.21 9.74∗∗
the school’s desired
public image
∗
p < .05. ∗∗ p < .01.
 Table 8
ANOVA Differences in Articulation of Mission Components and DICTION Calculated Variables
Insistence Embellishment Variety Complexity

Mission Component Articulated Yes No F Yes No F Yes No F Yes No F

The specification of target 83.61 48.46 15.85∗∗ 2.84 3.93 3.34 0.70 0.75 25.44∗∗ 6.16 6.07 0.86
customers and markets
The identification of principal 76.82 55.24 1.47 2.18 4.58 3.98∗ 0.69 0.76 9.31∗∗ 6.09 6.10 0.01
products and/or services
The identification of geographic 75.61 56.45 4.34∗ 3.66 3.11 0.78 0.71 0.74 6.96∗∗ 6.08 6.11 0.28
domain where the school
competes
The identification of use of 77.22 54.85 2.17 2.87 3.90 1.26 0.71 0.74 2.86 6.15 6.04 2.01
technology
The expression of commitments 80.26 51.80 9.77∗∗ 2.97 3.80 1.81 0.71 0.74 8.13∗∗ 6.04 6.15 4.32∗
to growth, survival, and
profitability
The specification of key 82.53 49.54 14.52∗∗ 4.32 2.44 10.36∗∗ 0.71 0.74 10.52∗∗ 6.10 6.10 0.01
elements of the school
philosophy

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The identification of the school 76.36 55.70 4.58∗ 3.45 3.32 0.04 0.70 0.75 15.92∗∗ 6.08 6.11 0.35
self-concept
The identification of the school’s 79.22 52.84 8.47∗∗ 2.79 3.98 3.75 0.69 0.76 38.26∗∗ 6.07 6.12 0.78
desired public image
∗
p < .05. ∗∗ p < .01.

745
746 Organizational Research Methods

statements that used simple, rather than complex, words (i.e., they were significantly
lower in terms of the DICTION calculated variable for complexity).
In the following section, we discuss the implications of our analyses and suggest ideas
for future research.

Discussion

The intent of this study is to illustrate how DICTION can be used to aid content analysis
in strategic management research. Hart (2000) has said that DICTION is a reliable but
‘‘humble device’’ because it ignores how and why words are chosen in texts and instead
focuses only on the kinds of words people use. Our results, therefore, are not replete with
vivid images, but instead reveal patterns of word usage that may be missed with other
forms of content analysis. Unlike a human coder, DICTION is never tempted by biases.
Thus, it allows researchers the freedom to consider theoretical possibilities that explain
patterns of text detected in narratives of interest. Research has found a high degree of
comparability between DICTION measures and human coding (Bligh et al., 2004b), but
DICTION can analyze thousands of words of text in minutes.
Despite the many merits of DICTION, researchers should not be cavalier when using
this tool. The master variables, calculated variables, and specific dictionaries used by DIC-
TION may or may not be theoretically viable for every research question. One of the
strengths of content analysis is that this technique can be used to conduct both inductive
and deductive research (Roberts, 1989). Although previous research has used DICTION
in a largely exploratory manner (e.g., Hunter, 2003), we believe that the value of this tool
for strategic management will be best maximized when DICTION is used to examine pre-
defined elements based on theoretically defined categories and concepts. With that goal in
mind, in the following sections we identify a number of research streams that may fit well
with DICTION’s capabilities.
One master variable assessed by DICTION, certainty, has been noted as an important
element in business discourse (Ober et al., 1999), and future research could examine
topics involving the use of certainty in strategic management. For example, recent
research examining the prospectus statements of IPOs found little relation between pro-
spectus content and performance (Daily, Certo, & Dalton, 2005). Incorporation of DIC-
TION into this research stream would provide a tool to assess the relationship between the
narrative tone of prospectus statements and performance. Because decision makers often
rely more on intuition than hard data when making strategic decisions, it is possible that
investors react more to the verbal tone and syntax of prospectus statements when deciding
whether to invest in such ventures; A relationship between certainty and IPO performance
could suggest that investors (or perhaps underwriters) are positively disposed toward con-
fidence in prospectus writing when it comes to pricing and valuing IPOs.
Scholars have suggested that positive psychological capital of organizational leaders
may lead to performance at the organizational level (Luthans & Yousseff, 2004). In asses-
sing the positive psychological capital of leaders, Luthans (2002) notes that confidence,
hope, resilience, and optimism are four key dimensions of this construct. DICTION’s mas-
ter variable for optimism measures this quality in a manner that may be useful for research

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 Table 9
Hierarchical Regression Results for Manual Coding and DICTION Measures
U.S. News & World Report U.S. News & World Report
Undergraduate Rankings Graduate Rankings

Manual coding
The specification of target customers and markets –.04 –.04 –.07 –.08
The identification of principal products and/or services .01 .02 –.07 –.07
The identification of geographic domain where the school competes –.20∗∗ –.21∗∗ –.18∗∗ –.17∗∗
The identification of use of technology .03 .05 .01 .02
The expression of commitments to growth, survival, and profitability .12∗ .11∗ .14∗∗ .13∗
The specification of key elements of the school philosophy –.04 –.06 –.04 –.07
The identification of the school self–concept –.04 –.04 .01 –.01
The identification of the school’s desired public image .00 .01 .04 .03
DICTION variables
Certainty –.15 –.21
Optimism –.05 –.02
Activity .21 .21
Realism –.03 –.13
Commonality –.05 –.00
Insistence .13 .10
Embellishment .28 .23

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Variety –.06 –.13
Complexity –.19∗∗ –.28∗∗
Change F 2.84∗∗ 2.18∗ 2.88∗∗ 3.00∗∗
R2 .05 .10 .06 .12
Change R2 .05 .05 .06 .06
∗
p < .05. ∗∗ p < .01.

747
748 Organizational Research Methods

encompassing elements of positive psychological capital. Confidence may be assessed by

DICTION’s tenacity dictionary, which highlights verbs that denote confidence and total-
ity. DICTION users could utilize the software’s ability to create custom dictionaries to
assess terms that capture the other dimensions of positive psychological capital: hope and
resilience.
DICTION may be useful for providing a reliable tool to assess elements of social iden-
tity. Ullrich, Wieseke, and Van Dick (2005) used semistructured interviews to examine
elements of continuity, change, and uncertainty as elements of social identity in a corpo-
rate merger. The DICTION master variable activity (which analyzes language featuring
movement and change and the avoidance of inertia) would allow for assessment of this
element of social identity in interviews or other narrative texts. This analysis could be sup-
plemented with DICTION’s ambivalence dictionary that captures elements of uncertainty.
Recent empirical research has noted the role of organizational culture in responding to
identity threats (Ravasi & Schultz, 2006). These authors argue that ‘‘in organizations, visi-
ble, tangible, and audible manifestations of culture, such as language, stories, visual
images, material artifacts, and established practices, are among the most powerful sym-
bols members rely on for constructing meaning and organizing action’’ (p. 453). They
examined a number of narrative texts that could be analyzed using DICTION including
semistructured interviews, transcripts of company seminars, in house magazines, and
annual reports. The authors sampled from a single organization and found credibility to be
one of the essential components of corporate identity. DICTION’s measure of realism
(which assesses language describing tangible, immediate, and recognizable matters) could
be used to examine credibility in future research efforts that emphasize the language or
organizational culture.
Etzioni’s concept of communitarian thinking suggests that all those involved in a cor-
poration are potentially members of a single community. More recently, Etzioni (1998)
argued that the communitarian concepts have much in common with elements of stake-
holder theory. Because DICTION’s variable commonality was based on Amitai Etzioni’s
(1993) concept of communitarian thinking, future research could examine correlations
between the articulation of elements of stakeholder management (such as mentions of
corporate social responsibility, specific stakeholder groups, or other words that highlight
shareholder engagement) and DICTION’s measure of communality. More than a decade
ago, Barry and Elmes (1997) predicted that strategic discourses would be more likely to
incorporate elements of communitarian characterizations. Using a comparable data source
over time (such as annual report texts), this proposition could be tested using DICTION.
In addition to the value of DICTION’s master variables, the individual dictionaries pro-
vided by DICTION may also be useful in many research streams. For example, previous
research relied on human scored schema to content analyze elements of excuses as mea-
sures of defensive impression management (Arndt & Bigelow, 2000). The DICTION dic-
tionaries for denial and blame may provide useful for future research examining defensive
impression management. Likewise, DICTION could be a valuable tool to examine attribu-
tions of executives in organizational narratives.
Future research could benefit by empirically illustrating the differences provided by
DICTION in comparison to and in concert with other content analysis techniques. Our
illustration of DICTION demonstrated that this technique may provide predictive insights

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 Short, Palmer / Content Analysis Research 749

above and beyond those gleaned from human scored techniques. Examining independent
and interaction effects between human coding and DICTION could provide for a rich
understanding of the nuances of mission content. The incorporation of multiple forms of
content analysis could also benefit substantive research questions. For example, scholars
have suggested that mission statement alignment may be a key source of performance dif-
ferences (Crotts, Dickson, & Ford, 2005), and future tests of alignment between university
and business school mission statements that rely on manual-coded and computer-aided
techniques including DICTION may provide additional insights as to the linkage between
mission content and performance.

Conclusion
Our results suggest that DICTION can be extremely useful in research involving lan-
guage usage because DICTION taps into difficult-to-measure ‘‘unobservables’’ inherent
in strategic management research (Godfrey & Hill, 1995). DICTION allows for the inte-
gration of theoretically rich word count techniques while also providing the benefits of
artificial intelligence techniques that are rare in strategic management research. At the
same time, DICTION has many of the abilities of other computer-aided content analysis
packages such as the ability to create user-defined dictionaries. We are encouraged
by DICTION’s potential and flexibility, and it is our hope that strategic management
researchers will add this powerful technique to their methodological toolkits.

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Jeremy C. Short is the Jerry S. Rawls Professor of Management at Texas Tech University. His research on
multilevel determinants of performance, decision processes, and research methods has appeared in Strategic
Management Journal, Organizational Research Methods, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision
Processes, Journal of Management, and Personnel Psychology.

Timothy B. Palmer is an associate professor of management at Western Michigan University. His research
focuses on elements of managerial cognition and includes decision making in top management teams. His
research has appeared in Strategic Management Journal, Organization Science, Organizational Behavior and
Human Decision Processes, and Journal of Management.

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