Phy132/222 Experiment

Introduction to Instrumentation and Ohm’s Law

(revised 3/5/14T)
Name: ___________________ Date: _____________

Lab Partners: _______________________________________

Introduction: In general, an electric circuit consists of a group of components such as batteries, lamps,
switches, and motors that are connected together by conducting wires. Circuits containing semiconductor
devices, such as transistors, integrated circuits, or thermionic devices, such as vacuum tubes, among their
components are called electronic circuits. In a DC circuit, the direction of the electric currents in all of the
components is constant in time.

Any points where a given circuit connects to devices that are not considered to be part of the circuit itself
are called terminals. A single-loop circuit is one that consists of two or more components that are
connected together in series, one after the other, to form a single closed path.

In this lab you will study single-loop DC circuits. This will help you develop an intuitive feel for the basic
concepts and terminology used in electronics and gain hands-on experience with equipment that you will
use all semester!

Some Definitions:

CURRENT (I) is the rate at which charge flows past a given point in a circuit. It is usually measured in
amperes. One ampere (amp for short) is one coulomb of charge passing a given point in one second. The
current, at any instant of time in a single loop circuit, must be the same everywhere along the circuit.
Charge cannot accumulate at any point along the circuit path. This is the law of conservation of charge. In
a direct-current (DC) circuit the current always flows in one direction and is usually constant. In an
alternating current (AC) circuit the current oscillates, flowing in one direction and then reversing and
flowing in the other direction, and then reversing again, etc.

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE, or voltage, (ΔV) is the work (energy) required per unit charge for a charge
to move from one point to another in an electric field. It is usually measured in volts. A potential
difference of one volt between two points means that it takes one joule of work to move one coulomb of
charge between the two points. In other words, when a charged particle is moved from point A to point B
through a region of space containing an electric field, the electric field does work on the particle either
giving energy to (positive work), or taking energy from (negative work), the particle. Potential difference
is the energy gained or lost by that charged particle divided by the charge of the particle.

POWER (P) is the rate at which energy is transferred to or from a portion of the circuit. It is measured in
Watts (W). The power delivered to, or taken from, a circuit component is equal to the product of the
current through the component and the potential difference across the component. There are two possible
situations that you might encounter in a circuit. The first is where the potential drops, or decreases, across
the component. In this case, the point where current enters the component has a higher potential (higher
voltage) than the point where the current leaves the component. This component draws, or uses, power
from the circuit. Examples of this include resistors, motors, diodes, capacitors and inductors. The second
case is where the potential rises, or increases, across the component. In this case the potential is lower
(lower voltage) where current enters the component and higher where it leaves. This component gives
1
power to the circuit like a battery, generator, capacitor or inductor. Why are capacitors and inductors listed
as components that both give and take power? You will find out in a future lab.

RESISTANCE (R) is a property of electrical devices. All devices have a resistance to current flow. This
resistance is evident in the heat given off by a light bulb and the need for a fan in a computer. When you
use a laptop computer for an extended period of time you may have noticed that it is quite hot on the
bottom before you turn it off. The resistance is measured in ohms [Ω]. In this lab we will be looking at
how resistance is related to current and voltage in a circuit. It is important to keep in mind that resistors
always take power from the circuit.

Instruments:

NOTE: It is very important that you understand what these instruments do and how to use them
properly.

The POWER SUPPLY that you will use is shown in figure 1. This supply is voltage regulated, meaning
that when you set an output voltage and then attach it to a circuit that draws current from the supply, it
will maintain the set output voltage. This is different from a simple battery where the output voltage of
a battery goes down when you draw current from it. The power supply also has an adjustable current-
limiting feature. Current limited operation of the power supply will be explored in detail in a later lab. For
now, you should set the current limit control, the bottom knob, at its maximum value by turning it
clockwise as far as it will go and leaving it there for the duration of this lab. The top control sets the
regulated output voltage of the power supply.

The power supply has two digital meters, one to display the output voltage and the other to display the
output current. You will find that these readings are not as accurate as what you can measure with the
digital multimeter discussed below.

Figure 1: The Power Supply

The DIGITAL MULTIMETER (DMM) is a multifunction instrument that can be used as an ohmmeter to
measure resistance, an ammeter to measure current or a voltmeter to measure voltage depending upon
which of its functions is selected with the large rotary switch on its face.

2
Figures 2, 3, and 4 show three slightly different DMMs. When using a DMM you will always have one
test lead, or wire, connected to the COM port and a second connected to one of the other three ports as
discussed below.

Figure 2: The Fluke 77 Figure 3: The Fluke 83 Figure 3: The Fluke 87

Measuring Resistance: To measure the resistance of a resistor you would use the DMM as an ohmmeter
by first setting the rotary switch to the  symbol and then connecting one wire to the port marked with
and a second wire to the port marked COM. (These DMMs are self-adjusting in the sense that you do
not need to make any adjustment to the meter if you intend to measure a very large resistance versus a
very small resistance.) You would then attach one test lead to each end of the resistor with the resistor
completely removed from the circuit. When the resistance measurement is displayed you will also see
units such as M, k, or . Be sure to make note of the units along with the measured resistance. Always
convert any measured values from M or k to before using data in calculations or plots.

Measuring Voltage: To measure the voltage (or potential difference) across a component you would use
___
~ 
the DMM as a voltmeter by first setting the rotary switch to either the V , V , or 
symbol and then
mV
connecting one wire to the port with the V symbol and the second to the port marked COM. Set the rotary
___
~
switch to the V symbol when measuring AC voltages or to the V
 , or 
, symbol when measuring
mV
DC voltages. For now we will be working with DC circuits.

___
The 
setting is used to make more precise measurements of small voltages, but the maximum voltage
mV
that can be measured using this setting depends upon the specific meter. For both the FLUKE 83 and 87,
the maximum voltage is 400 mV, while for the FLUKE 77 the maximum is 300 mV. If you do not know
approximately what voltage to expect always start with the rotary switch set to the V
 setting. If you see
___
that your measured voltage is less than the maximum mentioned above, then switch to the 
setting to
mV
obtain a more precise measurement.
3
To make an actual measurement you would connect one wire to each side of a component in your circuit
without disconnecting the component from the circuit. We say that the voltmeter is connected in
parallel with the component. This is VERY important so if this is not clear ask your instructor to
demonstrate.

Measuring Current: The following discussion is very important. Be sure you understand this
otherwise you could cause serious damage to the DMM.

To measure the current passing through a component you first need to set the rotary switch to the A

symbol and connect one wire to the port with the A symbol and the second wire to the port marked COM.
This sets up the DMM as an ammeter. Next, disconnect one end of the component from the circuit.
Connect one wire of the ammeter to the disconnected end of the component and connect the other
ammeter wire to the circuit where the component had been connected. Connected in this way we say that
the ammeter is in series with the component. Remember, you must always break the circuit to
measure current. (A negative sign in the ammeter display simply means the current is traveling into the
COM port and out of the A port. Normally you would connect the ammeter such that current flows into
the A port and out of the COM port, but often you may not know the direction of the current. Don’t worry
though, this won’t hurt the ammeter.)

If you try to measure a current larger than 10 A, a fuse will blow in the DMM and it is possible that the
DMM will be damaged. If you see that your measured current is small, you may obtain a more precise
measurement by switching the second lead to the mA port, but be careful. The FLUKE 77 can handle
currents only up to 300 mA while the FLUKE 83 and 87 can handle currents up to 400 mA on this more
precise setting. So always measure current first with the second lead in the A port and then switch if the
current is small enough depending on the meter being used.

Even more precision can be obtained using the FLUKE 83 and 87 by moving the rotary switch to the A
symbol. The second lead must be in the mA A port and the current must be less than 400 mA.

Part I, Measuring Voltages: Set the DMM to measure voltage and connect the leads to the red (+,
positive) and black (-, negative) terminals of the power supply. Be sure the current knob is fully
clockwise. Adjust the voltage of the power supply to several values from fully counter-clockwise to fully
clockwise. For small voltages (below 300 mV for the FLUKE 77 and below 400 mV for the 83 and 87)
rotate the rotary switch to obtain a more precise voltage measurement. In table 1 record the measurements
you have obtained from the voltmeter and also write down what is displayed on the power supply’s meter.
Be sure you include several voltages less than 1.0 V and several above, up to the maximum voltage, and
be sure to write down all decimal places displayed. Don’t forget units!

Before proceeding to Part II, answer the questions below table 1.

Part II: A simple circuit: Set up the circuit shown in Figures 1 and 2 below using your 24resistor.
Be sure to have your instructor check the circuit before you begin!

4
Figure 1: Photo of Lab Set Up

Figure 2: Circuit Diagram

5
Adjust the power supply to several voltages below 4.00 V and several voltages above 4.00 V, but not
higher than 7.0 V. For each voltage, record the current through the resistor and the voltage across the
resistor in table 2. DO NOT leave the switch closed very long. Keep the switch closed only during the
short time it takes to record your current and voltage.

Repeat the above procedure for a 100and a 220resistor.

Before proceeding to Part III, answer the questions after table 2.

Safety Check: When current is flowing in the circuit be careful not to touch the metal alligator clips
or leads on the resistor. It is possible that you could get a good shock. When you need to make
changes to the circuit like adding a resistor, or inserting an ammeter, turn the power supply off or
include a switch in your circuit so the power supply can be safely disconnected temporarily.

Think Carefully! Be sure to follow the instructions outlined above in the discussion of the DMM.
Remember that two steps are necessary:

1) Set up the DMM properly. If you know the current will be less that 300 mA, or 400 mA depending on
the DMM, you can use the mA port on the meter and set the rotary switch to the mA setting. Otherwise be
sure to measure current starting with the rotate switch set to the A setting and a wire in the A port.

2) Connect the DMM to the circuit properly.

Part III, Direct Measurement of Resistance: Remove the resistor from the circuit and set the
DMM to measure resistance as described above. Record your measured resistance in Table 6 and answer
the questions that follow.

[Optional/PHY 222]

Part IV: A simple circuit: With the DMM acting as a voltmeter connected to the power supply,
adjust the voltage to 4.00 Volts. Remove the DMM and use alligator clips and banana plug leads to create
a simple circuit with a single 5  resistor connected across the power supply terminals. (This resistor is a
high-power resistor capable of safely dissipating 20 W of power. However, it can become quite hot
so prop it up so it does not contact the table.) Now, set up the DMM as an ammeter and measure the
current through the resistor. Then record this current in the appropriate spot in table 2.

Safety Check: When current is flowing in the circuit be careful not to touch the metal alligator clips
or leads on the resistor. It is possible that you could get a good shock. When you need to make
changes to the circuit like adding a resistor, or inserting an ammeter, turn the power supply off or
include a switch in your circuit so the power supply can be safely disconnected temporarily.

Think Carefully! Be sure to follow the instructions outlined above in the discussion of the DMM.
Remember that two steps are necessary:

6
1) Set up the DMM properly. If you know the current will be less that 300 mA, or 400 mA depending on
the DMM, you can use the mA port on the meter and set the rotary switch to the mA setting. Otherwise be
sure to measure current starting with the rotate switch set to the A setting and a wire in the A port.

2) Connect the DMM to the circuit properly.

With the circuit still constructed carefully touch the resistor. What do you feel?

Keep the DMM connected to the circuit as an ammeter and use a second DMM as a voltmeter to measure
the output voltage of the power supply. Adjust the power supply to several voltages below 4.00 V and
several voltages above 4.00 V, but not higher than 10 V. For each voltage, record the current through the
resistor in table 2. If your current readings are below 300 mA, or 400 mA depending on the meter, you
may switch the ammeter to the more sensitive setting to get a more precise current measurement.

Now set the power supply voltage to about 0.2 V. Measure the current through the circuit with the rotate
switch set to the A setting and the wire in the A port. Record this current. Then change the ammeter to the
more sensitive mA setting and record the current reading.

Answer the questions for this section before proceeding to Part V.

Part V, The Effects of the DMM on measured values: Ideally, any meter should be a passive
“observer” of the circuit, not altering the circuit to which it has been connected. When the DMM is used
as a voltmeter this is usually true. However, when the DMM is used as an ammeter, it acts like a resistor
with a small resistance of about one ohm; we call this the internal resistance of the ammeter. Since this
approximately one ohm resistance is not negligible compared to the 5  resistances used in this lab, the
meter introduces a systematic error in your measurements.

In part II you were measuring the current through a single 5  resistor. In reality, this circuit had two
resistors in series, the 5  resistor, and the internal resistance of the ammeter. Using two DMMs, devise a
way to take this error into account to more accurately measure the resistance of the 5  resistor. You
should not only be able to determine the resistor’s resistance more accurately, but you should also be able
to determine the internal resistance of the ammeter. Hint: Set the power supply to 4.00 Volts and leave it
there. Describe in detail what you did and record your results in the data section.

7
 Data

Part I

DMM Voltage Power Supply

Reading Voltage Reading

Table 1

1.1) What is the minimum voltage the power supply can deliver? Be sure to use the voltmeter on its
most sensitive setting.

1.2) As you increase the voltage from the minimum voltage, what is the lowest voltage displayed on
the power supply’s meter? What voltage does the voltmeter (DMM) give you when the power supply
displays its minimum voltage? Would you use the power supply’s meter to obtain a precise measurement
of voltage, or would you use the DMM? Explain.

1.3) What is the maximum voltage delivered by the power supply?

8
1.4) While you were adjusting the voltages, especially at high voltage, did the current meter on the
power supply indicate any current being drawn from the power supply? What does this tell you about the
resistance of the DMM while it is acting as a voltmeter? Explain.

Part II

2.1)

DMM Voltage Current Through

Reading 24 Resistor

4.00 V

Table 2

9
DMM Voltage Current Through
Reading 100 Resistor

4.00 V

Table 3

10
 DMM Voltage Current Through
Reading 220 Resistor

4.00 V

Table 4

2.2) Plot Current Vs. Voltage using Logger Pro for all three resistors. Use the curve fit function to find
the function that is the best fit for the data (e.g. linear, quadratic, exponential). The currents you measured
are in mA (10-3 A). Convert the current values from mA to units of A before inputting them into Logger
Pro.

2.3) Write an equation that best describes the relationship between Current and Voltage.

11
2.4) A device is linear if the current through it is directly proportional to the voltage across it. Is the
resistor a linear device? Explain.

2.5) If you have a linear curve fit fill in the table below.

slope 1/slope

Table 5

Part III:

Resistance 1/slope
Percent Difference
Measured by DMM from Table 5

Table 6

3.1) Compare the resistance measured by your DMM to the data in table 5. What does the slope of I
Vs. ΔV represent physically?

3.2) Write an equation (symbols only, no numbers) representing the relationship between current,
voltage, and resistance.

12
3.3) Which method of measuring resistance, part II, or part III, is capable of more precision? Explain.

3.4) Is using the ohmmeter function of the DMM a good way to measure resistance of only a few
ohms? Why or why not?

3.5) Does higher precision necessarily imply higher accuracy? Explain.

Part IV
13
4.1) Explain what you feel when you touch the 5  resistor.

Current Through Calculated

Voltage
5 Resistor Resistance

4.00 V

Table 7

14
4.2) Using each pair of data in table 2, calculate the resistor’s resistance and record this in the third
column. A device is linear if the current through it is directly proportional to the voltage across it. Is the
5Ω resistor a linear device? Explain.

4.3) What is a fair prediction about all the resistors we will be using in labs this semester?

4.4) With the power supply set at 0.2 V what current did you measure through the circuit with the
ammeter in the less sensitive measuring mode, i.e. with the rotary switch set to A rather than mA?

What current did you measure with the ammeter set to the more sensitive measuring mode?

Do you notice anything interesting? Which measuring mode would you trust? Why?

Can you think of a reason why you would get such different current measurements? You may want
to wait until you finish part V to answer this question.

15
Part V

5.1) Describe in detail how you used two DMMs to determine the internal resistance of the ammeter,
and a more accurate value for the resistance of the resistor. Show any and all calculations below and circle
and label the resistor’s resistance and the ammeter’s resistance.

16