1.

MEASUREMENT
UNITS AND
MEASUREMENTS
Metrology Laboratory

Raquel Pandal
Content
1.1 Introduction to Metrology

1.2 Systems units

1.2.1 Physical quantities

1.2.2 Units systems of physical quantities (CGS, MKS, MKFS, MKSA)

1.2.3 The International System of Units

1.3 Basics (stability, bias, linearity, repeatability, reproducibility, y resolution.)

1.4 Electrical measurements, dimensional measurements, flow measurements,

temperature measurements and measurements of force.
1.1 Introduction to Metrology
Introduction
Since humans started to use of judgement and reasoning,
measurements have been a fundamental aspect for
decisions

Objective of the
course
Knowing the importance of measurements in different
scientific, technological, environmental, industrial,
economic and quality fields through its utility and
regulations in different environments of society.
Measurements in everyday life
• The contact with measurements
is a daily thing

• Even before birth, to monitor the

fetus, different measurements are
performed:

• Size
• Heart Rate
• Gestation time
Measurements in everyday life
We measure to buy
or to sell food

To measure
electricity,
water and gas
consumption
To buy gasoline
and fuels
More examples…
Blood
preasure

Length
Noise
Why do we measure?
• To know
• To decide

What are the

implications of
adequate
measurement?
Reflections about measurements
• You start to learn a concept only when you can quantify it

• The nature prevents us from knowing with absolute

certainty the true values of a quantity; there is always an

amount of uncertainty

• Decisions are made under conditions of uncertainty based

on the partial information that we have of things.

This statement is evident in the industrial sector:

• Control of production processes

• Acceptance sampling
• Selecting maintenance or equipment calibration
strategies
• Measurement of variables
Measure Recognize Control Improve

Things that can not be measured

can not be controlled!
Quality
• Extent to which a set of inherent characteristics of a
thing fulfills the requirements

Who defines the

quality of a product
or service?
Measure

Who defines
the
Act requirements
Where do we to be
measure? Measure satisfied?
A good measure…
• Increases customer trust
• Ensures product quality by lowering non-quality costs
• Objectively supports improvement decisions
• Increases the efficiency in the use of resources
• Facilitates comparisons in case of controversy
Technology & Metrology
• Advances in technology also means a step forward in
metrology

• Having measurement capability to support technological

development is the challenge of the National Metrology
Institutes
Standards and Metrology

• Companies demonstrate quality based on internationally

recognized standards to achieve greater acceptance of its
products or services

• The application of these standards involves implicit and

explicit metrological aspects
Standards and Metrology→ ISO 9001:2008

7.6 Monitoring and measurement equipment control.

“The organization shall determine the monitoring and

measurement to be undertaken and the monitoring and
measuring equipment needed to provide evidence of
conformity of product to determined requirements.”
Standards and Metrology → ISO 9001:2008
The measuring equipment must:

a) Get calibrated or verified, or both, at specified intervals

or prior to use, against measurement standards
traceable to national or international standards.
b) Adjust or re-adjust as necessary
c) Be identified in order to determine its calibration status
d) Safeguarded from adjustments that would invalidate the
measurement result.
e) Protected form damage and determination during
handling, maintenance and storage.
Standards and Metrology→ ISO/IEC 17025:2005
5.5 Equipment

5.5.1 The laboratory shall be provided with all equipment for sampling,
measurement and testing, required for the proper execution of the tests
or calibrations.

5.5.2 The equipment and its software used for testing, calibration and
sampling shall be capable of achieving the accuracy required and shall
comply with specifications relevant to the tests or calibrations
concerned.

(…)
Standards and Metrology→ ISO/IEC 17025:2005

5.6 Measurement traceability

5.6.1 All equipment used for tests or calibrations, including equipment

for subsidiary measurements…shall be calibrated before being put into
service. The laboratory must establish a program and procedure for the
calibration of its equipment.

5.6.2 Specific requirements

5.6.2.1 Calibration

5.6.2.2 Testing

5.6.3 Reference standards and reference materials.

Standards and Metrology→ ISO/IEC 17025:2005
• Calibration and testing laboratories must currently meet
the requirements of this standard

• In Mexico it is called: NMX-EC-17025-IMNC-2006

“Requisitos generales para la competencia de los
laboratorios de ensayo y calibración”
Standards and Metrology → ISO 10012:2010
• Quality assurance requirements for measuring
equipment:

• Ensure that equipment and measurement processes are suitable

for their intended purpose, in order to achieve quality objectives
and manage the risk of obtaining incorrect measurement results
Metrology and Trading
Article 15 (Federal Law on Metrology and
Standarization)

In any commercial, industrial or service transaction made

on the basis of quantity, it shall be measured using suitable
measuring instruments…

In Mexico, some of the legal

requirements have been
established for the benefit of
consumers and to ensure
fairness in commercial
transactions
1.2 Units Systems
What we measure?
• Magnitude:
• Property of a phenomenon of a body or substance that
can be expressed by a number and a reference.

• Symbols for magnitudes must be written in italics

(ISO/IEC 80000)

Examples:
radio, r
length, l
Definition → Physical magnitudes
• Magnitudes are observable properties or aspects of a
physical system that can be expressed in numerical form.
In other words, the magnitudes are measurable properties
or attributes.
Definition → Unit of measure
• Real scalar magnitude,
defined and adopted by Examples:
convention, with which you meter
can compare any other
quantity of the same nature kilogram
to express the relationship newton
between them by a number.
liter
inch
Definition → Unit symbol
• Conventionally designated symbol for a unit of
measurement

Examples:
m for meter
kg for kilogram
A for ampere
Definition → Fundamental Units

• Those that are not made by other units, for example:

Fundamental
Unit Symbol
Magnitude
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg

Temperature kelvin K

Luminous
candela cd
intensity
Definition→ Derived Units

• They are those that are composed of two or more

fundamental units, for example:

Derived magnitudes

Speed m/s
Area m²
Volume m³
Density kg/m³
Units Systems
• Set of fundamental and derived units, their multiples and
sub-multiples, defined according to specific rules, for a
given system of magnitudes

CGS MKS MKSA FPS

Units Systems→ CGS
• It’s used to handle relatively small amounts
• This system is also known as “Gaussian”
• In this system the fundamental magnitudes and units are:
• length → centimeter
• mass→ gram
• Time → second
Units Systems→ MKS
• Originated in 1900 and named “MKS”, whose initials

correspond to mass kilogram, kilometer and second as

units of length, mass and time
Units Systems→ MKSA
• The General Conference of Weights and Measures,

adopted in 1935 MKSA System (meter, kilogram mass,

second, ampere), in order to consider the measurement
units of electric current
Units Systems → FPS
• USA primarily uses this system:
• Foot length→ (foot)
• Mass → slug
• Time → second

• The slug is not commonly recognized because usually the

gravitational force (weight) instead of the mass [pounds]
is used.

• Therefore the english system is also called FPS (foot-

pound-second)
International System of Units
• It arises form the need of uniformity in a single system of units that
could be practical, clear and consistent with science advances

• In 1960, scientists and technicians form around the world gathered in

Geneva, Switzerland , and agree to adopt the International System of
Units (S. I.).

• This system is based on the MKS system and its fundamental

magnitudes and fundamental units are:
Fundamental Units of I.S.

Magnitude Unit Symbol

mass kilogram kg
time second s
length meter m
electric current ampere A
thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
luminous intensity candela cd
amount of substance mole mol
Fundamental Units of I.S.→ kilogram
• Equal to the mass of the international prototype of the
kilogram
Fundamental Units of I.S.→ second

• Duration of 9 192 631 770

periods of the radiation
corresponding to the
transition between two
hyperfine levels of the
ground state of the cesium
133
Fundamental Units of I.S.→ meter
• Length of the path traveled by light in vacuum
during a period 1/ 299 792 458 s
Fundamental Units of I.S.→ kelvin

• It’s the fraction 1/273.16 of

the thermodynamic
temperature of the triple
point of water
Fundamental Units of I.S. → ampere

• Intensity of a constant current

maintained between two
parallel conductors of infinite
length, of negligible circular
cross section, placed on the
vacuum 1m apart from each
other, produce a force of 2x10⁻⁷
N/m between these conductors
Fundamental Units of I.S → candela
• Luminous intensity in a given direction of a source of
monochromatic radiation of frequency 540x10¹² Hz and
whose energy intensity in that direction is 1/683 W/sr

Lamps and
photometric
detectors used
to preserve the
candela

* sr= steradian, SI derived unit that measures solid angles

Fundamental Units of I.S → mole

• Amount of substance of
a system which contains
as many elementary
entities as there are
number of atoms in
0.012 kg of ¹²C
Derived Units
• Simple combinations of basic SI units according to physic
laws
• Examples:

Magnitude Name Symbol

Volume Cubic meter m³
Speed Meter per second m/s
Mass Kilogram per kg/m³
concentration cubic meter
Amount of mole per kilogram mol/kg
substance
content
“Special” Derived Units
• Some units have a special name and symbol to facilitate
their use
• Examples:

Magnitude Name Symbol

Energy joule J (m² kg s⁻²)
Frequency hertz Hz (s⁻¹)
Force newton N (m kg s⁻²)
Power watt W (m² kg s⁻³)
Pressure pascal Pa (kg m⁻¹ s⁻²)
Metrology nomenclature→ prefixes and their
symbols

Name Symbol Value Name Symbol Value

tera T 10¹² pico p 10⁻¹²
giga G 10⁹ nano n 10⁻⁹
mega M 10⁶ micro μ 10⁻⁶
kilo k 1000 mili m 0.001
hecto h 100 centi c 0.01
deca da 10 deci d 0.1
Metrology Nomenclature
• The unit symbols are written in roman straight characters,

not with italics

• The symbol of the units must be written in lowercase,

except for those derived from proper names

• No abbreviations are used seg s

Metrology Nomenclature
• In units symbols, replacement of a capital letter should not
be done by a lowercase because it may change the
meaning

5km 5Km

• In units symbols, the s to pluralize is not used as it

represents “second”

30mm 30mms
1.3 Basic Concepts
Stability
• Ability of a measuring instrument to retain their
metrological characteristics over time
Bias
• Estimated value of a systematic error

• Correction:
• Compensation of an estimated systematic effect.
• It can take different forms, such as addition or multiplication by a
factor.

𝑌𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 𝑌𝑚𝑒𝑑 + 𝐶 𝑌𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 𝐹𝐶 ∙ 𝑌𝑚𝑒𝑑

𝑌𝑚𝑒𝑑 : Measured value, uncorrected result.

𝑌𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 : 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡
𝐶 ∶ 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶 = −𝑆
𝑆 ∶ 𝐵𝑖𝑎𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐹𝐶 ∶ 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
Linearity
• Expresses the degree of overlap between the calibration
curve and a given straight line.

• The factors influencing the linearity are:

• Resolution
• Threshold
• Hysteresis
Linearity → Resolution Resolución

• It is the minimal input increase where you get a change in

the output.
Linearity → Threshold Umbral

• It is the minimal increase of the zero point input to obtain

a change in the output.
Linearity→ Hysteresis Histéresis

• When the sensor output depends on the previously taken

data, meaning that the data produced by the meter
depends on its history.

• Liquid in glass thermometers

• Weighing instruments
Repeatability
• Closeness of agreement between the results of
successive measurements of the same magnitude made
by the same method, by the same observer, the same
laboratory during short intervals

• If the uncertainty is smaller, the repeatability is better

Why?
Reproducibility
• Measuring precision under a set of conditions that include
different locations, operators, measuring systems and
repeated measurements of the same and similar objects

Different
observer

Different Different
method instrument

REPRODUCIBILITY

Different Long
place Periods
Different
conditions
1.4 Electrical measurements,
dimensional, flow,
temperature and strength.
Electrical measurements
• They are divided in:
• Time and Frequency
• Electromagnetic measurements
• Thermometry
Electrical measurements→ Time and
Frequency
• They cover the following areas:
• Development of primary frequency standards
• Generating timescales
• Transfer time by telephone and by internet.
• Calibration services oscillators and clocks
Electrical measurements→ electromagnetic measurements

• In Mexico we have 11 national standards on

electromagnetic quantities

1. Dc Voltage [volt, V]
2. Av voltaje [volt, V]
3. Amperage of electric current [ampere, A]
4. Intensity of alternating electric current [ampere, A]
5. Electrical resistance [ohm, Ω]
6. Power and energy [watt, W y joule, J]
7. Capacitance[farad, F]
8. Inductance [henry, H]
9. Electromagnetic Power [watt, W]
10. Scattering parameter at high frequency[V/V]
11. Magnetic flux density [tesla, T]
Dimensional Measurements
• It includes the measurement of all the properties
determined by a length unit:

• Distance
• Position
• Diameter
• Roundness
• Rugosity
• Etc.
Flow Measurements
• Fluid flow is a phenomenon that occurs in a variety of
industrial processes, and whose correct measurement is
vital to the economy of many companies.

• To meet the requirements of accuracy in this physical

magnitude. Division of Metrology and volumen flow
CENAM national gas flow patterns, fluid flow, volumen
and viscosity are maintained.
Flow Measurements
• In gas flow measurement, the spread is performed
through calibration services diaphragm type gauges, in
humid chamber, bubble, variable area, etc.

• The calibration of turbine type meters, positive

displacement, electromagnetic type, vortex, ultrasonic,
differential pressure, among others, is the way to spread
the metrological characteristics of the National Fluid Flow
Pattern.
Temperature measurements
• Control and temperature measurements are fundamental
for the quality determination of products in several
industries (electrical, chemical, pharmaceutical, chemistry,
metallurgic, food, etc.)
Temperature measurements
• Thermometers users require reliable and internationally
recognized references for calibrating instruments and for
research on new measurement methods and procedures
to improve the measurement and control of temperature.
Force measurements
• The explicit definition of force is defines by Newton´s
second law.

"the product of the

mass of a body times
its acceleration is
directly proportional to
the magnitude of the
force acting on said
body".
Force measurements→ patterns
• National force pattern to 3kN

• National standard force up to 50 kN

• National standard power up to 150 kN

Force Measurements→ patterns
• Force national standard up to 5 MN

• Reference standard
strength pattern of
1.5 MM
References
• ISO 9001:2008, Sistemas de gestión de la calidad-
Requisitos. Norma Mexicana IMNC, Instituto Mexicano de
Normalización y Certificación
http://www.calidad.uady.mx/resources/nosotros/NormaIso
90012008.pdf
• ISO/IEC 17025:2005, Requisitos generales para la
competencia de los laboratorios de ensayo y de
calibración
• Cárdenas, R. (2009) Metrología e instrumentación.
Centro Nacional de Metrología, http://www.cenam.mx/