PHILO 1 LONG EXAM REVIEWER SIMPLE TERMS

(Unit 1 and Unit 2) ● Composed of a single word.

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COMPLEX TERMS
WORDS AND CONCEPTS ● Composed of several words.
● They have the logical form ​"The so"​ ​and​ "so."
Unit 1 - Module 1
CONCEPTS
WORD
● The building blocks of knowledge.
● Simplest unit of communication.
● Without the ability to form concepts, human knowledge will not be
○ Representational signs
possible.
○ Artificial (manmade)
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○ Arbitrary
○ Material signs
○ Conventional signs EXTENSION AND INTENSION OF CONCEPTS
● Indispensable means of communication. Unit 1 - Module 2
● Without words, c​ oncepts cannot be formed.
● Without concepts, ​various types of knowledge claims cannot be INTENSION
asserted. ● Similar properties shared by members ​(ideal world)​.
● Without knowledge claims, ​arguments cannot be composed. ● Assumes that the word has intrinsic meaning.
● A concept is ​not equal ​to a word. ● The range of applicability of a word ​(denotation).
● A word can be a ​sign ​of a concept.
● A word is made up of ​letters​.
EXTENSION
LANGUAGE ● The set of objects in the world to which the word corresponds ​(material
● The totality of words. world)​.
● Has nothing to do with what the world is ​(signs)​. ● The members themselves of the intension of a concept.
● Essential traits that all the members must have to or a family
PARTICULARS resemblance of traits that is present in the group ​(essence)​.
● All things that exist.
ESSENTIAL PROPERTY
GENERAL TERMS ● A single trait that is necessary and the defining point to qualify one as
● Refer to a group of particulars. an extension of a concept.

ABSTRACTION ESSENTIALISM
● The process of making terms. ● If there is no essential property held in common by the members, the
concept cannot be meaningful.
GENERAL IDEA
● Formed when a common characteristic arises from a group of FAMILY RESEMBLANCE
particulars. ● A family of traits, characteristics, and function that makes a member a
valid extension of the concept.
TERM ● It challenges the concept of existentialism.
● A word or group of words that expresses a concept.
● The verbal means which we express what we know through concepts. METAPHYSICAL THEORY
● Intension comes from existence in an ideal world.
____________________________________________________________________________________________ CARDINAL RULE
● Never partake in any discussion or verbal dispute unless you are
USING THE SAME LANGUAGE sure that you are using the same word in the same way.
Unit 1 - Module 3 ____________________________________________________________________________________________

WORDS CLASSIFICATION OF CONCEPTS

● Ultimately derive their meaning from their context in a community. Unit 1 - Module 4
● Wittgenstein defines the meaning of the word as its use in language.
● Use must be by real people in actual linguistic contexts. EMPIRICAL CONCEPTS
● Artificial terms such as ​“ideas,” “sense data” ​and the likes are played by ● Can be observed in the world.
philosophers in language games but are unused in real contexts. ● Tangible and visible even to the unaided senses.
● Artificial terms have ​no form of life. ● If the members are observable, then they ​exist ​in space and time.
○ Interchangeable definitions ● Examples include ​trees, chairs, tables, etc.
○ Varying use in varying concepts
THEORETICAL CONCEPTS
DETERMINATION OF A MEANING OF A WORD ● Cannot be readily observed in the world by the unaided senses.
● According to Wittgenstein, the meaning would depend upon the ● Can be observed with the aid of powerful sensory extending devices
language game being played. (e.g. electron microscope)
● Context is important for words that may have multiple meanings. ● The tentative posit of their existence is need for a theory to be
● To share a language game is to hold the same meaning for words. functional and to be able to generate research ​(e.g. make up of matter
● An example would be the Filipino word ​“mahal” w ​ hich could mean into atoms and its constituent particles).
expensive​ ​or ​love​. ● Sensory extending devices - the ​telescope ​for the ​macro universe ​and the
microscope ​for the ​micro universe; m
​ iddle universe is for the empirical
AMBIGUOUS WORDS world.
● Words come into being when first used and discarded through disuse
but can be reborn. DISPOSITIONAL CONCEPTS
● A meaning becomes ​conventional a​ nd ​standard t​ hrough ​currency a​ nd ● Cannot be readily observed but may exhibit traits or characteristics
repeated use. only if certain operations are done.
● Words can become ambiguous due to loose use (e.g. ​contranyms ​such as ● Examples include ​elasticity, magnetism, temperature, etc.
some a​ nd ​many)​ .
● An example would be the English word ​“left” ​which could mean ANALYTIC CONCEPTS
removed​ o ​ r ​remained​. ● These concepts are neither tangible nor visible.
● They are conceptual entities which are merely creations of our minds
USELESS CONTROVERSIES where they subsist only in our minds as well.
● Unique uses of words by different parties may cause controversies and ● Dealing with formal sciences such as logic, geometry, and mathematics
misunderstandings. means dealing with analytic concepts.
● May have been avoided if the terms were defined beforehand.
● Purely verbal agreements may also arise when two parties engage in EVALUATIVE CONCEPTS
discussion but do not realize that they play different language games. ● Judgments ​of the worth or value of a person, act, behavior, event, place,
● An example would be the Spanish/Filipino word ​“delicado/delikado” etc.
which in Spanish means​ ​delicate​, ​while in Filipino means ​dangerous.​ ● Cover a whole range of concepts that can be ​moral, aesthetic, religious,
and ​legal i​ n nature.
● Moral concepts deal with what is good or bad, right or wrong, and
moral or immoral.
 ● Aesthetic concepts involve beauty and ugliness.
● Religious concepts involve heaven and hell.
● Legal concepts involve being guilty or innocent.
FICTITIOUS CONCEPTS
● Members of the extension of these concepts are not real and are purely
imaginary.
● A good example of fictitious concepts are ​mermaids ​and ​unicorns
because we know for a fact that they were merely created by our
imagination.
METAPHYSICAL CONCEPTS
● Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy that deals with broad concepts
to aid in defining reality and how we understand it.
● One good example is the concept of ​substance - God, mind, and matter.
● Another metaphysical concept is called that ​absolute (universal mind).
INTRA-INTER SUBJECTIVITY TESTS
● For something to be considered ​empirical, ​it must pass both intra- and
inter-subjectivity tests and must exist.
● If something does not pass the said criteria, it is considered ​fictitious.
● If an entity is not directly observable by the unaided senses but through
the use of sensory extending equipment such as microscopes or
telescopes, the belief of the entity is established through ​intra- and
inter-subjective consensus.
IMPORTANT POINTS
● The existence of the empirical, theoretical, and dispositional concepts
are ​real, objective, ​and ​natural.
● The existence of the analytic, evaluative, fictitious, and metaphysical
concepts are ​artificial, subjective, mind-dependent, ​and ​varies from
one person to another.
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AMBIGUOUS AND VAGUE TERMS
Unit 1 - Module 5
AMBIGUOUS TERMS
● Terms that have ​many meanings.
● If a term through its history of usage has acquired numerous uses and
each of this has mutually exclusive intentions.
● When there is more than one clear meaning, and it is difficult to choose
which meaning was intended.
● The presence of two or more distinct meanings for a single word or
expression.
● The more uses a term acquires, the more ambiguous it becomes.
● Applicable when ​used in a single statement.
● An example is ​“He went to the bank.” ​because bank could mean a ​river
bank ​or a ​financial institution.
VAGUE TERMS
● Terms that are ​not precise.
● The characteristic of words or phrases whose meaning is not
determined with precision.
● A lack of clarity in meaning.
● If the intention of the concept becomes so loose and unclear that it
becomes difficult to identify the members.
● Some words are too vague, that you cannot even give a typical
example of its members.
● An example is ​“Go down the road and then turn right.” b ​ ecause it does
not precisely explain how far one should go down the road.
● Other examples include the use of ​few, many, almost, all, etc.
LINGUISTIC CONFUSION
● Often a speaker will use a term in one way, while his listener takes it in
a different way.
● If both are not aware of the shift in uses, the result is ​linguistic
confusion.
● An example is when if one says that they need to buy a ​“jumper,”
Americans will think they are referring to a ​piece of smock clothing
usually worn by little girls. British people, however, will think of it as a
sweater.
FALLACY OF EQUIVOCATION
● Using a term in one way and reusing it again in another in the same line
of reasoning.
● This is the danger of confusion in one’s private thinking.
● An example is ​“I have the ​right ​to say that my answer is r​ ight​.” ​which
first uses the word ​right ​as a ​legal principle of entitlement​, then uses
the word ​right a​ s another term for ​correct.
ANTIDOTES
● For vague terms only:
○ Clarify the intention of the concept to make it usable for
including members and excluding non-members ​(If a term
cannot do this, it is vague).
 ● For both vague and ambiguous terms:
○ Define them.
○ Definition will avoid linguistic confusion not only in your
writing but also in your thinking.
● For linguistic confusion:
○ Apply the ​cardinal rule: “N ​ ever partake in any discussion or
verbal dispute unless you are sure that you are using the
same word in the same way.”
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ON DEFINITIONS
Unit 1 - Module 6
DEFINITIONS
● A definition is ​complete i​ f you are provided with a clear statement of
the intension and some typical members of its extension.
● The ability to define any term is is one of the most indispensable skills
of any critical thinker.
DEFINITION BY SYNONYM
● One of the most familiar ways of defining a term is by ​using a ​synonym.
● Some examples include ​argument (quarrel), belief (faith), alien
(foreigner), etc.
● Essentially defining an unfamiliar term by using a familiar term.
● Looking for a synonym is just preparation for composing a good
definition.
● It is an error in definition called ​circular definitions (​ a term was
defined by using the same term or by its synonym).
OSTENSIVE DEFINITION
● The use of a word can easily be specified by ​giving examples of the
members of the extension​, either verbally or by a pointing gesture.
● An example includes ​“amphibian” ​which denotes animals like ​frogs ​and
turtles.
● It is the ​most common way of defining a term.
● A concept learned through this is ​incomplete - ​an understanding of the
term is narrowly limited to the members of the extension pointed to
and excludes everything else outside and under the term.
● The extension of most concepts cannot be pointed to.
INTENSION AND EXTENSION
● This is to have a ​complete understanding o ​ f the meaning of the
concept ​(stating its intension without vagueness a​ nd ​give some typical
examples of the members of the extension).
● Once the intension is known, generalization to the other members of
the extension is possible.
● Examples include ​amphibians are animals that can live in both land and
water ​(intension) a​ nd ​includes crocodiles, salamanders, anacondas, etc.
(generalization).
REPORTIVE DEFINITION
● To provide information about how a term is being used ​in the same
way i​ n numerous language games ​(reports about ​standard use o ​ r
conventional use ​of a term).
● The ​conventional use ​refers to how the term is used by actual people
in numerous life situations.
● This is synonymous to the concept of ​lexical definition.
● The ​verbal definition r​ efers to the statement of the intension of the
concept.
STIPULATIVE DEFINITION
● The ​usage of a term in a very unique way in a language game
(departure from conventional use).
● It is the main technique for introducing ​technical terms (​ e.g. ideas,
mind, corporeal substance).
● Scientific terms, more often than not, are introduced also through this
(usu. terms for new species or phenomena).
● Technical terms in the sciences have a tendency to gain wide currency
in an ordinary language ​(e.g. normal, introvert, neurotic, psychotic, DNA,
etc.).
OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
● The method used in the sciences to bring ​dispositional concepts* (e.g.
magnetic, soluble temperature, electric charge, elastic, etc.) o ​ n the plane
of observation.
○ Do not exhibit directly observable characteristics of their
intension (to observe their intension, ​operations ​must first be
performed).
○ They are ​not empirical ​since both their intension and extension
are not directly observable.
● P.W. Bridgman, inventor, advocated that all scientific concepts should
be defined in terms of performable operations.
○ Instrumental operations performed by various devices for
observation and measurement like the microscope or the
telescope.
○ Paper and pencil operations, verbal operations, and thought
experiments.
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 ANALYTIC DEFINITION ● A sound definition must ​not be stated in the negative w ​ hen it can be
Unit 1 - Module 7 stated in the affirmative.
● A sound definition should ​not use figurative, obscure ​and
ANALYTIC DEFINITION metaphorical language ​because these make the definition
● A practical technique of defining a term which uses three categories - uninformative.
definiendum, definiens, a​ nd ​denotata. ● Avoid using ostensive definitions ​because using examples in defining a
term is a misleading technique.
DEFINIENDUM ____________________________________________________________________________________________
● The term to be defined.
ANALYSIS OF STATEMENTS
DEFINIENS Unit 2 - Module 1
● The defining property of the ​definiendum (intension).
○ GENUS ​- wider concept of which the ​definiendum ​is a member STATEMENT
of. ● A statement can have ​multiple meanings.
■ Species -​ the members of the genus ​(there are other ● It can either be a ​lone statement, proposition, assertion, claim,
species under the same genus aside from the knowledge claim, ​or belief.
definiendum).
○ DIFFERENTIA ​- trait or set of traits, characteristics, or 5 TYPES OF STATEMENTS/SENTENCES
functions that distinguishes the ​definiendum ​from the other ❖ All sentences can be​ grammatically classified​ into ​5 main types.
species in the same ​genus. ❖ Only a ​declarative sentence ​is an example of a ​knowledge claim.

DENOTATA 1. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE

● Typical examples of the members of the extension of the ​definiendum. ❖ Sentences that ​asks questions​.
● Each member can be a ​definiendum ​in its own right as long as there are ➢ “What is your name?”
members or examples under it.
● A ​proper name i​ s a member without any further extension. 2. IMPERATIVE SENTENCE
● For instance, mammals ​(definiendum) a​ re animals ​(definiens - genus) ❖ Sentences that give ​requests or commands​.
with mammary glands ​(definiens - differentia) ​which includes ➢ “Can you buy me dinner?”
monotremes, marsupials, placentals, etc. ​(denotata). ➢ “Answer the test in one hour.”

COMMON ERRORS IN DEFINITIONS 3. EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE

● If the definition is ​too broad, i​ t will ​include n ​ on-members of the ❖ Sentences that express ​strong emotion​.
concept. ➢ “Shut up!”
● If the definition is ​too narrow, i​ t will ​exclude ​members of the concept.
● If one uses a ​synonym ​to define a term, one is prone to commit ​circular 4. EXPLETIVE SENTENCE
definition. ❖ Sentences that express a ​hope, desire, or wish​.
● If one uses an ​ostensive definition t​ o define a term, the definition is ➢ “I hope I pass the exam!”
incomplete ​and ​misleading.
5. DECLARATIVE SENTENCE
RULES IN COMPOSING A DEFINITION ❖ Verbal means ​of expressing one’s statement.
● A sound definition is ​not too broad t​ o include non-members and ​not ❖ Sentences that state or provide ​information​.
too narrow t​ o exclude genuine members. ➢ “I am in charge of writing the script for the play.”
● Definitions must ​not be circular ​because definition by synonym is an
approximation of a definition.
3 PRINCIPLES THAT GOVERN TRUTH VALUE OF STATEMENTS RATIONALISM AND EMPIRICISM
1. PRINCIPLE OF IDENTITY The Two Major Traditions in Philosophy
❖ A statement that ​identifies itself. Unit 2 - Module 2
❖ If a statement is ​true, ​then it is ​true.
❖ If a statement is​ false,​ then it is ​false.
❖ The truth value of a statement is ​stable over time. THREE CENTRAL
ISSUES IN
2. PRINCIPLE OF NONCONTRADICTION EPISTEMOLOGY RATIONALISM EMPIRICISM
❖ A ​single statement ​cannot be both true and false at the (Ways to differentiate (Analytic claims) (Empirical claims)
same time and in the same respect. the two major
➢ PRINCIPLE OF INCONSISTENCY traditions)
■ No two statements can be both true, but
can be both false. What are the s​ ources of REASON AND
REASON
knowledge? EXPERIENCES
3. PRINCIPLE OF EXCLUDED-MIDDLE
EMPIRICAL
❖ A statement has only ​two possible truth values (true or What c​ an be known? FORMAL KNOWLEDGE
KNOWLEDGE
false) ​and nothing else.
How do we ​validate our COHERENCE THEORY CORRESPONDENCE
4 FACTORS THAT RENDER A STATEMENT AS MEANINGLESS
knowledge claims? OF TRUTH THEORY OF TRUTH
1. OUT-OF-CONTEXT STATEMENTS
❖ Focuses on the ​whole statement​.
➢ “Quadratic equations go to a horse race.” RATIONALISM
● A branch of epistemology which contends that ​reason is the only
2. CATEGORY MISTAKE source of knowledge.
❖ Focuses on ​some parts of the statement​. ● Some notable rationalists include ​Descartes ​(“I think, therefore I am.”),​
➢ “He sprained his liver.” Spinoza, ​and ​Leibniz.

3. SELF-CONTRADICTORY STATEMENTS REASON

❖ Statements that ​go against itself​. ○ The capacity of ​consciously making sense of things​,
➢ “Triangles are not three-sided figures.” establishing and verifying facts, applying logic, and adapting or
justifying practices, institutions, and beliefs based on new or
4. UNTRANSLATABLE METAPHORS existing information.
❖ Sentences that are ​improbable and​ ​cannot be understood​.
____________________________________________________________________________________________ FORMAL SCIENCES
○ A branch of science studying ​formal language disciplines
concerned with formal systems ​such as logic and
mathematics.
○ Provides ​certain knowledge ​using the ​coherence theory of
truth.
○ Knowledge derived from reason ​gave rise to the formal
sciences ​(algebra, geometry, mathematics, and logic).
 THE FIVE SENSES
BODY MIND
● Used to ​gain knowledge of the physical world.
● May be ​unreliable and defective.
No extension (no size and no
With extension (size and shape) ● Only way to come in contact with the physical world.
shape)
● When there is doubt, there is no certainty.
Visible Invisible
2 KINDS OF PERCEPTIONS (David Hume)
Divisible Indivisible 1. IMPRESSIONS
❖ Any immediate consciousness
With space occupancy No space occupancy ❖ Sensations​ (primary)
❖ Passions and emotions ​(secondary)
Determined Free ❖ Formed without conscious thought

2. IDEAS
COHERENCE THEORY OF TRUTH ❖ Come from impressions
● This states that ​the truth of any true proposition consists in its ❖ Result of processing impressions
coherence with some specified set of propositions. ❖ Weak copy of impressions

ON THE FIVE SENSES 2 OBJECTS OF HUMAN REASON (David Hume)

● Rationalists believe that ​the five senses are not genuine sources of 1. RELATIONS OF IDEAS
knowledge. ❖ Pure reasoning
● The five senses are ​unreliable, contradictory, ​and ​unstable. ❖ Geometry, algebra, arithmetic
● Perceptual illusions ​as support to these claims: ❖ Every affirmation that is either ​intuitively or
○ A tower appears shorter from a distance and would appear taller demonstratively certain.
when you are near it. ❖ A priori ​(before experience)
❖ EXAMPLES:
EMPIRICISM ➢ 1 + 1 = 2 ​will always be true in the numeration
● A branch of epistemology saying that ​reason and experiences are the method we use.
two sources of knowledge. ➢ All bachelors are unmarried​ will always be true.
● Some notable empiricists include ​Locke, Berkeley, ​and ​Hume ​(The
mind is a ‘tabula rasa’)​. 2. MATTERS OF FACT
❖ Based on experience.
EXPERIENCE ❖ Can never be truly certain.
● It can be verified by ​observation ​or the ​five senses. ❖ A posteriori ​(after experience)
● We cannot escape experience. ❖ EXAMPLES:
➢ The sun will rise tomorrow.
EMPIRICAL KNOWLEDGE ❖ The contradiction of every matter of fact cannot be denied
● The knowledge or source of knowledge acquired by means of the until disproved through experience.
senses, particularly by ​observation and experimentation. ❖ Contingent, but not necessary
● Knowledge is not equal to opinion. ❖ We only see the ​conjunction of events ​(strong feelings →
irrational).
CORRESPONDENCE THEORY OF TRUTH
● This states that ​the truth or falsity of a statement is determined
only by how it relates to the world and whether it accurately
describes the real world.
 HABIT OF EXPECTATION TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE CLAIMS
○ “Do we have sufficient knowledge on how the world is?” Unit 2 - Module 3
○ Human knowledge is limited.
○ We behave and reason through feelings. LOGICAL POSITIVITY (Moritz Schlick, 1930s)
● Patterned after the epistemology of David Hume (1711-1776).
FACULTY OF REASON
● Cannot generate empirical knowledge ​(knowledge from experience
or senses). SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE CLAIMS
● Can generate formal knowledge ​(knowledge from reason).
REASON SENSE PERCEPTION
2 TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE CLAIMS
Formal Knowledge Empirical Knowledge

ANALYTIC CLAIMS EMPIRICAL CLAIMS Logic, mathematics, algebra, and Physics, biology, sociology,
geometry psychology
Matters of logic From experience
Intuitively or demonstratively
Natural and social sciences
Relations of ideas (Hume) Matters of fact (Hume) certain

Truth of reason (Leibniz) Truth of fact (Leibniz)

2 SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE
Denial implies a contradiction Denial is still possible ● The 2 types of knowledge claims are the 2 types of meaningful
statements.
● Knowledge claims are used synonymously to its statement
LOGICAL POSITIVISM counterparts.
● All meaningful statements must have passed the ​verification principle
(statement is cognitively meaningful if it can have a definite value of
true or false FORMAL KNOWLEDGE EMPIRICAL KNOWLEDGE
● Statements that do not pass the verification principle are ​meaningless
(concepts such as good, bad, beauty, justice, etc.) Analytic Statement Empirical Statement
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2 THEORIES OF TRUTH
● Hume’s dichotomy between ​relations of ideas ​and ​matters of fact ​led
to the ​bifurcation of the 2 theories of truth.

FORMAL CLAIM EMPIRICAL CLAIM

Verify by ​correspondence theory of

Verify by ​coherence theory of truth
truth

EMPIRICAL CLAIMS
● Description using a ​declarative sentence ​to ​assert empirical
knowledge claims.
● Truth value can be determined using ​one or more senses.
● EXAMPLE:
 ○ The girl beside me is wearing a red dress.
ANALYTIC CLAIMS
VARIATIONS OF EVALUATIVE CLAIMS
● The predicate is​ contained in the subject.
● The predicate is the ​intension of the subject.
MORAL STATEMENTS DUTY OR OBLIGATORY
● Denial of the statements will lead to contradiction or absurdity.
● If denial does not lead to contradiction or absurdity, the statement Prescribes what should be done or
is not analytic. They could either be true or false.
ought to be done.

NEGATION OF THE STATEMENT STATEMENT PRESCRIPTIVE

(Positive form of command)
Plausible Empirical
EXAMPLES: e.g. ​You should practice what you
Contradictory Analytical preach.
● Sex without love is immoral.
● Polygamy is a mortal sin. PROSCRIPTIVE
THE PARADIGM (Negative form of command)
● The paradigm of analytic statements comes from ​formal systems ​like
mathematics and logic. e.g. ​Do not cheat in your exams.
● EXAMPLE:
○ The sum of the angles of a triangle is equal to 180 degrees.
○ A square is a geometric figure with 4 equal sides.
● The truth depends on its mathematical system where it is a METHOD OF
well-formed formula (WFF) SOURCES KNOWLEDGE CLAIM
VERIFICATION
● Tautological statements ​are statements which are ​always true.
● EXAMPLE: REASON FORMAL ANALYTIC COHERENCE
○ Either I pass this class or not.
○ To be or not to be. SENSE
● Tautological statements and the laws and theorems of algebra and EMPIRICAL EMPIRICAL CORRESPONDENCE
PERCEPTION
geometry are members of the class of analytic statements that are
technically known as ​well-formed formula (WFF). PASSION AND EVALUATIVE INTERSUBJECTIVITY
EVALUATIVE
EMOTIONS JUDGMENT CONSENSUS
STATUS OF EVALUATIVE CLAIMS
● These are ​judgments about value or disvalue, the positive or negative
worth of an act, behavior, object, or event. ❖ The truth value of any claim ​cannot be verified by reason or
● These judgements have its source from what Hume called ​passions experience.
and emotions. ____________________________________________________________________________________________
● Passions and emotions, ​which are considered as the ​third type of
knowledge claim, ​are ​genuine impressions ​that give rise to ​genuine THEORIES OF TRUTH
ideas ​which are not meaningless. Unit 2 - Module 4

COHERENCE THEORY OF TRUTH

● Verifying an ​analytic claim ​through the use of the ​faculty of reason.
● “Coherence” ​is a ​relational term ​for it must relate ​at least two
philosophical categories.
○ Analytic statement
 ○ Systems
Evidence of observation of past
Prediction about the future
regularities
● Any version of the coherence theory must provide an ​account of the
nature of coherence between two philosophical categories.
e.g. ​The sun will rise tomorrow.

FORMAL KNOWLEDGE CLAIM SYSTEMS Use of documents or statements

Past event
from eye witnesses
5 + 7 = 12 ARITHMETIC
e.g. ​People Power I succeeded due to U.S. intervention.
Either I graduate or I don’t. SYMBOLIC LOGIC
Evidence provided by a
Empirical generalization representative sample of the
● Immanuel Kant’s definition of an analytic statement is one where ​the population
predicate is contained in the subject ​(e.g. A ​ ll bachelors are
unmarried males.)​ . e.g. ​Almost all UP students who study hard finish their courses.
○ In this case, the 1st category would be ​“All bachelors are
unmarried males” ​and it must cohere with how the term
“​bachelor” ​is used in the system of the ​English linguistic VERIFICATION BY INTERSUBJECTIVITY CONSENSUS
system. ● Task of ​complying with the process of verification using the
correspondence theory of truth.
CORRESPONDENCE THEORY OF TRUTH ● This task becomes easier if and when the judgment corresponds to the
● Verifying an ​empirical claim ​through the use of the ​senses. value of the moral system of the concerned public ​- intersubjective
● “Correspondence” ​is also a ​relational term; ​thus it must also relate ​at consensus about moral and immoral behavior has already been
least two philosophical categories. codified in a form of moral rule or principles.
○ Empirical knowledge claims in the form of empirical
statements MORAL RULE OR PRINCIPLE
○ Theory of Reality ​- ​state of affairs (​ a situation or set of ❖ Generalization of the intersubjective consensus of people
circumstances) playing a language game and sharing a form of life.
● Truth of falsity of a statement i​s determined by ​how it relates to the
world. DISSONANCE
○ For example, the statement ​“The cat is on the mat” w ​ ill only ❖ An instance where ​a ​strong intersubjective consensus
be true only if it corresponds to the state of affairs where there accepts the evaluative claim but rejects the proscription.
is a cat and a mat, and the cat is on top of the mat.
EVALUATIVE CLAIM PROSCRIPTION
REALIST VERSION OF THE CORRESPONDENCE THEORY OF TRUTH
● Can be used to ​verify empirical and evaluative claims. Plagiarism is wrong. ‘Do not plagiarize’ is right.

EMPIRICAL CLAIM CORRESPONDENCE EVALUATIVE INFERENCE

❖ Prescriptions and proscriptions that came from ​evaluative
Event in the present Direct observation judgments ​of what is good, moral, virtuous, desirable, or just.
e.g. ​The girl beside me is wearing a red dress. ● The ​rightness of an evaluative claim can only be established if you
can ​gather the required intersubjective consensus from a
concerned public.
 ● The strength of an evaluative claim rests on the ​strength of the YOUR OBLIGATION AS A CRITICAL THINKER
intersubjective consensus of the concerned public or audience. Unit 2 - Module 5

TYPES OF JUSTIFICATIONS CRITICAL THINKING

● The intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully
DEONTOLOGICAL TELEOLOGICAL conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating
information gathered from, or generated by, ​observation, experience,
The consensus can focus on the The consensus is focused on the reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and
value of the nature of the act or consequences of the act or action ​(Paul & Scriven, 1987)​.
behavior itself. behavior. ● The ​conscious act ​of evaluating, judging, and criticizing the ​worth or
value ​of another person’s action, belief, behavior, intellectual, and
rational product ​(Acuna, 2006).
● The best justification for a legal policy proposal is to ​demonstrate that ● Occurs when students (people) are analyzing, evaluating, interpreting,
the nature of the act is good in itself ​and the ​consequence of the act or synthesizing information and ​applying creative thought ​to form an
is beneficial. argument, solve a problem, or reach a conclusion ​(The Glossary of
Education Reform, 2013).

COHERENCE THEORY OF TRUTH SKILLS NEEDED IN CRITICAL THINKING ​(Erstad, 2018)

ANALYTIC Ability to ​identify the existing
EMPIRICAL EVALUATIVE
STATEMENTS problem, situation, people
STATEMENTS STATEMENTS IDENTIFICATION SKILLS
(System of truths) involved, and factors influencing
it/them.

Ability to ​verify claim through the

CORRESPONDENCE THEORY OF TRUTH
THEORY OF REALITY
Correspondence to
the state of affairs
____________________________________________________________________________________________
RESEARCHING SKILLS use of extensive research from
reliable sources.
INTERSUBJECTIVE
REALIST VERSION
CONSENSUS Identifying biases​ of your own and
ABILITY TO IDENTIFY BIASES
that of other people as well.
Adherence to the
moral rule or Basically ​extrapolation​; ​assessing
principle INFERENCE information on hand ​and​ looking
Verification of for possible answers or solutions.
empirical and ● Deontological
evaluative claims - on the act Knowing the relevance of
itself ABILITY IN DETERMINING
something ​in order to determine
● Teleological ​- RELEVANCE
which points to focus on.
consequences
Ability to ​ask and probe
CURIOSITY open-ended questions​ regarding
the things around us.
OBLIGATIONS
IN FACT IN PRINCIPLE
● One of the most important learning outcomes from philosophical
analysis is the ability to internalize the one obligation that comes with
Evidence can be produced
critical thinking - ​never accept the truth of any statement or belief Evidence is readily available.
hypothetically, but cannot be in fact.
unless there is an adequate amount of evidence that supports it
(Acuna, 2006)​.
● When the support is inadequate, one must reject or suspect the ● Do not readily accept statements just because they are told by the
belief. elderly or your friends.
● In order to remain faithful to this obligation, he also cited the ​3 ● Shield yourself from believing in rumors and superstitions
epistemic distinctions ​that we should be clear about: because most of them are unprovable or part of the realm of the
unknown.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
KNOWN KNOWABLE UNKNOWN

The ​claim is
Provided by the
Usually an unprovable; ​and in
empirical sciences ​and
extrapolation of the principle, ​evidence is
things that are part of
known ​and are ​still available or can be
this realm were once
being probed by the produced to support
part of the realm of
sciences. the statement or
the knowable.
claim.

EXAMPLES:
Cloning of humans,
origin of life

EXAMPLES: ON THE WAY TO EXAMPLES:

DNA testing, cloning BEING Existence of heaven and
animals, existence of FULLY-KNOWN: hell, what happens after
black holes, presence of How Jupiter looks like, death, reincarnation ​(if
climate change cure for cancer taken empirically)

BORDERLINE
UNKNOWABLE:
Origin of the universe

SUSPEND JUDGEMENT
ACCEPT (provable) REJECT (unprovable)
(provable)

● If taken as ​evaluative claims, ​use the ​intersubjective consensus.

● Evidence can be produced in fact or in principle: