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BEAM-COLUMNS
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DEFINITION
While many structural members can be treated as axially loaded columns or as
beams with only flexural loading, most beams and columns are subjected to some
degree of both bending and axial load. This is especially true of statically indeterminate
structures. Even the roller support of a simple beam can experience friction that
restrains the beam longitudinally, inducing axial tension when transverse loads are
applied. In this particular case, however, the secondary effects are usually small and
can be neglected. Many columns can be treated as pure compression members with
negligible error. If the column is a one-story member and can be treated as pinned at
both ends, the only bending will result from minor accidental eccentricity of the load.
For many structural members, however, there will be a significant amount of both
effects, and such members are called beam–columns. Consider the rigid frame in
Figure 6.1. For the given loading condition, the horizontal member AB must not only
support the vertical uniform load but must also assist the vertical members in resisting
the concentrated lateral load P1. Member CD is a more critical case, because it must
resist the load P1 + P2 without any assistance from the vertical members. The reason
is that the x-bracing, indicated by dashed lines, prevents sidesway in the lower story.
For the direction of P2 shown, member ED will be in tension and member CF will be
slack, provided that the bracing elements have been designed to resist only tension.
For this condition to occur, however, member CD must transmit the load P1 + P2 from
C to D.
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The vertical members of this frame must also be treated as beam–columns. In the
upper story, members AC and BD will bend under the influence of P1. In addition, at
A and B, bending moments are transmitted from the horizontal member through the
rigid joints. This transmission of moments also takes place at C and D and is true in
any rigid frame, although these moments are usually smaller than those resulting
from lateral loads. Most columns in rigid frames are actually beam–columns, and the
effects of bending should not be ignored. However, many isolated one-story columns
can be realistically treated as axially loaded compression members.

Another example of beam–columns

can sometimes be found in roof
trusses. Although the top chord is
normally treated as an axially loaded
compression member, if purlins are
placed between the joints, their
reactions will cause bending, which
must be accounted for.
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Figure 6.2
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METHODS OF ANALYSIS FOR REQUIRED STRENGTH
The foregoing approach to the analysis of members subjected to both bending and
axial load is satisfactory so long as the axial load is not too large. The presence of the
axial load produces secondary moments, and unless the axial load is relatively small,
these additional moments must be accounted for. For an explanation, refer to Figure
6.3, which shows a beam–column with an axial load and a transverse uniform load. At
an arbitrary point O, there is a bending moment caused by the uniform load and an
additional moment Py, caused by the axial load acting at an eccentricity from the
longitudinal axis of the member. This secondary moment is largest where the deflection
𝑤𝐿2
is largest—in this case, at the centerline, where the total moment is + 𝑃𝛿. Of course,
28
the additional moment causes an additional deflection over and above that resulting
from the transverse load. Because the total deflection cannot be found directly, this
problem is nonlinear, and without knowing the deflection, we cannot compute the
moment.
In addition to the secondary moments caused by member deformation (P-𝛿
moments, shown in Figure 6.4a), additional secondary moments are present when one
end of the member translates with respect to the other. These moments are called
P-Δ moments and are illustrated in Figure 6.4b. In a braced frame, the member ends
do not undergo translation, so only the P-𝛿 moments are present. In an unbraced
frame, the additional moment, PΔ, increases the end moment. The distribution of
moments in the member is therefore a combination of the primary moment, the P-d
moment, and the P-Δ moment.
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An unbraced rigid frame depends on the transfer of moments at its joints for
stability. For this reason, unbraced frames are frequently referred to as moment
frames. Multistory buildings can consist of a combination of braced frames and
moment frames. For all but the simplest of structures, a computerized frame analysis
is required to obtain the bending moments and axial loads. The analysis gives the
required strength of members. As covered in Compression Chapter, the available
strength of compression members takes into account member out-of-straightness and
inelasticity.
The analysis for the required strength should account for the displaced geometry,
member out-of-plumbness (deviation from vertical), and inelasticity. Ordinary structural
analysis methods that do not take the displaced geometry into account are called first-
order methods. Iterative analyses that account for these effects are referred to as
second-order methods.
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AISC Specification Chapter C, ―Design for Stability,‖ provides three approaches

for determining the required flexural and axial compressive strength: the direct analysis
method, the effective length method, and the first-order analysis method.

1. The direct analysis method is a second-order analysis that considers both P-
and P-Δ effects. As an alternative, an approximate second-order analysis, as given in
Appendix 8, can be used. This approach uses amplified first-order moments and axial
loads. Both the second-order analysis and the approximate second-order analysis are
considered direct analysis methods. In the direct analysis method, member stiffnesses
are reduced, and an effective length factor of K = l is used both in the analysis and in
computing the available strength from AISC Chapter 4.
2. The effective length method of analysis is covered in Appendix 7. It also requires a
second-order or approximate second-order analysis. Computation of the corresponding
available strength has been discussed in Chapter 4, ―Compression Members.‖ As the
name implies, an effective length factor, K, must be determined. Member stiffnesses are
not reduced.
3. The first-order analysis method is a simplified version of the direct analysis method
that can be used when certain conditions are satisfied. It is covered in Appendix 7. For
the available strength, an effective length factor of K = 1 is used. Member stiffnesses
are not reduced.
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All columns in real structures are subject to initial displacements that result from
member out-of-plumbness. In each of the three analysis methods, member out-of-
plumbness is accounted for by including fictitious lateral loads, called notional loads,
in the load combinations.
The direct analysis method is the preferred method. If the appropriate software
is available, a second-order analysis is the method of choice. If a second-order
analysis is not available, the moment amplification method, which is an acceptable
direct analysis approach, can be used. In this book, the results of structural analyses
will be given in all examples and problems. The reader will not be required to perform
an analysis. If the bending moment and axial force are from a second-order analysis,
you can go straight to the interaction equations from AISC Specification Chapter H. If
the required strengths are from first-order analyses, the moment amplification
method, an approximate second-order analysis given in Appendix 8, can be used.
This method will be covered in detail in the following sections.
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MEMBERS IN BRACED FRAMES

The amplification factor given by Expression 6.7 was derived for a member braced
against sidesway—that is, one whose ends cannot translate with respect to each
other. Figure 6.6 shows a member of this type subjected to equal end moments
producing single-curvature bending (bending that produces tension or compression on
one side throughout the length of the member). Maximum moment amplification
occurs at the center, where the deflection is largest. For equal end moments, the
moment is constant throughout the length of the member, so the maximum primary
moment also occurs at the center. Thus the maximum secondary moment and
maximum primary moment are additive. Even if the end moments are not equal, as
long as one is clockwise and the other is counter-clockwise there will be single-
curvature bending, and the maximum primary and secondary moments will occur
near each other.
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That is not the case if applied end moments produce reverse-curvature bending
as shown in Figure 6.7. Here the maximum primary moment is at one of the ends, and
maximum moment amplification occurs between the ends. Depending on the value
of the axial load P, the amplified moment can be either larger or smaller than the end
moment. The maximum moment in a beam–column therefore depends on the
distribution of bending moment within the member. This distribution is accounted for by
a factor, Cm, applied to the amplification factor given by Expression 6.7. The
amplification factor given by Expression 6.7 was derived for the worst case, so Cm will
never be greater than 1.0. The final form of the amplification factor is
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Figure 6.20
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Figure 6.21
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End of Beam-Column

Notes: