MEE ABSOLUTE
ntensive one year MATERIAL
COURSE Course Material
CYTOLOGY
Syllabus : Cell as basic unit of life, Mitochondria, Plastids, Nucleus, Golgi complex, ER, Ribosomes, Lysosomes,
Microbodies, Sphaerosomes, Peroxisomes, Cilia & Flagella Basal body, Cytoplasm, Cell wal & Plasma membrane
(As mentioned for AIPMT)
History of Cell biology
 Credit for the first compound (more than one lens)
microscope is usually given to Zacharias Jansen,
of Middleburg, Holland, around the year 1595.
 In 1663 an English scientist (mathematician),
Robert Hooke, discovered cells in a piece of cork,
Actually, Hooke only observed cell walls because
cork cells are dead and without cytoplasmic
contents and also coined the word CELL.
 The word cell is derived from the Latin word
'cellula' which means small compartment.
 Hooke published his findings in his famous work,
Micrographia: Physiological Descriptions of
Minute Bodies made by Magnifying Glasses
(1665). He is the Father of Cytology.
 Ten years later Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632-
1723), a Dutch businessman and a contemporary of
Hooke used his own (single lens) monocular
microscopes and was the first person to observe
bacteria and protozoa.
 Leeuwenhoek is known to have made over 500
"microscopes," of which fewer than ten have
survived to the present day.
 Leeuwenhoek looked at animal and plant tissues, at
mineral crystals, and at fossils. He was the first to
see microscopic single celled protists with shells,
the foraminifera, which he described as "little
cockles. . . no bigger than a coarse sand-grain." He
discovered blood cells, and was the first to see
living sperm cells of animals. He discovered
microscopic animals such as nematodes (round
worms) and rotifers. The list of his discoveries is
long.
 Leeuwenhoek is Father of Bacteriology.
Cell Theory
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 The Cell theory, or Cell doctrine, states that all
organisms are composed of similar units of
organization, called cells.
 The concept was formally articulated in 1839 by
Schleiden & Schwann and has remained as the
foundation of modern biology.
 The Cell Theory is to Biology as Atomic Theory is
to Physics.
 The theory states that : (1) The cell is the unit of
structure, physiology, and organization in living
things.
(2) The cell retains a dual existence as a distinct
entity and a building block in the construction of
organisms.
(3) Cells form by free-cell formation, similar to
the formation of crystals (spontaneous generation).
Objections to Cell Theory:
We know today that the first two tenets are correct, but
the third is clearly wrong. The correct interpretation of
cell formation by division was finally promoted by
others and formally enunciated in Rudolph Virchow's
powerful dictum, "Omnis cellula e cellula"... "All cells
only arise from pre-existing cells".
The modern tenets of the Cell Theory include:
1. all known living things are made up of cells.
2. the cell is structural & functional unit of all living
things.
3. all cells come from pre-existing cells by division.
(Spontaneous Generation does not occur).
4. cells contains hereditary information which is passed
from cell to cell during cell division.
5. All cells are basically the same in chemical
composition.
6. all energy flow (metabolism & biochemistry) of life
occurs within cells.
Types of Cell :
 Cells fall into prokaryotic (protocyte) and
eukaryotic (eucyte) types.
 Terms eukaryote and prokaryote proposed by
Edward Chaffon in 1937 and later followed by
Dougherty.
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 Prokaryotic cell lack membrane bound cell
organelles including true nucleus.
 Eucyte contains all membrane bound cell
organelles.
 Prokaryotic cells are smaller (as a general rule) and
lack much of the internal compartmentalization and
complexity of eukaryotic cells.
 No matter which type of cell we are considering, all
cells have certain features in common: cell
membrane, DNA, cytoplasm, and ribosomes.
 Dinoflagellates (plant like protists) are
mesokaryotic cells show resemblance with both
prokaryotes and eukaryotes. They contain the true
nucleus without histones.
Cell Size and Shape
 The shapes of cells are quite varied with some, such
as neurons, being longer than they are wide and
others, such as parenchyma (a common type of
plant cell) and erythrocytes (red blood cells) being
equidimensional. Some cells are encased in a rigid
wall, which constrains their shape, while others
have a flexible cell membrane (and no rigid cell
wall). MITOCHONDRIA (Term by C. Benda)
 The size of cells is also related to their functions.  Mitochondrion (plural mitochondria) (from
 Eggs (or to use the latin word, ova) are very large, Greek μιτος or mitos, thread + κοσδριον or
often being the largest cells an organism produces. khondrion, granule) is a membrane-enclosed
organelle, found in most eukaryotic cells.
 The large size of many eggs is related to
 Mitochondria are sometimes described as "cellular
the process of development that occurs power plants", ATP generator, Biochemical
after the egg is fertilized, when the machine, Power house because they convert food
contents of the egg (now termed a zygote) molecules into energy in the form of ATP via the
are used in a rapid series of cellular process of oxidative phosphorylation.
divisions, each requiring tremendous  A typical eukaryotic cell contains about 2,000
amounts of energy that is available in the mitochondria, which occupy roughly one fifth of
zygote cells. Later in life the energy must its total volume.
be acquired, but at first a sort of  Mitochondria contain DNA that is partially
independent of the DNA located in the cell
inheritance/trust fund of energy is used.
nucleus.
 According to the endosymbiotic theory,
mitochondria are descended from free-living
prokaryotes.
 1857 : Kölliker discovers the mitochondria in
muscle.

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 1890 : Altmann describes a technique to dye
mitochondria and postulate their metabolic and
genetic autonomy and given the name “Bioblast”.
 Benda named them as mitochondria.
Fine Structure: Studied by Sjostrand
and Palade
 A mitochondrion contains inner and outer
membranes composed of phospholipid bilayers
and proteins.
 The two membranes, however, have different
properties. Because of this double-membraned
organization, there are 5 distinct compartments
within mitochondria. There is the outer membrane,
the intermembrane space (the space between the
outer and inner membranes), the inner membrane,
the cristae space (formed by infoldings of the inner
membrane), and the matrix (space within the inner
membrane).
 Mitochondria range from 1 to 10 micrometers
(μm) in size. Second largest cell organelle of
animal cell.
Outer membrane
 The outer mitochondrial membrane, which encloses
the entire organelle, has a protein-to-phospholipid
ratio similar to the eukaryotic plasma membrane
(about 1:1 by weight).
 It contains numerous integral proteins called
porins, which contain a relatively large internal
channel (about 2-3 nm) that is permeable to all
molecules of 5000 daltons or less. Larger
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molecules can only traverse the outer membrane by
active transport.
Inner membrane
 The inner mitochondrial membrane contains
proteins with four types of functions:
1. Those that carry out the oxidation reactions of the
respiratory chain.
2. ATP synthase, which makes ATP in the matrix.
3. Specific transport proteins that regulate the passage
of metabolites into and out of the matrix.
4. Protein import machinery.
 It contains more than 100 different polypeptides,
and has a very high protein-to-phospholipid ratio
(more than 3:1 by weight, which is about 1 protein
for 15 phospholipids).
 Additionally, the inner membrane is rich in an
unusual phospholipid, cardiolipin, which is usually
characteristic of bacterial plasma membranes.
 Unlike the outer membrane, the inner membrane
does not contain porins, and is highly impermeable;
almost all ions and molecules require special
membrane transporters to enter or exit the matrix.
In addition, there is a membrane potential across
the inner membrane.
 The inner mitochondrial membrane is
compartmentalized into numerous cristae, which
expand the surface area of the inner mitochondrial
membrane, enhancing its ability to generate ATP.
 In typical liver mitochondria, for example, the
surface area, including cristae, is about five times
that of the outer membrane.
 Mitochondria of cells which have greater
demand for ATP, such as muscle cells, contain
more cristae than typical liver mitochondria.
 Mitochondria of muscle cells are called
Sarcosomes.
Matrix or Mitoplasm or inner chamber
 The matrix is the space enclosed by the inner
membrane.
 The matrix contains a highly concentrated mixture
of hundreds of enzymes, in addition to the special
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 mitochondrial ribosomes, tRNA, and several copies
of the mitochondrial DNA genome.
 Of the enzymes, the major functions include
oxidation of pyruvate and fatty acids, and the
citric acid cycle.
Mitochondrial functions
Although it is well known that the mitochondria convert
organic materials into cellular energy in the form of
ATP, mitochondria play an important role in many
metabolic tasks, such as:
 Apoptosis-programmed cell death
 Glutamate-mediated excitotoxic neuronal injury
 Cellular proliferation
 Regulation of the cellular redox state
 Heme synthesis
 Steroid synthesis
 Mitochondria store free calcium, a process that is
one important event for the homestasis of calcium
in the cell.
Energy conversion
A dominant role for the mitochondria is the production
of ATP as reflected by the large number of proteins in
the inner membrane for this task. This is done by
oxidising the major products of glycolysis: pyruvate and
NADH that are produced in the cytosol. This process of
cellular respiration, also known as aerobic respiration,
is dependent on the presence of oxygen.
When oxygen is limited the glycolytic products will be
metabolised by anaerobic respiration a process that is
independent of the mitochondria. The production of
ATP from glucose has an approximately 15 fold
higher yield during aerobic respiration compared to
anaerobic respiration.
Origin
 As mitochondria contain ribosomes and DNA, and
are only formed by the division of other
mitochondria, it is generally accepted that they
were originally derived from endosymbiotic
prokaryotes.
 Studies of mitochondrial DNA, which is often
circular and employs a variant genetic code, show
their ancestor, the so-called proto-mitochondrion,
was a member of the Proteobacteria.
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 Mitochondrial ribosomes are the 70S (bacterial)
type, in contrast to the 80S ribosomes found
elsewhere in the cell. As in prokaryotes, there is a
very high proportion of coding DNA, and an
absence of repeats.
 Mitochondrial genes are transcribed as multigenic
transcripts which are cleaved and polyadenylated to
yield mature mRNAs. Unlike their nuclear cousins,
mitochondrial genes are small, generally lacking
introns, and many chromosomes are circular,
conforming to the bacterial pattern.
Replication and gene inheritance
Mitochondria replicate their DNA (mt DNA) and
divide mainly in response to the energy needs of the
cell; in other words, their growth and division is not
linked to the cell cycle.
When the energy needs of a cell are high, mitochondria
grow and divide. When the energy use is low,
mitochondria are destroyed or become inactive
(Orthodox state).
Mitochondria divide by binary fission similar to
bacterial cell division.
Unlike bacteria, however, mitochondria can also fuse
with other mitochondria and forms a
chondrosphere.
Mitochondrial numbers are controlled by
autophagy. This is a process by which lysosomes are
involved in controlling cell constituents.
Sometimes new mitochondria are synthesized in
centers that are rich in the proteins and polysomes
needed for their synthesis.
Mitochondria have some of their own DNA, ribosomes,
and can make many of their own proteins.
The DNA is circular and lies in the matrix.in punctate
structures called "nucleoids". Each nucleoid may
contain 4-5 copies of the mitochondrial DNA (mt
DNA).
Human mitochondrial DNA is 16,569 bp; encodes a
number of mitochondrial proteins
 Subunits 1, 2, and 3 of cytochrome oxidase
 Subunits 6, 8,9 of the Fo ATPase
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 Apocytochrome b subunit of CoQH2-Cytochrome  amyloplasts - colorless plant organelle related to
C reductase starch production & storage
 Seven NADH-CoQ reductase subunits  aleuroplasts or Proteinoplast or aleuronoplast-
Mitochondria also have their own ribosomes and tRNA: colorless plant organelle related to protein
production & storage
 22 tRNAs ; rRNAs 16S 12S 5S
 elaioplasts or lipoplasts - colorless plant organelle
Special Points
related to oil & lipid production & storage
 mitoplasts (mitochondria without the outer
CHROMOPLASTS - often red, yellow or orange in
membrane).
color; they are found in petals of flowers and in fruit.
 Colour of mitochondrion is yellow due to their color is due to two pigments, carotene and
vitamin B2 (riboflavin). xanthophyll.
 Life span is around 5 days. Function - primary function in the cells of flowers is to
attract agents of pollination, and in fruit to attract agents
PLASTID (Term by Haeckel) of dispersal.
 Plastids are responsible for photosynthesis, storage
CHLOROPLAST (Term by Schimper)
of products like starch and for the synthesis of
many classes of molecules such as fatty acids and
terpenes which are needed as cellular building
blocks and/or for the function of the plant.
 Depending on their morphology and function,
plastids have the ability to differentiate, or
redifferentiate, between these and other forms.
 All plastids are derived from proplastids (formerly
"eoplasts", eo-: dawn, early), which are present in
the meristematic regions of the plant.
 Proplastids and young chloroplasts commonly
divide, but more mature chloroplasts also have this
capacity.
 In plants, plastids may differentiate into several  Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells
forms, depending upon which function they need and eukaryotic algae that conduct photosynthesis
to play in the cell. called Autoplast, Food factory, Solar Cooker or
Biological cooker.
Undifferentiated plastids (proplastids) may develop into
 Chloroplasts absorb sunlight and use it in
any of the following plastids:
conjunction with water and carbon dioxide gas to
ETIOPLAST - plastid whose development into a produce food for the plant.
chloroplast has been arrested (stopped)  Chloroplasts capture light energy from the sun to
by lack of light. They contain a dark crystalline bodies, produce the free energy stored in ATP and NADPH
called prolamellar body, which is essentially a cluster through a process called photosynthesis.
of thylakoid membranes in a somewhat tubular form.  It is derived from the Greek words chloros which
means green and plast which means form ( in
LEUCOPLAST types: non-pigmented
plastids... (colourless plastid)

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 biological terms it can be more roughly translated
as organelle or cell ).
 Chloroplasts are flat discs usually 2-10 micrometer
in diameter and 1 micrometer thick.
 Chloroplasts contain several important
membranes, vital for their function.
 Like mitochondria, chloroplasts have a double-
membrane envelope, called the chloroplast
envelope.
 Each membrane is a phospholipid bilayer, between
6 and 8 nm thick, and the two are separated by a
gap of 10-20nm, called the intermembrane space.
 The outer membrane is permeable to most ions and
metabolites, but the inner membrane is highly
specialised with transport proteins.
 Within the inner membrane, in the region called the
stroma or chloroplasm, there is a system of
interconnecting flattened membrane compartments,
called the photosynthetic lamellae, or thylakoids
(Term by Menke).
 These are the sites of light absorption and ATP
synthesis, and contain many proteins, including
those involved in the electron transport chain.
 Photosynthetic pigments such as chlorophyll a and
b, and some others e.g. xanthophylls and
carotenoids are also located within this space.
Functions of Thylakoids
The membranes of the thylakoids contain photosystems
I and II which harvest solar energy in order to excite
electrons which travel down the electron transport
chain. This exergonic fall in potential energy along the
way is used to pump H+ ions from the stroma into the
thylakoid space. A concentration gradient is formed,
which allows chemiosmosis to occur, where the protein
ATP synthase harvests the potential energy of the
Hydrogen ions and uses it to combine ADP and a
phosphate group to form ATP.
Origin of chloroplast
Chloroplasts are one of the many unique cells in the
body, and are generally considered to have
originated as endosymbiotic cyanobacteria
 Some dinoflagellates take up algae as food and
keep the plastid of the digested alga to profit from
the photosynthesis; after a while the plastids are
also digested. These captured plastids are known as
kleptoplastids.
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 endosymbionts by Lynn Margulis - 1981
 Pelomyxa palustis is a eukaryotic amoeba, that
lacks mitochondria, yet holds aerobic bacteria
within its cytoplasm (in a symbiotic relationship).
 Chloroplasts share a common molecular ancestry
[DNA sequences are similar] with the
cyanobacteria (the 1st photosynthetic prokaryotes).
Number striking similarities of Bacteria
& Mitochondria/Chloroplasts
 both organelles are double membrane
bound.... possibly the result of.....
 both are semiautonomous : derived from
themselves, by divisional fission...
i.e., replicate independently from their cell
hosts
 both have their own DNA (a circular
molecule like DNA of prokaryotes) & protein
biosynthetic systems (can make some of own
proteins)
 DNA sequence homology.... each has similar
DNA sequences mitochondria to aerobic
bacteria chloroplasts to cyanobacteria
 ribosomes are same size as bacterial
ribosomes (70s) (in euk = 80s)
Endomembrane System (Vacuolar System
or Cytocavity network)
 The endomembrane system is the system of
internal membranes within eukaryotic cells that
divide the cell into functional and structural
compartments, or organelles.
 Prokaryotes do not have an endomembrane system
and thus lack most organelles.
 The endomembrane system also provides a
transport system, for moving molecules through the
interior of the cell, as well as interactive surfaces
for lipid and protein synthesis. The membranes that
make up the endomembrane system are made of a
lipid bilayer, with proteins attached to either side or
traversing them.
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The following organelles are part of the endomembrane
system:
 The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer
membrane that separates the cell from its
environment and regulates the transport of
molecules and signals into and out of the cell.
 The nuclear envelope is the membrane around the
nucleus of the cell. The nucleus itself is not part of
the Endomembrane system.
 The endoplasmic reticulum is a synthesis and
transport organelle that is an extension of the
nuclear envelope.
 The Golgi apparatus acts as the packaging and
delivery system for molecules.
 Lysosomes are the "digestive" units of the cell.
They utilize enzymes to break down
macromolecules and also act as a waste disposal
system.
 Vacuoles act as storage units in some cells.
 Vesicles are small membrane-enclosed transport
units that can transfer molecules between different
compartments.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULM
Term E.R. was first used by Porter and Thompson
(1945). Observed with the Electron microscope in the
cytoplasm of fibroblast-like cells in culture of chick
embryonic tissues
 The endoplasmic reticulum also called endo-
skeleton (endoplasmic meaning "within the
cytoplasm," reticulum meaning "little net" in Latin)
or ER is an organelle found in all eukaryotic cells
that is an interconnected network of tubules,
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vesicles and cisternae that is responsible for several
specialized functions:
 .Protein translation, folding, and transport of
proteins (e.g., transmembrane receptors and other
integral membrane proteins) to be used in the cell
membrane, or to be secreted (exocytosed) from the
cell (e.g., digestive enzymes); sequestration of
calcium; production and storage of glycogen,
steroids, and other macromolecules.
 E.R. is found in all eukaryotic cells except human
RBC‟s, egg & embryonic cells and those of cancer
cells, absent in prokaryotes.
 Spermatocytes have poorly developed E.R.
 The endoplasmic reticulum is part of the
endomembrane system.
 The basic structure and composition of the ER
membrane is similar to the plasma membrane.
 The endoplasmic reticulum consists of an extensive
membrane network of tubules (branched
cisternae of 50-100 mμ) and cisternae ( long sac-
like membrane bound structures of 40-50μm)
held together by the cytoskeleton.
 The membrane encloses a space, the cisternal
space (or internal lumen) from the cytosol. Parts of
the endoplasmic reticulum membrane are
continuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear
envelope, and the cisternal space of the
endoplasmic reticulum is continuous with the space
between the two layers of the nuclear envelope (the
intermembrane space).
 Parts of the endoplasmic reticulum are covered with
ribosomes (which assemble amino acids into
proteins based on instructions from the nucleus).
 Their rough appearance under electron microscope
led to their being called rough endoplasmic
reticulum (rER), other parts are free of ribosomes
and are called smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(sER).
 The ribosomes on the surface of the rough
endoplasmic reticulum insert the freshly produced
proteins directly into the endoplasmic reticulum,
which processes them and then passes them on to
the Golgi apparatus .
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (Granular
endoplasmic Reticulum)
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 The rough endoplasmic reticulum contains protein-
manufacturing ribosomes (the ribosomes on its
surface are responsible for its being named
"rough") and transports proteins. Ribosomes are
attached to the membrane by the large 60S
subunit.
 Membrane of RER conatins two transmembrane
glycoproteins Ribophorin-I & II.
 RER occupies 20% of the cytoplasmic-volume.
 RER occupies the region of the cytoplasm that
appear to be basophilic-ergastoplasm (term by
Garnier).
 Total surface of the ER in liver tissue is about
11m2. 2/3rd is of RER.
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum is connected to the
nuclear envelope as well as linked to the cisternae
of the Golgi apparatus by vesicles that shuttle
between the two compartments.
 The rough endoplasmic reticulum works in concert
with the Golgi complex to target new proteins to
their proper destinations.
 RER of nerve cells is called Nissl granules or Nissl
bodies.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (Agranular
Endoplasmic Reticulum)
 The smooth endoplasmic reticulum has functions in
several metabolic processes, including synthesis of
lipids, metabolism of carbohydrates and calcium
concentration, attachment of receptors on cell
membrane proteins.
 It is connected to the nuclear envelope.
 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is found in adipose
cells, interstitial cells, glycogen storing cells of
liver, spermatocytes and leukocytes and corpus
luteum of ovary. It serves different functions in
each.
 In plant cells develops at the surface where the
cellulose wall of the cell is being formed.
 It consists of tubules and vesicles that branch
forming a network. In some cells there are dilated
areas like the sacs of rough endoplasmic reticulum.
 The network of smooth endoplasmic reticulum
allows increased surface area for the action or
storage of key enzymes and the products of these
enzymes.
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 The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is known for its
storage of calcium ions in muscle cells.
 The sarcoplasmic reticulum is a special type of
smooth ER found in striated muscle, which is
specialized for calcium storage and release during
muscle contraction.
 In the retinal cells it exists in the form of vesicles
and tubes known as myeloid bodies.
Annulate Lamellae: In some invertebrates, oocytes and
spermatocytes of the vertebrates. ER conatins
annuli or pores. This form is called Annulate ER.
It occurs near the nucleus and forms a new nuclear
membrane.
Chemical composition:
 ER contains 60-70% protein (33 types); 30-40%
phospholipids.
 ER conatins more proteins than the plasma
membrane.
 There is nore lipid in relation to proteins in the SER
and Golgi membranes than in isolation.
Microsome is a small vesicle that is derived from
fragmented endoplasmic reticulum (ER) produced
when tissues such as liver are mechanically broken
(homogenized). Microsomes can be concentrated
and separated from other cellular organelles by
using a centrifuge to produce differential
centrifugation.
Functions
 Secretory proteins are moved across the
endoplasmic reticulum membrane.
 Proteins that are transported by the endoplasmic
reticulum and from there throughout the cell are
marked with an address tag called a signal
sequence.
 Proteins that are destined for places outside
the endoplasmic reticulum are packed into
transport vesicles and moved along the
cytoskeleton toward their destination.
 Insertion of proteins into the endoplasmic
reticulum membrane: Integral proteins must be
inserted into the endoplasmic reticulum membrane
after they are synthesized. Insertion into the
endoplasmic reticulum membrane requires the
correct topogenic sequences.
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 Glycosylation: Glycosylation involves the
attachment of oligosaccharides.
 Disulfide bond formation and rearrangement:
Disulfide bonds stabilize the tertiary and quaternary
structure of many proteins.
Functions of SER
 The smooth endoplasmic reticulum packages
proteins for transport, synthesizes membrane
phospholipids,
 Synthesis of cholesterol and steroid hormones.
 Transformation of bile pigments,
 Glycogenolysis (the breakdown of glycogen),
 Detoxification of many drugs and chemical
agents. The elimination of foreign compounds
(xenobiotics) such as drugs and toxins from the
body is an essential process designed to protect
against potential toxicity from the foods we eat.
 The food broken down in the stomach is absorbed
by the small intestine and then ferried directly to
the liver via the portal vein. This allows the liver
time to detoxify compounds before they are
distributed through the circulatory system.
 In the liver, there are two main types of metabolism
that deal with xenobiotics, and a third that deals
with their transport.
Calcium storage: The smooth endoplasmic reticulum
serves as a major storage and release site of intracellular
calcium ions. This is of particular importance in striated
muscles which must be able to continually contract.
He developed the Silver-chromate method or Silver
Impregnation methodfor studying the histological
details of nerve cells.
Golgi Complex
(Secretory House or Export firm)
 The Golgi apparatus (also called the Golgi body,
Golgi complex, or dictyosome) is an organelle
found in typical eukaryotic cells.
 It was identified in 1898 by the Italian physician
Camillo Golgi in Purkinje cells of barn owl and cat.
and was named after him.
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 Golgi awarded the Nobel prize in 1906.
 He observed the nerve cells contained an internal
reticular network which stains black with the Ag
stain. He called this structure “apparato reticolare
interno”or Internal reticulum apparatus.
 Since the refractive Index of the Golgi appartus is
similar to that of cytosol. It was thought to be
artifact of various fixation and staining
procedures.
 Holmgren described a clear system of canals and
called it trophospongium.
 Golgi apparatus were called Lipochondria by
Baker.
 Sjostrand called it as γ-cytomembrane.
 Electron microscope study was done by Dalton
and Felix so known as Dalton‟s Complex.
 Absent in all prokaryotic cells; some eukaryotes
such as few fungi, sperms of bryophytes and
pteridophytes, cells of mature sieve tubes, size and
no. of golgi bodies vary from one type of cell to
another and according to the cell‟s metabolic
activity.
 Abundant in roots of corn and algal rhizoids.
 Pinularia and Microsterias possess a single and
complicated Golgi apparatus.
 In higher plants, golgi apparatuses are common in
secretory cells and in young rapidely dividing
cells.
 In higher plants, dictyosomes are found scattered
throughout the cytoplasm.
 The Gogli bodies of plant cells are about 1-3micron
in length and 0.5 micrometer high.
 The primary function of the Golgi apparatus is to
process and package macromolecules synthesised
by the cell, primarily proteins and lipids. The Golgi
apparatus forms a part of the endomembrane
system present in eukaryotic cells.
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Structure:
 The Golgi apparatus is pleomorphic, composed of
a stack of flattened, membrane-bound sacs known
as cisternae or saccules. Group of cisternae form a
dictyosome. Group of dictyosome forms Golgi
complex.
 Cisternae is simplest and functional unit of Golgi
complex.
 Each cisterna is bounded by a smooth unit
membrane (7.5 mm thick) having a lumen varying
from about 500-1000nm). In each stack cisternae
are separated by a space of 20-30 nm.
 In strict sense dictyosome does not include vesicles
that fuse with or discharged from the margins of
cisternae.
 Between five and eight are usually present,
however as many as sixty have been observed.
 The cisternae stack has three functional regions:
cisternae at the covex end forms the cis face or
forming space or proximal face, medial region,
and cisternae at the concave end forms the trans
face or maturing face or distal end or shipping
side.
 Forming face is present next to the nucleus or a part
of the E.R.. This part of ER is called transitional
ER lacks ribosomes.
 Maturing face is directed towards the plasma
membrane.
 The golgi region is now thought to be an extension
of SER.
 Surrounding the main cisternae are a number of
spherical vesicles which have budded off from the
cisternae.
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 Vesicles from the endoplasmic reticulum fuse with
the facing cis face and subsequently progress
through the stack to the trans face, where they are
packaged and sent to the required destination.
 The third part of organelle is tubule which is a
complex, anastomosing flat network of diameter
300-500A.
 Each region contains different enzymes which
selectively modify the contents depending on where
they are destined to reside. Cells synthesise a large
number of different macromolecules required for
life.
 A differentiated region of cytoplasm around Golgi-
complex where ribosomes, glycogen and other
organelles are absent is called Zone of Exclusion
or Golgi ground substance.
 Organelle contains 60% lipids.
 The Golgi apparatus is integral in modifying,
sorting, and packaging these substances for cell
secretion (exocytosis) or for use within the cell. It
primarily modifies proteins delivered from the
rough endoplasmic reticulum, but is also involved
in the transport of lipids around the cell, and the
creation of lysosome.
 In this respect it can be thought of as similar to a
post office; it packages and labels "items" and then
sends them to different parts of the cell.
 Enzymes within the cisternae are able to modify
substances by the addition of carbohydrates
(glycosylation) and phosphate (phosphorylation)
to them.
 Proteins are also labelled with a signal sequence of
molecules which determine their final destination.
For example, the Golgi apparatus adds a mannose-
6-phosphate label to proteins destined for
lysosomes.
 Vesicles which leave the rough endoplasmic
reticulum are transported to the cis face of the
Golgi apparatus, where they fuse with the Golgi
membrane and empty their contents into the lumen.
Once inside they are modified, sorted, and shipped
towards their final destination.
 As such, the Golgi apparatus tends to be more
prominent and numerous in cells synthesising and
secreting many substances: plasma B cells, the
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 antibody-secreting cells of the immune system,
save prominent Golgi complexes.
Origin and development: Origin is intracellular
produced in 4 ways:
 Vesicles dispatched from the SER.
 Min function of lysosome is intra cellular
digestion.
 Lysosomes were discovered by the Belgian
cytologist Christian de Duve in 1949 awarded the
nobel prize in 1974.

 Vesicles dispatched from the outer membrane of  At pH 4.8, the interior of the lysosomes is more
the nuclear envelope. acidic than the cytosol (pH 7).

 Division called Dictyokinesis.  The lysosome single membrane stabilizes the low
pH by pumping in protons (H+) from the cytosol,
 Vesicles dispatched from plasma membrane. and also protects the cytosol, and therefore the rest
Functions: of the cell, from the degradative enzymes within the
lysosome.
The transport mechanism itself is not yet clear; a
number of hypotheses currently exist:  For this reason, should a lysosome's acid hydrolases
leak into the cytosol, their potential to damage the
 Cisternal progression: the Golgi apparatus itself
cell will be reduced, because they will not be at
moves, building new cisternae at the cis face and
their optimum pH.
destroying them at the trans face.
 The constant pH of 4.8 is maintained by proton
 Static compartments: small vesicles transport the
pumps and Cl- ion channels
proteins from one cisterna to the next, while the
cisternae remain unchanged.
It has also been proposed that the cisternae are Creation
interconnected, and the transport of cargo molecules
 They are involved in the creation of enzymes that
within the Golgi is due to diffusion, while the
undergo phagocytosis.
localisation of Golgi-resident proteins is achieved by an
unknown mechanism.  Lysosomal enzymes are synthesized on
endoplasmic reticulum, where they receive a
Lysosomes mannose-6-phosphate tag that targets them for the
(Suicidal bags or Digestive bodies or Stomach of cell lysosome. Aberrant lysosomal targeting causes
or Scavanger or Atomb bomb of cell) inclusion-cell disease, whereby enzymes do not
properly reach the lysosome, resulting in
 Lysosomes are organelles that contain digestive
accumulation of waste within these organelles.
enzymes (acid hydrolases).
 All these enzymes are produced in the endoplasmic
 They digest excess or worn out organelles, food
reticulum, and transported and processed through
particles, and engulfed viruses or bacteria.
the Golgi apparatus.
 The membrane surrounding a lysosome prevents
 The Golgi apparatus produces lysosomes by
the digestive enzymes inside from destroying the
budding.
cell.
 Each acid hydrolase is then targeted to a lysosome
 Lysosomes can fuse with vacuoles and dispense
by phosphorylation.
their enzymes into the vacuole, digesting its
contents.
 They are built in the Golgi apparatus.
 The name “lysosome” came from the Greek words
“lysis” which means dissolution or destruction and
"soma" which means body.
 They are frequently nicknamed "suicide-bags" or
"suicide-sacs" by cell biologists due to their role in
autolysis. Enzymes

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Some important enzymes in lysosomes are:
 Lipase, which digests lipids,
 Carbohydrases, which digest carbohydrates (e.g.,
sugars),
 Proteases, which digest proteins,
 Nucleases, which digest nucleic acids.
 Phosphatases, which digest phosphoric acid
monoesters
 A specific anti bacterial enzyme is Lysozyme or
muramidase is also found which hydrolyse the
bacterial cell wall is secreted in tears and saliva of
mammals.
Lysozyme is a slowest enzyme on earth.
Functions
The lysosomes are used for the digestion of
macromolecules from phagocytosis (ingestion of cells),
from the cell's own recycling process (where old
components such as worn out mitochondria are
continuously destroyed and replaced by new ones, and
receptor proteins are recycled), and for autophagic cell
death, a form of programmed self-destruction, or
autolysis, of the cell, which means that the cell is
digesting itself.
Other functions include digesting foreign bacteria that
oinvade a cell and helping repair damage to the plasma
membrane by serving as a membrane patch, sealing the
wound. Lysosomes also do much of the cellular
digestion required to digest tails of tadpoles and to
remove the web from the fingers of a 3-6 month old
fetus. This process of programmed cell death is called
apoptosis.
Clinical relevance
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There are a number of illnesses that are caused by the
malfunction of the lysosomes or one of their digestive
proteins, e.g., Tay-Sachs disease, or Pompe's disease.
These are caused by a defective or missing digestive
protein, which leads to the accumulation of substrates
within the cell, resulting in impaired cell metabolism.
NUCLEUS
(Control room, Heart, Brain, Director of Cell
or Karyon)
 The nucleus (pl. nuclei; from Latin nucleus or
nuculeus, kernel) is a membrane-enclosed organelle
found in most eukaryotic cells.
 Study of nucleus is called Karyology.
 It contains most of the cell's genetic material,
organized as multiple long linear DNA molecules
in complex with a large variety of proteins such as
histones to form chromosomes.
 The genes within these chromosomes make up the
cell's nuclear genome.
 The function of the nucleus is to maintain the
integrity of these genes and to control the activities
of the cell by regulating gene expression.
 In 1700 Leeuwenhoek has detected refractile
bodies in the centre of the R.B.C‟s of Salmon fish.
 The nucleus was the first organelle to be
discovered, and was first described by Franz
Bauer in 1802. It was later popularized by Scottish
botanist Robert Brown in 1831.
 Scleiden stated the importance of nucleus in cell
and called it as Cytoblast.
 Brown was studying orchids microscopically when
he observed an opaque area, which he called the
areola or nucleus, in the cells of the flower's outer
layer.
 Hertwig and Von Benden showed the role of
nucleus in Fertilization.
 The nucleus is the largest cellular organelle.
 It varies in diameter from 11 to 22 μm and occupies
about 10% of the total cell volume.
 Size of nucleus is directly proportional to that of
cyotplasm.
 This is called nucleoplasmic Index NP= Vn/Vc-
Vn.
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 Size is also related with the number of
chromosomes i.e., haploid cells have small size
nucleus than diploid than polyploid cells.
 Present in centre of cytoplasm. Position may
change according to metabolic status of cell.
 In Acetabularia the nucleus is present at the base of
the cell. In plant cell the nucleus is displaced in
periphery, the centre is occupied by large vacuole.
 Nucleus is found in all eukaryotes but in human
RBC, sieve tubes, nucleus is absent. Absent in
prokaryotes.
Structure
 The nuclear envelope consists of two
cellularmembranes, an inner and an outer
membrane, arranged parallel to one another and
separated by 10 to 50 nm.
 One of the features that make the nuclear
membranes unique are the large pores they contain.
 The nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus and
separates the cell's genetic material from the
surrounding cytoplasm, serving as a barrier to
prevent macromolecules from diffusing freely
between the nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm.
 Nucleoplasm is called karyolymph or
karyoplasm. Term was given by Strasburger.
 Nucleoplasm is denser than cytoplasm, transparent,
granular, semi-solid, minerals, contains DNA,
RNA, ribosomal protein, enzyme, chromatin,
nucleolus suspended in the nucleoplasm.
 The outer nuclear membrane is continuous with
the membrane of the rough endoplasmic
reticulum (RER), and is similarly studded with
ribosomes. The space between the membranes is
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called the perinuclear space and is continuous with
the RER lumen.
 Nuclear pores, which provide aqueous channels
through the envelope, are composed of a number of
different proteins, collectively referred to as
nucleoporins.
 Callan and Tomlin first observed the pores in the
nuclei of amphibian.
 The pores are about 125 million daltons in
molecular weight and consist of around 50 (in
yeast) to 100 proteins (in vertebrates).
 The pores are 100 nm in diameter; however, after
the annulus and other regulatory gating system
molecules are present, the space left for molecules
to enter is reduced to 9 nm. Th orifice is circular
or polygonal (Octagonal shape).
 The pores appear as rings called annulus. Inside
diameter is 60-100nm.
 This size allows the free passage of small water-
soluble molecules whilst excluding larger
structures, such as DNA or proteins.
 Large molecules can still enter the nucleus, but
need to be transported. The nucleus of a typical
mammalian cell will have about 3000 to 4000
pores throughout its envelope.
Cytoskeleton
 Two networks of intermediate filaments provide
the nucleus with mechanical support: the nuclear
lamina forms an organised meshwork on the
nuclear face of the envelope; less organised support
is provided on the cystolic face of the envelope.
 The mechanical functions provided include
structural support for the nuclear envelope, as well
as providing anchorage sites for chromosomes and
nuclear pores.
 The nuclear lamina is mostly composed of lamin
proteins.
 The lamin proteins are transported into the nucleus
interior, where they are assembled, before being
incorporated into the nuclear lamina.
 In addition to their role in the lamina, lamin
proteins are also found inside the nucleoplasm
where they form another regular structure,[10] called
the nucleoplasmic veil.
Chromosomes
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 The cell nucleus contains the majority of the cell's
genetic material, in the form of DNA molecules.
 During most of the cell cycle these are organized in
a DNA-protein complex known as chromatin (term
by Flemming), and during cell division the
chromatin can be seen to form well defined
chromosomes.
 Chemically chromatin is a nucleoprotein, binds
basic protein. The ration of DNA-protein in
chromosome is 1:1. This constitutes about 60-90%
of the chromosome.
 There are two types of chromatin: euchromatin
which is the less compact DNA form, and which
contains genes that are frequently expressed by the
cell; heterochromatin which is the more compact
form, and contains DNA that is not transcribed.
 It is further categorized into facultative
heterochromatin, consisting of those non-
expressed genes, and constitutive
heterochromatin, which consists of DNA's
structural components, telomeres and
centromeres.
 During interphase the chromatin organise
themselves into discrete individual patches, called
chromosome territories.
 Active genes, which are generally found in the
euchromatic region of the chromosome, tend to be
located towards the chromosome's territory
boundary.
Nucleolus
 In 1781, Fontana observed similar oval-bodies
inside the skin cells of an eel.
 Term was given by Bowmann.
 The nucleolus is a discrete densely-stained structure
found in the nucleus.
 It is not surrounded by a membrane, and is
sometimes called a suborganelle.
 It forms around tandem repeats of rDNA, DNA
coding for ribosomal RNA (rRNA). These regions
are called nucleolar organizer regions (NOR).
 The main roles of the nucleolus are to synthesize
rRNA and assemble ribosomes. The structural
cohesion of the nucleolus depends on its activity, as
ribosomal assembly in the nucleolus results in the
transient association of nucleolar components,
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facilitating further ribosomal assembly, and hence
further association.
Microbodies
Peroxisomes
 Peroxisomes (Uricosome) are ubiquitous
organelles in eukaryotes that function to rid the cell
of toxic substances.
 They have a single membrane that separates their
contents from the cytosol (the internal fluid of the
cell)
 Peroxisomes were discovered by the Belgian
cytologist Christian de Duve in 1965
 Tolbert isolated from plant cells.
Occurrence and evolution
 Peroxisomes are found in all eukaryotic cells.
 Peroxisomes contain enzymes for certain oxidative
reactions.
 Prokaryotes lack peroxisomes, so they are more
vulnerable to toxic substances like hydrogen
peroxide.
 The enzymatic content of peroxisomes varies
between species, but the presence of common
protein import and organelle biogenesis systems
support a single evolutionary origin.
The ability of peroxisomes to divide and import proteins
post-translationally, just like mitochondria and
chloroplasts, has traditionally been used to suggest an
endosymbiotic origin (Lazarow and Fujiki 1985).
Peroxisomes help in the decomposition of
biohazardous chemicals.
Function
 Peroxisomes contain oxidative enzymes, such as
catalase, D-amino acid oxidase and uric acid
oxidase.
 By using molecular oxygen, hydrogen atoms are
removed from specific organic substrates (labeled
as R), in an oxidative reaction, producing hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2, a toxic byproduct of cellular
metabolism):
 Catalase uses H2O2 generated by other enzymes in
the peroxisome to oxidize other substrates,
including phenols, formic acid, formaldehyde
and alcohol, by means of the peroxidation
reaction:
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 This reaction is important in liver and kidney cells towards the synthesis of numerous carbon compounds
where the peroxisomes detoxifiy various toxic (mainly carbohydrates).
substances that enter the blood. About 25% of the Cytoskeleton elements (Cytomusculature) - Cell
ethanol we drink is oxidized to acetaldehyde in this Muscular System
way. In addition, when excess H2O2 accumulates in
the cell, catalase converts it to H2O through this
reaction:
 A major function of the peroxisome is the
breakdown of fatty acid molecules, in a process
called beta-oxidation. In this process, the fatty
acids are broken down two carbons at a time,
converted to Acetyl-CoA, which is then transported
back to the cytosol for further use. In animal cells,
beta-oxidation can also occur in the mitochondria.
 In yeast and plant cells this process is exclusive for
the peroxisome.
 Peroxisomes also play a role in the production of
bile acids.
Elements of this system are Microtubules,
Deficiencies
Microfilaments and IFs
A deficiency in the protein import can lead to empty
peroxisomes, leading to abnormalities in the brain,
called Zellweger syndrome..
Glyoxysome
(convert fat to carbohydrate)
 Discovered by Breidenbach and Beevers.
 Glyoxysomes are membrane-bound organelles
found in plants, particularly in the fat storage
tissues of germinating seeds.
 Glyoxysomes contain enzymes that initiate the
breakdown and conversion of fatty acids to sugars,
which the emerging seedling uses as an energy and
carbon source until it is able to produce its own
sugar by photosynthesis.
Microtubules
Microtubules are protein structures found within cells,
 In this pathway, fatty acids are hydroylzed to one of the components of the cytoskeleton discovered
acetyl-CoA for the glyoxylate bypass. by Robertis & Franchi in axoplasm of myelinated
Glyoxysomes are the site of the glyoxalate cycle nerve fibres, called them neurotubules.
that is tightly linked to the breakdown of fatty
acids.  They have diameter of ~ 24 nm and length varying
from several micrometers to possibly millimeters in
The glyoxysome metabolism: beta - oxidation of fatty axons of nerve cells.
acids.
 Microtubules serve as structural components within
cells and are involved in many cellular processes
During plant germination are glyoxysomes in a key- including mitosis, cytokinesis, and vesicular
position. They control and catalyze the degradation of transport.
storage fat and they channel the degradation products

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 Microtubules are polymers of α- and β-tubulin
dimers.
 The tubulin dimers polymerize end to end in
protofilaments. The protofilaments then bundle in
hollow cylindrical filaments.
 Typically, the protofilaments arrange themselves in
an imperfect helix with one turn of the helix
containing 13 tubulin dimers each from a different
protofilament.
 Another important feature of microtubule structure
is polarity.
 Tubulin polymerizes end to end with the α subunit
of one tubulin dimer contacting the β subunit of the
next. Therefore, in a protofilament, one end will
have the α subunit exposed while the other end will
have the β subunit exposed. These ends are
designated (-) and (+) respectively.
 The protofilaments bundle parallel to one another,
so in a microtubule, there is one end, the (+) end,
with only β subunits exposed while the other end,
the (-) end, only has α subunits exposed.
Organization within cells
 Microtubules are nucleated and organized by the
microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs), such
as centrosomes and basal bodies.
 They are part of a structural network (the
cytoskeleton) within the cell's cytoplasm, but, in
addition to structural support, microtubules take
part in many other processes, as well.
 They are capable of growing and shrinking in order
to generate force, and there are also motor proteins
that move along the microtubule.
 A notable structure involving microtubules is the
mitotic spindle used by eukaryotic cells to
segregate their chromosomes correctly during cell
division.
 Microtubules are also part of the cilia and flagella
of eukaryotic cells (prokaryote flagella are entirely
different).Microtubules also move organelles and
cell structures to new locations.
Intermediate filaments
(IFs) are cytoskeletal structures formed by members of
a family of related proteins.
 Intermediate filaments have a diameter between
that of actin (microfilaments) and microtubules.
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 Most types of intermediate filaments are located in
the cytosol between the nuclear envelope and the
cell surface membrane.
 Nuclear lamins are localized to the cell nucleus.
Types
There are about 70 different genes coding for various
intermediate filament proteins. However, different kinds
of IFs share basic characteristics: they are all polymers
that generally measure between 9-11 nm in diameter
when fully assembled.
Microfilament
(Actual muscles of cell)
 Microfilament is structurally made up of Actin
protein.
 Actin is a globular structural protein that
polymerizes in a helical fashion to form an actin
filament (or microfilament).
 These form the cytoskeleton - a three-dimensional
network inside an eukaryotic cell.
 Actin filaments provide mechanical support for the
cell, determine the cell shape, enable cell
movements (through lamellipodia, filopodia, or
pseudopodia); and participate in certain cell
junctions, in cytoplasmic streaming and in
contraction of the cell during cytokinesis..
 In muscle cells they play an essential role, along
with myosin, in muscle contraction.
In the cytosol, actin is predominantly bound to ATP, but
can also bind to ADP.
 An ATP-actin complex polymerizes faster and
dissociates slower than an ADP-actin complex.
Actin is one of the most abundant proteins in many
eukaryotic cells, with concentrations of over 100
μM.
 It is also one of the most highly conserved proteins,
differing by no more than 5% in species as diverse
as algae and humans.
Cilia and Flagella (Undulopodium) Extracellular
organelles
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 A cilium (plural cilia) is an organelle found in
eukaryotic cells.
 Cilia are thin, tail-like projections extending
approximately 5–10 micrometers outwards from the
cell body.
 There are two types of cilia: motile cilia(kinocilia),
which constantly beat in a single direction, and
non-motile cilia(sterocilia), which typically serve
as sensory organelles.
 Along with flagella, they make up a group of
organelles known as undulipodia.
 Cilia are rare in plants, occurring most notably in
cycads.
 Protozoans (ciliates) possess motile cilia
exclusively and use them for either locomotion or
to simply move liquid over their surface.
 Some ciliates bear groups of cilia that are fused
together into large mobile projections called cirri
(singular, cirrus).
 Larger eukaryotes, such as mammals, have motile
cilia as well.
 Motile cilia are rarely found alone, usually present
on a cell's surface in large numbers and beating in
coordinated waves. In humans, for example, motile
cilia are found in the lining of the trachea
(windpipe), where they sweep mucus and dirt out of
the lungs.
 In female mammals, the beating of cilia in the
Fallopian tubes moves the ovum from the ovary to
the uterus.
 In contrast to motile cilia, non-motile cilia usually
occur one per cell.
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 The outer segment of the rod photoreceptor cell in
the human eye is connected to its cell body with a
specialized non-motile cilium.
A flagellum (plural: flagella) is a long, slender
projection from the cell body, composed of
microtubules and surrounded by the plasma
membrane.
 In small, single-cell organisms they may function to
propel the cell by beating in a whip-like motion; in
larger animals, they often serve to move fluids
along mucous membranes such as the lining of the
trachea.
 Eukaryotic flagella are quite different from the
flagella of prokaryotes and bacteria.
 A eukaryotic flagellum is a bundle of nine fused
pairs of microtubule doublets surrounding two
central single microtubules.
 The so-called "9+2" structure is characteristic of
the core of the eukaryotic flagellum called an
axoneme.
 At the base of a eukaryotic flagellum is a basal
body, "blepharoplast" or kinetosome, which is
the microtubule organizing center for flagellar
microtubules and is about 500 nanometers long.
 Basal bodies are structurally identical to centrioles.
 The flagellum is encased within the cell's plasma
membrane, so that the interior of the flagellum is
accessible to the cell's cytoplasm.
 Each of the outer 9 doublet microtubules extends a
pair of dynein arms (an "inner" and an "outer" arm)
to the adjacent microtubule; these dynein arms are
responsible for flagellar beating, as the force
produced by the arms causes the microtubule
doublets to slide against each other and the
flagellum as a whole to bend.
 These dynein arms produce force through ATP
hydrolysis.
 The flagellar axoneme also contains radial spokes,
polypeptide complexes extending from each of the
outer 9 mictrotubule doublets towards the central
pair, with the "head" of the spoke facing inwards.
 The radial spoke is thought to be involved in the
regulation of flagellar motion, although its exact
function and method of action are not yet
understood.
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 Motile flagella serve for the propulsion of single The cell wall also prevents over-expansion when water
cells (e.g. swimming of protozoa and spermatozoa) enters the cell. They are found in plants, bacteria,
and the transport of fluids (e.g. transport of mucus archaea, fungi, and algae.
by stationary flagellated cells in the trachea Animals and most protists do not have cell walls.
Centriole The cell wall is constructed from different materials
 The centrosome is the main microtubule dependent upon the species.
organizing center (MTOC) of the cell as well as a In plants, the cell wall is constructed primarily from a
regulator of cell-cycle progression. carbohydrate polymer called cellulose, and the cell wall
 It was discovered in 1888 by Theodor Boveri and can therefore also functions as a carbohydrate store for
was described as the 'special organ of cell division.' the cell.
In bacteria, peptidoglycan forms the cell wall. Archaea
 Although the centrosome has a key role in efficient
have various chemical compositions, including
cell division, it has been recently shown that it is
glycoprotein S-layers, pseudopeptidoglycan, or
not necessary.
polysaccharides.
 Centrosomes are composed of two orthogonally
Fungi possess cell walls of chitin, and algae typically
arranged centrioles surrounded by an amorphous
possess walls constructed of glycoproteins and
mass of pericentriolar material (PCM).
polysaccharides, however certain algal species may
 Each centriole comprises nine triplet microtubule have a cell wall composed of silicic acid. Often, other
blades in a pinwheel structure as well as centrin, accessory molecules are found anchored to the cell wall.
cenexin and tektin
Plant cell walls
Roles of the centrosome
Centrosomes are often associated with the nuclear
membrane during interphase of the cell cycle. In mitosis
the nuclear membrane breaks down and the centrosome
nucleated microtubules can interact with the
chromosomes to build the mitotic spindle.
The mother centriole, the one that was inherited from
the mother cell, also has a central role in making cilia
and flagella
The centrosome is duplicated only once per cell cycle so
that each daughter cell inherits one centrosome,
containing two centrioles.
The centrosome replicates during the S phase of the cell
cycle. During the prophase of mitosis, the centrosomes
migrate to opposite poles of the cell. The mitotic spindle
then forms between the two centrosomes. Upon
division, each daughter cell receives one centrosome.
Aberrant numbers of centrosomes in a cell have been
associated with cancer.

Cell wall
(Exoskeleton): is a fairly rigid layer surrounding a cell,
located external to the cell membrane, that provides the
cell with structural support, protection, and a filtering
mechanism.
Composition
The major carbohydrates making up the primary cell
wall are cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin.
The cellulose microfibrils are linked via hemicellulosic
tethers to form the cellulose-hemicellulose network,
which is embedded in the pectin matrix.

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The most common hemicellulose in the primary cell
wall is xyloglucan.
The three primary polymers that make up plant cell
walls consist of about 35 to 50% cellulose, 20 to 35 %
hemicellulose and 10 to 25% lignin.
Lignin fills the spaces in the cell wall between cellulose,
hemicellulose and pectin components.
Plant cells walls also incorporate a number of proteins;
the most abundant include hydroxyproline-rich
glycoproteins (HRGP), also called the extensins, the
arabinogalactan proteins (AGP), the glycine-rich
proteins (GRPs), and the proline-rich proteins (PRPs).
Secondary cell wall may contain lignin and suberin,
making the walls rigid.It may also contain cutin.
Plasma Membrane
 A plasma membrane encloses every type of cell,
both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
 It physically separates the cytoplasm from the
surrounding cellular environment.
 Plasma membrane is living, ultrathin, elastic,
dynamic and selective transport-barrier.
 It is a fluid-mosaic assembly of molecules of lipids
(phospholipids and cholesterol), proteins and
carbohydrates.
 Plasma membrane controls the entry of nutrients
and exit of waste products and generates
differences in ion concentration between the
interior and exterior of the cell.
 It acts as sensor of external signals and allows the
cell to react or change in response to environmental
signals.
Ultrastructure
 Under electron microscope, plasma membrane
appears as a trilaminar membrane consisting of
1. An outer dense layer of about 2 nm, formed of
proteins and polar ends of phospholipids.
2. An inner dense layer, of about 2 nm, formed of
proteins and polar ends of phospholipids.
3. A middle layer sandwiched between the two dense
layers, of about 3.5 nm formed of nonpolar fatty
acid chains of phospholipid molecules.
Chemical composition
 The plasma membrane is composed of globular
proteins, lipids and a small percentage of
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carbohydrates (oligosaccharides). Their proportion
in the plasma membrane of different types of cells
varies greatly.
 Thus, chemically plasma membrane and the other
membranes of different organelles contain proteins,
lipids and carbohydrates, but in different ratios, For
example, in the plasma membrane of human red
blood cells, proteins represent 52 per cent, lipids 40
per cent and carbohydrates 8 per cent.
Lipids
 The main lipids of plasma membrane are
phospholipids, cholesterol and galactolipids.
 Phospholipids are asymmetrical, elongated
molecules, amphipathic or dipole in nature. Each
molecule consists of :
Proteins
 Plasma membrances contain three different classes
of proteins, structural proteins, enzymes and carrier
proteins.
 Structural proteins form the „backbone‟ of the cell
membrane. They have little catalytic activity and are
extremely lipophilic.
 The plasma membrane consists largely of structural
proteins
 Enzymes form the major component of many
membranes and are catalytic proteins. The structure of
enzymes varies from membrane to membrane.
 Carrier proteins (permeases) transport molecules
across cell membrane without being permanently altered
in the process and against concentration gradient.
 The plasma membrane proteins fall in two main
categories, intrinsic or integral proteins and extrinsic
or peripheral proteins. The former are firmly
associated with the membrane, while the latter have a
weaker association and bound by electrostatic
interaction.
Extrinsic or Peripheral Proteins
 These are present on the outermost and inner surface
of lipid bilayer.
 These do not interact directly with the hydrophobic
core of phospholipid membrane and are loose bound to
the surface of lipid bilayer, either indirectly by
interactions with integral proteins, or directly by
interactions with polar heads of phospholipid molecules.
Their hydrophilic side chains permit interaction with the
surrounding water and with the polar surface of lipids.
Page 19
 Peripheral proteins constitute about 20-30 per cent of
the total membrane proteins. Some examples are 
Spectrin, Cytochrome C and Acetycholinesterase.
Intrinsic or Integral Proteins
 These proteins penetrate the lipid layer partially or
wholly. Their polar heads , protrude from the surface of
lipid bilayer and nonpolar regions are embedded in it.
 Glycoproteins of mammalian RBCs and bacterial
rhodopsin in the membrane of photosynthetic bacteria
are examples of integral proteins.
 The integral protein molecules that span entire
bilayer are called transmembrane proteins. These
have central hydrophobic region flanked with a
hydrophilic or polar region at either end that project out
of the lipid bilayer.
 The integral proteins remain embedded in the lipid
bilayer by three basic types of interactions:
1. Ionic interactions with the polar head groups of lipids.
2. Hydrophobic interactions with the hydrophobic ends
of lipids within the lipid bilayer.
3. Specific interactions with defined regions of lipids,
glycolipids or oligosaccharids.
 The integral proteins occur in following five forms :
1. Large globular integral protein molecules project
beyond lipid bilayer on both the sides. These are also
called transmembrane or channel proteins. These bind
channels or water filled pores that provide passage for
water soluble substances and their ions.
2. Small integral protein molecules partially penetrate
the lipid bilayer and are exposed only one surface.
3. Glycoproteins are oligosaccharides, attached to the
integral protein molecules that project on the outer
surface of plasma membrane.
4. Career proteins are called permeases serve for
transport of substances across plasma membrane into
and out of the cell against concentration gradient (i.e.,
active transport)
5. Enzymes are some membrane proteins and act as
enzymes. Each membrane carrier is an assortment of
enzymes according to the function it carries out. For
example , mitochondrial membranes contain enzymes of
electron transport system .
 The transmembrane proteins extend across the lipid
bilayer in two forms :
1. As a single -helix, called single pass protein
(Single spanning)
2. As a multiple -helix, called multiple pass
proteins. (Multiple spanning)
Carbohydrates
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 The carbohydrates of plasma membrane (collectively
called glucocalyx) are hexose, herosamine fucose and
sialic acid. These are 5 per cent and are confined
exclusively to the external surface.
 These are mostly oligosaccharides and occur in two
different combinations : (i) attached to
proteinsglycoproteins, (ii) attached to
lipidsglucolipids.
 Glycoproteins bind hormones and serve to send
transmembrane messages. These also act as antigens
and play important role in cell interactions and cell
recognition.
 Glycolipids are formed of amphipathic molecules
with large highly hydrophilic carbohydrate heads. The
carbohydrate head is attached to glycerol moiety by a
glycosidic linkage.
Models of Plasma Membrane
1. Existence of lipids in plasma membrane 
Overtone observed that substances soluble in organic
solvents entered the cells more rapidly than compounds
soluble in water . On this basis he postulated that the
plasma membrane is composed of a thin layer of lipid,
consisting of cholesterol, lecithin and fatty oils.
2. Gorter and Grendel‟s bimolecular lipids leaflet
model  In 1926 , Gorter and Grendel measured the
lipid content of haemolyzed erythrocytes (ghosts) from
mammals and concluded that the cell membrane as
chiefly formed of phospholipids arranged to form
bimolecular lipid sheet. The polar ends of lipid
molecules of one layer were directed outward and those
of other layer were directed towards cell cytoplasm.
3. Danielli and Davson membrane model (Lamellar
theory)  To explain the low surface tension and high
electrical impedance of plasma membrane, Danielli and
Davson in 1935 proposed a lipoprotein model. The
plasma membrane formed of a bimolecular layer of
phospholipids sandwiched between two layers of
proteins. The proteins are in the form of folded -
chains. The polar hydrophilic ends of phospholipids are
associated with protein molecules by electrostatic
interactions between polar ends of lipid molecules and
charged amino acid side chains.
4. Robertson‟s unit membrane  Roberston described
trilaminar structure of plasma membrane consisting of
two parallel outer dense osmophilic layers of 2025Å ,
which correspond to the two protein layers ; and a
middle light coloured osmophobic layer of 35-35Å
Page 20
thickness corresponding to the hydrocarbon chains of d) Absence of chlorophyll (Raj. PMT ‟84)
the lipids. 3. Main difference between plant and animal cells is
a) Animals cell has large vacuoles
5. Fluid-Mosaic model - This model was proposed by b) Plant cell has small vacuoles
Singer and Nicolson (1972). The essential feature of the
c) Animal cell lacks rigid cell wall
fluid-mosaic model is that biological membranes are
d) Plant cell lacks rigid cell wall (RPMT ‟85)
considered to be quasifluid structure in which the lipids
and integral proteins are arranged in a mosaic manner. 4. Figure of cork cells observed by Robert Hooke were
The fluid-mosaic model of Singer and Nicolson is now published in
widely accepted as best explaining the properties of the a) Genera Plantarum b) Species Plantarum
cell membrane. This model assumes that there is a c) Origin of Species d) Micrographia
continuous bilayer of phospholipid molecules in which (RPMT‟85)
are embedded globular proteins. 5. Smaller cell is
Thus biological membrances are considered to be a) Less active metabolically
quastifluid structure in which lipids and integral
b) with smaller nucleus
proteins are arranged in a mosaic manner. While the
c) with larger nucleus
Danielli-Davson model assumes hydrophilic bonding
between lipids and proteins, the Singer-Nicolson model d) More active metabolically (CPMT‟86)
considers the lipid-protein association to be 6. Which one is a procaryote
hydrophobic reaction. a) Green algae b) Bacteriophage
Because of the rapid movement of the lipid and protein c) Salmonella d)Agaricus (BHU ‟86)
molecules the Singer-Nicolson membrane is considered 7. The function of centrosome is
to be highly fluid. This contrasts with the static picture
a) inhibition of cell division
of the membrane in The Danielli-Davson model
b) initiation of cell division
6. Micellar theory (model)  Hilleir and Hoffman
c) to provide site for cell division
proposed that the plasma membrane consists of a
mosaic of globular subunits or micelles of lipid d) None (BHU „88)
molecules. In each subunit hydrophilic polar ends of its 8. Tubulin protein occurs in
lipid molecules are directed towards the periphery of the a) Enzymes of Krebs‟ cycle
subunit. The globular protein forms a mono layer on b) RER
either side of the lipid micelles. The space between
c) Microtubules
globular micelles represents pores bounded partly by the
polar groups of micelles and partly by polar groups of d) Microfilaments (BHU „88)
associated proteins.
9. The Principal protein of cilia and flagella is
a) Keratin b) mycoglobin
Objective Problems: c) tubulin d) albumin (BHU „88)

EXERCISE I : 10. Which is characteristic of procaryote

a) Absence of nuclear envelop
(Cell as a unit of life)
b) Absence of membrane bound organelles
1. Physical basis of life is
c) Absence of nucleolus
a) Cell b) Nucleus c) DNA d) Protoplasm
d) All the above (CPMT ‟90)
(CPMT ‟83)
11. Which one is common in nucleus, chloroplast and
2. Procaryotes are organisms that are characterized by
mitochondria?
a) with well defined nucleus
a) Ribosomes and DNA
b) Absence of nuclear envelope nucleolus and
nucleoplasm b) DNA
c) absence of cell wall c) Double limiting membrane

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d) All (BHU „90) d) malic dehydrogenase (AIIMS „92)
12. The cells discovered in thin sections of cork b 22. The difference between plant and animal cells is
Robert hooke were actually a) Plant cells have one large central vacuole while
a) Cell walls b) Cellulose animal cells have many small vacuoles
c) Protoplasm d) Nuclei (DPMT ‟90) b) Animal cells have thinner cells walls than the ones
13. Ribosomes were first observed by present in plant cells

a) Palade b) Porter c)Claude d) Svedberg c) Plant cells lack chloroplast which are abundant in
animals cells
(UPCMPT „90)
d) None (AFMC ‟93)
14. The arrangement of central and outer microtubules
in a cilium is called the 23. Cup shaped chloroplast is found in

a) 9 + 2 pattern b) 2 + 9 pattern a) Spirogyra b) Chlamydomonas

c) 9 + 0 pattern d) 0+2 pattern(CBSE „91) c) Ulothrix d) All (CBSE „93)

15. An example of cell devoid of nuclear membrane 24. Which is correct about cell theory in view of
and mitochondria is current status of our knowledge about cell structure

a) Sperm b) Protist a) It needs modifications due to discovery of subcellular

structure like chloroplast and mitochondria
c) Bacteria cell d) Sponge cell
b) Modified cell theory means that all living beings are
(ZIPMER ‟92) composed of cells capable of reproducing
16. Precisely speaking, protoplasm is c) Cell Theory does not hold good because all living
a) Colloidal solution beings (e.g. viruses) do not have cellular organization
b) True solution d) Cell Theory means that all living objects consists of
cells whether or not capable of reproducing.
c) Crystallocolloidal solution
d) Suspension (UP CPMT „92) (CBSE ‟93)
25. Primary function of rough Endoplasmic reticulum
17. Apparato reticulare interno (internal reticular
(RER) is
apparatus) is
a) Protein synthesis b) glucose synthesis
a) ER b) Golgi bodies
c) starch synthesis d) strength
c) Microtubules d) Microfilaments
(UP CPMT „93)
(CBSE „92)
26. Golgi complex is derived from
a) SER b) Cytoplasm
18. Golgi bodies are maximum in
c) Nuclear membrane d) Cell membrane
a) root tip cells b) root cap cells
c) quiestcent centre d) calyprogen(DPMT „92) (UP CPMT „93)
27. Pyrenoids are centre of
19. A delimiting membrane is absent in
a) fat storage b) starch storage
a) plastids b) nucleoli
c) protein formation d) enzyme formation
c) lysosomes d) vacuoles (CBSE „92)
20. Golgi bodies are absent in (CBSE „93)
28. Outer and inner membrane of mitochondria are
a) All types of RBC b) Cyanobacteria
a) structurally and functionally similar
c) Egg cell and young sperm d) Higher plants
b) structurally different but functionally similar
(CBSE „92)
21. Enzymes found attached to inner membrane of c) Structurally similar but functionally different
mitochondria instead of matrix is /are d)Structurally and functionally dissimilar
a) succinic dehydrogenase (Rohtak „93)
b) Cytochrome oxidase 29. Minimum cell size seen under light microscope is
c) both (a) and (b) a) 1m b) 0.1m c) 0.25m d) 0.5m

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 (BHU „93) 39. The four principal organic constituents of
30. Mitochondria do not occur in protoplasm are

a) Bacteria b) Brown Algae a) Proteins, carbohydrates, fats ad nucleic acids

c) Green Algae d) Red Algae b) Proteins, amino acids , fats and carbohydrates

(MPPMT ‟94) c) Carbohydrates, Protein, vitamins and hormones

31. Besides giving out vesicles, golgi bodies are d) Amino acids, sugars, nucleic acids and hormones
concerned with (Karnataka‟95)
a) Plastids b) Lysosomes 40. Which is not a intracellular compartment in the
c) Grana d) Cell plate cell?

(CBSE „94) a) Nucleus b) Mitochondria

32. The term nucleosome was given by Outdet. Olius c) Chloroplast d) Centriole (Rohtak „95)
and olius called these particles as „nu‟ particles . 41. Golgi apparatus serves as the centre of
Which histone is absent in nucleosome a) Protein production
a) H 1 b) H 2 c) H 3 a d) H 4 b) Enzyme production
(Rohtak PMT „94) c) Fat production
33. An exception to cell theory is d) Carbohydrate metabolism (Karnataka „95)
a) Mycoplasma b) Virus 42. Raphides are found in
c) Protistans d) Algae a) Dahlia b) Asparagus
(CPMT ‟94) c) Nut d) Guava (BHU „95)
34. In Mitochondria, cristaea are sites for 43. Controlling centre of cell is
a) Protein synthesis a) Ribosomes b) Nucleolus
b) Oxidation-reduction reactions c) Nucleus d) Mitochondria
c) breakdown of molecules (AFMC „96)
d) phosphorylation of flavoprotein 44. Cell is the unit of life and all cells in a tissue
(CBSE „94) remain united was the idea of
35. Centromere is required for a) Steward b) Schleiden
a) DNA duplication c) Schwann d) Dutrochet
b) cytoplasmic cleavage (Rohtak „96)
c) chromosome segregation 45. Solar energy is trapped in
d) poleward movement of chromatids (CBSE „94) a) Stoma b) Lamellae
36. Best stage to observe shape , size and number of c) DNA d) Oxysomes
chromosome is (Rohtak „96)
a) 1 phase b) Metaphase 46. Contractile vacuoles help in
c) Prophase d) S phase (CBSE „94) a) Excretion b) Osmoregulation
37. Primary lysosomes are c) Osmoregulation and respiration
a) Digestion b) Autolysis d) Digestion (UPCPMT‟96)
c) Autodigestion d) None (CBSE „94) 47. Procaryotic ribosomes are
38. The Organelle involved in photorespiration are a) 30S b) 50S c) 70S d) 80S
a) mitochondria, chloroplast & peroxisomes (MPPMT ‟97)
b) mitochondria, nucleus and ribosomes 48. The suffix S in ribosomes unit indicates
c) mitochondria, glyoxysomes & peroxisomes a) Sedimentation coefficient
d) mitochondria, chloroplast & glyoxysomes b) Solubility
(BHU „94)

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b) Surface area a) energy transduction b) glycosidation of lipids
d) Size (Pb. PMT ‟97) c) digestion
49. In plant cells, the number of golgi bodies increases d) conversion of energy (BHU „89, 90)
during 59. Which organoid (organel) is located near the
a) food synthesis b) cell division nucleus and contains stack of flattened tubular
c) translocation d) respiration. structures?

(MPPMT „97) a) Chloroplast b) Golgi bodies

50. A flattened disc like sac in chloroplast is called c) centrosome d) Centriole (CBSE ‟94, „96)

a) loculus b) thylakoid 60. Longest cells in human body are

c) stroma d) fret (MPPMT „97) a) Nerve cells b) Bone cells

51. The number of mitochondria increases in the cells c) Leg muscle cells d) Heart muscle cells
of (MPPMT ‟98)
a) seeds b) germinating seeds 61. The term protoplasm was coined by
c) dry seeds d) dormant seeds a) Robert Hooke b) Dujardin
(MPPMT „97) c) Robert Brown d) Purkinje
52. Which one is absent in RBC? (CPMT ‟88,‟89 , BHU ‟89,‟97)
a) Biomembrane b) Enzymes 62. Prokaryotic genetic system has
c) Hyaloplasm d) Krebs cycle (CBSE „97) a) Neither DNA nor histones
53. Oxidative enzymes occur mostly in b) Both DNA and histones
a) Lysosomes b) Golgi bodies c) DNA but no histones
c) Mitochondria d) Ribosomes d) Either DNA or histones
(AFMC „95) 63. Nuclear matter without envelope occurs in
54. What would happen if lysosomes get ruptured a) Cyanobacteria and Red Algae
inside the cell in which they are present? b) Bacteria and Cyanobacteria
a) Cell will swell c) Bacteria and Green Algae
b) Cell will shrink d) Mycoplasma and Green Algae
c) Cell will die (MPPMT ‟94, AMU‟98)
d) Nothing would happen (MPPMT „97) 64. Who proposed cell lineage /cell always arises
55. At maturity which of the following is enucleate? from pre-existing cell?
a) Sieve cell b) Companion cell a) Lamarck b) Virchow
c) Palisade cell d) Cortical cell c) Schwann d) Darwin
(CBSE „97) (Pb. PMT ‟97, MPPMT‟97,AFMC‟97)
56. Nucleolus is the site of 65. A prokaryotic structure is
a) r-RNA synthesis a) Bacteria and Archaebacteria
b) assemblage of ribosomal units b) Blue green algae and Mycoplasma
c) both (a) and (b) c) Ricketts
d) DNA and ribosomes synthesis (MPPMT „97) d) All (BHU „89, AMU „90, CBSE „94)
57. Centrioles and centrosome are found in the cells of 66. Infolding of a cell organelle on which ATP are
a) Bacteria b) Cyanobacteria formed ?
a) Mitochondria b) Cristae
c) Green plants d) Animals
c) Quantasomes d) Oxysomes
(CBSE „97, MPPMT „97)
(CBSE „91, 94, BHU „83)
58. Golgi complex is specialized for

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67. The inner membrane of mitochondria bears b) 300 chl molecules
foldings/ finger like projections called cristae. These c) 230 chl molecules
cristae
d) 230 chl and 50 carotenoid molecule
a) increase the thickness of wall
(UPCPMT „96, CBSE „91)
b) increase surface area
c) increase ATP supply 76. The layer of vacuole is

d) keep external substances away a) plasmalemma b) tonoplast

(UPCPMT „96, CBSE „91,94) c) biomembrane d) cytoplasmic membrane
68. Peroxisomes found in green cells of leaves are (UP CPMT „96, DPMT „92, BHU „82)
associated with
a) Phototropism b) Photosynthesis
EXERCISE I I
c) Photorespiration d) Photoperiodism (Cell Membrane)
(CBSE „93, UP CPMT „93) 1. Every living cell has a
69. Term chromosome was coined by a) Chloroplast b) Cell membrane
a) Waldeyer b) Straburger c) Cell wall d) Food vacuole.
c)Hofmeister d) Sanger & Altman
(DPMT1981)
(UP CPMT92, MPPMT „97)
2. Liquid food drinking is
70. Lysosomes are called
a) Pinocytosis b) Phagocytosis
a) suicide bags
c) Imbibition d) None of the above.
b) atom bombs of cell
(BHU 1983)
c) disposal units and scavengers of cell
3.Who proposed the concept of unit membrane for
d) All (UPCMPT „91, BHU „83, CBSE „97)
tripartite structure of lipoproteins.
71. Cellular organoid rich in hydrolytic acidic enzymes
a) Seifriz b) Buvat
is
a) ribosomes b) phagosome c) Davson and Danielli d)Robertson(RPMT 1985)
4.Plasmalemma is another name of
c) lysosomes d) peroxisomes
a) Cell wall b) Middle lamella
(CBSE „92, 96, UPCPMT 81, 90, 93, 96)
c) Microfibrils d) Plasma membrane.
72. Lysosomes are called suicidal bags because of
a) Phagocytic activity b) hydrolytic enzymes (JIPMER. 1986)
5. Carbohydrates are present in the plasmalemma in the
c) proteolytic enzymes d) All
form of
(AFMC „91, MPPMT „94)
a) Glycolipids and Glycoproteins b) Cellulose
73. Lysosomes were discovered by deDuve
accidentally. Who gave the term lysosome and c) Hemicellulose d) Starch.
examined under electron microscope? (BHU 1986)
a) Fitz James b) Novikoff 6. Cell membrane is
c) Palade d) Robertson a) Semipermeable b) Permeable
(BHU „91, UPPMT „96) c) Impermeable d) Inelastic.
74. Nuclear envelope and Nucleolus disappear at (MPPMT 1988)
a) Inter phase b) Telophase 7. Carrier molecules facilitating transport across cell
membrane are
c) Late Prophase d) Early Prophase
a) Proteinaceous b) Fatty
(UPCPMT „90, MPPMT „95, AFMC „96)
75. Quantsome discovered by Park and Biggins (1964) c) Starch d) Alkaloids.
has (AMU 1989)
a) 100 chl molecules 8. Extrinsic proteins in Singer and Nicolson‟s model of
cell membrane are

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a) Tightly attached to intrinsic proteins and cannot be 15. The plasma membrane is made up of
easily separated a) Carbohydrates and fats
b) Tightly attached to intrinsic proteins and can be b) Fats and proteins
easily separated
c) Proteins and carbohydrates
c) Superficially present but cannot be separated easily
d) Carbohydrates and proteins. (BHU 1993)
d) Superficially present and can be easily separated.
16.A biomembrane/unit membrane is made up of
(AMU 1991)
a) cellulose
9. Cell recognition is due to
b) protein – lipid – protein
a) Lipid portion of cell membrane
c) lipid – protein – Lipid
b) Carbohydrate portion of glycoproteins
d) phospholipid – Glycolipids – glycoproteins
c) Protein portion of glycoprotein
(UP CPMT 1993)
d) Both carbohydrate and protein portion of
glycoprotein. (CBSE 1990) 17. Facilitated diffusion requires

10. Pinocytosis is a) Enzymes and energy b) Carriers but no energy

a) Ingestion of solid particles by plasma membrane c) Carriers and energy d) Receptors and energy

b) Ingestion of liquid particles (HPMT 1994)

c) Changed permeability of plasmalemma towards ions

d) Both A and B. (AFMC 1991) 18. The plasma membrane of an animal cell is
composed of
11. Fluid mosaic model explains
a) Lipids, proteins, oligosaccharides
a) a bilipid layer in between 2protein layers
b) Lipids, proteins, polysaccharides
b) a layer of proteins on one side and a bilayer of lipid
c) Lipids, proteins, disaccharides
on other side
d) Lipids,proteins,monosaccharides. (BHU 1994)
c) 2 lipid layers and 1 protein Layer
19. Facilitated diffusion involves
d) a phospholipid bilayer with proteins between and on
a) carriers but no energy b) receptors and energy
both side of lipid layer. (CBSE 1991)
c) enzymes and energy d) carriers and energy
12. Size of the molecules that can pass through plasma
membrane is (Rohtak PMT 1994)

a) 1 –15 Å b) 8 – 10 Å 20. Desmosomes are concerned with

a) cell division b) cellular excretion
c) 10 – 13 Å d) 15 – 75Å Å
c) cytolysis d) cell adherence
(AMU 1991)
(CBSE 1995)
13. Cell membrane consists of (as per lamellar model )
21. Active transport involves
a) Carbohydrate – Protein – lipid
a) against concentration gradient requiring ATP
b) Lipid – Protein – Lipid
b) along conc. gradient requiring ATP
c) Protein - Lipid – Protein c) against conc. gradient but not requiring ATP
d) Phospholipid – Glycoprotein – Protein d) along conc. gradient requiring no ATP. (BHU 1995)
(CPMT 1993) 22. Who among the following was the first to recognize
14. Cellular recognition and adhesion are facilited by the role of phagocytosis in combating bacterial
components in plasmalemma. infections?
These are a) Pasteur b) Metchnikoff

a) lipids c) Koch d) F.Redi (BHU 1995)

23. Phagocytosis was first seen by
b) proteins
a) Huxely b) Strasburger
c) both a & b
c) Haeckel d) Metchnikoff.
d) Glycolipids and glycoproteins (CBSE 1993)
(BHU 1995)

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24. Action potential of the outer surface of a) Proteins and carbohydrates
plasmalemma is generally b) Proteins and lipids
a) Neutral b) Positive
c) Proteins, lipids and carbohydrates
c) Negative d) Variable (CPMT 1996)
d) Proteins, some nucleic acid and lipids.
25. Two animal cells are interconnected by
(C.B.S.E. 1989, B.H.U. 1992, C.P.M.T. 1994)
a) Plasmodesmata b) Cell wall
34.Average thickness of unit membrane is
c) Desmosomes d) Plasma membrane.
a) 75 Å b) 250 Å c) 25 Å d) 5 Å
(BHU 1997)
26.The biomembrane allow active transport of (B.H.U.1992, M.P.P.M.T. 1994, A.M.U. 1908)
substances because 35. The latest model for plasma membrane is
a) ATP synthesis is involved a) Lamellar model b) Unit membrane model
b) Substances are rapidly taken up c) Fluid mosaic model d) Molecular lipid model.
c) A carrier is needed for transport (D.P.M.T. 1981, A.P.M,E.E. 1990, C.B.S.E. 1990,
d) Energy is needed for transport (JIPMER 1997) A.I.I.M.S.1992).
36. Fluid mosaic model of cell membrane was put
27. Lignin is the important constituent in the cell wall forward by
of a) Danielli and Davson b) Singer and Nicolson
a) Cambium b) parenchyma c) Garner and Allard d) Watson and Crick.
c) Phloem d) Xylem. (CBSE 1991, BHU 1992, AIIMS 1992, CPMT 1993,
(MPPMT 1998) 94, AMU 1997, AFMC 1998)

28. according to unit membrane, the thickness of 37. Correct sequence of protein (P) and lipid (L) in cell
membrane is membrane is ( as per lamellar model )

a) 7.5nm b) 75mn a) L – P – L- P b) L- P- P- L

c) 75nm d) 150nm (AMU 1998) c) P – L –L- P d) P –P –L –L.

29. Element that constitute cell wall (BHU 1984, HPMT 1993)
38. Robertson‟s model of cell membrane is similar to
a) Ca b) Mg c) Fe d) K
that of Danielli and Davson‟s in
(CMC Ludhiana 1998)
a) Types of proteins b) Lammellar structure
30. Which one is correct for the structure of cell wall of
fungi and bacteria? c) Permeases d) Carrier particles.

a) Both have glycopeptides (CPMT 1993, JIPMER 1994, MPPMT 1987)

b) Both have NAM 39. Desmosomes are concerned with

a) Cell adherence b) Cytolysis
c) Both have NAG
c) Cell division d) Cellular excretion.
d) Both have chitin /cellulose (UPCPMT 1998)
(CBSE 1995, AIIMS 1997)
31. Generally cell wall in plants is made up of
a) Cellulose b) Cellulose and pectin
EXERCISE III
c) Chitin d) Murein (Structural organization of the cell)
(UPCPMT 1998) 1. If the contents of a leaf tissue are carefully fractionated
which of the fractionate could be called alive?
32. Carrier proteins are involved in
a) Mitochondria b) Endoplasmic reticulum
a) Active transport of ions
c) Cell Wall d) Ribosome (DPMT ‟82)
b) Passive transport of ions 2. The two subunits of 70 S ribosomes are
c) Water transport a) 40 S and 50 S b) 40 S and 40 S
d) Water evaporation (MPPMT 1998) c) 60 S and 40 S d) 50 S and 30 S
33. Plasma membrane is made of (CPMT ‟82)
3. Nucleolus is formed of

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a) DNA and RNA b) DNA, RNA and Protein a) Hydrolases b) Transferases
c) RNA and protein d) RNA (DPMT ‟82) c) Oxidases d) Isomerases
4. Starch grains in potato tuber are located in (DPMT ‟85)
a) Ribosomes b) Nucleus
13. Nucelosomes are units of
c) Leucoplasts d) Golgi bodies (CPMT ‟82)
a) Chromosomes b) DNAs
5. Glyoxylate cycle plays an important role in
conversion of c) RNAs d) Proteins
a) Fatty acids into carbohydrates (BHU ‟85)
b) Glycerol into carbohydrates 14. Cytoliths are made of
c) Protein into carbohydrates a) Calcium oxalate b) Calcium chloride
d) Simple carbohydrates into complex carbohydrates c) Calcium carbonate
(BHU ‟83) d) Potassium bicarbonates (CPMT ‟85)
6. Plastids present in unilluminated cells are 15. Thylakoids are found commonly in the plastids of
a) Chloroplast b) Chromoplasts a) Bacteria b) Blue green algae
c) Leucoplasts d) Proplastids c) Higher plants d) All (BHU ‟86)
(NCERT ‟83)
7. Chloroplast is 16. Cell organelles are embedded in
a) Completely dependent on nucleus a) Cytoplasmic membrane b) Protoplasm
b) Completely independent on nucleus b) Cytoplasm d) None (CPMT ‟86)
c) Autonomous body
d) Semi-autonomous body (BHU ‟83) 17. Basal bodies are associated with the formation of
8. Liquid food drinking is a) Phragmoplast b) Cilia and flagella
a) Pinocytosis b) Phagocytosis c) Cell plate d) Kinetochore
c) Imbition d) None (BHU ‟83) (BHU ‟87)
9. Ribosomes are attached to endoplasmic reticulum 18. Cell sap is
through
a) Living content of cytoplasm
a) Ribophorin b) rRNA
b) Nonliving content of cytoplasm
c) tRNA d)Hydrohobic intraction
c) Nonliving content of vacuole
(CPMT ‟85)
d) Living content of vacuole (CPMT ‟86)
10. Cellulose and Hemicellulose – the constituents of
19. A smaller cell is characterized by
cell wall are synthesized by
a) More metabolic activity
a) Lysosomes
b) Less metabolic activity
b) Microbodies
c) Larger nucleus
c) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
d) Smaller nucleus (CPMT ‟86)
d) Golgi apparatus
20. Plastids develop from
(CPMT ‟85)
a) Nucleus b) Vacuole
11. Structure of nuclear envelope facilitates
c) Proplastids d) Cell wall
a) Nucelocytoplasmic exchange of materials
(CPMT ‟86)
b) Spindle organization
21. The functional unit of Golgi apparatus is
c) Synapsis of homologous chromosomes
a) Protein synthesis b) ATP synthesis
d) Separation of daughter chromosome
c) Cellular secretion d) None
(CPMT ‟85)
(DPMT ‟87)
12. Peroxisomes possess

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22. Centrosomes occurs in 30. Intact chloroplast are isolated from green l eaves by
a) Chrososomes b) Nucleus a) Alcohol b) Sugar solution
c) Nucleolus d) Cytoplasm c) Acetone d) Petroleum ether
(CPMT ‟88) (AIIMS ‟90)
23. Conversion of green tomatoes into red involves 31. Which one is common amongst nucleus, chloroplast
a) Formation of chromoplasts from chloroplasts an mitochondria?
b) Destruction of chloroplasts and development of a) Cristae b) Thylakoids
chromoplasts from leucoplasts c) Nucleic acid
c) Formation of chromoplasts forms proplastids d)Carbohydrate metabolism (BHU ‟90)
d) All the above [CPMT‟88] 32. Extrinic proteins in Singer and Nicolson‟s model
of cell membrane are
24. Smallest cell that of a) Tightly attached to intrinsic proteins and cannot be
a) Virus b) Pleuropneumonia easily separated

c) Acetabularia d) Chlamydomonas b) Tightly attached to intrinsic proteins and can be

(AIIMS ‟88)
25. Mitochondria and chloroplast are considered to be
endosymbionts of cells because they
easily separated
c) Superficially present but cannot be separated e asily.
d) Superficially present and can not be easily separated.

a) Do not arise de Novo. (AMU ‟91)

b) Possess their own nucleic acids 33. Material exchange through nuclear pore is
facilitated by
c) Have membranes similar to those of bacteria
a) Protein rhodopsin
d) All (CPMT ‟88)
b) Lamina propria
26. Inner mitochondria membrane possesses enzymes
c) Lipid bilayer
a) ATP –synthetase, succinate dehydrogenase and
respiratory chain enzymes d) Protein nuceloplasmin

b) NADH – Cytochrome reductase and monomeric 34. Which organelle is absent in animal cell ?
oxidase a) Plastids b) Golgi apparatus
c) Malate and isocitrate dehydrogenase, Fumarate c) E.R. d) Lysosomes
aconitase and citrate synthetase (Bih. PMT ‟91)
d) Adenylate kinase and nucleoside diphosphokinase 35. Hammerling‟s experiment on Acetabularia involved
(AMU ‟89) exchanging
27. A cell organelle with folded inner membrane is a) Cytoplasm b) Nucleus
disrupted with ultrasonic breaker. Its fragments can c) Rhizoid and stalk d) Gametes
synthesis ATP . The organelle is
(CBSE ‟90)
a) Ribosomes b) Centrosome
36. Cell recognition is due to
c) Chloroplast d) Mitochondrion
a) Lipid portion of cell membrane
(CPMT ‟90)
b) Carbohydrate portion of glycoproteins
28. Which one of the following plant cells are devoid
of a wall ? c) Protein portion of glycoproteins

a) Root hair b) Stem hair d) Both carbohydrates and protein portion of

glycoprotein
c) Epidermal cell d) Gamete (BHU ‟90)
(CBSE ‟90)
29. Proptoplasmic strands between adjacent plant cell
are (BHU ‟90) 37. Reduced coenzyme is regenerated electron transport
system by
a) Ectodesmata b) Desmosomes
a) Loss of hydrogen
c) Protoplasmic fibrils d) Plasmodesmata
b) Addition of hydrogen

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c) Loss of electrons 46.All plastids have similar structure because they can
d) Gain of electrons a) Store starch, lipids and proteins
(CPMT ‟90) b) Get transformed from one type to ano ther
38. Plant cells without nuclei are c) Perform same function
a) Companion cells b) Xylem vessel elements d) Be present together (CBSE ‟92)
c) Root hair d) Cambium cells 47. Membrane bound Kreb‟s cycle enzyme is
(BHU ‟91) a) Fumarase
b) Cis-aconitase
c) Succinic dehydrogenase
39. Size of molecules that can pass through plasma
membrane is d) Malate dehydrogenase (AIIMS ‟92)
a) 1 – 15 b) 8-10 c) 10-13d) 15-75 (AMU ‟91) 48. The colour of chromoplast can be

40. Cell organelles common in prostista and Monera are a) Yellow b) Red c) Orange d) All
(CPMT ‟92)
a) Vacuoles b) Lysosomes
49. Factory for synthesis of sugar in autotrophic
c) Chloroplast d) Ribosomes (AMU ‟91)
enkaryote is
a) Chloroplast b) Mitochondrion
41. Addition of new cell wall particles amongst the c) Endoplasmic reticulum d) Ribosomes
existing ones is
(AIIMS ‟92)
a) Deposition b) Apposition
50. Golgi apparatus is absent in
c) Intussuception d) Aggregation a) Higher plants b) Yeast
(CBSE ‟91) c) Blue-green algae d) Liver cells
42. Functional activities of a cell are under the control (CBSE ‟93)
of
51. Cell recognition and adhesion occur due to
a) Mitochondria b) Nucleus biochemicals of the cell membrane named
c) Nucleolus d) Protoplasm a) Proteins
(BHU ‟91) b) Lipids
43. An outer covering membrane is absent over c) Proteins and lipids
a) Nucleolus b) Lysosome d) Glycoproteins and glycolipids (CBSE ‟93)

c) Mitochondrion d) Plastid (CBSE ‟92) 52. Difference between active and passive modes of
membrane transport is
a) Active transport is confined to cations while passive
44. During symport or cotransport of sugar or amino is connected to anions
acid Na + moves
b) Active transport is nonselective while passive one is
a) Opposite its concentration gradient selective
b) Along its concentration gradient c) Active transport requires metabolic energy while
c) In both direction passive transport requires concentration gradient

d) Not involved (CBSE ‟92) d) Active transport is more rapid (CBSE ‟93)

45. Role of nucleus in morphological differentiation 53. Protein tubulin is absent in

was discovered in a) Flagella b) Cilia
a) Acetabularia by Hamerling c) Microtubules d) Plasma membrane
b) Drosophila by Morgan (BHU ‟93)
c) Neurospora by Beadle and Tatum 54. Cell wall consist of
d) Garden Pea by Mendel (DPMT ‟92) a) Lignin , hemicellulose , pectin and lipid
b) Hemicellulose ,pectin , protein and lipid

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c) Cellulose , hemicellulose ,pectin and lignin b) ATP is hydrolysed by ATP –ase to release energy
d) Cellulose, hemicellulose, tubulin and lignin c) Energy for Na + - K + pump comes from ATP
(BHU ‟93) d) ATP is carrier protein (CBSE ‟94)
55. Glyoxisomes are connected with metabolism of 61. Inner membrane convolutions of a mitochondrion
a) Fats b) Proteins are known as

c) Carbohydrates d) All (BHU „‟93) a) Lamellae b) Thylakoids

56. Tetrad is made of c) Grana d) Cristae(CBSE ‟94)

a) Four homologus chromosomes with four chromatids 62. Mitochondrial cristae are sites of

b) Two homologous, chromosomes, each with two a) Breakdown of macromoclcules

chromatids b) Protein synthesis
c) Four nonhomologous chromatids c) Phosphorylation of flavoprotein
d) Four nonhomologous chromosomes (MPPMT ‟93) d) Oxidation –reduction reactions (CBSE ‟94)
57. There are two assertions (A) Eucaryotes have more 63. Organelle having flattened membrane bound
DNA than prokaryotes (B) Eucaryotes are generally cisternae and lying near the nucleus is
more complex than prokaryotes a) Golgi apparatus b) Mitochondrion
a) Both (A) and (B) are correct and (B) is a correct c) Centriole d) Nucleolus (CBSE ‟94)
explanation of (A)
64. Besides giving out vesicles, Golgi apparatus is
b) Both (A) and (B) are correct but (B) is not correct connected with formation of
explanation of (A)
a) Grana b) Cell plate
c) (A) is true while (B) is false
c) Lysosomes d) Plastids (CBSE ‟94)
d) (A) is false while (B) is true (MPPMT ‟93)
65. Series of reactions which can convert fatty acids to
sugar in plants but not in animals is
58. Compare in the two lists a) Krebs cycle b) Glyoxylate cycle
List I List II c) Ornithine cycle d) Glycolysis (CBSE ‟94)
1. Microtubules Structuralcomponents 66. The smallest structure unit of cell wall is
2. Centrioles Store hydrolases a) fibril b) microfibril
3. Peroxisomes Store carbohydrates, c) micelle d) Cellulose (CBSE „94)
fats &protein in plants.
67. Organelles involved in photorespiration are
a) 1 & 3 correct, 2 false
a) Mitochondria, chloroplast and ribosomes
b) 1 correct, 2 and 3 false
b) Mitochondria, peroxisomes and chloroplast
c) 1,2 and 3 correct
c) Mitochondria , nucleus and ribosomes
d) 1 and 2 correct, 3 false (MPPMT ‟93)
d) Mitochondria, peroxisomes and glyoxysomes
(BHU ‟94)
68. Facilitated diffusion involves
59. Which is correctly matched ?
a) carriers but no energy b) receptors and energy
a) Centrosome – Enzymes for digestion
c) enzyme and energy d) carriers and energy
b) Lysosomes – Synthesis of amino acids
(Rohtak PMT ‟94)
c) E.R. – formation of new nuclear membrane
69. Smallest unit in cell wall is
d) Microsomes – Photosyntheis (MPPMT ‟93)
a) Fibril b) Middle lamella
60. Poisons like cyanide inhibit Na + efflux and K +
c) Microfibril d) Micelle
influx. The effect is reversed by injection of ATP
indicating that (CBSE ‟94)
+ +
a) Na - K pump operates in cells 70. An RBC was kept in a certain solution for a few
minutes where it got burst. The solution taken was

www.m-learning.in Page 31
a) hypotonic a) Lysosomes b) Microbody
b) hypertonic c) Golgi Apparatus d) Ribosome
c) concentrated electrolyte solution (MPPMT ‟95,)
d) isotonic (CBSE ‟94) 81. Which one tales part in a acrosome synthesis ?
71. An element present in middle lamella is a) Golgi apparatus b) Lysosome
a) Calcium b) Potassium c) Nucleus d) Mitochondria
c) Sodium d) Iron (CBSE ‟94) (RPMT ‟95)
72. Which causes softening of fruits? 82. Oxysomes occur in
a) Citric acid b) Magnesium a) Golgi body b) Chloroplast
c) Pectin d) Iron (CPMT ‟95) c) Mitochondria d) Endoplasmic reticulum
(RPMT ‟95)
73. A granal chloroplast are found in some 83. The term thylakoid was coined by
a) Succulents b) Hydrophytes a) Arnon b) Park and Biggins
c) C 4 plants d) C 3 Plants c) Menke d) Willstatter
(MPPMT ‟95) (RPMT ‟95)
74. Cell wall substance affected in ripe fruits is 84. Which one separates the mitochondrial core from
a) Cellulose b) Chitin outside?

c) Suberin d) Pectin a) Outer membrane

(MPPMT‟95) b) Inner membrane

75. Main element present in middle lamella is c) Perimitochondrial space

a) Fe b) Ca c) Mg d) K d) All (CPMT ‟96)

(MPPMT ‟95)
76. Glycolate metabolism occurs in 85. Plasmalemme prevents escape of Na + and K + to

a) Lysosomes b) Ribosomes a) Cause disruption in neighboring cells through

desmosomes
c) Glyoxysomes d) Peroxisomes
b) Maintain electrostatic neutrality of cells
(MPPMT ‟95)
c) Maintain cell sap
77. Desmosomes are concerned with
d) All
a) cell division b) Cellular excretion
(RPMT ‟96)
c) cytolysis d) cell adherence
86. Which cell organelle reduces the number of other
(CBSE „ 95) organelles?
78. Active transport involves a) Oxysome b) Lysosome
a) against concentration gradient requiring ATP c) Mitochondria d) None (RPMT ‟96)
b) along conc. gradient requiring ATP 87. Cellular membrane occurs in
c) against conc. gradient but not requiring ATP a) Eucaryotes b) Prokaryotes
d) along conc. gradient requiring no ATP c) Akaryotes d) All
(BHU ‟95) (RPMT ‟96)
79. Which one is living ? 88. Action potential on the outer surface of plasma
a) Protoplasm b) Nucleus membrane is
c) Cytoplasm d) All a) Neutral b) Positive
(RPMT ‟95) c) Negative d) Variable (CPMT ‟96)
80. A unit membrane is absent over 89. Karyolymph is
a) Nuclear pore b) Nuclear sap

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c) SPM membrane d) Cell sap c) Mitochondria
(BHU ‟96) d) Endoplasmic reticulum (AIIMS ‟97)
90. Which one does not possess RNA? 99. Export house of cell is
a) Plasmalemma b) Chromosome a) E.R. b) Golgi body
c) Ribosomes d) Nucleus c) Nucleus d) Lysosomes
(BHU ‟96) (AIIMS ‟97)
91. Organelle involved in transformation of cell 100. Polymorphic cell organelle is
membrane is a) Glyoxysome b) Peroxisomes
92. Controlling centre for cell is c) Lysosome d) Golgi complex
a) Mitochondrion b) Nucleus (MPPMT ‟97)
c) Nucleus d) Ribosome (AIIMS ‟97) 101. In plant cells the number of Golgi bodies increases
93. GERL is associated with during
a) Lysosome b) Golgi body a) Cell division b) Photosynthesis
c) Mitochondrion d) Lomasome c) Respiration d) Translocation
(AIIMS ‟97) (MPPMT ‟97)
94. Protein synthesis occur in an animal cell in 102. Microtubules take part in
a) Cytoplasm a) Muscle contraction
b) Cytoplasm as well as mitochondria b) Membrane architecture
c) Ribosomes attached to nuclear envelope c) DNA recognition
d) Nucleolus as well as cytoplasm (CBSE ‟97) d) Cell division (CBSE ‟98)
103. Carrier proteins take part in
95. Number of mitochondria increases in cells of a) Passive transport of ions
a) Dormant seeds b) Dry seeds b) Active transport of ions
c) Ripening fruits d) Germinating seeds c) Water transport
(MPPMT ‟97) d) Water evaporation (MPPMT ‟98)
104. Cell organelle covered by a single unit membrane
is

96. Nucleus is covered by a) Glyoxysome b) Lysosome

a) Porous double membrane c) Peroxisome d) All (MPPMT ‟98)

b) Porous single membrane 105. Ribosome is formed of

c) Nonporous single membrane a) RNA + Protein b) DNA + RNA

d) Nonporous double membrane c) DNA + Protein d) Protein only

(MPPMT ‟97) (MPPMT ‟98)

97. The plasma membrane is made up of 106. Detoxification site in liver is

a) one layers of protein a) Free ribosomes b) Golgi complex

b) one layers of lipid c) SER d) RER

c) one layer of protein and one layers of lipids (AIIMS ‟91, DPMT ‟97)

d) two layers of protein and two layers of lipids 107. Circular DNA occurs in

(MPPMT ‟97) a) Bacteria only

98. Membrane system considered to be extension of b) Bacteria and chloroplasts

infolded plasma membrane is c) All viruses
a) Golgi complex b) plastids d) Bacteria, chloroplast and mitochondria

www.m-learning.in Page 33
 (CBSE ‟95, AIIMS ‟97) (CPMT ‟81, ‟84)
108. Desmosomes are concerned with 116. Polyribosomes are aggregates of
a) Cell adherence b) Cytolysis a) Ribosomes and rRNA
b) Only rRNA c) Peroxisomes
c) Cell division d) Cellular excretion
d) Several ribosomes held together by string of mRNA.
(CBSE ‟95, AIIMS ‟97) (CBSE ‟89, DPMT ‟84, BHU ‟85,‟88)
109. E.R. of rapidly dividing cells is 117. Average thickness of unit membrane is
a) Non-functional a) 75 A b) 250A c) 25A d) 5A
b) Poorly developed (BHU ‟92, MPPMT ‟94, AMU ‟98)
118. Cell organelles having hydrolases/ digestive
c) attached to Ribosomes
enzymes are
d) attached to Mitochondrion
a) Peroxisome b) Lysosomes
(RPMT‟95,‟96, Bih. PMT‟96, MPPMT‟94, AMU ‟98) c) Ribosomes d) Mesosomes
110. Acetabularia used in Hammerling‟s (BHU ‟85, DPMT ‟86, AMU ‟89, CPMT ‟90,‟91,
nucleocytoplasmic experiments is CBSE ‟94, ZIPMER ‟97)
a) Unicellular fungus 119. The diameter of mitochondria is
b) Multicellular fungus a) 0.5 – 2  m b) 5- 20  m

c) Unicellular uninucleate green alga c) 500 – 1000  m d) 150 – 300 m

( CPMT ‟72, ‟80)
d) Unicellular multinucleate green alga.
120. Cell wall shows
(CBSE ‟88, MPPMT ‟90)
a) Complete permeability
111. Correct sequence of protein (P) and lipid(L) in cell b) Semipermeability
membrane is
c) Differential permeability
a) L-P-L-P b) L-P-P-L d) Impermeability
c) P-L-L-P d) P-P-L-L (CBSE ‟91, CPMT ‟91, AIIMS ‟92)
(BHU ‟84, Har. PMT ‟93) 121. Golgi complex is specialized for
112. Succinate dehydrogenase and cytochrome a) Glysosidation of lipids and proteins
peroxides are located in mitrochondria in b) Conversion of light energy into chemical energy
a) Outer membrane c) Energy transduction
b) Inner membrane d) Digestion of carbohydrates and proteins
(BHU ‟87, ‟89, ‟90)
c) Perimitochondrial space
122. RER is well developed in cells engaged in
d) Matrix (DPMT ‟87, AIIMS ‟91) synthesis of
113. Ribosomes of bacteria, mitochondria and a) Nucleotides b) Proteins
chloroplast are of c) Lipids d) Secretory products
a) 50 S type b) 80 S type (CPMT 93)
c) 70 S type d) 30 S type 123. Ripening fruit softness due to
(MPPMT ‟94, DPMT ‟83, BHU ‟85, ‟96, AMU ‟98) a) Jelly formation at acidic pH
b) Solubilisation of pectate of middle lamella
114. Dictyosomes are
c) Conversion of starch into sugar
a) Class of ribosomes
d) Incorporation of pectate on middle lamella
b) Places of flagellar origin
(MPPMT ‟86, DPMT ‟94)
c) Respiratory particles
Exercise IV
d) Golgi bodies (BHU ‟82, AFMC ‟85)
1. Which of the following is responsible for mechanical
115. The following is not a non-protoplasmic cell
support and enzyme transport ?
inclusion
a) Cystolith b) Starch grain a) Dictysome b) Cell membrane
c) Raphide d) Mitochondrion c) E.R. d) Mitochondria

www.m-learning.in Page 34
 [AIIMS 1999] c) Mitochondria d) Chloroplast
[AIIMS 2001]
2. Which of the following is present between cell walls 11. Spindle fibres of mitotic cells are made up of :
of the plant cells ? a) Tubulin b) Actin
a) Lomosome b) Microsome c) Myosin d) Collagen
c) Lysosome d) Middle lamella [AIIMS 2001]
[AIIMS 1999] 12. Which of the following organelle is related with
photorespiration ?
3. Rough E. R. differs from Smooth E. R. due to the a) Peroxisome b) Chloroplast
presence of : c) Mitochondria d) Lysosome
a) DNA b) Nucleus [AIIMS 2002]
c) Ribosome d) Enzyme 13. The nicotinamide is synthesized in our body from :
[AIIMS 2000] a) Tyhptophan b) Tryosine
4. HIV has a protein coat and genetic material : c) Valine d) alanine
a) ss RNA b) ds RNA [AIIMS 2002]
c) ss DNA d) ds DNA 14. The phagocytosis was first of all seen by :
[AIIMS 2000] a) Huxley b) Haeckel
5. Electron microscope was invented by : c) Metchnikoff d) Darwin
a) Robert Hooke b) Knoll and Ruska [AIIMS 2002]
c) Pastuer d) Schwann and Schleiden 15. Plasmodesmata connections help in
[AIIMS 2000] a) cytoplasmic streaming
6. Double membrane structure of cell are : b) synchronous mitotic divisions
a) Nucleus b) Chloroplast c) locomotion of unicellular organisms
c) Mitochondria d) All the above d) movement of substances between cells
[AIIMS 2000] [AIIMS 2003]
7. Hydrolytic enzymes are found in : 16. DNA is present in
a) Peroxisomes b) Lysosomes a) chromosomes streaming
c) Lepdosomes d) Losmasomes b) chloroplast and lysosomes
[AIIMS 2001] c) mitochondria and chloroplasts
8. A prokaryotic cell lacks : d) mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum
a) True nucleus [AIIMS 2004]
b) Nuclear membrane 17. When synapsis is complete all along the
c) Membrane bound organelles chromosome, the cell is said to have entered a stage
d) All the above called
a) zygotene b) pachytene
[AIIMS 2001]
c) diplotene d) diakinesis
9. Induction of cell division and delay in senescence is
done by : [AIIMS 2005]

a) Cytokinins b) Auxins 18. Many cells function properly and divide mitotically
even though they do not have
c) GA d) CoA
a) plasma membrane b) cytoskeleton
[AIIMS 2001]
c) mitochondria d) plastids [AIIMS 2005]
10. Which of the following is a single membranous
structure ?
a) Lysosomes b) Nucleus

www.m-learning.in Page 35
19. Three of the following statements regarding cells
organelles are correct while one is wrong. Which one is
wrong ?
a) Lysosomes are double membraned vesicles budded
off from Golgi apparatus and contains digestive
enzymes
b) Endoplasmic reticulum consists of a network of
membranous tubules and helps in transport, synthesis
and secretion
c) Leucoplasts are bound by two membranes, lack
pigment but contain their own DNA and protein
synthesizing machinery
d) Sphaerosomes are single membrane bound and are
associated with synthesis and storage of lipids
[AIIMS 2005]
20. Genes present in cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells are
found in :
a) mitochondria and inherited via egg cytoplasm
b) lysosomes and peroxisomes
c) golgi bodies and smooth endoplasmic reticulum
d) plastids and inherited via male gamete
[AIIMS 2005]
21. The cell membrane of eukaryotic cells can not :
a) be involved in receptor mediated endocytosis
b) undertake pinocytosis
c) undertake phagocytosis
d) stop the diffusion of water
[2 nd ABO]
22. Which of the following statements are correct for
mammalian cell membranes ?
(i) There are two phospholipid layers coating a layer of
protein.
(ii) They contain cholesterol to moderate fluidity.
(iii) They are supported on the inner cellular layer by a
thin peptose layer.
a) (i) only
b) (ii) only
c) (i) and (ii) only
d) (i), (ii) and (iii)
23. Chloroplasts :
a) are found in all plant cells.
b) are involved in the synthesis of sugar
c) have chlorophyll as their only pigment
www.m-learning.in
d) do not contain any DNA and rely totally on the
genes in the nucleus for the coding of their required
proteins
24. Which statement about chloroplasts is false ?
a) They are organelles with a double membrane
b) They contain their own gentic information and
ribosomes
c) They are found in eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells
d) The thylakoid membranes within the chloroplast
contain chlorophyll
e) They contain ATP
25. Centrioles :
a) hold sister chromatids together during metaphase
b) are duplicated before cell division
c) are only present during cell division
d) consist of DNA and histones
e) are found in plant cells
26. A major break through in the studies of cells came
with development of electron microscope. This is
because :
a) The resolution power of the EM is much higher than
that of light microscope
b) The resolving power of the EM is 200-350 nm as
compared to 0.1-0.2 nm for the light microscope.
c) Electron beam can pass through thick materials,
wherea light microscopy requires thin sections.
d) The EM is more powerful than the light microscope
as it uses a beam of electrons which has wavelength
much longer than that of protrons.
[CBSE 2006]
27. Which of the following statements regarding to
mitochondrial membrane is not correct ?
a) Outer membrane is permeable to all kinds of
molecules
b) Enzymes of the ETC are embedded in the outer
membrane
c) Inner membrane is highly convoluted forming a
series of infoldings
d) Outer membrane resembles a sieve
[CBSE 2006]
28. Which of the following statements regarding cilia is
not correct ?
Page 36
a) The organized beating of cilia is controlled by fluxes [MP PMT 2007]
of Ca 2+ across membrane
37. Acid hyrolase is found in :
b) Cilia are hair-like cellular appendages
a) Golgi body b) ER
c) Microtubules of cilia are composed of tubulin
c) Lysosome d) Vacuole
d) Cilia contain an outer ring of nine doublet
microtubules surrounding two single microtubules [MP PMT 2007]

[CBSE 2006] 38. RNA is not found in :

29. What is common between chloroplasts, a) Chromosome b) Plasmalemma
chromoplasts and leucoplasts ? c) Nucleolus d) Ribosome
a) Presence of pigments [MP PMT 2007]
b) Possession of thylakoids and grana
c) Storage of starch, proteins and lipids
Assertion & Reason
d) Ability to multiply by a fissin-like process
a) Assertion is True, Reason is True; Reason is a
[AIIMS 2006] correct explanation for the Assertion
30. Site protein of synthesis is : b) Assertion is True, Reason is True; Reason is NOT a
a) Ribosomes b) SER correct explanation for Assertion
c) Golgi body d) Lysosome c) Assertion is True, Reason is False
[CPMT 2007] d) Assertion is False, Reason is True
e) Assertion is False, Reason is False
31. Cristae are associated with :
a) Endoplasmic reticulum b) Mitochondria 39. Assertion : Power house of cell is mitochondria.
c) Cytoplasm d) Protoplasm Reason : ATP is produced in mitochondria.
[CPMT 2007]
32. Centrosome is not present in the cells of : 40. Assertion : Cell wall is not found in animal cell.
a) Higher plants b) Lower plants Reason : Animal cells are covered by cell membrane.
c) Higher animals d) Lower animals
[CPMT 2007] 41. Assertion : Organisms are made up of cells.
33. Which of the following is a prokaryote ? Reason : Cells are structural unit of living organisms.
A cell keeps itrs chemical composition steady within its
a) Amoeba b) Spirogyra
boundary.
c) Bacteria d) Chlamydomonas
42. Assertion : Specialization of cells is useful for
[MP PMT 2007] organisms.
34. The mineral present in the cell wall is : Reason : It increases the operational efficiency of an
a) Na b) Ca organisms.
c) K d) Mg
[MP PMT 2007] 43. Assertion : The number of cells in a multicellular
organism is inversely proportional to size of body.
35. The cell theory was proposed by :
Reason : All cells of biological world are alive.
a) Virchow b) Schleiden and Schwann
c) Robert Hooke d) B. McClintock
44. Assertion : A cell membrane shows fluid
[MP PMT 2007]
behaviour.
36. Which organelle is present in more number in
Reason : A membrane is a mosaic or composite of
secretory cells ?
diverse lipids and proteins.
a) Dictyosomes b) ER
c) Lysosomes d) Vacuoles

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45. Assertion : Mitochondria and chloroplasts are 7d 8a 9a 10d 11a 12c
semiautonomous organelles.
13a 14c 15c 16b 17b 18c
Reason : They are formed by division of prexistig
organelles as well as contain DNA but lack protein 19a 20c 21c 22d 23a 24b
synthesizing machinery.

Answers 25d 26a 27d 28d 29d 30b

Exerrcise I (Cell as a unit of life) 31c 32d 33d 34a 35c 36b

37c 38b 39a 40d 41c 42b

1d 2b 3c 4d 5d 6c
43a 44b 45a 46b 47c 48d
7d 8c 9c 10d 11d 12a
49a 50c 51d 52c 53d 54c
13b 14b 15c 16c 17b 18b
55a 56b 57a 58b 59c 60c
19b 20b 21c 22a 23b 24c
61d 62d 63a 64b 65b 66c
25a 26a 27b 28d 29c 30a
67b 68a 69d 70a 71a 72c
31d 32a 33b 34b 35d 36b
73c 74d 75b 76d 77d 78a
37d 38a 39a 40d 41d 42d
79a 80d 81a 82c 83c 84d
43c 44d 45b 46b 47c 48a
85b 86b 87d 88c 89b 90a
49a 50b 51b 52d 53c 54c
91b 92b 93a 94b 95d 96c
55a 56c 57d 58b 59b 60a
97d 98d 99b 100c 101a 102d
61d 62c 63b 64b 65d 66b
103b 104d 105a 106c 107d 108a
67b 68c 69a 70d 71c 72b
109b 110d 111c 112b 113c 114d
73b 74c 75d 76b
115d 116d 117a 118b 119a 120a
Exerrcise II (Cell Membrane)
121a 122b 123b
1b 2a 3d 4d 5a 6c
Exerrcise IV
7a 8d 9b 10b 11d 12a

13c 14d 15b 16b 17b 18a (Structural organization of the cell)
19a 20d 21a 22b 23d 24c 1c 2a 3c 4a 5b 6d

25c 26c 27d 28a 29a 30c 7b 8d 9a 10a 11a 12c

31b 32a 33c 34a 35c 36b 13a 14c 15d 16c 17b 18b

37c 38b 39a 19a 20a 21d 22d 23a 24c

25b 26b 27b 28a 29b 30a

Exerrcise III
31b 32a 33c 34b 35b 36a
(Structural organization of the cell)
37c 38b 39a 40a 41a 42a
1a 2d 3b 4c 5a 6c
43d 44a 45c

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