International Journal of Food Properties

ISSN: 1094-2912 (Print) 1532-2386 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ljfp20

A Review on Lycopene—Extraction, Purification,

Stability and Applications

Pratik M. Choksi & Vishal Y. Joshi

To cite this article: Pratik M. Choksi & Vishal Y. Joshi (2007) A Review on Lycopene—Extraction,
Purification, Stability and Applications, International Journal of Food Properties, 10:2, 289-298, DOI:
10.1080/10942910601052699

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International Journal of Food Properties, 10: 289–298, 2007
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1094-2912 print / 1532-2386 online
DOI: 10.1080/10942910601052699

A REVIEW ON LYCOPENE—EXTRACTION,
PURIFICATION, STABILITY AND APPLICATIONS

Pratik M. Choksi
Bio Process Technology Department, Institute of Chemical Technology, Matunga,
Mumbai, India

Vishal Y. Joshi
Applied Chemistry Department, Institute of Chemical Technology, Matunga,
Mumbai, India

Lycopene is a functional component of great dietary importance obtained from many plant
sources. In this article, we address the extraction of lycopene from various sources by effi-
cient analytical support. Extraction, storage, and handling are described in detail. We also
describe the effect of heat and time on amount of lycopene during extraction. Purification
and applications are considered to understand lycopene's nutraceutical, epidemiological,
and pharmaceutical importance, as well.

Keywords: Lycopene extraction, Purification, Supercritical fluid extraction, Solvent

extraction, Stability, Applications.

INTRODUCTION
For many decades, scientific studies and research have focused on functional foods
and extracting the components from them that are responsible for their nutraceutical activ-
ity. According to Gibson and Roberfroid, a useful definition of functional food is dietary
ingredients that affect its host in a targeted manner so as to exert positive effects that may,
in due course, justify certain health claims.[1] However, no universally accepted defini-
tions of functional foods are available. The International Food Information Council (IFIC)
defines functional foods as foods that provide health benefits beyond basic nutrition. This
definition is similar to that of the International Life Sciences Institute of North America
(ILSI), which has defined functional foods as foods that, by virtue of physiologically
active food components, provide health benefits beyond basic nutrition. Health Canada
defines functional foods as “similar in appearance to a conventional food, consumed as
part of the usual diet, with demonstrated physiological benefits, and/or to reduce the risk
of chronic disease beyond basic nutritional functions.” The Institute of Medicine of the
National Academy of Sciences limits functional foods to those in which the concentra-
tions of one or more ingredients have been manipulated or modified to enhance their

Received 25 January 2006; accepted 8 June 2006.

Address correspondence to Vishal Y. Joshi, A/1/9, Simandhar Complex, Near Rannapark, Ghatolodia,
Ahemdabed, Gujarat 380061, India. E-mail: dut21in@yahoo.co.in

289
290 CHOKSI AND JOSHI

contribution to a healthful diet.[2] One branch of science is busy determining the number
of natural sources, which have the anticancer activity. The cancer lowering effect of these
foods was originally attributed to vitamin A active carotenoids. In 1831, Wackenroder[3]
isolated an orange pigment from the carrot (Daucus Carota) and coined the term “Caro-
tene” from the Latin word carotacarota. The main carotenoids are −β-carotene, leutein and
lycopene. Among these, lycopene, the biomolecular of interest, has been shown to have
strong antioxidant activity and exhibits the highest physical quenching rate constant with
singlet oxygen[4]—approximately double than that of β-carotene (Figure 1). There are also
rising number of clinical evidences and studies supporting the role of lycopene to provide
protection against different types of cancer.[5]
Color is the first characteristic the consumer perceives of a food, and it confers
expectations of quality and flavor. Moreover, the carotenoid pigments, either in isolation
or jointly with other natural pigments such as chlorophylls and anthocyanins, are responsi-
ble for food color. The rich source of lycopene is “Tomatoes.” The scientific name of
tomato is “Lycopersicon esculentum,” so the major antioxidant found in it is named “lyco-
pene.” Other common sources are watermelon, grapefruit, and guava. These sources are
easily available to all classes of people. Among these sources, tomatoes are the predomi-
nant source of lycopene in the world’s diet because of their year round availability and
high utility. Lycopene is a carotenoid present in human blood (0.5 mmol/liter plasma), and
the tissue levels vary from 1 nmol/g wet wt in adipose tissue to up to 20 nmol/ g wet wt in
adrenals and testes.[6] In humans, lycopene achieves high level in testes, adrenal gland,
prostate, and in human plasma.
In this article, we focus on the extraction, purification, stability, and applications of
lycopene from various tomatoes. Further, we focus on the extraction of the functional
components and measurement methods. For lycopene extraction, we mainly describe
supercritical fluid extraction (SCFE) and solvent extraction in detail, followed by purifica-
tion and detection of it. Effect of heat and time on amount of lycopene during extraction is
also described. To understand the extraction of lycopene from different sources, we need
to know the natural sources of lycopene and its intake in human body. Lycopene is
obtained from many plant sources and almost all animals and microbes absorb it. The
plant sources of lycopene, their common name, their species, and the part of the plant from
where Lycopene is extracted[7] are shown in Table 1. As we mentioned, among these the
richest source of lycopene is tomatoes. The amount of Lycopene obtained from different
varieties of tomatoes and its amount in pulp and peenl are shown in Table 2. The content
of Lycopene in tomatoes differs with tomato varieties. Some of the red varieties—such as
Flavourtop or Moneymaker—contain up to 50 mg/kg, whereas the lycopene content of
yellow varieties is about 5 mg/kg. The content of several carotenoids in the tomato,
including lycopene, increases with advancing maturity of the fruit.
Akanbi and Oludemi[8] studied lycopene content and its stability in 2 commonly
available tomato cultivars (Lycopersicon esculentum var. Roma VF and L. esculentum
var. Ibadan Local) during processing and in-package storage. More lycopene was retained

Figure 1 Structure of Lycopene with molecular formula C40H56 and atomic mass 536.
 LYCOPENE STABILITY AND APPLICATIONS 291

Table 1 Common name, types, and species of lycopene.

Common name Type Species

Aglaonema aroid Fruit Aglaonema commutatum

Apricot Fruit Prunus Armeniaca
Arbutus Leaf Arbutus unedo
Aubergine Fruit Solanum melongena
Berry Fruit Tamus communis
Bitter melon Fruit Momordica charantia
Bitter nightshade Fruit Solanum dulcamara
Calendula Flower Calendula officinalis
Carrot Root Daucus carota
Citrus Fruit Citrus spp.
Cuckoo pint Tuber Arun maculatum
Cowberry Fruit Vaccinium vitis-iddaea var minus
Cloudberry Fruit Rubus chamaemorus
Cranberry Fruit Vaccinium vitis
Damask rose Fruit Rosa damascena
Date palm Fruit Phoenix dactylifera
Eggplant Fruit Solanum melongena
European nettle Plant Urtica dioica
Gazania Plant Gazania rigenz
Grapefruit Fruit Citrus paradisi
Guava Fruit Psidium guajava
Mango Fruit Mangifera indica
Palm Oil Elaeis spp.
Papaya Fruit Carica papaya
Peach Fruit Prunus persica
Pepper Fruit Capsicum annuum
Pepper berry Fruit Piper nigrum
Persimmom Fruit Diospyros kaki
Plum Fruit Prunus domestica
Pumpkin Fruit Cucurbita pepo
Ramanas rose Plant Rossa rubiginosa
Rose Fruit Rosa canica
Rutabaga Root Brassica napus var. napobrassica
Saffron Seed Crocus sativus
Sallow thorn Fruit Hippophae rhamnoides
Tea Leaf Camellia sinensis
Tomato Fruit Lycopersicon esculentum
Turnip Root Brassica rapa var. rapa
Watermelon Fruit Citrullus lanatus
Yew Fruit Taxus baccata

in the dried slices than in dried pulp and better in the presence of antioxidant (sodium met-
abisulphite). Daily lycopene intake is usually evaluated on the basis of food taken by gen-
eral society. In a British study, the daily consumption of lycopene-rich food was
equivalent to a lycopene intake of about 1.1 mg/day.[9] During summer and fall, the intake
was significantly higher than in winter and spring, but there was no significant seasonal
variation in lycopene serum levels. In a study from the United States, a daily intake of
lycopene of about 3.7 mg/day was observed. A lower intake was determined in the Finnish
Mobile Clinic Health Examination Survey with a mean intake of 0.7 mg/day for men and
0.9 mg/day for women.[10] The mean plasma levels of lycopene range from 0.22 to
1.06 nmol/ml. Lycopene contributes to between 21 and 43% of total carotenoids.
292 CHOKSI AND JOSHI

Table 2 Lycopene content (mg/100g−1).

Peel Pulp

Varieties FWB DWB FWB DWB

DT-2 8.1 81.1 5.22 125

5656 10.7 104 4.5 90.9
7711 8.97 87.9 4.37 106
RASMI 10.8 99 4.3 101
PUSA GAURAV 10.2 107 3.98 84.3
DTH-7 4.83 63.3 2.73 57.2
FA-180 7.58 82.4 2.48 63.6
FA-574 6.12 68 2.18 54.8
R-144 6.24 72.1 2.04 51.1

EXTRACTION AND PURIFICATION OF LYCOPENE

Extraction of Lycopene
The extraction, storage, handling, and analysis of Lycopene have to be carried
out under controlled environmental factors to minimize losses of Lycopene through
oxidation or isomerization. Actually, it has been suggested that the bioavailability of
cis-lycopene in foods is higher than that of all trans-lycopene, but apparently, in vivo
mechanisms, which are still unclear, promote isomerization of Lycopene from trans- to
cis-form. In any case, considering that lycopene typically occurs in the all trans config-
uration, which is precisely the most thermodynamically stable form, there is clearly
interest in avoiding trans-cis isomerization when lycopene into functional foods or
nutraceuticals.

Super Critical Fluid Extraction (SCFE)

Gomez-Prieto[5] et al. shows SCF Extraction was efficiently isolate the Lycopene
from tomatoes (pear type). According to them, the first tomatoes were kept at 7°C for not
more than 48 hours. Then, the tomatoes (skin and pulp without seeds) were dried in a
freeze-dryer and subsequently ground, divided into different batches, and transferred to
Teflon screw-cap tubes that were flushed with nitrogen, wrapped with aluminium foil, and
stored at −18°C until the extraction was performed. Each batch was extracted at a different
CO2 density, as explained below. At least two replicates of each extraction were per-
formed. The extractions were carried out using a Hewlett-Packard 7680A extraction mod-
ule fitted with a 7-ml thick walled stainless steel thimble as the extraction cell. The instant
depressurization of the supercritical fluid and the independent control of both the pressure
and the supercritical fluid flow rate are achieved through a nozzle-trap assembly, which
acts as a controllable variable restrictor. The extraction system is fully automated and
includes an internal trap, where the extracted analysts are retained once the supercritical
fluid evaporates and leaves the system. Throughout the experimentation, different values
for the CO2 density (namely 0.25, 0.35, 0.45, 0.55, 0.60, 0.70, 0.75, 0.80, 0.85, and 0.90 g/
ml) were tested with 30 minutes being the extraction time. Other experimental conditions
were as follows:
 LYCOPENE STABILITY AND APPLICATIONS 293

• supercritical CO2 flow 4 ml/min;

• sample weight in the extraction cell 0.5 g;
• extraction cell temperature 40°C;
• trap temperature 35°C;
• restrictor temperature 45°C; and
• the trap was packed with Hypersil-octadecylsilica (30–40 mm).
After the extraction, it was rinsed five times with 1 ml of dichloromethane at a rate
of 2 ml/min.

Solvent Extraction
Solvent Extraction with Filter Medium. Generally, solvent extraction is done
with the liquid extraction and saponification. The solvents used are acetone, petroleum
ether, chloroform, hexane, and so on. A six to eight ounce can of tomato paste, having a
bright red color, is added to 250 ml of a solution of 30% potassium hydroxide in methyl
alcohol. The mixture is shaken at intervals until well mixed and placed at 5°C overnight.
Either the whole or a portion of the saponified paste is mixed with distilled water, and a
sufficient filter aid is added to disperse the paste conveniently, which is then spread on a
thinly filter-aid-precoated filter paper (24 cm, no. 595 S&S) in a large suction funnel. The
cake is washed with distilled water until it is approximately free of alkali, as shown by the
almost colorless filtrate. Care should be taken to keep the cake covered with liquid. Wash-
ing may be completed in 10 to 15 minutes. If the cake separates from the funnel, the crack
formed can be filled and sealed by a thin stream of a thick suspension of filter aid poured
at the edge of the funnel. A tight seal is necessary for successful washing and extracting.
The lycopene is extracted from the cake on the filter, which is held tightly at maximum
suction, by acetone in charges of 50 to 75 ml. Approximately 300 ml of acetone per ounce
of paste are required. To counteract the effect of decreasing temperature resulting from
rapid evaporation of acetone under reduced pressure, the acetone is heated to 35°C before
extraction. The washing and extracting can be completed in 25 to 30 minutes, and the first
one or two charges may be discarded because they contain little lycopene. The glittering
red crystals of lycopene start forming at once in the filtrate and can be filtered off immedi-
ately after extraction. However, a better yield with less effort is obtained by letting the
extract stand at low temperature (as low as 0°F) until the crystals settle to the bottom of a
tall cylinder or bottle. Most of the solution containing carotenes other than lycopene can
be decanted. Lycopene in acetone deteriorates slowly at low temperatures. In Useful and
simple methods are routinely adopted in many laboratories, for example, the extraction of
lycopene with acetone in a blender, and the extract placed in a reparatory funnel and petro-
leum ether (40–60°C) is added giving two layers—the aqueous bottom layer and the
petroleum layer. Distilled water is then added to dilute the aqueous layer, thereby enrich-
ing the petroleum ether layer with the carotene pigment. This layer is separated and sponi-
fied with alcoholic alkali. Again phase separation is carried out, and the upper layer is
dried in a reduced pressure vacuums rotatory evaporator. The carotene pigment is dis-
solved in n-hexane. Separation of the resultant pigments carried out either by column
chromatography or thin layer giving two major bands: lycopene and β-carotene.
Alternative method. An alternative method of extraction and saponification is
the paste stirred in a blender with 1% metaphosphoric acid for 5 minutes, mixed with filter
aid and distilled water. The use of metaphosphoric acid greatly hastens the filtration
294 CHOKSI AND JOSHI

procedure. Acetone is poured on the cake in small charges, and 100 ml of acetone are suf-
ficient to extract the pigments completely from 5 g of paste. After saponification, a reduc-
tion in the volume of the solvent, hexane, or petroleum ether is necessary to start
crystallization. In either method, the cake of filter aid seems to act somewhat as a chro-
matographic column but gives a much more rapid extraction than the column. When crys-
tals of lycopene are needed, they are rapidly filtered off on hard filter paper, washed with
a little acetone, and dissolved in recently distilled chloroform. After being filtered again,
they are recrystallized by addition of methyl alcohol. The crystals separate easily in a thick
film on the hard paper and are then dried at low pressure (1 to 3 mm) in a desiccator over
calcium chloride at room temperature for 1 hour. No precautions against deterioration,
such as the use of inert gas, were used, except to work rapidly and avoid strong light.
Twenty mg of lycopene are dissolved in 3 ml of chloroform and hexane is added to vol-
ume 200 ml.[11]
Solvent extraction: (Liquid-liquid extraction). The solvent system used by
Emenhiser[12] et.al. are hexane, ethanol, and acetone (50:25:25). One hundred ml of sol-
vent is added to 125 ml beaker containing 12 ± 0.5 g sample of homogenized grapefruit.
Fifteen ml water was added to it and agitation was provided for 5 minutes. Then the solu-
tion separated into distinct polar and nonpolar layers. The lycopene bearing upper hexane
layer was injected into HPLC. The extracted pulp from the tomato samples was collected,
centrifuged for 5 minutes. and then extracted. Moreover, the lower polar phase was also
examined in HPLC for traces of Lycopene.

PURIFICATION/DETECTION OF LYCOPENE
Generally for purification and detection of lycopene, HPLC method is used. Other
random methods[1] reported are chromatography, thin layer chromatography, high-perfor-
mance thin layer chromatography, and so on.

HPLC of SCF Extract and Salient Features of SCFE

The photodiode detector is used of wavelength range: 200–600 nm. Before the SF
extract was injected onto a HPLC system, the solvent (CO2) was evaporated under a
stream of nitrogen and subsequently re-dissolved in a 1 ml of dichloromethane. As a
mobile phase, a mixture of eluent A: Methanol-water 96:4 w/v and eluent B: Methyl tert-
butyl ether was used with 1000 ml/min flow rate. A linear gradient was applied in 60
minutes. from initial conditions (A:B, 83:17 v/v) to those maintained until the end of
analysis (A:B, 33:67 v/v). Before use, Methanol and Methyl tert-butyl ether were filtered
and degassed with Helium. Mainly, they used the 250 mm X 4.6 mm Develosil UG C30
column (Nomura Chemical, Solo, Japan) operated at 20°C for the HPLC analysis.[13] The
chromatograms were monitored at 285, 347, 450, and 472 nm to determine different car-
otenoids in the same run. The percentages of carotenoid compounds were calculated
from peak areas measured. Based on experiments done by different authors,[5,14,15,16]
there is no effect of time of extraction on trans-cis lycopene isomerization, but as the
pressure increases, density of supercritical fluid increases and in it solubility of all trans-
lycopene increases, while that of cis-lycopene decreases exponentially at ρ = 0.55 g/ml
trans-lycopene = 31% and at ρ = 0.90 g/ml trans-Lycopene = 88%. Specifically, it is
shown by Gomez-Prieto et al.[5] when authors worked at 40°C and pressure range from
low 77 bar up to intermediate value 281 bar, the effect on extraction yield of an increase of
 LYCOPENE STABILITY AND APPLICATIONS 295

6
O 5 Lycopene 5, 6, -epoxide

2 6 2, 6-cyclolycopene –1, 5 -epoxide

O 5

OH
2 6 2,6-cyclolycopene-1, 5 -diol
5
OH

Figure 2 Lycopene oxidation products in human serum.

temperature would be either negative or non significant due to the balance between CO2
density and solute vapor pressure changes. In case of supercritical fluid extraction, the
addition of different solvent modifiers like acetone, methanol, hexane, and dichlo-
romethane is eliminated because it gives negative effect on extraction. The chromato-
grams monitored at 285, 347, 450 nm, obtained from the corresponding extracts showed
that experimentation at the lowest density, i.e., 0.25 g/ml did not allow us to extract signif-
icant amounts of carotenoids, while the increase of their solubilities achieved at higher
densities enabled us to detect different compounds. The enhancement of the solvating
power, which implies the increase of the pressure from 77 bar (ρ = 0.25 g/ml) to 281 bar
(ρ = 0.90g/ml), while maintaining the temperature of the extraction cell at 40 °C, made
possible the extraction of different carotenoids, that is, phytoene, phytofluene, β-carotene
and lycopene. In these cases in which cis-isomers are not well separated from the all-
trans forms, the analysis will result in a significant overestimation of the latter
because their peaks will co-elute partly or totally with the cis-isomer peaks. In this
case, the use of polymerically synthesized C30 column allowed us to obtain adequate selec-
tivity and selectivity for the determination of all-trans-isomers from the cis-counterparts, as
well as acceptable separations among the individual cis-isomers themselves. A CO 2
density higher than 0.98 can extract other carotenoids (i.e., phytoene, phytofluene, and
β-carotene), so densities lower than it used e.g. 0.85, 0.80, 0.75, 0.70, 0.60, and 0.55 g/ml.
The yield of total Lycopene was 23.6, 14.5, 8.6, 4.5, 0.6, and 0.2%, respectively.[5]

HPLC for Solvent Extraction

The mobile phase for solvent extraction is Methanol: THF: Water (67:27:6), flow
rate 2ml/min. The routine detection of sample injection volume 20 μl is done at 475 nm—
the adsorption maximum for lycopene in the mobile phase.[17]

EFFECT OF HEAT AND TIME ON AMOUNT AND STABILITY OF LYCOPENE

Regarding absorption of lycopene from dietary sources, surprisingly no increase in
lycopene serum levels was observed after the single intake of large amounts of tomato
juice. After ingestion of 180 g or even 700 g of tomato juice corresponding to a single
dose of 12 or 80 mg of lycopene, respectively; no change in serum lycopene levels was
observed. In contrast to unprocessed tomato juice, lycopene plasma levels increased
significantly in human serum when processed juice was consumed. Boiling for 1 hour in
the presence of 1% corn oil increased the bioavailability lycopene from tomato juice
296 CHOKSI AND JOSHI

significantly.[18] Lycopene absorption varies with individuals, and peak serum concentra-
tions are observed at 24 to 48 hours after ingestion of processed tomato juice. Lycopene is
eliminated from human plasma with a half-life of about 2 to 3 days, which is somewhat
more rapid than β-carotene. Hydroxylated derivatives of lycopene have been detected in
human serum. They contain lycopene 5,6-epoxide, which might be enzymatically or
chemically modified the organism.

APPLICATIONS OF LYCOPENE
1. It has singlet oxygen quenching ability and so having antioxidant activity.[19] Lycopene
can oxidize in both human serum and plants. In human serum Lycopene-5,6-epoxide is
the major oxidation product in the reaction with chloroperbenzoic acid. In 1996,
Stahl[6] isolated the final hydrolysis products following rearrangement are the epimers
of 2,6-cyclolycopene-1, 5-diol, isolated by preparative HPLC from human serum.
In plants, the rate for the singlet oxygen quenching by Lycopene is second-order and
K = 7 × 10−9 M−1 s−1. Figure 3 shows the chemical pathway of the oxidation of lycopene
in the plant where in step -1 active oxygen is generated which on reaction with lyco-
pene in the presence of 2-methyl-2-hepten-6-one give Apo-6-lycopenal on oxidation.
2. Lycopene is natural coloring substance, so it avoids the harmful effects of artificial
food colorants.[20] The process of ripening of fruits or color development in some leafs
(except green) coinciding with the transformation of chloroplasts into chromoplasts.
During this Process, the esterification of carotenoids like Lycopene will take place with
different fatty acids for removing and stabilizing free radicals of oxygen produced dur-
ing the process.
3. Lycopene plays an important role in photosynthesis. As chloroplasts are also related to
photosynthesis, many of the cell materials are co-related to it. Self-esterification of car-
otenoids like lycopene protects these cell materials from photo oxidative damage.[20]
4. Lycopene is a vitamin A precursor. The general structure of lycopene is an aliphatic
hydrocarbon with 11 conjugated carbon-carbon double bonds. Being acyclic, Lycopene

Step-1

Step-2

Figure 3 Suggested pathway of the formation of apo-6-lycopenal and 2-methyl-2-hepten-6-one from Lycopene
upon photo sensitization.
 LYCOPENE STABILITY AND APPLICATIONS 297

possesses symmetrical planarity. When this structure under goes certain biochemical
reactions, it forms provitamin A, and then it is converted to vitamins.[21]
5. It is also helpful in certain critical in vivo biological processes like growth control, cell-
to-cell communication, and modulating hormones.[4]
6. It is useful for chemo-preventive treatment of cancer.[22] Many of the experiments done
on rats, rabbits, and human tumor cells show that the presence of lycopene inhibits the
uncontrollable growth of the cells. In humans, Leukemia is a type of cancer, which is
very hard to treat. Lycopene is one of the options, which can help treatment in early
stages. Other cancers for which lycopene can be helpful are Prostate, Pancreas, and
stomach cancers.

COMMERCIAL ASPECTS
More information is required to firmly establish lycopene’s role in health protection
and to identify the underlying biochemical mechanisms. Lycopene might interact with
other food components providing additive or synergistic effects. One important aspect of
lycopene research is the bioavailability of this compound and its metabolism to
derivatives, which might also exhibit biological activities contributing to its potential can-
cer-preventing properties. With the increasing demand for nutritious food, many tablets
available in the market contain vitamins and other compounds. Lycopene is also one of the
important content of human dietary foods. Thus, more and more focus should be given on
the manufacture of lycopene production on a commercial scale.

CONCLUSION
The effect of lycopene on tumor cell shows that lycopene restricts different cancer
cells, e.g., prostate cancer cells. Furthermore, from different reported analyses, we con-
clude that tomatoes contain the maximum amount of lycopene compared to other sources,
i.e., about 11.21 mg/100 g wet weight. Moreover, different methods are available for lyco-
pene extraction, but the supercritical fluid extraction of Lycopene with CO2 gives better
results than other methods. The extracted lycopene can be inserted into the diet, where
natural sources of lycopene are not available. In some industrial processes, where oxygen
quenching is required, extracted lycopene can be used. The experiments showed that heat-
processed food gives a larger amount of available Lycopene than that was previous, but
the degradation of extracted lycopene is greater at high-temperature environments. These
controversial characteristics are still unexplained. For human dietary, Purposes lycopene
should be one of the critical compounds because of its nutraceutical, epidemiological, and
pharmaceutical importance.

NOMENCLATURE
DWB Dry Weight Basis
FWB Fresh Weight Basis
SCFE Supercritical Fluid Extraction

Symbols
K Rate Constant
298 CHOKSI AND JOSHI

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