The English version was

English Versión
funded with the support of:
Marco Albarracín
coordinates INGERALEZA’s Eco-
hydrology Programme in Quito,
Ecuador. He is a biologist (Uni-
versidad del Azuay, Ecuador),
specialised in Environmental
Management (Maastricht School
of Management, The Netherlands)

ty
and holds an MSc in Ecohydrology

ersi
(UNESCO-IHE, The Netherlands). He is a
W

div
at founding member of the International Society of
er

Bio
Ecohydrology. An active member of the regional
working group on ecohydrology of the International
Hydrological Program (IHP) of UNESCO, he was a
teacher-researcher at the SEK International Univer-
sity of Quito.
Ecosystem
ge services
José Gaona
rita
l he
ra is an Ecologist (Universidad Jave-
ultu
C riana de Bogotá) with a Master’s

ience
degree in Water Resources
Management (University of
Resil Wageningen, The Netherlands).
He is a consultant and technical
assistant of Ecohydrology of the
UNESCO International Hydrologi-
cal Programme in Bogotá and Paris.
He is a member and co-founder of Emerging

Ecohydrology
Professionals Global Network in Ecohydrology, an
initiative to strengthen the capabilities of professio-
nals involved in the dissemination of the concept of
ecohydrology.

Professor Luis Chícharo

PhD, is lecturer in Ecohydrology
at the University of Algarve and
Coordinator of the UNESCO
Chair in Ecohydrology: water for

and its implementation in Ecuador

ecosystems and societies. He
also coordinates the Erasmus
Mundus MSc in Ecohydrology and
is the Director of the International
Coastal Ecohydrology Center, under the
auspices of UNESCO. He has published 92 scien-
tific articles and is co-author and editor of three
international books on ecohydrology.

Professor Maciej Zalewski

PhD, is the Director of the Euro-
pean Regional Center for Ecohy-
drology of the Polish Academy
of Sciences, under the auspices
of UNESCO. He is a pioneer of
the Ecohydrology concept and a
respected international expert in
this field. He is a professor in univer-
sity programmes around the world. He is
Marco Albarracín Chairman of the Steering Committee of the “Ecohy-
José Gaona drology” Program of UNESCO PHI. He currently has
an index-h of Google Scholar 40 and has been cited
Luis Chícharo more than 6618 times in various scientific publica-
Maciej Zalewski tions.
Ecohydrology
and its implementation in Ecuador

Marco Albarracín, MSc

Coordinator of the Ecohydrology Programme, INGERALEZA S.A.
Coordinator (ad honorem) of the Paltas-Catacocha
Ecohydrology Demonstration Site
Quito – Ecuador
José Gaona, MSc
UNESCO Consultant
Bogotá – Colombia
Luis Chícharo, PhD
Coordinator of the UNESCO Chair “Ecohydrology:
Water for ecosystems and societies”
University of Algarve
Faro – Portugal
Maciej Zalewski, PhD
Director of the “European Regional Centre
for Ecohydrology of the Polish Academy of Sciences”
University of Łódź
Łódź– Poland
All rights reserved. Total or partial reproduction of this work by any mechanism, physical or
digital, is forbidden without the written permission of the authors or the publisher.
1st Edition (English version) © 2018, 2019 by Marco Albarracín, José Gaona, Luis Chícharo,
and Maciej Zalewski
Suggested citation:
Albarracín, M., Gaona, J., Chícharo, L. and Zalewski, M. (2019). Ecohydrology and its
implementation in Ecuador (Original in Spanish, 2018).
In case of quoting the contribution of a chapter with the indicated author or a guest-author
box:
Author(s). (2019). Name of contribution or chapter. Pp. 00-00. In: Albarracín,
M., Gaona, J., Chícharo, L. and Zalewski, M. (Eds.). Ecohydrology and its implementation
in Ecuador (Original in Spanish, 2018).
This is a verbatim translation from the Spanish original
(with the exception of original texts in English by international authors).
Translated and partially edited by Patricio Mena Vásconez / Entre Textos
(www.entretextos.com)
Technical review: Fabián Rodas López, Francisco González and Giuseppe Arduino
Cover design: Esteban Torres Díaz
Graphic design and layout: Santiago Calero Flores (zonasiete.net)
Photography: Santiago Calero Flores (except where specified differently)
English and spanish digital version available at www.ingeraleza.com/ecohidrologia/
ISBN: 978-9942-36-246-9
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank all the people who inspired us and supported the development of this book.

For the motivation and encouragement to carry out this work we especially thank Dr Giuseppe
Arduino of UNESCO in Paris, France; Miguel de França Doria of UNESCO in Montevideo, Uru-
guay; Fabián Rodas, Coordinator of the Water School and Programa Austro de Naturaleza y Cul-
tura Internacional in Cuenca, Ecuador; Freddy Cáceres, President of INGERALEZA, S.A. in Quito,
Ecuador; and Architect Ramiro Maita Sánchez, Mayor of the Paltas municipality, Ecuador.

To all the colleagues invited to participate in this work: Edyta Kiedrzyńska, Katarzyna Izy-
dorczyk, Wojciech Frątcz, Miguel de França Doria, Lauren Zielinzki, Rahmah Elfithri, Marcos
Villacís, Eduardo Toral, Galo Ramón, Ramiro Maita, Mariana Yumbay Yallico, Noémi d’Ozouville,
Rolando Célleri, Patricio Crespo, Valerie Oullet, Fabián Rodas and Freddy Cáceres, who with
their contributions brought the book to higher levels.

To SENAGUA, especially Secretary Humberto Cholango, Mariana Yumbay Yallico, Diana Ulloa,
and Helder Solís, for their support for the implementation and dissemination
of ecohydrological concepts in Ecuador.

The financing for the publication of the book in Spanish was provided by the following institu-
tions: Nature and Culture International, SENAGUA’s Water School, the Autonomous Government
of the Paltas Municipality, the Private Technical University of Loja and INGERALEZA S.A.
The English version was funded by the Ecohydrology Programme of the UNESCO-PHI.

We thank especially the following institutions and people:

Nature and Culture International: Renzo Paladines,

Fabian Rodas, José Romero, and Felipe Sánchez.

Autonomous Decentralised Government of the Paltas Municipality: Mayor Ramiro Maita Sán-
chez and all his municipal counsellors. To the citizens Jandry Saraguro, Fabricio Baculima,
Enrique Astudillo, Wilma Collaguazo, Julio Carrión, Nicandro Sedamano, Janneth Rosero, Galo
Ramón, Janina Jaramillo, Wilman Luzón, Tiziano Cagigal and all those
who contributed with this work.

Private Technical University of Loja: Rector Dr José Barbosa Corbacho, and the teachers-re-
searchers Aminael Sánchez, Omar Malagón, María Fernanda Tapia, and María Dolores Rodas.

INGERALEZA S.A., especially Freddy Cáceres and Danny Aguilar.

Marco Albarracín and José Gaona wish to dedicate this work to their life companions, Isabel
Valverde and Virginia Martín, as well as their children, Gabriel Albarracín Valverde and Simón
Gaona Martín, who are the motive, cause, colour and essence of their lives.
  

Lake Cubillín, Ozogoche, Ecuador. Photo: Fabián Rodas

 PRESENTATION
By Humberto Cholango, SENAGUA

The Ecuadorian Constitution establishes water as a human right and a strate-

gic resource, prohibiting its privatization. Although we are one of the countries
with greater abundance of water resources by area in South America, the water
needs demanded by its citizens have not been covered.

In the construction of the Sumak Kawsay or Good Living society we are facing
very seriously the challenge to guarantee the human right to water, because it
is fundamental and irrevocable.

The challenges we have are manifold and we know it. The statistics on water
supply for both irrigation and human consumption show significant shortcom-
ings. Nearly 50% of the potential productive agricultural area has deficiencies
in its irrigation infrastructure; only one third has the necessary conditions to
ensure the continued use by irrigators.

With respect to human consumption, even though 94% of the urban sector is
supplied with some source of water, only 76% has good-quality drinking water.
In the rural sector, 70% gets water, but only 50% of it has some type of basic
treatment such as the application of chlorine.

The percentage of the population with sanitation is much lower. According to

the National Drinking Water and Sanitation Strategy (ENAS), the information
available corresponds to the Basic Municipal Evaluation by the State Develop-
ment Bank for the year 2009, reflecting that 58% of the municipalities of the
country (124 of the 221) do not have a wastewater treatment plant and 28% (60
of the 221) have faulty sewage networks.

The lack of sanitation systems affects the amount of wastewater discharged

into water sources. This situation directly impairs the condition of ecosystems
and the quality of life in urban areas damaged by polluted waters, affecting pop-
ulations along the watersheds and emptying into the seas untreated.

As a result of this dramatic situation, 23% of Ecuadorians boys and girls suffer
chronic malnutrition and more than 300 million dollars are used every year to
deal with water-related diseases.

Changing this scenario is essential if Ecuador is to achieve Sustainable Devel-

opment Goal number 6, which refers to clean water and sanitation, and par-
ticularly goals 6.1 and 6.2 that pursue, by 2030, an access to sanitation and
hygiene services suitable for everyone. Therefore, it is essential that sanitation
be managed in a safe manner in order to protect the health of people, commu-
nities, and the environment.

In addition, the country’s water resources have deteriorated because of climate

change. The volume of our glaciers has decreased more rapidly in recent years,
affecting the availability of water in several areas. At the same time, the in-
crease in water temperature has contributed to the proliferation of diseases
produced by vectors.

To address this complex problem, the Ecuadorian State initiated years ago a
process of institutional strengthening. The Safe Water and Sanitation for All
Programme and the National Water Plan are under way, and the National Irriga-
tion and Drainage Plan is being prepared, all these fundamental pillars for the
management of water.

At the same time, spaces and mechanisms for participation are being strength-
ened for the creation of the National Water Fund to conserve water sources and
recharge hydrological zones. It is important to note that, as a result of the Pop-
ular Consultation held in February 2018, work is being done on the delimitation,
restriction, and elimination of large-scale metallic mining activities in protected
areas due to its potential effects on water sources.

In the search to make a good management of hydrological resources we are

committed to the construction of public and private/public alliances aimed at
strengthening food sovereignty and productivity, without compromising this re-
source for the new generations.

Regarding the strengthening of water management capacities, the Water Sec-

retariat (SENAGUA) is leading the Water School, a space of continuous training
for public officials, community managers, and the general public, thus consoli-
dating their work in the management of water resources. This initiative has the
support of several academic and cooperation institutions such as the Private
Technical University of Loja, the Nature and Culture International Corporation,
the Water Fund of the Paute River Basin (FONAPA) and the Regional Water
Fund (FORAGUA).

We want to thank the authors and everyone involved in the preparation of this
text that will become a holistic tool for the management of water resources
using Nature Based Solutions (NbS), systematized within the new discipline
called ecohydrology.

As explained in detail in this text, ecohydrology uses the relationship between

the biotic and hydrological parts of a basin as tools and also bases its results on
five multidimensional parameters that they are water, biodiversity, ecosystem
services, resilience and cultural heritage, known as WBSR-C. All of them must
be considered when reinforcing the carrying capacity of modified ecosystems.
These foundations are applied in the Paltas-Catacocha Ecohydrology Demon-
stration Site, which was recently been recognized by the International Hydro-
logical Programme of UNESCO and which is part in this book.

If we learn to work together with nature, instead of confronting her by building

expensive, and in some cases inefficient, infrastructure, we will be closer to a
harmonious relationship between her and all humanity. All these efforts show
that we are committed to guarantee the rights of nature.

I am sure that this document will serve as the basis for the implementation of
ecohydrology in our country but, above all, will promote the sustainable man-
agement of our water resources.

Humberto Cholango
Secretary
SENAGUA - REPUBLIC OF ECUADOR
Lake Quilotoa, Cotopaxi Province, Ecuador
 FOREWORD
By Dr Giuseppe Arduino, UNESCO

Ecohydrology has been a very important component in the International Hydro-

logical Programme for a long time. Since 1999 the potential of the demonstra-
tion sites has been considered, which was presented in the ecohydrology train-
ing course in 1999 in Lodz, Poland. Then, in 2005, 10 projects were presented
in Paris at a meeting to specifically address the issue of the development of
demonstration sites in the UNESCO-IHP local offices. In 2011, thirty-two sites
responded to a call to become a demonstration site for ecohydrology. For dif-
ferent reasons some of the sites stopped working or did not have the necessary
funding to move forward. Recently, in the period 2015-2018, a network of 23
demonstration sites has been woven in 18 countries, four of which are in the
Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) Region. It has been a complex path and
we hope that the network will grow with an emphasis on Africa and LAC.

Ecohydrology, the central theme of this publication, provides new and powerful
tools to achieve sustainability and to increase the ecological potential of eco-
systems in terms of water resources, biodiversity, ecosystem services, and re-
silience to global and anthropogenic change (WBSR-C, for Water , Biodiversity,
Ecosystem Services, Resilience, and Cultural Heritage).

At the beginning of 2018 we welcomed a demonstration site from Ecuador, the

importance of which was mentioned in the inaugural address of the World Wa-
ter Forum in Brasilia by the General Director of UNESCO, Mrs Audrey Azoulay.
This site has a wonderful cultural component and we are sure that it will be able
to improve the quality of life of the communities that benefit from the greater
amount of water available thanks to the rehabilitation of ancestral systems and
their contribution to the daily life of the community.

The authors have close links with UNESCO and the ecohydrology programme.
I personally welcome the completion of this publication and I hope others will
follow. I hope that this publication will serve as a point of reference for those
institutions that are interested in being part of the network of ecohydrology
demonstration sites of UNESCO-IHP.

I wish the authors much success.

Dr Giuseppe Arduino
Chief of the Ecohydrology, Water Quality
and Water Education Section
Division of Water Sciences
UNESCO INTERNATIONAL HYDROLOGICAL PROGRAMME
Prólogo
Contents
Part 1
Introduction to ecohydrology
as a tool for managing water resources 21

Chapter 1
Human beings, water, ecohydrology 23

1.1. What you will find in this book 24

Chapter 2.
Integrated water resources management and ecohydrology 29

Chapter 3
The theoretical foundations of ecohydrology  33

3.1. Evolution of the concept of ecohydrology 33

3.4. The scope and limits of ecohydrology 39

Chapter 4
Cases of implementation of ecohydrology 43

4.1. Ecohydrological biotechnologies for the mitigation of non-specific agricultural pollutants 43

4.2. Ecohydrological biotechnologies: purification of urban rainwater 44
4.3. Hybrid ecohydrological systems for the improvement of wastewater treatment plants 45

Part 2
An approach to ecohydrology in the international context 47

Chapter 5
Ecohydrology as a framework for enhancing the catchment sustainability potential 49

5.1. Abstract 49
5.2. Introduction 49
5.3. Ecohydrology – evolution of a paradigm 50
5.4. Ecohydrology: the terrestrial and aquatic dimension 50
5.5. Principles of ecohydrology: a framework for implementing nature-based solutions 51
5.6. Ecohydrology: novel aspects of systemic solutions for environmental sciences 54
5.7. Future perspectives and limits of ecohydrology 55
Chapter 6
Ecohydrological biotechnologies – Nature-based solutions
for inland waters and municipal wastewater quality improvement 59

6.1. Introduction 59
6.2. River floodplains for water
retentiveness and quality improvement – a nature-based solution approach for the future 60
6.3. Hybrid Sequential Biofiltration Systems – a nature-based solution approach for wastewater 61

Chapter 7
Ecohydrological biotechnologies as complementary measures for the
mitigation of pollution from non-point sources in rural areas 67

7.1. Introduction 67
7.2. Agricultural measures to reduce the loss of nutrients 67
7.3. Nature-based solutions to reduce transfer from landscape nutrients to fresh water 68
7.4. Ecohydrological biotechnologies for the effective regulation of biogeochemical processes 70
7.5. Policy-related and socio-economic aspects 72

Chapter 8
Coastal ecohydrology: The case of the Guadiana River estuary, Portugal 77

8.1. Introduction 77
8.2. Hydro-ecological problems in the Guadiana River estuary 78
8.3. The ecohydrological solutions 81
8.4. Conclusions 85

Chapter 9
Ecohydrology as part of the UNESCO International Hydrological Programme 89

9.1. The UNESCO Chairs in Ecohydrology 92

9.3. Regional Ecohydrology Centres 95
9.4. The Network of Ecohydrology Demonstration Sites 97

Part 3
Management of water resources in Ecuador 105

Chapter 10
Climatic, hydrological and demographic characteristics of Ecuador 107

10.1. Generalities of the climatology and hydrology of Ecuador 108

10.2. Demography of Ecuador 108
Chapter 11
The water resources of Ecuador  111

11.1. Watersheds of Ecuador 111

11.2. Surface water resources 111
11.3. Underground water resources 112

Chapter 12
Problems inherent to the management of water resources in Ecuador 117

12.1. Institutionality and governance 119

12.2. Development of professional and technical skills 122
12.3. Climate change  123

Chapter 13
Legal tools for the management of water resources in Ecuador 125

13.1. The Constitution of the Republic of Ecuador and water 125

13.2. IWRM within the Water Law of Ecuador 126
13.3. Integration of ecohydrology as a tool to support IWRM in the Ecuadorian legal context 126

Part 4
Implementation of ecohydrology in Ecuador 129

Chapter 14
The Paltas - Catacocha Ecohydrology Demonstration Site 131

14.1. Background 131

14.2. Technical description of the Paltas-Catacocha ecohydrology demonstration site 134
14.3. Analysis of the application of the ecohydrological approach
in the Paltas-Catacocha Demonstration Site 137
14.4. Double regulation 137
14.5. Multidimensional parameters (WBSR-C) 138
14.4. Historical review of the creation of the demonstration site 145

Chapter 15
Sites where the ecohydrological approach is being developed in Ecuador 153

15.1. The Municipality of Santa Cruz, Galapagos 153

15.2. Water resources management in Santa Cruz, Galapagos 156
15.3. The Chone River Basin (Manabí) 158

Chapter 16
Scientific research programmes on ecohydrology in Ecuador 163
Chapter 17
Organisations that support the development of ecohydrology in Ecuador  169

17.1. Non-profit organizations 169

17.1.1. UNESCO 169
17.1.2. Nature and Culture
International Corporation 170
17.2. Private companies 173
Epilogue 177
Figures
Figure 2.1. The management cycle of planning and implementation based on learning through practice.  30

Figure 3.1. Dual regulation between Hydrology and Biota in the ecohydrological approach.  34

Figure 3.2. Conceptual map of the principles of ecohydrology.  35

Figure 3.3. Multi-dimensional parameters (WBSR-C) of ecohydrology 38

Figure 3.4. Efficiency of low-cost solutions proposed by ecohydrology and NbS.  39

Figure 5.1. Principles of ecohydrology (modified from Zalewski, 2011) 53

Figure 5.2. Scheme of the ecohydrological approach for improving water resources. 55

Figure 6.1. Design of a hybrid Sequential Biofiltration System (SBS). 63

Figure 7.1. Improved buffer zones as measures for the reduction of diffuse contamination. 71

Figure 8.1. Annual average of the Guadiana river flow 79

Figure 8.2. Reproductive migration cycle of the anchovy Engraulis encrasicolus. 80

Figure 8.3. Change in the marshland area before and after the operation of the Alqueva dam. 81

Figure 8.4. Outline of the estuarine food chain in the Guadiana ecohydrological model. 82

Figure 8.5. Distribution along the channel of the planned biomass of phytoplankton (Chl a). 82

Figure 8.6. Average percentage of particles in each section of estuary and discharge scenarios. 83

Figure 8.7. Scheme that highlights the need to consider offsets between uses of upstream and downstream water. 84

Figure 8.8. Conceptual framework of ecohydrological solutions for decision making. 85

Figure 9.1. Representation of the UNESCO Ecohydrology “Family” (Arduino, 2018). 89

Figure 9.2. Thirty-six established centres related to water, four related to ecohydrology. 97

Figure 9.3. Representation of the socio-ecohydrological system in the letters.  102

Figure 9.4. Location of the 23 Ecohydrology Demonstration Sites of UNESCO IHP. 103

Figure 10.1. Location, boundaries, and geographical regions of Ecuador. 107

Figure 10.2. Population density (inhab/km2) of South American countries. 109

Figure 11.1. Map of watersheds of Ecuador.  112

Figure 11.2. Map of surface water resources of Ecuador.  114

Figure 11.3. Map of groundwater resources of Ecuador. 115

Figure 14.1. Geographical location of the micro-basin of the San Pedro Mártir River. 135

Figure 14.2. The Pisaca Lagoon before and after its restoration. 136
Figure 14.3. Tajamares for the reduction of runoff and recovery of habitats.  137

Figure 14.4. The tara (Caesalpinia spinosa).  141

Figure 14.5. Particularity of a petroglyph associated with the aboriginal culture of the area of Paltas. 143

Figure 14.6. Main Church of the city of Catacocha.  144

Figure 14.7. Zoomorphic representation of a snake.  144

Figure 14.8. Excavations in a rock that may represent interconnected lagoons. 145

Figure 15.1.Pumping and desalination system of brackish groundwater. 156

Figure 15.2. Artificial dry wetland for the treatment of wastewater.  157

Figure 15.3. Infrastructure works to supply irrigation and drinking water. 159

Figure 15.4.Chone river basin and location of the RAMSAR site Ciénega de la Segua.  160

Figure 17.1. The six topics of the Strategic Plan (2014-2021) of Phase VIII of UNESCO - IHP.  169

Tables
Table 1.1. An example of sites where the concepts of ecohydrology in Ecuador. 26

Table 3.1. Description of the implementation principles of ecohydrology. 36

Table 8.1. Areas (ha) of irrigated crops in the Portuguese part of the Guadiana basin. 78

Table 9.1. Description of the content of the summary letters of the demonstration sites of ecohydrology.  100

Table 11.1. Main river basins in Ecuador.  113

Table 12.1. Third-level academic offer in subjects related to the management of water resources 122

Table 14.1. Ecosystem services identified in the San Pedro Mártir River micro-basin.  140

Table 16.1. Thesis subjects with an ecohydrological component of postgraduate students. 167
Guest authors

A perspective of the International Hydrological Programme (IHP - UNESCO)

on ecohydrology in the Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) region
Miguel de França Doria 90
UNESCO Chair of Ecohydrology: Water for ecosystems and societies
of the University of the Algarve
Luis Chícharo 93
The Erasmus Mundus Master in Ecohydrology
Lauren Zielinski 95
The Putrajaya Lake and Wetlands Demonstration Site of Ecohydrology, Malaysia
Rahmah Elfithri 99
Current situation, gaps and challenges in the management of water resources in Ecuador
Marcos Villacís 118
The experience of water management in the city of Cuenca and
the FONAPA- Water Fund for the Conservation of the Paute River Basin
Eduardo Toral 120
Recovery of ancestral Paltas knowledge for water management in Catacocha
Galo Ramón Valarezo 132
Importance of political support for the integrated management of water resources in Paltas
Ramiro Maita Sánchez 147
Excerpt from the speech presented at the official launch
of the “Paltas Catacocha Ecohydrology Demonstration Site”
Mariana Yumbay Yallico 149
Ecohydrology of the Santa Cruz Island, Galapagos
Noémi d’Ozouville 154
A master’s degree in Hydrology with mention in Ecohydrology
Rolando Célleri / Patricio Crespo 163
The Ecohydrology Emerging Professional Global Network (Ecohydrology-EPGN) 170
Valerie Ouellet
The Water School: Building capacities for water resources management
Fabián Rodas 172
The link between private companies in the development of ecohydrology in Ecuador:
the case of INGERALEZA S.A.
Freddy Cáceres 174
Abbreviations and acronyms

CAN Comunidad Andina (Andean Community)

COMUNIDEC Comunidades y Desarrollo del Ecuador (Ecuadorian Communities and Devel opment)
DHM Hydrographic Demarcation of Manabí
EH Ecohydrology
EPMAPS Empresa Metropolitana de Agua Potable y Saneamiento de Quito, Ecuador (Quito Drinking Water and Sanitation Agency)
EPN Escuela Politécnica Nacional, Quito – Ecuador (National Polytechnic School)
ESPOCH Escuela Superior Politécnica del Chimborazo, Riobamba – Ecuador (Chimborazo Polytechnic Superior School)
ESPOL Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral, Guayaquil – Ecuador (Coastal Polytechnic Superior School)
FONAG Fondo del Agua de Quito (Quito Water Fund)
FONAPA Fondo del Agua de la Cuenca del Río Paute (Paute River Watershed Water Fund)
FORAGUA Fondo Regional del Agua (Regional Water Fund)
GAD Gobierno Autónomo Descentralizado (Decentralized Autonomous Government)
GADMP Gobierno Autónomo Descentralizado del Municipio de Paltas
(Decentralized Autonomous Government of the Paltas Municipality)
HD Hydrographic Demarcation
ICIWaRM International Centre for the Integrated Management of Water Resources
iDRHICA Departamento de Recursos Hídricos y Ciencias Ambientales de la Universidad de Cuenca
(Department of Water Resources and Environmental Sciences of the University of Cuenca)
IHE Institute for Water Education, Delft – Netherlands
IHP International Hydrological Programme of UNESCO
INEN Instituto Ecuatoriano de Normalización (Ecuadorian Normalization Institute)
IWRM Integrated Water Resources Management
MAE Ministerio del Ambiente del Ecuador (Ministry of the Environment of Ecuador)
NbS Nature-based Solutions
NCI Nature and Culture International
NGO Non-governmental organization
SAC Scientific Advising Committee for the Scientific Advisory Committee for the Ecohydrology Programme of UNESCO-IHP
SENAGUA Secretaría Nacional del Agua de Ecuador (Water Secretariat of Ecuador)
sp. Species (single)
spp. Species (several)
TULAS Texto Unificado de Legislación Ambiental Secundaria (Unified Text of
Secondary Environmental Legislation)
UALG Universidad del Algarve de Faro, Portugal
UASB Universidad Andina Simón Bolívar, Quito – Ecuador (Simón Bolívar Andean University)
UCE Universidad Central del Ecuador, Quito – Ecuador (Central University of Ecuador)
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UTPL Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, Ecuador (Technical Particular University of Loja)
WBSR-C Multidimensional Parameters of Ecohydrology (Water, Biodiversity, Ecosystem Services, Resilience and
Cultural Heritage)
Part 1
Introduction to ecohydrology
as a tool for managing
water resources

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 21

Chapter 1
Human beings, water, ecohydrology
People write and sing and dance and dream about it.
We start with a paradox: even though ecohydrology
has been practiced since time immemorial, it is a re-
latively new field in Ecuador. Later we will see that
in the south of the country the native pre-Inca Paltas
culture had in its territories complex systems of wa-
ter management that were, at the same time, friend-
ly to the environment and fundamental for the deve-
lopment of ancient communities. The Paltas had a
deep knowledge of the cycles of rains and droughts
and used that know-how to extend the availability of
water in dry spells through the construction of arti-
ficial wetlands, thus prolonging agricultural activi-
ties while maintaining the biodiversity of the area.
The management of hydrology to obtain results in
biota (and vice versa) is the fundamental principle
of ecohydrology.
Much of the millenary wisdom of the Paltas was
lost with the passing of the years by processes rela-
ted to Inca expansionism and Spanish colonialism,
and also by the development of practices in large
plots and intensive agriculture or large-scale cattle
ranching, both inefficient practices typical of the
Republican period. These circumstances, added to
continuous low water levels in the zone due to cli-
matic factors, have originated at present a crisis of
Water, like religion and ideology,
has the power to move millions of people.
Since the very birth of human civilization,
people have moved to settle close to water.
People move when there is too little of it.
People move when there is too much of it.
People journey down it.
People fight over it.
And all people, everywhere and every day, need it. …
Just as we are moved by water,
we must move quickly in order to save it.
Mikhail Gorbachev, Russia
Peace Nobel Prize, 1990
water supply for human consumption and for irri-
gation. Faced with this unfortunate situation, the
community that currently occupies the ancestral
territory of the Paltas and their authorities decided
to increase access to their scarce water resources
by retaining rainwater in artificial wetlands and im-
proving the vegetation cover, aimed at recharging
the aquifers and thus increasing the availability of
the vital liquid for the city of Catacocha. This new
model of water resources management in Ecuador
is based on the ancestral practices of the aboriginal
inhabitants of the area. We will also see that cul-
tural heritage should be a parameter included in
the integrated management of water resources, as
considered by the practice of ecohydrology that we
present in this text.
The development of society and the availability of
water have established a fundamental relationship
for the progress of the population in the Ecuado-
rian Andean area; this also happens to the human
species all over the world. Throughout history,
there are several examples of portentous hydraulic
systems built globally: the Aztecs in Central and
North America, the Incas in the Andes of South
America, the majestic Roman imperial cities in
Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 23
 24 Human beings, water, ecohydrology
Europe, and empires in China and India in Asia,
as well as the ancient Egyptian culture in Africa.
All of them had complex systems of water mana-
gement. Even though these cultures did not have
the technology that is currently available (such as
the great advances in geographic information sys-
tems, geology, biogeochemistry, hydrology and
hydraulics, software, climate predictions, etc.),
early engineers were already able to handle im-
pressive hydrological and hydraulic systems that,
in the long run, were a favourable condition for the
development of societies.
Nowadays the great works of technology and
engineering employed to take advantage of the
water service potential have had both positive
and negative results. Thus, some management
practices and uses of water resources, although
carried out with good intentions, in the end have
generated negative consequences such as large
reservoirs that dam river waters for multipurpose
purposes (production of electric power, water for
irrigation, aquatic tourism, etc.) but which, un-
fortunately, cause simultaneously the interrup-
tion of ecological processes and movement of
nutrients along their flows; even, in some cases,
they definitively cut the life and reproductive cy-
cles of some aquatic species and/or contaminate
and eutrophicate the water bodies. In short, a
work of infrastructure that involves water resour-
ces may have favourable results for humans but,
in many cases, unfavourable for nature, and even
for human populations downstream.
The exponential growth of the population and the cu-
rrent bleak forecasts of climate change demand from
the scientific, technological, and political community
to look for solutions in the absence of good and plen-
tiful water. Thus, to complement, and in some cases
replace, the proliferation of expensive mega works,
the use of technologies and alternative solutions based
on deep knowledge of natural processes have become
new paradigms for the management of water resources
at a time when human beings are the main promoters
of changes in the biosphere and, therefore, responsi-
ble for living in a healthy or polluted environment.
In the United Nations World Report on the Deve-
lopment of Water Resources - 2018: Nature-based
solutions (NbS) for water management (WWAP/
UN-Water, 2018), ecohydrology is mentioned as
a concept that is compatible with this definition.
This report speaks, for example, of the emerging
pollutants and the limited information available that
quantifies the capacity of many hydrophilic plant spe-
cies of wetlands to eliminate some toxic substances
associated with pesticides, industrial discharges, and
extractive activities (Skov, 2015). Natural and artifi-
cial wetlands can eliminate 20% to 60% of the metals
contained in water, and trap and retain between 80%
and 90% of the sediments of the runoff. Additionally,
hydrophilic species can biodegrade and immobilize a
whole range of emerging pollutants and nutrients (P
and N) from human activities. The effectiveness of ar-
tificial wetlands to eliminate various pharmaceutical
products has been shown in Ukraine (UNESCO, in
press; Vystavna et al., 2017). These and other results
suggest that, for some of these emerging pollutants,
NbSs work better than grey solutions, and in some
cases may be the only solution (UNESCO-WWAP/
UN-Water).
1.1. What you will find in this book
This book has two objectives. In the first place, the
aim is to disseminate the concepts of ecohydrolo-
gy as a support tool for the integrated management
of water resources. The activities and initiatives
that have been developed and are being developed
globally in the programme of Ecohydrology of the
International Hydrological Programme (IHP) Pha-
se VIII of UNESCO are also presented. Secondly,
the particular Ecuadorian context is analysed for
the integration of the ecohydrological approach
as a tool for the integrated management of water
resources. Thus, they will be presented in several
chapters of this text with some practical examples
of how ecohydrological practices can be applied
and quantified, and actions that are being carried
out in the country regarding ecohydrology as a wa-
ter management tool.
Additionally, we have invited several profes-
sionals, both foreign and Ecuadorian, to share
their experiences, cases, and specific examples,
which will help the reader to better understand
both the concepts and the implementation ac-
tions of ecohydrology.
It is also important to highlight that this document
was drawn up at the same time as UNESCO Inter-
national Hydrological Programme for water mana-
gement recognized the management of water with
ancestral knowledge carried out in the municipali-
ty of Paltas, specifically in the San Pedro Mártir Ri-
ver basin. UNESCO-IHP acknowledged this effort
of several years of the Paltense community by inte-
grating it within the World Network of Demons-
trative Sites of Ecohydrology. This recognition is
very relevant at the regional level since to date the-
re are only 23 ecohydrology active demonstration
sites in the whole world. Of these, four (including
Paltas-Catacocha) are found in the Latin Ame-
rican and Caribbean region, and Ecuador is the
first and only one within the Andean Community.
For this reason, we present in this document the
Paltas - Catacocha Site Demonstration to verify if
the concepts of ecohydrology are met and applied
(see Chapter 9, Figure 9.4 and Chapter 14). Al-
though there are many activities to be executed in
order to strengthen the knowledge generated in
the Paltas-Catacocha Ecohydrology Demonstra-
tion Site (for example, research and monitoring of
the system to generate quantitative and qualitative
data on how the dual relationship between hydro-
logy and biota of the basin is working), we trust
that this document can serve as a baseline for the
management of the San Pedro Mártir River basin
and to compare it with the activities that will be ge-
nerated from now on in terms of the application of
ecohydrological concepts.
Additionally, the final part of the book consists of
a series of initiatives that are being developed in
the country and that have a direct or indirect re-
lationship with the concepts and precepts of the
ecohydrological approach. From this perspecti-
ve, the way of selecting the initiatives in this book
and that are directly related to the implementation
of ecohydrology from the UNESCO approach in
Ecuador was based on the fact that water manage-
ment projects or initiatives should include two ba-
sic features of this approach: first, that the concept
of “dual regulation” be manifested, and second,
that they consider as objectives of quantification
of ecohydrological management the “multidimen-
sional parameters of ecohydrology” (Water, Bio-
diversity, Ecosystem Services, Resilience and Cul-
tural Heritage). Thus, we will briefly analyse the
cases of Santa Cruz in the Galapagos Island and
the Chone River basin, where there is the possi-
bility of applying the concepts of ecohydrology for
its management. The main problems that could be
solved by the tools of ecohydrology in these sites
are presented in Table 1.1.
Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 25
 26 Human beings, water, ecohydrology

Table 1.1. An example of sites where the concepts of ecohydrology in Ecuador can be applied and the problems to be
attended with an ecohydrological approach..

Main problems to be solved

with ecohydrological tools

Loss of vegetation retention

Pollutants and nutrients
Geographical
Name

Water over-extraction
region

Intensive land use

Invasive species
Habitat loss

Droughts
Flooding

capacity

Others
Galapagos Islands Insular x x x x x x x

Chone River basin Coast x x x x

Prepared by the authors

We also present the initiatives that directly include
“ecohydrology” as its main activity, and that are the
basis to strengthen the implementation of the eco-
hydrological concepts in the country as a tool for
IWRM, complementary to the large grey infrastruc-
ture works, which, in certain cases, do not turn out
to be an efficient solution to water problems.
We are aware that in Ecuador there are many pro-
jects and initiatives related to ecohydrology that
were not considered in this book since our in-
tention is to expose readers to the concepts and
foundations of ecohydrology as a practical tool to
achieve the goals of UNESCO´s International Hy-
drological Programme (IHP). Looking forward, this
work intends to lay the foundations for the country
to assume the challenge of integrating ecohydro-
logy as a practice of water resource management,
friendly to the environment and efficient for people.
Note to the English edition
This book was written in Spanish and what you are
holding a verbatim translation into English. With
this version we want to reach a wider target audien-
ce in countries where English is the first language
or where it is commonly spoken and read. As with
the original version, we hope that the text will be
very useful, and we will be very happy and grateful
to receive your feedback.

References
Skov, H. (2015). UN Convention on Wetlands (RAMSAR): Implica-
tions for Human Health Reference Module in Earth Systems and
Environmental Sciences: Elsevier.
UNESCO. (In press). Emerging Pollutants in Water and Wastewater
of East Ukraine: Occurrence, Fate and Regulation. UNESCO
Emerging Pollutants in Water Series. París: UNESCO.
UNESCO-WWAP/ONU-agua. (2018). Soluciones basadas en la
naturaleza para la gestión del agua.
Vystavna, Y., Frkova, Z., Marchand, L., Vergeles, Y., &
Stolberg, F. (2017). Removal efficiency of pharmaceuticals
in a full scale constructed wetland in East Ukraine. Ecological
Engineering, 108, 50-58. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eco-
leng.2017.08.009.
Chapter 2.
Integrated water resources management and ecohydrology
The Integrated Water Resources Management
(hereinafter referred as IWRM) has become the
indispensable conceptual framework for those
responsible for the management of water re-
sources in which all human-hydrological cycle
interactions should be considered (Naiman et
al., 2007). According to the Global Water Part-
nership (GWP), the most globally accepted and
recognized concept of IWRM is:
“… a process that promotes the coordinated de-
velopment and management of water, land and
related resources, in order to maximize the resul-
tant economic and social welfare in an equitable
manner without compromising the sustainability
of vital ecosystems” (GWP, 2017).
Given that the availability and possibility of ac-
cess to water varies in each region of the world,
the precepts of IWRM must be treated locally
and address the particularities and problems
that arise in each site. Conceptually, however,
the implementation of IWRM is feasible when
there four basic conditions are met: (1) a favou-
rable environment that allows the synergistic
confluence of IWRM tools; (2) institutional
structures that are consolidated and proactive;
(3) management instruments that are correctly
developed, and (4) the possibility of developing
infrastructure for the integrated water resour-
ces man (see Figure 2.1).
In this context, and under the umbrella of IWRM,
ecohydrology is a subdiscipline of hydrolo-
gy (McClain et al., 2012; Naiman et al., 2007;
Zalewski et al., 2008) that scientifically produ-
ces a series of proven management tools in the
field and uses ecosystem processes to achieve the
goals of freshwater resource management from
a watershed perspective (UNESCO-IHP, 2016,
Zalewski, 2002).
Just as hydrologists must be trained within a
multidisciplinary context, so that they acquire
the skills and abilities that allow them to parti-
cipate and lead efforts that search for the solu-
tion to environmental problems (McClain et al.,
2012), also aquatic ecologists must be adequa-
tely trained in hydrological principles, which
can be used during all phases of the manage-
ment of rivers, lakes, and other aquatic ecosys-
tems (DuBowy, 2014).
At the same time, other disciplines must be con-
sidered to train ecohydrologists, such as biogeo-
chemistry, hydraulics, global positioning sys-
tems, integrated water resources management,
etc. The result will be an ecohydrologist with a
holistic vision and systemic thinking, which will
allow him or her to develop solutions to the so-
cio-environmental problems related to water.
At a Latin American level, IWRM must be appre-
ciated from the point of view of the Watershed
Management Plans. For this it is necessary to
consider the political will of the governing body
and consider long-term financing plans. The
“whole basin” approach allows system-level im-
pact assessment and resolution of disputes ups-
tream, downstream (for a river) and from region
to region (for a lake or groundwater) (GWP,
2009). It is advisable to divide macro-basins into
micro-basins (or projects, such as hydroelectric
plants), always including all the actors involved in
the integrated management of water resources.
The ecosystem approach is a tool that aids in the
evaluation of ecosystems and their ecosystem
services; it also constitutes a strategy for the inte-
Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 29
 30 Integrated water resources management and ecohydrology

grated management of water resources, land and
living resources, such as seeds, plants, animals,
etc., promoting the conservation and sustainable
use of these resources in an equitable manner
(Smith and Maltby, 2003). Adaptive manage-
ment is part of this approach, which, under the
magnifying glass of the ecohydrological concept,
serves as a tool for integrated watershed mana-
gement, generally involving multiple actors and
relating them to the context (see Figure 2.1).

Figure 2.1. The management cycle of planning and implementation based on learning through practice.

Development goals

National or
regional objectives

Process monitoring Water-related aspects

IWRM
and evaluation Implementation evaluation
Facilitating environment
Institutional structures
Management instruments
Infrastructure development
Implementation
actions Policy/Strategy
of water resources

IWRM implemettaion plan

Watershed-level action plan IWRM

Source:: GWP (2009)

There are some recommendations given by the
GWP for the efficient application of IWRM. Thus,
the adoption of an IWRM approach deliberately
linked to the appropriate national development
planning processes will allow the full potential of
water management to contribute to the achieve-
ment of the UN Sustainable Development Goals.
Additionally, for IWRM to be effective it must
have a clearly identifiable advocate within the
government to provide strategic direction to the
process. Finally, a key element for the implemen-
tation of the IWRM approach is the assurance that
all those interested in the use of water play a role
in its management.
These approaches must be involved in a structured
manner and must include provisions for the arbi-
tration of the disputes that will inevitably arise.
Returning to the Latin American context, one of
the main current problems is inequality, which
has pitifully implanted itself and, in addition, has a
very consistent tendency to grow. However, even
if it were not the main pressure on water resour-
ces, the integrated management of water resour-
ces will be a way to reduce inequality. In Latin
America, the problem for the management of wa-
ter resources is related to the excessive extraction
of water (especially for agricultural irrigation),
waterproofing (urban infrastructure) and defores-
tation (Araya-Obando, 2010). On the other hand,
the per-capita production of solid waste has dou-
bled in the last 30 years; almost 90% of solid was-
te is collected but more than 40% is not properly
disposed, which contributes to polluting land and
water resources; such is the case of leachates. As-
suming the transfer of the problem in space and
time precisely on actions at the end of the pipe,
despite the large investments there are problems
of inter-institutional coordination and little effec-
tiveness (Galvis, 2009).
References
Araya-Obando, J. (2010). El Rol de la Investigación en las Universi-
dades Latinoamericanas en la Gestión Integrada del Recurso
Hídrico. Ingeniería de Recursos Naturales y del Ambiente, (9),
45-54.
DuBowy, P. J. (2014). A primer of ecohydrology: fundamentals and
applications. Erasmus Mundus Master of Science Programme in
Ecohydrology Special Publication 2014-1.
Galvis, A. (2009). Development of a Technology Selection Model for
Pollution Prevention and Control in the Municipal Water Cycle.
Delft: UNESCO-IHE.
GWP. (2009). A handbook for Integrated Water Resources Manage-
ment in basins. Stockholm: Global Water Partnership.
GWP. (2017). What is the IWRM Toolbox? Tomado de: http://www.
gwp.org/en/learn/iwrm-toolbox/About_IWRM_ToolBox/What_
is_the_IWRM_ToolBox/
McClain, M. E., Chicharo, L., Fohrer, N., Novillo, M. G., Windhorst, W.
and Zalewski, M. (2012). Training hydrologists to be ecohydrolo-
gists and play a leading role in environmental problem solving.
Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 16(6), 1685-1696. doi:
10.5194/Hess-16-1685-2012
Naiman, R. J., Bunn, S. E., Hiwasaki, L., McClain, M. E., Vörösmarty, C.
J. and Zalewski, M. (2007). The science of flow-ecology rela-
tionships: Clarifying key terms and concepts. Paper presented
at the Earth System Science Partnership Open Science Confe-
rence, Beijing.
“Through the strengthening of South-South
cooperation, the challenge of defining research
agendas and generating processes of appropria-
tion of knowledge arises, measuring its impact
through concrete and sustainable results” (Ara-
ya-Obando, 2010) .
Smith, R. D. and Maltby, E. (2003). Using the ecosystem approach to
implement the convention on biological diversity: key issues and
case studies. Gland: IUCN.
UNESCO-IHP. (2016). Ecohydrology as an Integrative Science from
Molecular to Basin Scale: historical evolution, advancements
and implementation activities. Paris: UNESCO/SC/HYD program-
me or meeting document.
van Slobbe, E. (2012). System Thinking in Water Management
[Powerpoint Slides]. Retrieved from Wageningen University
Course on Integrated Water Management (ESS 33806).
Zalewski, M. (2002). Ecohydrology—The use of ecological and hydro-
logical processes for sustainable management of water resour-
ces/Ecohydrologie—La prise en compte de processus écologi-
ques et hydrologiques pour la gestion durable des ressources en
eau. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 47(5), 823-832.
Zalewski, M., Harper, D. M., Demars, B., Jolánkai, G., Crosa, G., Ja-
nauer, G. A. and Pacini, N. (2008). Linking biological and physical
processes at the river basin scale: the origins, scientific back-
ground and scope of ecohydrology. In D. M. Harper, M. Zalewski
and N. Pacini (Eds.), Ecohydrology–Processes, Models and Case
Studies. Oxfordshire: CABI (pp. 1-17).
Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 31
Cayambe-Coca National Park, Ecuador
Chapter 3
The theoretical foundations of ecohydrology
3.1. Evolution of the concept of
ecohydrology
In its conceptual development, ecohydrology has
been given several different definitions, none
of them yet in printed dictionaries. The roots of
“eco”, “hydro” and “logy” are clear; all come from
the Greek: oikos, hudôr and logos, which mean
house, water, and science, respectively. Therefore,
eco-hydro-logy is the science that studies water and
ecology as a whole (Zalewski et al., 2008). Ecohy-
drology is a new discipline among the sciences; as
such, it has its scientific foundations, principles,
hypothesis testing and other methodologies that the
global academic community demands.
The science of ecohydrology has been develo-
ped in the scientific community from the pers-
pective of three different, although complemen-
tary, approaches.
The first research topic focuses on the plant-wa-
ter dynamics in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems
(Baird and Wilby, 1999), addressing the study of
a single species (for example, pine crops), a type
of vegetation (for example, pastures and natural
forests) or landscapes and their microclimates
(for example, dry forest, páramo, and montane
forest) and their impacts on the quantity and qua-
lity of water. The second scientific approach of
ecohydrology, also known as hydroecology and
proposed by Acreman (2001), is related to the
quantification of water within the hydrological
cycle and the impact caused by the events of de-
crease or increase of water flows on the ecology
and biotic communities of rivers and other water
bodies. The third theme includes the first two
but aims at an integrated view of the physical and
biotic processes that act as the main drivers of a
dynamic evolution in watersheds, in order to use
knowledge as a tool for water resources manage-
ment (Zalewski et al., 2008).
Ecohydrology is a new and integrating science
that studies the interaction between hydrology
and biota at different scales and uses natural
processes as management tools to strengthen
ecosystem services in a wide range of landscapes
(for example, coastal, urban, and agricultural
areas). In other words, ecohydrology is an un-
derstanding of how hydrological processes are
integrated with ecological ones and, conversely,
how the ecological processes can subsequently
regulate the hydrological ones. As an integra-
ting science, it interrelates the knowledge of
those two processes within a watershed, unders-
tanding their ability to modify and synergistica-
lly integrate to mitigate anthropic impacts, with
the goal of preserving, improving or restoring
the capacity of aquatic ecosystems of the basin
for their sustainable use (Zalewski et al., 2008).
According to Naiman et al., (2007), ecohydrolo-
gy is defined from two points of view that come,
on the one hand, from an aquatic perspective
and, on the other, from a terrestrial perspective.
From the aquatic perspective, Naiman et al.
(2007) suggest that ecohydrology uses ecosys-
tem processes, considering fundamentally the
functional interrelationships that occur between
hydrology and biota within an aquatic ecosystem
as tools to achieve the goals of water resource
management. For example, you can improve the
natural processes of nutrient retention throu-
gh the creation of artificial wetlands in order to
avoid eutrophication in artificial lakes or reser-
voirs. Following this train of thought, Zalewski
Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 33
 34 Theoretical foundations of ecohydrology
et al. (2008) state that ecohydrology proposes to
find a “dual regulation” (see Figure 3.1.) of a gi-
ven aquatic system, simultaneously using hydro-
logical and ecological processes to strengthen
Figure 3.1. Dual regulation between Hydrology and Biota in the ecohydrological approach.
Dual Regulation
Hydrology
Source: Zalewski and Naiman (1985); UNESCO-IHP (2016))
The strategy of ecohydrology is to provide a series
of management tools to be incorporated into the
plans and programmes of those responsible for
water resources management. These ecohydrolo-
gical tools arise from a rigorous analysis of the sys-
tem. After identifying and understanding useful
ecosystem processes in the field, these can be ma-
naged and implemented so that they increase the
resilience of the ecosystem and can face disturban-
ces that affect the hydrological cycle and the quali-
ty and quantity of water (Naiman et al., 2007).
On the other hand, from the terrestrial perspecti-
ve ecohydrology studies the ecological processes
that are immersed within the hydrological cycle,
and improve the integrity of the system and, in
this way, confront harmful alterations of anthro-
pogenic origin.
Biota
for example the water retention capacity that diffe-
rent biomes can have, comparatively speaking, as a
reservoir (Naiman et al., 2007).
From this point of view, one can study the wa-
ter-plant relationship of a single species, such as
a eucalyptus monoculture, or the alterations that
occur within an ecosystem such as the páramo and
its effects on the availability of water resources.
Additionally, it is possible to study what happens
when the hydrological cycles and/or flows in a
specific basin are altered and their effect on the
components, such as primary production, of an
aquatic system (Zalewski et al., 2008).
3.2. Principles of the
ecohydrological approach
The ecohydrological approach adds knowledge
of the relationships between hydrological and
ecological processes and uses this understanding
to seek innovative solutions to the problems of
Figure 3.2. Conceptual map of the principles of ecohydrology.
Source: Zalewski (2000); Chícharo et al. (2009).
Figure 3.2. shows that, in an applied way, ecohy-
drology seeks to reach a sequence that has as its
starting point the understanding of how hydrolo-
gical processes are integrated with ecological pro-
cesses and vice versa (the conceptual framework);
secondly, it identifies how these ecological and
hydrological processes can inter-regulate (the
objective); and, finally, the information generated
degradation of a watershed caused by our society
(Zalewski et al., 2008). From this point of view,
Chícharo et al. (2009) indicate that the ecohy-
drological approach has three principles that are
expressed in sequential components (see Figure
3.2.).
by field observation and the scientific method will
provide tools that can be used for management of a
hydrographic basin (the methodology). For more
details on the principles of ecohydrology please
see Table 3.1. It is important to note that these
principles are closely related to the construction
of ecohydrological demonstration sites, which will
be discussed in the following chapters.
Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 35
 36 Theoretical foundations of ecohydrology.

Table 3.1. Description of the implementation principles of ecohydrology.

General
# Name Detailed Description
Description
I Hydro- Quantifi- Conceptual framework1a-1b The basin is conceptualized as a “su-
logical cation of perorganism” like Lovelock´s (1979) Gaia concept of the planet as
(Con- hydrological a “super organism”. A hierarchy of factors influence on this “super-
ceptual processes at organism”:
frame- watershed Scale - the mesoscale cycle of water circulation within a basin is a
work) scale and template for the quantification of ecological processes;
mapping of
impacts Dynamics - Water and temperature are the driving forces of terres-
trial and freshwater ecosystems;
Hierarchy of factors - abiotic (e.g. hydrological) processes are
dominant in regulating the functioning of the ecosystem. Biotic
interactions can manifest when abiotic factors are stable and
predictable.
Hydrological2: the quantification of the hydrological cycle of a ba-
sin should be the template for the functional integration of hydro-
logical and biological processes.

II Ecologi- Identifica- Objective1a-1b The conceptual "superorganism" can be seen in a

cal (Ob- tion of po- natural state as possessing resistance and resilience to stress.
jective) tential areas Faced with growing global changes (such as population growth,
to improve energy consumption, global climate change), it is necessary to
sustainabil- increase the carrying capacity of ecosystems and their resilience
ity potential to absorb the impacts induced by human beings. Ecological2:
(including Integrated processes at the scale of river basins can be managed
carrying in such a way as to improve the carrying capacity of the basin and
capacity) its ecosystem services.

III Ecologi- Manage- Methodology1a-1b Ecohydrology uses the properties of ecosys-

cal Engi- ment of tems as a management tool. It is applied using biota to control
neering biota for the hydrological processes and vice versa, using hydrology to regulate
(Method- control of biota. The scientific basis for the methodology of the use of biota
ology) hydrological for the improvement of water quality has advanced significantly
processes through ecological engineering (for example, see Mitsch and Jor-
and vice gensen, 2004).
versa Ecological engineering2: The regulation of hydrological and eco-
logical processes based on an integrative system approach is a
new tool for Integrated Watershed Management and Integrated
Coastal Management.

1a
Zalewski (2000).
1b
Zalewski (2002).
2
Chicharo et al. (2009).
3.3. The multi-dimensional parameters of ecohydrology
According to Zalewski (2014), in order to in-
crease the carrying capacity of the watersheds,
and for this to have an effect on the improvement
of sustainability both in the ecosystems and in
the human population, the multidimensional
parameters of ecohydrology are explained be-
low, which are the following: water in quantity
and quality, biodiversity of habitats and species,
ecosystem services for society, resilience to cli-
mate change, and additionally cultural heritage
(hereinafter: WBSR-C, for short), as can be seen
in Figure 3.3.
Water
Nowadays, and in the near future, the affectations
to water are manifold. The hydrological cycle will
be affected by the increase in the duration and in-
tensity of high and low flows caused by the quanti-
ty and amplitude of extreme events such as catas-
trophic droughts and floods. The speed of nutrient
transport between the terrestrial and aquatic pha-
ses will be modified. Therefore, the global supply
of fresh water and biogeochemical mechanisms,
inherent in the hydrological cycle, will also be mo-
dified (Wagner, 2008). Therefore, it is necessary
to understand the possible effects and act in favour
of improving the processes related to the hydrolo-
gical cycle. The use of ecohydrology should pro-
duce results that address the problem of the quan-
tity and quality of water.
Biodiversity
Documents specialized in ecology speak of
the different types of diversity (i.e. diversity of
ecosystems, species, and genes) and how they
can be reduced by a failure in the population
of certain species to recover from a mortality
caused by an intense and frequent disturbance
or reduced by competitive exclusion (Ricklefs
and Miller, 2000). For practical purposes, bio-
diversity is understood in this document as the
variety of living organisms of any species and,
additionally, the diversity of ecosystems.
Ecosystem services
With the application of dual regulation by using
the tools proposed by the ecohydrological
approach, the ecosystem services offered by a ba-
sin will be strengthened (UNESCO-IHP, 2016).
These services can be quantified as positive in-
dicators that the ecohydrological practices are
correctly focused and directed. Thus, if a basin
that has been intervened with ecohydrological
engineering methods results in improvements
in the quantity and quality of water, increase in
local biodiversity indicators in terms of habitats
and species, higher food and bioenergy produc-
tivity, etc., it will mean that the processes are
well underway and that the measures adopted for
the management have been successful. The nu-
merical comparison of the before and after the
application of an ecohydrological tool should
be considered, i.e., that the values related to the
quantification of an ecosystem service are impro-
ved after using the ecohydrological approach.
Resilience
Resilience is the capacity of a complex system,
such as an ecosystem, to absorb damages and
recover from external impacts that affect its pro-
cesses, maintaining its structure and functions
(Holling, 1973, Van Slobbe et al., 2013). In
the case of urban settlements, the way to ensure
the resilience of a city will depend on the mana-
gement of its ecological footprint, in the sense
of the use of geographically connected lands to
reduce the danger of disconnections due to long
distances and greenhouse gas emissions, and by
Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 37
 38 Theoretical foundations of ecohydrology

developing the internal recirculation of its waste,
including water (Wagner and Breil, 2013).
Cultural heritage
According to the Ecuadorian Biodiversity Poli-
cy and Strategy 2001-2010 and 2015-2030,
the recognition, respect, and strengthening of
cultural identity and diversity are evident, and
how these guarantee protection, recovery, and
appreciation of knowledge, innovations, and
traditional practices of indigenous peoples,
Afro-Ecuadorians and local communities, which
are consubstantial to the conservation and sus-
tainable use of biodiversity and the maintenance
of the country’s cultural wealth (MAE, 2016).
In this way, cultural heritage is relevant for eco-
hydrology in the sense that the knowledge and
cultural heritage of the communities near the in-
tervention of an ecohydrological project must be
integrated into any environmental management
plan. The integration of culture and public par-
ticipation in environmental management is the
key to the success in the management of natural
resources (Mitchell, 2018).

Figure 3.3. Multi-dimensional parameters (WBSR-C) of ecohydrology to solve problems inherent to water resources. Prepared

Species and habitats

depending on local
environmental conditions
rsity
dive

Water quantity W
at
er
Bio

and
quality

Multidimensional Food production,

parameters of bio-energy, etc.
ecohydrology
ge Ecosys
rita tem services
e
lh
ra
Integration of an- lt u
Cu

Resilien

cestral knowledge
and social
Eutrophication
participation
ce

and adaptation to
climate change

by the authors.

This is the reason an ecohydrologist should be

Essentially, ecohydrology looks for the inte- trained in all these branches of scientific knowle-
gration of the knowledge and practices of other dge, but always seeking the two-way regulation
sciences and disciplines, among which, apart between hydrology and biota.
from hydrology and ecology, biogeochemistry,
geography, hydraulics and geology can be men-
tioned.
3.4. The scope and limits
of ecohydrology
Solutions to water resource problems can be
achieved with ecohydrology and will be more
efficient than other methods, especially if ecosys-
tems are intervened with “average” states of
disturbance. Figure 3.4. is an example for phos-
phorus concentrations in an aquatic system. Za-
lewski (2018) explains that the implementation
Figure 3.4. Efficiency of low-cost solutions proposed by ecohydrology and NbS to treat phosphorus pollution in aquatic sys-
tems against the natural resilience of the system and expensive technological systems.
Pollutant treatment
efficiency
Resilience and
natural resistance
of water body
0.03
Origin of P: Natural (e.g. P cycle)
Source: Zalewski (2018).
Subsequently, when ecohydrology, which is cha-
racterized by using low-cost solutions, cannot
reduce contaminant concentrations, solutions
generated by engineering and technology can
be applied, which, due to their nature, are more
expensive and difficult to implement in certain
places such as wastewater treatment plants. In
short, ecohydrology is a tool to address water
of ecohydrology should be considered when the
resistance or resilience of an aquatic system has
diminished its innate capacity to treat the distur-
bing agent by itself (in this case phosphorus). At
this point of disturbance of the system by con-
centrations of phosphorus, ecohydrology and
NbS such as phytotechnology can increase the
efficiency of the system to recover from the dis-
turbance.
Ecohydrology Environmental technology
Phytotecnology (e.g. treatment plants)
NbS
0.1 1 10 Mg P L-1
Phosphorus concentration (P) to be treated
Non-point or diffuse Point
(e.g. agriculture (e.g. sewerage)
and livestock)
problems in quantity and quality, using low cost
but effective NbS to treat non-point or diffuse
medium-intensity perturbations. The costs of the
ecohydrological tools are very low, so they can
substitute and/or complement technologies that
in some cases result, from a cost-benefit point of
view, disadvantageous.
Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 39
 40 Theoretical foundations of ecohydrology
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tic Ecology: Proceedings of an International Workshop (HW2)
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Chicharo, L., Wagner, I., Chicharo, M., Łapinska, M., and Zalewski, M.
(2009). Practical experiments guide for ecohydrology. UNESCO:
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Chicharo, L. and Zalewski, M. (2009). Practical experiments guide for
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dad 2015-2030 - CALIDAD WEB.pdf
Mitchell, B. (2018). Resource and Environmental Management (Third
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Mitsch, W. J. and S. E. Jorgensen. Ecological Engineering and
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rence, Beijing.
Ricklefs, R. and Miller, G. (2000). Ecology . New York: Freeman.
UNESCO-IHP. (2016). Ecohydrology as an Integrative Science from
Molecular to Basin Scale: historical evolution, advancements
and implementation activities. Paris: UNESCO/SC/HYD pro-
gramme or meeting document.
Van Slobbe, E., de Vriend, H. J., Aarnikhof, S., Lulofs, K., de Vries, M.
and Dircke, P. (2013). Building with Nature: in search of resilient
storm surge protection strategies. Natural hazards, 66(3),
1461-1480.
Wagner, I. K. (2008). Ecohydrology: Understanding the Present as a
Perspective on the Future–Global Change. Ecohydrology: Pro-
cesses, Models and Case Studies: An Approach to the Sustaina-
ble Management of Water Resources, 303.
Wagner, I., and Breil, P. (2013). The role of ecohydrology in creating
moreresilient cities. Ecohydrology and Hydrobiology, 13(2),
113- 134.
Zalewski, M. (2000). Ecohydrology-the scientific background to use
ecosystem properties as management tools towards sustaina-
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Zalewski, M. (2014). Ecohydrology and hydrologic engineering: regu-
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Zalewski, M. (2018). Ecohydrology, Engineering Harmony for a Sus-
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Zalewski, M., Harper, D. M., Demars, B., Jolánkai, G., Crosa, G.,
Janauer, G. A., and Pacini, N. (2008). Linking biological and
physical processes at the river basin scale: the origins, scientific
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lewski, and N. Pacini (Eds.), Ecohydrology–Processes, Models
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Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 41
Chapter 4
Cases of implementation of ecohydrology
The use of ecohydrological tools aims at increasing
the resilience of ecosystems to anthropic disturban-
ces. Examples of such outcomes are: overexploi-
tation of water resources for irrigation, industry,
the generation of electricity through hydroelectric
dams, pollution of rivers, lakes and reservoirs, as
well as the decrease in the productivity of aquatic
and terrestrial ecosystems and changes in primary
production, among others. These environmental
disturbances are also aggravated by the possible
ecological alterations predicted by the presence
of the phenomenon of global climatic change. It
is intended, therefore, to improve the coexistence
between human beings and nature, and obtain a
measurable benefit both for societies and for the
environment (Zalewski, 2014).
Some ecohydrological practices developed at the
global level can be found on the platform of the
network of ecology demonstration sites of UNES-
CO IHP (available at www.ecohydrology-ihp.org).
However, we have decided to illustrate below cer-
tain activities carried out in these demonstration
sites. Some examples of ecohydrological practices
are summarized in this chapter, and others are del-
ved into in later chapters.
4.1. Ecohydrological biotechnologies
for the mitigation of non-specific
agricultural pollutants
There are several biotechnologies that can be
used in areas where the source of contamina-
tion is not known exactly; this is the case of large
crops in which excess nutrients are conducted to
adjacent bodies of water via runoff. With the use
of an artificial wetland, the retention of nutrients
that reach a body of water can be increased and,
in this way, eutrophication processes can be avoi-
ded. However, the goal is to have a whole system
of ecohydrological tools (e.g. natural barriers in
land-water ecotones, treatment of pollutants in
wetlands, etc.) within a watershed.
For this purpose, tools have been proposed to
improve the ecotones. For example, depending
on the specificity of the source of nitrogen po-
llution, different solutions based on the denitri-
fication process in the area of agriculture can be
applied. Denitrification barriers will be the most
appropriate solution in a watershed or pasture,
around point sources such as manure storage or
near the coast. The availability of various forms of
organic carbon can be regulated and is one of the
most important factors in the processes of deni-
trification in the soil. The results suggest that the
barriers applied around point sources have the
best cost-effectiveness ratio of nitrate removal in
the area of intensive agriculture (Bednarek et al.,
2010; Bednarek et al., 2014).
Polish littoral zones with vegetation were reinfor-
ced with the installation of denitrification walls
and/or a biogeochemical barrier. The construc-
tion of denitrification walls as elements of buffer
zones strengthens the efficiency of vegetation
zones in areas contaminated with nitrogen com-
pounds. The results show that the efficiency of a
denitrification wall in a buffer zone is approxima-
tely 67% (Izydorczyk et al., 2013).
As proof of the long-term benefits, the results of
an extensive monitoring programme carried out
in 2011-2013 in the Sulejów reservoir basin,
Poland, suggest that buffer zones are highly effi-
cient in reducing NO3-N and total phosphorus
Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 43
 44 Cases of implementation of ecohydrology
concentrations in shallow groundwater. On ave-
rage, reductions of 56% and 76% were observed,
respectively (Piniewski et al., 2015).
4.2. Ecohydrological biotechnologies:
purification of urban rainwater
Rainwater management in cities has dramati-
cally evolved from the “end of pipe” vision to a
more holistic and integrated approach based on
the “rain water harvest” and “source control”
approaches (Committee, 1999). Two clear
examples of the development of biotechnologies
for the purification of urban stormwater, trans-
forming threats into opportunities for a greener,
more sustainable and healthier city, can be read
in Wagner and Breil (2013).
First, the management improvements of the Yze-
ron River in Lyon, France, are discussed. The
rapid urban expansion in the Greater Lyon area
due to urban densification will generate more de-
mand for water for consumption and wastewater
treatment in the coming years. Additionally, the
study of the watershed of the Yzeron River, under
the increasing pressure of suburban expansion,
shows important changes in land cover since
the beginning of the 20th century. These chan-
ges have modified the functioning of the basin
in terms of hydrology, morphology, chemistry,
physics, and biology: increase in the frequency of
floods of low to medium intensity, degradation of
water quality, spectacular formation of incisions
upstream and sedimentation downstream, etc.
(Schmitt et al.) Thus, the water resource of the
basin is limited and closely related to the rainfall
regime. Human activities depend on an imported
water supply from Greater Lyon for irrigation and
domestic uses. Almost 90% of the wastewater
produced in the Yzeron basin (150 km2) is con-
nected to a combined sewer network that flows
to a central sewage treatment plant operated by
Greater Lyon. The proposal is to obtain reliable
long-term data on the effluents, the urban humid
climate and its impact on the receiving waters in
order to provide results, knowledge, and metho-
dologies to evaluate the sustainability of urban
water systems and propose new strategies to ma-
nage the rainwater in the city.
In other words, since 2008 a pilot site has been
developed with ecohydrological principles in
the urban periphery of Lyon. Its objective was
to launch a solution based on natural processes
to trap and store the pollution emitted by a com-
bined sewer overflow outlet and then bio-trans-
form or digest this contamination by mechanis-
ms based on natural processes to improve the
self-purification capacity of this seasonal river,
which is exposed to overflows, including that of
sewers. By previous scientific publications and
field work, the scientists found that the river´s
porous sediment can be a powerful bio-reactor
and, with this, they justified the development of
a system called “permeable dump”, which allows
the accumulation of sediments and increases the
transfer of water; that is, an artificial rapid was
built on the river.
Secondly, the project study in Lodz, Poland, was
integrated, which uses biotechnologies such as
the Sequential System of Biofiltration - Sedi-
mentation (SSBS). The following were the key
activities: (i) building of the Sequential system
of rainwater purification (containing sedimenta-
tion, biogeochemistry and constructed wetlands)
in the upper part of the river. In the first two ex-
perimental years of its operation, SSBS reduced
total nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations by
up to 60% (Zalewski et al., 2012). The stabili-
zation of river flow by building a detention basin
upstream of the system structure further reduced
the stochasticity of the process; (ii) construction
of a cascade of retention reservoirs in the river to
mitigate extreme flows and water stress. The grey
(geocells, gabions, springs and morphological
adaptations) and green infrastructure (phytote-
chnology for nutrient removal) were designed to
increase the capacity of the reservoirs in order
to reduce the toxic algal blooms despite the high
nutrient loads; (iii) preparation of rehabilitation
plans for rivers and canals to improve the eco-
logical status of a river, to increase the capacity
of water retention in the landscape, improve the
level of groundwater, increase vegetation and im-
prove access and social use of the area. The plans
were used for the development of conceptual and
technical projects of a Sokolowka River Park;
these results allowed the concept to be extended
to a larger scale at the city level (Wagner and Bre-
il, 2013).
4.3. Hybrid ecohydrological systems
for the improvement of wastewater
treatment plants
A project to use a Hybrid Sequential Biofiltration
System (SBS) was installed in Poland to improve the
Referencias
Bednarek, A., Stolarska, M., Ubraniak, M., & Zalewski, M. (2010).
Application of permeable reactive barrier for reduction of
nitrogen load in the agricultural areas — preliminary results.
Ecohydrology & Hydrobiology, 10(2), 355-361. doi:https://doi.
org/10.2478/v10104-011-0007-6
Bednarek, A., Szklarek, S., & Zalewski, M. (2014). Nitrogen po-
llution removal from areas of intensive farming—comparison
of various denitrification biotechnologies. Ecohydrology &
Hydrobiology, 14(2), 132-141. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ecohyd.2014.01.005
Committee, V. S. (1999). Urban stormwater: best-practice environ-
mental management guidelines: CSIRO publishing.
Izydorczyk, K., Frątczak, W., Drobniewska, A., Cichowicz, E.,
Michalska-Hejduk, D., Gross, R., & Zalewski, M. (2013). A
biogeochemical barrier to enhance a buffer zone for reducing
diffuse phosphorus pollution—preliminary results. Ecohydrology
& Hydrobiology, 13(2), 104-112.
Kiedrzyńska, E., Urbaniak, M., Kiedrzyński, M., Jóźwik, A., Bedna-
rek, A., Gągała, I., & Zalewski, M. (2017). The use of a hybrid
Sequential Biofiltration System for the improvement of nutrient
removal and PCB control in municipal wastewater. Scientific
Reports, 7(1), 5477.
elimination of nutrients and the control of PCB in
municipal wastewater based on a geochemical (fil-
ter beds with limestone, coal, and sawdust) and bio-
logical barriers (wetlands, using several species of
plants, such as Glyceria maxima, Acorus calamus,
Typha latifolia and Phragmites australis). Signifi-
cant differences were found between the inflow and
outflow of the SBS with respect to the concentra-
tions of wastewater pollutants. The SBS eliminated
a significant load of Total Phosphorus (0.415 kg),
Total Nitrogen (3.136 kg) and Equivalent PCB
(0.223 g) per square meter per year. The use of
low-cost hybrid SBS as a step after wastewater treat-
ment turned out to be an effective ecohydrological
biotechnology, which can be used to reduce pollu-
tion from point sources and improve water quality
(Kiedrzyńska et al., 2017).
In the following chapters we delve into examples
of application of ecohydrology with case studies
presented by their authors and mentors, who have
kindly contributed their experiences for this text.
Piniewski, M., Marcinkowski, P., Kardel, I., Giełczewski, M., Izy-
dorczyk, K., & Frątczak, W. (2015). Spatial quantification of
non-point source pollution in a meso-scale catchment for an
assessment of buffer zones efficiency. Water, 7(5), 1889-1920.
Schmitt, L., Grosprêtre, L., Breil, P., Namour, P., Lafont, M., Delile,
H., Cournoyer, B. Pour l’étude interdisciplinaire des petits hy-
drosystèmes périurbains (bassin de l’Yzeron, France). BSGLg.
Wagner, I., & Breil, P. (2013). The role of ecohydrology in creating
more resilient cities. Ecohydrology & Hydrobiology, 13(2), 113-
134.
Zalewski, M. (2014). Ecohydrology, biotechnology and engineering
for cost efficiency in reaching the sustainability of biogeosphe-
re. Ecohydrology & Hydrobiology, 14(1), 14-20. doi:https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.ecohyd.2014.01.006
Zalewski, M., Wagner, I., Fratczak, W., Mankiewicz-Boczek, J., &
Parniewki, P. (2012). Blue-green city for compensating global
climate change. The Parliament Magazine, 350(11), 2-3.
Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 45
Part 2
An approach to
ecohydrology in the
international context
El Arenal, mount Chimborazo
Chapter 5
Ecohydrology as a framework for enhancing
the catchment sustainability potential

Professor Maciej Zalewski, Ph.D.1, 2.

University of Lodz, Polonia
m.zalewski@erce.unesco.lodz.pl / maciej.zalewski@biol.uni.lodz.pl
1 European Regional Centre for Ecohydrology of the Polish Academy of Sciences
2 Department of Applied Ecology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz

5.1. Abstract
Ecohydrology (EH) is a transdisciplinary science which has been developed in the framework of
the International Hydrological Programme of UNESCO (IHP V-VIII). As a subdiscipline of sus-
tainability science, it is focused on biological aspects of the hydrological cycle. It provides not
only scientific understanding of the hydrology/biota interplay, but also a systemic framework for
how to harness ecosystem properties as a new tool for Integrated Water Resources Management
(IWRM), complementary to hydrotechnical solutions already in use. The novel element of this
approach is the concept of enhancing the catchment sustainability potential, with a special empha-
sis on regulation of ecosystem performance from molecular to landscape scale. Biocenotic proces-
ses are shaped by hydrology and, vice versa, hydrological processes are to a great extent modified
by biocenotic structure and interactions (Zalewski, 2000, 2014). In terms of evolution, the key
assumption is that the biological structure of terrestrial and aquatic organisms and communities
have adapted to water quantity and quality dynamics in the catchment.

5.2. Introduction
The fundamental assumption of Ecohydrology
(EH) is that the future of the bio-geosphere in
the Anthropocene will be dependent not only on
the development of technologies, but also on the
harmonization of technologies with the enhan-
ced potential of the environment, which in turn
depends above all on water resource availability.
The dynamics of the water cycle in a river basin
depend on climate, geomorphology, plant co-
ver, freshwater ecosystem typology and modifi-
cations by agriculture, urbanization, industrial
development and hydrotechnical infrastructure.
Through the end of the twentieth century, water
management was dominated by a mechanistic
approach focused on the provision of water for
societal needs and elimination of threats such as
floods and droughts. Analyses of the biological
structure of freshwater ecosystems from 1900
have mostly been used for monitoring of ecolo-
gical status (Kolkwitz & Marsson, 1908). From
the point of view increasing human pressure ex-
pressed by the ecological footprint and Sustaina-
ble Development Goals, the key challenges for
water management in the Anthropocene involve
the need to:
1. reduce the load of nutrients and pollutants
into fresh water ecosystems and coastal zones;

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 49

 50 Ecohidrology for the sustainability of water basins
2. reduce the rate of water transfer from catch-
ments to the sea (catchment retentiveness en-
hancement);
3. increase catchment sustainability potential.
That is why, from the point of view of water
resource management strategies based on in-
tegrative knowledge, every catchment or sub
catchment should be considered as:
1. a unique “superorganism” – possessing re-
silience to various forms of disturbances and
human impacts;
2. a common denominator for integrating our
understanding of hydrological and ecological
processes from molecular to catchment scale;
3. a framework for assessing ecological and sus-
tainability status and action planning.
Such a holistic approach is a reference point
for EH, were analyses of water biota interplay
from molecular to catchment level create a bac-
kground for regulating those processes seeking
to enhance catchment sustainability potential,
defined in ecohydrology as the Multidimensional
Catchment Sustainability Goal: Water, Biodiver-
sity, Resilience, Ecosystem Services and Cultural
(WBRS+C), whereby all five factors have to be
improved in parallel. The fundamental question
of EH as a problem-solving science is as follows:
What is the hierarchy of factors regulating the
dynamics of hydrological-biological interactions
along the river continuum and thermal gradient?
(Zalewski, Naiman, 1995) And further, how can
a better understanding of water/biota interplay
be used to help solve societal problems in such
policy frameworks as Sustainable Development
Goals (SDG), EU Water Framework Directive
(WFD, 2000) and Integrated Water Resources
Management (IWRM).
5.3. Ecohydrology – evolution
of a paradigm
The recent integration of environmental sciences
toward problem-solving is based on the concept
of ecological engineering formulated by Mitsch
(1993). This changed the way of thinking about
relations between humanity and the biosphere.
The increasing global environmental degrada-
tion implies that ecosystem properties have to
be considered as a new management tool toward
reversing degradation (Zalewski, 2000). This
approach has become a key assumption of pro-
blem-solving Ecohydrology on the catchment
scale (e.g. Zalewski el at, 1997, Zalewski, 2000,
2014; Harper et al., 2008; Wolański et al.,
2004; Wagner, Breil, 2013; Chicharo, 2001;
Chicharo, 2012; McClain et al., 2013). A fur-
ther evolvement of the Ecohydrology paradigm
has involved a change from interdisciplinarity to
transdisciplinarity, by harmonizing societal goals
with enhanced ecosystem potential (WBRS+C).
Such a transdisciplinary approach, which integra-
tes different disciplines of environmental scien-
ces toward societal goals and aspirations and also
considering cultural heritage (Berton, Bacchi,
1997), creates a new opportunity to achieve sus-
tainable development.
5.4. Ecohydrology: the terrestrial
and aquatic dimension
The catchment approach of ecohydrology and its
implementation for IWRM encompasses the at-
mospheric/terrestrial and the aquatic phase of the
hydrological cycle. In both, diverse biota appear
as moderators of water dynamics. In the terrestrial
phase (EHT), vegetation moderates water quan-
tity and quality, and the major question is how
plant-cover changes influence the hydrological
cycle (Rodríguez-Iturbe, 2000). In the aquatic
phase (EHA), highly complex biotic interactions
(Zalewski et al., 1990; Wojtal-Frankiewicz,
2010) affect water quality and related symptoms
of eutrophication (e.g. toxic algal blooms) and can
be regulated towards WBRS+C.
Considering various forms of freshwater ecosys-
tem degradation, the reduction of point source
pollution is dependent on technology, monitoring
and law enforcement. However, recent develop-
ments in Ecohydrology have successfully develo-
ped hybrid solutions, where low efficiency sewa-
ge treatment has been provided by constructed
wetlands (Zalewski, 2002) or by more advanced
sequential biofiltration systems (Kiedrzyńska,
2017). On the other hand, reducing the impact of
diffuse pollution without lowering food produc-
tion is dependent, first of all, on understanding the
hierarchical complexity of ecological processes in
the terrestrial ecosystem within the given river ba-
sin. Of utmost importance is the interplay between
water and biocenosis – both in the terrestrial and
aquatic phases of the hydrological meso-cycle.
This creates a background for using land water
ecotones in the landscape (Naiman, Decamps,
Fournier, 1989) for mitigation of non-source
pollutions and next has been enhanced by incor-
poration into ecological biotechnologies, e.g. de-
nitrification and geochemical barriers (Izydorczyk
et al., 2013).
Both EHT and EHA require transdisciplinary
cooperation among basic scientific disciplines
(e.g. Baird & Wilby, 1999; Zalewski et al., 1990,
Wood et al., 2007; Eamus, 2006; Acreman 2001;
Gilles Pinay, 2003).
5.5. Principles of ecohydrology:
a framework for implementing
nature-based solutions
1. Hydrological principle: The quantification
and integration of hydrological and biolo-
gical processes at basin scale assumes that
abiotic factors are of primary importance and
become stable and predictable when biotic
interactions begin to manifest themselves.
The quantification begins with GIS analysis
of uptake geomorphology and infrastructure
distributions, following patterns of hydro-
logical pulses along the river continuum),
its modification from the point of view of
the environmental flow (Bunn, Arthington,
2002) and the identification of the spatial
distribution of various forms of impact - point
and non-point (diffuse) pollution. Due to the
complexity of applied knowledge, the deve-
lopment of mathematical models for decision
support systems is an important and useful
tool to quantify processes (water, nutrients
and pollutant loads) and human impact for
decision makers and to test alternate scena-
rios for the implementation of ecohydrolo-
gical methodologies for the sustainable use
of water, ecosystems, and societies (Jorgen-
sen, 2002, 2016; Piniewski et al., 2015).
2. Ecological principle: The ecological principle
assumes that, under intense global changes, it is
not enough to protect ecosystems against the in-
crease of population, energy consumption, and
aspirations. It is necessary to regulate the struc-
ture and processes of the ecosystem,to improe
the sustainable potential of the basin (WBSR +
C). The starting point should be an understan-
ding of the evolutionary demonstration of the
water-biota interaction in terrestrial and aquatic
environments. Understanding the role of ve-
getation in water and the processes of nutrient
cycles within the basin is of crucial importance
(Baird and Wilby, 1999; Vorosmarty and Saha-
gian, 2000; Kędziora and Ryszkowski, 2007).
Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 51
 52 Ecohidrology for the sustainability of water basins

3. Ecological engineering principle: The use the landscape (C), animals and plants
of ecosystem properties as a management shelter during droughts (B) (R) and vice
tool is based on the previous two principles versa, and through hydrological regula-
of EH. This principle presents three imple- tion by means of biota conformation.
mentation steps:
ii. Integration in the scale of basins of se-
i. “Dual regulation”: regulation of the veral types of solutions based on nature
structure of the biota by means of hydro- in order to achieve synergy to improve
logy (for example, improvement of the WBSR + C.
water retention in the fluvial valley and
iii. Harmonization of ecohydrological me-
stabilization of the availability of water
asures with the necessary hydrotechni-
resources, which allows the self-purifica-
cal solutions (dams, irrigation systems,
tion of the river, biodiversity, improved
wastewater treatment plants, etc.) (see
bio-productivity, biomass/yield (food,
Figure 5.1, next page).
bioproducts) (B) (S), aesthetic value of
 Figure 5.1. Principles of ecohydrology (modified from Zalewski, 2011)

1. Hydrological

Rainfall

Evapo-transpiration
Pollution from urban Diffuse or non-point
and industrial sources pollution area
1 Infiltration
Total
runoff
2 Retention

Subsuperficial
runoff

Subsuperficial
runoff

2. Ecological

Agricultural lands
River bed

Pasture lands
Small wells
Alluvial plains

Urbanised area
Forest

Main reservoir Small reservoirs

3. Ecological engineering

Forest

Bioenergy
generation
Artificial Buffer
wetland zones
(Ecotones)
Main Biota
reservoir Land reclamation
Dual Regulation
Hydrology
Small puddles
Sediment
release system
Small reservoirs

By-pass
(fish ramp)

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 53

 54 Ecohidrology for the sustainability of water basins

5.6. Ecohydrology: novel aspects nature-based solutions (e.g. denitrification barriers,

of systemic solutions for environ-
mental sciences
Aquatic ecosystems and their catchments are
complex entities when studied within a multi-
disciplinary approach. However, if the objective
of scientific research is to regulate the hydrolo-
gical and biological potential for improving the
potential for sustainability, regulatory actions,
e.g. nature-based solutions (NbS) require an
additional reference point, society and traditio-
nal knowledge and its cultural preferences. This
combines natural and socio-economic science
in an integrative transdisciplinary science and
management (Hiwasaki and Arico, 2007).
Therefore, the properties of ecosystems serve as
management tools for sustainable development,
respecting the quantitative side of the hydrological
cycle. Ecohydrology in the UNESCO IHP perspec-
tive (Zalewski et al., 1997; Zalewski, 2000, 2014;
Chicharo, 2012; Wolański et al., 2004; Wagner
and Breil, 2013) provided three new resources for
environmental sciences and their implementation: 1)
the use of ecosystem properties as new management
tool (Zalewski, 2000) complementary and harmo-
nized with hydro-technical solutions; (2) the need
to improve ecosystems towards the UN Sustainable
Development Goals through the use of the interac-
tion between hydrology and biota - “dual regulation”
(Zalewski, 2006); therefore, the analysis of the dyna-
mic oscillations of the ecosystems, the productivity
and the ecological succession reflected by the in-
crease of biomass/yield and the absorption capacity
of nutrients/contaminants versus human impacts
should be the key for the regulation of the process ;
(3) the use of “dual regulation”(Zalewski, 2014) and
Bednarek et al., 2016) as systemic solutions, consi-
dering the basin as a framework for action to improve
water resources, biodiversity, and ecosystem services
for society, resilience to climate change, and cultural
heritage (WBSR + C).
The concept and principles of ecohydrology have
been implemented in the case of a small town in
Poland in the Pilica River catchment as an exam-
ple of application of systemic ecohydrological so-
lutions to improve the sustainability of the basin,
converting environmental threats into opportu-
nities for sustainable development. Purified was-
tewater after primary and secondary treatment,
but still with high concentrations of phosphorus,
raised the concentrations and phosphorus (P)
load in the river and reservoir downstream, resul-
ting in frequent toxic algal blooms. The transfer
of purified wastewater to a bioenergy producing
plantation (willows) has reduced the phosphorus
load in the river and reservoir, improving the eco-
logical and recreational status (Zalewsky, 2011).
In addition, the improvement of water quality in
the river reservoir positively affects biodiversity,
creating, in addition, employment opportunities
for society through the development of tourism.
This, in turn, reduces poverty and stimulates
cultural development and financial feedback (for
taxes). Moreover, the use of plantation bioenergy
to heat a nearby school and other public buildings
has reduced greenhouse gas emissions and crea-
ted more funds for employment. This example of
the application of ecohydrology as a framework
for systemic solutions in the management of river
basins offers a case of integration of Solutions
based on nature, Circular Economy, and Bioeco-
nomy (see Figure 5.2.).
 Figure 5.2. Scheme of the ecohydrological approach for improving water resources, quality of environment, creating positive
socio-economic feedback and enhancing sustainability potential (modified from Zalewski, 2011).

Assimilation of CO
2
R
Resid
ual w
ater
Sewage treatment

Hybrid system
S C

Reduction of Employment
fossil fuel use opportunities
Artificial wetlands,
Bio conversion of
ene pollutants (P) into
rgy
bioenergy.

W B

Improvement of the quality

of the water in the river
and the reservoir
Tourism development,
regional economic growth

This shows how thinking oriented to the eco-
hydrological process provides a framework for
the implementation of bioeconomy and circu-
lar economy.
5.7. Future perspectives and limits
of ecohydrology
Nature-based solutions used in the EH fra-
mework have become the crucial tool for the
successful implementation of Integrated Water
Resources Management, especially for the mi-
tigation of intermediate impacts that prevail for
most problems of a basin. Nutrients and chemical
pollution from point and non- point sources are
two of the main challenges for ecohydrology. An
implicit but major objective of EH as a framework
for the systemic implementation of Nature-ba-
sed Solutions is to reduce inputs to freshwater
ecosystems and regulate the excess of nutrients
and pollutant loads in those aquatic systems,
considering the allocation of nutrients and con-
taminants in non-available pools such as soils, se-
diments, biomass of vascular plants and conver-
sion of matter by organisms, phytotechnologies,
denitrification barriers, etc. However, we must
underscore that EH methods can be less efficient
and have a lower potential when the biological
structure of an ecosystem is highly degraded by
intensive human impact as in the case of, e.g.,
hypertrophic lakes or reservoirs where abiotic
factors (oxygen levels) have been drastically re-
duced and the biotic structures greatly degraded.
In such situations, the implementation of Eco-
hydrology/Nature-based Solutions will be much
costlier and more complicated and, at times, it
may be insufficient to enhance WBSR + C.

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 55

 56 Ecohidrology for the sustainability of water basins
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London: Butterworths Scientific Ltd.
 Maciej Zalewski is a lecturer at the De-
partment of Applied Ecology, University
of Lodz and Director of the European Re-
gional Centre for Ecohydrology under the
auspices of UNESCO in Poland.
His research interests evolved from fish bioenergetics towards river
ecosystem ecology, where he proposed the “Abiotic-Biotic Regula-
tory Concept” that defines a hierarchy of factors determining the structure and dynamics
of freshwater communities along the river continuum in different geographic zones, which
laid the foundations for a new paradigm of environmental sciences encapsulated in Ecohy-
drology. He initiated the development of the Ecohydrology concept under the framework of
the UNESCO-IHP program and is a respected international expert in this field. As a UNESCO
expert, Prof. Zalewski has supported establishment of Centres for Ecohydrology in Portugal,
Indonesia, China, Argentina and Ethiopia.

Professor Zalewski is a lecturer in national and international teaching programmes. He has

been a chairman and keynote speaker at over 100 international scientific conferences and
symposia and is the author of numerous publications and book chapters. He is also the foun-
der and editor-in-chief of the international journal Ecohydrology & Hydrobiology and sits on
the editorial board of the journals Ecological Engineering, Brazilian Journal of Biology, En-
vironmental Accounting, Fisheries Management and Ecology. He is a leader of numerous
scientific national and international projects. He currently holds an h-index of 27 and has
been cited more than 1676 times in various scientific publications.

Professor Zalewski is a member of environmental scientific committees of the Polish Aca-

demy of Sciences, and a member of the Advisory Board of the Polish Ministry of the Environ-
ment for water resources management. He has served, among other capacities, as a national
representative of the Polish government in the OECD Export Credits and Environment treaty
negotiations, as a member of the Scientific Council of the Regional Office for Science and
Technology for Europe (ROSTE), chairman of the Working Group “Fish and Land/Inland Water
Ecotones” of UNESCO MAB (Man and Biosphere), chairman of the Working Group “Physical
Habitat Modification and Freshwater Fisheries” of FAO EIFAC (European Inland Fisheries Ad-
visory Commission), a Council member of Poland’s National Centre for Research and Deve-
lopment, a representative of the Poland-EU Joint Programming Initiative (JPI Water), ESFRI
ENV TWG. Member of Steering Committee for EcoSummit 2012, 2016, Chairman of Drafting
Committee Columbus Declaration for EcoSummit 2012, representative of Poland in the The-
matic Process for the 7th World Water Forum in Korea, and Chairman of the Steering Commi-
ttee of the UNESCO-IHP (International Hydrological Programme) “Ecohydrology” Programme.

: m.zalewski@erce.unesco.lodz.pl / maciej.zalewski@biol.uni.lodz.pl

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 57

Lake Pisaca. Photo: Marco Albarracín
Chapter 6
Ecohydrological biotechnologies – Nature-based solutions
for inland waters and municipal wastewater quality improvement
Dr hab. Edyndta Kiedrzyńska,
Prof. ERCE PAN Lodz - Polonia
e.kiedrzynska@erce.unesco.lodz.pl
´Now that Earth has entered the Anthropocene era (Crutzen,
2002; Steffen et al., 2007), in which humanity constitutes a
force of change at the planetary scale, the world faces a
new, global level of water concern (Vörösmarty et al., 2014)´
(Rockström et al., 2014)

6.1. Introduction
Pressure on the global hydrological cycle is so huge
that humanity is now the dominant force behind the
changes in water resources throughout the world
and in the regulation of the resilience of the Earth
system (Rockström, 2009; Rockström et al., 2014).
The increased pressures on global freshwater re-
sources are on a par with other anthropogenic chan-
ges in the Earth system, ranging from climate (EEE,
2012), land use (deforestation) and biodiversity to
the change of ecosystems, which, together, have led
science to suggest that humanity has entered a new
geological epoch, the Anthropocene (Rockström
et al., 2014). Therefore, humanity needs new tools
based on ecohydrological biotechnologies, a circu-
lar-economy approach and nature-based solutions
(NbS) to confront these unfavourable global chan-
ges in watershed management and counteract the
degradation of resources of fresh water in order to
increase resilience in socio-ecological systems and
safeguard life support systems for the well-being of
humankind.
The freshwater boundary, defined by Shiklomanov
and Rodda (2003) as the maximum additional con-
sumption of “blue” water consumable in the world
beyond the pre-industrial situation, has been calcu-
lated at 4000-6000 km3 year-1. The current global
consumptive use of “blue” water, on the other hand,
has been estimated at 2,600 km3 year-1 (Steffen et
al., 2015). Therefore, several regions already su-
ffer from the widespread impact of excessive use
of “blue” water and global projections indicate an
increase in the use of “blue” water to a level approa-
ching the global limit by 2050 (Rockström et al.,
2009a; Gerten et al., 2011). Research shows that
river basins with extractions exceeding more than
40-60% of available water resources are experien-
cing severe water shortages (Grafton et al., 2012).
A combination of activities in drainage areas has in-
tensified water use (Rockström et al., 2014) and the
export of nutrients and other pollutants to the aqua-
tic environment from point and diffuse sources,
leading to over-enrichment and degradation that
are strongly observed worldwide (Han et al., 2011;
Kiedrzyńska et al., 2014a, b; Steffen et al., 2015).
In this chapter we analyse a type of tool that can be
applied to address these challenges: ecohydrologi-
cal biotechnologies as nature-based based solutions
for the improvement of the water quality of inland
and municipal waters. We will describe specific
examples of implementations and study results to-
gether with broader potential applications.

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 59

 60 Ecohydrological biotecnologies: nature-based solutions
6.2. River floodplains for water
retentiveness and quality impro-
vement – a nature-based solu-
tion approach for the future
Every square inch of land on the Earth forms part
of a catchment (Kiedrzyńska et al., 2015). River
catchments with their river valleys, floodplain
areas and rivers are crucial hydrosystems that sus-
tain the global freshwater bodies, and river floo-
dplains are an integral part of valley-river systems
(Kiedrzyńska et al., 2015). River catchment areas
are particularly exposed to changes in land use and
more pronounced anthropogenic transformation
of water and biogeochemical cycles. Rivers and
floodplains are situated in landscape depressions,
into which a range of substances with anthropoge-
nic modifications and impact are transferred and
accumulated (Kiedrzyńska et al., 2008a, 2014a,
b), e.g. sediments and nutrients, dioxins and mi-
crobial contaminations, etc. The dramatically
progressing disturbances of catchment areas are
often negatively amplified by changes in the hy-
drological cycle and the loss of integrity between
fluvial ecosystems and floodplains, which result
in drastically decreased water quality, increased
eutrophication and a reduction in biodiversity and
ecosystem services for society.
Historically, European river valleys are important
ecological corridors and places of economic and
cultural development. That is why to achieve sus-
tainable development, it is necessary to harmoni-
ze the restoration of degraded river sections and
water quality improvement. Therefore, in the face
of advancing climate change and against the back-
ground of existing demographic trends, there is an
urgent need for large-scale testing of integrative
scientific solutions.
Ecohydrology (EH) is a sub-discipline of hydro-
logy that focuses on the ecological processes oc-
curring within the hydrological cycle and strives
to utilize such processes for enhancing the envi-
ronmental sustainability of terrestrial and aqua-
tic ecosystems (Zalewski et al., 1997; Zalewski
2011, 2013, 2014; Kiedrzyńska et al., 2015).
Ecohydrology provides a scientific understanding
of the hydrology/biota interplay, and a systemic
framework of how to use ecosystem processes as
a tool for Integrated Water Resources Manage-
ment, complementary to ecological engineering
and applied hydrotechnical solutions (Zalewski,
2014). The key questions posed by EH concern
the hierarchy of factors regulating the dynamics
of hydrological and biological interactions and
the means by which EH can be used to solve envi-
ronmental and societal problems with reference to
Integrated Water Resources Management and in
the scope of policies such as the European Water
Framework Directive (WFD EC, 2000). The role
of Ecohydrology in the implementation of the Sus-
tainable Basin Management and the Water Fra-
mework Directive is to facilitate to development of
scientific methodologies, whose task is to achie-
ve a ‘‘good ecological status’’ for catchment-ri-
ver-floodplain ecosystems by stimulating progress
in the environmental sciences and enabling a bet-
ter understanding of their processes (Kiedrzyńska
et al., 2015).
The ecohydrological biotechnologies research
that was carried out on the Pilica River floodplain
in central Poland based on nature solutions had
the general aim of assessing the possibilities of
enhancing this process, both through sedimenta-
tion (Altinakar et al., 2006; Magnuszewski et al.,
2007; Kiedrzyńska et al., 2008a) and assimila-
tion in the vegetation biomass (Kiedrzyńska et al.,
2008b; Skłodowski et al., 2014). The research,
based on DTM (digital terrain model) and hydrau-
lic models, demonstrated that sedimentation of
flood sediments in the floodplain essentially redu-
ces their transport to the local lowland reservoir.
Flood sediments were effectively deposited, and
phosphorus was retained in a 30-km section of the
Pilica River natural floodplain. In the flooding area
of 1,007 ha, fine grained flood sediments reached
500 t (0.5 t ha-1) and the retention of P was 1.5
t (1.5 kg ha-1) per river flood time (Kiedrzyńska
and Zalewski, 2012). An ecohydrological study
conducted in relation to a hydroperiod showed
that the efficiency of nutrient assimilation and bio-
mass production by autochthonous plant commu-
nities, with a special emphasis on willow patches,
was high. Vegetation in the Pilica River floodplain
(26.6 ha) in summer accumulated 255 kg of phos-
phorus (P) year-1, which entails a mean value of
9.6 kg P year-1 ha-1. However, conversion of 24%
or 48% of the area into willow patches may boost
phosphorus retention up to 332 or 399 kg P year-
1
, increasing the value up to 12.5 kg P year-1 ha -1
and 15 kg P year-1 ha-1, respectively (Kiedrzyńska
et al., 2008b).
Other research conducted along an approx. 40 km
long section of the Pilica River examined the role
of willow communities of Salicetum triandro-vimi-
nalis in the reduction of phosphorus concentra-
tion in river water and quantified the phosphorus
retained in the willow biomass. The results showed
reductions of SPM concentration by 41%, SRP by
54% and TP concentration by 36%. In addition,
39% lower total PCB content and 49% lower PCB
TEQ concentration were found at the end of the
studied stretch (Skłodowski et al., 2014). In this
river section, natural willow communities covered
an area of approximately 30 ha. The accumulation
of phosphorus (P) in the total biomass amounted to
approximately 431 kg, a mean of 14.44 kg P ha−1
for willow patches up to 3 years old (Skłodowski
et al., 2014). The suitable management of willow
riparian zones and seasonal clear-cutting can be
helpful in limiting eutrophication and controlling
toxic algal blooms in the Sulejów Reservoir, loca-
ted downstream (Skłodowski et al., 2014).
Theoretically, 1 kg of P can lead to the accumula-
tion of some 1–2 t of toxic algal biomass in a re-
servoir (Zalewski, 2005). Based on these studies
and the literature, it can be said that river floodp-
lain wetlands are mostly enriched with riverine
material and, at the same time, the river water is
purified by its natural process of dilution, sedi-
mentation and accumulation of phosphorus in the
biomass of macrophytes and riparian willow com-
munities, as well as the mechanical filtration of the
flowing water.
In summary, a more proactive approach to envi-
ronmental river engineering and river floodplain
rehabilitation and restoration would yield many
positive effects for the inhabitants, on both local
and regional scales, as would the management of
river valleys and floodplains which preserve their
potential for water quality improvement and flood
prevention, as well as their ecological and aesthe-
tic functions (Kiedrzyńska et al., 2015).
6.3. Hybrid Sequential Biofiltration
Systems – a nature-based solution
approach for wastewater
Municipal wastewater discharged from Wastewa-
ter Treatment Plants (WWTPs) often represents
a significant source of phosphorus (P) and nitro-
gen (N) load (Rai et al., 2013; Kiedrzyńska et al.,
2014b; Chen et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2016)
and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) (Urbaniak
et al., 2014, Urbaniak and Kiedrzyńska, 2015),
which are discharged into rivers, reservoirs or
coastal zones (Kiedrzyńska et al., 2014a,b). Nu-
trient loads promote eutrophication and abnor-
mal phytoplankton growth; they also encourage
the occurrence of toxic cyanobacteria blooms,
resulting in the degradation of water quality and
threatening the health of humans and animals.
PCBs are classified as persistent organic pollu-
tants and comprise a group of toxic substances
manufactured during industrial processes.
Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 61
62 Ecohydrological biotecnologies: nature-based solutions
The aim of the study by Kiedrzyńska et al. (2017)
was to evaluate the efficiency of an innovative
hybrid Sequential Biofiltration System (SBS)
for removing Total Suspended Solids (TSS),
phosphorus and nitrogen and polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs) from original municipal was-
tewater produced by a Wastewater Treatment
Plant under authentic operating conditions.
The hybrid SBS was constructed with two ba-
rriers, a geochemical (filtration beds with limes-
tone, coal and sawdust) and a biological barrier
(wetlands with Glyceria, Acorus, Typha, and
Phragmites), operating in parallel (see Figure
6.1).The innovative Hybrid Sequential Biofil-
tration Systems (SBS) constructed in WWTP in
Rozprza (central Poland) is an example of a natu-
re-based solution for removing phosphorus and
nitrogen and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
from original municipal wastewater produced by
a Wastewater Treatment Plant under authentic
operating conditions. The hybrid SBS was cons-
tructed with two barriers, a geochemical (filtra-
tion beds with limestone, coal and sawdust) and
a biological barrier (wetlands with Glyceria, Aco-
rus, Typha, and Phragmites), operating in para-
llel (Kiedrzyńska et al., 2017).
The hybrid Sequential Biofiltration System (SBS)
proved an effective method of ecohydrological
biotechnology for treatment of wastewater from
WWTPs. Significant differences were found be-
tween inflow and outflow from the SBS with re-
gard to wastewater contaminant concentrations,
the efficiency of removal being 16% (max. 93%)
for Total Phosphorus (TP), 25% (max. 93%) for
Soluble Reactive Phosphorus (SRP), 15% (max.
97%) for Total Nitrogen (TN), 17% (max. 98%)
for NO3--N, and 21% for PCB equivalency (PCB
EQ) (Kiedrzyńska et al., 2017). In the case of
PCB EQ concentration, the highest efficiency of
43% was obtained using beds with macrophytes
(Kiedrzyńska et al., 2017). The greatest reduc-
tion of concentration was observed in the biolo
gically-active barrier, i.e. beds with macrophytes
wherein 83% of TP, 75% of SRP, 69% of TN
72% of NO3—N, and 43% of PCB EQ concentra
tions were lower at the outlet from the SBS tha
the inlet (Kiedrzyńska et al., 2017).
The hybrid SBS removed a significant load of T
(0.415 kg), TN (3.136 kg), and PCB EQ (0.223
g) per square meter of SBS per year (Kiedrzyńs
ka et al., 2017). The total removed by SBS loa
of contamination amount: 25.3 kg TP (18%)
37.1 kg SRP (26%), 191.3 kg TN (17%), 178
kg NO3- - N (19%), 4.5 kg NO2--N (33%), 8.8
kg NH4+-N (7%) and also 13.6 g PCB EQ (49%
per year (Kiedrzyńska et al., 2017).
One of the fundamental parameters influencin
the efficiency of a biofiltration system is its siz
and physical dimension (Johannesson et al
2011; Tanner and Kadlec, 2013; Wang et al
2014; Vergeles et al., 2015). The use of thi
low-cost hybrid SBSs as a post-treatment step fo
wastewater treatment was found to be an effectiv
ecohydrological biotechnology that may be use
for reducing point source pollution and impro
ving water quality.
The use of low-cost hybrid SBSs as a post-treat
ment step for wastewater treatment was found t
be an effective ecohydrological biotechnolog
that may be used in small WWTPs as an addi
tional treatment step and an alternative biotech
nology for reducing point source pollution an
improving water quality in river catchments (Kie
drzyńska et al., 2017).
Overall, such cases involving the use of natura
river floodplains and Hybrid Sequential Biofil
tration Systems offer examples of a nature-base
solution approach, which has been successfull
used for the water retention and river self-purifi
cation (Kiedrzyńska et al., 2008a,b; Kiedrzyńsk
o- et al., 2014a,b; Kiedrzyńska et al., 2015), as well purification. As such, the approach appears well
s, as storm water (Dou et al., 2017; Szklarek et al., poised to help address the challenges of the An-
N, 2017) and wastewater (Kiedrzyńska et al., 2017) thropocene era, as discussed in the introduction.
a-
an

TP
3
s-
ad
),
8
8
%)
Figure 6.1. Design of a hybrid Sequential Biofiltration System (SBS) for the purification of wastewater effluents from a small
WWTP, central Poland (Kiedrzyńska et al., 2017).
ng
ze
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 Edyta Kiedrzyńska is a lecturer and Deputy
Director of the European Regional Centre
for Ecohydrology of the Polish Academy of
Sciences, and an Associate Professor at the
Faculty of Biology and Environmental Pro-
tection of the University of Lodz in Poland.
Her research interests focus on the following areas: Ecohydrology and
biotechnologies, River hydrology and nutrient transport, Flood sedimen-
tation processes in the river floodplain, River floodplain hydrology, ecology and river basin management,
Phosphorus cycle in the ecosystem of the river valley, Modelling of river valley processes, Point sources of
nutrient pollution, and Analysis of catchment river processes.

Professor Kiedrzyńska is a lecturer in national and international education programmes. She has been a
speaker at many international scientific conferences and symposiums. She was the winner of the BGF
Scientific Research Grant at the CNRS, awarded by Ambassade de France at Pologne and Institut Francais
en Pologne, and funded by the Government of the Republic of France, which took her to the University of
François Rabelais in Chambéry-Tours , France, August 2015. Professor Kiedrzyńska has authored nume-
rous publications in leading journals in the environmental field. She is a member of the scientific council
of the Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection of the University of Lodz and also a member of the
scientific board of the international journal Ecohydrology and Hydrobiology. He is the leader of numerous
national scientific projects and a researcher involved in international projects.

: e.kiedrzynska@erce.unesco.lodz.pl

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 65

Chimborazo, Ecuador. Photo: Fabián Rodas
Chapter 7
Ecohydrological biotechnologies as complementary measures for the
mitigation of pollution from non-point sources in rural areas

Katarzyna Izydorczyk1, Wojciech Frątczak1,2, Maciej Zalewski1

1. European Regional Centre for Ecohydrology of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Łódź, Poland k.izydorczyk@erce.unesco.lodz.pl
2. Regional Water Management Authority in Warsaw, 13B Zarzecze, 03-194 Warsaw, Poland

7.1. Introduction in order to increase their effectiveness in reducing

pollution (Zalewski, 2014). Recently, ecohydrolo-
Agricultural pollution of water bodies and coastal
gical biotechnologies have come to be classified as a
areas by non-point sources, also known as diffuse
type of nature-based solutions, a title that includes
sources, is a major environmental problem throu-
a wider range of measures (Eggermont et al., 2015;
ghout the world (see e.g. US EPA, 2002; EEA,
Nesshover et al., 2017; WWDR, 2018).
2005). There is a general trend towards increasing
agricultural production in most countries, which,
in turn, increasingly depend on the intensive use 7.2. Agricultural measures
of fertilizers and pesticide inputs. Other countries to reduce the loss of nutrients
such as Brazil and China have boosted their agri-
Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), which are
cultural production through the rapid expansion of
essential elements for plants, are used as na-
agricultural land (Stringfellow and Jain, 2010). In
tural and artificial fertilizers to increase yields.
Africa, increasing numbers of people, deforestation
However, losses of nutrients from agricultural
and agriculture have accelerated the depletion of
lands occur when the intensive use of fertilizers
soil nutrients (including soil erosion), which affects
exceeds the requirements and consumption of
surface water and groundwater (Drechsel et al.,
the plants. Therefore, proper fertilizer dosing,
2001). Crop production, the ploughing of fields
based on crop requirements and measurements
to the edges of rivers and lakes, the intensive use of
of soil nutrient content, is a basic but effective
fertilizers and the increase in the number of animals
measure to reduce the loss of agricultural nu-
per hectare have contributed to a greater load of nu-
trients (Defra, 2010).
trients transported from the different landscapes of
the river basins to freshwater ecosystems. Accurate application of fertilizers is also im-
portant to minimize the risk of nutrient losses,
Given that different forms of non-point pollution
which include losses of gaseous ammonia (es-
appear in each catchment, it is necessary to opti-
pecially from manure), leaching, and erosion.
mize and harmonize several mitigation measures to
For example, high levels of precipitation in ear-
achieve synergy between them. Mitigation measures
ly spring in countries with seasons, combined
for pollution control from non-point sources should
with the early application of fertilizers, can lead
include best agricultural practices, ecohydrological
to greater nutrient leaching, which should be
biotechnologies, and other nature-based solutions.
easy to avoid. To reduce nutrient leaching the
Ecohydrological biotechnologies – derived from
European Commission recommends extending
the third principle of ecohydrology – aim to regu-
the period for the spread of fertilizers at times of
late natural biological and hydrological processes
the year when the air temperature is above 5°C.

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 67

 68 Ecohydrological biotechnologies to mitigate diffuse pollution sources
The risk of leaching and erosion increases when
there is no vegetation cover in the soil to take up
the nutrients. Therefore, postponing autumn
tillage or changing to spring tillage, tilling the
soil shortly before planting, and growing catch
crops are measures that help limit the losses of
N and P to surrounding waters. For example,
the reduction of soil tillage practices in different
Norwegian basins (reported by Blankenberg et
al., 2008, cited in Skarbovik and Bechmann,
2010) showed a decrease of 30-40% in P los-
ses for areas with extensive cereal production.
In contrast, the establishment of intermediate
crops decreased N leaching by 32-62% in com-
parative studies in northern France (Constantin
et al., 2010).
Nevertheless, the application of more than
one measure to reduce the risk of movement
of nutrients to water can help to reinforce its
efficiency. For example, in experiments in sou-
thwestern Sweden, a system that included seve-
ral measures (delaying till until late autumn and
spring), direct winter wheat drilling, planting
winter and spring crops and using a catch crop
in winter wheat, allowed for a 46% reduction of
N leaching compared to the conventional sys-
tem (Myrbeck and Stenberg, 2014). The op-
timization of nutrient management by farmers
should not only help protect the environment,
but also lead to a reduction in operating costs
and improve the profitability of agriculture.
7.3. Nature-based solutions to
reduce transfer from landscape
nutrients to fresh water
7.3.1. Riparian buffer zones
The preservation or construction of land/water
riparian buffer zones (ecotones) is widely recom-
mended to slow the flow and reduce the impact
of land-based nutrients on freshwater ecosystems
(Passeport et al., 2013). Buffer zones are usually
strips of riparian vegetation that include grasses,
pastures, shrubs or trees that separate cultivable
land from water courses.
These permanent vegetation belts allow or the
optimization of water quality by trapping and
eliminating various non-point source pollutants
from overland and shallow subsurface flow pa-
thways (Lowrance et al., 1984; Schiemer and
Zalewski, 1991; Mander et al., 1997; Mander et
al., 2005; Izydorczyk et al., 2018). These buffer
zones efficiently reduce the N and P loads that
originate in non-point pollution sources throu-
gh several mechanisms: (1) the assimilation of
inorganic compounds, including N and P, plants
and their transformation into biomass ; (2) bio-
geochemical processes that occur as a result of
microbial activity, including denitrification, ni-
trification, and anaerobic ammonium oxidation
reactions (anammox), which can be an important
source of N removal; (3) sorption and precipita-
tion of soluble P forms through the soil; and (4)
sedimentation of soil particles transported as
surface runoff, which reduces soil erosion and
transport of insoluble P (see reviews by Doskkey
et al., 2010 and Parn et al., 2012).
Buffer zones should address the habitat-related
preferences for specific types of vegetation and
their tolerance to varied hydrological conditions.
Native species are also recommended to impro-
ve landscape values and terrestrial biodiversity.
Grass and herbaceous strips, with or without
deep-rooted trees and shrubs along a stream, can
help improve water quality (Hefting et al., 2006;
Balestrini et al., 2011). Another important cha-
racteristic to consider in the selection of species
is the amount of nutrients that can be taken up
and stored in the tissues of plants. This amount
varies depending on the plant species from 0.2
to 50 kg P ha-1 year-1 and from 10 to 350 kg
N ha-1 year-1 (Mander et al., 1997; Hefting et
al., 2005; Kiedrzyńska et al., 2008). However,
notably, plants retain nutrients for a limited
time, mainly during the growing season, which
requires the biomass harvesting (e.g. mowing or
logging) to eliminate the accumulated material
(Kuusemets and Lohmus, 2005; Uusi-Kamppa,
2005). This practice can reduce the risk of nu-
trients being released during the dormant season
and transported by surface runoff or accumula-
ting on the surface soil (Raty et al., 2010).
The role of buffer zones in capturing P is related
not only to the process of nutrient accumulation
in plant tissues but also to their retention in the
soil. Insoluble forms of P are dominant in the ru-
noff of agricultural areas, and their contribution
increases with the increase in flow (Johannesson
et al., 2011). Therefore, sedimentation is more
important for reducing the P load in the outflow
from the basin than the adsorption of dissolved
forms in the soil. Dense vegetation (especially
tall and stiff grasses with dense stems) increa-
ses hydraulic roughness and reduces overland
flow velocity and sediment transport capacity.
In a study conducted by Rafaela et al. (1997).,
A 0.6 m wide Bermuda strip, 20 to 30 cm high
reduced sediment runoff from a ploughed area by
an average of 63% compared to a carved area wi-
thout such a barrier. The soil particles with P ab-
sorbed onto their surface molecular deposits are
retained in the buffer zones. Sedimentation may
account for P rates of up to 128 kg P ha-1 year-1
(Hoffmann et al., 2009).
7.3.2. Wetlands
The restoration of natural wetlands or the creation
of artificial ones can serve to improve water quality
(Trepel and Palmeri, 2002; Mitsch, 2002). Tho-
se wetlands through which nutrient-rich waters
are directed and intercepted are classified as “free
surface” systems, which means that their surface is
exposed to the atmosphere and they contain aquatic
vegetation emerging in a relatively shallow bed (a
water depth of 20-40 cm) (Gregoire et al., 2009).
Similar to buffer zones, wetlands use natural pro-
cesses that involve wetland vegetation, soil, and
associated microbial assemblages to treat the water
(García et al., 2010). The efficiency of wetlands for
nutrient removal depends on several variables, in-
cluding residence time, seasonality, inflow concen-
tration and wetland construction design (Perillon
and Matzinger, 2010). A disadvantage of wetlands
is that they are difficult to control, especially under
varying climatic conditions. In addition, wetlands
require considerable space and conflicts may arise
between services rendered and undesirable increa-
ses in mosquito populations (Knight et al., 2003).
The maximum potential rates of N and P removal in
wetlands usually range between 1,000 and 3,000
kg N ha-1 year-1 and between 60 and 100 kg P
ha-1 year-1 (Verhoeven et al., 2006). An analysis
of effectiveness of three wetland treatments (0.3 to
0.8 ha in surface area, 1,200 to 5,400 m3 in vo-
lume) that intercepted the drainage water from the
subsoil and received 4,639 kg of total N during the
3-yr period (96% as NO3-N) of agriculture showed
a 37% reduction in inputs (1697 kg N) (Kovacic et
al., 2000).
Typically, wetlands can retain more than 50% of the
incoming DIP load if the water residence time ex-
ceeds 7 days (Reinhardt et al., 2005). A construc-
ted wetland (1215 m3) in southern Quebec, Cana-
da, was found to retain 34% of the P inputs of 24.3
kg over 4 years of operation (Kroeger et al., 2006).
The annual results of 17 wetlands in cold temperate
or boreal climatic zones that support agricultural
activity showed that the average retention of total P
varied from 1 to 88% and that the retention of DRP
ranged from -19% to 89%. The retention of P in-
creased with the wetland surface area and depended
on its age (Braskerud et al., 2005).
Sedimentation (retention) ponds are a type of wet-
land where sediments and nutrients are retained
through various sedimentation and filtration mecha-
nisms. Sedimentation ponds can consist of simple,
undivided depressions in which nutrient-rich water
Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 69
 70 Ecohydrological biotechnologies to mitigate diffuse pollution sources
can be trapped (Holsten et al., 2012) or be connec-
ted to wetlands. Some experiments in Norway have
shown that small artificial ponds with wetlands can
eliminate between 21 and 44% of the total P in the
streams; however, only 5% of orthophosphate was
eliminated (Braskerud, 2002).
7.4. Ecohydrological biotechnolo-
gies for the effective regulation
of biogeochemical processes
7.4.1 Enhanced buffer zones
Enhanced buffer zones are recommended in ca-
ses where the riparian buffer zone is not effective,
for example when space is limited along the coasts
and under high initial load conditions. The idea of
enhancing buffer zones is to reinforce the vegeta-
tion littoral zones by installing a denitrification wall
and/or a biogeochemical barrier (Izydorczyk et al.,
2015).
Under the framework of the LIFE + EKOROB pro-
ject, two of these areas were designed, built, and
tested on the coast of the Sulejów reservoir, which is
part of the UNESCO/UNEP Pilica River Demons-
tration Site (Poland) (see Figure 7.1.) . The first
phase of the enhanced development of the buffer
zone involved the identification of threats to match
the solution with the existing problems.
It was shown that the construction of denitrifica-
tion walls as elements of buffer zones strengthens
the efficiency of vegetation zones in areas conta-
minated with nitrate. Groundwater pollution with
nitrates (approximately 200 mg NO3/l), caused by
the continual inflow of pollutants from crop fields
located in the neighbourhood, entered the water
through drainage systems the outputs of which
were in the immediate vicinity to the demosite. A
denitrification wall, a trench filled with a mixture of
soil and organic material (e.g., pine sawdust), loca-
ted perpendicular to the runoff of shallow ground-
water contaminated with nitrates strengthened the
denitrification process. The effectiveness of such
denitrification walls varies between 50% and 95%,
while the rates of nitrogen removal have varied be-
tween 2 and 20 g of N m3 d-1 (Schipper et al., 2010;
Bednarek et al., 2010 ). The results of improved
buffer zones recently built on the coast of the Su-
lejów reservoir showed that the effectiveness of the
denitrification wall of the buffer zone is approxima-
tely 67% (Frątczak et al., 2013).
 Figure 7.1. Improved buffer zones as measures for the reduction of diffuse contamination. Left column: vegetation buffer
zone reinforced with a denitrification wall to reduce nitrate pollution, Barkowice LIFE + EKOROB demonstration; right column:
vegetation buffer zone reinforced with a limestone barrier to reduce phosphorus pollution, Zarzęcin’s ecohydrological de-
monstration site LIFE + EKOROB.

Nitrogen load of agricultural land Cyanobacterial bloom

Phosphorus load
of recreational areas

Sulejów Dam

atmospheric nitrogen
Groundwater level
N2

Biogeochemical barrier
Denitrification wall

Surface Escorrentía
runoff Farmlands superficial Farmlands
In NO3- In PO4
filt filt
ra ra
NO3- tio
n Buffer zone with PO4 tio
n Buffer zone with
Groundwater
level plants plants

River/Dam River/Dam
H of pHigh c
of n igh c
itra once
NO3- hos onc PO4
p e
t
und es in ntratio gro hates ntratio
erg the und in n
rou watn NO3- wat unde
PO4
nd er
Un er r-
D Low io
rele enitrifi
c
of once ciu n of p of pLow c
ase cat gro nitratentratio m c ho hos onc
p e
gro hatesntratio
the of n ion
und s in n
wat om sph und in n
atm itro and
er
ple oru wat unde

g xes s in er r-
osp en
her to Pine chips mixed Ca ca
-P.( l-
Limestone
e with soil x)

In the area, characterized by high concentrations of
phosphorus in shallow groundwater (5.5 mg PO4 / l
on average) and seepages that mainly resulted from
leaking septic tanks, the use of a limestone-based
barrier was proposed as an element of plant buffer
zones. The limestone-based barrier was proposed
to improve the removal of phosphorus by intensi-
fying the capacity of soil phosphorus adsorption
through a higher calcium content. Limestone is a
sedimentary rock composed largely of the minerals
calcite and aragonite, which are different crystalline
forms of calcium carbonate. Calcium-containing
phosphorus binding materials are suitable for use
in aquatic ecosystems because the precipitation of
phosphorus with calcium is not impaired by reduc-
tion-oxidation cycles, as occurs with the precipita-
tion of iron (Shenker et al., 2005) and also due to
the environmental risk related to the application of
aluminium and iron. The barrier was made by dig-
ging a trench, which was filled with limestone (5-8

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 71

 72 Ecohydrological biotechnologies to mitigate diffuse pollution sources
cm in size), laid in geotextile as a coating. Prelimi-
nary results indicated that the phosphate concentra-
tion in the groundwater was reduced by the barrier
by 58% (Izydorczyk et al., 2013).
7.4.2. Sequential system
of sedimentation-biofiltration
The Sequential Sedimentation-Biofiltration
System (SSSB) was proposed by Zalewski et al.
(2012) to improve the capture of P in an artificial
wetland. The SSSB prototype was built on the
Sokolowka River in Lodz (Poland) for the puri-
fication of rainwater in an urban area. The SSSB
is divided into three zones: (1) an intensified
hydrodynamic sedimentation zone, an area with
concrete structures and lamellae that reduce the
energy of the inflow and improve sedimentation;
(2) an intensified biogeochemical process zone
made of limestone in gabions, which are protec-
ted with geotextile; (3) a biofiltration zone - a
wetland area with Phragmites australis and Typha
latifolia. Sequential biofiltration systems reduced
total suspended matter by more than 90% and
total N and P concentrations by more than 50%
during the first year of the experimental opera-
tion (Zalewski, 2014). The application of SSSB
in rural basins has been tested in the LIFE +
EKOROB project. An SSSB was built in a stream
that directly supplies the Sulejów reservoir to re-
duce suspended matter and the load of nutrients
transported from the agricultural basin (Frątczak
et al., 2015).
7.5. Policy-related and
socio-economic aspects
The development of a programme of measures,
which includes a wide range of mitigation mea-
sures and maximizes their effectiveness by their
optimal placement, is the crucial way for an effec-
tive sustainable nutrient management within an
agricultural catchment. Such a programme of
measures must also be economically and socia-
lly acceptable to the public, so a key issue for
the management of nutrients in the catchment
scale is to involve those interested in the deve-
lopment and implementation of the mitigation
strategy (Collins and McGonigle, 2008). The
Sustainable Development Goals related to wa-
ter, for example, urge to facilitate the develop-
ment of capacities among authorities and other
main stakeholders and including local commu-
nities in the decision-making process, while the
Water Framework Directive of the European
Union also emphasizes full public participation
in watershed management plans. Thus, strong
cooperation with the local community (especially
farmers) to ensure acceptability and applicability
should be an important part of the programme
of measures. In addition, economic instruments
such as subsidies and direct payments can sti-
mulate farmers and landowners to implement
methods to reduce nutrients losses (Bechmann
et al., 2008). Finally, the nutrient management
programme should consist of a set of legislative,
regulatory, and economic initiatives combined
with specific information campaigns, which is
why cooperation between policy makers, scienti-
fic experts, and stakeholders is essential to create
such a programme of measures in the catchment
scale in order to achieve a reversal of fresh water
eutrophication.
Conclusions
The examples discussed in this chapter illustrate
how, given the increased loads of nutrients trans-
ported from the different catchment landscapes
to freshwater ecosystems, several measures to
mitigate pollution from non-point sources can be
optimized and harmonized successfully to achie-
ve synergy among them.
Acknowledgments
This chapter is an outcome of the EKOROB
project: Ecotones for the reduction of diffuse
contaminations (LIFE08 ENV / PL / 000519),
supported by the LIFE+ Environmental Policy
and Governance Programme, National Fund for
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 Katarzyna Izydorczyk is a principal researcher in the
Life+ Project ECOROB LIFE08 ENV / PL / 000519 of
the European Regional Centre for Ecohydrology of
the Polish Academy of Sciences. She is an authori-
zed professor at the Faculty of Biology and Environ-
mental Protection of the University of Lodz.
Dr Izydorczyk obtained an M.Sc. in Environmental Protection and a Ph.D. in Ecohydrology,
and has a qualification in Ecology, all these degrees by the University of Lodz. Her research has been related to: (1) Abiotic
and biotic regulations of toxic blooms of cyanobacteria. (2) Hydrological control of ecological processes in reservoirs. (3)
Applied fluorescence techniques for monitoring cyanobacterial blooms. (4) Systematic ecohydrological solutions for the
management of nutrients in watersheds. (5) Ecohydrological biotechnologies to reduce diffuse pollution. She has partici-
pated in several national and international projects and has co-authored 80 publications and book chapters, including 27
registered on the Web of Science platform.

: k.izydorczyk@erce.unesco.lodz.pl

Wojciech Frątczak is Coordinator of the Life+ Pro-

ject EKOROB LIFE08 ENV / PL / 000519 at the Re-
gional Water Management Authority in Warsaw.
He is currently Head of the Planning Department
of Water Management in the National Water Hol-
ding Polish Water of the Regional Water Manage-
ment Authority in Warsaw.
He is a graduate of Environmental Engineering in the field of Water Engineering at the Warsaw University of Technology. He
is associated with the University of Lodz as part of the European project ‘SWITCH Sustainable Water Management Improve-
ment. Tomorrow’s Cities Health’. He cooperates with the European Regional Centre for Ecohydrology of the Polish Academy
of Sciences. He participated in the Thematic Group of the European Network of Rural Development in the field of Resource
Efficiency. Currently he is collaborating with the REDR Theme Group ‘Integration of Bioeconomy’.

: wfratczak@wp.pl

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 75

Guadiana River Estuary Ecohydrology Demonstration Site, Portugal. Photo: Ana Isabel Correia
Chapter 8
Coastal ecohydrology: The case of the Guadiana River estuary, Portugal
Professor Luis Chícharo, Ph.D. 1 2 3
University of Algarve. Faro, Portugal
1. Director of the UNESCO Chair in Ecohydrology: water for ecosystems and societies
2. Director of the International Masters´ Programme in Ecohydrology
3. Director of the International Coastal Ecohydrology Centre
8.1. Introduction
Coastal ecohydrology is a branch of ecohydrology
as a science (concept and approach) that focuses
on restoring the carrying capacity of estuarine and
coastal areas. The perspective of coastal ecohydro-
logy allows linking the integrated concept of wa-
tershed management since it proposes the harmo-
nization, management, and solutions to problems
present throughout the river basin. The perspec-
tive of ecohydrology is not only an evaluation of
the ecological flow necessary to ensure ecological
functions, but also considers those needs as a ba-
sis for the development of solutions that restore,
as far as possible, the lost carrying capacity. The
science of ecological flows is preventive, while
ecohydrology is restorative.
Coastal ecohydrology seeks to generate solu-
tions for the degradation of estuarine and coastal
ecosystems that occur from human activities or
climate, at different temporal and spatial scales.
The estuaries and the coasts in all the continents
of the Earth are some of the zones that present
major and increasing pressures to their ecosys-
tems, hence the importance and necessity of the
development of coastal ecohydrology. The current
reality of these pressures in coastal zones indica-
tes that: (1) more than 50% of the world popula-
tion lives less than 100 km from the coast (75%
estimated in 2025); (2) 80% of marine pollution
comes from land-based sources; (3) in developing
countries, more than 90% of wastewater and 70%
of industrial waste are discharged untreated into
surface waters that ultimately flow into estuaries
and coasts; and, (4) there are more than 800,000
dams in the world; in fact, the construction of 2
large dams (more than 15 m) per day in the last
50 years was estimated (World Commission on
Dams, 2000).
Worldwide, fresh water is extracted from lakes,
rivers, and groundwater. Around the world,
approximately 70% of fresh water is used for agri-
culture in order to keep up with the growing needs
of food for an increasing population. Data from
the Food and Agriculture Organization of the Uni-
ted Nations (FAO, 2011) estimates that the water
needs for food production, only to eradicate po-
verty and hunger, will increase by approximately
6,500 km3/year in 2015 to approximately 9,000
km3/year in 2025.
In addition to the elimination of water available
for ecosystems, water quality is decreasing. Sin-
ce 1960, nitrogen flows biologically available in
terrestrial ecosystems doubled and phosphorus
flows tripled. Synthetic N was first manufactured
in 1913, but more than 50% of all the fertilizer
was manufactured after 1985 (FAO, 2011).
Both industrial and domestic wastewater, as well
as water used for drinking, agriculture and urban
development, are reducing the quality and quanti-
ty of water available for ecohydrological operation
in estuarine and coastal areas. Added to this is the
Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 77
 78 Coastal ecohidrology: the case of the Guadiana Estuary, Portugal

fact that estuaries and coastal areas are the reposi-
tory of all the impacts produced in the river basin,
generating greater degradation in these ecosys-
tems (Milliman et al., 2008).
One of the main causes of the deterioration of the
estuarine and coastal ecosystems is the change in
river flows due to the extraction of water in the
upper parts of the basin for the construction of
reservoirs and dams. The annual discharge of the
most representative rivers of the Earth has chan-
ged by more than 30% during the last 60 years
(Milliman et al., 2008).
8.2. Hydro-ecological problems in
the Guadiana River estuary
In this chapter, the ecohydrological solutions
applied in the estuary of the Guadiana River, in
the southeast of Portugal, will be presented.
The Guadiana estuary is the final point of the
Guadiana River, which is born in Spain, its basin
being the fourth largest of the Iberian Peninsu-
la, with 67,500 km2, 83% in Spain and 17% in
Portugal.
In order to reduce Spain’s dependence on water
and create a water reserve for agricultural deve-
lopment in a very dry area of southern Portugal,
a dam that was built in the Alentejo region began
operating in 2002. The Alqueva dam created a
lake with an area of 250 km2, a perimeter of more
than 1,000 km and a capacity of 4,500 hm3 of
dammed water. The Guadiana River basin already
had more than 1,850 small reservoirs and dams,
but the Alqueva dam alone doubled the amount of
water retained by all these other dams and reser-
voirs. The impacts for downstream ecosystems
are predictable despite the established ecological
flow (Chícharo, 2003). However, the dam had
positive consequences for agriculture. When
comparing the production before and after the
dam (Table 8.1.) it can be observed that there
was an increase of 22.3% in the irrigated areas
and in the production of crops.

Table 8.1. Areas (ha) of irrigated crops in the Portuguese part of the Guadiana basin. (Source: EDIA, 2016)

2000 2006 2012

Permanently irrigated areas 17,793 24,463 23,391

Rice fields 1,168 663 173
Vineyars 13,375 15,589 16,830
Fuit trees and berry plantations 3,840 4,075 2,505
Olive orchards 77,647 77,316 103,539
Pastures 3,037 5,080 15,059
Annual crops 20,140 19,189 11,534
Mixed cultivation 26,292 27,178 26,654
TOTAL 163,292 173,553 199,685
Variation 22.28%

Yet, when compared to the change in the average
annual flow of the river (see Figure 8.1.), both
the reduction in the flow in total average, as well
as, and very importantly, a reduction in variabili-
ty can be observed. This means that not only less
water reaches the estuary and the coast, but also
that the volume discharged does not respect the
natural evolutionary patterns established for the
needs of the species in those ecosystems.
 Figure 8.1. Annual average of the Guadiana river flow before and after the entry into operation of the Alqueva dam (the box
diagrams show a minimum value, 25% percentile, median, 75% percentile, and maximum value).
900

800

700

600
Averger river flow (m3/s)

500

400

300

200

100

0
1989-2001 2002-2009

One of the consequences of the diminution of
the river flow is the decrease of fine sediments
load in the estuary. This has too important con-
sequences such as the decrease in the discharge
of sediments into the estuarine marsh and the de-
crease in the water column of the river in front
of the mouth of the estuary. The decrease in the
discharge of fine sediments from the river is re-
placed by a coarser-grain sediment entering from
the sea, resulting in the erosion of the salt marsh
and the loss of vegetation. Consequently, there is
a loss in the nesting functions of aquatic species
associated with the vegetation of the salt marsh.
Cumulatively, the decrease in the sediment load
to the coast reduces the river column created in
front of the mouth of the river. This is very impor-
tant for many species for it acts as a trigger that
indicates the presence of the estuary.
As an example, in the case of the anchovy En-
graulis encrasicolus (Chícharo et al, 2006a, b)
adult individuals enter the estuary when detec-
ting the plume (the column of water produced by
the inflow of freshwater into the sea) and lay their
eggs in the estuary, upstream of the mouth. Sub-
sequently, larvae and post larvae grow protected
by marsh vegetation that provides shelter from
predators, creates conditions of low current and
is a highly productive ecosystem. The juveniles
will return to the coast and the cycle begins again
(see Figure 8.2). The chemical constitution in
the plume is the triggering factor for the anchovy
cycle to start.

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 79

 80 Coastal ecohidrology: the case of the Guadiana Estuary, Portugal

Figure 8.2. Reproductive migration cycle of the anchovy Engraulis encrasicolus in the Guadiana estuary and marshland area.

Nesting and
breeding area

The stability of the salty swamp and vegetation tural production increases, a decrease of almost
are important for these services. However, as a 5% in the area of the salty swamp can be observed
consequence of the Alqueva dam, while agricul- (EDIA, 2016) (see Figure 8.3).
 1640
Figure 8.3. Change in the marshland area before and after the operation of the Alqueva dam.

Before After
1620
2000 2006 2012
Area (ha) of Guadiana coastal wetlands

1620 1584 1541

1600

Variation -4.87%

1580

1560

1540

1520

1500
2000 2006 2012

years

Another consequence of the change in the flow

and subsequent discharge of the river is the effect
on the increase of residence time and the asso-
ciated risk of (possibly harmful) algae blooms and
eutrophication. The increased runoff of agricul-
tural fertilizers in the river basin becomes less
diluted since less water is discharged after the
construction of the dam. In addition to the de-
crease in river flow, fewer discharges also release
less water outside the estuary. Therefore, pollu-
tants remain longer in the system and increase
the risk of eutrophication and water degradation.
8.3. The ecohydrological solutions
The development of ecohydrological solutions
begins with the integration of water systems and
their related biota, specifically through the iden-
tification and combination of processes at river
basin scale. To this end, a model for the Guadiana
was developed that linked the main components
of the ecosystem (see Figure 8.4).

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 81

 82 Coastal ecohidrology: the case of the Guadiana Estuary, Portugal

Figure 8.4. Outline of the estuarine food chain in the Guadiana ecohydrological model. The model integrates physical, chemi-
cal and biological processes in the Guadiana estuary during low flow conditions (Wolanski et al., 2006).

Organisms that die M

Sediments in
suspension

Nutrient Phyto- Zoo- Zooplanctivores

(N) plancton (F) plancton (Z) (ZP)

Detritus
decomposers (D)
Bivalves (B)

Carnivore / omnivore
fish (PC)
Marsh

This exercise allowed to determine the key fac- biomass and, therefore, the risk of algal blooms
tors that contribute to the integrity of the system. and eutrophication, as can be seen in more detail
It highlights the importance of biota, such as bi- in the primary production model presented in Fi-
valves and vegetation, to control phytoplankton gure 8.5.

Figure 8.5. Distribution along the channel of the planned biomass of phytoplankton (Chl a) in the Guadiana estuary for
the standard execution (‘business as usual’), to double the concentration of nutrients in the river (‘N 2’) and for the addi-
tional impact of the elimination of salt marshes (No marsh, N 2’) for a freshwater discharge equal to 2 m3 / s (Wolanski
et al., 2006).

QF = 2 m3/s
6
Phytoplancton (Chl a)

5
No marshes

4
No bivalves
3
‘As is’
2 situation

0
0 4 8 12 16 20
River Distance cell no Sea
One of the ecohydrological principles is the ability to harmonize ecohydrological solutions with hydro-
technical infrastructures. A model was developed to increase the retention of anchovy eggs within the
estuary, as a basis for providing information to dam managers, to test different scenarios of river flow
and egg retention in different areas of the estuary (see Figure 8.6 .).

Figure 8.6. Average percentage of particles in each section of estuary and discharge scenarios, over 10 days of simulation
(Morais et al., 2010).

100 100
Scenario A Scenario B
90 90
% particles in estuary

80 80
70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
100 100
Scenario C1 Scenario C2
90 90
% particles in estuary

80 80
70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
100 100
90
Scenario D 90
Scenario E
% particles in estuary

80 80
70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
100
Scenario F Days
90
% particles in estuary

80
70
60
50
40
High estuary
30
20
Middle estuary
10
0 Low estuary
Days

Scenarios Low tide High tide

A 5 m3s-1 57.8 53.3

B 20m3s-1 56.5 50.4
C1 50m3s-1 (slow end of tide) 53.1 47.0
C2 50m3s-1 (sudden end of tide) 52.3 47.5
D 100m3s-1 45.3 39.9
E 250m3s-1 17.4 14.6
F 500m3s-1 2.6 3.7

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 83

 84 Coastal ecohidrology: the case of the Guadiana Estuary, Portugal

In the Guadiana case - as in most rivers around
the world - water is used for many purposes besi-
des supporting the functioning of natural aquatic
ecosystems. Considering the ecohydrological
approach, it is necessary to find solutions con-
sidering the harmonization of water resources
uses upstream and downstream (Chícharo et al.,
2015) (see Figure 8.7.).

Figure 8.7. Scheme that highlights the need to consider offsets between uses of upstream and downstream water in a water-
shed, and to identify the “ecohydrological threshold” where maximization of benefits will be possible.

Reservoir,
Upstream (river) ES farming
Water retention
Ex
eco chan
sys ge b Ecohydrology threshold (better
tem etw
ser een value for ecological and hydrological
vic ecosystem functions and support
es ES services)
Fisheries,
Wetlands

Downstream (coast)
Ecosystem functioning
and carrying capacity

By understanding the integration of the water-
shed system, it is possible to find durable and
sustainable ecological solutions for estuaries
and coastal areas impacted by the construction of
dams. The proposed solutions consider: (1) the
maintenance of the bivalve community, (2) the
restoration of the marsh vegetation, and (3) the
creation, management, and control of pulses of
fresh water from the dam in the spawning season
of anchovies. The implementation of ecohydro-
logical solutions for estuaries and coastal areas
requires an integration at a watershed scale that
is only possible with the participation of local
communities and stakeholders (see Figure 8.8.).

Lake Pisaca, Paltas

 Figure 8.8. Conceptual framework of ecohydrological solutions for decision making.
Engineering
solutions
Restoration of the ecosystem
Degradation of
Impacts
the ecosystem Nature-
based solu-
tions
Without restoration actions
8.4. Conclusions
In conclusion, we can attest that the concept of
ecohydrology is mature enough to be considered
as a valid option for the restoration of the quali-
ty of estuaries and coastal ecosystems, and that
it can be applied successfully to estuaries and
coastal areas affected by dams. The understan-
References
Chícharo, L. 2003. Is Big Beautiful? Alqueva Reservoir (Portugal):
The Largest Artificial Lake in Europe Volume 39 - May 2003
Chícharo, L. Chícharo, M. A, Ben-Hamadou, R. (2006a) Use of a
hydrotechnical infrastructure (Alqueva Dam) to regulate plankto-
nic assemblages in the Guadiana estuary: basis for sustainable
water and ecosystem services management. Estuarine Coastal
and Shelf Science, 70, 1-2: 3-18
Chícharo, M. A., Chícharo, L. and Morais, P. (2006b) Inter-annual
differences of ichthyofauna structure of the Guadiana estuary
and adjacent coastal area (SE Portugal/SW Spain): before and
after Alqueva dam construction. Estuarine Coastal and Shelf
Science70, 1-2: 39-51
Chícharo, L., Müller, F., Fohrer, N. (2015). Ecosystem services and
river basin ecohydrology (Book) .Springer. 341 p
EDIA (2016). Anuário Agrícola de Alqueva 2016. Direção de Econo-
mia da Água e Promoção do Regadio – Departamento de Pla-
neamento e Economia da Água. Empresa de Desenvolvimento e
Infraestruturas do Alqueva, S.A. Beja. 170 p.
Ecological,
economic
Ecohydrolo- Decision making
and social
gical solutions
cost-benefit
evaluation
ding of the linkage between basin processes is
crucial to define the best solutions and options.
The active participation of society in general and
stakeholders in coastal management is essential
to understand the problems and implement the
appropriate solutions.
FAO. 2011. The state of the world’s land and water resources for
food and agriculture (SOLAW) – Managing systems at risk. Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome and
Earthscan, London. 308 p
Milliman. J. D., K. L. Farnsworth, P. D. Jones, K. H. Xu, and L. C.
Smith, 2008: Climatic and anthropogenic factors affecting river
discharge to the global ocean, 1951-2000. Global Planet. Chan-
ge, 62, 187-194
Morais P, Martins P, Alexandra, M, Lopes J, Chicharo L. (2010). Mer-
ging Anchovy eggs abundance into a hydrodynamic model as an
assessment tool for estuarine ecohydrology management. River
Research and Application. DOI: 10.1002/rra.1443
Wolanski E., L. Chicharo, M. Chicharo, and P. Morais (2006) An
ecohydrology model of the Guadiana Estuary (South Portugal).
Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science,70, 1-2: 85-97
World Commission on Dams (2000). Dams and Development: A
New Framework for Decision-Making. The report of the world
commission on dams. Earthscan Publications Ltd, London and
Sterling, VA. 404 p
Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 85
 Luis Chícharo is a lecturer of ecohydrology at the
Faculty of Sciences and Technologies of the Uni-
versity of Algarve, Portugal. He is a visiting profes-
sor at the University of Espirito Santo, Brazil and
the University of Lodz, Poland.
He is Director of the International Centre for Coastal Ecohydrology under the auspices of
UNESCO and coordinator of the UNESCO Chair in Ecohydrology “water for ecosystems and
societies” at the University of Algarve. He is coordinator of the international consortium of
universities that teach the Erasmus Mundus Master’s Degree in Ecohydrology and director of the Postgraduate Course in
Coastal Ecohydrology. Additionally, he belongs to the National Water Council by government appointment. He is a mem-
ber of the Scientific Committee of the UNESCO Ecohydrology Programme and coordinator of the UNESCO Ecohydrology
Demonstration Site of the Guadiana River estuary (Portugal). He is an associate editor of the Estuarine and Coastal Shelf
Science Journal and a member of the editorial board of the journal Ecohydrology and Hydrobiology. He has coordinated
national and international projects and published more than 90 scientific articles. He is the author and editor of books
and book chapters in ecohydrology. He participates as a guest speaker at international conferences and is responsible
for the training courses in coastal ecohydrology in different parts of the world.

: lchichar@ualg.pt
Ecohydrology Demonstration Site of Putrajaya Lake and wetlands, Malaysia. Photo: Marco Albarracín
Chapter 9
Ecohydrology as part of the UNESCO
International Hydrological Programme

The importance of establishing and linking edu- The member countries of UNESCO included
cation and training activities related to ecohydro- “Ecohydrology for sustainability” as one of the
logy was recognized by the UNESCO IHP Capa- five main themes of Phase VII of IHP-UNESCO
city Development Working Group in 2010 and then in Phase VIII they included “Ecohydro-
(Rickwood et al., 2010). Previously, in 2006- logy, harmony for a sustainable world”, as one of
2007 and within the framework of the UNESCO the six main themes.
IHP ecohydrology programme, a scientific advi-
Today, UNESCO, through the International
sory committee (SAC) and five task forces were
Hydrological Programme (IHP), has different
created to contribute to ecohydrological re-
strategies designed to disseminate the concept
search, education and implementation. The task
of ecohydrology. For this, it has a worldwide ne-
forces focused on the following specific areas: 1)
twork (the UNESCO Ecohydrology “Family”))
coastal zones; 2) evaluation of the impacts of glo-
composed of research centres, chairs and focal
bal change on aquatic systems; 3) social sciences;
points, as can be seen in Figure 9.1.
4) education and capacity building; and 5) de-
monstration projects (Rickwood et al., 2010).

Figure 9.1. Representation of the UNESCO Ecohydrology “Family” (Arduino, 2018).

UNESCO “Family”/ Ecohydrology

Scientific Advisory Committee Members-Coordination IHP

1 Research
2 Education, Capacity Building
3 Dissemination
CENTRES: ICCE International Center for Coastal
Ecohydrology, Portugal. ERCE European Region-
al Center for Ecohydrology, Poland. ARCE African
Regional Center for Ecohydrology, Ethiopia. APCE
Asia-Pacific Center for Ecohydrology, Indonesia.
CIH International Center for Hydroinformatics,
2
Brazil. CHAIRS: Ecohydrology - IHE-DELFT, The
2 IHE ERCE
Netherlands. Ecohydrology: Water for Ecosystems
ICCE and Societies Univ. Algarve, Faro, Portugal. FOCAL
1,2,3 POINTS: LAC Latin America and the Caribbean
2
1,2,3
ARCE APCE
LAC

Chícharo (2016)
Arduino (2018)

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 89

 90 Ecohydrology as part of UNESCO International Hydrological Programme

Additionally, in order to disseminate scientific
knowledge in ecohydrology, international con-
gresses, workshops and meetings are held with the
scientific advisory committee (SAC). In the 2016-
2017 period, four meetings were held with the
SAC, five International Conferences-symposia,
11 Workshops or Training Courses, four parallel
events / sessions and the M.Sc. in Ecohydrology
with the Erasmus Mundus programme of the Eu-
ropean Union. At the same time, the ecohydrolo-
gical demonstration sites network has been stren-
gthened, and by 2018 there are 23 sites within
the network. In Latin America and the Caribbean
there are four demonstration sites, one of them in
Ecuador, which will be discussed later in Chapter
14. A brief summary of regional advances in eco-
hydrology issues is best presented by our guest
author Miguel Doria from the UNESCO office in
Montevideo, Uruguay.

Guest author Miguel de França Doria, Montevideo, Uruguay m.doria@unesco.org

A perspective of the International Hydrological

Programme (IHP - UNESCO) on ecohydrology in
the Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) region
Latin America and the Caribbean are characterized by a relatively high abundance of renewable water
resources (more than 143 km3) that represent approximately one third of the world’s availability. It
includes the largest basin in the world in the Amazon, the largest transboundary aquifer: the Guaraní,
a set of important lakes in the Titicaca system and a wide range of glaciers in the Andes, to name just
a few of its remarkable hydrological features. In contrast, the region also includes the driest non-polar
desert (Atacama) and a large set of arid zones (e.g., the Dry Corridor, Northeast Brazil and Aruba). This
variability is also felt in terms of freshwater resources per capita. The region has an average of approxi-
mately 23,000 m3/person/year - almost three times the world average - but there are large disparities
in the distribution between countries (for example, more than 50,000 m3/person/year in Peru and Chile
vs. approximately 60 m3/person/year in the Bahamas) and within countries (for example, Chile from
200,000 to 2,000 m3/person/year from north to south), with considerable seasonal differences. This
hydrological diversity is reflected in the rich cultural and biological diversity of the region.
The global changes that have been felt in recent decades, especially in terms of population growth,
change in land use, deforestation, urbanization and climate change, represent an important pressure
on freshwater resources and their ecosystems. Latin America is the most urbanized region, with more
than eighty percent of its population living in cities. Less than thirty percent of the wastewater is treated
before being discharged into the environment and more than 100 million people still lack improved
sanitation.
In the context of global changes and in response to the Dublin International Conference on Water and
the Environment (1992), ecohydrology was introduced into the IHP by Zalewski, Janauer, Jolánkai and
others as a new paradigm for the use sustainable use of aquatic resources, seeking to integrate cat-
chment, water and biota, to reduce risks and maximize benefits (SC.97 / WS / 12). The first ecohydro-
logy pilot activities developed during the fifth phase of the IHP included the mesoscale analysis of the
impacts of land use on water in Pachitea (Peru), the study of the effects of deforestation in the central
Amazon (Brazil) in hydrology of the current and fish communities, and a contingent plan to evaluate the
Ecohydrological Surface Process caused by La Niña in the Equatorial Littoral Region (Ecuador). Regio-
nal interest increased at the International Symposium on hydrological and geochemical processes in
large river basins (Manaus, 1999, see the procedure edited by Michael E. McClain and Maciej Zalewski
as SC.2001/WS/18), which was then published jointly with IAHS on the Ecohydrology of the South
American Rivers and Wetlands (Wallingford, 2002), edited by McClain, with a focus on the Amazon,
Orinoco, Paraná, Paraíba do Sul and Piracicaba rivers.
In later phases of IHP, ecohydrology in LAC has acquired a renewed emphasis, first under the coor-
dination of Luis Rodríguez Fiallos (Ecuador) and since 2003 as regional coordinator of the IHP Eco-
hydrology Programme Marcelo Gaviño Novillo (Argentina). The need to improve ecosystem services
and to identify and strengthen their relationship with environmental sustainability was highlighted. It
is estimated that around five hundred professionals were trained at different levels in ecohydrological
approaches, ecological flows, and related issues. Emphasis is placed on the Master in Ecohydrology
(National University of La Plata, Argentina), that started in 2004 and is the first of its kind worldwide,
which at some point was integrated into an Erasmus Mundus consortium with IHE-Delft (Delft, The
Netherlands ) and the universities of the Algarve (Portugal), Lodz (Poland), Espirito Santo (Brazil) and
Kiel (Germany). At the regional level, the Programme was coordinated by Any Chavez (Costa Rica),
Francisco Riestra (Chile), María Antonieta González Balandra (Mexico) and Evens Emmanuel (Haiti);
and the international support of Luis Chicharo (Portugal), Michael McClain (USA/Netherlands), Ka-
thleen Sealy (USA) and Maciej Zelewski (Poland). Members of Latin America (Argentina, Brazil, Chile,
Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Guatemala, Mexico, Panama, Peru, Uruguay) and the Caribbean (Antigua
and Barbuda, Dominican Republic, Jamaica, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Bahamas, Grenada,
Dominica, Trinidad and Tobago, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines) have been designated. A pending
project is the establishment of a UNESCO chair of ecohydrology in the region.
The research developed through the Programme has been documented in many ways, especially in
the IHP-LAC Technical Series, through publications such as: “Ecohydrology as a challenge: experiences
and case studies” (Gaviño and Sarandón eds., IHP- LAC/DT/23), “What are the environmental flows
and what is the perspective of their application in Uruguay” (Sabaj, Rodríguez-Gallego, Chreties and
others, IHP-LAC/DT/34) and “Estimation and validation of the Basins Index Sustainability (BSI) for
the Reventazón river basin “(Catano, Marchand, Staley and Wang, IHP-LAC/DT/35). Recent scientific
events include the International Conference on Ecohydrology for the Sustainability of Global Aquatic
Ecosystems (Campos de Goytacazes, Brazil, 2017).
The IHP is promoting the establishment of demonstration sites to apply solutions based on ecohydro-
logy in watersheds in order to solve social and environmental problems. In LAC these demonstration
sites currently include the Lácar Lake Basin (Argentina), the Victoria Pond Wetland (Bahamas), the
Reventazón/Savegre/Térraba (Costa Rica) and Paltas - Catacocha (Ecuador) basins. Detailed infor-
mation is available on the platform developed by UNESCO IHP and the Itaipu Binational International
Hydroinformatics Centre, Brazil and Paraguay (ecohydrology-ihp.org). In addition, the Programme is
working on the incorporation of the concept of environmental flows in the management of resources
at the regional level through a series of courses aimed at managers and decision makers carried out in
2017 (Santo Domingo, April; San José, May ; Havana, July and Santa Cruz de la Sierra, August) as well
as the establishment of a regional network of professionals.
Currently, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) give new impetus to ecohydrology activities in
the region. While ecohydrology makes a significant contribution to the achievement of all the objecti-
ves under SDG 6 on universal access to water and sanitation, this is particularly clear for SDG 6.3 on
improving water quality and SDG 6.6 on protection and restoration of ecosystems related to water. It
is in this context that the efforts of Phase VIII of the IHP are increasingly focused on the strengthening
of the network of ecohydrological demonstration sites, as well as the improvement of the capacities in
the ecological flows (e-flows) and in coastal ecohydrology, which we are convinced can be decisive for
achieving the “future we want” and the 2030 Agenda.

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 91

 92 Ecohydrology as part of UNESCO International Hydrological Programme

Miguel de França Doria, the Regional Hydrologist of the IHP for Latin
America and the Caribbean, is based in the UNESCO Office in Montevi-
deo since 2015. He was born in Lisbon where he studied environmental
engineering. He has an undergraduate degree and a PhD in Environ-
mental Sciences from the University of East Anglia (Norwich, United
Kingdom). He joined the Secretariat of the International Hydrological
Programme (IHP) of UNESCO in Paris in 2006, where he was, among
other functions, the Officer responsible for Water Education and Depu-
ty Secretary of the IHP Intergovernmental Council.

9.1. The UNESCO Chairs in More specifically, a UNESCO Chair is set up

Ecohydrology
The UNITWIN/UNESCO Chairs Programme
was established in 1992 in accordance with a
resolution adopted by the General Conferen-
ce of UNESCO, at its 26th meeting in 1991.
The Programme supports the establishment of
UNESCO Chairs and UNITWIN Cooperation
Programmes in higher education institutions. It
promotes international interuniversity coope-
ration and the creation of networks to improve
institutional capacities through the exchange
of knowledge and collaborative work. Through
it institutions of higher education and research
from around the world gather their resources to
address pressing challenges and contribute to
the development of their societies.
The programme seeks training, research and
academic exchange; it offers a platform for
the exchange of knowledge in all fields within
UNESCO’s mandate. Most of the projects are
interdisciplinary and intersectoral, with the
active cooperation of UNESCO’s field offices,
institutes and centres.
The National Commissions play an important
role in the Programme by promoting it at the
national level, facilitating its implementation
and evaluation. As it is multidisciplinary in
nature, the UNITWIN/UNESCO Chairs Pro-
gramme is one of the most intersectoral pro-
grammes of the Organization.
with a project and a team of scientists from a
university or research institution who part-
ners with UNESCO to advance knowledge and
practice in a prioritized area, both by the insti-
tution and by UNESCO. The association is for-
malized via an agreement signed between the
Director General of UNESCO and the director
of the host institution of the UNESCO Chair
(Rector, President, Vice-Rector). In general, a
UNESCO Chair can be established for a period
of four years (UNESCO, 2017).
According to UNESCO IHP (2017), the
UNESCO Water Family currently includes 50
activities related to water, some of which focus
exclusively on ecohydrology, such as:
1. UNESCO Chair in Ecohydrology: water for
ecosystems and societies Established in 2016
at the University of the Algarve of Faro, Portu-
gal. Representative: Prof. Luis Chícharo.
2. UNESCO Chair in Ecohydrology and
Applied Ecology. In process of establishment
at the University of Lodz, Poland. Representa-
tive: Prof. Maciej Zalewski.
3. UNESCO Chair in Ecohydrology and Ma-
nagement of Transboundary Water Resources
In process of establishment at the University of
Agriculture Sokoine, Morogoro Tanzania. Re-
presentative: Prof. Makarius Lalika.
Guest author Luis Chícharo, Faro, Portugal lichichar@ualg.pt

UNESCO Chair of Ecohydrology: Water for ecosys-

tems and societies of the University of the Algarve
Human pressures and climate change pose serious threats to aquatic ecosystems, which affect their
normal functioning and the services they provide. Global examples abound of the impacts of agriculture,
industry, cities and climatic fluctuations. To correct and remedy these impacts and maintain good water
quality, as the Sustainable Development Goals of the 2030 Agenda want to achieve, integrated environ-
mental solutions are needed and, in order to face the agents of these changes, human society.
Ecohydrology is a Nature-Based Solution (NbS) that seeks to restore the carrying capacity of aquatic
ecosystems as a way to increase their resilience to anthropogenic impacts, using the natural functions
and processes of ecosystems. The essence of the concept is that the solutions can be developed by
restoring the natural processes of “dual regulation” between biota and hydrology at the basin level and
can be harmonized with the existing infrastructure.
Ecohydrological solutions restore the degraded quality of aquatic ecosystems at a low cost, sustaining
the ecosystem services such as water purification, drainage, mitigation of the effects of Global Changes,
soil protection, conservation of biodiversity, recreation areas and eco-tourism, among others.
Education at all levels, training, capacity building, communication and further scientific research are cru-
cial to implement and disseminate ecohydrology solutions throughout the world as a way to ensure long-
term sustainability based on the harmonization of needs of societies and ecosystems. Only by joining
forces, creating associations and acting synergistically can this task be successful. With the UNESCO
Chair of Ecohydrology: water for ecosystems and societies, all partners, including us, want to contribute
to establish the vision of a world of healthy ecosystems and societies.
The UNESCO Chair in Ecohydrology: water for ecosystems and societies, at the University of Algarve, is a
platform of 20 universities, including UNESCO water chairs and centres.
The objective of the UNESCO Chair is to promote scientific development, education and dissemination of
the concept of ecohydrology, nationally and internationally. At the University of Algarve, a working group
of fourteen experts from different thematic areas was created to support the activities of the Chair.
The chair contributes to the objectives of the current Strategic Plan of phase VIII of UNESCO IHP (2014-
2021), particularly in the topics “Ecohydrology, harmony for a sustainable world” and “education related
to water”. It also deals with the UN 2030 Agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), such
as drinking water and sanitation (SDG6), quality education (SDG4), sustainable cities and communities
(SDG11), and climate action (SDG13), among others.
The UNESCO Chair in Ecohydrology: water for ecosystems and societies will serve the University of Al-
garve, partner institutions, UNESCO Member States and the global agenda through the development of
integrated courses on ecohydrology articulating the different thematic knowledge of the partners and
focusing on different regional and local needs, promoting joint research projects, and developing and
implementing tools to spread the focus of ecohydrology in society.

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 93

 94 Ecohydrology as part of UNESCO International Hydrological Programme

Luis Chícharo is Professor of Ecohydrology at the University of

Algarve, Coordinator of the UNESCO Chair in Ecohydrology: wa-
ter for ecosystems and societies, Coordinator of the M.Sc. pro-
gramme in Ecohydrology and Director of the International Coastal
Ecohydrology Centre under the auspices of UNESCO. He has pu-
blished 92 scientific articles and is co-author and editor of three
international books on ecohydrology. He is editor of the magazi-
nes “Estuarine Shelf and Coastal Science” and “Ecohydrology and
Hydrobiology”. His interests are focused on the integration of the
ecohydrology processes of river catchments with the ecosystem
services of coastal areas.

9.2. The Erasmus Mundus Master in
Ecohydrology
The ECOHYD Master aims to provide an inte-
grated understanding of ecological processes and
hydrological functions and their relationship to
human needs as a way to create the tools, metho-
dologies and approaches that set the framework
for the implementation of long-term sustainable
solutions term for aquatic systems and the socie-
ties that depend on them.
The Master’s programme interacts strongly with
the UNESCO Chair “Ecohydrology: water for
ecosystems and societies” of the University of
Algarve. This recognition by the member states
of UNESCO reinforces the excellent perspec-
tives for the professional future of the students
(UNESCO, 2018).
The Erasmus Mundus Ecohydrology Master’s
Degree (2016-2018) is coordinated jointly by
the University of Algarve (Portugal), the Univer-
sity of Lodz (Poland) and the University of Kiel
(Germany), in coordination with IHE-Delft (The
Netherlands) , The University of Espirito Santo
(Brazil) and the University of La Plata (Argen-
tina), as explained by our guest author, Lauren
Zielinski.
9.3. Regional Ecohydrology Centres
European Regional Centre for Ecohydrology (ERCE)

Created in 2006, ERCE promotes multidiscipli- watershed level for the sustainable management,
nary ecohydrological research and integration at protection and restoration of aquatic resources.

Guest author

Lauren Zielinski, Hampton, NH - USA lzielinski@ZEMEenviro.com / www.ZEMEenviro.com

Erasmus Mundus Master Courses in Ecohydrology

The Ecohydrology programme under UNESCO-IHP aims to advance the integration of social, ecologi-
cal, and hydrological research, and one of the important ways of achieving this is through the deve-
lopment of Erasmus Mundus Master Courses focused around ecohydrology. These master courses,
funded by the European Union, bring together students from around the world to universities in Europe
and other partner countries to provide an integrated and international educational experience. The first
master course in Ecohydrology ran 2-year programmes from 2010 to 2014, while a second master
course in XXX is scheduled to run 2-year programmes between 2019 to 2023.
I attended the Erasmus Mundus Master Course in Ecohydrology between 2014 and 2016, studying
in Poland, Brazil, and the Netherlands. During this program, students could attend classes at the Uni-
versity of Łódź and the European Regional Centre for Ecohydrology in Łódź, Poland; the University of
Algarve and the International Centre on Coastal Hydrology in Faro, Portugal; the Federal University of
Espirito Santo in Vitória, Brazil; Christian Albrecht University of Kiel in Kiel, Germany; and IHE-Delft in
Delft, the Netherlands. Each university provided specialized courses in ecohydrology, including founda-
tional courses in hydrology, ecology, and the interactions between them; how these interactions could
be used to improve the management of aquatic ecosystems; and how these ecosystems are managed
within national and international governance structures. The ecosystems studied varied greatly, with
topics covering coastal, inland, tropical, and temperate conditions. These topics provided each student
with knowledge specific to their region and expanded their understanding of other ecosystems around
the world. Integrated into the curriculum was visiting and studying ecohydrology demonstration sites
to see how these scientific principles were being applied to real-world challenges. The capstone to the
master course was the thesis project, which challenged students to apply ecohydrological principles
through on-the-ground scientific research.
Upon completion of the program, there were many paths that graduates could pursue, including a
PhD programme and employment in the public, private, or academic sectors. I decided to start my
own company in order to continue working on environmental flow projects, which was the focus of
my thesis at IHE-Delft. My experience during the master course has been fundamental in my ability
and confidence to work in my current field. Not only did the thesis jumpstart my new career, but the
knowledge gained during the master course has allowed me to work globally since it expanded my
understanding of ecosystems in different hydrological and climatic conditions. The direct contact with
the professors in the program provided guidance from experienced professionals and knowledge of
the latest research in ecohydrology, which I am applying to my current projects. And finally, the interna-
tional experience provided a social education, encouraging me to learn about and interact with different
cultures from around the world.

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 95

 96 Ecohydrology as part of UNESCO International Hydrological Programme

While this is just a snapshot of my personal experience, the Erasmus Mundus Master Course in Ecohy-
drology has enhanced the knowledge and careers of many graduates around the world. Through these
graduates, a network of ecohydrologists has been created, connecting knowledge across geography
and generations. Through these Erasmus Mundus Master Courses, young people will continue to be
engaged in the field of ecohydrology, training the environmental leaders of tomorrow.

Lauren Zielinski is from the United States and holds a BSc in Ear-
th and Environmental Engineering from Columbia University and
an MSc from the Erasmus Mundus Master Course in Ecohydrolo-
gy. She currently owns her own company, Zielinski Environmental
Monitoring and Evaluation, LLC, providing consulting services for
environmental projects. Her current work focuses on implementing
environmental flows using monitoring and adaptive management
techniques in east Africa, with hopes of expanding her work to other
parts of the world.

International Centre for
Coastal Ecohydrology (ICCE)
Created in 2010, the Centre, under the auspi-
ces of UNESCO, joins the worldwide network
of 36 UNESCO centres in the field of water
sciences, the only one specifically dedicated to
coastal areas.
Asia and Pacific Centre for Ecohydrology (APCE)
Created in 2009, APCE aims to use scientific
knowledge, capacity building and educational
and outreach activities to support, design, and
implement ecohydrology strategies and poli-
cies towards the sustainable management of
water resources.
African Regional Centre
for Ecohydrology (ARCE)
Created in 2017 following a request from the
Government of Ethiopia to establish an African
regional centre for ecohydrology (ARCE) in Ad-
dis Ababa, with category 2 under the auspices of
UNESCO (UNESCO, 2015a), UNESCO carried
out a mission in June 2015, as part of the evalua-
tion of the viability towards the creation of the pro-
posed centre, which would specialize in research,
and regional cooperation in the field of environ-
mental protection and sustainable development,
within the International Hydrological Programme
of UNESCO, related to ecohydrology. This centre
came into force in 2018.
Other related centres:
International Centre for Integrated
Water Resources Management (ICIWaRM)
Created in 2009, the global mission of ICIWaRM
is to advance the science and practice of IWRM to
address the issue of water safety and other challen-
ges related to the vital fluid through regional and
global actions. The centre generates new knowle-
dge, innovative technologies, scientific research
of interdisciplinary collaboration, creation of ne-
tworks, and training and capacity development.
 Water Ecohy-
Water-re-
law and drology / Under- Dangers
Urban Water lated Humid
Arid zones Glaciology policies / Coastal ground related to
hidrology resources cultural Tropics
Coopera- Ecohydrol- water water
heritage
tion ogy

Figure 9.2. Thirty-six established centres related to water, four related to ecohydrology. Source: UNESCO (2015b)

Institute for Water Education (IHE-Delft) 9.4. The Network of Ecohydrology

The Institute for Water Education (IHE Delft) is
a world leader in the field of education at the gra-
duate level on issues related to water. From 2003
to 2016 it was a Category 1 Institute under the
auspices of UNESCO. In order to facilitate and
ensure that the Dutch Government can finance
the IHE beyond 2016 and allow the activities of
the Institute to grow and develop for the benefit
of the UNESCO member states, its conversion
was proposed into an “Institute of Water Educa-
tion” Category 2 under the auspices of UNESCO
in 2017.
Demonstration Sites
The Ecohydrology Programme also leads a ne-
twork of Ecohydrology Demonstrative Sites
(hereinafter “demosites”), following the mul-
tidimensional parameters of ecohydrology (see
Chapter 3) as solutions for the improvement of
water resources, biodiversity and ecosystem ser-
vices for society, improving resilience to various
forms of anthropogenic impacts, considering the
cultural dimension (WBSR-C).

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 97

 98 Ecohydrology as part of UNESCO International Hydrological Programme

These living laboratories for the implementa- ty for retention of vegetation . For this, 65% of
tion of ecohydrology (from the molecular to the the demosites are using phytotechnologies as an
basin scale) are long-term research and moni- ecohydrological solution.
toring projects involving different local actors
The Scientific Advisory Committee on Ecohy-
aimed at solving environmental, economic and
drology (which meets approximately every year)
social problems. Additionally, they use the most
advises the UNESCO IHP Secretariat on the
appropriate and profitable ecohydrological en-
development of criteria and guidelines for re-
gineering solutions for each ecosystem as ma-
questing existing and new ecohydrological de-
nagement tools for Integrated Water Resources
monstration sites. Additionally, it generates re-
Management (IWRM). And they also contribute
commendations for their application through the
to the Sustainable Development Goals - SDG (for
web platform (production of summary letters).
example, Objective 2) and environmental objec-
Likewise, they give strategic directions to the
tives (Objective 6, in particular objectives 6.5
activities to be carried to promote ecohydrology
and 6.6, and Objectives 13, 14 and 15) (UNES-
as a main component of the decision-making pro-
CO IHP, 2018 ).
cesses within the framework of integrated water
In the demosites, as suggested by author Ra- resources management.
hmah Elfithri, the threats and problems asso-
The demonstration sites must contemplate the
ciated with water management are identified
principles of implementation of ecohydrology.
to give them an adequate treatment. The three
These principles have several conceptual roots
main threats to water resources identified in
and were described in Chapter 1. It is important
the demosites are: (1) the excessive presence
to consider that there are currently 23 demons-
of contaminants and nutrients, (2) the intensive
tration sites in 18 countries, one of which is in
use of the land, and (3) the loss of the capaci-
Ecuador (see Figure 9.4.).
Guest author Rahmah Elfithri, Malaysia elfith@ukm.edu.my

The experience of Malaysia’s Putrajaya

Ecohydrology Demonstration Site
The Malaysian demonstration site i.e. Putrajaya Lake and Wetlands was selected as one of the 32 de-
monstration sites of UNESCO in 2010 and classified as an operational demosite that is implementing
the ecohydrological principles and incorporating the actors involved in the management of the project.
Putrajaya Lake and Wetlands is the only demonstration UNESCO demonstration site in Malaysia and
the only operational site in Southeast Asia. It was initiated by the Institute of Environment and Deve-
lopment (LESTARI) of the National University of Malaysia (UKM), coordinated by Dr Rahmah Elfithri
in collaboration with the Lakes and Wetlands Unit of the Putrajaya Corporation (PPj) for the demons-
tration project “Integrated Management of Putrajaya Lake Basins and Wetlands”. In 2015-2017, the
UNESCO Ecohydrology Programme considered that there were only 21 demonstration sites of active
ecohydrology in the world, and the Putrajaya lake and wetlands were reclassified as a continental wet-
land, with four different ecosystem categories: 1) basins, 2) continental wetlands, 3) rivers/lakes, and
5) estuaries/coastal water.
The demosite is located in the federal territory of Putrajaya, within the area of the Langat River basin
of Malaysia. The lake is in the southern part of the wetland. The location of this basin is within a fairly
urbanized area, with rapid development going on all around it, in the southern part of Kuala Lumpur.
The size of the basin of Putrajaya Lake (basin area) is approximately 51 km2, which is only a small part
of the largest basin, that of the Langat River (2,350 km2). The total area is approximately 600 hectares
(400 hectares of lakes and 200 hectares of wetlands). One of the artificial ecosystems of national
importance in Malaysia, it is a lake located in the urban centre of Putrajaya, which in turn is the Admi-
nistrative Centre of the Government of Malaysia, which was planned to become a “City in a garden”,
with several components, such as residential, commercial, public spaces , educational institutions, etc.
Now the goal is to transform it into “Green City” by 2025.
The management of this basin has put into practice a serious and systematic approach and control
in order to achieve sustainable development in Putrajaya. There are some challenges to implement
an effective watershed management in Putrajaya, especially in the protection of water quality against
the effects of pollution and the destruction of current ecosystems. Water quality has been affected by
an increasing contamination in the high part of the basin that ends in the Putrajaya lake. The Putra-
jaya lake and wetlands must be constant maintained through the use of innovative mechanisms for
a better and efficient result and to ensure the quantity as well as the level of the lake´s water quality.
Monitoring carried out in this area has shown very positive signs of habitat development and ecosys-
tem improvement.
An ecohydrological approach has been implemented in the management of water resources in Putra-
jaya, combining the ecosystem needs with general planning, approval, monitoring and the application
of the jurisdiction of the city and the development of anthropic activities in this area of influence, which
have a significant direct impact on the Putrajaya lake. The ecohydrological approach is implemented
through the use of artificial wetlands as a natural treatment system to treat the primary flow upstream
of the lake. Before the contaminated water from the upstream rivers enters the lake, it passes through
a series of wetland cells that have been built just before the lake, which function as a natural filtering
process and natural habitat to eliminate contaminants such as nitrogen and phosphorus.
In addition to improving water quality, wetlands also preserve the ecological balance in the area. The
wetland is complemented by riparian parks and pollutant traps. The wetlands and the lake have been

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 99

 100 Ecohydrology as part of UNESCO International Hydrological Programme

developing an interesting urban ecosystem that has improved the ecosystem services in the area. The
lake itself functions as a microclimate moderator for Putrajaya and has sporting and recreational pur-
poses. There are monitoring activities that involve community participation in the management throu-
ghout the year. Moreover, proactive and preventive measures are needed to ensure that water quality
and the lake’s ecosystems and wetlands are sustainably rehabilitated and conserved.

Rahmah Elfithri is a principal professor and researcher at the Institute

for Environment and Development (LESTARI) of the National Univer-
sity of Malaysia (UKM). She holds a PhD in Environment and Develo-
pment (Integrated Water Resources Management - IWRM) of UKM in
2006. She is Coordinator of the IWRM Research Group and Sustaina-
ble Ecosystems Management Research Group at UKM since 2007.
She is in charge of the coordination of the UNESCO Demonstration
Site in Putrajaya within the UNESCO-IHP Ecohydrology Programme
since 2010 and is coordinator of the Malaysia ecohydrology chapter
since 2017.

Projects that wish to join the demonstration si- bibliographical references are listed for the rea-
tes network of UNESCO IHP should develop a ders that have in mind the postulation of a de-
letter that should contain the information de- monstration site.
tailed in table 9.1. where, in addition, the main

Table 9.1. Description of the content of the summary letters of the demonstration sites of ecohydrology.

No. Title of section Main bibliographic references

1.1. Description of TEEB (2010) The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity: Mainstreaming
demonstration the Economics of Nature: A synthesis of the approach, conclusions and rec-
site ecosystem ommendations of TEEB.
services

1.2. Where is eco- Hobbs, R. J., S. et al., 2006. Novel ecosystems: theoretical and management
hydrology being aspects of the new ecological world order. Global Ecology and Biogeography
applied 15:1-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1466-822X.2006.00212.x 
Hobbs, R. J., S. et al., 2009. Novel ecosystems: implications for conservation
and restoration. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, Vol. 24, No. 11: 599:604.
doi:10.1016/j.tree.2009.05.012   
Hobbs et al., 2006 in Zalewski M., 2015. Ecohydrology and Hydrologic En-
gineering: Regulation of Hydrology-Biota Interactions for Sustainability. J.
Hydrol. Eng. 20, SPECIAL ISSUE: Grand Challenges in Hydrology, A4014012 :
14p.

2. Life zones Holdridge, L.R. (1967). Life zone ecology. Tropical Science Center. Jose, Cos-
ta Rica. 206 pp.
Lugo A.E. et al., 1999. The Holdridge life zones of the conterminous Unit-
ed States in relation to ecosystem mapping. Journal of Biogeography, 26,
pp.1025-1038
 3. Eco-hydrologi- Chicharo  and Zalewski et al., 2009 . Practical experiments guide for Ecohy-
cal principles drology. UNESCO. 121p.
Zalewski M., 2000. Ecohydrology-the scientific background to use ecosystem
properties as management tools towards sustainability of water resources.
Ecological Engineering 16: 1-8
Zalewski M., 2002. Ecohydrology, the use of ecological and hydrological pro-
cesses for sustainable management of water resources. Hydrological Sciences
47(5): 823-832

4. Eco-hydrologi- Capobianco M. and Stive M. J. F., 2000. Soft intervention technology as a tool
cal solutions for integrated coastal zone management, Journal of Coastal Conservation 6,
pp. 33-40
Zalewski M., 2015. Ecohydrology and Hydrologic Engineering: Regulation of
Hydrology-Biota Interactions for Sustainability. J. Hydrol. Eng. 20, SPECIAL
ISSUE: Grand Challenges in Hydrology, A4014012: 14p.
Bunn S. E. and A. H. Arthington, 2002. Basic Principles and Ecological Con-
sequences of Altered Flow Regimes for Aquatic Biodiversity. Environmental
Management Vol. 30, No. 4: 492–507
Tharme R. E., 2003. A global perspective on environmental flow assessment:
emerging trends in the development and application of environmental flow
methodologies for rivers. River Res. Applic. 19, pp. 397-441

5. Main NA
environmental
problems

6. Socio-ecohy- (see Figure 9.3)

drological sys-
tem

7. Results NA
8. References as- NA
sociated with the
demonstration
site

9. Images NA
10. Contact infor- NA
mation

Source: Methodological Guidelines to fill out the summary cards (Democards) - Available at www.ecohydrology-ihp.org (2015)

To better understand each of the sections, bi-
bliographical references have been provided;
additionally, in those sections that deserve a gra-
phic representation for their explanation addi-
tional figures have been arranged in the letters.
For example, Figure 9.3 has been defined as the
socio-ecohydrological system. Among the main
problems the following, , among others, have
been defined: pollutants and nutrients, intensive
use of soil, over exploitation of water resources,
floods, invasive species, drought, loss of habitat,
loss of plant retention capacity. UNESCO IHP
has a methodological guide to fill out the letters
of the demonstration sites that can be consulted
by contacting UNESCO offices and agents. Fi-
nally, a brief description of the ecohydrological
solutions applied in the demonstration site is
provided (see Figure 9.3).

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 101

 102 Ecohydrology as part of UNESCO International Hydrological Programme

Figure 9.3. Representation of the socio-ecohydrological system in the letters. Source: Methodological Guidelines to fill out the
summary cards (Democards) - Available at www.ecohydrology-ihp.org (2015).

Main problems
Socioecohydrological system

Ecohydrological sub-system at basin level Sociological sub-system at basin level

EH objectives EH methods Objectives Involved actors
Water Text field to be filled out Text field: indicate ho- Individuals / participants
Biodiversity by the demonstration site nestly what the reality who make use of the
administrator- 30 words is in the demonstra-
Ecosystem tion site
resource units and also
services those who invest the time
to protect them (eg fisher-
Resilience
men) 12 maximum
Cult. Heritage
Contributes: Give conditions for: Give conditions for: Participate in:

Activities

Such as monitoring, harvesting, sharing information ... Where individuals (acting on their own or on behalf of an organiza-
tion) interact with each other and therefore affect the outcome (participation and direct cooperation with the sociological
subsystem).

Main expected results

Figure 9.4. Location of the 23 Ecohydrology Demonstration Sites of UNESCO IHP. Source: Prepared by the authors, based on
the Brochure of the UNESCO Ecohydrology Programme (2015).

Stockholm-Norrström basin, Sweden Pilica, Poland

Lódz-Sokolowka, Poland
Sanjiang plain, China
Kielsau basin, Germany Lódz-Ner, Poland

Urban Lyon, France Split-Kastela bay, Croacia

Metropolitan Beijing, China
Guadiana estuary, Portugal Lake Trasimeno, Italy

George Town - Lake, Bahamas

Putrajaya lake &wetlands, Malaysia

National scale, Costa Rica Assela-Burkitu dam, Ethiopia

Gumera basin, Ethiopia Davao City, Philipines

Paltas Catacocha, Ecuador

Naivasha, Kenya

Sagulng reservoir, Indonesia

Lake Lacar-Trabunco Quitrahue basin, Argentina Griffith-Murray-Darling dam, Australia

Western Sidney, Australia

Legend
Demonstration sites
Basins
Continental Latin American and the Caribbean
wetlands Europe
Rívers/Lakes Asia-Oceania
Estuaries/Coastal Africa
water

References
Arduino, G. (2018). UNESCO IHP - Ecohydrology Programme: Past
Activities (2014-2017). Presented at the Scientific Advisory
Committee, Faro, Portugal.
Rickwood, C. J., Hes, E. M., Al-Zu’bi, Y. and Dubé, M. G. (2010). Over-
view of limitations, and proposals for improvement, in education
and capacity building of ecohydrology. Ecohydrology & Hydro-
biology, 10(1), 45-59.
UNESCO. (2015a). 38 Conferencia General - Creación de Institutos y
Centros de Categoría 2 auspiciados por la Unesco. Taken from:
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002351/235137s.pdf
UNESCO. (2015b, 2015-12-09). Los centros sobre recursos hídricos
auspiciados por la UNESCO. Taken from: https://es.unesco.org/
themes/garantizar-suministro-agua/centros
UNESCO. (2017). The UNITWIN/UNESCO Chairs Programme, Guide-
lines and procedures. In U.-E. Sector (Ed.). Paris.
UNESCO. (2018). UNESCO | Maestría en Ecohidrología ECOHYD
- Erasmus Mundus (2016-2018). Taken from: http://www.
comisionunesco.mec.gub.uy/innovaportal/v/89106/40/
mecweb/maestria-en-ecohidrologia-ecohyd---erasmus-mun-
dus-2016-2018?parentid=81032
UNESCO-IHP. (2017). UNESCO’s WATER FAMILY. International
Hydrological Programme 56th session of the IHP Bureau (Paris,
20-22 February 2018), 8. Retrieved from https://en.unesco.org/
sites/default/files/56ihp_bur_doc_8_unesco_water_family_.pdf

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 103

104 Ecohydrology and its implementation in Ecuador
Part 3
Management of water
resources in Ecuador

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 105

Chapter 10
Climatic, hydrological and demographic characteristics of Ecuador

Ecuador is a country located on the equatorial
line, thus its territory is on both hemispheres. It
limits to the north with Colombia and to the south
and to the east with Peru. To the west its coastal
zone borders the Pacific Ocean. Geographically,
the country is divided into four natural regions,
three in the continent and the fourth comprising
the Galapagos Islands. On the continent, to the
west are the western plains that are called the
Costa Region. The centre of the country is cros-
sed by the Andes, forming the Sierra or Andean
Region. To the east is the Amazon or Eastern
(Oriente) Region, crossed by several portentous
rivers that are tributaries of the Amazon. Finally,
approximately 1,000 km from the continent in
the Pacific Ocean, is the fourth geographical area
of Ecuador corresponding to the Galapagos Ar-
chipelago or Insular Region (see Figure 10.1.).

Figure 10.1. Location, boundaries, and geographical regions of Ecuador.

2o N COLOMBIA

91o 90o

0o

Andean Region

Insular Region Coastal Region Amazon Region

2o S
Pacific Ocean

m.a.s.l.

5 000
4o S 4 000
3 000 PERU

2 000 Km

1 000 0 75 150

0
6o S 82o S 80o S 78o S 76o S

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 107

 108 Climatic, hydrological, and demographic characteristics of Ecuador

10.1. Generalities of the climatology and precipitation. The precipitation in the Ama-
and hydrology of Ecuador zon region varies between 2,000 and 5,000 mm
per year, and the relative humidity is between
The climate of Ecuador varies in relation to the
90 and 100%, without a real dry season. In
topography of each zone and the temperature of
the Insular region in normal years rainfall can
the adjacent sea currents. The average monthly
reach 1,300 mm annually (MAE, 2010; Vargas,
temperature on the Coast is around 27°C, with
2002). The rainfall regime in Galapagos is re-
minor seasonal variations. In the Andean or Sie-
lated to its climatic conditions and is characte-
rra region there is not much seasonal differen-
rized by two seasons: (1) Garúa or cold season,
tiation of temperature, but the daily fluctuation
from June to December, with colder oceanic wa-
can exceed 20°C, especially in the páramos
ter temperatures resulting from the South-East
located above 2,800 masl, where temperatures
trade winds that carry the waters of the Hum-
below 0°C are also recorded. The temperatu-
boldt Current from the south. (2) Hot season,
re is relatively uniform, with an annual average
from January to May, during which conditions
of 24°C. In the Amazon Region, the climate
are warmer. The weakened trade winds allow
is hot-humid with average annual temperatu-
hot northern waters to invade the archipelago,
res above 26 ° C and an evapotranspiration of
causing rainy and sunny days (N. d’Ozouville,
1,500 mm. The climate in the Galapagos Is-
personal communication, March 22, 2018).
lands is characterized by the presence of two
seasons: a hot and rainy season, which lasts from
January to May, and a colder season, with slight 10.2. Demography of Ecuador
precipitations (garúa) the rest of the year. The
Ecuador has an area of 256,370 km2 and a po-
temperature in the low parts with respect to the
pulation, estimated in the 2010 census, of
level of the sea is between 22 and 26°C, and in
14,483,499 inhabitants, of which 50.44%
the high parts the average is 17°C (Estrella et
are women and 49.56% are men. The popula-
al., 1995; Vargas , 2002).
tion growth rate for 2010 was 1.95% and its
In terms of rains, in the Northern Coast the pre- population density 57 inhabitants/km2 (CIA,
cipitation can surpass 6,000 mm per year due 2018,;INEC, 2018). The population density
to the influence of the warm El Niño current and of Ecuador is the highest in South America, as
an evapotranspiration that reaches 1,500 mm. shown in Figure 10.2., even doubling the mean
In contrast, the annual rainfall in the south west value of the region (CIA, 2018). Sixty-six per-
only reaches 355 mm as a result of the influen- cent of the Ecuadorian population is concentra-
ce of the cold Humboldt current. In the Sierra ted in urban zones. With respect to its political
the rainy season normally begins in October and division, the country has 24 provinces, 221 can-
ends in May, with an average rainfall of approxi- tons (municipalities) and 1,500 parishes (Rojas,
mately 1,500 mm per year. In this region, do- 2014).
minated by the Andes, the height above sea level
is decisive for fluctuations in both temperature
Figure 10.2. Population density (inhab/km2) of South American countries..

60

50

40

30

20

10
Ecuador
Colombia

Venezuela

Brazil

Peru

0
Chile

Uruguay

Paraguay

Argentina

Bolivia

Mean

Source: CIA (2018)

Considering the high population density in the problems, there is a high supply of fresh water,
country, it is assumed that, in the same way, the but also a high demand; this, no doubt, is more
demand for natural resources is also high. As will palpable in dry areas and with large human settle-
be seen later in Chapters 11 and 12 on the avai- ments such as the south of the coastal and moun-
lability of water resources and their managerial tain regions.

References
CIA. (2018). The World Factbook. Tomado de: https://www.cia.gov/
library/publications/the-world-factbook/
Estrella, J., Muñoz, L., Tapia, C., Mazón, N. and Velásquez, J. (1995).
Informe Nacional para la Conferencia Técnica Internacional de
la FAO sobre los Recursos Fitogenéticos. Quito: INIAP - FAO.
INEC. (2018). Resultados del Censo 2010. Taken from: http://www.
ecuadorencifras.gob.ec/resultados/
MAE. (2010). Cuarto Informe Nacional para el Convenio sobre la
Diversidad Biológica. Taken from: Quito: https://www.cbd.int/
doc/world/ec/ec-nr-04-es.pdf
Rojas, F. (2014). Políticas e institucionalidad en materia de agua
potable y saneamiento en América Latina y el Caribe. Serie
Recursos Naturales e Infraestructura (pp. 79). Santiago: CEPAL.
Vargas, M. (2002). Ecología y Biodiversidad del Ecuador (1st. ed.).
Quito: E.P. Centro de Impresión.

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 109

 110 Ecohydrology and its implementation in Ecuador

Colta Lake, Ecuador

Chapter 11
The water resources of Ecuador
Geographical and topographical conditions ren-
der Ecuador a country rich in water resources.
In terms of fresh water, it is the country with the
most rivers per square metre in the world (Gao-
na, 2018). Rainfall varies greatly among the di-
fferent regions. Eighty percent of water availa-
bility is in the Amazon region, in the east of the
country, but most of the population is settled in
the Sierra region´s inter-Andean valleys, and in
the coastal region´s Guayas River basin. The use
of water does not reach 15% of the total available
and, of this, more than 90% is used for irrigation
and less than 5% for domestic uses and indus-
try (Buckalew et al., 1998). However, in recent
years a large amount of water resources has been
allocated for the generation of hydropower.
11.1. Watersheds of
Ecuador
Ecuador possesses 31 watersheds (see Figure
11.1 and Table 11.1). The Pacific Ocean and
the Amazon River Basin are the two main desti-
nations of rivers that are generated, mostly, in
the páramos (montane intertropical ecosystem
located above 3,000 masl, with dominance of
grass and scrub vegetation) of the Sierra Region
(Buckalew et al., 1998; INAMHI, 2012). Within
the watershed scenario of Ecuador, two are con-
sidered to have characteristics of islands: Puná
Island in the Gulf of Guayaquil and the Galapagos
Islands in the Pacific Ocean.
11.2. Surface water resources
As explained, Ecuador is a country rich in wa-
ter resources. Its average annual precipitation
(1,200 mm) and specific runoff (160 cm) mean
that the country has large quantities of availa-
ble water (see Figure 11.2). However, preci-
pitation and runoff are unevenly distributed
throughout the country. On the one hand, the
Amazon region, the north of the coast and the
Guayas river basin present high values of pre-
cipitation and surface water throughout the
year, even leading to catastrophic flood events
during periods of high rainfall, especially in the
coast. On the other hand, in the Andean region
or Sierra rainfall events are seasonal. The seaso-
nality of rainfall in this region produces areas of
prolonged drought and, conversely, also sites of
very high precipitation. Additionally, there are
areas of scarcity of water resources, mainly lo-
cated in the peninsula of Santa Elena in the west
of the Gulf of Guayaquil, and in the south-west
of the country (provinces of Loja and El Oro).
In the Galapagos Islands there are no clearly de-
fined surface water areas, with the exception of
San Cristóbal Island where there is a permanent
lake called El Junco. In the Insular region there
are zones of scarcity or complete lack of the re-
source (Buckalew et al., 1998).
Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 111
 112 The water resources of Ecuador

11.3. Underground water resources
Groundwater resources are available in alluvions
typically composed of sands and gravels. The
aquifers are found mainly in the basin of the Gua-
yas River in the Costa region, and in the rivers
of the eastern region (Amazonia). In the highland
valleys there are small aquifers. With respect to
potential pollution, aquifers consisting of fractu-
red or breached lava flows are particularly suscep-
tible to it because water is transmitted rapidly in
the subsoil with little or no contaminant filtration
(Buckalew et al., 1998). This is a typical case in
Galapagos, for example in the city of Puerto Ayo-
ra on the island of Santa Cruz, where there are
problems of groundwater pollution due to human
activities. This results in aquifers, which are the
only source of fresh water on the island, having
biogeochemical conditions that are not suitable
for human consumption. Ecuador’s groundwater
system is presented in Figure 11.3.

Figure 11.1. Map of watersheds of Ecuador (see legend in Table 11.1).

31 5
4
6

3
7

9 23
10

11

12 25

13 14

27

28

15
16
17 30

26 18
29
1
19

8 20
21

22

24

Source: INAMHI (2012)

Table 11.1. Main river basins in Ecuador.

Code Discharged point Area Average annual rainfull Average discharged

Watershed name

* ** (km2) (mm) (m3/s)

1 Santa Rosa OP 3.417 1.335 63
2 Mataje OP 84 3.052 35
3 Mira OP 6.495 1.788 210
4 Carchi OP 48 1.215 6
5 Verde OP 2.169 2.038 43
6 Cayapas OP 6.024 3.326 403
7 Muisne OP 1.285 2.639 53
8 Zarumilla OP *** *** ***
9 Esmeraldas OP 20.401 1.980 680
10 Jama OP 2.095 821 5
11 Chone OP 2.483 1.070 26
12 Portoviejo OP 2.231 737 12
13 Jipijapa OP 2.638 371 5
14 Guayas OP 32.111 1.662 835
15 Zapotal OP 5.561 465 21
16 Taura OP 2.348 1.196 30
17 Cañar OP 2.384 1.327 53
18 Balao OP 3.417 1.335 63
19 Jubones OP 4.054 898 59
20 Arenillas OP 2.725 861 21
21 Puyango OP 3.694 1.222 72
22 Chira OP 6.717 999 93
23 Putumayo CA 6.539 3.388 424
24 Chinchipe CA 2.844 3.354 453
25 Napo CA 30.948 3.388 424
26 Puná OP *** *** ***
27 Pastaza CA 24.296 3.255 2.051
28 Tigre CA 6.492 2.742 265
29 Santiago CA 26.176 3.127 661
30 Morona CA 6.481 1.603 632
31 Galapagos Islands OP *** *** ***

Sources: Buckalew et al. (1998), INAMHI (2012)

* The Code indicates the numbering and colour within the map of Fig. 11.1.
** The point of discharge refers to the Pacific Ocean (OP) or the Amazon Basin (CA)
*** Information not available

References
Buckalew, J., James, M., Scott, L. and Reed, P. (1998). Water resour- INAMHI. (2012). Cuencas hidrográficas del Ecuador. Retrieved from
ces assessment of Ecuador. Mobile: US Army Corp of Engineers, http://www.serviciometeorologico.gob.ec/gisweb/Historicos/HI-
Mobile District and Topographic Engineering Center. DROLOGIA/CUENCAS HIDROGRAFICAS/CUENCASINAMHI/jpg/

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 113

114 The water resources of Ecuador

Figure 11.2. Map of surface water resources of Ecuador.

Source: Buckalew et al.(1998)

Figure 11.3. Map of groundwater resources of Ecuador.

Fuente: Buckalew et al. (1998)

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 115

 116 Ecohydrology and its implementation in Ecuador

Condor Machay Waterfall, Ecuador

Chapter 12
Problems inherent to the management
of water resources in Ecuador
Globally, the problems related to the management
of water resources are unfortunately not very en-
couraging and have become a challenge to be solved
by today’s society. For example, in Cape Town,
South Africa, the moment in which the population
will run out of water in its pipes is imminent. The
media reports the so-called “Day Zero” of this me-
ga-city facing one of the most devastating droughts
in its history. Apparently, climate change and inade-
quate management of water resources in this metro-
polis are the main reasons for this predicament.
According to World Bank (2018) estimates, by
the year 2025 there will be around 1,800 million
people (equivalent to 22% of the total population
estimated for that year) living in countries or areas
with absolute water shortages. In the year 2030 the
world will face a deficit of 40% between the expec-
ted demand and the available water. With regard to
food security, 70% of the water used today goes to
agriculture. If it is estimated that by the year 2050
there will be 9,000 million people in the world, it
will be necessary for agricultural production to in-
crease by 60% and the extraction of water by 15%.
However, it should be considered that this global
problem is mostly located in African countries and
the Middle East, where water resources are very
scarce and population growth is quite fast.
Even if the availability of water resources in Ecua-
dor is one of the most favourable in the world,
(semi)arid zones do exist in Ecuadorian territory
such as in the south of the coastal and mountain re-
gions or in the Galapagos Islands (see Figures 11.2
and 11.3. ). However, the supply of drinking water
does not reach 80% of the population, with greater
deficiency in rural areas. Thus, the difficulties of su-
pplying water resources in Ecuador do not depend
on the availability but rather on the capacity of the
country and the limitations of its rulers to properly
distribute water to the population.
In this analysis we will mention only some of what
we consider the main problems related to the mana-
gement of water resources in Ecuador: (1) political,
legal, and managerial aspects related to institutio-
nality and governance, (2) lack of technical training
and generation of professionalism in issues relating
exclusively to hydraulics, hydrology, conservation
and management of recharge zones and watersheds,
and wastewater treatment, and (3) climate-change
related uncertainties.
Additionally, in countries such as Ecuador the pro-
blem of financing the execution of works needs to
be considered. For example, there is little aware-
ness among citizens on the value of water and an in-
cipient participation for responsible consumption.
However, a series of financial initiatives for water
management have been developed in our country,
as explained by our guest author, Marcos Villacís,
of the National Polytechnic School.
Water funds for watershed management, such as
FONAG in Quito, FONAPA in the Paute River
basin and FORAGUA in the provinces of Loja, El
Oro, and Zamora Chinchipe, are therefore a proven
tool that allows making resources viable for restora-
tion, protection, and conservation of water sources,
as well as for research, training, and environmental
awareness generation.
Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 117
118 Problems inherent to water resources management in Ecuador

Guest author Marcos Villacís, Quito - Ecuador marcos.villacis@epn.edu.ec

Current situation, gaps, and challenges in the

management of water resources in Ecuador
In Ecuador there are experiences that have produced adequate results in terms of the implementation
of mechanisms for the management of water resources, such as the creation and implementation
of the Water Conservation Fund for Quito (FONAG). This fund, the main contributor of which is the
Quito Metropolitan Water and Sanitation Agency (EPMAPS), has allowed institutions to implement
an efficient policy from the point of view of concrete actions for the conservation of the basins that
feed the Metropolitan District of Quito (DMQ). Among the most relevant actions we can identify the
purchase of land located in the basins from which water is captured. This action is of vital importance
since it allows the soil to be managed in the most appropriate manner, with the removal of cattle and
the initiation of restoration and conservation measures for the páramo ecosystem. It is expected that,
in the future, those basins the soil of which has been degraded due to intensive livestock farming will
return to function in a better way from the point of view of the provision of water resources. Additiona-
lly, a scientific station has been created with lines of research prioritized by the member institutions.
FONAG called for funds aimed at the completion of engineering, master’s and doctoral theses in the
aforementioned lines, which allows the generation of rigorous information that serves to refine the de-
cision-making process and the implementation of its water management policies. Finally, I would like
to mention that, in order to generate knowledge about hydrological functioning, it is necessary to carry
out a continuous hydrometeorological monitoring, which constitutes a fundamental advance. It has
also been led by FONAG in coordination with the EPMAPS, since the National Institute of Meteorology
and Hydrology (INAMHI)´s network is not adapted to the needs of watershed management for its scale
of work is of the order of tens to hundreds of kilometres.
In the case of the basins that provide water to large hydroelectric plants, the problems are more com-
plex; one of them is the quite uncontrollable transport of sediments. This is due to different factors,
since the sediment sources can be activated by earthquakes or even by gigantic mud/debris flows,
such as those expected in the case of a Cotopaxi eruption that would affect the Manduriacu plant, for
example. This problem requires a quite specialized analysis in order to generate technical proposals
for the management of sediments and watersheds to ensure the quantity and quality necessary of the
water resource for the generation of energy. To this we must add the issue of ecological or environ-
mental flows in a megadiverse country, so it is very difficult to generalize the criteria for quantification
in our natural context. The determination of ecological flows demands a lot of monitoring work and
economic resources to obtain reliable and rigorous information, something that has not been fully
addressed in Ecuador.
One of the main problems related to irrigation that we could face in the future is that of adaptation to
climate change by our crops. In most cases we do not know the actual water requirement of the plants;
to establish this it is necessary to carry out experiments of a duration of at least three years in order
to generate proposals for effective adaptation, which would consider, in addition, the optimization of
the work time invested by farmers to improve not only the yields, but also their quality of life. Although
Ecuador is a country with great potential for agricultural production, the amount of water needed would
put this sector in competition with other sectors, mainly drinking water, not only from the point of view
of quantity, but also of quality. This is an issue that has not been addressed in our country with the
depth it deserves since it constitutes a real challenge from technical and social points of view.
 In summary, although there are commendable advances such as the actions of FONAG, these prac-
tices are not carried out extensively, neither in the drinking water sector nor in other sectors such as
hydroelectricity or irrigation. The limitation of economic resources has been overcome in Ecuador by
FONAG or other funds such as FORAGUA or FONAPA in the south of the country, which, with different
financial mechanisms, contribute effectively to the management of water resources. Another impor-
tant limitation is the deficit of professionals trained in the area of water resources. This is only one of
the edges of the problem that we can help remedy effectively from the academic sector.

Marcos Villacís was born in the city of Manta on June 7, 1975. He expe-
rienced the effects of the floods during El Niño and the lack of water in
the province of Manabí. This motivated him to specialize in hydrology,
working for 15 years on issues related to the analysis of the impacts
of climate change on the availability of water in tropical ecosystems.
He collaborates in his research with colleagues from France, Belgium,
England, Spain, Peru, and Bolivia, his area of study being the tropical
region of South America..

12.1. Institutionality and governance

In 1998, in a work on the evaluation of water re-
sources in Ecuador, carried out by the Engineers
Corps of the United States Army, Buckalew et
al. (1998) indicated that the key to the success
of any plan developed in Ecuador for the mana-
gement of water resources would be the capacity
and ability to work towards common objectives
by government agencies in charge of water ma-
nagement. Apparently, the impression of the
consultants who carried out this work at the time
hinted at a lack of, or at least a weak, articulation
and cooperation between the various institutions
responsible for the development and manage-
ment of water in the country.
confusion when recognizing the authority respon-
sible for, for example, the management of drin-
king water or irrigation water; this is because the
responsibilities are shared between SENAGUA
and other institutions such as the Decentralized
Autonomous Governments, the Ministry of Hou-
sing and the Ministry of Agriculture. But, although
the powers and attributions are now clearer with
the law and its by-laws, the proposal by Buckalew
et al. (1998) as the key to the of water resources
management in Ecuador is still a pending account,
given that there is still, among other things, a defi-
ciency in the distribution of water for human con-
sumption and no national irrigation plan..

As we will see, in Ecuador the Water Secretariat

(SENAGUA) was created in 2014 as a result of
the approval of the Organic Law of Water Resour-
ces and Water Use. However, in practice there is

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 119

120 Problems inherent to water resources management in Ecuador

Guest author Eduardo Toral, Cuenca - Ecuador eduardotoral@yahoo.com

The experience of water management in the

city of Cuenca and the FONAPA- Water Fund for
the Conservation of the Paute River Basin
The city of Cuenca was founded on ancient settlements of the Cañari and Inca civilizations and is
located in the southern Andes of Ecuador. Four rivers cross the city (Tomebamba, Machángara,
Yanuncay, and Tarqui), all of them born in the páramos around Cuenca. Possibly this proximity of the
inhabitants of the city with waters allowed Cuenca to become one of the pioneers in the manage-
ment of water resources in Ecuador.
On January 2, 1968, by means of an Ordinance, the Municipal Public Company of Telephone, Drin-
king Water and Sewerage (ETAPA) was created. The following year, the first Water and Sewerage
Master Plans were executed for the city (Ordóñez, 2018). Since that date 50 years have passed in
which the management of water has evolved in many aspects according to the economic, social,
and environmental development of the country. In this period, new national and local policies were
also created that allowed ETAPA to expand its services. Among those related to water management,
the following stand out: drinking water, sanitation, and environmental management.
By 2018, ETAPA’s drinking water service covers 96% of the urban area and 88% of the rural area,
while its wastewater is treated in treatment plants that send it to a larger plant from where it returns
clean to its natural ecosystem. In addition, the company entered into conservation, preservation, and
recovery of ecosystems of interest in order to guarantee the supply of water of quality and quantity
for Cuenca, taking on the managing of 40,000 hectares of the El Cajas National Park and other
Municipal Reserves and also taking on the protection and recovery of riverine forests through water
conservation agreements. It also monitors and studies water resources, ecosystems, and fragile flo-
ra and fauna species, contributing with knowledge for its environmental education aimed at children
in the city and rural areas of the municipality.
The new challenges in the region motivated ETAPA EP, together with CELEC EP-HIDROPAUTE, ELE-
CAUSTRO SA, EMAPAL EP, University of Cuenca, Cordillera Tropical Foundation and The Nature Con-
servancy, to create on September 26, 2008 the Water Fund for the Conservation of the Paute River
Basin (FONAPA). The fund was created with the aim of contributing to the conservation, protection,
and recovery of water resources and the ecological environment in the Paute River basin. This cat-
chment is one of the most important in Ecuador; about 900 thousand inhabitants live and 35% of the
total hydroelectric energy for the country is generated there (P. Guzmán, personal communication,
March 22, 2018). It also harbours unique ecosystems and significant protected areas recognized
by UNESCO, such as the Macizo del Cajas Biosphere Reserve and the Sangay National Park, which
is a Natural Heritage of Humanity, besides the recently created Rio Negro-Sopladora National Park.
Initially FONAPA brought together the strongest water users in the region to contribute economic
resources in a trust that guarantees its use according to the mandate of the donor or constituent,
manages economic resources of counterpart, and provides technical support directed to the mana-
gement and conservation of water resources and their ecological environment; all this is done via
programmes and projects that seek to fulfil the objective of the Fund.
 Until 2013 FONAPA mainly sought to invest the funds coming from the investments of its consti-
tuents and those from donors, although later it was decided to work with the Autonomous Municipal
Decentralized Governments (GADs), which have authority in the territory and, together with Nature
Culture and International, support the formulation of Municipal Ordinances that create reserves in
the main water sources and the fragile ecosystems of each municipality, generate economic re-
sources in order to be transferred to FONAPA for its administration, and, in addition, provide for the
Municipality to adhere to FONAPA as a constituent.
FONAPA currently invests resources through Drinking Water Companies and Municipal GADs and
has managed to generalize good environmental practices in favour of water conservation in more
areas of the Paute River basin; it has become a key factor in the region as an integrating entity of
several actors, among which the academy is included.

REFERENCE
Ordóñez, G. (2018). De la bacinilla a la alcantarilla. Cuenca, Ecuador. Universidad de Cuenca.

Eduardo Toral Contreras was born in Cuenca, Ecuador on June 29,

1970. He graduated as a Biologist at the University of Azuay and
holds a Master of Science from the University of Costa Rica. He has
23 years of experience working with indigenous communities and
protected areas of Ecuador. He participated in research projects rela-
ted to the description of Ecuador’s biodiversity (amphibians and repti-
les), forest fragmentation and edge effects, as well as studies with an
integrating approach to predict the variation and vulnerability of the
biodiversity of tropical rivers in the basin of the Napo River regarding
climate change. Currently, as Technical Secretary of the FONAPA-Wa-
ter Fund for the Conservation of the Paute River Basin, he focuses on
the management of economic resources to strengthen the conservation of water resources
and the ecological environment of the Paute River basin.

However, notwithstanding the criticism to all the
components of society and not only to the rulers,
we can recognize that great advances have been
made in recent years. Undoubtedly, in terms of
institutions and governance of water resources,
the current situation is very different from what
Buckalew et al. (1998) found. Later, in Chapter
13 of this book, an analysis is made of the legal
framework that currently regulates water manage-
ment in Ecuador and its possible connection with
ecohydrology as a tool to support the management
of water resources.
As explained before, in order to support the ins-
titutional framework and address the financing
problem for the management of water resources,
in Ecuador several Water Funds have been execu-
ted in different cities. Each of them has its parti-
cularities of management and structure, but indis-
putably give support to the management of water
resources with remarkable results. Such is the case
of FONAPA, described in more detail by our guest
author Eduardo Toral.

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 121

 122 Problems inherent to water resources management in Ecuador

12.2. Development of professional demic programmes abroad since only recently hi-
and technical skills gher-level programmes specialized in these sub-
jects have been established in Ecuador. We can
The generation of professional skills in subjects
use as an example the Academic Offer of Higher
related to ecohydrology in Ecuador is fundamen-
Education Institutions disseminated by SENES-
tal to link the advances of modern scientific deve-
CYT (2018), where only three face-to-face ca-
lopment with society and nature. There are many
reers related to water resources have been found
institutions that have high-level technicians and
(see Table 12.1.).
professional capacity to manage water resources;
however, many of them have been trained in aca-

Table 12.1. Third-level academic offer in subjects related to the management of water resources in Ecuadorian uni-
versities (SENESCYT, 2018).

University Programme Degree

IKIAM Engineering in Water Sciences Engineer

EPN Superior technology in water and environmental sanitation Tehnologist

PUCE Hydraulic Engineering Engineer

However, it is important to note that there are
some programmes related to the management of
water resources that are part of the curriculum of
other specializations, such as civil and environ-
mental engineering.
Regarding fourth-level programmes, such as mas-
ters and doctorates, it should be noted that specia-
lized programmes have been recently developed in
several universities in the country, among which
are the EPN Master’s Degree in Water Resources
Engineering, the University of Cuenca Master’s
Degree in Research in Hydrology, with mention
in Ecohydrology, the Central University of Ecua-
dor Master in Integrated Management of Water
Resources and Irrigation, the University of Gua-
yaquil Master’s Degree in Sanitary Engineering,
the UTPL Master’s Degree in Water Resources,
and the ESPOL Master’s Degree in Engineering
Sciences for the Management of Water Resources.
Most of these master’s programmes have been
created after the reforms to the Ecuadorian higher
education system promoted after 2009.
In terms of doctoral programmes, in Ecuador the-
re is only one PhD in Water Resources managed
by the University of Cuenca in association with
the National Polytechnic School (EPN) and the
Private Technical University of Loja (UTPL). This
programme was approved at the end of 2014, has
a classroom modality and is full time. The investi-
gations of this programme can be presented in the
following six areas: (1) hydrology, (2) hydraulics,
(3) aquatic ecology, (4) meteorology and climato-
logy, (5) hydroinformatics, and (6) environmental
sanitation. The degree obtained is Doctor (PhD)
in Water Resources.
Moreover, regarding the development of capa-
cities in the management of water resources we
highlight the “Water School “ Continuous Trai-
ning Programme. This programme is an inter-ins-
titutional cooperation initiative led by SENAGUA
with the support of Nature and Culture Interna-
tional, UTPL, the Regional Water Fund (FORA-
GUA) and the Water Fund for the Paute River Ba-
sin (FONAPA). In summary, the Water School has
the purpose of training and accrediting the coun-
tries´ municipal officials on issues related to the
conservation and management of water Sources,
and other disciplines related to IWRM.
12.3. Climate change
Climate change (CC) threatens the sustainability
of farms and their associated water resources in
Ecuador. Climate forecasts have identified that
the main sources of uncertainty for agricultural
projections are meteorological data (especially
rain-fall projections), soil data below 30 cm, and
equivalent experimental protocols for measure-
ments of eco-physiological croplands (Ruiz- Ra-
mos et al., 2016). The 2008 Constitution establi-
shes with respect to CC that the State will adopt
Referencias
Banco_Mundial. (2018, Sep 20, 2017). Gestión de los Recursos Hí-
dricos. Retrieved from http://www.bancomundial.org/es/topic/
waterresourcesmanagement
Buckalew, J., James, M., Scott, L. and Reed, P. (1998). Water resour-
ces assessment of Ecuador. Mobile: US Army Corp of Engineers,
Mobile District and Topographic Engineering Centre.
Constitución de la República del Ecuador (2008).
Gaona, J. (2017). The Potential of Ecohydrology - Ecuadorean Case
Review.
appropriate and intersectoral measures to mitiga-
te it by limiting greenhouse gas emissions, defo-
restation, and air pollution; in addition, measures
will be taken for the conservation of forests and
vegetation, and the protection of the population at
risk (Article 414).
In 2012, the National Climate Change Strategy
2012-2025 was presented. The CC Adaptation
Strategic Line aims at reducing social, economic,
and environmental vulnerability to the impacts of
CC. In order to achieve this objective, a National
Plan of Adaptation to Climate Change and a Na-
tional Adaptation Programme to Climate Change
must be prepared (Gaona, 2017).
Ruiz-Ramos, M., Bastidas, W., Cóndor, A., Villacís, M., Calderón, M.,
Herrera, M. and Rodríguez A. (2016). Modelling adaptation to
climate change of Ecuadorian agriculture and associated water
resources: uncertainties in coastal and highland cropping sys-
tems. Paper presented at the EGU General Assembly Conferen-
ce Abstracts.
SENESCYT. (2018). Construye tu Futuro: Oferta Académica de las
Instituciones de Educación Superior (Primer Semestre 2018).
Quito.
Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 123
 124 Ecohydrology and its implementation in Ecuador

El Ángel páramo, Carchi, Ecuador

Chapter 13
Legal tools for the management of water resources in Ecuador
Although up to now an ecohydrological approach
has not been established within the water mana-
gement plans in the country, the application of
ecohydrology is feasible given that the legal fra-
mework for the management and use of water is
consistent with ecohydrological precepts. This
chapter addresses some of the main legal instru-
ments that are related to water management, in
general, and that have a relationship with ecohy-
drology as a management tool for water manage-
ment, in particular.
13.1. The Constitution of the Repu-
blic of Ecuador and water
The Constitution of the Republic of Ecuador
was approved in 2008 by the Constituent As-
sembly and presents many innovative features
for society-nature relationships, including the
consideration of water as a fundamental resour-
ce for the development of society. The Magna
Carta of Ecuador has several articles that deal
with issues related to water management in the
country. Below is a list of some of the most im-
portant issues related to water management in
Ecuador under the umbrella of the Supreme
State Regulation.
According to Article 3, the State’s prime duties
are:
“Guaranteeing without any discrimination what-
soever the true possession of the rights set forth in
the Constitution and in international instruments,
especially the rights to … water for its inhabitants.”
Article 12 indicates that:
“The human right to water is essential and cannot
be waived. Water constitutes a national strategic
asset for use by the public and it is unalienable,
not subject to a statute of limitations, immune
from seizure and essential for life.”
Article 314 of the Constitution says that:
“The State shall be responsible for the provision of
the public services of drinking and irrigation wa-
ter, sanitation … and others as established by law.”
While article 318 states:
“Water is part of the country’s strategic heritage
for public use; it is the unalienable property of the
State and is not subject to a statute of limitations.
It is a vital element for nature and human existen-
ce. Any form of water privatization is forbidden.
The management of water shall be exclusively
public or community-based.”
Additionally, the same article says that:
“The State, through the authority for water, shall
be directly responsible for planning and mana-
ging water resources for human consumption,
irrigation to guarantee food sovereignty, ecolo-
gical flow and productive activities, in this order
of priority. It is also responsible for the conserva-
tion, recovery, and integral management of water
resources, hydrographic basins and ecological
flows associated with the hydrological cycle.”
In this way, the political disposition of the Ecua-
dorian State to decisively face the challenge of
managing its water resources I evident, with a
vision of social and environmental responsibility.
Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 125
 126 Legal tools for the management of water resources in Ecuador

13.2. IWRM within the Water Law “… establishing and delimiting zones and areas
of Ecuador for the protection of water in Ecuador.”
As of 2014, Ecuador has the “Organic Law of Likewise, literal (o) of the aforementioned law
Water Resources and Use of Water”, commonly instructs SENAGUA on:
known as the “Water Law”. The primary and fun-
damental object of this law is to: “ensuring the protection, conservation, integrated
management and sustainable use of surface and
“… guarantee the human right to water as well as underground water reserves (...).”
regulate and control the authorization, manage-
ment, preservation, conservation, restoration of In these two competences of the Single Water
water resources, use and use of water, integral Authority ecohydrology can be considered as a
management and recovery, in its different phases, tool to support its efforts.
forms and physical states, in order to guarantee
Sumak Kawsay or good living and the rights of
nature established in the Constitution of the Re- 13.3. Integration of ecohydrology
public.” as a tool to support IWRM in
the Ecuadorian legal context
The Water Law establishes the creation of a Na-
As we have seen, Ecuador has a legal framework
tional Strategic Water System, which is the set of
very aligned with IWRM. Water management had
processes, entities, and instruments that allow
an unprecedented momentum from the “National
the interaction and articulation of the different
Plan for Good Living” in the years 2013 - 2017,
social and institutional actors to organize and
and currently presents new challenges and goals
coordinate integrated water management, and
in the National Development Plan 2017 - 2021,
that make it easier to generate mechanisms and
called “For a Lifetime”. This renewed plan seeks
instances to combine the planning and applica-
to promote the guarantee of rights throughout
tion of water resources public policy with the so-
the life cycle of Ecuadorians. The plan has very
cial actors linked to water and the different levels
ambitious proposals related to water resources,
of government. All this is done with the ultima-
among which we can cite the mission “Water and
te goal of ensuring a good standard of living for
Sanitation for All” or the proposal of the “Natio-
Ecuadorian citizens and foreigners who live in
nal Irrigation Plan” with a 20-year horizon. The
the country.
challenge now is to effectively link ecohydrology
The Water Law institutionalized the Single Wa- as a support tool for IWRM.
ter Authority, which led to a state portfolio (with
Ecohydrology is a new discipline that joins hy-
the rank of ministry) called the Water Secretariat
drology and ecology. In a very general way,
or SENAGUA. SENAGUA has several powers
ecohydrology offers a range of tools to support
and attributions, but we will highlight here two
the Integrated Water Resources Management
that are related to ecohydrology. Article 18, on
(IWRM), many of which have been described
the powers and attributions of the Single Water
in this text. The tools generated by ecohydrolo-
Authority, literal (e), indicates that SENAGUA
gy are based on in-depth knowledge of the sy-
has the attribution of:
nergies between the hydrological cycle and the
biotic processes that occur within a watershed.
Its precepts are based on the fact that, by modi-
fying a hydrological process, there will be a po-
sitive or negative effect on its related biota and
vice versa; this relationship is known as “dual
regulation”. The field of action of ecohydrology
is applied from the molecular to the basin scale;
for this reason, ecohydrology can be applied, di-
rectly or indirectly, by any component of society,
from decision makers to officials in charge of the
management of water basins for the use of drin-
king water, irrigation, industrial, fish farmers,
research centres, etc.
The limits of intervention of ecohydrology are
given, on the one hand, by the natural capacity
of recovery of a hydrographic basin (considering
its hydrological, ecological, and socioeconomic
aspects) in the face of external affectations; when
this natural recovery capacity is not feasible,
ecohydrology tools can be used. Likewise, when
these tools are not enough to reach an ecosys-
tem recovery, engineering can be used with the
purpose of achieving the recovery goals of the
system in the face of external interventions. To
say that a small, medium or large-scale initiative
has an ecohydrological approach means that it
has considered this double regulation of hydro-
logical and ecological factors and that, moreover,
References
Constitución de la República del Ecuador (2008).
Ley Orgánica de Recursos Hídricos, Usos y Aprovechamiento del Agua (2014).
Registro Oficial del Ecuador (2014)
has focused on obtaining positive results in the
five multidimensional parameters used by ecohy-
drology: 1) water in quantity and quality, 2) im-
provements in biological diversity, 3) generation
of new and better ecosystem services; 4) increa-
se in the resilience capacity of the system in the
face of negative external factors, such as climate
change; and, finally, 5) the integration of cultural
and social aspects related to the management of
water resources. In this way, the ecohydrological
approach can be assumed by a country through
a state policy by provincial, regional and local
governments, and even by private initiatives (see
Figures 3.1 and 3.3 on dual regulation in Chap-
ter 3).
Thus, the challenge now is the inclusion of eco-
hydrology within the national legal framework of
water management as a possibility to achieve the
goals that currently concern the management of
our water resources. Civil society is responsible
and participant in this and we must monitor that
the authorities comply with the requests of their
constituents.
Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 127
Part 4
Implementation of
ecohydrology in Ecuador

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 129

The Paltas-Catacocha Ecohydrology Demonstration Site, Ecuador. Photo: Marco Albarracín
Chapter 14
The Paltas - Catacocha Ecohydrology Demonstration Site
14.1. Background
In the introduction of the book we talked about
a paradox that occurs in Ecuador: ecohydrolo-
gy is a discipline of recent development in our
milieu, although it has been carried out since
ancient times. This situation is clearly palpa-
ble in the water resource management system
of the Paltas municipality in the Loja province
of southern Ecuador, as our guest author, Galo
Ramón, tells us.
At present, although much progress has been
made, the population of Paltas is one of the most
disadvantaged at a national level with regard to
the supply of water for human consumption. In
the year 2001, in the city of Catacocha, capital
of the Municipal Decentralized Autonomous
Government of Paltas, the crisis was reached of
limiting the distribution of the vital liquid to only
1 hour per day.
Historically, the problem of water resources for
everyday activities of the population originated
when in 1860 (36 years after the declaration of
Catacocha as a municipality) drained and dried
the largest artificial lagoon built by the Paltas and
that was known as the Laguna de Catacocha. In
that place, there is now a convent, the municipal
market, educational units and old houses settled
in part of what is currently the centre of the town
(Ramón, 2017a).
Later, between 1948 and 1958, a second large
lagoon located in the foothills of Cerro Pisaca
was drained. In the dried land of the Pisaca lake
mainly private practices of livestock and agricul-
ture were carried out, and even occasionally the
lagoon was filled for fish production; because it
was only a seasonal lagoon, its drying became
permanent after destroying the structures that
allowed water retention. These two lagoons retai-
ned the precipitations that, in the end, contribu-
ted hydrologically with surface and underground
water to the streams that make up the micro basin
of the San Pedro Mártir River.
Between 1965 and 1968, 300 ha of eucalyptus
were planted in the micro-basin with the inten-
tion of generating plant cover for the protection
of water sources. However, no study was carried
out to demonstrate the effectiveness of eucalyp-
tus in retaining water or, on the contrary, in con-
tributing to the problem since it could also con-
sume water in large quantities (see, for example,
Huber et al., 2010). In the same period, between
1967 and 1969, there was a prolonged drought
in Loja that caused one of the largest emigrations
in the province due to the extreme conditions of
water scarcity (CAN, 2009)
Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 131
132 Paltas–Catacocha Ecohydrology Demonstration Site

Guest author Galo Ramón Valarezo, , Quito - Ecuador garaval@yahoo.com

Recovery of ancestral Paltas knowledge for wa-

ter management in Catacocha
Catacocha is characterized by a high climatic variability due to its location in a transition between the
humid coast, influenced by the El Niño current, and the Peruvian desert, influenced by the Humboldt
current. It rains only at the beginning of the year, between the months of January and April because of
El Niño. This very variable pattern can produce extreme events, severe droughts and strong “Niños”, tin-
ged by irregular years with rains concentrated in a single month and a huge irregularity in the remaining
three. These characteristics have worsened in recent years as an accumulated result of deforestation,
soil erosion, and global warming. Under these conditions, the slopes have diminished or collapsed,
producing, in chain, the disappearance of the small family gardens that provided the basic basket while
agriculture and livestock production, the main economic activities in the area, have become riskier.
As a response to these problems, conventional solutions have been sought such as the installation of
irrigation systems that, due to the steep topography of the territory, the scarcity of water, and its high
cost, have been of very limited consequences. An alternative with greater potentiality has been to re-
sort to the ancestral knowledge of the Paltas, original people who inhabited the area for more than two
thousand years and who had developed a sophisticated management of moisture, unfortunately lost
due to the colonial impact: combined action of the Christian religion that persecuted the shamans who
directed the rituals of predicting the rains, the appropriation of the land and the waters of the natives
by the hacendados, the enormous decrease of the population, the abandonment of ancestral manage-
ment practices and even a contempt towards them.
The system developed by the Paltas in the past was a system adapted to the environmental characte-
ristics and the functioning of the hydrological cycle of the area in order to manage the recharge of the
aquifers, reduce the strong evapotranspiration produced by the combined action of sun and winds for
nine months, and control the erosion and the strong runoff of the water in floors and drainages. At the
same time, they developed irrigation and agroforestry systems to conserve moisture in the agricultural
plots. All this was sustained with a strong and efficient organization of society to build and maintain the
works; they created a cultural discourse contained in their myths, stories, rituals, norms and principles
that, while explaining the functioning of the hydrological cycles, served to regulate the good use of wa-
ter as well as the equitable distribution and the individual and collective responsibility in the protection
of this heritage. These various elements of the system were integrated into the territorial ordering of
space, ritual calendars, and the management of power.
The recharge of the aquifers was propitiated with the construction of high-altitude wetlands (kochas
in Kichwa) to capture rainwater and with a watchful protection of the forest. They controlled runoffs
with the construction of numerous stone walls at the beginning of gorges (tajamares) that, additionally,
stimulated the growth of a protective vegetation in these drainages, and the construction of land and
stream-edge terraces to control erosion. For irrigation they created stone reservoirs (known in the zone
as pilancones) and carried out the irrigation in furrows that followed the level. To maintain the humidity
in the plots they built “sunken terraces” but, above all, they developed agroforestry orchards, a complex
system of up to 50 species of plants of different heights and features that imitate the original forest.
The wind was controlled with live barriers, stone walls, and ditches. The myths and legends contained
prohibitions and sanctions for those who attempted against these works, while the rituals predicted
the rains, mobilized the population in an organized way to work in mingas, and established a respectful
relationship with nature, deified in hills, lagoons, rainbows, and ritual animals (Ramón, 2007).
 The myth “The theft of the Cango bull” tries to explain the perplexity of the Paltas in the face of the
changes produced in the colony, which destroyed part of the system. “The return of the Cango bull” is
the new creation that served to encourage the Paltas to recover and enhance the old system. Today,
progress is being made, with a broad local alliance that fosters a productive dialogue between ances-
tral and contemporary knowledge.

References
Ramón, G. (2007). Nueva Historia de Loja, Vol.I, Quito, Ecuador.

Galo Ramón Valarezo is an Ecuadorian historian, FLACSO Master in An-

dean History and Doctor in Latin American History by the Simon Bolívar
University. He has written 18 books and more than a hundred articles in
various national and world media. His book “The Andean Resistance:
Cayambe 1500-1800” was awarded by the Latin American Conference
of History as the best book of 1989. He has served as a teacher in nu-
merous Latin American universities and postgraduate courses and has
given hundreds of lectures on historical topics, development , social
movements and participatory methodologies. Currently he is Executive
Director of COMUNIDEC..

Faced with this aggravated problem of water shor-
tage, civil society motivated the municipality to
take the initiative to restore the artificial wetlands
or kochas, which were used by the pre-Inca cultu-
re of the Paltas (as explained by guest author Galo
Ramón), in order to favour the recharge of aquifers
that, in the time of the Spanish colony and subse-
quent republican period, had been dried by priva-
te owners, as explained above. The drying of the
lakes produced a reduction in the recharge capa-
city of the local aquifers, causing scarcity or total
loss of water.
With the restoration and creation of the kochas,
currently known by the local population as alba-
rradas1, the recharge of the aquifers produced
a greater availability of raw water destined to be
treated for human consumption. Additionally, se-
veral small and medium levees or tajamares have
been constructed to reduce stream run-off.
As a consequence of these practices, there has
been a recharge of the groundwater system in the
area, although the water balance of the basin and
1 According to the dictionary of the Spanish language
(2001, 22nd edition), the word “albarrada” comes
from the Hispanic Arabic word albarráda and this, in
turn, from the classical Arabic barradah that literally
means “refreshing”. The word is close to alcarraza, a
porous and undercooked clay vessel that has the abil-
ity to exude or filter a certain amount of water and
the evaporation of which cools the greater amount
of liquid that is contained.

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 133

 134 Paltas–Catacocha Ecohydrology Demonstration Site
the recharge levels of the aquifers have not yet
been technically quantified.
Based on the experience and results obtained in
Paltas, in many other places in the country, espe-
cially in the provinces of Loja, Guayas, and Mana-
bí, the model of water resources management of
watersheds has been replicated with the recovery
of ancestral knowledge; moreover, other aspects
were considered such as the restoration of habitats
and the inclusion of civil society in the manage-
ment, producing over time a type of management
that integrates essential ecohydrological aspects.
The results of these practices have been very sa-
tisfying and encouraging. The first position of the
Green Prize of the State Bank of Ecuador was hi-
ghlighted and given to Paltas for the management
of its water resources in the San Pedro Mártir Ri-
ver basin, and later there came the recognition of
UNESCO-IHP as an ecohydrology demonstration
site. However, unfortunately there has not been
adequate technical and scientific monitoring to
produce qualitative and quantitative assessments
of the hydrological and ecological aspects related
to the creation of albarradas and tajamares.
The information is very scattered and does not
have the adequate technical support that would
provide scientifically-based credibility and securi-
ty. For example, as mentioned above, in the San
Pedro Mártir river basin, where the Pisaca lake and
reserve are located, there is no water balance that
would serve as a starting point for the quantifica-
tion of results that indicate the positive water-re-
tention actions in the basin. Although the results
can be palpable in practice, a scientific evaluation
gives solidity and credibility to the actions carried
out and generates a kind of replicability of the ma-
nagement model. Undoubtedly, the recognition of
the example of Paltas-Catacocha by the UNESCO
International Hydrological Programme and its in-
tegration into its global network of demonstration
sites of ecohydrology is a source of satisfaction.
However, it is also important to face the challenge
of making a “qualitative leap” through the produc-
tion of scientific data and convert the example of
management of the San Pedro Mártir River basin
into a management reference, based on the ge-
neration of scientific research and of a long-term
technical and planned monitoring of the interrela-
tions that exist between the executed actions and
the indicators of: (1) water quality and quantity,
(2) biodiversity of habitats and species, (3) gene-
ration of ecosystem services , (4) regeneration of
the resilience capacity of the system, and (5) the
recovery of cultural and ancestral knowledge in
the area.
In order to generate a milestone between the be-
fore and after the declaration of the Paltas - Cata-
cocha demonstration site, this section aims to do-
cument the process of nomination, adjudication,
and creation of the Ecohydrology Demonstrative
Site of Paltas-Catacocha. In this sense, we present
below the technical information of the San Pedro
Mártir micro-basin, as well as a historical review of
the process.
14.2. Technical description of the
Paltas-Catacocha ecohydrology
demonstration site
In what follows we present the most relevant te-
chnical information presented to UNESCO in
order to include Paltas-Catacocha in the World
Network of Ecohydrology Demonstrative Sites
of its International Hydrological Programme.
The name offered for the demonstration site
proposal was: “Recovering the ancestral eco-
hydrological approach of the Paltas to supply
water to the city of Catacocha in southern Ecua-
dor.” The demonstration site is located in the
micro-basin of the San Pedro Mártir river, loca-
ted in the Paltas municipality of the province of
Loja, southern Ecuador (see Figure 14.1.), at
 geographical coordinates Lat. -4.05°; Long.
-79.60°. It has a total surface of 3,148 ha and
an altitudinal range that oscillates between the
1.320 to 2.413 masl. At present, this basin pro-
Figure 14.1. Geographical location of the micro-basin of the San Pedro Mártir River.
Source: GADC Paltas Archive
Loja
Paltas
As previously explained, the ancestral hydrologi-
cal system of the Paltas, based mainly on the re-
charge of aquifers by means of the construction
of artificial lentic wetlands, was transformed to
agricultural and cattle lands in the period after
the Spanish colonization and during the Republi-
can era (CAN, 2009). This generated a decrea-
sed aquifer recharge and the ensuing problem
related to the supply of water for the community
and the irrigation of the area. The recovery and
application of these ancestral knowledge, toge-
vides 70% of the water to the city of Catacocha.
Rainfall occurs between November and May and
does not exceed 250 mm.
Catacocha
ther with other actions for the management of re-
charge zones, have allowed to improve the water
supply from 1 to 6 hours of water per day.
Figure 14.2 shows the situation before and after
the restoration of the Pisaca Lagoon. Notice the
central stone known as “The Turtle”, which was
used by the Paltas to determine the availability of
water during the year by means of level marks ac-
cording to the annual rainfall.
Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 135
 136 Paltas–Catacocha Ecohydrology Demonstration Site
Figure 14.2. The Pisaca Lagoon before and after its restoration. Source: GADC Paltas Archive.
Before: Image of Pisaca at the time it was dismantled and used
as pasture.
In 2004, after several years of archaeological re-
search, civil society organizations (COMUNIDEC
Foundation and the Playas-Catamayo Basins Ma-
nagement Committee, now ASOAGROPISA)
and the Provincial Government of Loja organized
themselves so that the municipality of Paltas could
establish a local public policy related to the reco-
very process of said basin. In 2005 they promoted
the process of restoring wetlands (G. Ramón, per-
sonal communication, March 26, 2018). In that
year, NCI acquired a plot of land in which there
was evidence of the largest lagoon known today
as Pisaca, and they began a process to restore the
entire area, with emphasis on the recovery of the
lagoon. At the moment, NCI has a protection area
of 400 ha where the lagoon is conserved after a
process of cattle exclusion. The recovery and con-
servation of the artificial wetland and that of the
contiguous forests resulted in a recharge of the
aquifers, which now offer more water for the use of
the population of Catacocha.
From the beginning of the recovery of wetlands in
2005 (CAN, 2009) until 2013, a total of 28 alba-
rradas have been built in the San Pedro Mártir ba-
sin. The total water storage capacity of the ponds
is 182,482 m3, with an average of 6,517.21 m3.
The largest lagoon is Pisaca (see Figure 14.2.),
After: Image of Pisaca after the restoration and conservation
process by the Municipality of Paltas, the Provincial Government
of Loja, NCI, COMUNIDEC, and several civil society organizations..
with a volumetric capacity of 78,422 m3; the sma-
llest is located on a private property and holds 143
m3. The median value of this group of kochas is
1,449 m3. Of the 28 albarradas, 17 are in the Pi-
saca Reserve owned by NCI, which have a storage
capacity of 149,794 m3; that is to say, 82.1% of
water storage by means of albarradas is in a pro-
tected reserve and managed by an NGO for the
public benefit. The other kochas are on private
property (G. Ramón, personal communication,
March 23, 2018).
All the albarradas have grasses planted in their in-
terior in order to reduce the evapotranspiration of
the water mirror and maintain humidity. Likewise,
shrubs have been planted on the banks of the ko-
chas in order to protect them and hinder the entry
of thirsty cattle; in some cases, the construction
of wired fences has been necessary. Additionally,
drinking troughs have been set up for livestock
management and protection of the albarradas,
as well as to avoid contamination of these sites by
animal excretions (G. Ramón, personal communi-
cation, March 23, 2018).
On the other hand, small dams were also built
along the streams and springs of the basin (see
Figure 14.3.). These dams are known in the area
as tajamares and are aimed at reducing the super-
ficial flow of the channel. By 2015, a total of 125
tajamares had been built in the San Pedro Mártir
micro-watershed (G. Ramón, personal commu-
nication, March 23, 2018). The retention of wa-
ter by the construction of dykes has allowed the
greening of the areas adjacent to the tajamares,
with prolonged presence of, for example, several
species of amphibians that at other times appea-
Figure 14.3. Tajamares for the reduction of runoff and recovery of habitats.
Photo: Marco Albarracín
We will see next how water management in the
basin by means of the construction of albarradas
and tajamares guides towards the improvement
of biodiversity and all the other components of
the ecosystem.
14.3. Analysis of the application of
the ecohydrological approach in
the Paltas-Catacocha Demonstra-
tion Site
We had previously indicated that the ecohydrolo-
gical approach is manifested when there is “dou-
ble regulation” between the hydrological and
biotic components, as well as when the “WBSR-C
multidimensional parameters” (Water, Biodiver-
sity, Ecosystem Services, Resilience and Cultural
Heritage) have been assisted by the applied eco-
red only in the rainy season (J. Romero, personal
communication, June 21, 2017).
Additionally, as a result of the recharge of aquifers
water flows to the surface in the so-called “water
eyes” that are subsequently used for irrigation by
communities in the lower areas.
hydrological practices (UNESCO-IHP, 2016).
When these conditions are met, we have the basis
of an ecohydrological system.
14.4. Double regulation
The construction of albarradas and tajamares to
control the hydrological cycle of the micro-basin
are actions that are considered “water flow ma-
nagement”. This action has an effect on the biota
(plants, amphibians, insects, birds, etc.) since
more water is available, and for a longer time, du-
ring low-rainfall periods. Similarly, the planting
of hydrophilic plants inside the albarradas and
the recovery of the plant cover with native species
around the kochas have effects in the hydrology
of the zone: they allow the maintenance of the
humidity and avoid the evapotranspiration of the
Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 137
 138 Paltas–Catacocha Ecohydrology Demonstration Site
water bodies. In this way, the dual regulation of
the hydrological and biotic component is mani-
fested in the system.
14.5. Multidimensional parame-
ters (WBSR-C)
By managing the dual regulation of the hydrology
and biota of a watershed, ecohydrology seeks to
consider five multidimensional WBSR-C para-
meters (UNESCO-IHP, 2016). Below is a des-
cription of how the multidimensional parameters
of ecohydrology are met in the demonstration
site of Paltas - Catacocha.
a. Water
The first multidimensional parameter of ecohy-
drology is that, from the actions with an ecohy-
drological approach undertaken for the mana-
gement of a watershed, an improvement in the
quantity and quality of water is evidenced. Thus,
as a result of water flow management through
the construction of albarradas and tajamares,
an increase in the availability of groundwater
is evident, which is then extracted by pumps in
deep wells. At present, 70% of the water used
to supply the city of Catacocha comes from this
source. According to the local authorities, in the
worst moments of low water a crisis was reached
that allowed only 1 hour of water per day, but with
the implementation of the albarradas, conserva-
tion of forests, tajamares and other activities, the
aquifers recharged and now the population has 6
hours of water per day.
In water samples extracted from deep wells and
taken from the surface, physical and chemical
quality results were obtained, which were tole-
rable according to the ranges allowed in natio-
nal standards (TULAS and INEN 1108). The
water extracted after a purification process can
be distributed among the population of the city.
However, samples taken in the water wells where
the raw water is captured present contaminating
bacteria (faecal coliforms) due to the presence of
animals near the channels and recharge zones, as
well as a deficient infrastructure for the manage-
ment of wastewater (Román, 2014).
On the other hand, some of the albarradas, espe-
cially those of small size and little depth, present
algal outcrop problems due especially to issues
related to flow stagnation, the presence of pre-
cursor nutrient concentrations of the primary
production growth as nitrogen and phosphorus,
and the high temperatures and insolation typical
of the area. All these abiotic factors favour the
uncontrolled growth of algae, which can even
cause problems of eutrophication in water bodies
(Albarracín, 2014).
Several ecohydrological mechanisms, such as the
use of artificial wetlands or edge barriers for the
retention of nutrients, could be used to improve
the quality of the water that accumulates in the al-
barradas. Studies must be carried out to account
for the concentration of nutrients and the algal
communities present in each of them.
b. Biodiversity
In terms of biodiversity, the micro-basin of the
San Pedro Mártir River is located within one of
the most valued sites worldwide due to its bio-
logical importance and conservation priorities.
In fact, the Paltas-Catacocha Ecohydrology De-
monstration Site is located within the Forest
of Peace Transboundary Biosphere Reserve of
the UNESCO Man and Biosphere Programme
(MAB). This Biosphere Reserve is a joint effort
between Ecuador and Peru for the conservation
of natural resources and seeks to be a partici-
patory and citizen management model that can
strengthen peace, sustainability, and ecological
connectivity between both countries (UNES-
CO-CCNN, 2017).
Additionally, the site is located between the
Tropical Andes and the Chocó Darién biodiver-
sity hotspots of Western Ecuador (Myers et al.,
2000), and is found specifically in the Tumbe-
sian Endemism Zone. The 25 biodiversity hots-
pots identified by Myers and colleagues are ex-
ceptional sites in terms of biodiversity since they
occupy only 1.4% of the total land surface, but
among all they harbour 44% of vascular plants
and 35% of vertebrate species, except for fish,
from all over the planet.
In addition, Catacocha is considered one of the
107 Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas in the
Tropical Andes of Ecuador (Boyla and Estrada,
2005). In this area, in the year of 1991 there
were 72 species of birds, among which some
endangered and endemic to the Tumbesian re-
gion such as Ortalis erythroptera, Hylocryptus
erythrocephalus, Leptotila ochraceiventris and
Falco peregrinus (subspecies cassini), the latter
considered vulnerable to extinction in Ecuador
(Boyla and Estrada, 2005).
In the San Pedro Mártir micro-basin most of its
extension is dedicated to agriculture and lives-
tock; however, the establishment of a reserve for
the protection of biodiversity known as Reserva
Pisaca (name taken from the highest hill of the
basin) stands out. In this reserve the largest lake
in the area is located, which bears the same name,
“Laguna Pisaca” (Cueva, 2015). The recovery of
habitats in the basin has been notorious, especia-
lly in the areas that have been used for protection
and conservation. Additionally, there are areas
where reforestation practices have been carried
out with native species. The best-preserved area
in terms of biodiversity in the micro-basin is the
upper part of Reserva Pisaca (Cueva, 2015). In
this sector, 28 species of trees and shrubs of a
total of 37 registered species in the Reserve have
been recorded. In the area there are representa-
tive species of the Tumbesian region such as Ja-
caranda spurrei, Tabebuia chrysantha, Triplaris
cummingiana, Caesalpinia spinosa, Oreopanax
sp. and Clusia sp. (Boyla and Estrada, 2005;
Cueva, 2015).
The recovery and construction of albarradas
and tajamares have also served as micro-ha-
bitats where the presence of amphibians, ma-
cro-invertebrates, and birds has been evident;
these species used to appear only in the rainy
season (J. Romero, personal communication,
June 21, 2017).
In summary, the establishment of the Pisaca Re-
serve as a protection and conservation zone has
positively favoured the recovery of biodiversity.
It is important to emphasize, as mentioned abo-
ve, that the San Pedro Mártir micro-basin is loca-
ted in the area of Tumbesian endemism, and that
the conservation of forest patches is essential to
ensure the connectivity of forest remnants for the
purpose of genetic exchange (Van Dyke, 2008).
Next, we will see how the recovery of ecosystems
and habitats provides benefits to the community
through the generation of ecosystem services.
c. Ecosystem services
Ecosystem services are defined as the multiple
benefits that ecosystems and their biodiversity
provide to humanity; these include: (1) Produc-
tion of goods or services such as food, water,
medicines, materials for construction and handi-
crafts, energy and genetic resources. (2) Regula-
tion services or those generated by processes that
occur in ecosystems such as carbon sequestra-
tion, control of catastrophes or extreme events,
regulation of local climate and air quality, puri-
fication of wastewater, pollination, and biologi-
cal control of pests, among others. (3) Cultural
services, those non-material benefits that people
receive from being in contact with ecosystems
such as recreation, physical and mental health,
Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 139
 140 Paltas–Catacocha Ecohydrology Demonstration Site

tourism, aesthetic appreciation and inspiration
for culture, art and design, and the spiritual expe-
riences plus the appropriation or identity of the
site. Finally, (4) support functions that ensure
the possibility of having habitat for species and
the maintenance of genetic diversity (Carpenter
et al., 2009; MEA, 2005; TEEB, 2010).
San Pedro Mártir River, in general, and the Pisaca
Reserve in particular, has generated the potentia-
tion of several ecosystem services for the benefit
of the people that live in the area. Table 14.1.
presents a list of the most notorious ecosystem
services that stand out as a result of the micro-ba-
sin´s management.

The management focused on the preservation

of water resources within the micro-basin of the

Table 14.1. Ecosystem services identified in the San Pedro Mártir River micro-basin.

Provisioning Services Regulation Services Cultural Services Support Services

Moderation of
Fresh water extreme phenomena Cultural heritage Primary production
like droughts

Raw materials Local identity Habitat for species

Spiritual experience and Conservation of

Medicines Pollination
feeling of belonging genetic diversity

Fruits ad food from

Nutrient recycling
the forest

Preservation of erosion Aesthetic appreciation

and conservation of soil and inspiration for cul-
fertility ture, art, and design

Recreational activities
and mental and physi-
cal health

Tourism

Source: Carpenter et al. (2009); MEA (2005); TEEB (2010)

The construction of albarradas and the con-
servation of forests in the upper part of the mi-
cro-basin of the San Pedro Mártir River allow to
recover and increase the ecosystem service of
freshwater production. The maintenance of wa-
ter in the subsoil avoids evaporation, keeping
the resource available for longer periods during
the dry season. The infiltration, percolation,
and interflow processes allow the water captu-
red in the aquifers to sprout to the surface, as
“water eyes”, and of base flow or surface water
in streams and gorges.
Agriculture is the main productive activity in the
area, with 67.7% of the population engaged in
some agricultural activity (CAN, 2009). In the
south west of Ecuador (province of Loja) there is
a considerable diversity of uses of native plants,
mainly as building materials, medicine, and food
(Kvist et al., 2006).
There are several products that are obtained in
the area, but in recent years the production of
tara (Caesalpinia spinosa) has been highlighted
(see Figure 14.4.). This leguminous plant has
several characteristics, both in ornamental terms
and related to tannin production (NCI, 2016).
Figure 14.4. The tara (Caesalpinia spinosa) is one of the main agricultural products produced and harvested in the Pisaca
Reserve. It is an export product after the work of community associations of farmers and collectors in the area.
Fotos: Marco Albarracín
There are several ecosystem servpotentiated by
a management with an ecohydrological approach
in the micro-basin of the San Pedro Mártir River,
but undoubtedly these stand out: (1) availability
of water for human consumption and irrigation,
(2) materials and resources such as food, seeds,
and medicines obtained from protected areas and
agroforestry systems, (3) the recovery of values
and appropriation of the community by an enhan-
After a project led by the organized society of
the community and NCI, with support from the
Belgian Cooperation, between 2017 and 2018
more than 14 tons of tara seed were exported to
Peru (W. Collaguazo, personal communication,
21 June 2017). These seeds serve as raw ma-
terial in the industry for the production of tara
gum, which is a product of great importance in
the industries of food and leathers (tannins).
ced sense of place and identity with the ancestral
Paltas culture, and (4) ) the possibilities of tou-
rism from the recovery of the landscape.
d. Resilience
Resilience is a concept that is defined as the ca-
pacity for adaptation and recovery of a system,
whatever it may be, in the face of external or
Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 141
 142 Paltas–Catacocha Ecohydrology Demonstration Site
internal affectations (Holling, 1973). In envi-
ronmental terms, resilience is the capacity of an
ecosystem to adapt to adversities and recover in
such a way that it can continue to maintain its mo-
vements of energy (e.g. within the trophic chain
or in the prey-predator relationship) and mate-
rials (e.g. water and biogeochemical cycles). As
a consequence of this capacity of the system, the
production of living matter (plants and animals),
or biomass, is ensured. Additionally, the ecosys-
tem produces environmental services to continue
providing benefits to the community, as explai-
ned in the previous section.
On the other hand, resilience can be analysed
from the point of view of the ability of a popu-
lation to adapt to catastrophic situations. The
community of Paltas arrived at a moment of cri-
sis regarding the supply of water but is showing
signs of recovery based on social participation
and the use of ancestral knowledge as a way to
face the catastrophes. As explained above, the
city of Catacocha only had one hour of water per
day. This prompted a migratory phenomenon
when many of the inhabitants of the area left their
land and settled in distant places of the country
or abroad. However, many stayed and, with the
support of organizations and people that were
originally from Paltas and established groups and
associations to support those who chose to stay,
it was possible to improve the conditions of water
supply, both for human consumption and irriga-
tion, of utmost importance for the socio-econo-
mic development of the area. The water supply
system reached values higher than six hours per
day in the dry season; it is not the optimal situa-
tion, but it demonstrates the adaptability and ap-
titude of social re-composition of the Paltenses in
the face of adverse phenomena.
Even if the impact of how these management ac-
tivities have influenced the resilience capacity of
the San Pedro Mártir River basin has not been
quantified in a technical and systematic way, the
results obtained are undoubtedly proof that the
undertakings made by the authorities and the
community in general have improved the rela-
tionship between people and nature.
e. Cultural heritage
The Paltas cultural heritage is based on a long
and dynamic history of human settlements. In
these territories there are vestiges of aborigi-
nal cultures that populated the place more than
2000 years ago. Later, the Incas, in the process
of expansion of their Tahuantinsuyo empire, oc-
cupied the territory and brought with them an
exchange of knowledge and technologies; accor-
ding to historians, the Paltas did not bend easily
to the imperialist Inca plan.
There are several vestiges of the presence of abo-
riginal cultures in the area. In museums in the
city of Catacocha there are pieces associated with
the Paltas culture. Petroglyphs with motifs rela-
ted to natural objects and deities are well known
in the area, as can be seen in Figure 14.5.
igure 14.5. Particularity of a petroglyph associated with the aboriginal culture of the area of Paltas. Source: CESMAT (2018 )

The Inca invasion did not last much, and the
Spanish conquest followed. The city of Cataco-
cha, the capital of Paltas, is one of the oldest mu-
nicipalities of what is now Ecuador since it was
founded in 1824. The architecture of churches
(see Figure 14.6.), convents and colonial houses
shows the particularities of construction and cus-
toms typical of the Spanish culture. At present,
the phenotype of the Paltenses reveals a mixture
and the great diversity of cultures that have sett-
led on the area.

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 144 Paltas–Catacocha Ecohydrology Demonstration Site
Figure 14.6. Main Church of the city of Catacocha.
Photo: Marco Albarracín.
All this historical wealth was rescued by the Na-
tional Government with the recognition of Cata-
cocha as Cultural Patrimony of the Nation on May
25, 1994. The recognition of the technology for
Figure 14.7. Zoomorphic representation of a snake. Petroglyph of Anganuma, Quilanga. The dotted line indicates what could
be interpreted as a basin scale model with wetlands inside it..
Sourcess: CESMAT (2018) ; Ramón (2017b)
water resources management used by the ances-
tors of the zone has originated a great sense of
identity among the Paltenses. The recovery of the
Paltas ancestral knowledge and their water ma-
nagement techniques are the cornerstone of the
nomination of the San Pedro Mártir river basin
as an ecohydrological demonstration site. Accor-
ding to Ramón (2017b), there are petroglyphs in
the area (see Figures 14.7 and 14.8) that would
indicate, by way of maps or scale models, that the
Paltas knew and dominated the management of
water in the basins through the creation and in-
terconnection of wetlands.
Several rocks have been found with small holes
dug and connected to each other. According to
Ramón (2017b) these would be evidences of the
knowledge and the importance that the Paltas
gave to maintaining the gaps connected to each
other for the optimization of the resource. Figure
14.8. indicates what, according to historian Galo
Ramón, would be a sort of interconnected series
of lagoons.
Figure 14.8. Excavations in a rock that may represent interconnected lagoons.
Source Ramón (2017b)
The interpretation given to the petroglyphs was
later used to search the area for evidence of dried
lagoons in order to proceed with their restora-
tion. The photos of Figure 14.2. show the Pisaca
lagoon before the restoration.
In summary, the recognition of the ancestral
knowledge of the Paltas culture was properly
used to initiate a whole process of management
of the water system in Catacocha. The cultural
recognition in the management of the natural re-
sources in Paltas-Catacocha agrees with Mitchell
(2018) and with Galo Ramón in his contribution
as a guest author, who emphasize the importance
of integration of the cultural aspect to generate
awareness and identity in the community about
the management of environmental resources.
14.4. Historical review of the
creation of the demonstra-
tion site
In June 2017, the municipality of Paltas, in the
mayor’s office of Architect Ramiro Maita Sánchez
(guest author), won first place in Group II of the
Green Award granted by the State Bank (BDE) with
the project “San Pedro Mártir Micro-watershed and
the Pisaca Reserve Management Plan as a Rechar-
ge Area for the Sources that Supply Water for Hu-
man Consumption to the City of Catacocha”. The
proposal proved to have a high environmental and
social accomplishments in its application. It was
highlighted that the project had an exceptional link
with the knowledge of indigenous people prior to
the Incas, called Paltas, and demonstrated a clear
social participation, including decision makers,
civil society organizations, students of schools and
colleges of the city, and non-governmental organi-
zations, among others.
The practices carried out proved to be in accor-
dance with the ecohydrological approach when
managing water resources through the construc-
tion of albarradas and tajamares and, through the-
se actions, obtain positive results in terms of water
quantity and quality, improvements in biodiversity
through the protection of the areas surrounding the
albarradas, generation of ecosystem services such
as the tara (Caesalpinia spinosa) project, and im-
provements in the resilience capacity of ecosystems
facing human and climatic affectations.
Subsequently, in June 2017, at the Water Forum of
the city of Catacocha in the municipality of Paltas, in
unison with the broadcast of the achievement of the
green prize, the presentation of the water resources
Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 145
 146 Paltas–Catacocha Ecohydrology Demonstration Site
management experience of the micro-basin of the
San Pedro Mártir River was discussed and approved
to be considered as a demonstration site of ecohy-
drology by the UNESCO International Hydrologi-
cal Programme.
On September 20, 2017, the Nature and Culture
International Corporation (NCI) signed an adden-
dum to the Institutional Cooperation Agreement
between the Municipality of Paltas and NCI with the
intention that the principles of ecohydrology of the
UNESCO-IHP be inserted in the long-term local
planning and that NCI provide technical and eco-
nomic support to the municipality, independently
of the dynamics and the political changes. Subse-
quently, NCI hired the services of the company
INGERALEZA S.A. of Quito to be in charge of the
preparation of the technical file and the postulation
of the demonstration site before UNESCO-IHP.
Aerial view of Laguna Pisaca. Photo: César Aguirre Torres
On November 24, 2017 through official letter No.
01279 - AGADCP -2017, Ramiro Maita Sánchez,
as Mayor of the Decentralized Autonomous Gover-
nment of Paltas, contacted the UNESCO-IHP Eco-
hydrology Programme expressing interest in being
part of the Ecohydrology Demonstrative Sites Ne-
twork and, additionally, the commitment to inclu-
de the ecohydrological approach in the Integrated
Management of Water Resources of the San Pedro
Mártir Micro-basin and the Pisaca Reserve, as the
main source of water for the city of Catacocha.
The application of Paltas - Catacocha was prepa-
red and sent by INGERALEZA S.A. in November
of 2017 to be reviewed by the Scientific Advisory
Committee on Ecohydrology of UNESCO-IHP;
they generated observations on the application, and
these were clarified by the consulting team.
Guest author Ramiro Maita Sánchez, Catacocha - Ecuador arq.rmaita@hotmail.com

The importance of political support for the

integrated management of water resources
in Paltas
No one can be happy without participating in public happi-
ness, no one can be free without the experience of public
freedom, and nobody can be happy or free without getting
involved and being part of the transparent exercise of politics,
which in essence is to SERVE THE COMMUNITY.
.
The ancestral practice of the Paltas to manage their wetlands allowed them to face the long droughts
that the southern part of Ecuador has endured for centuries. For the municipality of Paltas the fact of
retaking this management model has meant helping to alleviate the water shortage in the city of Ca-
tacocha. Regarding the supply of the vital fluid, before starting the reconstruction of the management
system of wetlands the city had up to 30 minutes of water per day, which later increased to four hours.
This same situation is faced by large areas of the national territory and worldwide, which has caused
much poverty, deaths, and pandemics. A practice like that of our ancestors, the Paltas, is a living exam-
ple that is worthy of replication in other latitudes and can become a solution for other peoples.
With this background and having assumed the responsibility of administering public funds in search of
the development of my territory, our idea, as an authority, has been and is to promote the possibility of
Catacocha being recognized internationally for the use of our natural resources, positioning the hard
work of years that, at the same time, allows us to strengthen this work and achieve greater cooperation
to expand projects like this one.
Thanks to inter-institutional support, we signed up for the Green Prize, an initiative convened by the
Ecuadorian Development Bank; we achieved the first position in the middle-sized municipal GAD cate-
gory, strata 3 and 4, with a prize of 225 thousand dollars.
Our political decisions are focused on the fair management of our people’s goods in a transparent
manner and that this work will consolidate on its own, without personal interests. What we seek is
to generate in our territory the development and positioning of our natural strengths: we are the ga-
teway to the Bosques de Paz Biosphere Reserve of the Man and the Biosphere (MAB) programme of
UNESCO, we have a historical and cultural legacy evidenced not only in the architecture of our homes
or in the archaeological findings, but in the ancestral knowledge that, from generation to generation,
has been transmitted and has made us a people full of faith in ourselves and capable of overcoming
the vicissitudes, including those coming from nature itself, whose obvious example is the care and
conservation of water.
This has allowed us to get the honourable designation as “UNESCO Ecohydrology Demonstrative Site”
via the proposal “Recovering the ancestral system of water resources management of Los Paltas with
an ecohydrological approach to supply water to Catacocha “; this compels us to continue cultivating
our ancestral practices for the water resources management of water resources and water supply to
the city of Catacocha, for being friendly with the environment and because, for us, it represents a roo-
ted historical legacy of PALTA CULTURE, which is our letter of introduction to the whole world.

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 147

 148 Paltas–Catacocha Ecohydrology Demonstration Site

We hope that Paltas is a territory of opportunities for the generation of an integral and sustainable
development of the family, especially of the productive sectors and the less favoured ones. We must
promote the idea of a united society capable of investing in our inhabitants. Thus, our management
ideals are embodied in actions, principles, and values that aim to guide new attitudes in the inhabitants,
creating conscience of responsible citizenship that, with the passage of time, will allow us to guarantee
the construction of a society with ideological bases and of efficient work; we consider that it is the
most appropriate mechanism of progress that we can implement from the south of the country.
We fully trust our citizens and with joint actions we will achieve the positioning of our homeland as
“First among the First”. With the initiatives of men and women, who from different geographical points,
urban and rural, day by day deliver their talents for the aggrandizement and progress of their munici-
pal home, gaining more effectiveness with our scientific, academic, and investigative contributions, in
which our Catacocha has been strengthened as Cultural Patrimony of the Nation.
I reiterate my commitment to work for my territory and all the Paltenses, because “We work for a
better life”.

Ramiro Maita Sánchez was born in the city of Catacocha on May 4,

1961; his higher studies were carried out at the Universidad Técnica
Particular de Loja and at the University of Guayaquil, School of Archi-
tecture and Urbanism. He has a Diploma in Training in Public Mana-
gement and one in Governance. His professional career is marked by
service to the community. For several years he worked in Plan Interna-
cional as a teacher in the rural area, which allowed him to know closely
the needs of the communities. As an architect he has worked in seve-
ral works at the municipal, provincial, and national levels. Currently his
main objective is to promote the development and growth of the Paltas
municipality, framed in the current conditions of competitiveness, with
the purpose of contributing to the improvement of the quality and war-
mth of our peoples´ life.

On February 27, 2018, within the framework of the
Ecohydrology Congress and meeting of the Scienti-
fic Advisory Committee, the proposal, with the bles-
sing and on behalf of the municipality of Paltas, was
presented by Marco Albarracín, coordinator of the
Ecohydrology Programme of INGERALEZA SA, to
the members of the Scientific Advisory Committee
on Ecohydrology of UNESCO-IHP at the Universi-
ty of the Algarve in the city of Faro, Portugal. Sub-
sequently, the Committee deliberated and decided
to integrate the Paltas Demonstration Site into the
UNESCO-IHP global network.
The application process was concluded on March
6, 2018 when Dr Giuseppe Arduino, Section Chief
of Ecohydrology, Water Quality and Water Educa-
tion of UNESCO’s International Hydrological Pro-
gramme, officially notified the Mayor of Paltas the
inclusion of Paltas-Catacocha to the Ecohydrology
Network of Demonstrative Sites of UNESCO-IHP.
Subsequently, the official launching of the Pal-
tas-Catacocha Ecohydrology Demonstration Site
was carried out by means of a formal act that cau-
ght the attention of both national and local autho-
rities on April 27, 2018 in the People’s Hall of the
Municipality of Catacocha. In the act, cooperation
agreements were signed between the Municipali-
ty of Paltas and several research and development
institutions, among which the Particular Technical
University of Loja (UTPL) and Nature and Culture
International (NCI) stand out.
In summary, the object of cooperation will be aimed
at strengthening the demonstration site through the
integration of scientific research and capacity buil-
ding on issues related to ecohydrology.
The launching event was attended by the Underse-
cretary of Social Articulation of the National Secre-
tariat of Water, Dr Mariana Yumbay Yallico, whom
we have requested to provide us with an extract of
her speech.

Guest author Mariana Yumbay Yallico, Quito - Ecuador mariana.yumbay@senagua.gob.ec

Excerpt from the speech presented at the offi-

cial launch of the “ Paltas - Catacocha Ecohy-
drology Demonstration Site”
Receive on behalf of the Secretariat of Water (SENAGUA) an affectionate greeting and our genuine
satisfaction for the recognition of the International Hydrological Programme (IHP) of UNESCO to the
Autonomous Decentralized Government (GAD) of the Paltas Municipality as the first Ecohydrology
Demonstration Site in Ecuador and, in that sense, as one of only 23 members of this important World
Network. We highlight the work of UNESCO - IHP and its efforts in Ecuador to reverse the degradation
of water resources, stop the loss of biodiversity, and face the problems arising from growing climate
instability, population growth, and human migration.
This recognition is a tangible manifestation of the benefits derived from concerted action between
the Water Secretariat and civil society organizations in order to promote a responsible and integrated
water resources management. Thanks to this institutional participation, articulated work has been
possible in the San Pedro Mártir micro-watershed between the Paltas municipality, the Catamayo-Chi-
ra River Basin, Nature and Culture International, COMUNIDEC, the Provincial Autonomous Provincial
Government of Loja, the Marist School and its EcoClub, the associations of producers and local com-
munities, among other actors, with the aim of recovering the vegetation cover and promoting the
conservation of water sources.
Around this recognition of UNESCO at least three approaches are articulated that align with the strate-
gic visions included in the national and international legal framework for the management of water re-
sources and that are part of the institutional policies that we have been promoting. In the first place, if
water is considered to be a transversal element of sustainable development, essential for food, forests,
energy, health, human well-being and for life itself, we can see that in Paltas joint actions and long-
term political commitments have been established among all local, public and private actors around
integrated visions for the sustainable management of water. Aware of the various threats that plague
the provision of water to local communities, they have faced the urgent need to reduce the degrada-
tion of water resources, promoting actions aimed at the recognition and optimization of ecosystem
services together with the improvement of the basin´s resistance against the pressures exerted by
climate change and by the expansion of the productive activities of local communities. We see with
satisfaction that solutions have been developed and shared to face the most urgent challenges related
to water, based on the promotion of research and innovation, and opting for a proposal framed in the
guidelines of ecohydrology, that is, in the adoption of an approach based on an understanding of the
intimate relationship between water cycles and ecosystem cycles, in order to improve the carrying ca-

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150 Paltas–Catacocha Ecohydrology Demonstration Site

pacity of the basin, protect biodiversity, expand resilience, and increase ecosystem goods and services.
Second, we witness important advances in the issue of community water management, and, in this
regard, we highlight those efforts to recognize the role of indigenous communities and peoples and
encourage the deployment of best practices for the strengthening of water resources, their own forms
of organization, and their capacities for water management. For the Water Secretariat the progress
that can be made in local spaces around community water management is of supreme importance
since we consider that this policy allows an integrated approach, both in the administration and in the
use of water, and that, at the same time, contributes to the strengthening of the local identity and the
recovery of the knowledge and customs of the communities and other organizational instances that
have been working for many years within this territorial jurisdiction.
Finally, for SENAGUA this designation carries a greater significance because it recognizes that the
Paltas municipality is careful in the recovery of their ancestral knowledge. This is aligned with one of
the most relevant mandates contained in the Organic Law of Water Resources and which represents
the recognition of the right of peoples and nationalities to maintain and strengthen their own forms of
organization through which they administer their ancestral territories, distribute, and take advantage
of their natural resources.
This recognition by UNESCO of the importance of ancestral knowledge and practices, on the other
hand, is a way of recognizing the right of nationalities and peoples to self-determination since, in the
field of water resources management, this recognition means the opening of institutional spaces to
make visible and legitimize the management models that indigenous peoples have used since time
immemorial, as is the case of these communities that self-identify as part of a Paltas culture and that
have proven to be effective, both in the reassignment as in the availability of the water resource.
Thank you.

Mariana Yumbay Yallico is a Kichwa woman from the Waranka village

in the province of Bolívar. She is a Doctor in Jurisprudence and a law-
yer in the courts of the Republic (Central University of Ecuador). She
specialized in Collective Rights (Universidad Andina Simón Bolívar),
and holds a master’s degree in Criminal Law and Criminology (Univer-
sidad Autónoma Regional de los Andes, Ambato). Expert in Indigenous
Peoples, Human Rights and International Cooperation by the Carlos
III University of Madrid, Spain, she was an adviser to several peasant
and indigenous organizations at the national level, and a consultant
to several national and international organizations. She was a parlia-
mentarian of the National Congress. She served as Judge of Criminal
Guarantees of Traffic of Bolívar, and as magistrate of the National Court of Justice of Ecuador.
She has been a university teacher. Currently she is the Undersecretary of Social and Articulation
of Water Resources of the National Water Secretariat (SENAGUA)..
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Carpenter, S. R., Mooney, H. A., Agard, J., Capistrano, D., DeFries, R. S., Díaz,
S., Pereira, H. M. (2009). Science for managing ecosystem services:
Beyond the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences, 106(5), 1305-1312.
CESMAT. (2018 ). Mostra “Patrimonio Rupestre y Creación Artística” Retrie-
ved from http://cesmap.it/mostra-patrimonio-rupestre-y-creacion-artis-
tica-dal-15-al-30-novembre-2017-loja-ecuador/
Cueva, E. (2015). Cálculos del Stock de Carbono en la Reserva Pisaca.
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arquivos/037913f057ce79d1816662e82b8d9ac2Cueva_2015_Infor-
me-Stock-de-carbono-Reserva-Pisaca.pdf
Holling, C. S. (1973). Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annual
Review of Ecology and Systematics, 4(1), 1-23.
Huber, A., Iroumé, A., Mohr, C. and Frêne, C. (2010). Efecto de plantacio-
nes de Pinus radiata y Eucalyptus globulus sobre el recurso agua
en la Cordillera de la Costa de la región del Biobío, Chile. Bosque
(Valdivia), 31(3), 219-230. https://dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0717-
92002010000300006
Kvist, P., Aguirre-Mendoza, Z. and Sánchez, O. (2006). Bosques montanos
bajos occidentales en Ecuador y sus plantas útiles,205-223. M. Mo-
raes, R.B. Ollgaard, L.P. Kvist, F. Borchsenius y H. Balslev. Universidad
Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia, Latina y el Caribe. Santiago
(Chile). FAO, 147-167.
MEA, M. E. A. (2005). Ecosystems and human well-being: current state
and trends. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, Global Assessment
Reports.
Mitchell, B. (2002). Resource and Environmental Management: Pearson
Education.
Myers, N., Mittermeier, R. A., Mittermeier, C. G., Da Fonseca, G. A. and Kent,
J. (2000). Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature,
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NCI. (2016). Vainillo será otro rubro de Exportación de Loja. Retrieved from
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nillo.htm
Ramón, G. (2017a). Cata Cocha o la Gran Laguna. Loja Humana. Retrieved
from http://www.lojahumana.com/cata-cocha-o-la-granlaguna/
Ramón, G. (2017b). [Presentación del Manejo de la cuenca San Pedro Már-
tir ante Jurado Calificador del Premio Verde del Banco del Estado].
Román, C. J. (2014). Implementación de las Competencias Exclusivas del
Gobierno Autónomo Descentralizado Municipal de Paltas para Garan-
tizar la Conservación, Recuperación y Manejo de Fuentes y Zonas de
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(Máster en Desarrollo Rural), Universidad Nacional de Loja, Loja. Re-
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Jorge%20Rom%-C3%A1n%20Prado_Tesis.pdf
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Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 151
Las Grietas, Santa Cruz, Galápagos. Photo: M. Albarracín
Chapter 15
Sites where the ecohydrological approach is being developed in Ecuador
15.1. The Municipality of Santa Cruz,
Galapagos
15.1.1. Background
The Municipality of Santa Cruz is part of the In-
sular Region of Galápagos and is one of the three
municipalities of the province of the same name,
along with San Cristóbal (Chatham) and Isabela
(Albemarle). Puerto Baquerizo Moreno, a city on
San Cristóbal Island, serves as the administrative
capital of the province, although the most popu-
lated city is Puerto Ayora, on Santa Cruz (Indefa-
tigable) Island.
The Galapagos Islands were recognized by
UNESCO as a World Heritage Site in 1978 and
were declared a Biosphere Reserve in 1985. Ta-
king only their protected terrestrial territory, the
entire Galápagos Archipelago has 96.7% of its
extension designated for protection and conser-
vation of ecosystems, while the remaining 3.3%
corresponds to colonized urban and rural areas
(Parque Nacional Galápagos, 2014). However,
this situation is different if only the island of San-
ta Cruz is considered since it is the most popula-
ted island. The values of the conservation terri-
tory of Santa Cruz are best explained by Noémi
d’Ozouville, our next guest author.
In 2007, UNESCO placed the Galapagos Islands
on its List of World Heritage in Danger (Galapa-
gos National Park, 2014) due to threats caused
by invasive species, unbridled tourism, and over-
fishing. On July 29, 2010, the UNESCO World
Heritage Committee decided to remove Galapa-
gos from that list because the Committee consi-
dered that Ecuador had made important progress
in addressing these problems (Gaona, 2017).
The population of the municipality of Santa Cruz,
according to the census conducted by INEC
(2010), was 15,393 people, of which 77.8% is
located in the city of Puerto Ayora, and of these
15.8% in Bellavista and 6.5% in Santa Rosa, both
rural parishes of the city. The population growth
rate was 3.35% per year. The Santa Cruz muni-
cipality has an area of 31,121.37 km2, of which
94.22% corresponds to the Marine Area and
the remaining 5.8% to the terrestrial area. Santa
Cruz Island has a land area of 983.41 km2. Other
important islands, not inhabited, which corres-
pond politically to the municipality are Baltra
(South Seymour), where the airport is located,
and the islands of Santiago (James), Marchena
and Pinta (Abingdon) (INEC, 2018, Galapagos
National Park, 2014).
With the exception of San Cristóbal, the islands
of the archipelago do not possess surface water
resources because their soil is of volcanic origin,
relatively young (geologically speaking) and that,
due to its porosity, has little retention capacity.
Only San Cristóbal possesses a natural lake ca-
lled El Junco. In the rest of the islands, small wa-
ter sources and pools are produced seasonally,
which are used by local fauna such as turtles and
land iguanas. But most water for human use and
consumption comes from small reservoirs crea-
ted in the high areas of the islands by private ow-
ners, or by the extraction of brackish water from
small cracks and underground sources.
Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 153
154 Sites where the hydroecological approach is developed in Ecuador

Guest author Noémi d’Ozouville, Galapagos - Ecuador pajarobrujo@gmail.com

Ecohidrology of Santa Cruz, Galápagos

The Galapagos Islands are of volcanic origin following the action of a “hot spot” on the Nazca plate
below the western islands of the archipelago and the mid oceanic dorsal area, north of the archipela-
go. The islands are similar in their formation to the Hawaiian Islands or the Canary Islands. However,
because of its young age of less than 5 million years and because of the dry climate that prevails due
to its oceanic location on the equatorial line, the hydrology of the islands is very different from that of
the mainland or other islands.
Only one island, among the oldest, that of San Cristóbal, has permanent fresh water sources on its
surface, from which small rivers that flow towards the sea are born. Santa Cruz, the most populated
island, is located in the central part of the archipelago.
Santa Cruz Island is characterized by the absence of superficial, permanent, or at least notable water
currents. The water resources present on Santa Cruz include: (a) a small slope at the base of a volcanic
cone of slag near the town of Santa Rosa, with a flow rate of less than 0.01 l/s; (b) Sphagnum (peat
moss) pools saturated with water in the craters of the cones of the highest part of the island; (c) se-
mi-permanent pools, fancied by giant tortoises; (d) surface and sub-surface runoff, temporary during
the garúa season or during prolonged winters; (e) a basal aquifer; and (f) a possible aquifer suspended
in the windward slope of the island. The presence of well-marked gouges indicates the existence of
recurrent phenomena of temporary run-off. These phenomena were seen during the El Niño years
1982-1983 and 1997-1998, but also in the years 2008, 2010, and 2012. There is also some infrastruc-
ture that has some influence on the islands ecohydrology: (a) water reservoirs with geo-membranes in
rural areas, and (b) artificial reservoirs for the treatment of wastewater.
An important feature of the Galapagos Islands is the protection of almost 97% of its terrestrial surface
as a National Park. In the inhabited islands, this percentage is lower since a large part of the wet zone
on the windward sides consists of rural areas dedicated to agricultural and tourist activity. On Santa
Cruz, 70% of its surface is a protected area within the National Park, including the entire surface of the
northward leeward side of the island. Windward, the agricultural, livestock, and populated areas are
concentrated. The protected area plays an important role in maintaining the ecosystem services on
the island. Beyond the limits of the Park, considering the extension of the rural area, it is important to
implement good practices for livestock, agricultural, and silvo-pastoral activities, and also to control
invasive species to ensure the provision of ecosystem services. Public entities, with the support of the
productive sector and non-profit organizations, point to this reality. The Territorial Ordinance of the Pro-
vince, and the specific policies that apply for the territory of Santa Cruz, seek to limit polluting activities
in the vicinity of water points, for example.
The progress of ecohydrology in Santa Cruz is particularly important on three fronts:
1. Resilience to climate change. The vegetation strip between 450 and 650 masl plays an important
role in increasing the water recharge during the garúa season, which shows greater constancy from
one year to the next; and on the other hand, it offers shade during the summer season and soil
retention and erosion control during the winter season. Endemic species, such as the Galápagos
petrel, nest in these areas and contribute to important fertilization, after the contribution of marine
nutrients to the terrestrial environment.
2. Pollution reduction. The implementation of artificial dry swamps in Santa Cruz for the treatment of
wastewater is novel in Galapagos. These innovative ecosystems integrate the best of environmen-
 tal practices and the particular characteristics of the Galápagos. They allow the return of deconta-
minated water to the environment, while the plants offer habitat and food for birds and insects, and
the infrastructure can serve educational purposes, generating awareness in the community.
3. Groundwater. Santa Cruz Island is known for “cracks” – open fractures in the coastal strip – where
it is possible to access the groundwater level of the base aquifer. In Santa Cruz these are brackish,
a result of the very weak hydraulic gradient due to the low recharge and high permeability of the
medium. Cracks and other fractures represent preferential water-flow paths. And this is reflected in
the land-sea interface where the base aquifer ends. The possible presence of an aquifer suspended
in the upper part contributes to eco-hydrology in two ways: (i) in normal times, it is likely that the
aquifer will be discharged into the base aquifer, creating sites with a higher water table and lower
salinity; (ii) in times of high recharge, it is possible that the aquifer has a connection with the conse-
quent formation of shallow pools in the upper part.
The Pelican Bay watershed, from the highest part of the island to Puerto Ayora, includes wetlands
protected by the Galapagos National Park, agricultural areas, potable water supply points, dry mar-
shes, and base aquifer cracks. It is a unique and priority place in which to continue researching
ecohydrology on the island and the province and to link these efforts in the international context..

Noémi d’Ozouville was born in France in 1978. After working as a

volunteer at the Charles Darwin Research Station in 2000-2001, she
returned to the Galapagos Islands to investigate their hydrology. Du-
ring her initial stay she was able to appreciate the lack of existing
information and research on this subject and its importance for the
conservation and sustainable development of the islands. After ob-
taining her doctorate from Paris 6 University in France in 2007, she
returned to live in Galapagos. The research programme is still acti-
ve, and the main results can be found at www.galapagos-hydrology.
fr. Noémi has worked as a consultant in the Vulnerability Analysis
of the Galapagos against Climate Change and in the Land Manage-
ment Plan, among others. Additionally, she has worked at the Charles Darwin Foundation in
scientific and financial coordination..

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 155

 156 Sites where the hydroecological approach is developed in Ecuador

15.2. Water resources management place where the most important tourist, research,
in Santa Cruz, Galapagos protection of nature, commerce, etc. activities
are coordinated.
In general, throughout the province of Galapa-
gos, but in Puerto Ayora in particular, there is an
Bottled water is the most used way for human
inadequate and insufficient infrastructure of ba-
consumption in Santa Cruz. The water desalina-
sic water services (Parque Nacional Galápagos,
tion and purification system from cracks (see Fi-
2014). The supply of drinking water for human
gure 15.1.) is in the implementation stage, but at
consumption, the treatment of wastewater, and
the moment it is not working and operating in its
the provision of food from the island’s farms for
entirety. The economic investment for the drin-
self-supply are the most water-related issues on
king water system of Santa Cruz is high, although
populated islands. This problem is very clear in
justified (City Hall of Santa Cruz, no date).
the city of Puerto Ayora due to its being a relati-
vely large human settlement, and because it is the

Figure 15.1.Pumping and desalination system of brackish groundwater through reverse osmosis in Santa Cruz Galápagos.

Photos Marco Albarracín.

On the other hand, in the high and middle part of
the island, agriculture and livestock activities are
developed that provide food to the population of
Santa Cruz and even other towns of the archipe-
lago. These activities consume a large amount of
water resources and are also related to processes
of pollution by fertilizers and pesticides.
Although most of the water resources in Santa
Cruz come from underground sources, there is
a limited or total absence of management and
protection of aquifers (Parque Nacional Galápa-
gos, 2014). The lack of infrastructure for the
treatment of wastewater produces pollution of
underground water resources that have high le-
vels of pollution, mainly from faecal coliforms.
However, in recent years several “artificial dry
wetlands” have been implemented on the island
(see Figure 15.2.) as a biotechnological tool to
Figure 15.2. Artificial dry wetland for the treatment of wastewater from a fish evisceration plant in Santa Cruz, Galapagos.
Photo: Marco Albarracín.
deal with polluting discharges. These wetlands
have been located in places where groundwater
contamination is evident. For example, the evis-
ceration of fish is a highly-polluting activity that
contaminates soil and then infiltrates towards the
aquifers. To deal with this environmental pro-
blem, the municipality has determined a specific
slaughterhouse for fish evisceration and located
an artificial dry wetland for the treatment of was-
tewater.
Artificial dry wetlands for wastewater treatment
are an ecohydrological tool among the biotech-
nological solutions. By harmonizing this techni-
que with other water treatment infrastructures,
more than 80% of the contaminants can be redu-
ced before reaching the aquifers.
Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 157
 158 Sites where the hydroecological approach is developed in Ecuador

As a summary, the municipality of Santa Cruz 15.3. The Chone River Basin
was able to adopt the management tools of the (Manabí)
ecohydrological approach for the management
The Chone River basin is one of the 17 hydrogra-
of its water resources. At the moment, many
phic sub-basins found in the Manabí Hydrogra-
practices are already being carried out in this
phic Demarcation (DHM). The DHM is located
sense, but they must be strengthened, and, abo-
in the coastal region of Ecuador and has an area of
ve all, scientific data must be produced to de-
11,483.68 km2 and a population of 1’149,748
monstrate the dual-regulation of the biotic and
inhabitants, which correspond to approximately
hydrological systems that are being implemen-
8% of the Ecuadorian population. The DHM is
ted in the area to increase community benefits
located in three of the 24 provinces of Ecuador,
from ecosystem services.
but most of it (97.7%) in the province of Manabí.
This is one of the nine hydrographic demarca-
Due to the implications of water management
tions of Ecuador and has and independent admi-
in Puerto Ayora and its rural parishes, the
nistrative management through the Undersecre-
possibility has been considered to present the
tary of the Hydrographic Demarcation of Manabí
Municipality of Santa Cruz as a possible ecohy-
(Zambrano-Mera, 2014).
drology demonstration site. For this, the local
government must apply within its model of wa-
In recent years, major hydraulic infrastructure
ter management the tools of the ecohydrologi-
works for water management have been carried
cal approach in order to solve problems related
out within the DHM. The most significant works
to the water resources management. The stren-
are the dams Daule - Peripa, La Esperanza, and
gthening of good management practices that, at
Poza Honda, and transfers I, II, and III. These
present, have been implemented by the munici-
infrastructure works have been developed with
pality and the Galapagos National Park should
the objective of providing drinking water for the
also be considered.
cities of Manabí, including the capital Portoviejo
and Chone, and for irrigation systems within the
province (see Figure 15.3.).

Photo: Eduardo Infantes

Figure 15.3. Infrastructure works to supply irrigation and drinking water within the Manabí Hydrographic Demarcation.
Source: Zambrano-Mera (2014)
The Chone River basin is one of the most impor-
tant livestock areas in Ecuador, with an approxi-
mate number of 198,082 cattle heads, which
corresponds to 25.30% of production in the pro-
vince of Manabí and 5.42% in the country. Wi-
thin this basin is the RAMSAR Wetland Ciénega
de La Segua (see Figure 15.4.), linked to the
Chone River estuary (Zambrano-Mera, 2014).
On this site there are still mangrove forests, one
of most threatened ecosystems by human activi-
ties. According to Zambrano-Mera (2014), the
estuary of the Chone River was separated from
the Ciénega de La Segua by an accumulation of
sediments from the river and originated by the
deforestation of the middle part of the basin,
about 85 years ago. This separation has produ-
ced that at the moment this wetland is exclusively
freshwater.
Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 159
 160 Sites where the hydroecological approach is developed in Ecuador

Figure 15.4.Chone river basin and location of the RAMSAR site Ciénega de la Segua.

Source: Zambrano-Mera (2014)

The upper part of the Chone River basin has a dry
tropical climate distributed in a strip approxima-
tely 60 km wide that begins in the north of Ma-
nabí and goes south crossing the east of the area.
The annual rainfall varies from 500 to 1,000
mm per year, with a rainy season from January to
April and a very dry summer with high tempera-
tures. The maximum altitude of the basin is over
700 masl. The area is prone to mass movements
(which accelerate erosion processes), as well as
floods and droughts. Some 200 families live in
this part of the basin. There are approximately
1,500 hectares of 3 to 4 blocks per family, while
about 60 families do not own land and work as
day laborers in the area. The predominant eco-
nomic activity is agriculture and the cultivation
of citrus fruits such as tangerines, oranges, and
grapefruit, as well as passion fruit. The months
of greatest production are June, July, August and
September. Therefore, both droughts and floods
have serious implications for the food security of
the communities that are downstream in the mi-
ddle of the basin (Gaona, 2017).
The middle zone of the basin is characterized by
gentle hills and fluvial valleys, with steep reliefs
occurring between 100 and 400 masl. The topo-
graphy in this area generates flood zones during
the winter. The livestock sector is the predomi-
nant activity and droughts and floods constitute
the main risk and threat to the population. In this
area, 29.12% of milk is produced (96,000 litres
per day), which is obtained mostly (85%) from
small producers, who supply around 40-200 li-
tters per day. In addition, the production of beef
with 220,000 cattle heads has turned the area
into the most cattle-producing municipality in
the country.
In the lower area of the basin mangrove forests
are found along the coastal strip. This ecosystem
is of great importance for it plays the role of flood
control, coastline stabilization, erosion control,
and water desalination of water entering the con-
tinental territory, among others. In this area, the
main economic activity is fishing, and in parti-
cular the production of shrimp. Since ancient
times, mangroves have supplied populations of
fishermen and artisanal collectors and have beco-
me the main source of protein for communities
and of businesses for the inhabitants, who also
benefit from its commercialization. Due to its
location, the climate is characterized by a strong
winter season that coincides with the first months
of the year and an extended summer from May to
References
Alcaldía de Santa Cruz. (No date). Plan de Desarrollo y Ordenamien-
to Territorial, Cantón Santa Cruz, 2015 - 2027. Quito, Ecuador:
Imprenta Torrescal.
Gaona, J. (2017). The Potential of Ecohydrology - Ecuadorian Case
Review.
INEC. (2018). Resultados del Censo 2010. Retrieved from http://
www.ecuadorencifras.gob.ec/resultados/
Parque Nacional Galápagos. (2014). Plan de Manejo de las Áreas
Protegidas de Galápagos para el Buen Vivir. Quito: Imprenta
Mariscal.
November, with annual maximum averages of be-
tween 1,500 and 1,750 mm in the western fringe
of the basin (Gaona, 2017).
As a result of an exchange of experiences be-
tween specialists and managers, the development
of a project for the sustainable management of
the Chone River estuary was proposed, where the
recurrent problems of infrastructure, tourism,
and health related to agriculture, aquaculture,
and fishing were identified (IX Meeting of Natio-
nal Committees and Focal Points UNESCO IHP
LAC, UNESCO-IHP, 2011) Three main pro-
jects have been carried out: Upper Basin: Diver-
sified Fruit System to increase its resilience. Mi-
ddle basin: Silvo-pastoral Resilience Experience.
Lower Basin: Management Plan of the Wildlife
Refuge Islas Corazones y Fragatas.
Due to the infrastructure for water management,
the presence of a RAMSAR wetland located in
the Chone River basin and the relationship with
the local population, the ecohydrological tools
indicated in this document can be very useful for
IWRM in this hydrographic system. Likewise,
the relationships that exist between the basin and
the marine-coastal resources can be studied in
depth and generate actions that allow obtaining
better ecosystem services of seafood products by
an improved catchment management
Zambrano-Mera, Y. E. (2014). Posibilidades de implementación de
un sistema de indicadores para la gestión de la sequía en la De-
marcación Hidrográfica de Manabí-Ecuador. Máster, Universidad
Politécnica de Valencia, Valencia, España. Retrieved from http://
repositorio.educacionsuperior.gob.ec/browse?type=author&va-
lue=Zambrano+Mera%2C+Yeriel+Elizabeth
 
Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 161
162 Ecohydrology and its implementation in Ecuador
Chapter 16
Scientific research programmes on
ecohydrology in Ecuador

In Ecuador some research initiatives related to
ecohydrology have been carried out. The largest
amount of scientific production on this subject
is led by the University of Cuenca, within the
Hydrology with a Mention in Ecohydrology mas-
ter’s programme from the Department of Water
Resources and Environmental Sciences (iDRHI-
CA), as indicated by our guest authors, Rolando
Célleri and Patricio Crespo, researchers and tea-
chers of this university.

Rolando Célleri rolando.celleri@ucuenca.edu.ec

Guest authors Cuenca, Ecuador
Patricio Crespo patricio.crespo@ucuenca.edu.ec

A master’s degree in Hydrology

with mention in Ecohydrology
Rolando Célleri Alvear1,2, Patricio Crespo Sánchez1,3
1 Department of Water Resources and Environmental Sciences, University of Cuenca
2 School of Engineering, University of Cuenca
3 School of Agricultural Sciences, University of Cuenca

Introduction
Water is essential for human development. Therefore, countries invest large amounts of money to
ensure that the population has access to this resource in sufficient quantity and acceptable quality
for different uses: drinking water, hydroelectric generation, and irrigation, among others. This is why
hydrological studies are carried out as a starting point for all water use projects since they determine
their availability at the sources.
However, economic activities do not always remain within the limits of the carrying capacity of the
ecosystems located in the catchments, which leads to a degradation of natural resources, protective
vegetation, and biodiversity and soils, to cite the most important. This, in turn, translates into a reduc-
tion in the availability of water, mainly the capacity of regulation and natural storage of the ecosystem.
If we add that the climate is very variable and that the projected climatic changes indicate that the
extremes will intensify in the future (very humid and very dry months), we have a scenario in which the
current water availability is very different from the future availability, which puts at risk the systems of
water uses.
The National Development Plan of Ecuador considers this problem. From the territorial analysis ca-
rried out for the elaboration of the Plan, there are also, in broad outline, several problems, principally
difficulties for the supply of safe water, which is why the water sources must be managed sustai-
nably. Consequently, among the specific objectives of the Plan, among other things, it is necessary

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 163

164 Scientific research programmes on ecohydrology in Ecuador

to: (i) identify, exploit, and use, in a sustainable manner, all water sources, (ii) implement a dynamic
national water inventory to characterize and quantify the supply and demand of water for production,
according to its uses and watersheds, and (iii) to promote the development and implementation of
water security plans.
To achieve these objectives, the participation of highly qualified professionals in hydrological studies is
necessary, people who understand not only the current situation but also future scenarios and incor-
porate them into studies of hydrological uncertainty. To do so, they must also know the relationships
between the ecology (terrestrial and aquatic) and the hydrological cycle, and the feedback between
soils, vegetation, water flows (through evaporation, transpiration, infiltration and runoff) and climate.
The area of hydrology that studies these processes at the ecosystem level is called ecohydrology, and
as such it is a relatively new area in hydrology.

The Master´s programme in Hydrology with mention in Ecohydrology

In line with national objectives, since 2015 the University of Cuenca has offered a research master’s
degree that trains professionals in the field of ecohydrology. The objective of the master’s programme
with mention in ecohydrology is the training of highly specialized professionals in the conservation and
management of water resources based on the current and future situation (global change), with a deep
understanding of the interrelations between hydrological and ecological processes, capable of critica-
lly analysing interdisciplinary problems, identifying gaps in knowledge, and generating new scientific
knowledge. This will be done through the design of ecohydrological and hydrometeorological moni-
toring systems, the use of advanced numerical simulation technologies and tools, and high skills to
disseminate this information through high-level scientific publications and presentations at technical
and scientific events. For this, it is necessary to acquire solidity in disciplinary subjects in ecology and
hydrology, as well as in interdisciplinary subjects in ecohydrology, as well as a strong foundation in key
tools such as statistics, programming, and geographic information systems. These men and women
will be trained to carry out professional activities as well as to initiate doctoral studies and develop an
academic career. The students of the master’s programme are able to enter the doctoral programme
in water resources offered by the University of Cuenca in conjunction with UTPL and EPN.
This is a full-time research programme, with a low cost, focused on the training of professionals ra-
ther than the generation of business. It is oriented to professionals who have a third level degree in
different branches of science. For more information visit our website https://www.ucuenca.edu.ec/
maestria-ecohidrologia/.
A critical issue when students select a master’s degree is the identification of the thesis topic. Thus,
we have succeeded in generating a bank of thesis topics fully funded and proposed by the research
groups of the Department of Water Resources and Environmental Sciences of the University of Cuen-
ca. The topics cover different lines of research. The selection of the thesis topic will be made at the
end of the first semester, giving the student time to complete his/her thesis during the two years of the
programme. This has already been evidenced when several students of the first batch have managed
to execute thesis topics of the highest scientific level worldwide, in the foreseen time, and that have
been presented in high impact international journals. Some of them have already been published by
high impact indexed journals, constituting an important milestone at national and regional level.
Additionally, we try to ensure that students receive the guidance of doctoral students and professors
of the highest world-class level in the area. This generates that the students expose their opinions and
experiences both from a technical and scientific point of view.
 Rolando Célleri Alvear is Lecturer at the University of Cuenca. His
research aims to identify the impacts of global change on the water
resources of Andean ecosystems and define adaptation measures.
One of his main lines of research is ecohydrology: its processes
and soil-vegetation-atmosphere relationships. He also studies hy-
drometeorological processes and the integral management of wa-
tersheds. His projects include elements of field monitoring – using
conventional and advanced sensors – as well as various modelling
techniques.

Patricio Crespo holds a PhD in Natural Sciences. He is currently a

principal investigator of the Department of Water Resources and En-
vironmental Sciences (iDRHICA) of the University of Cuenca, leads
the group of ecohydrology and ecohydrological tracers of the same
Department, and is director of the Master´s Programme in Hydro-
logy with mention in Ecohydrology. He has published more than 30
articles in indexed journals of high global impact and has directed
several national and international projects..

From the work carried out by iDRHICA a series of scientific publications available in the SCOPUS© sys-
tem have been released, and of which we list those related to ecohydrological research, ignoring those re-
lated only to hydrology, hydraulics, ecology, or related individual subjects.

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 165

Lake, Cajas National Park. Photo: Marco Albarracín
 166 Scientific research programmes on ecohydrology in Ecuador
Ochoa-Sánchez A, Crespo P, & Célleri R. (2018).
Quantification of rainfall interception in the high
Andean tussock grasslands. Ecohydrology;
e1946. https://doi.org/10.1002/eco.1946
Aparecido, L. M. T., Teodoro, G. S., Mosquera,
G., Brum, M., V Barros, F., Pompeu, P. V., ... &
Asbjornsen, H. (2018). Ecohydrological drivers
of Neotropical vegetation in montane ecosys-
tems. Ecohydrology. https://doi.org/10.1002/
eco.1932
Iñiguez-Armijos, C., Hampel, H., & Breuer, L. (2018).
Land-use effects on structural and functional
composition of benthic and leaf-associated
macroinvertebrates in four Andean streams.
Aquatic Ecology, 52(1), 77-92.
Hamel, P., Riveros‐Iregui, D., Ballari, D., Browning,
T., Célleri, R., Chandler, D., ... & Johnson, M.
(2017). Watershed services in the humid tro-
pics: Opportunities from recent advances
in ecohydrology. Ecohydrology. https://doi.
org/10.1002/eco.1921
Wright, C., Kagawa‐Viviani, A., Gerlein‐Safdi, C.,
Mosquera, G. M., Poca, M., Tseng, H., & Chun,
K. P. (2017). Advancing ecohydrology in the
changing tropics: Perspectives from early
career scientists. Ecohydrology. https://doi.
org/10.1002/eco.1918
Vimos, D., Martinez-Capel, F., & Hampel, H. (2017).
Environmental factors determining EPT com-
munities at basin and habitat scales in the
Andean headwater rivers of Ecuador. Ecohy-
On the other hand, Table 16.1. is a list of the
doctoral and master’s thesis topics that are in exe-
drology, 10:e1894. https://doi.org/10.1002/
eco.1894
Mosquera, G. M., Segura, C., Vaché, K. B., Wind-
horst, D., Breuer, L., & Crespo, P. (2016). Insi-
ghts into the water mean transit time in a hi-
gh-elevation tropical ecosystem. Hydrology
and Earth System Sciences, 20(7), 2987–3004.
https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-20-2987-2016
Mosquera, G. M., Célleri, R., Lazo, P. X., Vaché, K.
B., Perakis, S. S., & Crespo, P. (2016). Combi-
ned use of isotopic and hydrometric data to
conceptualize ecohydrological processes in a
high-elevation tropical ecosystem. Hydrologi-
cal Processes, 30(17), 2930–2947. https://doi.
org/10.1002/hyp.10927
Mosquera, G. M., Lazo, P. X., Célleri, R., Wilcox, B.
P., & Crespo, P. (2015). Runoff from tropical al-
pine grasslands increases with areal extent of
wetlands. CATENA, 125, 120–128. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.catena.2014.10.010
Iñiguez–Armijos, C., Leiva, A., Frede, H. G., Hampel,
H., & Breuer, L. (2014). Deforestation and ben-
thic indicators: how much vegetation cover is
needed to sustain healthy Andean streams?.
PLoS One, 9(8), e105869.
Crespo, P., Célleri, R., Buytaert, W., Feyen, J., Iñi-
guez, V., Borja, P., & De Bièvre, B. (2010). Land
use change impacts on the hydrology of wet
Andean páramo ecosystems. IAHS Publ., (336),
71–76.
cution or that have finished their research in this
programme.
Table 16.1. Thesis subjects with an ecohydrological component of postgraduate students from the University of
Cuenca.

Degree Thesis topic Student

Land cover influence on Subsurface Hydrogeochemical Fluxes in a Moun- Mosquera,

PhD tainous Catchment in South Ecuador. Giovanny
Influence of hydraulic and hydrological conditions on the spatial and tem-
PhD poral variation of aquatic macroinvertebrate communities in high Andean Vimos, Diego
rivers in the south of Ecuador (in Spanish)
The effects of vegetation cover on the soil moisture dynamics in Andean Tenelanda Patiño,
MSc paramo hillslopes Daniel Orlando
Optimization of pluviometric spatial sampling with ecohydrological covari- Contreras Silva,
MSc ables (in Spanish) Juan José
Landscape and Hydrometereological factors influencing storage in a Lazo Jara, Patricio
MSc high-elevation tropical ecosystem Xavier
Impact of pine-tree plantations on the hydro-physical properties of the high Marín Molina,
MSc Andean soils of southern Ecuador (in Spanish) Franklin Geovanny
Response of native tree especies to water stress under climate change López Zamora,
MSc predictions in an Andean Region Juan Josué
Evaluation of evapotranspiration models based on vegetation indexes on Ramón Reinozo,
MSc pasture and shrub vegetation ecosystems (in Spanish) Mayra Elizabeth
The effect of grazing on the hydrological dynamic of a well monitored Montenegro Díaz,
MSc hillslope in the paramo Paola Fernanda
Effect on land cover and hydro-meteorological controls on carbon stocks Pesántez Vallejo,
MSc and export in a high elevation tropical enviroment Juan Patricio

Source: Archives of the Department of Water Resources and Environmental Sciences..

Additionally, there are other investigations that
also have a highly important ecohydrological com-
ponent of extreme quality in the country, although
the use of ecohydrology principles as a management
tool is not explicit.
For example, Minaya (2017) has generated great
knowledge about the ecohydrological system of the
Ecuadorian páramos of Ecuador, particularly those
of volcano Antisana. Although the dual regulation
approach to solve problems is not evident in this
work, Minaya makes a meticulous study of the rela-
tionships of the type of vegetation with the availabi-
lity of water in this ecosystem that provides water for
the large city of Quito. However, the study identi-
fies a series of ecosystem services that are detached
from the ecosystem and that can be used as tools
for the development of strategies and good páramo
ecosystem management practices. Likewise, Be-
llot and Chirino (2013) present the HYDROBAL
eco-hydrological model as a tool to monitor the
water balance in a daily resolution. Specifically, the
HYDROBAL model determines the effect of the
type of vegetation on the water balance of the soil
and the recharge of aquifers, generating in the end
a useful tool for the management of vegetation for
the purpose of improving the quantity of available of
water.These two examples of studies on ecohydro-
logy in Ecuador are useful tools generated from the
academy and that can be used for the management
of water resources in the country.

References
Bellot, J., & Chirino, E. (2013). Hydrobal: An eco-hydrological mode- Minaya, V. (2017). Ecohydrology of the Andes Paramo Region: CRC
lling approach for assessing water balances in different vegeta- Press.
tion types in semi-arid areas. Ecological Modelling, 266, 30-41.

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 167

 168 Ecohydrology and its implementation in Ecuador

Cuyes River, Gualaquiza, Ecuador. Photo: Fabián Rodas

Chapter 17
Organisations that support the development of ecohydrology in Ecuador
17.1. Non-profit organizations
17.1.1. UNESCO
According to Zalewski et al. (2008), the concept
of ecohydrology as a “holistic tool for the sustai-
nable management of water resources” was born
as part of phase V of UNESCO´s International
Hydrological Programme (IHP-V), which was
Figure 17.1. The six topics of the Strategic Plan (2014-2021) of Phase VIII of UNESCO - IHP.
Sources: (UNESCO-PHI-VIII, 2012)
Water-related Underground Address water
disasters water scarcity and
and hydrological
in a changing quality
changes
environment
Water security: responses to local, regional and global challenges
The fifth theme of IHP-VIII “Ecohydrology: the
creation of harmony for a sustainable world” has
in turn identified five focal areas in its strategic
plan: (1) The hydrological dimension of a basin -
identifying potential risks and opportunities for
sustainable development . (2) Conformation of the
ecological structure of the basin for possible im-
provement of the ecosystem biological productivi-
ty and biodiversity. (3) Solutions of the ecohydro-
logical system and ecological engineering for the
improvement of hydrological and ecosystem resi-
lience and ecosystem services. (4) Urban Ecohy-
drology - purification of rainwater and retention,
potential for improvement of health and quality of
life in the urban environment. (5) Ecohydrologi-
cal regulation to sustain and restore connectivity
carried out between 1996 and 2001. Current-
ly UNESCO is implementing phase VIII of the
IHP with the programme entitled “Water Secu-
rity: Answers to local, regional and global cha-
llenges”. IHP-VIII consists of six topics and the
fifth is “Ecohydrology: Creating Harmony for a
Sustainable World”. Figure 17.1. shows the six
themes and focal areas of phase VIII of UNES-
CO-IHP. 
Water and Ecohydrology: Water education
human settle- creating harmony and culture: a key
ments in the for a sustainable- to water security
future world
between the continental area and coastal areas
and ecosystem functioning (UNESCO-IHP-VIII,
2012).
Under this brief umbrella of activities explained in
the previous paragraphs, the UNESCO office in
Quito has among its objectives to broaden the base
of knowledge regarding the freshwater resources
of the planet on cultural, social, and scientific
responses for sustainable water resources mana-
gement. As can be found on its website, the office
supports the development of the ecohydrological
approach to improve the quality and services of
ecosystems and the application of this approach to
the formulation of policies related to environmen-
tal management (UNESCO -Quito, 2017).
Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 169
 170 Organisations that support the development of ecohydrology in Ecuador

On the other hand, as a result of the meetings of
the group that supports UNESCO’s ecohydrolo-
gy, several initiatives have been created and many
of them have had an influence on the contribution
that UNESCO and these bodies can give to support
countries for integrating their activities to the topics
of the strategic plan. Such is the case of the network
of young professionals working on ecohydrology
issues, as explained by Valerie Ouellet of the Uni-
versity of Birmingham in the United Kingdom.
17.1.2. Nature and Culture
International Corporation
Nature and Culture International Corporation is
a non-governmental, non-profit organization ac-
credited by the Government of Ecuador through
the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Trade and Inte-
gration, the mission of which is to conserve the
most diverse and threatened ecosystems in Latin
America and their associated cultural wealth,
saving endangered habitats, strengthening lo-
cal capacities, and supporting communities to
preserve their ways of life. Since 2006, NCI has
been supporting several Decentralized Autono-
mous Governments of Southern Ecuador in the
implementation of conservation processes for
water sources and remnants of native forests, to
ensure the provision of environmental services of
natural ecosystems.

Guest author Valerie Ouellet, Quebec, Canada v.ouellet@bham.ac.uk

Ecohydrology Emerging Professional Global

Network (Ecohydrology-EPGN)
With the growing recognition of the impacts of climate change and human activities on aquatic
ecosystems, the importance of developing more scientific knowledge to prevent the degradation of
water resources and stop the decline of biodiversity increases. Each year, more and more young pro-
fessionals begin a career in ecohydrology that is dedicated to understanding the relationships between
hydrological and biological processes at different scales, with the vision of helping to improve water
security, enhance biodiversity, and increase opportunities for the sustainable development of the envi-
ronment and the reduction of ecological threats.
In February 2018, after a meeting of the UNESCO Ecohydrology group, it was decided to create a
network made up of students and young professionals dedicated to ecohydrology. The Ecohydrology
Emerging Professional Global Network (Ecohydrology-EPGN) arose from the desire to give a special
place to young professionals and researchers in ecohydrology, since they represent the future of the
discipline, and from the need to strengthen the links of this group of entrepreneurs with UNESCO´s
ecohydrology programme. The network is coordinated by Dr Valerie Ouellet and José Gaona M. Sc.
(Co-chairs) and with the participation of Anastasia Mirli M. Sc., Lauren Zielinski M. Sc., Dr Makarius C.
S. Lalika, and Marco Albarracín M. Sc.
The mission of Ecohydrology-EPGN is to offer an opportunity to connect emerging professionals (stu-
dents, post-docs and career starters) in ecohydrology and to provide an exchange platform to discuss
and share relevant information related to ecohydrology (job offers, scholarships , general opportunities,
new articles and information, etc.). The network offers the opportunity to bring together emerging
professionals and to exchange with experienced professionals involved with UNESCO, and also to con-
tribute to the activities of UNESCO´s scientific committee on ecohydrology.
Ecohydrology Emerging Professional Global Network offers a unique opportunity for all students and
new professionals to share their vision of ecohydrology and to participate in the training of future eco-
hydrologists, in the first instance using online resources and then, later, meetings and training with an
international presence. Make your opinion count, contact us at epgn.network@gmail.com or directly to
Dr Ouellet: vouellet@bham.ac.uk.

Valerie Ouellet hails from Québec, Canada. She graduated as a Bache-

lor of Biological Sciences at the University of Montréal. She holds mas-
ter’s degrees and a Ph.D. of the Canadian National Institute of Water,
Earth and Environmental Sciences. She currently works in the Depart-
ment of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences of the University
of Birmingham in the United Kingdom. Her research interest focuses
on understanding how different environmental variables, such as tem-
perature and water quantity, affect the habitat and physiology of key
fish species in aquatic ecosystems. Her research contributes to the
field of ecohydrology by generating knowledge about aquatic ecosys-
tems at risk of thermal degradation and reporting on strategies for river
restoration and aquatic resource management, especially for ecosys-
tems affected by human activities and climate change.

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172 Organisations that support the development of ecohydrology in Ecuador

Guest author Fabián Rodas López, Cuenca, Ecuador frodas@naturalezaycultura.org

The Water School: building local capacities for

water resources management s

Water protection is a high priority issue for nations that seek to ensure their development, production,
and human health possibilities. This is even truer when the effects of climate change are present, mel-
ting glaciers, altering rain regimes, and reducing harvests. In Ecuador, the mitigation of these negative
impacts depends on each city and irrigation system having a permanent programme for the protection
of its water sources, which are mostly found in the páramos and forests of the high mountains of the
Andes.
This is not an easy task, since the rich soils of these biodiverse ecosystems are also used for the ex-
traction of wood, expansion of the agricultural frontier, mining, and human settlements, among other
uses that are traditionally implemented in an incompatible manner with the protection of water.
The co-responsibility of society, the formation of local capacities for the management of water resour-
ces, and the permanent financing to develop protection activities and management of water sources
are fundamental factors to achieve a paradigmatic shift. Fortunately, the country has already develo-
ped good local practices and experiences in this regard, which signify a positive change in the mana-
gement of water resources and constitute a basis for learning and generating policies applicable to the
entire country.
In this scenario, in 2016 the Water School1 was born, a continuous programme for the training of water
and irrigation service providers on the integral management of water resources, systematizing practi-
cal experiences and taking them to an academic level to share them widely at the national level.
It is an initiative generated by the sum of the wills of the National Water Authority - SENAGUA, the Priva-
te Technical University of Loja, the FONAPA and FORAGUA Funds, and Nature and Culture International,
financially supported by the Tinker Foundation. They contribute from their experience, information, and
skills to increase the capacities required by local water managers to carry out a proper management.
Between 2017 and 2019, about 180 officials from 28 Municipal Governments are being trained in three
editions of the course “Conservation and Management of Water Sources”, which includes eight months
of free and academically-accredited training in six modules covering topics such as: General Conserva-
tion Principles, Geographic Information Systems, Water Indicators and Monitoring, Legislation applied
to the protection of water sources and Practical strategies for water management.
The goal of the Water School until 2019 is to contribute to the improvement of the quality and quantity
of water for 500,000 people, the creation of 100,000 ha of new municipal reserves for the protection
of water sources, and the generation of permanent economic resources for the implementation of
conservation activities at the local level.
Soon, the Water School will implement courses in ecohydrology as a tool to solve water quality and
quantity problems, taking advantage of the recent addition of Paltas - Catacocha to the UNESCO World
Network of Ecohydrology Demonstrative Sites and the new links with the “Water Family”, which will
expand the technical vision and collaborative networks of the participants.

REFERENCIAS
Secretaría del Agua – SENAGUA. 2016. Resolución Ministerial 2016-1442.
1
 Fabián Rodas López is a biologist and the General Coordinator of the
Water School. Since 2002, he has been involved with NCI, where he has
worked and published in avifauna research, ecosystem conservation,
teaching, declaration of protected areas, trust funds for water resour-
ces, training for local governments, and generation of environmental
policies. Since 2006 he has worked in the protection of water resour-
ces as responsible for the creation of the Regional Water Fund - FO-
RAGUA and in support of the Water Fund for the Conservation of the
Paute River Basin - FONAPA. Photography has allowed him to portray
and share the natural beauty that surrounds us.

NCI is part of the institutions that technically
and financially support the execution of the “Wa-
ter School “ and has established cooperation
agreements with both SENAGUA and the Muni-
cipality of Paltas to support the integration in
Ecuador of the ecohydrological approach as a
tool for managing water resources. 
17.2. Private companies
17.2.1. INGERALEZA S.A.
Based in Quito, INGERALEZA is an environ-
mental consultancy focusing actions throughout
the country with an international projection.
The company is the result of many years of pre-
paration and acquired experiences to make them
compatible to development and environmental
protection through the provision of professional
consulting services, as indicated by its president
and guest author Freddy Cáceres.
The catalogue of services of the company con-
templates three strategic areas: (1) engineering
studies, (2) environmental consultancy, and (3)
the development and support to the dissemina-
tion of ecohydrology in Ecuador.

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 173

174 Organisations that support the development of ecohydrology in Ecuador

Guest author Freddy Cáceres, Quito, Ecuador fcaceres@ingeraleza.com

The link between private companies in the

development of ecohydrology in Ecuador:
the case of INGERALEZA S.A.
Scientific knowledge and the development of technology are fundamental pillars in the academic field.
While more studies are carried out, human beings benefit from the advantages that translate into a
better understanding of natural phenomena and, with this, the Academy reaches a greater maturity,
generating, at the same time, new scientific challenges. However, scientific knowledge alone is insu-
fficient to meet the needs of modern society, a society eager for the provision of basic services, food,
infrastructure, energy, manufacturing, telecommunications, and information technology and virtual
reality in the digital age, with the direct benefit that this represents in the generation of employment
sources. In other words, industrialization and, in general terms, development are of vital importance
for human beings.
Sustainable development, which seeks the balance between economic, social, and environmental is-
sues, is presented as the best alternative to achieve the prosperity of society within a framework of
respect for the human being and the environment, and, within this, for each one of its dimensions,
including the ecological dimension, i.e., that of the relations, processes, and transfer of matter and
energy between the inert medium and the living beings. Precisely it is in this last area where ecohydro-
logy is registered as a discipline that studies bidirectional cause-effect interactions between hydrology
and ecology.
In any development model, and even more in the model of sustainable development, social actors fulfil
an established function, being only the level of effectiveness of these functions, and the interactions
between each of the actors, which determine the success or the failure of the model. Thus, authorities,
academia, public institutions, private companies, NGOs and public opinion, all play an important role
in the maintenance and growth of the applied development model. The more and better ordered and
coherent this multi-sectorial participation, the greater the level of effectiveness in the application of the
model.
In this multi-sectorial interaction framework, a private enterprise plays a preponderant role since it
constitutes the transmitting agent of scientific and technological knowledge towards practical appli-
cations that make it possible to meet the needs of society. In other words, the abstract knowledge
generated in the scientific-academic sphere is reflected in products and services for society through
private companies that generate work and wealth while meeting the requirements of good citizenship.
Ingeniería y Naturaleza, INGERALEZA S.A., has decided to assume the leadership in scientific inno-
vation as the pioneer private company in the generation of a new line of business: the provision of
specialized services of technical consultancy in ecohydrology, taking care that the theoretical-scientific
foundations of this discipline are reflected in tangible actions that incorporate UNESCO´s ecohydrolo-
gical approach.
INGERALEZA has actively collaborated in this process through its participation in the international con-
gresses of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (2017) and Faro, Portugal (2018), which has strengthened its technical
capacity, allowing the obtention of several important achievements such as the identification of key
sites and actors for the development of ecohydrology in Ecuador, the nomination and recognition of
the Paltas-Catacocha demonstration site, and the contribution to training and education in ecohydro-
logical issues, especially within the framework of the “ Water School”.
 The projects in which INGERALEZA manages to Cover the requirements of this concurrence of knowle-
dge between ecology and hydrology relate to IWRM, the management of watersheds, the provision of
potable water services, sewerage, irrigation systems, wastewater treatment, hydrobiological studies,
bio-aquatic monitoring, aquatic parks, etc. Of course, we provide technical advice to local governments
interested in qualifying their water resources management projects as demonstration sites before
UNESCO´s Ecohydrological Programme. A work that, with great pleasure, is available to all of Ecuador.

Freddy Cáceres is a biologist and engineer in environmental manage-

ment. He holds two Masters: one in Energy and Environment and ano-
ther in Safety and Prevention of Occupational Hazards, as well as spe-
cialization courses in Business Management and Integral Management:
Quality, Environment and Social Responsibility. He is the Executive Presi-
dent of INGERALEZA S.A., a private company that has incorporated the
foundations of ecohydrology in the provision of technical advisory servi-
ces as one of its business lines in the field of environmental consulting.

In the strategic area of ecohydrology, INGERA-
LEZA aims to support the development of the
ecohydrological approach in Ecuador through
educational activities and training, scientific re-
search, and professional consulting. As specific
activities, the company offers specialized services
in ecohydrology in the different levels and structu-
res of water resources management. It carries out
scientific and educational projects to promote the
application of this holistic tool for water manage-
ment in Ecuador (INGERALEZA, 2016).

References
IINGERALEZA. (2016). INGERALEZA S.A. Web page. Retrieved from
http://www.ingeraleza.com
UNESCO-IHP-VIII. (2012). Seguridad Hídrica: Respuestas a los
Desafíos Locales, Regionales y Mundiales. Plan Estratégico
PHI-VIII 2014 - 2021. Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/
images/0021/002180/218061s.pdf
UNESCO-Quito. (2017). Oficina de la UNESCO en Quito. Retrieved
from http://www.unesco.org/new/es/quito/natural-sciences/
international-hydrological-programme-ihp/
Zalewski, M., Harper, D. M., Demars, B., Jolánkai, G., Crosa, G., Ja-
nauer, G. A. and Pacini, N. (2008). Linking biological and physical
processes at the river basin scale: the origins, scientific back-
ground and scope of ecohydrology. In D. M. Harper, M. Zalewski
and N. Pacini (Eds.), Ecohydrology–Processes, Models and Case
Studies, edited by: Harper, D., Zalewski, M., and Pacini, N., CABI,
Oxfordshire (pp. 1-17).

Albarracín, Gaona, Chícharo, and Zalewski 175

River Pita tributary, Pichincha, Ecuador
 Epilogue
To conclude this work, we copy an excerpt from the inaugural address presented by Ms Audrey Azou-
lay, Director General of UNESCO at the World Water Forum held on March 19, 2018 in Brasilia. In
her speech she mentioned the example of the recovery of the ancestral knowledge of the Paltas in the effort
to manage the water resources in Catacocha, in the south of Ecuador. The Paltas were sure about their me-
thods to subsist in an area where rainfall has been always scarce; the current challenge is to integrate all the
knowledge of our time to support the sustainable development of our peoples, as proposed by the pre-
cepts of ecohydrology and thus to overcome the paradox presented at the beginning of this text.

... “The 2018 edition of the World Report on Water Development by UNESCO and UN
Water highlights the intrinsic link between water and ecosystems. Nature-Based So-
lutions (NbS) have inspired the theme of the celebration of World Water Day, 2018.
This vision requires us to take advantage of the benefits of NbS, and not only focus
on the “grey infrastructure” to ensure the adequate supply of water, ensure the pro-
duction of food, and provide drinking water to societies.
NbSs can also contribute to other aspects of sustainable development, such as
disaster risk reduction, the construction of sustainable urban settlements, and the
promotion of decent work.
Now, more than ever, we must work with nature instead of fighting her.
An example of this is the Paltas water management system in southern Ecuador.
The community is restoring natural reservoirs and reversing the trend towards
overexploitation of the land. As a result, residents of the neighbouring city of Ca-
tacocha have a water supply for six hours a day instead of just one.
This example of water management is located in a cross-border Reserve of the
Biosphere of the UNESCO Man and Biosphere Programme, the Peace Forest shared
by Ecuador and Peru; this was only possible by working with the local population.
But not only traditional practices and ancestral water management systems were
revived: in fact, the project has discovered ancient petroglyphs, which represent the
elemental relationship of humanity with water.”

Audrey Azoulay
Director General of UNESCO

Brasil, March 19 2018

The Water School (Escuela del Agua) is a training
programme developed jointly by the Water Secreta-
riat (SENAGUA), the Technical Particular University
of Loja (UTPL), Nature & Culture International (NCI),
the Regional Water Fund (FORAGUA), and the Pau-
te River Basin Conservation Water Fund (FONAPA).
It aims at strengthening the scientific capacities of
service providers related to drinking and irrigation
water as well as institutions linked to water ma-
nagement, in order to guarantee the conservation,
recovery, and integral management of watersheds
and ecological flows related to the hydrological
cycle.
The development of ecohydrology in Ecuador via
scientific research and the application of scientific
tools will entail a better opportunity to protect and
recover the environmental services of ecosystems,
which will benefit human and natural propulations.
Thus, the Water School takes in hydrolecology as
a discipline that will be fostered within its training
programmes.
The Water School is a joint effort of:
With the collaboration of:
Suported by:
How do we find ourselves in Ecuador with res-
pect to the application of ecohydrology? Who
are the main actors? Where are water resources
management practices with an ecohydrological
approach being used? Which institutions do re-
search on and use ecohydrology in the country?
These are the main questions that motivated this text. The responses
were very encouraging and, although much remains to be done (mainly
generating scientific data and creating public policies), we believe that
the development and use of ecohydrology in the country will be extremely
useful to ensure practical support for water management and nature, with
clear benefits for society.
This work is articulated within the International Hydrological Programme
of UNESCO, phase VIII, specifically within the “Ecohydrology: creating har-
mony for a sustainable world” subprogramme. Here we show the main
strategies of global dissemination of this concept and its current situation
and perspectives of application in Ecuador.