199

Capture-based aquaculture of
yellowtail

Makoto Nakada
Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology
Tokyo, Japan
E-mail: m-nakada@kaiyodai.ac.jp

Nakada, M. 2008. Capture-based aquaculture of yellowtail. In A. Lovatelli; P.F.

Holthus (eds). Capture-based aquaculture. Global overview. FAO Fisheries Technical
Paper. No. 508. Rome, FAO. pp. 199–215.

SUMMARY
The 2004 production of cultured yellowtail (Seriola spp.) in Japan from 1 288 enterprises
was 150 028 tonnes valued at ¥111.2 billion (US$1.334 billion). Yellowtail mariculture has
developed remarkably due to the abundant supply and low price of wild-caught juveniles
(Mojako) and sardines used as the main fish feed of fishmeal component. Hatchery
produced yellowtail seed are far more expensive. Other critical elements that supported
the growth of yellowtail farming include the existence of abundant suitable culture sites
along the Japanese coast and innovative technical developments.
The history of yellowtail culture in Japan began over 70 years ago. Before that, fishers
cultured undersized fish in ponds and sold them when they reached marketable size.
This utilization of bycatch (undersized fish) was accepted by the public, particularly as
unmarketable fish were often used as fertilizer or livestock feed. Currently aquaculture
production for many species exceeds that landed from capture fisheries.
Some commercial culture trials on amberjack have been undertaken in Taiwan
Province of China, Mexico and Vietnam, but no successes have been achieved with raising
yellowtail. The main constraints include diseases and low production costs in tropical
areas. In contrast, the culture of Seriola spp. is promising due to their strong vitality
and rapid growth, and may well expand at the global level through hatchery-produced
juveniles.

DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES AND ITS USE IN AQUACULTURE

Life cycle and geographical distribution

The genus Seriola or yellowtail, a highly active fish belonging to the Carangidae
family, is found in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans, with most species occurring
in tropical and subtropical waters. A few species have global distribution (such as
the amberjack, Seriola dummerili, and the Pacific yellowtail, Seriola revoliana) while
others, such as the Japanese yellowtail, Seriola quinqueradiata, have a more limited
regional distribution. Currently approximately 12 species of Seriola that have been
described.
These fish are typically streamlined, elongated and laterally compressed. Larger
members of the genus which are commonly cultured (i.e. the gold-striped amberjack,
Seriola lalandi, and Seriola dummerili) may reach 200 cm in length and weigh up to
50–60 kilograms. Seriola spp. typically inhabit deep open waters often adjacent to
200 Capture-based aquaculture: global overview

TABLE 1
Seriola species cultured in Japan
English name Yellowtail Amberjack or Gold-striped amberjack
great amberjack or yellowtail
Japanese name Buri, Hamachi, Mojako Kanpachi, Akahara Hiramasa
Scientific name Seriola quinqueradiata Seriola dumerili Seriola lalandi or
Seriola aureovittata
Market size up to 6 kg for fillet 3.5−5.5 kg for sashimi up to 4 kg for fillet
3.5­−4.5 kg for sashimi and sashimi
Price 600−900 to producer 800−1 300 to producer 700−1 200 to producer
(¥/kg) 1 200−2 500 to consumer 1 500−3 000 to consumer 1 500−3 000 to consumer
Maximum size up to 15 kg up to 70 kg up to 50 kg
Juvenile cultured
53 303 × 103 17 200 × 103 2 500 × 103
(as of 1997)
Geographical Japan, Korea, China Asia-Pacific and Japan, China, Mexico
distribution Mediterranean Sea
Seed supply Wild, Wild (also imported from Wild juveniles of about
Artificial propagation China and Viet Nam) 700 g caught around the
Goto Islands
Source: Nisshin Feed Co. Ltd.

offshore islands or coastal areas where they may also be present in shallower areas.
Their prey includes a variety of fish, squid and a number of crustacean species.
In Japan, yellowtail spawn offshore from southern Kyushu to Chugoku off the
Sea of Japan and then migrate north to Hokkaido where they reach sexual maturity
in 3–5 years. Following this they migrate south again to spawn (Abe and Homma,
1997). Throughout the season, various sizes of yellowtail can be caught in different
parts of Japan where special names are given to fish of different size (Suehiro and Abe,
1994). Migratory populations are differentiated by their growth rate and nutritional
status (Abe, 1987). All juveniles weighing less than 50 g are called Mojako. Cultured
yellowtail weighing <5 kg are called Hamachi, and those heavier than 5 kilograms are
called known as cultured-Buri which are distinguished from the wild-Buri (Abe, 1986).
All cultured Carangidae in Japan have different characteristics and require different
culture methods as shown in Table 1.
Amberjack aquaculture has developed rapidly and the species rivals yellowtail in
popularity. The amberjack meat maintains its brilliant colour and firm texture longer
than that of the yellowtail and, due to its superior quality, it usually attains a much
higher market price compared to cultured red seabream (Pagrus major), which is a
highly valued fish species in Japan. Amberjack is distributed throughout the world
and is a popular game fish in Hawaii (United States of America), Australia and in
the Mediterranean Sea. This species grows faster and has a better feed efficiency than
yellowtail at water temperatures higher than 17 ºC.

Capture fishery
Yellowtails of various sizes are harvested from many fishery grounds along the
Japanese coast using several kinds of fishing techniques. In 1995, capture fisheries of
yellowtail yielded around 61 666 tonnes, and aquaculture production yielded 170 312
tonnes, totalling 231  978 tonnes (Figure  1). In 2004, capture fishery landed 66  345
tonnes using different fishing gear including set nets (21 786 tonnes), round haul nets
(18 876 tonnes), purse seines (11 581 tonnes), gillnets (6 006 tonnes) and other fishing
techniques (8  096 tonnes). At present, wild yellowtail capture fishery remains stable
whilst yellowtail aquaculture continues to increase.

Collection and culture of wild seed

After the wild Mojako juveniles are harvested, measured and the numbers recorded
by the cooperatives, they are weaned on artificial feed and weak specimens discarded.
As young yellowtail and related species are sensitive to food deprivation, cannibalism
Capture-based aquaculture of yellowtail 201

FIGURE 1
Production of wild and farmed yellowtail

240

220

200

180
Volume (1 000 tonnes)

160

140

120

100
Capture fisheries
80
Aquaculture

60

40

20

0
1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Year

Source: Statistics and Information Dept., Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Japan.

may occur, particularly if the fish are kept in the holding tanks for long periods.
Furthermore, if the young fish are not fed for more than three days they will usually
fail to adapt to the artificial feeds.
In 1998, the Fisheries Agency of Japan imposed regulations limiting the number of
Mojako that can be caught annually for use in aquaculture to approximately 25 million
in order to ensure the sustainability of the fishery and to protect the resource. The
Marine Aquaculture Association of Japan determines the fishing allocations made to
each prefecture, while each prefecture decides on the fishing season and distribution
of the fishing permits to the local Federation of Fisheries Cooperatives. In 1970, the
number of Mojako caught was over 100 million individuals, however, over the past 30
years the harvest has fluctuated between 30 to 100 million, and dropped to 25 million
in 1997 (Figure 2). Fish farmers were, however, able to maintain a total production
level of about 150 000 tonnes despite the decrease. The highest production level was
achieved in 1995 with 170  000 tonnes produced. More recently the domestic supply
of Mojako showed a significant decrease, and a few million were imported from the
Republic of Korea. Juvenile amberjack (Seriola dummerili) are usually caught with
Mojako and at one time the two species were cultured together. However, due to the
parasitic worm, Benedinia, often present on the amberjack, farmers prefer to raise the
two species separately.
The current price of amberjack juveniles ranges from ¥500–1 500 (US$4.8–14.3) for
fish weighing between 50–600 g. The high price facilitated the commercial production
of hatchery-reared juveniles. Japan has imported wild-caught juveniles from China and
Viet Nam via China Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (SAR) since 1986.
Farmers prefer to use wild-caught seed over hatchery-produced seed as the latter
are generally more expensive and are usually too small for successful rearing. In 2003,
the Fisheries Agency of Japan succeeded in spawning and producing yellowtail seed
larger than wild Mojako by controlling the water temperature and the photoperiod
cycle of the broodstock. Unfortunately, however, the hatchery-produced seed had a
high percentage of body deformity and mass seed production has not achieved mainly
due to the difficulty in securing healthy broodstock.
202 Capture-based aquaculture: global overview

FIGURE 2 The typical growth

Temporal changes in numbers of wild-caught and farm-raised performance of yellowtail in
yellowtail juveniles, 1977–2006
four different sea areas in Japan
90 000
is shown in Figure 3. Depending
80 000
on water temperature, Mojako
can usually be stocked from April
70 000 through to July. In sub-tropical
regions, such as Okinawa and
60 000
Kagoshima, the average water
Numbers (x 1 000)

temperature ranges from 20–24

50 000
ºC. This optimal temperature
40 000 range for farming yellowtail is
stable for >75 percent of the
30 000 year and it is possible to obtain
>6 kilogram yellowtail within
20 000
Number of wild-caught majoko two years. In the Kyushu area,
10 000
Total number of farmed yellowtail which includes Kumamoto and
Nagasaki, the average annual
0 water temperature ranges from
1977 1979 1982 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006
Year
17–19  ºC. This temperature is
optimal for yellowtail culture
Source: Marine Aquaculture Association of Japan.
for about 50 percent of the year
and, due to the shorter culture

FIGURE 3
Typical growth performance of yellowtail in four different sea areas of Japan

9 000

8 500 Harvested fish

7kg
Max Growth in 1979
8 000
Harvested fish
High Temp.Area (Kagoshim, Miyazaki) 5-6kg
7 500
Middle Temp. Area (Northern-Kyushu,Wakayama, Mie)

7 000 Intermediate Rearing in Seto Inland Sea

Harvested fish
6kg
Low water temperature range region (Yamaguchi, Shizuoka)
6 500
Harvested fish
3.5-4.5kg
Hamachi
6 000
Average body weight (g)

5 500

5 000

4 500
Re-transported
3-4kg Hamachi
4 000

3 500

3 000

2 500

2 000

1 500
Introduction of large juvenile
1 000

500

Jun Oct Feb Jun Oct Feb Jun

Month/Year 1st Year 2nd Year 3rd Year

Source: Nisshin Feed Co. Ltd.

Capture-based aquaculture of yellowtail 203

period when the temperature is optimal, over 70 percent of the yellowtail reared in
this region are three years old at harvest. In the Honshu area, which includes Shizuoka
and Yamaguchi, yellowtail can be farmed but the temperatures are not as favourable
compared to the regions further south. The average annual water temperature is around
18–19 ºC, and more than three years are required to produce 6 kilogram fish. A specific
feature of this region is its short autumn, which provides the fish with insufficient
time to prepare for winter. If the fish are pushed to grow rapidly during autumn, high
mortalities may occur in winter and early spring, therefore, fish weighing from 3.5 to
4.5 kilograms are produced for the sashimi market.
In the Seto Inland Sea, the average annual water temperature is lower than 17 ºC,
with less than 50 percent of the year being conducive to yellowtail growth. The
temperature falls below 10  ºC during the last two months of winter, at which time
yellowtail may experience mass mortalities. To avoid the mortality problem, the fish
are transferred to warmer areas such as Kochi and Miyazaki for over-wintering. In
spring, when the water temperature rises again the fish may be returned to the Seto
Inland Sea and reared to the size appropriate for use in sashimi. Another widely used
approach is to stock large juveniles from other districts in the spring. It is then possible
to produce fish suitable for sashimi within a growing season.

Farming techniques
In 2004, yellowtail farming comprised 13 570 net cages and only 44 net enclosures. Most
cage farms use fresh fish (524 670 tonnes) or artificial pellets (357 311 tonnes) as feed.
An optimum density and proper feeding rate are essentials for an economic production
of yellowtails. The optimum stocking density and feeding rate for maximum growth
and feed efficiency, relative to season and fish size, can be ascertained from rearing
records collected at a particular site for at least a 3-year period.
The health status of the farmed fish is regularly checked by observing swimming
behaviour and using underwater visual equipment to observe feeding. Observations on
the swimming speed of individual fish while feeding, the swimming activity of the fish
shoal as a whole, and the colour of the fish are all important parameters to determine
the health status of the cultured fish.

Culture mortality
Mortality in cultured yellowtail can be caused by four main factors: 1) physical damage
arising from inappropriate handling and transportation, and contact with the cage
netting during storms and strong tides; 2) turbid water and high levels of pollutants;
3) feeding of deteriorated fresh fish and nutritionally inadequate feeds; and 4) diseases.
The survival rates and mortality causes in four growth stages of juvenile yellowtail are
shown in Table 2.

TABLE 2
Survival rates and mortality causes in four growth stages of juvenile yellowtail from capture
and the start of the farming operation
Growth Weight Survival Mortality
stage (g) (%) causes
Mojako
Stress
(first introduction and 0.2−50 90−95
Starvation
domestication)
Diseases
Hamachi 95−98 Rough handling
50−2 000 Poor water quality
Hamachi Low temperatures
90−95
(over-wintering) Diseases
Diseases
Hamachi and Buri 1 000–7 000 95−98
Transportation accidents
Overall survival 70−80 %
204 Capture-based aquaculture: global overview

The damage to cultured fish from water pollution is increasing, as there are no
sound measures in place to prevent environmental pollution around coastal/nearshore
mariculture sites. To rectify this, investigations into restoring water quality by
removing contaminants from urban and agricultural drainage and from aquaculture
are underway. One promising technology for maintaining a clean environment that
should be considered is the development and introduction of an auto-feeding system.
A further solution could be the culture of yellowtail in offshore or in land-based closed
systems. However although these approaches have produced high quality flesh and low
pollution, they are not economically viable.
Disease is usually not a problem during the initial phases of rearing a particular
aquaculture species, however, as the number of yellowtail farms increase around Japan,
disease outbreaks have become frequent. High density stocking and overfeeding make
the fish more susceptible to diseases, which then can spread rapidly among the fish. The
importation of wild fry, fingerlings and juvenile fish, especially from tropical waters, is
also a source of disease. Environmental deterioration and nutritionally deficient feeds
may aggravate the situation.
Initially, diseases were easily controlled by reducing or stopping feed, or by
administering antibiotics. However more comprehensive approaches are now required
particularly as a crucial step for disease management is to remove the cause. In order
to identify the causes and prevent disease outbreaks, detailed records should be kept,
especially when mass mortality occurs. Removal of sick and dead fish from the net pens
is a first step in the prevention of further spread of disease. Furthermore, the amount
of feed consumed in net pens where disease has occurred should be documented as
sick fish will not feed as well as healthy fish. It is usually necessary to reduce feeding
to 60–70 percent of the normal rate.
The most common disease in yellowtail is caused by the bacteria, Enterococcus
seriolicida, which is diagnosed by simply identifying gram-positive bacteria using
STAN agar. Other significant problems with producing yellowtail and related species
in warm waters include muscle parasites and ciguatoxin (a toxin in fish tissues that
derives from dinoflagellates, and which causes poisoning in human). In the waters
south of Kagoshima, aquaculture of these species is not feasible because of parasitism
with the spore-forming myxosporean parasite Kudoa, which is found in the muscles
and the internal organs. Among viral diseases, iridovirus is noteworthy. This virus was
introduced with wild juveniles imported from tropical areas, and resulted in mortalities
of juvenile yellowtail and amberjack in Japan.

DESCRIPTION OF THE FISHING ACTIVITY

Yellowtail spawning areas and seasons have been described by the Japan National
Sea Fisheries Research Institute of the Fisheries Research Agency (Figure 4). In the
southern parts of the East China Sea, the fish spawn from early February until April.
Following spawning the young Mojako drift to the Pacific Ocean in association with
floating seaweed. Off the west coast of Kyusyu, spawning occurs mainly from March
to June and most of the Mojako drift through the Tsusima warm current to the Sea of
Japan. Spawning areas and seasons move north to the 20 to 22 ºC water temperature
off Sizuoka from May to June, and to Toyama from July to August.
Fry of yellowtail and related species seek protection in seaweeds that break off the
bottom of the sea, and feed on micro-organisms and small fishes while drifting north
with the current. Small Mojako (4–5 cm long) usually stay under or inside the floating
seaweed, while larger fish swim 0.5–2 m below the surface. Mojako feed actively at
sunrise and sunset when swarms of zooplankton can be detected; during the day they
feed on small fish (Sakakura and Tsukamoto, 1996; Anraku and Azeta, 1967). After
reaching 10–14 cm in length, the Mojako leave the floating seaweed and swim towards
the shore, where they are targeted by the set nets (Ikehara, 1984).
Capture-based aquaculture of yellowtail 205

Wild Mojako juveniles for FIGURE 4

aquaculture are harvested Yellowtail spawning areas and seasonal changes
from the floating seaweeds,
by experienced crew using
specifically designed fishing
vessels (Figure 5). In contrast,
wild yellowtail for human
consumption are caught using
set nets, tow nets and round
haul nets from the shore.

Statistics and trends in

the amount and sizes of
juveniles caught
The number and size of Mojako
captured by the prefectural
fisheries organizations have
changed in recent years, largely
due to changes in the amount
of drifting seaweed in the South
Seas (Table 3). Furthermore, the
size of captured Mojako differs
by area and month, influenced
by water temperature and
nutrients in the sea.

Source: Japan National Sea Fisheries Research Institute.

TABLE 3
Number of enterprises and number of juvenile yellowtail stocked in pens in 20 prefectures on
1 September 1997 (Unit: 1 000 fishes). Data not available for Saga Prefecture
Prefecture Enterprise 1st year 2nd year 3rd year Total
Chiba 5 35 43 0 78
Ehime 281 6 480 5 170 8 11 658
Fukui 1 0 7 0 7
Fukuoka 6 5 0 0 5
Hiroshima 10 0 270 150 420
Hyogo 12 129 95 0 224
Ishikawa 0 0 0 0 0
Kagawa 0 0 0 0 0
Kagoshima 285 4 405 1 872 30 6 307
Kouchi 78 1 984 417 0 2 401
Kumamoto 60 850 650 0 1 500
Kyouto 4 0 25 0 25
Mie 58 785 121 0 906
Miyazaki 26 558 359 112 1 029
Nagasaki 146 2 908 2 486 441 5 835
Ohoita 71 1 519 1 373 150 3 042
Shimane 4 63 222 4 289
Sizuoka 32 275 222 13 510
Tokushima 17 714 146 0 860
Yamaguchi 21 107 93 4 204
Total 1997 1 123 21 045 13 679 914 35 638
Total 1996 1 369 24 996 27 389 918 53 303
‘97 as % of ‘96 82.0 84.2 49.9 99.6 66.0
 206 Capture-based aquaculture: global overview

FIGURE 5
A – Fishing vessels move to the fishing grounds in the early hours of the morning;
B – Locating floating seaweeds harbouring juvenile Mojako;
C – Scooping the seaweeds along with the fish;
D – Separating the seaweeds, Mojako and other aquatic organisms;
E – Sorting Mojako by size and discard of bycatch; and
F – Release of the Mojako into the nursery pens for acclimation

A B

C D

E F
Courtesy of japan marine aquaculture association

Seasonality of fishing activities

From early March, the early juveniles (Mojako) are collected from drifting seaweed
and then raised until they reach 2  000 g, which is achieved by the end of the year.
The harvest season and size are regulated by the fisheries station in each prefecture.
Usually the Mojako season opens in May at Kagoshima Prefecture, and in June at Mie
Prefecture.
Capture-based aquaculture of yellowtail 207

Participants in the fishery and their roles

Mojako fishing is dangerous work in rough seas, and workers need experience, special
knowledge and intuition. After harvest, the juvenile fish are put into small net cages
(5 x 5 x 5 m), and older workers feed them with minced raw feed fish or granulated
feed more than 5 times per day. The former feed type is problematic, because it quickly
pollutes the water, the Mojako lose their appetite and may develop gill problems. The
granulated feed is preferred, and is given as soon as possible, even while the juvenile
Mojako are in the holding tanks on the fishing boats. Granulated feed for marine
juvenile fish results in a high survival and growth rate, and Mojako as small as 0.2 g
easily domesticate and grow well.
Larger yellowtail Mojako are fed extruded pellets weighing 5 g or more, twice daily.
As the fish grow, they are graded and transferred into 7 x 7 x 7 to 10 x 10 x 10 metre
net cages. When the fish become 200 g or more (called Hamachi), they are fed moist
pellets, which are prepared by the younger workers on the boats and distributed via
mechanical feeders.

Seed handling procedures at sea

If the fishing areas for Mojako are very far from port, there is a long period when the
fish are held on board, during which time the juveniles may prey on each other whilst
in the holding tanks. To reduce cannibalism, they are fed minced fish which often
causes the water to deteriorate rapidly due to food wastes and faeces. Newly developed
granulated feeds have been fed successfully to the juveniles during transport to the net
cages. These feeds have a high palatability, do not pollute the holding water and are
easily taken by fish as small as 0.2 g. Wild Mojako weaned on granulated feed tend to
perform well during subsequent culturing.

AQUACULTURE DEPENDENCY ON WILD SEED

In the 1980s, the wild catch of Mojako started to decline. In order to protect this natural
resource the Japan Fisheries Agency required the Marine Aquaculture Association
of Japan to regulate both the catch season and numbers (Figure 2) and since 2003 the
Prefectural Fisheries Cooperatives are allowed to regulate this fishery and allocate
quotas to each prefecture (Inagaki, 1990). However, when the number of Mojako
caught has been insufficient, yellowtail fingerlings have been imported mainly from the
Republic of Korea. Amberjack juveniles have been imported from China and Viet Nam,
including some 20 million imported in 2000 which were cultured from wild amberjack
seed. These are acclimated and reared to 50 to 300 g. Several viral and parasitic diseases
have entered Japan with the imported juveniles. In 2005, the nematode worm Anisakis,
which was introduced with juvenile amberjack from China. Because Anisakis larvae in
fish can be transmitted to humans, the Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare
prohibited sales of the infected farmed fish for raw meat consumption. Concerns over
the health of imported juveniles have persuaded some fishing cooperatives to send
workers to China to conduct quality control on the health of the amberjack juveniles.
Furthermore, all imported amberjack juveniles are also checked by custom officials as
they are often fed with high levels of antibiotics prior to shipping.
A further and important seed source is aquaculture itself. The Marine Aquaculture
Association of Japan and several prefectural experimental stations have established
techniques for the artificial production of about 60 marine fish species. Significant
quantities of yellowtail, amberjack, gold-striped amberjack and striped jack juveniles
have been produced by aquaculturists (Kawabe et al., 1996; Arakawa et al., 1987;
Tachihara, Ebisu, and Tukasima, 1993; Kawanabe et al., 1997). Viable eggs are obtained
from both wild spawners and cultured broodstock fed high quality formulated feeds,
with maturation being stimulated by hormone injections in many instances (Mushiake
et al., 1993; Nagasaki Prefectural Fisheries Experimental Station, 1998). Healthy fry
208 Capture-based aquaculture: global overview

are fed on mass-produced food organisms such as rotifers and brine shrimp nauplii
fortified with n-3 highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA) as well as formulated feeds
(Verakunpiriya et al., 1997a; Verakunpiriya et al., 1997b; Fukuhara, Nakagawa and
Fukunaga, 1986). Farm-raised juveniles have been released into the wild and used as
seed for aquaculture.

Production benefits from aquaculture

For more than 30 years, the annual yellowtail capture fisheries harvest in Japan has
been around 50 000 tonnes, while 160 000 tonnes are produced from aquaculture. The
fishery is carried out using different fishing techniques and takes place in numerous
fishing grounds along the extended coast of Japan. At present, the fisheries stations in
the prefectures, along with the Japan Fisheries Agency monitor the wild resources and
make recommendations to prevent excessive harvest of Mojako, juveniles and adults.
If wild Mojako harvesting was limited to what is needed for aquaculture, wild
yellowtail fisheries could increase to more than 100  000 tonnes, however the wild
yellowtail might then consume more than 1 000 000 tonnes of prey fish, which could
otherwise be harvested for human food. It is suggested that wild Mojako and small jacks
should be fully utilized as a resource for aquaculture, as they have very high natural
mortality rate in the early life stages. Farm feeds could include artificial granulated feed,
moist pellets, and extruded pellets made from trash fish and vegetable matter as well as
human food left overs.

FISH FEED

Reliance on wild-caught food

In the early years of yellowtail culture in Japan, there was a high dependence on
locally available trash fish for feed. However, as yellowtail culture techniques were
disseminated, the demand for trash fish exceeded production, and different resources
had to be used that included commercially available small pelagic fish such as sardines
which were abundant and cheap. The government supported the installation of
large-scale freezing plants along the coast and frozen sardines further supported the
development of yellowtail aquaculture. Minced frozen sardines were widely used;
however feeding efficiency was poor and water quality deteriorated rapidly due to
accumulation of uneaten fish and faeces. However, after determining that feeding
frozen fish was safe, and was better than feeding thawed fish, frozen sardines were
fed cut into pieces or whole (Miyazaki, 1986). Two of the major advantages with the
use of frozen fish were reduced deterioration of the feed and reduced environmental
pollution.
However, the use of sardines alone as the sole feed for yellowtail led to nutritional
disorders, because of unsuitable calorie/protein levels. Furthermore, the crude fat
content of sardines changed markedly with harvest areas and seasons (Table 4), and
between the stocks in the Pacific Ocean and Japanese Sea (Figure 6). While a good
system for distributing sardines to fish farmers was developed, there was no control
over their fat content. There is a strong, negative correlation between the water and fat
content of sardines landed at Kyushu, Sanin and Kushiro.

Table 4
Difference in crude fat content of sardines according to harvest area
Harvest area Fat content – range (%) Fat content – mean (%)
East Hokkaido 19.9–39.9 26.8
Boso: Joban 8.8–22.5 14.4
Sanin 1.4–22.3 13.0
Kyushu 4.0–13.6 8.6
Sources: Japan Marine Oil Association.
Capture-based aquaculture of yellowtail 209

FIGURE 6
Monthly changes in crude fat content of Pacific Ocean and Japanese Sea sardines

28
26
Pacific Ocean stock (1978)
24
22
20
18
Crude fat content (%)

16
14
Japan Sea stock (1985)
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Month

Source: Japanese Marine Oil Association.

More recently, the catch of wild fish as feed has markedly declined. For example, the
harvest of sardines between 1980 and 1990 was more than four million tonnes. These
were used to feed farmed fish such as yellowtail, red seabream, and silver salmon as
well as being transformed into fishmeal. However, after 2003 only 50 000 tonnes of
sardines were locally fished. Fresh fish feed for yellowtail farming decreased over the
years from 1.7 million tonnes to 0.88 million tonnes (including mainly sardines, horse
mackerel, mackerel and sand lance). At the same time the total production of cultured
yellowtail has been maintained at around 150 000 tonnes due to the development of
artificial feeds such as moist and extruded pellets (Table 5).

TABLE 5
Temporal changes in quantities of fish and artificial feeds used in yellowtail aquaculture
(tonnes), 1994–2006
Artificial feeds
Feed fish
Year Dry pellet as
(tonnes) Powder Dry pellets Total
% of total
1994 1 159 724 71 747 28 684 100 425 28.6

1995 1 748 843 86 449 54 282 140 731 38.6

1996 1 105 152 59 273 48 977 108 250 45.2

1997 1 197 292 60 889 60 063 120 952 49.7

1998 1 258 991 61 527 65 207 126 734 51.5

1999 1 060 763 50 891 67 894 118 785 57.2

2000 983 836 56 211 97 260 153 471 63.4

2001 929 691 59 483 138 908 198 391 70.0

2002 1 048 747 54 223 138 378 192 601 71.8

2003 965 701 49 521 153 241 202 762 75.6

2004 881 981 49 173 147 518 196 690 75.0

2005 NA 44 327 148 400 192 727 77.0

2006 NA 47 580 157 505 205 085 76.8

Source: Japanese Fish Feed Association.

210 Capture-based aquaculture: global overview

TABLE 6
Feed intake efficiency (Feed Conversion Rates) and feed cost (¥/kg)
Feed intake Feed conversion
Yellowtail life Feed price Feed cost 1
Type of feed efficiency rate
stage (Yen/kg) (Yen/kg)
(%) (Dry weight)
Minced raw fish Mojako 25 17.5 (6.1) 100 1 750
Minced raw fish Hamachi 25 12.5 (4.4) 80 1 000
Granulated feed Mojako 55 4.5 400 1 800
MRF + binder Hamachi 45 8.5 (3.2) 60 510
Round raw fish Hamachi 50 10 (3.5) 45 450
Round raw fish Buri 50 7.5 (2.6) 45 338
Moist Pellet 0 Hamachi & Buri 50 11 (3.9) 55 605
Moist Pellet 30   60 6.5 (4.0) 92.5 600
Moist Pellet 50   70 5.0 (3.3) 117 585
Moist Pellet 100 80 4 140 560
High Fat Dry Pellet Mojako 70 3.7 150 555
High Fat Dry Pellet Hamachi 75 5 140 700
Extrude Pellet Mojako 85 0.9 325 300
Extrude Pellet Hamachi 75 1.4 250 350
Extrude Pellet Buri 65 2.4 175 400
1
Cost of feed to produce a kg of fish.

Extruded pellets containing more than 20 percent fat are efficiently utilized
by yellowtail, and farmers have achieved feed conversion ratios of 1.2 during the
production of 1-year old fish. Using the same type of feed, satisfactory growth has also
been achieved during the second year, providing that water temperatures are optimal.
For yellowtail larger than 3 kilograms, raw fish is preferred to extruded pellets, and
it is difficult to attain daily feeding rates of 2 percent of the body weight on extruded
pellets, especially during the winter. Development of an extruded pellet, containing >25
percent fat and weighing more than 30 g, will be required for the economical production
of yellowtail larger than 3 kilograms, particularly during the winter months.

Artificial feed availability and problems

Artificial feeds support improved growth and survival rates when compared to fresh
fish diets. When raw fish were used as the primary feed material for yellowtail, it was
difficult to predict fish growth precisely because the nutritional composition of the
feed varied significantly. As information on the protein and vitamin requirements of
yellowtail was acquired (Takeuchi et al., 1992), the production of various types of
moist pellets and formulated feeds became possible. Currently the production cost
for yellowtail moist pellets or formulated feed is less than that of raw fish, prompting
numerous feed manufacturers to produce such feeds.
Although the quantity of formulated feed used for yellowtail culture has increased
almost linearly over the last decade (see Table 5), more research is needed to develop
dry pelleted feed, appropriate feeding techniques and identification of inexpensive feed
materials (Nakada, 1997a; Shimeno, Masaya and Ukawa, 1997; Nakayama, 1997). The
development of high quality formulated fish feeds is now being undertaken by the
Fisheries Agency of Japan, the Fish Feed Association of Japan, university researchers
and fisheries experimental stations (Matsumoto, 1997). The development of artificial
feeds such as Umisachi and Otohime has contributed to the increased production and
high survival of Mojako. By using such feeds it is now possible to raise healthy Mojako
starting from initial sizes of >2 g; when raw minced fish was used as feed, high survival
rates were not possible.
The Fish Feed Association of Japan supported the development of economical
moist pellets, extruded pellets and granulated feeds for yellowtails that successfully
lowered production costs and improved product quality. In addition, pharmaceutical
companies developed vitamin mixtures and functional ingredients for the prevention
and treatment of disease and improvements of fish quality.
Capture-based aquaculture of yellowtail 211

Another advance in artificial feed came in 1979 when the Japanese Fisheries
Agency started to develop a moist pellet diet for yellowtail culture in order to prevent
pollution. However, during the 1980s the abundant and extremely cheap domestic
spot-lined sardines continued to be used as the principal feed for yellowtail. It was
not until the early 1990s that fish farmers finally became aware of the severe damage
to the environment around their aquaculture grounds caused by feeding fish, and this
prompted acceptance of the artificial feeds
Modification to the feed can include the addition of binding agents, which, when
added to minced raw fish, improve the feed efficiency by almost twofold. The daily
feeding rate can then be reduced by 20 to 30 percent, resulting in a better feed conversion
rate and reduced water pollution. The use of the right feed in the appropriate amount
is a very important factor for efficient and sustainable production, which can in turn
improve cultured fish quality (Table 6).
Various substitutes for fishmeal have been successfully used to halve the amount
of fishmeal and fish oil in yellowtail feeds without adverse effects (Watanabe, 1996;
Shimeno, 1997; Shimeno, Takii and Ono, 1993). If defatted and dried fishmeal is used
in aquaculture, fish feeds have insufficient lipid content in the absence of added fat
(Nakada, 1992).
During the 1980s it was common practice to provide supplemental oil in feed for
freshwater fishes, however, these oils could not be used for marine species due to
their difference in fatty acid requirements. Feed oils suitable for marine species were
developed and tested in commercial production trials with yellowtail, and produced fish
similar in lipid composition to wild fish. However, the quality of oil containing high
levels of highly unsaturated fatty acid (HUFA) varies, so the Society of Aquaculture
Feed Oil Research has set standards for feed oils recommended for aquaculture feeds.
Since world production of fishmeal and fish oil has fluctuated dramatically, further
improvements in fish feeds, including use of alternative protein sources, has been
undertaken. In the future, soybean meal, poultry meal and a certain amount of fish oil,
along with soybean oil and/or coconut oil, will likely be used in place of the current
fishmeal which is currently the major protein source in formulated feeds.

Sustainability of wild-caught feed

Under strict regulations from the Japan Fishery Ministry, the sardine resources are
stable at low harvest levels. According to the 2004 statistics of the Japan Fishery
Agency, feed fish production for yellowtails was 525  000 tonnes, and artificial feed
production for yellowtails was 357 000 tonnes. As the sardine stocks are not increasing,
sardines should not be harvested at levels greater than the previous year, and yellowtail
culture will need to switch to artificial feeds.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF JUVENILES FISHERIES

The annual Mojako stocks are estimated to be greater than 100 million specimens
and current regulations limit harvest to 25 million. In order to enhance this natural
resource and reduce impacts on the wild stocks, a number of actions have been
taken over the years which included the establishment of suitable algal grounds to
encourage yellowtail reproduction, release of artificial drifting seaweeds and artificial
propagation. During the fishing of Mojako, non-targeted species bycatch is reported to
the designated Prefectural Fisheries Station. Some valuable bycatch species are handled
with care and may be retained, while other species are released back to the sea along
with the drifting seaweed.
Following capture of the Mojako, the fishing vessels return to port within two days
to minimize cannibalism, and if transportation time exceeds 3 days artificial granulated
feed is provided to the fish in holding tanks. Since the early days, the traditional
Mojako fishing technique has improved considerably, ensuring that the young fish
212 Capture-based aquaculture: global overview

remain in good health. Proper handling and feeding during these early stages will
ensure almost complete survival of the wild fingerlings during subsequent farming
(<2 percent mortality).

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACT OF FARMING

Two million people are estimated to be engaged in mariculture in Japan, with women
and older workers involved in all stages of yellowtail culture and trade except for
harvest of the wild fish. Most yellowtail products are handled by the fishermen’s
cooperative association (FCA) which also provide working capital (as loans) to
purchase seed and feed. Traditionally, the FCA used to sell the products to the fish
markets in neighbouring towns and cities. However, more recently, supermarket chains
purchase the product at lower prices in order to guarantee their yearly contracts.
Hence producer’s prices and farmer’s profits have fallen.
In an effort to create higher returns, there has been an increase in intensive net pen
culture, which has in turn caused water pollution, increased the occurrence of red
tides, but also decreased the number of feeding days. Many family-owned aquaculture
businesses have gone bankrupt as they have been unable to keep up with the production
costs. Such businesses have transferred their aquaculture rights to others and have often
become employees of such new operations. The number of existing mariculture farms
has declined dramatically.
Although consumers in Japan can purchase cheaper and higher quality fish from
the new chain of discount shops, the purchasing power of the Japanese public
has decreased because of the extraordinary demand for quality and low prices in
international competition.

Trade of farmed fish

The consumer is gradually accepting cultured fish as being of higher quality than
wild fish, although high level restaurants still prefer wild rather than cultured fish. The
strongest competitor for cultured yellowtail is not pork or beef, but wild small Buri
(50–60 cm in body length) caught using set nets. If a large quantity of young Buri is
landed at one time, their market price may drop as low as ¥200–300/kg (US$1.9–2.9/kg),
which is significantly cheaper that the lowest price for cultured yellowtail of ¥800/kg
(US$7.7/kg).
The market for cultured yellowtail can be divided into that for (i) high class Japanese
restaurants that deal mainly in live fish, (ii) wholesale stores and supermarkets dealing
with fresh and frozen fish, and (iii) direct delivery of processed fillets to individual
restaurants and homes (Satoho and Homma, 1990).
Although yellowtail was once sold strictly by weight, consumers have now
become more selective about product quality, and farmers have started to produce
higher quality fish. Currently, branded farmed yellowtail fetch a higher price than
other yellowtail and other cultured fish. Maintaining a stable quality product by
discarding second grade fish, and paying special attention to maintaining freshness
has become highly valued by the intermediate dealers. At supermarkets and retail
fish stores, sales have expanded through the marketing of special brands of cultured
fishes produced by such organizations as the Kagawa and Kagoshima Federation of
Fisheries Cooperatives.
In order to maintain a high product quality, the fish should be fasted before
harvesting, as it allows consumed food to be digested. Furthermore, to retain product
freshness, the fish should be killed immediately after being taken from the water by
severing the medulla oblongata, and bled by cutting the caudal artery. If it is impossible
to treat the fish individually, they should be held in a tank with a large amount of
chipped ice. If the moribund state is prolonged, or the fish are shipped without enough
chilling, early rigor mortis reduces product quality. The quality of fish deteriorates very
Capture-based aquaculture of yellowtail 213

rapidly and it is vital to get the fish product to consumers quickly after harvest. With
cold storage, fish can be served as sashimi for approximately three days, depending
on rearing conditions and treatment after harvest. Rapid killing, bleeding, filleting,
and proper packaging and refrigeration, can result in excellent quality yellowtail.
Amberjack and gold-striped amberjack are more popular than yellowtail for sashimi
as they can be kept for >3 three days under refrigeration without losing flavour, colour
and firmness. Currently, demand for amberjack exceeds the supply.

Economic benefits and loses from aquaculture

Among the different parties involved in yellowtail aquaculture, the distributor
usually gains the greatest economic benefit. The fishery cooperatives and fishing
companies cooperate, manage the seed supply and marketing, and sometimes dominate
management. Farmers receive relatively little economic benefit, and have thus become
relegated to being only fish producers. Many aquaculturists sell their products through
a relatively new system of direct sales, where private brokers buy fish directly from the
producers and transport them to consumers using live-fish trucks. However, despite its
popularity, many private brokers are experiencing difficulties because of serious “price
competition”.
Seed production by artificial incubation for high priced fish can be lucrative. In
comparison with adult fish culture, the seed fish business can easily be carried out,
requiring only small ponds and limited technical knowledge. However, income from
hatchery operations faces strong competition from seed material from the wild.
Fish farmers are currently also facing economic difficulties due to the stagnant
national economy which has increased competition among the producers and brought
a drastic decreased in the yellowtail market prices. There has been a 75 percent decrease
in the number of yellowtail farmers in the last 30 years from the 4 162 enterprises in
1978 to 1 049 enterprises in 2004.
There are no full-time Mojako fishermen as this activity is rather a part-time job
undertaken along with other fishing activities. Yellowtail farmers have concentrated in
maximizing production and profits rather than determining proper farming densities
and feeding regimes. Hence, management techniques have not developed. In 1999,
legislation was enacted setting limits on the number of individual cultured fish per unit
area, the amount of feed used and the number of cages per given area; this legislation
is strictly enforced.

CONCLUSIONS
An urgent need in Japanese yellowtail aquaculture is the production of better quality
juveniles, with better growth rates and less vulnerability to disease. This should be
accomplished through selective breeding, which requires collection of different strains
in order to select the required broodstock.
A further additional development may be culturing marine species, such as
yellowtail, on land. If the culture of yellowtail and related species becomes possible on
land without polluting coastal areas, it will be a welcome approach for producing high
quality fish (Kikuchi, 1998). Previously land-based culture was not considered because
of the high initial cost for facilities; however it may now be a feasible approach. The
fish can be raised in controlled quality water, resulting is fewer diseases and reduced
exposure to pollutants. This approach is attractive to consumers, who increasingly
prefer cultured fish which they know have not received medication. A moist pellet
for yellowtail was developed ten years ago, as well as formulated feed. Furthermore,
artificial seawater systems that perform better than natural seawater for larval
production have been developed and techniques for closed systems and automatic
feeding systems are improving regularly (Nakada, 1997b). However, there remains the
problem of finding suitable heat sources to control water temperature.
214 Capture-based aquaculture: global overview

At present, there are no proper countermeasures for the declining productivity of

the fish in growout areas, or for controlling disease in intensively cultured fish. For
economical and sustainable fish culture it is necessary to maintain an optimum stocking
density based on carrying capacity. Hirata and his colleagues (Hirata, Kadowaki
and Ishida, 1994) proposed developing a distribution graph of dissolved oxygen
concentrations in culture areas to aid proper water management. This can now be
supported by the recent availability of real time information on the dissolved oxygen
and water temperature of particular areas from the fisheries experimental station and
fishery cooperatives.
In order to alleviate the environmental problems associated with marine fish farming,
various measures are needed such as dredging accumulated sediment from the sea
bottom, using chemicals to stimulate decomposition of organic materials, prohibiting
the use of minced raw fish, and prohibiting the culture of large yellowtail in favour
of culturing smaller, less polluting fish. Additional measures include increasing the
propagation of lugworms, which consume organic material in the mud, and cultivating
algae, which absorb dissolved nutrients excreted by fish. The comprehensive utilization
of natural productivity may be the correct direction of aquaculture in the future
(Tsutsumi and Montani, 1993).
It is time to consider a comprehensive culture approach that utilizes the natural
purification ability of the environment. Such an approach may involve polyculture
not only of several species of fishes, but also of crustaceans and algae (Hamauzu and
Yamanaka, 1997).

REFERENCES
Abe, T. 1986. Fish Data - I. Fish names and illustrations. 75th Anniversary of the
establishment of Nihon Suisan Co., Ltd., Tokyo.
Abe, T. 1987. Illustrated fishes of the world. Hokuryu-kan, Tokyo (in Japanese).
Abe, T. & Homma, A. 1997. Modern fish dictionary, NTS Inc. Tokyo.
Anraku, M. & Azeta, M. 1967. Seikai Regional Fisheries Research Laboratory Report
214(35): 41–50.
Arakawa, T., Takaya, M., Kitazima, T., Yoshida, N., Yamashita, K., Yamamoto, H.,
Izquiero, M.S. & Watanabe, T. 1987. Propagation experiments of horse mackerel.
Bulletin of Nagasaki Prefectural Institute of Fisheries, 13: 31–37.
Fukuhara, O., Nakagawa, T. & Fukunaga, T. 1986. Larval and juvenile development of
yellowtail reared in the laboratory. Bull. Japan. Soc. Sci. Fish., 52(12): 2091–2098.
Hamauzu, K. & Yamanaka, M. 1997. Effect of additional seaweeds feed for yellowtail.
Suisan-Zoshoku, 45(3): 357–363.
Hirata, H., Kadowaki, S. & Ishida, S. 1994. Evaluation of water quality by observation
of dissolved oxygen content in mariculture farms. Bull. Natl. Res. Inst. Aquac., Suppl.
1, 61–65.
Ikehara, K. 1984. Nihonkaiku Regional Fisheries Research Laboratory Report, pp. 221–232.
Inagaki, M. 1990. History on the supply and demand of yellowtail juvenile (Mojako)
(Special Reports on Buri). Suisan-Zoshoku, 38(3): 300–314.
Kawabe, K., Kato, K., Kimura, J., Okamura, Y., Ando, K., Saito, M. & Yoshida, K. 1996.
Rearing of broodstock fish and egg taking from amberjack Seriola dummerili in the
Chichi-jima, Ogasawara Island, Southern Japan. Suisan-Zoshoku, 44(2): 151–157.
Kawanabe, K., Kato, K., Kimura, J., Okamura, Y., Takenouchi, T. & Yoshida, K. 1997.
Rearing of broodstock fish and egg taking from the Carangid fish Seriola revoliana in the
Chichi-jima, Ogasawara Island, Southern Japan. Suosan-Zoshoku, 45(2): 201–206.
Kikuchi, K. 1998. New land aquaculture system. Brochure of Technical Bulletin of Hitachi
Metals, Tokyo, 1–4, Jan.
Matsumoto, S. 1997. Law and administrative guidance for aqua-feed. Yoshoku, 34(5):
49–51.
Capture-based aquaculture of yellowtail 215

Miyazaki, T. 1986. Prevention and treatment of diseases in yellowtail. Yoshoku, 23(9):

101–103.
Mushiake, K., Arai, S., Matsmoto, A., Shimma, H. & Hasegawa, I. 1993. Artificial
insemination from 2-year old cultured yellowtail fed with moist pellets. Bull. Japan. Soc.
Sci. Fish., 59(10): 1721–1726.
Nagasaki Prefecture Fisheries Experimental Station. 1998. Report from Experimental
Station. Monthly Kansui, 403, 44–44.
Nakada, M. 1992. Current study for aquaculture feeds. Yoshoku, 29(8): 38–60.
Nakada, M. 1997a. Economical usage of artificial aqua-feeds. Yoshoku, 34(5): 60–64.
Nakada, M. 1997b. Auto feeding system and formulated fish feed-study of auto feeding.
Marine Forum 21, pp.168–172.
Nakayama, H. 1997. Present status and problems of artificial aqua-feeds. Yoshoku, 34(5):
60–64.
Sakakura, Y. & Tsukamoto, K. 1996. Onset and development of cannibalistic behaviour in
early life stage of yellowtail. J. Fish Biol., 48, 16–29.
Satoho, R. & Homma, A. 1990. Handling of live fish. Fuji Technosystem, Inc., Tokyo.
Shimeno, S. 1997. Current study for aquaculture feeds. Yoshoku, 34(5): 52–55.
Shimeno, S., Masaya, M. & Ukawa, M. 1997. Effect of manufactured cooking level on
nutritional value for high fishmeal contained yellowtail feed, Bull. Japan. Soc. Sci. Fish.,
63(6): 971–976.
Shimeno, S., Takii, M. & Ono, T. 1993. Difference of digestion and blood plasma change
for juvenile yellowtail by raw fish feeds and artificial fish feeds. Bull. Japan. Soc. Sci. Fish.,
59(3): 507–513.
Suehiro, Y. & Abe, T. 1994. Illustrated book of fishes and shellfish. Shogakukan, Tokyo.
Tachihara, K., Ebisu, R. & Tukasima, Y. 1993. Spawning, eggs, larvae and juveniles of the
purplish amberjack Seriola dummerili. Bull. Japan. Soc. Sci. Fish 59(9): 1479–1488.
Takeuchi, T., Shiina, Y., Watanabe, T., Sekiya, S. & Imaizumi, K. 1992. Suitable protein
and lipid levels in diet for fingerlings of yellowtail. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi (Bull. Japan.
Sco. Sci. Fish.), 58: 1333–1339.
Tsutsumi, H. & Montani, S. 1993. Utilization of biological activities of capitellid
polychaete for treatment of “Hedoro” (organically enriched sediment) deposited on the
marine bottom just below fish net pen culture. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi (Bull. Japan.
Sco. Sci. Fish.), 59: 1343–1347 (in Japanese).
Verakunpiriya, V., Mushiake, K., Kawano, K. & Watanabe, T. 1997a. Supplemental effect
of astaxanthin in broodstock diets on the quality of yellowtail eggs. Fish. Sci., 63(5):
816–823.
Verakunpiriya, V., Watanabe, K., Mushiake, K., Kawano, K., Kobayashi, T., Hasegawa,
I., Kiron, V., Satoho, S. & Watanabe, T. 1997b. Effect of krill meal supplementation in
soft-dry pellets on spawning and quality of egg of yellowtail. Fish. Sci., 63(3): 433–439.
Watanabe, T. 1996. Developments in the present conditions of Japan aquaculture feeds,
Suisan-Zoshoku, 44(2): 227–229.