Topic: PROPERTIES OF A WELL-WRITTEN PARAGRAPH

Subject: Reading and Writing Skills (Grade 11)

Quarter/Semester: 1st Quarter, 1st Semester

A. Organization of a Paragraph
Paragraphs are the building blocks of a paper. A paragraph discusses one idea in detail and aids the development of an
overall topic for the essay.

Parts of a Paragraph:
 Topic Sentence
The main idea of each paragraph is stated in a topic sentence that shows how the idea relates to the thesis or
overall focus of the paper. The topic sentence is the first sentence of a paragraph
 Supporting Details
Supporting details elaborate upon and prove the topic sentence. It should be drawn from a variety of sources.
Using a combination of different supports is the most common and effective way to strengthen a paragraph.
-The following are common ways to provide supporting details:
 Expert Opinion
 Facts and Statistics
 Personal Experience
 Research Studies
 Other’s Experiences
 Brief Stories
 Journal Entries
 Personal Analysis
 Interviews
 Metaphors
 Concluding Sentence
Each paragraph should end with a final statement that ties together the ideas brought up in the paragraph and
emphasizes the main idea one last time.

Example of a Paragraph:
Maintaining a healthy lifestyle requires eating a nutritious diet and getting regular exercise. A nutritious diet
includes eating a variety of foods from each of the four food groups: meat, dairy, fruits and vegetables, and grains.
Regular exercise is also an essential part of keeping a healthy lifestyle. Most experts recommend exercising at least thirty
minutes a day, six days a week. These two aspects, eating a healthy diet and exercising on a regular basis will maintain a
healthy lifestyle.

Patterns of Organization
1. Simple Listing
Items are randomly listed in a series of supporting facts or details. These supporting elements are of equal value,
and the other in which they are presented is of no importance. Changing the order of the items does not alter the meaning
of the paragraph
Signal Words for Simple Listing
In addition another For example
reveal Some also

2. Description
The description is like listing; the characters that make up a story are no more than a mere listing of details

3. Definition
In textbook reading, an entire paragraph is devoted to defining and then further expanded with examples and
restatements
Signal Words for Definition
Is defined as Means Is described as
Refers to Term or Concept Is called

4. Chronological Order or Sequence

Signal Words for Chronological Order or Sequence
First, Second, Third, Before, after, When. Later, until, at last, next

5. Comparison-Contrast
Items are related to the comparison (similarities) that are made or by the contrasts (differences) that are presented.
The Author’s purpose is to show similarities and differences
 Signal Words for Comparison-Contrast
Similar, different, on the other hand, parallels, bigger than, smaller than, in the same way, however, but

6. Cause and Effect

In this pattern, one item is shown as having produced another element. An event (effect) is said to have happened
because of some situation or circumstance (cause). The cause (action) stimulates the event or effect (the outcome)
Signal Words for Cause and Effect
For this reason Consequently On the account
Because Made Hence

B. Coherence and Cohesion

 Coherence and cohesion are related since a lack of cohesion will often lead to a lack of clarity.
 A well-written paragraph is coherent; that is the ideas in the paragraph are arranged in a logical order and are
clearly related to each other.
 Coherence enables the reader to follow the writer’s train of thoughts with ease.
 Some subjects do not require a particular order of ideas.
 Other subjects, by their very nature, are developed with details that must be ordered in specific ways.

Cohesion- refers to the ability a piece of writing has to link ideas together in a logical manner.

Coherence- is the ability of a writer’s writing to retain meaning and to be composed in a manner that is understandable.

Four Ways of Ordering Ideas to Achieve Coherence

1. Chronological Order
 The Greek word Chronos means “time”.
 From this word comes the word chronological, which means “in the order of occurrence”.
 Paragraphs that explain processes and these that relate incidents are almost always arranged in chronological
order.
Example:
Easily the most conspicuous feature of the planet is the white caps that cover its polar regions. They display a
fascinating system of advance and retreat. At the end of winter in each hemisphere, the polar caps cover some four
million square miles. As spring comes, it begins to diminish- rather slowly at first, then at an increasing rate. Near the
middle of spring, dark rifts appear. They grow steadily and soon split the cap into several sections. The disintegration of
the fragments that proceeds rapidly. They never disappear entirely, however; even in midsummer, a tiny, dazzling spot
remains near the pole. - Gerard de Vaucouleur.

2. Spatial Order
 The order of things is they are arranged in space, is used most often in descriptive writing.
 A writer must choose either a central focus or a position from which to view the object or scene.

Example:
At the time, we were living in a second-floor apartment on Corinthian Street. The lobby was an asset to the
tenants; large, faintly grand, a polished place that smelled strongly of newly- painted walls. It was illuminated by paired
bracket-lamps, each one eye blinded by the economy, and the melting hues of their Tiffany glass shades reminded me a
half-sucked candy. Two staircases- one for the tenants on the east side of the building. One for the tenants from the West-
opened out and upward with, expensive, old-fashioned gestures; and in each French window stood a twirled iron tripod
holding a pot of those plants that somehow cling to life through all: spitting radiators, north light, neglect of custodians.
For me, the lobby had a spotting elegance; it brought to mind the baronial halls in illustration by Reginald Birch
- Elizabeth Enright.

3. Order of Importance
 This order is usually used in paragraphs of explanation, argument, and persuasion.
 Most often a writer moves from the least important to the most important idea, thus ending on strong note.
However, a writer may also use the reverse order.

Example:
Pangloss taught metaphysics- theology- cosmolonigology. He proud admirably that there is no effect without a
cause and that in his best of all worlds, My Lord the Baron’s castle was the best of all castles and his wife, the best of
all possible Baronesses.”T’is demonstrated,” said he, ”that things cannot be otherwise; for, since everything is made to
an end, everything is necessarily for the best end. Observe that noses were made to wear spectacles, and so we have
spectacles. Legs were visibly instituted to be breached, and we have breeches. Stones were formed to be quarried and to
build castles, and My Lord has a very noble castle; the greatest Boron in the province should have the best house; and as
pigs were made to be eaten, we eat pork all the year round; consequently, those who have asserted that all well talk
nonsense; they out to have said that all is for the best.”- Voltaire

4. Combination of Orders
 Many writers use not one, but a combination of orders to achieve effective paragraphs.

Example:
This day our back porch was piled with baskets of strawberries, mangoes, and grapes bought in town, and onion
and tomatoes and cucumber grew at home, all waiting to be made into jelly and jam and preserves, pickles and chili
sauce. In the kitchen there was a fine in the stove all day, jars clinched in boiling water; sometimes a cheesecloth bag was
strung on a pole between two chairs, straining blue-black grapes pulp for jelly. I was given jobs to do, and I would seat at
the table peeling mangoes, or cutting onions, my eyes smarting and streaming. As soon as I was done, I run out of the
house, trying to get out the earshot before my mother thought of what she wanted me to do next. - Alice Munro

C. Language uses in Paragraph

In a paragraph, there is a particular language that used. And this language helps make the connection of one word to
another, one phrase to another, one sentence to another and sometimes one paragraph to another. The language that is
mention here are the Transition Words and Phrases.
Categories of Transition Words and Phrases:

 Agreement / Addition / Similarity

The transition words like also, in addition, and, likewise, add information, reinforce ideas, and express agreement with
preceding material.
-in the first place -correspondingly
-in like manner -additionally
-in the same fashion / way -similarly

 Opposition / Limitation / Contradiction

Transition phrases like but, rather and or, express that there is evidence to the contrary or point out alternatives, and thus
introduce a change the line of reasoning (contrast).
-at the same time -on the other hand
-besides -instead
-although -rather
-however -regardless

 Cause / Condition / Purpose

These transitional phrases present specific conditions or intentions.
-in the event that -so that
-in view of -whenever
-unless -given that

 Examples / Support / Emphasis

These transitional devices (like especially) are used to introduce examples as support, to indicate importance or as an
illustration so that an idea is cued to the reader.
-in other words -specifically
-particularly -in fact
-for instance -for example

 Effect / Consequence / Result

Some of these transition words (thus, then, accordingly, consequently, therefore, henceforth) are time words that are used
to show that after a particular time there was a consequence or an effect.
Note that for and because are placed before the cause/reason. The other devices are placed before the consequences or
effects.
-as a result -then -for
-thus -therefore
  Conclusion / Summary / Restatement
These transition words and phrases conclude, summarize and / or restate ideas, or indicate a final general statement. Also
some words (like therefore) from the Effect / Consequence category can be used to summarize.
-in summary -in short
-to sum up -to summarize
-in conclusion -overall

 Time / Chronology / Sequence

These transitional words (like finally) have the function of limiting, restricting, and defining time. They can be used either
alone or as part of adverbial expressions.
-in due time -as soon as
-in the meantime -in a moment
-up to the present time -until then

NOTE: Many transition words in the time category (consequently; first, second, third; further; hence; henceforth; since;
then, when; and whenever) have other uses.
Except for the numbers (first, second, third) and further they add a meaning of time in expressing conditions,
qualifications, or reasons. The numbers are also used to add information or list examples. Further is also used to indicate
added space as well as added time.

 Space / Location / Place

These transition words are often used as part of adverbial expressions and have the function to restrict, limit or qualify
space. Quite a few of these are also found in the Time category and can be used to describe spatial order or spatial
reference.
-in the middle -behind
-on the distance -in the center of
-in the background -in front of

D. Mechanics in writing a paragraph

1. Capitalization
Rules governing capitalization reflect conventional practices. Custom and usage have established them. With
this convention, a writer tells a reader what words are important.
Capitals are used to:
Rule 1: The first word in a complete sentence.
A. The holidays are over.
The first word in a complete enclosed in parenthesis is capitalized. However, the first word of a parenthetical
phrase or sentence in enclosed in parenthesis and occurring within another sentence is lower cased.
a) The meeting was held and ended. (The minutes of the previous meeting was not read)
b) The student attended Business English under Ms. Santos (she wrote the book used in the subject) at the
college.
Rule 2: The first word of a direct quotation is capitalized but a split direct quotation bound to the rest of the
sentence is the lower case at the beginning of its continued sequent.
a) The President asked, “What happened to the economy?”
b) “The President appealed, “the media reports,” and asked the people to bear with him.”
Rule 3: The first word of a direct quotation within a sentence or a series of questions in a sentence is capitalized.
a) The chain reiterated: What should our plan be? How are we going to devise it? Who will be involved?
Rule 4: The first word of run-in or block enumeration that forms complete sentences are capitalized, as the first word of
the phrasal lists and enumerations, blocked beneath running text but phrasal enumerations run- in to the introductory
cased are lowercased.
a) Follow this procedure:
 1. Turn on the power switch, and then logs in.
2. Dial the net direct numbers.
3. When connected log in the yahoo messenger.
4. Type your username and password.
5. Start your work on the net.

b) Follow this procedure:

1. Turn on the then logs in.
2. Dial the net direct numbers.
3. When connected, log in the yahoo messenger.
4. Type your user name and password and;
5. State your work on the net.

Rule 5: The first letter of the first word in an outline heading is capitalized.
I. Kinds of Pollution
A. Water
1. Causes

Rules 6: The first letter of the first word in a salutation and a complimentary close is capitalized as in the First letter
of each main word following SUBJECT and TO headings in memoranda.
a) Dear Ms. Deyto
b) Respectfully yours
c) TO: All Teachers
d) SUBJECT: Election of Officers

A. Proper Nouns, Pronouns, and Adjectives.

Nouns- a noun that is used to denote a particular person, place, or thing.
Pronouns -a word that can function by itself as a noun phrase and that refers either to the participants in the
discourse or to someone or something mentioned elsewhere in the discourse.
Adjectives- a word or phrase naming an attribute, added to or grammatically related to a noun to modify or
describe it.
Rule 1: Branches and Units of the armed focus are capitalized including short, recognizable forms of the full
branch and unit designation.
a. Philippines Air Force and contact with the Air Force.
b. Corps of Engineers.

Rule 2: Awards and Prices are capitalized.

a. Oscar Award
b. The Famas Award

Rule 3: Words Designating the Deity are capitalized.

a. Jesus Christ is the Emmanuel
b. God, the almighty sees the universe

Rule 4: Epithets used in place names or titles are capitalized.

a. Malacañang Palace denied.
b. The church calls for uniting and reconciliation.

Rule 5: Adjectives derived from compass points and nouns designating the inhabitants of some geographical
regions are capitalized.
a. Members of the Western Police
b. Highlander

Rule 6: Topography names are capitalized as well as the generic names (as the ocean, valley, and lake) that
are essential elements of the total names.
a. Atlantic Ocean
 b. Mt. Bulusan

Rule 7: Generic Plural names were written before Topographical names are capitalized except when the noun-
determiner THE precedes them, the generic name is lower cased.

a. Lakes Sampaloc and bato

b. Mounts banahaw and Pinatubo

Rule 8: Names designating public places are capitalized if they are essential elements of specific names, but they
are lowercased when place after multiple names or written alone.
a. San Juanico Bridge
b. Makati Park Square

B. Government, Judicial and Political Bodies

Rule 1: The word administration and government are capitalized when referring to a particular government
in power.
a. The Aquino Government
b. The Administration denies that
c. The Opposition varies from one Administration to another.

Rule 2: Full names of legislative, executive and administration bodies are capitalized, but a non- specific noun
and adjective reference to them are lowercase.
a. American and United States Congress
b. The Congress

Rule 3: Official and full names of the higher court are capitalized, but the single designation court is
lowercased if referred.
a. Quezon City Court of Appeals
b. The Supreme Court

Rule 4: The names of political parties are capitalized.

a. Liberal Party
b. Lakas-NUCD Party

C. Names of Organization

Rule 1: Common nouns use after two or more organization are low cased.
a. United and Japan Airlines
b. San Miguel and Heinz Corporation

Rule 2: Names of firms, corporation, schools, organizations and other such groups are capitalized.
a. J.C. Palabay Enterprises, Inc.
b. University of the Philippines
c. San Miguel Corporation

Rule 3: The word Company and Corporation are capitalized when they refer to one’s organization, but
lowercased when referring to another organization.
a. We have to follow the code of the Company.
b. He was hired by a certain corporation.

Rule 4: Words such as groups, division, department, office or agency that designate corporate and
organizational units are capitalized when used with specific names.
a. The Personnel Department ranks the position of the employees.
b. The clearance has to pass a certain division in the city hall.

D. Names of Persons
Rule 1: The names of persons are capitalized.
a. Judith A. Yu
b. Diana Escalona
 Rule 2: Words designating peoples and their languages are capitalized.
a. French
b. Filipino
c. Japanese

Rule 3: Derivatives of proper names are capitalized when used in their primary sense.
a. Spanish language
b. French wire

E. Numerical Designation
Rule 1: Monetary units spelled in full in legal documents or cheques are capitalized.
a. Pay Twenty Thousand Pesos to
Rule 2: Nouns introducing a set of numbers are capitalized.
a. Form 137 and 138
b. Catalog no. 35
c. Order no. 35

Rule 3: Nouns used with numbers or letter to designate major reference headings are capitalized, but
nonreference heading and subheading are lowercased.
a. Appendix II
b. Figure 8
c. Volume V
d. line 3

F. Scientific Terms

Rule 1: Name of geological eras, periods, epoch and strata of prehistoric age are capitalized, but the generic
nouns which they modify are the lower case except when generic nouns appear before the names of eras periods,
epochs, strata, or division, and then they are capitalized

a. Stone Age
b. Neanderthal Period
c. Age of Dinosaurs

Rule 2: Names of planets, constellations, asteroids, stars and groups of stars are capitalized, but the word sun, the
moon, and earth are lowercased unless they are written with other astronomical names.

a. Venus d. The sun is bigger than the moon

b. Mars e. The spaceship went to the moon, c. Saturn then to venus.

Rule 3: Meteorological phenomena are lowercased.

a. Aurora borealis
b. Meteor shower

Rule 4: General in binomial nomenclature in zoology and botany are capitalized, but species names are
lowercased.

a. Pineapple (Ananas comosess)

b. Bitter ground (Momordica charantia)

Rule 5: Latin names of classes, families and all groups above genera in zoology and botany are capitalized,
but the descriptive law, theorem, and the theory are lowercased in American English.

a. Molusska (Mollusk) b. Antropoda (Antropad)

Rule 6: Proper names forming essential elements of scientific laws, theorems and principle are capitalized,
but the descriptive law, theorem, and theory are lowercased.

a. Darwin’s Theory
b. Conservation of Mars Law
 c. Duality Principle

Rule 7: Proprietary (brand and trade) names of drugs and other chemicals are capitalized.

a. She takes amoxicillin for injection

b. She was treated with Lamisil

Rule 8: Proper names are forming essential elements of terms, designating diseases, syndromes, signs, tests,
and symptoms are capitalized.

a. Alzheimer’s Disease
b. Pregnancy Test
c. German Measles
d. Measles
e. Venereal Disease

G. Time, Period, Zones, and Divisions

Rule 1: Names of the seasons are not capitalized unless they are used as names of persons.

a. Their love story happened in summer.

b. Miss summer won in the beauty contest.

Rule 2: Days of the week, month of the year, holidays and holy days are capitalized.

a. Monday d. Easter Sunday

b. December e. Ramadan
c. Christmas

Rule 3: Historical periods are capitalized; latter-day periods are lowercased

a. Renaissance c. nuclear age

b. Medieval Period d. space age

Rule 4: Historical events and appellations referring to particular periods or events in time are capitalized

a. EDSA Revolution
b. The Great Flood

Rule 5: Numerical designation of historical time periods is capitalized when they are essential elements of proper
names, or else they are lowercased.

a. The Roaring Seventies

b. The eighties

H. Titles of Persons

Rule 1: Words of family relationship preceding names are capitalized

a. Aunt Liza
b. Her uncle, Mr. Ang

Rule 2: Corporate titles are capitalized if referring to specific persons but when used in general or plural context,
they are lowercased

a. Mr. John D. Ang, General Manager

b. Mrs. Judith A Yu, Marketing Manager
c. The general manager arrived yesterday

Rule 3: All titles preceding names are capitalized

a. Cardinal Tagle
b. Princess Diana
c. President George Bush

Rule 4: Specific corporate and government titles are capitalized if they stand alone or when they are used in place
a particular individual.
 a. The Secretary’s Report
b. The Chairman will see you today.
c. The Budget faced the accusations.

I. Numerals

Rule 1: Ages are express in figures.

a. A 3-day old baby

b. The 70-year old baby

Rule 2: Numbers that begin a sentence are written in words.

a. Fifty members walked out of the hall

b. Twenty-four sections graduated from the secondary school the last March.

Rule 3: When two members comprise one item or unit, the just numbers is express in words and the often is
shown in figures but if the second numbers is lower, it should be expressed in words.

a. One 5-shelf cabinet

b. 20 three-drawer cabinets

Rule 4: Two sets of figures should not be typed in typed direct succession in a text unless they comprise a series.

a. The lady bought 20 bottles of shampoo, ten sachets of coffee, and two packs of creamer.
b. In the year 2016, ten thousand students will be probably at the grade 11.

Rule 5: Figures are used to express days and years in business datelines as well as in running text; ordinal
numbers are not used unless the noun determines THE precedes the data. In formal writing such as
invitations and legal documents and dates are spelled in full.

a. October 9,2015
b. The 4th of October,1951

Rule 6: Exact amounts are written in words when they begin a sentence but written in figures in another part of
the sentence.

a. Four hundred thousand pesos went to the winner.

b. The printer printed 6,000 copies of the manual

Rule 7: Common fractions are written out in the running texts. Fractions written with the whole numbers are
expressed in either words or figures in running text, but fractions written series and the tabulations are expressed
in figures.

a. One-half of the amount was donated to the orphanage.

b. The man weights about forty-five and a half kilos.
c. She stands 5 ½ feet tall.
d. Pork----- 3 ½ kilos
Chicken---- 5 ¾ kilos
Beef------ 7 ½ kilos

Rule 8: Ordinals are expressed in words in running texts, but ordinals higher than a tenth are expressed in figures
and abbreviation combinations unless they begin a sentence.

a. The fourth of July is marked the Fil-American Day.

b. Rodelle’s father will come home on the 15th day of the month
c. The man was granted a second chance.

Rule 9: Legally significant amounts are expressed in words followed by equivalent figures in parenthesis.

a. Pay to: Mr Rodolfo Guiron the amount of Twenty Thousand Pesos (P 20,000.00)

J. Abbreviations
Rule 1: Never begin a sentence with an abbreviation unless the said abbreviation represents a courtesy title.

a. The television channel is blurred

Note: The t.v. Channel is blurred.
b. Dr. Joffrey Ang is at the ER.
Rule 2: Do not abbreviate company names but abbreviations are allowed if they comprise their official names.

a. JD Food Products
b. Polytech Bags Inc.

The following words shall not be abbreviated when part of proper names:
a. Airlines d. Consultants
b. Associate e. Manufacturing
c. Corporation f. Railroad

Rule 3: Compass points are abbreviated and unpunctuated when written in street names.

a. Zero Street, NW
b. 23-b 13th Street, SE

However, when they form essential interval elements of street names, they type in full

a. Blk. 24, Lot. 2, East Corinthian Street.

b. Blk.2, Lot 14, South Washington Street

Rule 4: Dates (days and months) are not abbreviated in sentences. Months should not be abbreviated in
government or military correspondences.

a. The seminar is on Saturday, October 4, 2015

b. December 16, 2015 (general business letter dateline)

Rule 5: Latin Words and phrases used in general writing are abbreviated

a. etc. (L. et cetera) and others; and so forth

b. e.g. (L. exempli gratia) for example

Rule 6: Latitude and longitude are abbreviated in tabular form, however, typed in full in running texts.

a. 4 10’ East latitude (in a text)

b. Lat. 4 10’ (in table)

Rule 7: Laws and by-Laws when first mentioned in a text are typed in full; subsequent references to them
are abbreviated.

a. Article V, section 3 (First sentence)

b. Art. V, sec. 3 (subsequent reference)

Rule 8: Measures and weights are abbreviated in figure plus (+) unit combinations, but if the number is written
out the unit must be written out

a. Five cu. Ft.

b. Five cubic feet

Rule 9: Personal names are not abbreviated. Unspaced initials of famous persons are sometimes used in place of
their names. But when the initials are used with a surname, they are spaced.

a. Kassandra Concepcion
b. FVR or F.V.R.

Rule 10: Plural of abbreviations may be formed by adding –s or –‘s

a. PhDs c. Figs. 1 and 2

b. CPAs d. Nos. 3 and 4

Rule 11: When time is expressed in figures, the abbreviation that follows may be an unplaced punctuated
lowercase letter; if capitals are used, one space should separate letter

a. 8:30 a.m.
b. 8:30 A.M.

Rule 12: The only titles that abbreviated are Mr. and Mrs,; other titles. (except for doctors which may either be
abbreviated or written out) are written in full in business letter salutations
 a. Mrs. Escalona
b. Dear Doctor Ang or Dr. Ang

2. Punctuation Mark

A. Periods
There are only two uses of the period (also known as “full stop” in British English.

• To mark the end of a sentence expressing a statement

• To signify an acronym ­ [N.A.T.O. for North Atlantic Treaty Organization (although increasingly it is
acceptable and even preferable not to use full stops in such cases)]

Example:
Use a period at the end of a sentence that makes a statement. We find this principle at work in each of
Inigo Montoya's sentences in this speech from the movie The Princess Bride (1987):

I was eleven years old. And when I was strong enough, I dedicated my life to the study of fencing. So the next
time we meet, I will not fail. I will go up to the six-fingered man and say, "Hello. My name is Inigo
Montoya. You killed my father. Prepare to die."

B. Exclamation Point
An exclamation mark is a type of punctuation mark that goes at the end of a sentence. Other examples of related
punctuation marks include periods and question marks, which also go at the end of sentences. An exclamation mark, also
called an exclamation point, essentially looks like a period with a vertical line over it: !

When Should Exclamation Marks Be Used

 Exclamation marks were originally called the “note of admiration.” They are still, to this day, used to express
excitement. They are also used to express surprise, astonishment, or any other such strong emotion. Any
exclamatory sentence can be properly followed by an exclamation mark, to add additional emphasis. After all,
doesn't “I am excited!” convey a lot more “I am excited.”

 They are commonly used after interjections (words or phrases that are used to exclaim, command or protest).
Interjections include terms such as oh, wow, and boy.

Example:
"Wow! This grammar stuff is interesting. Boy! I wish I’d learned it before. Oh! That’s right, I did."

-When used in a quote, exclamation marks should be inside the quotation marks: Joe said, “I like pizza a lot!”

C. Question Mark
A question mark is the punctuation mark? that is used to indicate a direct question or to express uncertainty.

Using question marks for indicating queries

1. Use the question mark when posing a direct query in an interrogative sentence. This denotes that the speaker is
seeking information.
 Are there any letters for me this morning?
 When did you finish writing that report?

2. Use the question mark to turn a statement into a question. This denotes that the speaker is assuming or hoping
for a certain reply.
 You promise to finish going through these invoices?
 She didn't actually quit her job?

3. Use the question mark in statements ending with a word inflected as a query and with question tags.

 Just leave these papers on my desk, OK?

 So you got a promotion, eh?

4. If the inserted question comes in the beginning, put the question mark in the middle but do not capitalize
the word following it.
 Was she really doing the best she could? was the question.

5. When writing a series of questions, use a question mark for each item, even if items are not complete
sentences. Capitalization of the question items is optional so be consistent with whatever option you choose.
  The board members had to decide on a new course of action for the company. Expand? Sell out? Consider
new financial reforms?

Using question marks for indicating requests

1. Use a question mark with a mild command or polite request instead of a period that would make the request
more demanding.

 Would you take these reports down to accounting?

Using question marks to indicate uncertainty

1. Use a question mark enclosed in parenthesis (?) if a date or another number is unknown or doubtful among the
experts. Do not use a question mark to communicate that you are unsure of the information you write, as this
weakens the authority of your writing.

-Joan of Arc, 1412 (?) – 1431, is considered a French heroine.

D. Commas
Commas customarily indicate a brief pause; they're not as final as periods. A punctuation mark that
separates words, clauses, or ideas within a sentence.

1. Introductory Phrases and Clauses

a. A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence is followed by a comma

-Participial Phrase - begins with a present or past participle. If the participle is present, it will dependably end in -
ing. Likewise, a regular past participle will end in a consistent ed. It often includes objects and/or modifiers that
complete the thought.

b. A long adverbial clause at the beginning of a sentence is followed by a comma

-Adverbial Clause - are groups of words that function as an adverb, modifying an adjective, adverb, or a verb or
verb phrase.

c. A succession of prepositional phrase at the beginning of a sentence is followed by a comma

-Prepositional Phrase - a prepositional phrase will begin with a preposition and end with a noun, pronoun,
gerund, or clause, the "object" of the preposition. (examples of prepositions: on, at, in, from, about, etc.)

Examples:

a. Watching the trail, we saw the truck approach. (participial phrase)

b. When the prince arrived, he scratched his head and looked at the tower. (adverbial clause)
c. On the ledge at the top of the tower, the princess brushed her long, blond tresses. (succession of
prepositional phrases)

2. Modifiers- are words, phrases, or clauses that provide description in sentences.

-Clauses are set off by commas for the rest of the sentence

Examples:

a. The speed limit, which is rigidly enforced, helps decrease traffic accidents.
b. Teachers, who spend their lives educating young people, are rarely remembered when their students attain
success as adults.

3. Words Omitted

Use a comma when words are omitted from parallel word groups.

Example:

a. The riper, the tastier.

b. When it comes to eating, people differ in their tastes.

E. Semicolon (;)
-a punctuation mark indicating a pause, typically between two main clauses, that is more pronounced than that
indicated by a comma.
 Ways to use a Semicolon
1. A semicolon is placed between the main clause of a compound sentence when they are not joined by a
conjunction.

Example:
Mr. Go discussed the nature of time; he introduced many ideas.

2. A semicolon is used between clauses joined by conjunctive adverbs or by phrases like for example, in fact, for
instance.

Example:
The problem of the absences has become acute; in fact, it is an agenda for faculty consideration.

3. A semicolon is used between main clauses joined by a conjunction if the clause before the conjunction
contains commas.

Example:
Her brother won't clean, cook or do laundry; nor will he do any other chores around the house.

4. A semicolon is used between a series of phrases if they contain commas.

Example:
At the carnival, Kristal won a bear; LJ, a Pingu stuffed toy; and Cyril, a IV of Spades concert ticket.

F. Colon (:)
-precedes an explanation or an enumeration, or list.

Ways to use a Colon

1. Colon is used to introduce a list of items.

Example:
I bought a lot of meat at the store: bacon, turkey, chicken and tuna.

2. Colon is used to introduce a formal quotation.

Example:
The president opened the meeting with these words: “We are beginning a period of expansion in which all of you
will play a key role.”

3. Colon is used between two sentences when the second explain the fact. The second sentence begins with a
capital letter.

Example:
I think I know the cause of my toothache: I ate six chocolate bars and three brownies.

4. Colon is used (a) after a formal salutation of a letter, (b) between the hour and minutes figures of clock time, (c)
in biblical references, (d) between the title and subtitle of a book, and (e) between the numbers referring to
volume and pages of books and magazines.

Example:
(a) Dear Sir/Ma'am:
(b) 6:02 AM
(c) John 3:16
(d) The Wide World: A High School Geography
(e) Volume 11: pages 66-69

G. Dash

1. A dash is used to show an abrupt in thought.

a) The trouble is- I suppose he knows it himself- he just can’t get along with people.
b) I am firmly convinced- but what might do my opinions carry anymore?

2. A dash is used to set off a long explanatory statement that interrupts the thought.

a) Robert Frost- who had to gain his first recognition abroad- is now considered by many to be American’s
most distinguished poet.
 b) There was a feeling of curious anticipation- a feeling share throughout the world- when communist China first
invited the President of the United States to visit Peking.

3. The dash is used after a series to indicate summarizing statements.

a) Old priests, faded manuscripts, the yellow pages of the books long out of print- these were his special
delights.

H. Parentheses

1. Commas, dashes or parentheses are used to set off words that are supplementary or explanatory. If the material
is so distantly related as to require parenthesis, the passage might better be written to place the parenthetical
material in a separate sentence.

a) She speaks French and Arabic (her family has lived in France and the Middle East), but English is her first
language.

I. Brackets

1. Brackets are used to enclose connections or material inserted by a writer who is quoting someone else’s material

a) “On the 4th [5th] of March, Hayes took office.

J. Ellipses

1. Indicate the omission of unused parts of a quotation by ellipses: three dots (. . .) to indicate an omission within a
sentence; four dots (. . . .) to indicate an omission at the end of the sentence.

a) With malice toward none; with charity for all . . . let us strive on to finish the work we are in to bind up the
nation’s wounds. . . . Abraham Lincoln

K. Apostrophe
The apostrophe is used with nouns to show possession or ownership: Susan’s Wardrobe, the dog’s paws, Papa’s
favorite.

1. The possessive form of a singular noun is usually made by adding an apostrophe and s (‘s) to the noun.

a) boy’s c) city’s
b) John’s d) Coco’s

2. If a plural noun does not end in s, add both apostrophe and s (‘s) to form the possessive.

a) men’s b) children’s c) alumni’s

3. If a plural noun ends in s, add only the apostrophe to form the possessive.

a) horses’ c) waiter’s
b) actors’

4. A compound noun is a noun composed of more than one word. Some compound nouns are written with
hyphens between the parts. Only the last part of a hyphenated noun shows possession.

a) father – in – law
b) editor – in – chief

5. When the names of two or more persons are used to show joint ownership, only the name of the last person
mentioned is given the possessive form. Add an apostrophe or an apostrophe and s in accord with the spelling of
that name.

a) John and Jenny’s family

b) father and son’s family

6. If the names of two or more persons are used to show separate ownership, each name is given the
possessive form.

a) Webster’s and Clay’s oration

b) Rochelle’s and Rodelle’s careers
 7. Use an apostrophe and s to form the possessive of indefinite pronouns
a) someone’s c) anyone’s
b) nobody’s

-The apostrophe is not used to form the possessive of personal pronouns.

a) theirs c) hers
b) yours

8. When used as adjectives, words expressing time and amount are given the possessive form.

a) a day’s wages c) three day’s wages

b) an hour’s time

9. An apostrophe is used to show the omission of letters or figures.

a) the class of’85 c) shouldn’t

b) o’clock

3. Gerunds

The gerund is a verbal noun that ends in –ing. It is used in a sentence as a noun an in almost every way that noun
can be used.

1. Training for Olympics is hard work (subject)

2. Josephine enjoys camping (object)
3. Before applying, check your qualifications. (object of the preposition)

-The gerund phrase is considered of the gerund together with its modifiers, objects, or predicate words

-The gerund may be modified by single adjectives and adverbs or by phrase or by clauses.

1. Rapid reading has become a national interest

(Rapid is an adjective modifying reading)
2. Baby tried walking quickly to avoid Jimmy
(Quickly is an adverb modifying walking)
3. Experimenting without adequate equipment is difficult
(without adequate equipment is a phrase modifying experimenting)
4. Persevering after you have failed is a test of character
(after you have failed is a clause modifying persevering)

-Gerunds may be completed by objects or predicate words. These words are part of the gerund phrase.

4. Participles
– a word formed from a verb that functions as an adjective

Example:
The panda is was happy to see the rising sun
- Rising – participle because it is a verb and the verb is being used as an adjective

Several forms of the participle:

- Present participle – from the present Participle of most verb by adding -ing, participating
Example: Walk – walking

- Past participle – is used to form the present participle and most verb by adding -ed, participated
Example: Play – playing

- Perfect participle – it has already happened, having participated

Example: Having finished my work, I went to the market

- Possessive perfect participle – having been participated

Example: Having been hiding
 5. Paraphrasing

What is paraphrasing?

Paraphrasing is clearly restating in your own words the ideas or thoughts of another person.

Why do we need to paraphrase?

When writing, we include source material as evidence. Sometimes this evidence supports our argument(s). At
other times, we may believe the evidence to be invalid and want to argue against it. Either way, ideas that are not our own
must be represented accurately and clearly. Otherwise, our arguments will be ineffective and our writing will be
confusing.
We also need to paraphrase because using another author’s exact words (when not directly quoted) is plagiarism,
or academic dishonesty. Plagiarism is a violation of UNC’s Honor Code, and it has serious repercussions.

Characteristics of a good paraphrase

• It includes all of the author’s ideas.
• It includes only the author’s ideas.
• It is accurate and fair.
• It is entirely in your own words.
•It is properly cited.

How do we paraphrase?
 Read and Understand
First, read the source material carefully so that you understand it. Identify its main claims and pieces of evidence.
(TIP: When taking notes on a source, be sure to write them in your own words in order to avoid plagiarism later.
Always write down where you got the information, including page numbers.)

Strategies for Paraphrasing

• Put the information in a new order.
• Break down complex ideas into smaller pieces.
• Use different vocabulary. Consult a thesaurus if necessary.
• Accurately represent the author. Be faithful to what s/he is saying.
• Imagine that you are explaining the material to a friend who doesn’t understand it well.
• Be clear that the ideas presented are clearly attributed to the author. (TIP: Check a manual for acceptable citation
styles.)

Example:
Original Text

(Seidlhofer, Barbara. “Section 1: The global spread of English.” Controversies in Applied Linguistics. Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2003. Print.)
“The global spread of English is not only an issue for teachers and learners of English. The unprecedented spread
of one language and the extent of its use as a global lingua franca in many walks of life raises as many questions
and concerns as does economic and cultural globalization. A fact which must certainly not be overlooked is that
talk about ‘the global spread of English’ does not mean that having access to English in order to gain access to
knowledge is a commodity available to all who desire it, nor that English as an international means of
communication is welcome wherever it is available – far from it.” (Seidlhofer 7)

✓ Acceptable Paraphrase

English has spread worldwide, and this is relevant for more people than just those who teach and learn the
language. A single language has never spread in this way before, and its global status brings forth issues, just as do other
types of globalization including the economic and the cultural. Indeed, although English is labeled as ‘global’, not
everyone who wants to have a command of English in order to gain more information is able to do so. Likewise, even
though in many situations people can use English for international dialogue, they do not do so. (Seidlhofer 7)

✗ Unacceptable Paraphrase

The spreading of English worldwide is not only an issue for people who teach and learn English. I see this as a big
problem. The spread of this one language is unprecedented, and its position as a global lingua franca by many different
types of people creates many issues and problems as does economic and cultural globalization. An important fact is that
although people talk about English spreading globally, this does not mean that using English to get more knowledge is
something available to all who desire it. It also doesn’t mean that English as an international means of communication is
always welcome. (Seidlhofer 7)
6. Summarizing
A summary is a short retelling of a longer written passage, containing the author’s most important ideas.
Summarizing helps improve both reading and writing skills.
It is important to understand the difference between summary and a paraphrase. A paraphrase is simply a
rewriting of a passage in your own words. A summary, on the other hand, contains only the main idea and the supporting
ideas of a passage. A summary will be much shorter than a paraphrase.

How to Summarize a Paragraph:

1. Preview and read
Preview and read the paragraph closely. You probably will find that you need to read the paragraph more
than one time.
2. Make a list or outline
Determine the main idea and the supporting details of the paragraph. Make a list or outline of these ideas.
3. Write a Summary
Using your list, write a summary of the paragraph. State the main ideas, followed by important ideas.
Limit your summary to just one or two sentences.
4. Read aloud and correct
Read the summary aloud, correcting any mistakes

Example:

Original
“The Northern Lights”
There are times when the night sky glows with bands of color. The bans may begin as cloud shapes and then
spread into a great arc across the entire the sky. They may fall in folds like a curtain drawn across the heavens. The lights
usually grow brighter, then suddenly dim. During this time the sky glows with pale yellow, pink, green, violet, blue, and
red. These lights are called the Aurora Borealis. Some people call them the Northern Lights. Scientists have been
watching them for hundreds of years. They are not quite sure what causes them. In ancient times, people were afraid of
the lights. They imagined that they saw fiery dragons in the sky. Some even concluded that the heavens were on fire.

Summary
The Aurora Borealis, or Northern Lights, are bands of colors in the night sky. Ancient people thought that
these lights were dragon on fire, and even modern scientists are not sure what they are.