ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION III YEAR II SEMESTER R16 REGULATION

UNIT-II

VHF, UHF AND MICROWAVE ANTENNAS-I

Folded dipole

The basic dipole antenna or aerial is widely used in its basic form. However
under a number of circumstances a modification to this referred to as the
folded dipole antenna provides a number of advantages.

The folded dipole antenna or folded dipole aerial is widely used, not only on
its own, but also as the driven element in other antennas like the Yagi
antenna and various other types of antenna.

Folded dipole antenna basics

The folded dipole antenna consists of a basic dipole, but with an added
conductor connecting the two ends together. This makes a ‘loop’ of wire that
is a short circuit to DC. As the ends appear to be folded back, the antenna is
called a folded dipole antenna.

The basic format for the folded dipole aerial is shown below. Like the basic
dipole, the folded dipole antenna is a balanced antenna, and needs to be fed
with a balanced feeder. Unbalanced feeders can be used provided that a
balun (unbalanced to balanced transformer) is used.

The additional part of the folded dipole antenna is often made by using a
wire or rod of the same diameter as the basic dipole section. However this is
not always the case.

Also the wires or rods are typically equi-spaced along the length of the
parallel elements. This can be achieved in a number of ways. Often for VHF
or UHF antennas the rigidity of the elements is sufficient, but at lower
frequencies spacers may need to be employed. To keep the wires apart.

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ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION III YEAR II SEMESTER R16 REGULATION

Obviously if they are not insulated it is imperative to keep them from

shorting. In some instances flat feeder can be used.

One of the main reasons for using a folded dipole antenna is the increase in
feed impedance that it provides. If the conductors in the main dipole and the
second or "fold" conductor are the same diameter, then it is found that there
is a fourfold increase (i.e. two squared) in the feed impedance. In free
space, this gives an increase in feed impedance from 73Ω to around 300Ω
ohms. Additionally the RF antenna has a wider bandwidth.

Folded dipole impedance increase theory

It is possible to reason why there is a four fold increase in impedance for the
folded dipole antenna.

In a standard dipole antenna the currents flowing along the conductors are
in phase and as a result there is no cancellation of the fields and as a result
radiation or the signal occurs.

When the second conductor is added to make the folded dipole antenna this
can be considered as an extension to the standard dipole with the ends
folded back to meet each other. As a result the currents in the new section
flow in the same direction as those in the original dipole. The currents along
both the half-waves are therefore in phase and the antenna will radiate with
the same radiation patterns etc. as a simple half-wave dipole.
The impedance increase can be deduced from the fact that the power
supplied to a folded dipole antenna is evenly shared between the two
sections which make up the antenna. This means that when compared to a
standard dipole the current in each conductor is reduced to a half.
As the same power is applied, the impedance has to be raised by a factor of
four to retain balance in the equation Watts = I2 x R.

Folded dipole transmission line effect

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 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION III YEAR II SEMESTER R16 REGULATION

The folded element of the folded dipole antenna has a transmission line
effect attached with it. It can be viewed that the impedance of the dipole
appears in parallel with the impedance of the shorted transmission line
sections, although the arguments for the impedance given above still hold
true - it is just another way of looking at the same issue.

This can help to explain some of the other properties of the antenna.

The length is affected by this effect. Normally the wavelength of a standing

wave in a feeder is affected by the velocity factor. If air is used, this will by
around 95% of the free space value. However if a flat feeder with a lower
velocity factor is used, then this will have the effect of shortening the
required length.

The feeder effect also results in the folded dipole antenna having a flatter
response, i.e. a wider bandwidth than a non-folded dipole.

It occurs because at a frequency away from resonance, the reactance of the

dipole is of the opposite form from that of the sorted transmission line and
as a result there is some reactance cancellation at the feed point of the
antenna.

Folded dipole advantages

There are two main advantages for using a folded dipole antenna over a
standard dipole:

 Increase in impedance: When higher impedance feeders need to be

used, or when the impedance of the dipole is reduced by factors such as
parasitic elements, a folded dipole provides a significant increase in
impedance level that enables the antenna to be matched more easily to
the feeder available.
 Wide bandwidth: The folded dipole antenna has a flatter frequency
response - this enables it to be used over a wider bandwidth with many
transmissions utilising a variety of different selectable channels, e.g.
television and broadcast radio, a wide bandwidth antenna is needed. The
standard dipole antenna does not always provide the required bandwidth
and the additional bandwidth of the folded dipole meets the requirements .

Unequal conductor folded dipoles

On many occasions it can be necessary to implement impedance ratios to

the standard 4:1 ratio that is normal for a folded dipole antenna. Simply by
varying the effective diameter of the two conductors: top and bottom,
different ratios can be obtained.

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ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION III YEAR II SEMESTER R16 REGULATION

It is possible to determine the impedance step up ratio using the formula

below:

Where:
d1 is the conductor diameter for the feed arm of the dipole
d2 is the conductor diameter for the non-fed arm of the dipole
S is the distance between the conductors
r is the step up ratio
It should be remembered that there is a shortening effect associated with
the use of thick conductors as opposed to normal wire and this will have an
effect on the length of the folded dipole.

Multiconductor folded dipoles

Although the concept of a folded dipole antenna often implies the use of one
extra conductor, the concept can be extended further by adding additional
conductors. This has the effect of increasing the overall impedance even
more and further widening the bandwidth.

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 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION III YEAR II SEMESTER R16 REGULATION

For the instance for a three wire folded dipole, with all wires or conductors
having he same diameter, the impedance is increased by a factor of three
squared, i.e. 9. This means that the nominal value for a folded dipole with
three conductors is 9 times 73Ω or approximately 600Ω

Folded dipole applications

There are many ways in which folded dipoles can be used. They find uses in
many applications:

 On their own: Folded dipole antennas are sometimes used on their own,
but they must be fed with a high impedance feeder, typically 300 ohms.
This on its own can be very useful in certain applications where balanced
feeders may be used.
 As part of another antenna: However folded dipoles find more uses
when a dipole is incorporated in another RF antenna design with other
elements nearby. The issue is that incorporating a dipole into an antenna
such as a Yagi where elements are closely coupled reduces the feed
impedance. If a simple dipole was used, then the feed impedance levels of
less than 20 Ω or less can easily be experienced. Using a folded dipole
enables the impedance to be increased by a factor of four or whatever is
required by having multiple wires in the folded dipole.
 Increased bandwidth: Sometimes folded dipoles may be employed
purely to give a greater bandwidth. When used to increase bandwidth,
folded dipoles may be used on their own or within another antenna
system.

G.P.V.KISHORE AND S. KANNARAO

ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION III YEAR II SEMESTER R16 REGULATION

Helical Antenna

Helical antenna is useful at very high frequency and ultra high

frequencies to provide circular polarization.
Consider a helical antenna as shown in figure 4.6.1.

Here helical antenna is connected between the coaxial cable and

ground plane. Ground plane is made of radial and concentric
conductors. The radiation characteristics of helical antenna
depend upon the diameter (D) and spacing S.
In the above figure,
L = length of
one turn
= S2+(πD)2
N = Number of
turns
D = Diameter of helix = πD
α = Pitch angle = tan-1(S/πD)
l = Distance between helix
and ground plane. Helical
antenna is operated in two
modes. They are,
1. Normal mode of radiation
2. Axial mode of radiation.

1. Normal mode of radiation

Normal mode of radiation characteristics is obtained when

dimensions of helical antenna are very small compared to the
operating wavelength. Here, the radiation field is maximum in
the direction normal to the helical axis. In normal mode,
bandwidth and efficiency are very low. The above factors can be
increased, by increasing the antenna size. The radiation fields of

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ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION III YEAR II SEMESTER R16 REGULATION

helical antenna are similar to the loops and short dipoles. So,
helical antenna is equivalent to the small loops and short
dipoles connected in series.
We know that, general expression
for far field in small loop is,
EΦ = {120 π2[I] sinθ/r}[A/λ2]

Where,
r = Distance
I = I0 sin ω(t-r/C)
= Retarded current
A = Area of loop = πD2/4
D = Diameter
λ = Operating wavelength.
The performance of helical antenna is measured in terms of Axial
Ratio (AR). Axial ratio is defined as the ratio of far fields of short
dipole to the small loop.

Axial Ratio, AR =( EØ)/(EΦ)

2. Axial mode of radiation

Helical antenna is operated in axial mode when circumference C

and spacing S are in the order of one wavelength. Here,
maximum radiation field is along the helical axis and
polarization is circular. In axial mode, pitch angle lies between
12° to 18° and beam width and antenna gain depends upon
helix length NS.
General expression for terminal
impedance is, R = 140C⁄λ ohms
Where,
R = Terminal
impedance
C = Circumference.
In normal mode, beam width and radiation efficiency is very small.
The above factors increased by using axial mode of radiation. Half
power beam width in axial mode is,
HPBW =52/C√λ3/NS Degrees.
Where,
λ = Wavelength
C = Circumference
N = Number of
turns
S = Spacing.
Axial Ratio, AR = 1 + 1/2N

G.P.V.KISHORE AND S. KANNARAO

ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION III YEAR II SEMESTER R16 REGULATION

HORN ANTENNA

 A Horn Antenna or microwave Horn is an antenna that consists of a

flaring metal waveguide shaped like a Horn to direct radio waves in a
beam.

 Horns are widely used as antennas at UHF and microwave

frequencies, above 300 MHz

 A Horn Antenna is used to transmit radio waves from a waveguide (a

metal pipe used to carry radio waves) out into space, or collect radio
waves into waveguide for reception.
 Extension of waveguide in form of horn is called Horn Antenna

 A horn antenna serves the same function for electromagnetic waves

that an acoustical horn does for sound waves in a musical instrument
such as a trumpet.

 It provides a gradual transition structure to match the impedance of a

tube to the impedance of free space, enabling the waves from the tube
to radiate efficiently into space.

 Pyramidal horn(a) -A horn antenna with the horn in the shape of a four-
sided pyramid, with a rectangular cross section. They are a common type,
used with rectangular waveguides, and radiate linearly polarized radio waves.
 Sectoral Horn:- A pyramidal horn with only one pair of sides flared and the
other pair parallel. It produces a fan-shaped beam, which is narrow in the
plane of the flared sides, but wide in the plane of the narrow sides. These
types are often used as feed horns for wide search radar antennas.
 E-plane horn(b) – A sectoral horn flared in the direction of the electric or E-

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ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION III YEAR II SEMESTER R16 REGULATION

field in the waveguide.

 H-plane horn(c)– A sectoral horn flared in the direction of the magnetic or
H-field in the waveguide.
 Conical horn (d) – A horn in the shape of a cone, with a circular cross
section. They are used with cylindrical waveguides.
 Exponential horn (e) – A horn with curved sides, in which the separation of
the sides increases as an exponential function of length. Also called a scalar
horn, they can have pyramidal or conical cross sections.

They are:
(a) Pyramidal horn
(b) E-plane sectoral horn
(c) H-plane sectoral horn
(d) Conical horn
(e) Exponential horn

1. Horns have very little loss, so the directivity of a horn is roughly equal to its
gain.

2. The gain G of a pyramidal horn antenna (the ratio of the radiated power
intensity along its beam axis to the intensity of an isotropic antenna with the
same input power) is:

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ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION III YEAR II SEMESTER R16 REGULATION

Benefits or advantages of Horn Antenna

Following are the benefits or advantages of Horn Antenna:
➨It is simple in construction.

➨It delivers adequate directivity.

➨It offers bandwidth of about 10%.

➨Horn antenna along with parabolic reflector disc can deliver high gain.
Drawbacks or disadvantages of Horn Antenna
Following are the disadvantages of Horn Antenna:
➨Horn antenna radiates energy in spherical wave front shape, as a result horn

antenna does not provide sharp/directive beam.

➨Usually gain of horn antenna is limited to 20dB. This is due to the fact that in

order to increase the gain when the horn opening is made larger, the length of horn

also becomes excessive.

APPLICATIONS

 Used as feeders (feed horns) for larger structures such as parabolic

antennas, as directive antennas for such devices as radar guns, automatic

door & microwave radiometers.

 Used in calibration.

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ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION III YEAR II SEMESTER R16 REGULATION

 Used for making electromagnetic interference measurements.

YAGI UDA ANTENNA

The Yagi-Uda antenna or Yagi Antenna is one of the most brilliant antenna designs.

It is simple to construct and has a high gain typically greater than 10 dB.

The Yagi-Uda antennas typically operate in the HF to UHF bands (about 3 MHz to 3

GHz) and Covers 40 to 60 Km.

A Directional Antenna System Consisting of an array of Coupled Parallel Dipoles.

This is commonly known as Yagi-uda or Simply Yagi Antenna.

Yagi-uda Antenna is familiar as the commonest kind Of Terrestrial TV Antenna to be

found on the Roof tops of houses


 Yagi-uda antenna is an electromagnetic device that collects radio Waves
 An antenna tuned to a particular frequency will resonate to a radio signal of
the same frequency


G.P.V.KISHORE AND S. KANNARAO

ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION III YEAR II SEMESTER R16 REGULATION

THERE ARE THREE TYPES OF ELEMENTS:

 THE REFLECTOR (R)
 THE DRIVEN ELEMENT (D)
 THE DIRECTORS (DI)

DRIVEN ELEMENT:

 The driven element of a Yagi is the feed point where the feed line is
attached from the transmitter to the Yagi to perform the transfer of
power from the transmitter to the antenna.
 A dipole driven element will be "resonant" when its electrical length is
1/2 of the wavelength of the frequency applied to its feed point.
 The feed point in the picture above is on the center of the driven
element.

DIRECTOR:

 The director is the shortest of the parasitic elements and this end of
the Yagi is aimed at the receiving station. It is resonant slightly higher
in frequency than the driven element, and its length will be about 5%
shorter, progressively than the driven element.
 The directors lengths can vary, depending upon the director spacing,
the number of directors used in the antenna, the desired pattern,
pattern bandwidth and element diameter.
 The amount of gain is directly proportional to the length of the
antenna array and not by the number of directors used.

REFLECTOR:

 The reflector is the element that is placed at the rear of the driven
element (The dipole).
 It's resonant frequency is lower, and its length is approximately 5%
longer than the driven element. It's length will vary depending on the
spacing and the element diameter
 The spacing of the reflector will be between .1 wavelength and .25
wavelength. It's spacing will depend upon the gain, bandwidth, F/B
ratio, and side lobe pattern requirements of the final antenna design.

Working
 Reflector here derives it’s main Power from a driver , it reduces the
signal strength in it’s own direction and thus reflectes the radiation
towardes the driver and directors.
 The driven element is where the signal is intercpeted by the receiving
equipment and has the cable attached that takes the recevied signal
to the receiver
 The radiator and driver can be placed more closer to increase radiation

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ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION III YEAR II SEMESTER R16 REGULATION

length towards the directors

Radiation pattern formed by the directional

antenna

1. The antenna exhibits a directional pattern consisting

of a main forward lobe and a number of spurious side lobes.

2. The main one of these is the reverse lobe

caused by radiation in the direction of the reflector.

3. The antenna can be optimized to either reduce this or

produce the maximum level of forward gain.

ELEVEN ELEMENTS OF YAGI UDA ANTENNA

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ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION III YEAR II SEMESTER R16 REGULATION

ADVANTAGES

 It has a Moderate Gain of about 7 (dB).

 It is a Directional Antenna.
 Can be used at High Frequency
 Adjustable Front to Back Ratio(FBR)

DISADVANTAGES

 The Gain is not Very High.

 Needs a large number of Elements to be used.

APPLICATIONS

 Yagi-uda antenna is a unidirectional antenna.

 Used for television receivers.
 They provide better tuning because of large bandwidth and has decent gain.

G.P.V.KISHORE AND S. KANNARAO